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6,716	Cardinal vowels	Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages. They are classified depending on the position of the tongue relative to the roof of the mouth, how far forward or back is the highest point of the tongue, and the position of the lips (rounded or unrounded). A cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by Daniel Jones in the early 20th century, though the idea goes back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis and Bell. ==Table of cardinal vowels== Three of the cardinal vowels—, and —have articulatory definitions. The vowel is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible (without producing friction), with spread lips. The vowel is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with protruded lips. This sound can be approximated by adopting the posture to whistle a very low note, or to blow out a candle. And is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible. The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue position). These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define eight reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria. These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages. The lip positions can be reversed with the lip position for the corresponding vowel on the opposite side of the front-back dimension, so that e.g. Cardinal 1 can be produced with rounding somewhat similar to that of Cardinal 8; these are known as 'secondary cardinal vowels'. Sounds such as these are claimed to be less common in the world's languages. Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the vowel chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Jones argued that to be able to use the cardinal vowel system effectively one must undergo training with an expert phonetician, working both on the recognition and the production of the vowels. Cardinal vowels are not vowels of any particular language, but a measuring system. However, some languages contain vowel or vowels that are close to the cardinal vowel(s). An example of such language is Ngwe, which is spoken in Cameroon. It has been cited as a language with a vowel system that has eight vowels which are rather similar to the eight primary cardinal vowels (Ladefoged 1971:67). Cardinal vowels 19–22 were added by David Abercrombie. In IPA Numbers, cardinal vowels 1–18 have the same numbers but added to 300. ==Limits on the accuracy of the system== The usual explanation of the cardinal vowel system implies that the competent user can reliably distinguish between sixteen Primary and Secondary vowels plus a small number of central vowels. The provision of diacritics by the International Phonetic Association further implies that intermediate values may also be reliably recognized, so that a phonetician might be able to produce and recognize not only a close-mid front unrounded vowel and an open-mid front unrounded vowel but also a mid front unrounded vowel , a centralized mid front unrounded vowel , and so on. This suggests a range of vowels nearer to forty or fifty than to twenty in number. Empirical evidence for this ability in trained phoneticians is hard to come by. Ladefoged, in a series of pioneering experiments published in the 1950s and 60s, studied how trained phoneticians coped with the vowels of a dialect of Scottish Gaelic. He asked eighteen phoneticians to listen to a recording of ten words spoken by a native speaker of Gaelic and to place the vowels on a cardinal vowel quadrilateral. He then studied the degree of agreement or disagreement among the phoneticians. Ladefoged himself drew attention to the fact that the phoneticians who were trained in the British tradition established by Daniel Jones were closer to each other in their judgments than those who had not had this training. However, the most striking result is the great divergence of judgments among all the listeners regarding vowels that were distant from Cardinal values.	[ "List of phonetics topics", "Open-mid central rounded vowel", "Close-mid back unrounded vowel", "vowel", "Close front rounded vowel", "Open-mid back rounded vowel", "Open-mid back unrounded vowel", "Close-mid back rounded vowel", "Scottish Gaelic", "Daniel Jones (phonetician)", "open-mid front unrounded vowel", "Close front unrounded vowel", "close-mid front unrounded vowel", "Open-mid central unrounded vowel", "Close central unrounded vowel", "Open back rounded vowel", "mid front unrounded vowel", "tongue", "Cameroon", "Ngwe language", "IPA Number", "Close back rounded vowel", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Close back unrounded vowel", "Open front unrounded vowel", "Close-mid front rounded vowel", "Close-mid central rounded vowel", "roundedness", "Close-mid central unrounded vowel", "Close central rounded vowel", "Open front rounded vowel", "Open back unrounded vowel", "Open-mid front rounded vowel", "International Phonetic Association", "David Abercrombie (linguist)", "Open-mid front unrounded vowel", "Close-mid front unrounded vowel" ]
6,719	Columbia, Missouri	Columbia is a city in Missouri, United States. It was founded in 1821 as the county seat of Boone County and had a population of 126,254 as recorded in the 2020 United States census, making it the fourth-most populous city in Missouri. Columbia is a Midwestern college town, home to the University of Missouri, a major research institution also known as MU or Mizzou. In addition to the university and surrounding Downtown Columbia are Stephens College and Columbia College, giving the city its educational focus and nearly 40,000 college students. It is the principal city of the Columbia metropolitan area, population 215,811, and the central city of the nine-county Columbia–Jefferson City–Moberly combined statistical area with 415,747 residents. The city is the fastest-growing municipality in Missouri, with a growth of almost 40% since 2000, and a population estimated at 130,000 in 2024. Columbia is among the most-educated cities in the United States with about half of citizens being college graduates and about a quarter holding advance degrees. The city is built on the oak-forested hills and rolling prairies of Mid-Missouri, near the Missouri River, where the Ozark Mountains transition into plains and savanna. At the city's center is the Avenue of the Columns (8th Street), connecting Francis Quadrangle and Jesse Hall to the Boone County Courthouse and City Hall. Surrounding Columbia is a greenbelt including Rock Bridge Memorial State Park, Eagle Bluffs Conservation Area, the Mark Twain National Forest, Katy Trail State Park, Finger Lakes State Park, and the Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge. Limestone bedrock forms bluffs and glades while rain dissolves the bedrock, creating karst (caves and springs) which water the Hinkson, Roche Perche, Flat Branch, and Bonne Femme creeks. Within city limits, there is an extensive city parks and trails system with a focus on non-motorized transportation, including the MKT Trail. The Columbia Agriculture Park is home to the nationally-regarded Columbia Farmers Market. Originally an agricultural town, education and healthcare are now Columbia's primary economic concern, with secondary interests in the insurance, finance, and technology sectors. Companies founded in Columbia include: Paytient, Carfax, Shelter Insurance, Veterans United Home Loans, MFA Incorporated, MFA Oil, Slackers CDs and Games, MidwayUSA, EquipmentShare, and Scripps News. The University of Missouri Health Care system operates six hospitals in Columbia, several clinics, and the Thompson Center for Autism and Neurodevelopment. There is also the county-owned Boone Hospital Center, several smaller private hospitals, and the Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, adjacent to University Hospital and MU School of Medicine. The University of Missouri nuclear reactor is the most-powerful research reactor in the United States and the sole supplier of important radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine. Cultural institutions include the State Historical Society of Missouri, the Museum of Art and Archaeology, the Missouri Symphony, the North Village Arts District, The Blue Note, the Missouri Theatre, The Conservatory of the Performing Arts at Stephens College, the Boone County Historical Society, Columbia Public Library, Ragtag Cinema and the annual True/False Film Festival, an internationally-known documentary festival. The Missouri Tigers, the state's only major college athletic program, play football at Faurot Field and basketball at Mizzou Arena as members of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The city has been known as the "Athens of Missouri" for its educational emphasis and classic beauty, but is more commonly called "CoMo". Original plans for the town set aside land for a state university. In 1833, Columbia Baptist Female College opened, which later became Stephens College. Columbia College, distinct from today's and later to become the University of Missouri, was founded in 1839. When the state legislature decided to establish a state university, Columbia raised three times as much money as any competing city, and James S. Rollins donated the land that is today the Francis Quadrangle. Columbia's infrastructure was relatively untouched by the Civil War. As a slave state, Missouri had many residents with Southern sympathies, but it stayed in the Union. The majority of the city was pro-Union; In the spring of 1923, James T. Scott, an African-American janitor at the University of Missouri, was arrested on allegations of raping a university professor's daughter. He was taken from the county jail and lynched on April 29 before a white mob of roughly two thousand people, hanged from the Old Stewart Road Bridge. In the 21st century, a number of efforts have been undertaken to recognize Scott's death. In 2010 his death certificate was changed to reflect that he was never tried or convicted of charges, and that he had been lynched. In 2011 a headstone was put at his grave at Columbia Cemetery; it includes his wife's and parents' names and dates, to provide a more full account of his life. In 2016, a marker was erected at the lynching site to memorialize Scott. 5 years later, in 2021, the marker was removed in an act of vandalism. In 1901, Rufus Logan established The Columbia Professional newspaper to serve Columbia's large African American population. In 1963, University of Missouri System and the Columbia College system established their headquarters in Columbia. The insurance industry also became important to the local economy as several companies established headquarters in Columbia, including Shelter Insurance, Missouri Employers Mutual, and Columbia Insurance Group. State Farm Insurance has a regional office in Columbia. In addition, the now-defunct Silvey Insurance was a large local employer. Columbia became a transportation crossroads when U.S. Route 63 and U.S. Route 40 (which was improved as present-day Interstate 70) were routed through the city. Soon after, the city opened the Columbia Regional Airport. By 2000, the city's population was nearly 85,000. ==Geography== Columbia, in northern mid-Missouri, is away from both St. Louis and Kansas City, and north of the state capital of Jefferson City. The city is near the Missouri River, between the Ozark Plateau and the Northern Plains. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. ===Topography=== The city generally slopes from the highest point in the Northeast to the lowest point in the Southwest towards the Missouri River. Prominent tributaries of the river are Perche Creek, Hinkson Creek, and Flat Branch Creek. Along these and other creeks in the area can be found large valleys, cliffs, and cave systems such as that in Rock Bridge State Park just south of the city. These creeks are largely responsible for numerous stream valleys giving Columbia hilly terrain similar to the Ozarks while also having prairie flatland typical of northern Missouri. Columbia also operates several greenbelts with trails and parks throughout town. ===Animal life=== Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes, red foxes, and numerous whitetail deer. Eastern gray squirrel, and other rodents are abundant, as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail. Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River. The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis. Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife. The Devil's Icebox Cave in Columbia's Rock Bridge State Park is the only natural home of the planarian Kenkia glandulosa, an eyeless and de-pigmented flatworm. The cave is also home to species of salamanders, frogs, troglobites, millipede, spiders, bats, and springtail. ===Climate=== Columbia has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) marked by sharp seasonal contrasts in temperature, and is in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6a. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while the high reaches or exceeds on an average of 35 days per year, on two days, while two nights of sub- lows can be expected. The downtown skyline is relatively low and is dominated by the 10-story Tiger Hotel and the 15-story Paquin Tower. Downtown Columbia is an area of approximately one square mile surrounded by the University of Missouri on the south, Stephens College to the east, and Columbia College on the north. The area serves as Columbia's financial and business district. Since the early-21st century, a large number of high-rise apartment complexes have been built in downtown Columbia. Many of these buildings also offer mixed-use business and retail space on the lower levels. These developments have not been without criticism, with some expressing concern the buildings hurt the historic feel of the area, or that the city does not yet have the infrastructure to support them. The city's historic residential core lies in a ring around downtown, extending especially to the west along Broadway, and south into the East Campus Neighborhood. The city government recognizes 63 neighborhood associations. The city's most dense commercial areas are primarily along Interstate 70, U.S. Route 63, Stadium Boulevard, Grindstone Parkway, and Downtown. ==Demographics== ===2020 census=== The 2020 United States census counted 126,254 people, 49,371 households, and 25,144 families in Columbia. The population density was . There were 53,746 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup (including Hispanics in the racial counts) was 72.49% (91,516) White, 11.91% (15,038) Black or African-American, 0.32% (398) Native American, 5.61% (7,084) Asian, 0.07% (89) Pacific Islander, 2.17% (2,734) from other races, and 7.44% (9,395) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race was 4.9% (6,195) of the population. estimates show that the median household income was $53,447 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,355) and the median family income $81,392 (+/- $5,687). Males had a median income of $30,578 (+/- $2,131) versus $23,705 (+/- $1,849) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $26,870 (+/- $1,429). Approximately, 8.5% of families and 20.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.2% of those ages 65 or over. ===2010 census=== As of the census of 2010, 108,500 people, 43,065 households, and 21,418 families resided in the city. The population density was . There were 46,758 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 79.0% White, 11.3% African American, 0.3% Native American, 5.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.1% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.4% of the population. There were 43,065 households, of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.6% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 50.3% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.94. In the city the population was spread out, with 18.8% of residents under the age of 18; 27.3% between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.7% from 25 to 44; 18.6% from 45 to 64; and 8.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age in the city was 26.8 years. The gender makeup of the city was 48.3% male and 51.7% female. ===2000 census=== As of the census of 2000, there were 84,531 people, 33,689 households, and 17,282 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 35,916 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 81.54% White, 10.85% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 4.30% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.81% from other races, and 2.07% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.05% of the population. ==Economy== Columbia's economy is historically dominated by education, healthcare, and insurance. The Columbia Regional Airport and the Missouri River Port of Rocheport connect the region with trade and transportation. With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $9.6 billion in 2018, Columbia's economy makes up 3% of the Gross State Product of Missouri. Columbia's metro area economy is slightly larger than the economy of Rwanda. Insurance corporations headquartered in Columbia include Shelter Insurance and the Columbia Insurance Group. Other organizations include StorageMart, Veterans United Home Loans, MFA Incorporated, the Missouri State High School Activities Association, and MFA Oil. Companies such as Socket, Datastorm Technologies, Inc. (no longer existent), Slackers CDs and Games, Carfax, and MBS Textbook Exchange were all founded in Columbia. ===Top employers=== According to Columbia's 2022 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: The unemployment rate in Columbia has slowly risen since December 2022 at 3.5 as of February 2025. ==Culture== The Missouri Theatre Center for the Arts and Jesse Auditorium are Columbia's largest fine arts venues. Ragtag Cinema annually hosts the True/False Film Festival. In 2008, filmmaker Todd Sklar completed the film Box Elder, which was filmed entirely in and around Columbia and the University of Missouri. The North Village Arts District, located on the north side of downtown, is home to galleries, restaurants, theaters, bars, music venues, and the Mareck Center for Dance. The University of Missouri's Museum of Art and Archaeology displays 14,000 works of art and archaeological objects in five galleries for no charge to the public. Libraries include the Columbia Public Library, the University of Missouri Libraries, with over three million volumes in Ellis Library, and the State Historical Society of Missouri. ===Music=== The "We Always Swing" Jazz Series and the Roots N Blues Festival is held in Columbia. "9th Street Summerfest" (now hosted in Rose Park at Rose Music Hall) closes part of that street several nights each summer to hold outdoor performances and has featured Willie Nelson (2009), Snoop Dogg (2010), The Flaming Lips (2010), and others. The "University Concert Series" regularly includes musicians and dancers from various genres, typically in Jesse Hall. Other musical venues in town include the Missouri Theatre, the university's multipurpose Hearnes Center, the university's Mizzou Arena, The Blue Note, and Rose Music Hall. Shelter Gardens, a park on the campus of Shelter Insurance headquarters, also hosts outdoor performances during the summer. The University of Missouri School of Music attracts hundreds of musicians to Columbia, student performances are held in Whitmore Recital Hall. Among many non-profit organizations for classical music are included the "Odyssey Chamber Music Series", "Missouri Symphony", "Columbia Community Band", and "Columbia Civic Orchestra". Founded in 2006, the "Plowman Chamber Music Competition" is a biennial competition held in March/April of odd-numbered years, considered to be one of the finest, top five chamber music competitions in the nation. ===Theater=== Columbia has multiple opportunities to watch and perform in theatrical productions. Ragtag Cinema is one of the most well known theaters in Columbia. The city is home to Stephens College, a private institution known for performing arts. Their season includes multiple plays and musicals. The University of Missouri and Columbia College also present multiple productions a year. The city's three public high schools are also known for their productions. Rock Bridge High School performs a musical in November and two plays in the spring. Hickman High School also performs a similar season with two musical performances (one in the fall, and one in the spring) and 2 plays (one in the winter, and one at the end of their school year). The newest high school, Battle High, opened in 2013 and also is known for their productions. Battle presents a musical in the fall and a play in the spring, along with improv nights and more productions throughout the year. The city is also home to the indoor/outdoor theatre Maplewood Barn Theatre in Nifong Park and other community theatre programs such as Columbia Entertainment Company, Talking Horse Productions, Pace Youth Theatre and TRYPS. ===Sports=== The University of Missouri's sports teams, the Missouri Tigers, play a significant role in the city's sports culture. Faurot Field at Memorial Stadium, which has a capacity of 62,621, hosts home football games. The Hearnes Center and Mizzou Arena are two other large sport and event venues, the latter being the home arena for Mizzou's basketball team. Taylor Stadium is host to their baseball team and was the regional host for the 2007 NCAA Baseball Championship. Columbia College has several men and women collegiate sports teams as well. In 2007, Columbia hosted the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Volleyball National Championship, which the Lady Cougars participated in. Columbia also hosts the Show-Me State Games, a non-profit program of the Missouri Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health. They are the largest state games in the United States. Situated midway between St. Louis and Kansas City, Columbians will often have allegiances to the professional sports teams housed there, such as the St. Louis Cardinals, the Kansas City Royals, the Kansas City Chiefs, the St. Louis Blues, Sporting Kansas City, and St. Louis City SC. ===Cuisine=== Columbia has many bars and restaurants that provide diverse styles of cuisine, due in part to having three colleges. The oldest is the historic Booches bar, restaurant, and pool hall, which was established in 1884 and is frequented by college students. Shakespeare's Pizza was founded in Columbia and is known for its college town pizza. == Parks and recreation == Throughout the city are many parks and trails for public usage. Among the more popularly frequented is the MKT which is a spur that connects to the Katy Trail, meeting up just south of Columbia proper. The MKT ranked second in the nation for "Best Urban Trail" in the 2015 USA Todays 10 Best Readers' Choice Awards. This 10-foot wide trail built on the old railbed of the MKT railroad begins in downtown Columbia in Flat Branch Park at 4th and Cherry Streets. The all-weather crushed limestone surface provides opportunities for walking, jogging, running, and bicycling. Stephens Lake Park is the highlight of Columbia's park system and is known for its 11-acre fishing/swimming lake, mature trees, and historical significance in the community. It serves as the center for outdoor winter sports, a variety of community festivals such as the Roots N Blues Festival, and outdoor concert series at the amphitheater. Stephens Lake has reservable shelters, playgrounds, swimming beach and spraygrounds, art sculptures, waterfalls, and walking trails. Rock Bridge Memorial State Park is open year-round giving visitors the chance to scramble, hike, and bicycle through a scenic environment. Rock Bridge State Park contains some of the most popular hiking trails in the state, including the Gans Creek Wild Area. Columbia is home to Harmony Bends Disc Golf Course (https://www.como.gov/contacts/harmony-bends-championship-disc-golf-course-strawn-park/), which was named the 2017 Disc Golf Course of the Year by DGCourseReview.com. As of June, 2022, Harmony Bends still continues to rank on DGCourseReview.com as the No. 1 public course, and #2 overall course in the United States ==Media== The city has two daily morning newspapers: the Columbia Missourian and the Columbia Daily Tribune. The Missourian is directed by professional editors and staffed by Missouri School of Journalism students who do reporting, design, copy editing, information graphics, photography, and multimedia. The Missourian publishes the monthly city magazine, Vox Magazine. The University of Missouri has the independent official bi-weekly student newspaper called The Maneater, and the quarterly literary magazine, The Missouri Review. The now-defunct Prysms Weekly was also published in Columbia. In late 2009, KCOU News launched full operations out of KCOU 88.1 FM on the MU Campus. The entirely student-run news organization airs a weekday newscast, The Pulse. The city has 4 television channels. Columbia Access Television (CAT or CAT-TV) is the public access channel. CPSTV is the education access channel, managed by Columbia Public Schools as a function of the Columbia Public Schools Community Relations Department. The Government Access channel broadcasts City Council, Planning and Zoning Commission, and Board of Adjustment meetings. === Television === === Radio === Columbia has 19 radio stations as well as stations licensed from Jefferson City, Macon and, Lake of the Ozarks. ==== AM ==== KFAL 900 kHz • Country KWOS 950 kHz • News/Talk KFRU 1400 kHz • News/Talk KTGR 1580 kHz • Sports (ESPN Radio) ====FM==== KCOU 88.1 MHz • College KOPN 89.5 MHz • Public KMUC 90.5 MHz • Classical KBIA 91.3 MHz • News (NPR) KMFC 92.1 MHz • Christian (K-Love) KWJK 93.1 MHz • Variety (JACK FM) KSSZ 93.9 MHz • News/Talk KWWR 95.7 MHz • Country KCMQ 96.7 MHz • Classic Rock KDVC 98.3 MHz • Classic Hits KCLR 99.3 MHz • Country KPLA 101.5 MHz • Variety KBXR 102.3 MHz • Alternative KZZT 105.5 MHz • Classic Rock KOQL 106.1 MHz • Top 40 KTXY 106.9 MHz Top 40 Columbia is the county seat of Boone County, and houses the county court and government center. The city is in Missouri's 4th congressional district. The 19th Missouri State Senate district covers all of Boone County. There are five Missouri House of Representatives districts (9, 21, 23, 24, and 25) in the city. The Columbia Police Department provides law enforcement across the city, while the Columbia Fire Department provides fire protection. The University of Missouri Police Department also patrols areas on and around the University of Missouri campus and has jurisdiction throughout the state. Additionally, the Boone County Sheriff's Department, the law enforcement agency for the county, regularly patrols the city. The Public Service Joint Communications Center coordinates efforts between the two organizations as well as the Boone County Fire Protection District, which operates Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1. The population generally supports progressive causes, such as recycling programs and the decriminalization of cannabis both for medical and recreational use at the municipal level, though the scope of the latter of the two cannabis ordinances has since been restricted. The city is one of only four in the state to offer medical benefits to same-sex partners of city employees. The new health plan extends health benefits to unmarried heterosexual domestic partners of city employees. On October 10, 2006, the city council approved an ordinance to prohibit smoking in public places, including restaurants and bars. The ordinance was passed over protest, and several amendments to the ordinance reflect this. Over half of residents possess at least a bachelor's degree, while over a quarter hold a graduate degree. Columbia is the 13th most-highly educated municipality in the United States. ==Education== Almost all of the Columbia city limits, and much of the surrounding area, lies within the Columbia Public School District. The district enrolled more than 18,000 students and had a budget of $281 million for the 2019–20 school year. 95.4% of adults age 25 and older in the city have a high school diploma. Last year's graduation rate for the class of 2022 was 90%, while the class of 2021's graduation rate was reported at 89%. According to statewide numbers for 2022, Missouri's overall graduation rate was 91.16%. The Columbia school district operates four public high schools which cover grades 9–12: David H. Hickman High School, Rock Bridge High School, Muriel Battle High School, and Frederick Douglass High School. Rock Bridge is one of two Missouri high schools to receive a silver medal by U.S. News & World Report, putting it in the Top 3% of all high schools in the nation. Hickman has been on Newsweek magazine's list of Top 1,300 schools in the country for the past three years and has more named presidential scholars than any other public high school in the US. CPS also manages seven middle schools: Jefferson, West, Oakland, Gentry, Smithton, Lange, and John Warner. John Warner Middle School first opened for the 2020/21 school year. A very small portion of the city limits is in Hallsville R-IV School District. While only 31.2% of Missourians hold a bachelor's degree. The city has three institutions of higher education: the University of Missouri, Stephens College, and Columbia College, all of which surround Downtown Columbia. The city is the headquarters of the University of Missouri System, which operates campuses in St. Louis, Kansas City, and Rolla. Moberly Area Community College, Central Methodist University, and William Woods University as well as operates satellite campuses in Columbia. ==Infrastructure== ===Transportation=== The Columbia Transit provides public bus and para-transit service, and is owned and operated by the city. In 2008, 1,414,400 passengers boarded along the system's six fixed routes and nine University of Missouri shuttle routes, and 27,000 boarded the Para-transit service. The system is constantly experiencing growth in service and technology. A $3.5 million project to renovate and expand the Wabash Station, a rail depot built in 1910 and converted into the city's transit center in the mid-1980s, was completed in summer of 2007. In 2007, a Transit Master Plan was created to address the future transit needs of the city and county with a comprehensive plan to add infrastructure in three key phases. The five to 15-year plan intends to add service along the southwest, southeast and northeast sections of Columbia and develop alternative transportation models for Boone County. The city is served by Columbia Regional Airport. The closest rail station is Jefferson City station, in the state capital Jefferson City. Columbia is also known for its MKT Trail, a spur of the Katy Trail State Park, which allows foot and bike traffic across the city, and, conceivably, the state. It consists of a soft gravel surface for running and biking. Columbia also is preparing to embark on construction of several new bike paths and street bike lanes thanks to a $25 million grant from the federal government. The city is also served by American Airlines at the Columbia Regional Airport, the only commercial airport in mid-Missouri. I-70 (concurrent with US 40) and US 63 are the two main freeways used for travel to and from Columbia. Within the city, there are also three state highways: Routes 763 (Rangeline Street & College Avenue), 163 (Providence Road), and 740 (Stadium Boulevard). Rail service is provided by the city-owned Columbia Terminal Railroad (COLT), which runs from the north side of Columbia to Centralia and a connection to the Norfolk Southern Railway. ===Health systems=== Health care is a big part of Columbia's economy, with nearly one in six people working in a health-care related profession and a physician density that is about three times the United States average. The city's hospitals and supporting facilities are a large referral center for the state, and medical related trips to the city are common. There are three hospital systems within the city and five hospitals with a total of 1,105 beds. The center serves as the sole supplier of the active ingredients in two U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved radiopharmaceuticals and produces Fluorine-18 used in PET imaging with its cyclotron. ==Sister cities== In accordance with the Columbia Sister Cities Program, which operates in conjunction with Sister Cities International, Columbia has been paired with five international sister cities in an attempt to foster cross-cultural understanding: Kutaisi, Georgia Hakusan, Ishikawa, Japan Sibiu, Romania Suncheon, South Jeolla, South Korea Laoshan, Shandong, China Armenia, Quindío, Colombia	[ "at-large", "Eagle Bluffs Conservation Area", "History of the University of Missouri", "Columbia College (Columbia, Missouri)", "South Jeolla", "Rock Bridge Memorial State Park", "Jeffersonian architecture", "KQFX-LD", "Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge", "KFDR", "Interstate 70 in Missouri", "Midwestern United States", "Columbia metropolitan area (Missouri)", "Paytient", "KBIA", "Missouri House of Representatives", "ESPN Radio", "Missouri Employers Mutual", "List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas", "University of Missouri School of Music", "Metropolitan statistical area", "TrueReal", "William Jewell (educator)", "University of Missouri School of Medicine", "The Public Service Joint Communications Center", "Christian Fellowship School", "ward (politics)", "Court TV", "Columbia Fire Department", "Missouri State High School Activities Association", "Columbia Missourian", "Historic districts in the United States", "Ragtag Cinema", "Lake of the Ozarks", "Show-Me State Games", "Missouri Theatre (Columbia, Missouri)", "Missouri Symphony", "Azteca América", "PBS Kids", "radiopharmaceuticals", "Charge! (TV network)", "cyclotron", "KDVC (FM)", "Shakespeare's Pizza", "Michael J. 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Rollins", "Macon, Missouri", "Mizzou Arena", "NBC", "Columbia College (Missouri)", "Newsweek", "Shelter Insurance", "EquipmentShare", "Columbia Public Schools", "Combined statistical area", "Ozarks", "David R. Francis Quadrangle", "CBS", "The Big Tree", "Köppen climate classification", "KTXY", "Daniel Boone", "Hallsville R-IV School District", "David H. Hickman High School", "Missouri Route 763", "Osage Nation", "The Blue Note (Columbia, Missouri)", "City", "Columbia City Council", "Tolton High School", "Columbia Police Department", "KOPN", "United States census", "Rufus Logan", "Court TV Mystery", "National Congress of State Games", "Statutory city (United States)", "Grit (TV network)", "Columbia Terminal Railroad", "Santa Fe Trail", "Interstate 70 (Missouri)", "State Historical Society of Missouri", "Frederick Douglass High School (Missouri)", "U.S. state", "Race and ethnicity in the United States census", "True/False Film Festival", "University of Missouri–St. Louis", "neo-Gothic", "census", "Missouri", "List of people from Columbia, Missouri", "St. Louis City SC", "KMUC", "William Woods University", "U.S. Route 40 (Missouri)", "MidwayUSA", "Ozark Plateau", "USS Columbia (SSN-771)", "whitetail deer", "Jefferson City", "Laff (TV network)", "Boone's Lick Road", "Ellis Library", "Ishikawa Prefecture", "Columbia Independent School", "KCLR-FM", "United States Department of Veterans Affairs", "Money Magazine", "North Village Arts District", "Avenue of the Columns", "Dabl", "Willie Nelson", "Laoshan District", "Missouri River", "U.S. Route 63 (Missouri)", "Mid-Missouri", "Woodland period", "Francis Quadrangle", "The CW Plus", "Katy Trail State Park", "Veterans United Home Loans", "Sibiu", "Columbia Daily Tribune", "Lynching in the United States", "Defy TV", "American pioneer", "Infomercial", "Bounce TV", "Barnes-Jewish Hospital", "Museum of Art and Archaeology", "University of Missouri Women's and Children's Hospital", "Alaska Native", "Rwanda", "Mississippi Flyway", "The Maneater", "K-Love", "Columbia Insurance Group", "Thomas Jefferson", "Missouri State Senate", "Boone County Sheriff's Department (Missouri)", "Perche Creek", "USA Today", "American Civil War", "University of Missouri System", "KRCG", "Hallsville High School (Missouri)", "Salamander", "Heritage Academy (Columbia, Missouri)", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic", "Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1", "National Register of Historic Places listings in Boone County, Missouri", "PET imaging", "MyNetworkTV", "Oregon Trail", "West Broadway Historic District", "KWWR", "Harry S. 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Stephens Publishing Company", "Moberly, Missouri", "List of Combined Statistical Areas", "radioisotopes", "KMOS-TV", "springtail", "St. Louis Cardinals", "Columbia Public Library", "StorageMart", "Devil's Icebox (cave)", "David Guitar House", "KSSZ", "Power conferences", "Cedar Creek (Missouri River tributary)", "Barbara Buffaloe", "Kansas City Chiefs", "NCAA", "East Campus Neighborhood", "Boonslick", "Woodland Hills, California", "University of Missouri Hospital", "poverty line", "Upland South", "National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics", "University of Missouri Health Care", "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites", "American Community Survey", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Norfolk Southern Railway", "National Register of Historic Places", "Asian Americans", "college town", "KWOS", "Missouri Route 740", "Moniteau Creek (north central Missouri)", "KMIZ", "United States Census Bureau", "Boone County, Missouri", "Boone County Historical Society" ]
6,720	Charlton Athletic F.C.	Charlton Athletic Football Club is a professional association football club based in Charlton, south-east London, England. The team compete in , the third level of the English football league system. Their home ground is The Valley, where the club has played since 1919. They played at The Mount in Catford during the 1923–24 season. They also played a combined seven years divided between firstly Selhurst Park, and secondly at the former 'Upton Park', (now the Boleyn Ground), between 1985 and 1992, due to both their financial problems and the local council's safety concerns. The club's traditional kit consists of red shirts, white shorts and red socks. Their most commonly used nickname is The Addicks. Charlton share local rivalries with fellow South London clubs Crystal Palace and Millwall. The club was founded on 9 June 1905 and turned professional in 1920. They spent one season in the Kent League and one season in the Southern League, before being invited to join the newly-formed Football League Third Division South in 1921. They won the division in the 1928–29 season, and again in 1934–35 following relegation in 1933. Charlton were promoted out of the Second Division in 1935–36, and finished second in the First Division the next season. Having been beaten finalists in 1946, they lifted the FA Cup the following year with a 1–0 victory over Burnley. The departure of Jimmy Seed in 1956, manager for 23 years, saw the club relegated out of the top-flight the following year. Relegated again in 1972, Charlton were promoted from the Third Division in 1974–75, and again in 1980–81 following relegation the previous season. Charlton recovered from administration to secure promotion back to the First Division in 1985–86, and went on to lose in the 1987 final of the Full Members' Cup, though they won the 1987 play-off final to retain their top-flight status. Having been relegated in 1990, Charlton won the 1998 play-off final to make their debut in the Premier League. Though they were relegated the next year, manager Alan Curbishley took them back up as champions in 1999–2000. Charlton spent seven successive years in the Premier League, before suffering two relegations in three years. They won League One with 101 points in 2011–12, though were relegated from the Championship in 2016, and again in 2020 after they won the 2019 League One play-off final. ==History== ===Early history (1905–1946)=== Charlton Athletic was formed on 9 June 1905 At the outbreak of World War I, Charlton were one of the first clubs to close down to take part in the "Greater Game" overseas. The club was reformed in 1917, playing mainly friendlies to raise funds for charities connected to the war and for the Woolwich Memorial Hospital Cup, the trophy for which Charlton donated. It had previously been the Woolwich Cup that the team had won outright following three consecutive victories. After the war, they joined the Kent League for one season (1919–20) before becoming professional, appointing Walter Rayner as the first full-time manager. They were accepted by the Southern League and played just a single season (1920–21) before being voted into the Football League along with Aberdare Athletic. Charlton's first Football League match was against Exeter City in August 1921, which they won 1–0. In 1923, Charlton became "giant killers" in the FA Cup beating top flight sides Manchester City, West Bromwich Albion, and Preston North End before losing to eventual winners Bolton Wanderers in the Quarter-Finals. Later that year, it was proposed that Charlton merge with Catford Southend to create a larger team with bigger support. In the 1923–24 season Charlton played in Catford at The Mount stadium and wore the colours of "The Enders", light and dark blue vertical stripes. However, the move fell through and the Addicks returned to the Charlton area in 1924, returning to the traditional red and white colours in the process. Charlton finished second bottom in the Football League in 1926 and were forced to apply for re-election which was successful. Three years later the Addicks won the Division Three championship in 1929 and they remained at the Division Two level for four years. Seed was an innovative thinker about the game at a time when tactical formations were still relatively unsophisticated. He later recalled "a simple scheme that enabled us to pull several matches out of the fire" during the 1934–35 season: when the team was in trouble "the centre-half was to forsake his defensive role and go up into the attack to add weight to the five forwards." In 1937, Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in 1938 finished fourth and 1939 finished third. They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before World War II. When the full league programme resumed in 1946–47 Charlton could finish only 19th in the First Division, just above the relegation spots, but they made amends with their performance in the FA Cup, reaching the 1947 FA Cup Final. This time they were successful, beating Burnley 1–0, with Chris Duffy scoring the only goal of the day. In this period of renewed football attendances, Charlton became one of only 13 English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season. It caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in 1975 back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances. In 1979–80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division, but won immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980–81. This was a turning point in the club's history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile. A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems, such as the reckless signing of former European Footballer of the Year Allan Simonsen, and the club looked like it would go out of business. ===The "exiled" years (1985–1992)=== In 1984 financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd. and remained at this level for four years (achieving a highest league finish of 14th) often with late escapes, most notably against Leeds in 1987, where the Addicks triumphed in extra-time of the play-off final replay to secure their top flight place. Under his sole leadership Charlton made an appearance in the play-off in 1996 but were eliminated by Crystal Palace in the semi-finals and the following season brought a disappointing 15th-place finish. 1997–98 was Charlton's best season for years. They reached the Division One play-off final and battled against Sunderland in a thrilling game which ended with a 4–4 draw after extra time. Charlton won 7–6 on penalties, with the match described as "arguably the most dramatic game of football in Wembley's history", and were promoted to the Premier League. Charlton's first Premier League campaign began promisingly (they went top after two games) but they were unable to keep up their good form and were soon battling relegation. The battle was lost on the final day of the season but the club's board kept faith in Curbishley, confident that they could bounce back. Curbishley rewarded the chairman's loyalty with the Division One title in 2000 which signalled a return to the Premier League. After the club's return, Curbishley proved an astute spender and by 2003 he had succeeded in establishing Charlton in the top flight. Charlton spent much of the 2003–04 Premier League season challenging for a Champions League place, but a late-season slump in form and the sale of star player Scott Parker to Chelsea, left Charlton in seventh place, which was still the club's highest finish since the 1950s. Charlton were unable to build on this level of achievement and Curbishley departed in 2006, with the club still established as a solid mid-table side. In May 2006, Iain Dowie was named as Curbishley's successor, but was sacked after 12 league matches in November 2006, with only two wins. Les Reed replaced Dowie as manager, however he too failed to improve Charlton's position in the league table and on Christmas Eve 2006, Reed was replaced by former player Alan Pardew. Although results did improve, Pardew was unable to keep Charlton up and relegation was confirmed in the penultimate match of the season. ===Return to the Football League (2007–2014)=== Charlton's return to the second tier of English football was a disappointment, with their promotion campaign tailing off to an 11th-place finish. Early in the following season the Addicks were linked with a foreign takeover, but this was swiftly denied by the club. On 10 October 2008, Charlton received an indicative offer for the club from a Dubai-based diversified investment company. However, the deal later fell through. The full significance of this soon became apparent as the club recorded net losses of over £13 million for that financial year. Pardew left on 22 November after a 2–5 home loss to Sheffield United that saw the team fall into the relegation places. Matters did not improve under caretaker manager Phil Parkinson, and the team went a club record 18 games without a win, a new club record, before finally achieving a 1–0 away victory over Norwich City in an FA Cup third round replay; Parkinson was hired on a permanent basis. The team were relegated to League One after a 2–2 draw against Blackpool on 18 April 2009. After spending almost the entire 2009–10 season in the top six of League One, Charlton were defeated in the Football League One play-offs semi-final second leg on penalties against Swindon Town. After a change in ownership, Parkinson and Charlton legend Mark Kinsella left after a poor run of results. Another Charlton legend, Chris Powell, was appointed manager of the club in January 2011, winning his first game in charge 2–0 over Plymouth at the Valley. This was Charlton's first league win since November. Powell's bright start continued with a further three victories, before running into a downturn which saw the club go 11 games in succession without a win. Yet the fans' respect for Powell saw him come under remarkably little criticism. The club's fortunes picked up towards the end of the season, but leaving them far short of the play-offs. In a busy summer, Powell brought in 19 new players and after a successful season, on 14 April 2012, Charlton Athletic won promotion back to the Championship with a 1–0 away win at Carlisle United. A week later, on 21 April 2012, they were confirmed as champions after a 2–1 home win over Wycombe Wanderers. Charlton then lifted the League One trophy on 5 May 2012, having been in the top position since 15 September 2011, and after recording a 3–2 victory over Hartlepool United, recorded their highest ever league points score of 101, the highest in any professional European league that year. In the first season back in the Championship, the 2012–13 season saw Charlton finish ninth place with 65 points, just three points short of the play-off places to the Premier League. ===Duchâtelet's ownership (2014–2019)=== In early January 2014 during the 2013–14 season, Belgian businessman Roland Duchâtelet took over Charlton as owner in a deal worth £14million. This made Charlton a part of a network of football clubs owned by Duchâtelet. On 11 March 2014, two days after an FA Cup quarter-final loss to Sheffield United, and with Charlton sitting bottom of the table, Powell was sacked, private emails suggesting a rift with the owner. New manager Jose Riga, despite having to join Charlton long after the transfer window had closed, was able to improve Charlton's form and eventually guide them to 18th place, successfully avoiding relegation. After Riga's departure to manage Blackpool, former Millwall player Bob Peeters was appointed as manager in May 2014 on a 12-month contract. Charlton started strong, but a long run of draws meant that after only 25 games in charge Peeters was dismissed with the team in 14th place. His replacement, Guy Luzon, ensured there was no relegation battle by winning most of the remaining matches, resulting in a 12th-place finish. The 2015–16 season began promisingly but results under Luzon deteriorated and on 24 October 2015 after a 3–0 defeat at home to Brentford he was sacked. Luzon said in a News Shopper interview that he "was not the one who chose how to do the recruitment" as the reason why he failed as manager. Karel Fraeye was appointed "interim head coach", but was sacked after 14 games and just two wins, with the club then second from bottom in the Championship. On 14 January 2016, Jose Riga was appointed head coach for a second spell, but could not prevent Charlton from being relegated to League One for the 2016–17 season. Riga resigned at the end of the season. To many fans, the managerial changes and subsequent relegation to League One were symptomatic of the mismanagement of the club under Duchâtelet's ownership and several protests began. After a slow start to the new season, with the club in 15th place of League One, the club announced that it had "parted company" with Russell Slade in November 2016. Karl Robinson was appointed on a permanent basis soon after. He led the Addicks to an uneventful 13th-place finish. The following season Robinson had the team challenging for the play-offs, but a drop in form in March led him to resign by mutual consent. He was replaced by former player Lee Bowyer as caretaker manager who guided them to a 6th-place finish, but lost in the play-off semi-final. Bowyer was appointed permanently in September on a one-year contract and managed Charlton to third place in the 2018–19 EFL League One season, qualifying for the play-offs. In their first visit to the New Wembley Stadium and a repeat of their famous match in 1998, Charlton beat Sunderland 2–1 in the League One play-off final to earn promotion back to the EFL Championship after a three-season absence. Bowyer later signed a new one-year contract following promotion, which was later extended to three years in January 2020. ===Multiple changes of ownership (2019–present)=== ====ESI (2019–2020)==== On 29 November 2019, Charlton Athletic were acquired by East Street Investments (ESI) from Abu Dhabi, subject to EFL approval. Approval was reportedly granted on 2 January 2020. However, on 10 March 2020, a public disagreement between the new owners erupted along with reports that the main investor was pulling out, and the EFL said the takeover had not been approved. The Valley and Charlton's training ground were still owned by Duchâtelet, and a transfer embargo was in place as the new owners had not provided evidence of funding through to June 2021. On 20 April 2020, the EFL said the club was being investigated for misconduct regarding the takeover. In June 2020, Charlton confirmed that ESI had been taken over by a consortium led by businessman Paul Elliott, and said it had contacted the EFL to finalise the ownership change. However, a legal dispute involving former ESI director Matt Southall continued. He attempted to regain control of the club to prevent Elliott's takeover from going ahead, but failed and was subsequently fined and dismissed for challenging the club's directors. On 7 August 2020, the EFL said three individuals, including ESI owner Elliott and lawyer Chris Farnell, had failed its Owners' and Directors' Test, leaving the club's ownership unclear; Charlton appealed against the decision. Meanwhile, Charlton were relegated to League One at the end of the 2019–20 season after finishing 22nd. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the final games of the season were played behind closed doors, which remained the case for the majority of the following season. Later in August, Thomas Sandgaard, a Danish businessman based in Colorado, was reported to be negotiating to buy the club. After further court hearings, Elliott was granted an injunction blocking the sale of ESI until a hearing in November 2020. ====Thomas Sandgaard (2020–2023)==== On 25 September 2020, Thomas Sandgaard acquired the club itself from ESI, and was reported to have passed the EFL's Owners' and Directors' Tests; the EFL noted the change in control, but said the club's sale was now "a matter for the interested parties". On 15 March 2021, with the club lying in eighth place, Bowyer resigned as club manager and was appointed manager of Birmingham City. His successor, Nigel Adkins, was appointed three days later. The club finished the 2020–21 season in seventh place, but started the following season by winning only two out of 13 League One matches and were in the relegation zone when Adkins was sacked on 21 October 2021. After a successful spell as caretaker manager, Johnnie Jackson was appointed manager in December 2021, but, after Charlton finished the season in 13th place, he was also sacked. Swindon Town manager Ben Garner was appointed as his replacement in June 2022, but was sacked on 5 December 2022 with the team in 17th place. After the club was knocked out of the FA Cup by League Two side Stockport County on 7 December, supporters said Charlton was at its "lowest ebb in living memory", with fans "losing confidence" in owner Thomas Sandgaard. Dean Holden was appointed manager on 20 December 2022, and Charlton improved to finish the 2022–23 season in 10th place. ====SE7 Partners (2023–present)==== On 5 June 2023, the club announced that SE7 Partners, comprising former Sunderland director Charlie Methven and Edward Warrick, had agreed a takeover of Charlton Athletic, becoming the club's fourth set of owners in under four years. On 19 July, the EFL and FA cleared SE7 Partners to take over the club, and the deal was completed on 21 July 2023. On 27 August 2023, after one win in the opening six games of the 2023–24 season, Holden was sacked as manager, and succeeded by Michael Appleton. On 23 January 2024, following a 3–2 defeat at The Valley against Northampton Town - and no wins in 10 League One games - Appleton was sacked. He was replaced on 4 February 2024 by Nathan Jones, under whom Charlton lost one and drew three of their next four games as they matched the club's longest winless streak of 18 games. The winless run ended with a 2–1 win away to Derby County on 27 February 2024. Charlton then went on a 14 match unbeaten run, the club's longest in 24 years. However, Charlton finished the season in 16th place, their worst finishing league position in 98 years. Despite a disappointing campaign for the Addicks, Charlton striker Alfie May won the League One Golden Boot award for the 2023–24 season, with his tally of 23 goals. ==Club identity== ===Colours and crest=== Charlton have used a number of crests and badges during their history, although the current design has not been changed since 1968. The first known badge, from the 1930s, consisted of the letters CAF in the shape of a club from a pack of cards. In the 1940s, Charlton used a design featuring a robin sitting in a football within a shield, sometimes with the letters CAFC in the four-quarters of the shield, which was worn for the 1946 FA Cup Final. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the crest of the former metropolitan borough of Greenwich was used as a symbol for the club but this was not used on the team's shirts. A translation of the Greenwich Borough's motto, ' Tempore Utimer ', is ' time ', (tempore), and ' making use of ', (utimer), and refers to the Prime Meridian (Greenwich). With the exception of one season, Charlton have always played in red and white – colours chosen by the boys who founded Charlton Athletic in 1905 after having to play their first matches in the borrowed kits of their local rivals Woolwich Arsenal, who also played in red and white. The exception came during part of the 1923–24 season when Charlton wore the colours of Catford Southend as part of the proposed move to Catford, which were light and dark blue stripes. However, after the move fell through, Charlton returned to wearing red and white as their home colours. The sponsors were as follows: ===Nicknames=== Charlton's most common nickname is The Addicks. The origin of this name is from a local fishmonger, Arthur "Ikey" Bryan, who rewarded the team with meals of haddock and chips with vinegar The progression of the nickname can be seen in the book The Addicks Cartoons: An Affectionate Look into the Early History of Charlton Athletic, which covers the pre-First World War history of Charlton through a narrative based on 56 cartoons which appeared in the now defunct Kentish Independent. The very first cartoon, from 31 October 1908, calls the team the Haddocks. By 1910, the name had changed to Addicks although it also appeared as Haddick. The club also have two other nicknames, The Robins, adopted in 1931, and The Valiants, chosen in a fan competition in the 1960s which also led to the adoption of the sword badge which is still in use. The Addicks nickname never went away and was revived by fans after the club lost its Valley home in 1985 and went into exile at Crystal Palace. It is now once again the official nickname of the club. Charlton fans' chants have included "Valley, Floyd Road", a song noting the stadium's address to the tune of "Mull of Kintyre". ==Stadium== The club's first ground was Siemens Meadow (1905–1907), a patch of rough ground by the River Thames. This was over-shadowed by the Siemens Brothers Telegraph Works. Then followed Woolwich Common (1907–1908), Pound Park (1908–1913), and Angerstein Lane (1913–1915). After the end of the First World War, a chalk quarry known as the Swamps was identified as Charlton's new ground, and in the summer of 1919 work began to create the level playing area and remove debris from the site. as Wimbledon had moved into Selhurst Park alongside Crystal Palace. Charlton finally returned to The Valley in December 1992, celebrating with a 1–0 victory against Portsmouth. Since the return to The Valley, three sides of the ground have been completely redeveloped turning The Valley into a modern, all-seater stadium with a 27,111 capacity which is the biggest in South London. There are plans in place to increase the ground's capacity to approximately 31,000 and even around 40,000 in the future. In the May 2024, a new Desso GrassMaster pitch was laid. ==Supporters and rivalries== The bulk of the club's support base comes from South East London and Kent, particularly the London boroughs of Greenwich, Bexley and Bromley. Supporters played a key role in the return of the club to The Valley in 1992 and were rewarded by being granted a voice on the board in the form of an elected supporter director. Any season ticket holder could put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes were cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18. The last such director, Ben Hayes, was elected in 2006 to serve until 2008, when the role was discontinued as a result of legal issues. Its functions were replaced by a fans forum, which met for the first time in December 2008 and is still active to this day. Charlton are closest in proximity to Millwall than any other EFL club, with The Valley and The Den being less than four miles () apart. They last met in July 2020, a 1–0 win for Millwall at the Valley. Since their first Football League game in 1921, Charlton have won 11, drawn 26 and lost 37 league games (the two sides also met twice in the Anglo-Italian Cup in the 1992–93 season; Charlton winning one tie, and one draw). The Addicks have not beaten Millwall in the last 12 league fixtures between the sides; their last win came on 9 March 1996 at The Valley. In the long-running BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, Rodney Charlton Trotter is named after the club. In the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who, the seventh Doctor's companion Ace (played by Sophie Aldred from 1987 to 1989) wears a Charlton Athletic badge on her black bomber jacket and the club is mentioned in Silver Nemesis. The Valley and manager Alan Curbishley made cameo appearances in the Sky One television series Dream Team. Charlton Athletic featured in the ITV one-off drama Albert's Memorial, shown on 12 September 2010 and starring David Jason and David Warner. A Charlton Athletic match against Manchester United in the 1950s is depicted in BBC Two television film United (released in 2011). A young Billy Butcher has a Charlton flag in his room in Amazon Prime Video series The Boys. ===Books=== Charlton Athletic has also featured in several book publications, in both fiction and factual/sports writing. These include works by Charlie Connelly and Paul Breen's work of popular fiction which is entitled The Charlton Men. The book is set against Charlton's successful 2011–12 season when they won the League One title and promotion back to the Championship in concurrence with the 2011 London riots. Timothy Young, the protagonist in Out of the Shelter, a 1970 novel by David Lodge, supports Charlton Athletic. The book describes Timothy listening to Charlton's victory in the 1947 FA Cup Final on the radio. ==Records and statistics== Sam Bartram is Charlton's record appearance maker, having played a total of 623 times between 1934 and 1956. But for six years lost to the Second World War, when no league football was played, this tally would be far higher. Keith Peacock is the club's second highest appearance maker with 591 games between 1961 and 1979 He was also the first-ever substitute in a Football League game, replacing injured goalkeeper Mike Rose after 11 minutes of a match against Bolton Wanderers on 21 August 1965. Defender and midfielder Radostin Kishishev is Charlton's record international appearance maker, having received 42 caps for Bulgaria while a Charlton player. In total, 12 Charlton players have received full England caps. The first was Seth Plum, in 1923 and the most recent was Darren Bent, in 2006. Luke Young, with seven caps, is Charlton's most capped England international. Charlton's record goalscorer is Derek Hales, who scored 168 times in all competitions in 368 matches, during two spells, for the club. Counting only league goals, Stuart Leary is the club's record scorer with 153 goals between 1951 and 1962. The record number of goals scored in one season is 33, scored by Ralph Allen in the 1934–35 season. Charlton's record home attendance is 75,031 which was set on 12 February 1938 for an FA Cup match against Aston Villa The record all-seated attendance is 27,111, The Valley's current capacity. This record was first set in September 2005 in a Premier League match against Chelsea and has since been equalled several times. ===First-team squad=== ===Out on loan=== ===Under-21s squad=== ===Under-18s squad=== ===Women's team=== ===Player of the Year=== 1971 Paul Went 1972 Keith Peacock 1973 Arthur Horsfield 1974 John Dunn 1975 Richie Bowman 1976 Derek Hales 1977 Mike Flanagan 1978 Keith Peacock 1979 Keith Peacock 1980 Les Berry 1981 Nicky Johns 1982 Terry Naylor 1983 Nicky Johns 1984 Nicky Johns 1985 Mark Aizlewood 1986 Mark Aizlewood 1987 Bob Bolder 1988 John Humphrey 1989 John Humphrey 1990 John Humphrey 1991 Rob Lee 1992 Simon Webster 1993 Stuart Balmer 1994 Carl Leaburn 1995 Richard Rufus 1996 John Robinson 1997 Andy Petterson 1998 Mark Kinsella 1999 Mark Kinsella 2000 Richard Rufus 2001 Richard Rufus 2002 Dean Kiely 2003 Scott Parker 2004 Dean Kiely 2005 Luke Young 2006 Darren Bent 2007 Scott Carson 2008 Matt Holland 2009 Nicky Bailey 2010 Christian Dailly 2011 José Semedo 2012 Chris Solly 2013 Chris Solly 2014 Diego Poyet 2015 Jordan Cousins 2016 Jordan Cousins 2017 Ricky Holmes 2018 Jay DaSilva 2019 Lyle Taylor 2020 Dillon Phillips 2021 Jake Forster-Caskey 2022 George Dobson 2023 Jesurun Rak-Sakyi 2024 Alfie May ==Club officials== ===Coaching staff=== === Managerial history === Source: ===List of chairmen=== ==Honours== Source: League First Division (level 1) Runners-up: 1936–37 Second Division / First Division (level 2) Champions: 1999–2000 2nd place promotion: 1935–36, 1985–86 Play-off winners: 1987, 1998 Third Division South / Third Division / League One (level 3) Champions: 1928–29 (South), 1934–35 (South), 2011–12 3rd place promotion: 1974–75, 1980–81 Play-off winners: 2019 Cup FA Cup Winners: 1946–47 Runners-up: 1945–46 Full Members' Cup Runners-up: 1986–87 Football League War Cup Joint winners: 1943–44 Kent Senior Cup Winners: 1994–95, 2012–13, 2014–15 Runners-up: 1995–96, 2015–16 London Senior Cup Winners: 2022–23, 2023–24	[ "Albert Lindon", "Lloyd Jones (English footballer)", "2019 EFL League One play-off Final", "Kevin Nugent (footballer)", "Mike Flanagan (footballer)", "The Mount stadium", "Amazon Prime Video", "Leeds United A.F.C.", "Miles Leaburn", "2023–24 EFL League One", "Chris Duffy (footballer, born 1918)", "Darren Bent", "Rob Lee", "Siemens Brothers", "Middlesbrough F.C.", "Richie Bowman", "Tennai Watson", "The Mount (stadium)", "Scott Parker (footballer)", "Steve Gritt", "2020–21 Charlton Athletic F.C. season", "Full Members Cup", "television film", "Royal Borough of Greenwich", "Portsmouth F.C.", "Johnny Summers (footballer)", "1986–87 Full Members' Cup", "European Footballer of the Year", "Chelsea FC", "Alfie May", "Seth Plum", "Jordan Cousins", "European robin", "Nicky Johns", "Football League Division Three", "Kaheim Dixon", "Jimmy Hill", "Ron Noades", "Charlie Methven", "Les Gore", "Leicester City FC", "Mull of Kintyre (song)", "re-election (Football League)", "Wycombe Wanderers", "Macron (sportswear)", "Karl Robinson", "Conor Coventry", "Ralph Allen (footballer)", "Simon Webster (footballer)", "Karoy Anderson", "Jose Riga", "Alan Curbishley", "2011 London riots", "Zach Mitchell", "London", "1935–36 Football League Second Division", "1987 Full Members' Cup Final", "Mike Bailey (footballer)", "Luke Berry", "Richard Murray (businessman)", "Sky One", "Alan Pardew", "Carbrini Sportswear", "2011–12 in English football", "ITV (TV network)", "Bob Stokoe", "Single-issue politics", "2011–12 Football League One", "Millwall F.C.", "Will Mannion", "Ken Craggs", "Les Reed (football coach)", "Patrick Casey (footballer)", "Administration (British football)", "Jonjo Shelvey", "Chris Powell", "Derek Hales", "UEFA Champions League", "Eddie Firmani", "TelecityGroup", "1987 Football League Second Division play-off Final", "Hummel International", "Dean Kiely", "José Vítor Moreira Semedo", "1946 FA Cup Final", "Charlton, London", "Football in London", "Norwich City F.C.", "Nathan Asiimwe", "1928–29 Football League Third Division South", "Mark Aizlewood", "Walter Rayner", "José Riga", "Lionel Gamlin", "1945–46 FA Cup", "News Shopper", "Tom McIntyre", "Alex Gilbert (footballer)", "Dean Holden", "The Valley (London)", "British Pathé", "RSSSF", "Aston Villa FC", "English football league system", "The Boys (TV series)", "World War I", "The Boleyn Ground", "1992–93 in English football", "Movietone News", "Doctor Who", "Bukta", "EFL Championship", "Allan Simonsen", "Burnley F.C.", "Lennie Lawrence", "Mark Kinsella", "2019–20 Charlton Athletic F.C. season", "Andy Nelson (footballer)", "1998 Football League First Division play-off Final", "Luke Young (footballer born 1979)", "Southern Football League", "2019 EFL League One play-off final", "Luke Young (footballer, born 1979)", "GrassMaster", "Aberdare Athletic F.C.", "John Robinson (footballer, born 1971)", "Arsenal F.C.", "Derby County F.C.", "Diego Poyet", "Alex Mitchell (English footballer)", "1957–58 in English football", "Ricky Holmes", "Danny Hylton", "EFL Cup", "2003–04 Premier League", "Paul Went", "Chris Solly", "Captain (association football)", "Damian Matthew", "Mesh Computers", "Football League First Division", "St Johnstone F.C.", "John Humphrey (footballer)", "FA Cup", "Tyreece Campbell", "Brentford F.C.", "Nicky Bailey", "Football League", "Michael Appleton", "Ben Garner", "Richard Rufus", "Jimmy Trotter", "Football League Third Division South", "Jason Pearce", "Curtis Fleming", "Lyle Taylor", "Stuart Balmer", "Jimmy Seed", "Nigel Adkins", "1934–35 Football League Third Division South", "Rodney Trotter", "University of Greenwich", "BETDAQ", "Football League One play-offs", "Manchester United F.C.", "Dream Team (TV series)", "1934–35 in English football", "London Senior Cup", "The Silent Playground", "1974–75 Football League Third Division", "Sophie Aldred", "1997–98 in English football", "Bradford City stadium fire", "Daniel Kanu (footballer)", "Gassan Ahadme", "2022–23 Charlton Athletic F.C. season", "Jesurun Rak-Sakyi", "Brentford FC", "Sunderland A.F.C.", "1999–2000 Football League First Division", "association football", "Roland Duchâtelet", "Terry Taylor (footballer)", "Micah Mbick", "COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom", "1998 Football League First Division play-off final", "Theo Foley", "Nike, Inc.", "1947 FA Cup Final", "Abu Dhabi", "Burton Albion FC", "BBC Two", "Ben Roberts (footballer)", "Premier League", "Jay DaSilva", "Anglo-Italian Cup", "EFL League One", "Football League War Cup", "Birmingham City", "John Dunn (footballer, born 1944)", "Stevenage FC", "Joma", "Woolwich Common", "Johnnie Jackson", "Alan Mullery", "Iain Dowie", "Thomas Sandgaard", "seventh Doctor", "Harvey Kedwell", "Henry Rylah", "Scott Parker", "Ashley Maynard-Brewer", "Greg Docherty", "Mitsubishi Electric", "Radostin Kishishev", "Sam Bartram", "Stuart Leary", "Blackburn Rovers F.C.", "John Ronane", "David Lodge (author)", "Matt Godden", "South London derby", "Les Berry (footballer)", "Terry Naylor", "2018–19 EFL League One", "Dubai", "English Football League play-offs", "1987 Football League Second Division play-off final", "Le Coq Sportif", "1936–37 in English football", "Wembley Stadium", "Ace (Doctor Who)", "Boleyn Ground", "1985–86 Football League Second Division", "Andy Petterson", "Arsenal FC", "Walsall F.C.", "Mouhamadou-Naby Sarr", "Jake Forster-Caskey", "Chelsea F.C.", "1980–81 Football League Third Division", "Wembley Stadium (1923)", "Northampton Town F.C.", "Kayne Ramsay", "Matt Holland", "2019 English Football League play-offs", "The Woolwich", "Selhurst Park", "Bob Peeters", "Jim Melrose", "Stephen Henderson (footballer, born 1988)", "United (2011 film)", "Preston North End F.C.", "Kent Senior Cup", "relegation", "Kent Reliance Building Society", "George Dobson (footballer, born 1997)", "Sandy MacFarlane", "Scott Carson", "Football League Third Division", "Arthur Horsfield", "Keith Peacock", "Kai Enslin", "Exeter City F.C.", "Hartlepool United", "Joshua Laqeretabua", "Catford Southend F.C.", "Football League Division Two", "1946–47 FA Cup", "David Warner (actor)", "Out of the Shelter", "All-seater stadium", "Karel Fraeye", "Silver Nemesis", "Only Fools and Horses", "Simon Jordan", "Russell Slade", "Phil Parkinson", "Aaron Henry (footballer)", "1936–37 Football League First Division", "Graham Taylor", "The Valley (stadium)", "Viglen", "Guy Luzon", "David Jason", "Macaulay Gillesphey", "Lee Bowyer", "Thierry Small", "Catford", "Stockport County F.C.", "The Den", "Prime Meridian (Greenwich)", "Carl Leaburn", "Bob Bolder", "Kent Football League (1894–1959)", "2023–24 Charlton Athletic F.C. season", "Richard Collins (football official)", "Wimbledon F.C.", "West Ham United F.C.", "Nathan Jones (Welsh footballer)", "Crystal Palace F.C.", "West Ham United", "World War II", "Kit (association football)", "Alan Mwamba", "Christian Dailly", "Charlie Connelly", "Carlisle United", "clubs (suit)", "Dean Bouzanis", "Chris Farnell", "Adidas", "Chuks Aneke", "Football League Second Division", "Castore (brand)", "Tommy Caton", "Frank Hill", "Children with Cancer UK", "Full Members' Cup", "Dennis Rommedahl", "Dillon Phillips", "Josh Edwards (footballer, born 2000)", "Aston Villa F.C.", "2011–12 Charlton Athletic F.C. season", "Billy Butcher" ]
6,721	Cross-country skiing	Cross-country skiing is a form of skiing whereby skiers traverse snow-covered terrain without use of ski lifts or other assistance. Cross-country skiing is widely practiced as a sport and recreational activity; however, some still use it as a means of travel. Variants of cross-country skiing are adapted to a range of terrain which spans unimproved, sometimes mountainous terrain to groomed courses that are specifically designed for the sport. Modern cross-country skiing is similar to the original form of skiing, from which all skiing disciplines evolved, including alpine skiing, ski jumping and Telemark skiing. Skiers propel themselves either by striding forward (classic style) or side-to-side in a skating motion (skate skiing), aided by arms pushing on ski poles against the snow. It is practised in regions with snow-covered landscapes, including Europe, Canada, Russia, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. Competitive cross-country skiing is one of the Nordic skiing sports. Cross-country skiing and rifle marksmanship are the two components of biathlon. Ski orienteering is a form of cross-country skiing, which includes map navigation along snow trails and tracks. ==History== The word ski comes from the Old Norse word which means stick of wood. Skiing started as a technique for traveling cross-country over snow on skis, starting almost five millennia ago with beginnings in Scandinavia. It may have been practised as early as 600 BCE in Daxing'anling, in what is now China. Early historical evidence includes Procopius's (around CE 550) description of Sami people as skrithiphinoi translated as "ski running samis". Birkely argues that the Sami people have practiced skiing for more than 6000 years, evidenced by the very old Sami word čuoigat for skiing. Egil Skallagrimsson's 950 CE saga describes King Haakon the Good's practice of sending his tax collectors out on skis. The Gulating law (1274) stated that "No moose shall be disturbed by skiers on private land." Early skiers used one long pole or spear in addition to the skis. The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741. Traditional skis, used for snow travel in Norway and elsewhere into the 1800s, often comprised one short ski with a natural fur traction surface, the andor, and one long for gliding, the langski—one being up to longer than the other—allowing skiers to propel themselves with a scooter motion. This combination has a long history among the Sami people. Skis up to 280 cm have been produced in Finland, and the longest recorded ski in Norway is 373 cm. ===Transportation=== Ski warfare, the use of ski-equipped troops in war, is first recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century. These troops were reportedly able to cover distances comparable to that of light cavalry. The garrison in Trondheim used skis at least from 1675, and the Danish-Norwegian army included specialized skiing battalions from 1747—details of military ski exercises from 1767 are on record. Skis were used in military exercises in 1747. In 1799 French traveller Jacques de la Tocnaye recorded his visit to Norway in his travel diary: Norwegian immigrants used skis ("Norwegian snowshoes") in the US midwest from around 1836. Norwegian immigrant "Snowshoe Thompson" transported mail by skiing across the Sierra Nevada between California and Nevada from 1856. ===Sport=== Norwegian skiing regiments organized military skiing contests in the 18th century, divided in four classes: shooting at a target while skiing at "top speed", downhill racing among trees, downhill racing on large slopes without falling, and "long racing" on "flat ground". This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. It became widespread during the 1980s after the success of Bill Koch (United States) in 1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the skating style. Norwegian skier Ove Aunli started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style. Finnish skier, Pauli Siitonen, developed a one-sided variant of the style in the 1970s, leaving one ski in the track while skating to the side with the other one during endurance events; this became known as the "marathon skate". ===Terminology=== The word ski comes from the Old Norse word which means "cleft wood", "stick of wood" or "ski". Norwegian language does not use a verb-form equivalent in idiomatic speech, unlike English "to ski". In modern Norwegian, a variety of terms refer to cross-country skiing, including: (literally "walk on skis")—a general term for self-propelled skiing (literally "hiking on skis")—refers to ski touring as recreation (literally "long race")—refers to cross-country ski racing In contrast, alpine skiing is referred to as (literally "stand on skis"). Fridtjof Nansen, describes the crossing of Greenland as , literally "On skis across Greenland", while the English edition of the report was titled, The first crossing of Greenland. Nansen referred to the activity of traversing snow on skis as (he used the term also in the English translation), which may be translated as ski running. Nansen used , regarding all forms of skiing, but noted that ski jumping is purely a competitive sport and not for amateurs. He further noted that in some competitions the skier "is also required to show his skill in turning his ski to one side or the other within given marks" at full speed on a steep hill. Nansen regarded these forms (i.e., jumping and slalom) as "special arts", and believed that the most important branch of skiing was travel "in an ordinary way across the country". In Germany, Nansen's Greenland report was published as (literally "On snowshoes through Greenland"). The German term, , was supplanted by the borrowed Norwegian word, , in the late 19th century. ==Recreation== Recreational cross-country skiing includes ski touring and groomed-trail skiing, typically at resorts or in parklands. It is an accessible form of recreation for persons with vision and mobility impairments. A related form of recreation is dog skijoring—a winter sport where a cross-country skier is assisted by one or more dogs. ===Ski touring=== Ski touring takes place off-piste and outside of ski resorts. Tours may extend over multiple days. Typically, skis, bindings, and boots allow for free movement of the heel to enable a walking pace, as with Nordic disciplines and unlike Alpine skiing. Ski touring's subgenre ski mountaineering involves independently navigating and route finding through potential avalanche terrain and often requires familiarity with meteorology along with skiing skills. Ski touring can be faster and easier than summer hiking in some terrain, allowing for traverses and ascents that would be harder in the summer. Skis can also be used to access backcountry alpine climbing routes when snow is off the technical route, but still covers the hiking trail. In some countries, organizations maintain a network of huts for use by cross-country skiers in wintertime. For example, the Norwegian Trekking Association maintains over 400 huts stretching across thousands of kilometres of trails which hikers can use in the summer and skiers in the winter. ===Groomed-trail skiing=== Groomed trail skiing occurs at facilities such as Nordmarka (Oslo), Royal Gorge Cross Country Ski Resort and Gatineau Park in Quebec, where trails are laid out and groomed for both classic and skate-skiing. Such grooming and track setting (for classic technique) requires specialized equipment and techniques that adapt to the condition of the snow. Trail preparation employs snow machines which tow snow-compaction, texturing and track-setting devices. Groomers must adapt such equipment to the condition of the snow—crystal structure, temperature, degree of compaction, moisture content, etc. Depending on the initial condition of the snow, grooming may achieve an increase in density for new-fallen snow or a decrease in density for icy or compacted snow. Cross-country ski facilities may incorporate a course design that meets homologation standards for such organizations as the International Olympic Committee, the International Ski Federation, or national standards. Standards address course distances, degree of difficulty with maximums in elevation difference and steepness—both up and downhill, plus other factors. Some facilities have night-time lighting on select trails—called lysløype (light trails) in Norwegian and elljusspår (electric-light trails) in Swedish. The first lysløype opened in 1946 in Nordmarka and at Byåsen (Trondheim). ==Competition== Cross-country ski competition encompasses a variety of formats for races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS) and by national organizations, such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association and Cross Country Ski Canada. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation, and Paralympic cross-country skiing, sanctioned by the International Paralympic Committee. ===FIS-sanctioned competition=== The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women. From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held every year, including the Winter Olympic Games. After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982. Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years. Notable cross-country ski competitions include the Winter Olympics, the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, and the FIS World Cup events (including the Holmenkollen). ===Other sanctioned competition=== Cross-country ski marathons—races with distances greater than 40 kilometers—have two cup series, the Ski Classics, which started in 2011, and the Worldloppet. Biathlon combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules. Ski orienteering is a form of cross-country skiing competition that requires navigation in a landscape, making optimal route choices at racing speeds. Standard orienteering maps are used, but with special green overprinting of trails and tracks to indicate their navigability in snow; other symbols indicate whether any roads are snow-covered or clear. Standard skate-skiing equipment is used, along with a map holder attached to the chest. It is one of the four orienteering disciplines recognized by the International Orienteering Federation. Upper body strength is especially important because of frequent double poling along narrow snow trails. Paralympic cross-country ski competition is an adaptation of cross-country skiing for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee. These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport. ==Techniques== Cross-country skiing has two basic propulsion techniques, which apply to different surfaces: classic (undisturbed snow and tracked snow) and skate skiing (firm, smooth snow surfaces). The classic technique relies on a wax or texture on the ski bottom under the foot for traction on the snow to allow the skier to slide the other ski forward in virgin or tracked snow. With the skate skiing technique a skier slides on alternating skis on a firm snow surface at an angle from each other in a manner similar to ice skating. Both techniques employ poles with baskets that allow the arms to participate in the propulsion. Specialized equipment is adapted to each technique and each type of terrain. A variety of turns are used, when descending. On uphill terrain, techniques include the "side step" for steep slopes, moving the skis perpendicular to the fall line, the "herringbone" for moderate slopes, where the skier takes alternating steps with the skis splayed outwards, and, for gentle slopes, the skier uses the diagonal technique with shorter strides and greater arm force on the poles. A variant of the technique is the "marathon skate" or "Siitonen step", where the skier leaves one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski. ===Turns=== Turns, used while descending or for braking, include the snowplough (or "wedge turn"), the stem christie (or "wedge christie"), ==Equipment== Equipment comprises skis, poles, boots and bindings; these vary according to: Technique, classic vs skate Terrain, which may vary from groomed trails to wilderness Performance level, from recreational use to competition at the elite level Glide wax may be used on the tails and tips of classic skis and across the length of skate skis. ====Types==== Each type of ski is sized and designed differently. Length affects maneuverability; camber affects pressure on the snow beneath the feet of the skier; side-cut affects the ease of turning; width affects forward friction; overall area on the snow affects bearing capacity; and tip geometry affects the ability to penetrate new snow or to stay in a track. Each of the following ski types has a different combination of these attributes: Classic skis: Designed for skiing in tracks. For adult skiers (between 155 cm/50 kg and 185 cm/75 kg), recommended lengths are between 180 and 210 centimetres (approximately 115% of the skier's height). Traction comes from a "grip zone" underfoot that when bearing the skier's weight engages either a textured gripping surface or a grip wax. Accordingly, these skis are classified as "waxable" or "waxless". Recreational waxless skis generally require little attention and are adapted for casual use. Waxable skis, if prepared correctly, provide better grip and glide. When the skier's weight is distributed on both skis, the ski's camber diminishes the pressure of the grip zone on the snow and promotes bearing on the remaining area of the ski—the "glide zone". A test for stiffness of camber is made with a piece of paper under the skier's foot, standing on skis on a flat, hard surface—the paper should be pinned throughout the grip zone of the ski on which all the skier's weight is placed, but slide freely when the skier's weight is bearing equally on both skis. ====Gliding surface==== Glide waxes enhance the speed of the gliding surface. The wax is either melted on the base using an iron or applied in a liquid form. The excess wax is first scraped off and then finished by brushing. Most glide waxes are based on paraffin that is combined with additive materials. The paraffin hardness and additives are varied based on snow type, humidity and temperature. Since the 2021-2022 race season, fluorinated products are banned in FIS sanctioned competitions. Before the ban, most race waxes combined fluorinated hydrocarbon waxes with fluorocarbon overlays. Fluorocarbons decrease surface tension and surface area of the water between the ski and the snow, increasing speed and glide of the ski under specific conditions. Either combined with the wax or applied after in a spray, powder, or block form, fluorocarbons significantly improve the glide of the ski. ====Traction surface==== Skis designed for classic technique, both in track and in virgin snow, rely on a traction zone, called the "grip zone" or "kick zone", underfoot. This comes either from a) texture, such as "fish scales" or mohair skins, designed to slide forward but not backwards, that is built into the grip zone of waxless skis, or from applied devices, e.g. climbing skins, or b) from grip waxes. Grip waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow. An incorrect choice of grip wax for the snow conditions encountered may cause ski slippage (wax too hard for the conditions) or snow sticking to the grip zone (wax too soft for the conditions). Standardized system: Boots and bindings have an integrated connection, typically a bar across the front end of the sole of the boot, and platform on which the boot rests. Two families of standards prevail: NNN (New Nordic Norm) and SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil. Both systems have variants for skiing on groomed surfaces and in back country. These systems are the most common type of binding. Three-pin: The boot-gripping system comprises three pins that correspond to three holes in the sole of the boot's toe, used primarily for back-country skiing. Cable: A cable secures the free-moving heel and keeps the toe of the boot pushed into a boot-gripping section, used primarily for back-country and telemark skiing. ===Poles=== Ski poles are used for balance and propulsion. Modern cross-country ski poles are made from aluminium, fibreglass-reinforced plastic, or carbon fibre, depending on weight, cost and performance parameters. Formerly they were made of wood or bamboo. They feature a foot (called a basket) near the end of the shaft that provides a pushing platform, as it makes contact with the snow. Baskets vary in size, according to the expected softness/firmness of the snow. Racing poles feature smaller, lighter baskets than recreational poles. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing. Traditional skiing in the 1800s used a single pole for both cross-country and downhill. The single pole was longer and stronger than the poles that are used in pairs. In competitive cross-country poles in pairs were introduced around 1900. ==Gallery== Image:Skigudinne.jpg\|An early depiction of a skier—a Sami woman or goddess hunting on skis by Olaus Magnus (1553). File:Birkebeinerne ski01.jpg\|Loyal retainers transporting Prince Haakon IV of Norway to safety on skis during the winter of 1206—1869 depiction by Knud Bergslien. File:138. Kronprins Olav - no-nb digifoto 20150710 00006 bldsa pk kgl0061.jpg\|Olav V of Norway as crown-prince in 1939 Image:olympic skier in ice storm.jpg\|A skate-skier in Gatineau Park, Quebec, a North American groomed-trail ski venue. File:AchenseeWinter01.JPG\|A recreational cross-country trail, groomed for classic skiing only, in Tyrol. File:Blind skier and guide.jpg\|A blind cross-country skier with guide at a regional Ski for Light event. File:Skijor worlds.jpg\|Dog skijoring—dogs provide added propulsion to the cross-country skier.	[ "Elljusspår", "Trondheim", "Biathlon", "fish scale", "Johan Grøttumsbråten", "Snowshoe Thompson", "Winter Olympic Games", "shooting sport", "FIS Nordic World Ski Championships", "parallel turn", "consul (representative)", "Ski touring", "Paralympic cross-country skiing", "ski", "biathlon", "Greater Khingan", "Denmark", "war", "sidecut", "Europe", "FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1931", "Sami people", "Skijoring", "homologation", "meteorology", "Telemark turn", "ski jumping", "snow", "ice skating", "Pauli Siitonen", "Forestville, Quebec", "snow grooming", "ski skins", "alpine skiing", "Gulating", "ski touring", "Tromsø (city)", "Ski binding", "Navigate", "Estonia", "International Paralympic Committee", "International Orienteering Federation", "Canada", "marksmanship", "ski mountaineering", "New Zealand", "Procopius", "United States", "orienteering", "ski lift", "Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway", "Nordic Integrated System", "skate skiing", "Royal Gorge Cross Country Ski Resort", "Olaus Magnus", "Tour of Anchorage", "Amundsen's South Pole expedition", "Saxo Grammaticus", "ski boots", "ski marathon", "Japanese people", "ski boot", "Traction (engineering)", "Egil Skallagrimsson", "hiking", "carbon fibre", "Nordic skiing", "Telemark skiing", "cavalry", "en:FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011", "Tartu Maraton", "Holmenkollen ski jump", "snowplough turn", "wikt:camber", "Aftenposten", "Old Norse", "Bill Koch (skier)", "Roald Amundsen", "Karkonosze", "bamboo", "Ski wax", "Knud Bergslien", "Quebec", "degree of difficulty", "Fridtjof Nansen", "China", "Birkebeinerrennet", "ski resorts", "piste", "FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1982", "Vasaloppet", "Vladimir Lenin", "Gatineau Park", "Alpine skiing", "Switzerland", "aluminium", "Ski for Light", "Scandinavia", "ski pole", "Russia", "Cross-country skiing (sport)", "Worldloppet Ski Federation", "Engadin Skimarathon", "Frederick George Jackson", "Cable binding", "ski bindings", "ski poles", "Alaska", "Tyrol (state)", "Ski marathon", "Australia", "U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association", "Anchorage", "Ski warfare", "Hjalmar Johansen", "orienteering map", "Ski", "International Ski and Snowboard Federation", "Sport governing body", "skiing", "Haakon the Good", "elljusspår", "Norwegian Trekking Association", "fibreglass-reinforced plastic", "Ski boots", "Ove Aunli", "Skiing", "mohair", "Sweden", "stem christie", "avalanche", "fluorocarbon", "Paraffin wax", "Haakon IV of Norway", "Ski skins", "Bokmål", "American Birkebeiner", "Boreal Loppet", "Ski orienteering", "Olav V of Norway", "ski orienteering", "Northbrook Island", "Nordmarka" ]
6,724	Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro	Copacabana ( , , ) is a Brazilian (neighbourhood) located in the South Zone of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is most prominently known for its 4 km (2.5 miles) balneario beach, which is one of the most famous in the world. == History == The district was originally called (translated from the Tupi language, it means "the way of the ", the being a kind of bird) until the mid-18th century. It was renamed after the construction of a chapel holding a replica of the Virgen de Copacabana, the patron saint of Bolivia. == Characteristics == Copacabana begins at Princesa Isabel Avenue and ends at Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six). Beyond Copacabana, there are two small beaches: one, inside Fort Copacabana and the other, right after it: Diabo ("Devil") Beach. Arpoador beach, where surfers go after its perfect waves, comes next, followed by the famous borough of Ipanema. The area served as one of the four "Olympic Zones" during the 2016 Summer Olympics. According to Riotur, the Tourism Secretariat of Rio de Janeiro, there are 63 hotels and 10 hostels in Copacabana. == Copacabana Beach == Copacabana beach, located at the Atlantic shore, stretches from Posto Dois (lifeguard watchtower Two) to Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six). Leme is at Posto Um (lifeguard watchtower One). There are historic forts at both ends of Copacabana beach; Fort Copacabana, built in 1914, is at the south end by Posto Seis and Fort Duque de Caxias, built in 1779, at the north end. Many hotels, restaurants, bars, nightclubs and residential buildings are located in the area. On Sundays and holidays, one side of Avenida Atlântica is closed to cars, giving residents and tourists more space for activities along the beach. Copacabana Beach plays host to millions of revellers during the annual New Year's Eve celebrations, and for the first three editions of the tournament, has been the official venue of the FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup. ==Copacabana promenade== The Copacabana promenade is a pavement landscape in large scale (4 kilometres long). It was rebuilt in 1970 and has used a black and white Portuguese pavement design since its origin in the 1930s: a geometric wave. The Copacabana promenade was designed by Roberto Burle Marx. ==Living standard== Copacabana has the 12th highest Human Development Index in Rio; the 2000 census put the HDI of Copacabana at 0.902. ==Neighbourhood== According to the IBGE, 160,000 people live in Copacabana and 44,000 or 27.5% of them are 60 years old or older. Copacabana covers an area of 5.220 km which gives the borough a population density of 20,400 people per km. Residential buildings eleven to thirteen stories high built next to each other dominate the borough. Houses and two-story buildings are rare. When Rio was the capital of Brazil, Copacabana was considered one of the best neighborhoods in the country. ==Transportation== More than 40 different bus routes serve Copacabana, as do three subway Metro stations: Cantagalo, Siqueira Campos and Cardeal Arcoverde. Three major arteries parallel to each other cut across the entire borough: Avenida Atlântica (Atlantic Avenue), which is a 6-lane, 4 km avenue by the beachside, Nossa Senhora de Copacabana Avenue and Barata Ribeiro/Raul Pompéia Street both of which are 4 lanes and 3.5 km in length. Barata Ribeiro Street changes its name to Raul Pompéia Street after the Sá Freire Alvim Tunnel. Twenty-four streets intersect all three major arteries, and seven other streets intersect some of the three. ==Notable events== On 26 April 1949, broke in two as she was being towed into Rio de Janeiro harbour. Much of her cargo of oranges was washed up upon the beach. On December 31, 1994, the New Year's Eve celebrations featured a Rod Stewart concert with an attendance of 4.5 million, making it the largest concert crowd ever. More recently, the beach has been a site for huge free concerts unrelated to the year-end festivities. On March 21, 2005, Lenny Kravitz performed there in front of 300,000 people, on a Monday night as part of his Electric Church Tour. On February 18, 2006, a Saturday, The Rolling Stones brought their A Bigger Bang Tour, surpassing that mark by far and attracting over 1.5 million people to the beach. On July 7, 2007, the beach hosted the Brazilian leg of the Live Earth concerts, which attracted 400,000 people. As the headliner, Lenny Kravitz got to play the venue a second time, with Jorge Benjor, Macy Gray, O Rappa and Pharrell as the main opening acts. On October 2, 2009, 100,000 people filled the beach for a huge party waiting for the IOC announcement of the host city of the 2016 Summer Olympics. . 11 of the 15 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cups have taken place here. On July 28, 2013, the beach hosted the final event of the World Youth Day 2013. About 3 million people including 3 presidents joined Pope Francis when he celebrated the holy mass. From May to July, 2014, the United Buddy Bears exhibit was held on the Copacabana promenade and attracted more than 1,000,000 people. The presentation consisted of more than 140 bear sculptures, each two metres high and designed by a different artist. In August 2016, Copacabana Beach was the site of beach volleyball in the 2016 Summer Olympics. On May 4, 2024, Madonna performed the final show of the Celebration Tour as a free event to audience of more than 1,600,000 attendees, the largest live crowd of her career. On May 3, 2025, Lady Gaga will perform a special concert as a free event to launch "Todo Mundo no Rio" as a new initiative highlighting the economic benefits of entertainment in Rio de Janeiro. ==New Year's Eve in Copacabana== The fireworks display in Rio de Janeiro to celebrate New Year's Eve is one of the largest in the world, lasting 15 to 20 minutes. It is estimated that 2 million people go to Copacabana Beach to see the spectacle. The festival also includes a concert that extends throughout the night. The celebration has become one of the biggest tourist attractions of Rio de Janeiro, attracting visitors from all over Brazil as well as from different parts of the world, and the city hotels generally stay fully booked. The celebration is broadcast live on major Brazilian radio and television networks, including TV Globo. ===History=== New Year's Eve has been celebrated on Copacabana beach since the 1950s when cults of African origin such as Candomblé and Umbanda gathered in small groups dressed in white for ritual celebrations. The first fireworks display occurred in 1976, sponsored by a hotel on the waterfront and this has been repeated ever since. In the 1990s the city saw it as a great opportunity to promote the city and organized and expanded the event. An assessment made during the New Year's Eve 1992 highlighted the risks associated with increasing crowd numbers on Copacabana beach after the fireworks display. Since the 1993-94 event concerts have been held on the beach to retain the public. The result was a success with egress spaced out over a period of 2 hours without the previous turmoil, although critics claimed that it denied the spirit of the New Year's tradition of a religious festival with fireworks by the sea. The following year Rod Stewart beat attendance records. Finally, the Tribute to Tom Jobim - with Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso, Chico Buarque, and Paulinho da Viola - consolidated the shows at the Copacabana Réveillon. There was a need to transform the fireworks display in a show of the same quality. The fireworks display was created by entrepreneurs Ricardo Amaral and Marius. From the previous 8–10 minutes the time was extended to 20 minutes and the quality and diversity of the fireworks was improved. A technical problem in fireworks 2000 required the use of ferries from New Year's Eve 2001–02. New Year's Eve has begun to compete with the Carnival, and since 1992 it has been a tourist attraction in its own right. There was no celebration in 2020–21 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but the fireworks show went on.	[ "Virgen de Copacabana", "Live Earth concert, Rio de Janeiro", "List of sovereign states", "Grupo Globo", "Leme, Rio de Janeiro", "Portuguese pavement", "Jorge Benjor", "World Youth Day 2013", "fireworks", "Umbanda", "Cardeal Arcoverde Station", "bairro", "Rio de Janeiro", "Candomblé", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Gilberto Gil", "Paulinho da Viola", "Human Development Index", "New Year's Eve in Copacabana", "Avenida Atlântica", "Madonna", "Macy Gray", "Ipanema, Rio de Janeiro", "TV Globo", "Cantagalo Station", "Pope Francis", "the Celebration Tour", "Rio de Janeiro (state)", "patron saint", "G1 (website)", "Réveillon", "Rod Stewart", "Arpoador", "balneario", "Rio Carnival", "A Bigger Bang Tour", "O Rappa", "The Rolling Stones", "Siqueira Campos Station", "Fort Copacabana", "Orange (fruit)", "States of Brazil", "FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup", "hostel", "Tupi language", "Lenny Kravitz", "United Buddy Bears", "Roberto Burle Marx", "Lady Gaga", "Tom Jobim", "Chico Buarque", "New Year's Eve", "Rio de Janeiro Metro", "population density", "Africa", "Atlantic Ocean", "Gal Costa", "Pharrell Williams", "Electric Church Tour", "Caetano Veloso", "Beach volleyball at the 2016 Summer Olympics", "Bolivia", "2016 Summer Olympics", "Live Earth (2007 concert)", "Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics" ]
6,725	Cy Young Award	The Cy Young Award is given annually to the best pitchers in Major League Baseball (MLB), one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL). The award was introduced in 1956 by Baseball Commissioner Ford C. Frick in honor of Hall of Fame pitcher Cy Young, who died in 1955. The award was originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues, but in 1967, after the retirement of Frick, the award was given to one pitcher in each league. Each league's award is voted on by members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA). Local BBWAA chapter chairmen in each MLB city recommend two writers to vote for each award. Final approval comes from the BBWAA national secretary-treasurer. Writers vote for either the American League or National League awards, depending on the league in which their local team plays. A total of 30 writers vote for each league's awards. Writers cast their votes prior to the start of postseason play. As of the 2010 season, each voter places a vote for first, second, third, fourth, and fifth place among the pitchers of each league. The formula used to calculate the final scores is a weighted sum of the votes. The pitcher with the highest score in each league wins the award. From 1970 to 2009, writers voted for three pitchers, with the formula of five points for a first-place vote, three for a second-place vote and one for a third-place vote. Before 1970, writers only voted for the best pitcher and used a formula of one point per vote. In 1974, Mike Marshall became the first relief pitcher to win the award. to win the award, and since then only one other relief pitcher has won the award, Éric Gagné in 2003 (also a closer). A total of nine relief pitchers have won the Cy Young Award across both leagues. Steve Carlton in 1982 became the first pitcher to win more than three Cy Young Awards, while Greg Maddux in 1994 became the first to win at least three in a row (and received a fourth straight the following year), a feat later repeated by Randy Johnson. ==Winners== ===Major Leagues combined (1956–1966)=== ===American League (1967–present)=== ===National League (1967–present)=== ===Multiple winners=== Twenty-two (22) pitchers have won the award multiple times. Roger Clemens currently holds the record for the most awards won, with seven – his first and last wins separated by eighteen years. Greg Maddux (1992–1995) and Randy Johnson (1999–2002) share the record for the most consecutive awards won with four. Clemens, Johnson, Pedro Martínez, Gaylord Perry, Roy Halladay, Max Scherzer, and Blake Snell are the only pitchers to have won the award in both the American League and National League; Sandy Koufax is the only pitcher who won multiple awards during the period when only one award was presented for all of Major League Baseball. Roger Clemens was the youngest pitcher to win a second Cy Young Award, while Tim Lincecum is the youngest pitcher to do so in the National League, and Clayton Kershaw is the youngest left-hander to do so. Clayton Kershaw is the youngest pitcher to win a third Cy Young Award. Clemens is also the only pitcher to win the Cy Young Award with four different teams; nobody else has done so with more than two different teams. Justin Verlander has the most seasons separating his first (2011) and second (2019) Cy Young Awards. ===Wins by teams=== Only two teams have never had a pitcher win the Cy Young Award. The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have won more than any other team with 12. ===Unanimous winners=== There have been 21 players who unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 28 wins. Six of these unanimous wins were accompanied by a win of the Most Valuable Player award (marked with * below; ** denotes that the player's unanimous win was accompanied by a unanimous win of the MVP Award). In the National League, 12 players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 15 wins. Sandy Koufax (1963, 1965, 1966) Greg Maddux (1994, 1995) Bob Gibson (1968) Steve Carlton (1972) Rick Sutcliffe (1984) Dwight Gooden (1985) Orel Hershiser (1988) Randy Johnson (2002) Jake Peavy (2007) Roy Halladay (2010) Clayton Kershaw (2014) Sandy Alcántara (2022) In the American League, nine players have unanimously won the Cy Young Award, for a total of 13 wins. Denny McLain (1968) Ron Guidry (1978) Roger Clemens (1986, 1998) Pedro Martínez (1999, 2000) Johan Santana (2004, 2006) Justin Verlander (2011*, 2022) Shane Bieber (2020) Gerrit Cole (2023) Tarik Skubal (2024)	[ "Pedro Martínez", "Justin Verlander", "Johan Santana", "Orel Hershiser", "Cy Young", "Dwight Gooden", "Colorado Rockies", "Pittsburgh Pirates", "American League", "Steve Carlton", "Washington Nationals", "Earned run average", "Gaylord Perry", "Sandy Alcántara", "National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum", "Minnesota Twins", "Roy Halladay", "Hilton Smith Legacy Award", "Ted Williams Museum and Hitters Hall of Fame", "Houston Astros", "Closer (baseball)", "The Sporting News Reliever of the Year Award", "Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim", "Randy Johnson", "Seattle Mariners", "Chris Sale", "Texas Rangers (baseball)", "Cincinnati Reds", "Baltimore Orioles", "Chicago White Sox", "Brooklyn Dodgers", "Blake Snell", "Warren Spahn", "Shane Bieber", "Baseball Hall of Fame", "Milwaukee Braves (1953–65)", "Gerrit Cole", "Oakland Athletics", "Sporting News Pitcher of the Year Award", "Cleveland Indians", "Atlanta Braves", "Fernando Valenzuela", "The San Diego Union-Tribune", "Baseball Digest", "Mike Marshall (pitcher)", "Jake Peavy", "Major League Baseball All-Time Team", "Baseball Writers' Association of America", "relief pitcher", "Tarik Skubal", "Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame", "Warren Spahn Award", "Encarta", "Rolaids Relief Man Award", "William Eckert", "Triple Crown (baseball)", "Baseball awards", "Commissioner of Baseball", "Commissioner of Baseball (MLB)", "NPB", "Roger Clemens", "Choi Dong-won Award", "Dennis Eckersley", "Eiji Sawamura Award", "Chicago Cubs", "Baseball Prospectus Internet Baseball Awards", "Max Scherzer", "San Diego Padres", "Arizona Diamondbacks", "Save (baseball)", "Ford C. Frick", "ESPN", "R. A. Dickey", "St. Louis Cardinals", "Pitcher of the Month", "Miami Marlins", "Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Kansas City Royals", "Tim Lincecum", "Esurance MLB Awards", "Major League Baseball Reliever of the Year Award", "National League (baseball)", "Tampa Bay Rays", "Sandy Koufax", "Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award", "Detroit Tigers", "Bob Gibson", "Milwaukee Brewers", "Montreal Expos", "Major League Baseball All-Century Team", "Major League Baseball", "Baseball Almanac", "Wilbur Bullet Rogan Legacy Award", "Denny McLain", "Don Newcombe", "KBO League", "Los Angeles Dodgers", "Clayton Kershaw", "Ferguson Jenkins", "Los Angeles Angels", "Strikeout", "Éric Gagné", "Greg Maddux", "New York Mets", "Philadelphia Phillies", "Players Choice Award", "Baseball", "New York Yankees", "The New York Times", "San Francisco Giants", "Decision (baseball)", "Boston Red Sox", "Ron Guidry", "Rick Sutcliffe", "pitcher" ]
6,728	Antisemitism in Christianity	Some Christian Churches, Christian groups, and ordinary Christians express antisemitism towards Jews and Judaism. These expressions of antisemitism can be considered examples of antisemitism expressed by Christians or antisemitism expressed by Christian communities. However, the term Christian antisemitism has also been used in reference to anti-Jewish sentiments that arise out of Christian doctrinal or theological stances (by thinkers such as Jules Isaac, for example, especially in his book Jésus et Israël). The term is also used to suggest that to some degree, contempt for Jews and Judaism is inherent in Christianity as a religion, and as a result, the centralized institutions of Christian power (such as the Catholic Church or the Church of England), as well as governments with strong Christian influences (such as the Catholic Monarchs of Spain) have generated societal structures that have survived and perpetuate antisemitism to the present day. This usage particularly appears in discussions about Christian structures of power which exist within society, structures which are referred to as Christian hegemony or Christian privilege; these discussions are part of larger discussions about structural inequality and power dynamics. Antisemitic Christian rhetoric and the resulting antipathy towards Jews date back to the early years of Christianity and they resemble pagan anti-Jewish attitudes that were reinforced by the belief that Jews are responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth. Christians imposed ever-increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries, including acts of ostracism, humiliation, expropriation, violence, and murder—measures which culminated in the Holocaust. For two millennia, these attitudes were reinforced in Christian preaching, art, and popular teachings, as well as in statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews. Modern antisemitism has primarily been described as hatred of Jews as a race (see Racial antisemitism) and the most recent expression of it is rooted in 18th-century racial theories. Anti-Judaism is rooted in hostility towards the religion of Judaism; in Western Christianity, anti-Judaism effectively merged with anti-Semitism during the 12th century. The Holocaust forced many Christians to reflect on the role(s) Christian theology and practice played and still play in anti-Judaism and antisemitism. ==Early differences between Christianity and Judaism== The legal status of Christianity and Judaism differed within the Roman Empire: because the practice of Judaism was restricted to the Jewish people and Jewish proselytes, adherents of it were generally exempt from adhering to the obligations that were imposed on adherents of other religions by the Roman imperial cult. Since the reign of Julius Caesar, Judaism enjoyed the status of a "licit religion", but occasional persecutions still occurred, such as Tiberius' conscription and expulsion of Jews in 19 AD followed by Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome. Christianity however was not restricted to one people, and because Jewish Christians were excluded from the synagogue (see Council of Jamnia), they also lost the protected status that was granted to Judaism, even though that protection still had its limits (see Titus Flavius Clemens (consul), Rabbi Akiva, and Ten Martyrs). From the reign of Nero onwards, who is said to have blamed the Great Fire of Rome on Christians by Tacitus, the practice of Christianity was criminalized and Christians were frequently persecuted, but the persecution differed from region to region. Comparably, Judaism suffered setbacks due to the Jewish–Roman wars, and these setbacks are remembered in the legacy of the Ten Martyrs. Robin Lane Fox traces the origin of much of the later hostility to this early period of persecution, when the Roman authorities commonly tested the faith of suspected Christians by forcing them to pay homage to the deified emperor. Jews were exempt from this requirement as long as they paid the , and Christians (many or mostly of Jewish origin) would say that they were Jewish but they refused to pay the tax. This claim had to be confirmed by the local Jewish authorities, who were likely to refuse to accept the Christians as fellow Jews, which often lead to their execution. The was often brought forward as support for this charge that the Jews were responsible for the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. In the 3rd century systematic persecution of Christians began and lasted until Constantine's conversion to Christianity. In 390 Theodosius I made Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. While pagan cults and Manichaeism were suppressed, Judaism retained its legal status as a licit religion, but anti-Jewish violence still occurred. In the 5th century, some legal measures worsened the status of the Jews in the Roman Empire. ==Issues which Judaism has with the New Testament== ===Jesus as the Messiah=== In Judaism, Jesus was not recognized as the Messiah, which Christians believed constituted the Jewish people's rejection of him, because according to the teachings of Judaism, Jesus was a failed Jewish Messiah claimant and he was also a false prophet. Since Jews traditionally believe that the Messianic Age is not present because the messiah has not come, the total rejection of Jesus as either the messiah or a deity has never been a central issue in Judaism. However, it is interesting to note that the first 'Christian' church in Jerusalem was almost exclusively Jewish in its congregational makeup, with this early Christian church (through the years 40–60 AD) being made up of approximately 1,000 Jews who had decided to believe in and worship Jesus. ===Criticism of the Pharisees=== Many New Testament passages criticise the Pharisees, a Jewish social movement and school of thought which existed during the Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE), and it has been argued that these passages have shaped the way in which Christians viewed Jews. Like most Bible passages, however, they can be and they have been interpreted in a variety of ways. Today, mainstream Talmudic Rabbinical Judaism is directly descended from the Pharisaical tradition, which Jesus frequently criticized. During Jesus' life and at the time of his execution, the Pharisees were only one of several Jewish groups such as the Sadducees, Zealots, and Essenes who mostly died out not long after the period; Jewish scholars such as Harvey Falk and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that Jesus was himself a Pharisee. In the Sermon on the Mount, for example, Jesus says "The Pharisees sit in Moses' seat, therefore do what they say". Arguments by Jesus and his disciples against certain groups of Pharisees and what he saw as their hypocrisy were most likely examples of disputes among Jews and internal to Judaism that were common at the time (see for example Hillel and Shammai). ===Recent studies of anti-Semitism in the New Testament=== Professor Lillian C. Freudmann, author of Antisemitism in the New Testament (University Press of America, 1994) has published a detailed study of the description of Jews in the New Testament and the historical effects that such passages have had in the Christian community throughout history. Similar studies of such verses have been made by both Christian and Jewish scholars, including Professors Clark Williamsom (Christian Theological Seminary), Hyam Maccoby (The Leo Baeck Institute), Norman A. Beck (Texas Lutheran College), and Michael Berenbaum (Georgetown University). Most rabbis feel that these verses are anti-Semitic, and many Christian scholars, in America and Europe, have reached the same conclusion. Another example is John Dominic Crossan's 1995 book, titled Who Killed Jesus? Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus. Some biblical scholars have also been accused of holding anti-Semitic beliefs. Bruce J. Malina, a founding member of The Context Group, has come under criticism for going as far as to deny the Semitic ancestry of modern Israelis. He then ties this back to his work on first-century cultural anthropology. === Jewish deicide === Jewish deicide is the belief that Jews to this day will always be collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus, also known as the blood curse. A justification of this charge is derived from the Gospel of Matthew (27:24–25), alleging a crowd of Jews told Pilate that they and their children would be responsible for Jesus' death. Most members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accept the Jewish deicide, and several other Christian denominations have repudiated it. ==Church Fathers== After Paul's death, Christianity emerged as a separate religion, and Pauline Christianity emerged as the dominant form of Christianity, especially after Paul, James and the other apostles agreed on a compromise set of requirements. Some Christians continued to adhere to aspects of Jewish law, but they were few and often considered heretics by the Church. One example is the Ebionites, who seemed to have denied the virgin birth of Jesus, the physical Resurrection of Jesus, and most of the books that were later canonized as the New Testament. For example, the Ethiopian Orthodox continue Old Testament practices such as the Sabbath. As late as the 4th century Church Father John Chrysostom complained that some Christians were still attending Jewish synagogues. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and declared the people of Israel to be ('outside of God'). ===Peter of Antioch=== Peter of Antioch referred to Christians that refused to venerate religious images as having "Jewish minds". ===Marcion of Sinope=== In the early second century AD, the heretic Marcion of Sinope () declared that the Jewish God was a different God, inferior to the Christian one, and rejected the Jewish scriptures as the product of a lesser deity. having studied Hebrew, met Rabbi Hillel the Younger, consulted and debated with Jewish scholars, and been influenced by the allegorical interpretations of Philo of Alexandria. ===Augustine of Hippo=== Patristic bishops of the patristic era such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the Jews should be left alive and suffering as a perpetual reminder of their murder of Christ. Like his anti-Jewish teacher, Ambrose of Milan, he defined Jews as a special subset of those damned to hell. As "Witness People", he sanctified collective punishment for the Jewish deicide and enslavement of Jews to Catholics: "Not by bodily death, shall the ungodly race of carnal Jews perish[...] 'Scatter them abroad, take away their strength. And bring them down O Lord. Augustine claimed to "love" the Jews but as a means to convert them to Christianity. Sometimes he identified all Jews with the evil of Judas Iscariot and developed the doctrine (together with Cyprian) that there was "no salvation outside the Church". ===John Chrysostom=== John Chrysostom and other church fathers went further in their condemnation; the Catholic editor Paul Harkins wrote that St. John Chrysostom's anti-Jewish theology "is no longer tenable[...] For these objectively unchristian acts, he cannot be excused, even if he is the product of his times." John Chrysostom held, as most Church Fathers did, that the sins of all Jews were communal and endless; to Chrysostom, his Jewish neighbors were the collective representation of all alleged crimes of all preexisting Jews. All Church Fathers applied the passages of the New Testament concerning the alleged advocation of the crucifixion of Christ to all Jews of their day, holding that the Jews were the ultimate evil. However, Chrysostom went so far as to say that because Jews rejected the Christian God in human flesh, Christ, they therefore deserved to be killed: "grew fit for slaughter." In citing the New Testament, he claimed that Jesus was speaking about Jews when he said, "as for these enemies of mine who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slay them before me." ==Middle Ages== Bernard of Clairvaux said "For us the Jews are Scripture's living words, because they remind us of what Our Lord suffered. They are not to be persecuted, killed, or even put to flight." According to Anna Sapir Abulafia, most scholars agree that Jews and Christians in Latin Christendom lived in relative peace with one another until the 13th century. In 7th century Spain, Visigoth Christian rulers and the Spanish Church's Councils of Toledo implemented policies of forced conversions and expulsions of Jews. In the 11th century European the First Crusade unleashed a wave of antisemitism, with attacks, massacres and forced conversions, which continued to occur throughout the Middle Ages. This was initiated with the Rhineland massacres of Jews in 1096, perpetrated by knights of the First Crusade. Massacres of Jews followed in England (1198–1190), Franconia (1298), and in France in 1320 as part of the Shepherds' Crusade. In Austria in 1420 all Jews were arrested and jailed, with 200 burned alive on the pyre. In 1492 the Catholic King and Queen of Spain, gave Jews the choice of either baptism or expulsion, as a result more than 160,000 Jews were expelled. The most common reasons given for these banishments were the need for religious purity, protection of Christian citizens from Jewish money lending, or pressure from other citizens who hoped to profit from the Jews' absence. Such accusations led to persecutions and killing of Jews. In the later medieval period, the number of Jews who were permitted to reside in certain places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos, and they were also not allowed to own land; they were forced to pay discriminatory taxes whenever they entered cities or districts other than their own. The Oath More Judaico, the form of oath required from Jewish witnesses, developed bizarre or humiliating forms in some places, e.g. in the Swabian law of the 13th century, the Jew would be required to stand on the hide of a sow or a bloody lamb. The Fourth Lateran Council which was held in 1215 was the first council to proclaim that Jews were required to wear something that distinguished them as Jews (the same requirement was also imposed on Muslims). On many occasions, Jews were accused of blood libels, the supposed drinking of the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian Eucharist. ====== (the "Constitution for the Jews") was the official position of the papacy regarding Jews throughout the Middle Ages and later. The first papal bull was issued in about 1120 by Calixtus II, intended to protect Jews who suffered during the First Crusade, and was reaffirmed by many popes, even until the 15th century although they were not always strictly upheld. The bull forbade, besides other things, Christians from coercing Jews to convert, or to harm them, or to take their property, or to disturb the celebration of their festivals, or to interfere with their cemeteries, on pain of excommunication: === Papal restrictions and persecution of Jews === While some popes offered protection to Jews, others implemented restrictive policies and actions that contributed to their marginalization and persecution. A key role was played by Pope Innocent III who justified his calls for lay and Church authorities to restrict Jewish "insolence" by claiming God made Jews slaves for rejecting and killing Christ. He proclaimed them to be the enemies of Christ, who must be kept in a position of social inferiority and prevented from exercising power over Christians. Devaluing testimony of Jews: The Third Lateran Council, convened by Pope Alexander III in 1179, declared the testimony of Christians should be always accepted over the testimony of Jews, that those who believe the testimony of Jews should be anathemized, and that Jews should be subject to Christians. It forbade Christians serving Jews and Muslims in their homes, calling for the excommunication of those who do. Prohibitions on holding public office. The Fourth Lateran Council, of 1215, convened by Pope Innocent III, declared: "Since it is absurd that a blasphemer of Christ exercise authority over Christians, we ... renew in this general council what the Synod of Toledo (589) wisely enacted in this matter, prohibiting Jews from being given preference in the matter of public offices, since in such capacity they are most troublesome to the Christians" These prohibitions remained in effect for centuries. Distinctive clothing and badges: The Fourth Lateran Council required Jews to wear distinctive clothing or badges to distinguish them from Christians. The reason given for this was to enforce prohibitions against sexual intercourse between Christians and Jews and Muslims. Such markings led to threats, extortion and violence against Jews. This requirement was only removed with the Jewish Emancipation following the Enlightenment, but the Nazis revived it. The Council also forbade Jews and Muslims from appearing in public during the last three days of Easter. Condemnations and burning of the Talmund: In 1239, Pope Gregory IX sent a letter to priest in France with accusations against the Talmund by a Franciscan. He ordered the confiscation of Jewish books while Jews were gathered in synagogue, and that all such books be "burned at the stake.” Similar instructions were conveyed to the kings of France, England, Spain, and Portugal. 24 wagons of Jewish books were burned in Paris. Additional condemnations of the Talmud were issued by Popes Innocent IV in his bull of 1244, Alexander IV, John XXII in 1320, and Alexander V in 1409. Pope Eugenius IV issued a bull prohibiting Jews from studying the Talmud following the Council of Basle, 1431–43. Spanish Inquisition: In 1478 Pope Sixtus IV issued a bull which authorized the Spanish Inquisition. This institutionalized the persecution of Jews who had converted to Christianity (conversos), due to mass violence against Jews by Catholics (e.g. the Massacre of 1391). The Inquisition employed torture and property confiscation, thousands were burned at the stake. In 1492 Jews were given the choice of either baptism or expulsion, as a result more than 160,000 Jews were expelled. Ghettos: In 1555, Pope Paul IV issued the papal bull Cum nimis absurdum, which forced Jews in the Papal States to live in ghettos. It declared "absurd" that Jews, condemned by God to slavery for their faults, had "invaded" the Papal States and were living freely among Christians. It justified restrictions by asserting that Jews were "slaves" for their deeds, while Christians were "freed" by Jesus, and that Jews should see "the true light" and convert to Catholicism. This policy was later adopted in other parts of Europe. The Roman Ghetto, established in 1555, was one of the best-known Jewish ghettos, existing until the Papal States were abolished in 1870, and Jews were no longer restricted Forced conversions and expulsions: Some popes supported or initiated forced conversions and expulsions of Jews. For example, Pope Pius V expelled Jews from the Papal States in 1569, with the exception of Rome and Ancona. In 1593 Pope Clement VIII expelled the Jews from the Papal States with the bull, Caeca et Obdurata Hebraeorum perfidia (meaning The blind and obdurate perfidy of the Hebrews) Pope Innocent III in 1201 authorized the forced baptism of Jews in southern France, declaring that those who had been forcibly baptized must remain Christian. Restrictions on Jewish economic activities: Various popes imposed restrictions on Jewish economic activities, limiting their professions and ability to own property. In 1555 Pope Paul IV, in his bull Cum nimis absurdum, prohibited Jews from engaging in most professions, restricting them primarily to moneylending and selling second-hand goods. This bull also forbade Jews from owning real estate and limited them to one synagogue per city. Previously the Fourth Lateran Council, sought "to protect the Christians against cruel oppression by the Jews", who extort Christians with "oppressive and immoderate" interest rates. Anti-Semitic imagery such as Judensau and Ecclesia et Synagoga recurred in Christian art and architecture. Anti-Jewish Easter holiday customs such as the Burning of Judas continue to the present time. In Iceland, one of the hymns repeated in the days leading up to Easter includes the lines: ===Persecutions and expulsions=== During the Middle Ages in Europe persecutions and formal expulsions of Jews were liable to occur at intervals, and this was also the case for other minority communities, regardless of whether they were religious or ethnic. There were particular outbursts of riotous persecution during the Rhineland massacres of 1096 in Germany, these massacres coincided with the lead-up to the First Crusade, many of the killings were committed by the crusaders as they traveled to the East. There were many local expulsions from cities by local rulers and city councils. In Germany, the Holy Roman Emperor generally tried to restrain the persecution, if only for economic reasons, but it was frequently unable to exert much influence. In the Edict of Expulsion, King Edward I expelled all of the Jews from England in 1290 (after he collected ransom from 3,000 of the wealthiest Jews), based on the accusation that they were practicing usury and undermining loyalty to the dynasty. In 1306, there was a wave of persecution in France, and there were also widespread Black Death Jewish persecutions because many Christians accused the Jews of either causing or spreading the plague. As late as 1519, the Imperial city of Regensburg took advantage of the recent death of Emperor Maximilian I to expel its 500 Jews. "Officially, the medieval Catholic church never advocated the expulsion of all of the Jews from Christendom nor did it repudiate Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness... Still, late medieval Christendom frequently ignored its mandates". ====Expulsion of Jews from Spain==== The largest expulsion of Jews followed the Reconquista or the reunification of Spain, and it preceded the expulsion of the Muslims who would not convert, despite the protection of their religious rights promised by the Treaty of Granada (1491). On 31 March 1492 Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the rulers of Spain who financed Christopher Columbus' voyage to the New World just a few months later in 1492, declared that all Jews in their territories should either convert to Christianity or leave the country. While some converted, many others left for Portugal, France, Italy (including the Papal States), Netherlands, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, and North Africa. Many of those who had fled to Portugal were later expelled by King Manuel in 1497 or left to avoid forced conversion and persecution. ==From the Renaissance to the 17th century== ===Cum Nimis Absurdum=== On 14 July 1555, Pope Paul IV issued papal bull Cum nimis absurdum which revoked all the rights of the Jewish community and placed religious and economic restrictions on Jews in the Papal States, renewed anti-Jewish legislation and subjected Jews to various degradations and restrictions on their freedom. The bull established the Roman Ghetto and required Jews of Rome, which had existed as a community since before Christian times and which numbered about 2,000 at the time, to live in it. The Ghetto was a walled quarter with three gates that were locked at night. Jews were also restricted to one synagogue per city. Paul IV's successor, Pope Pius IV, enforced the creation of other ghettos in most Italian towns, and his successor, Pope Pius V, recommended them to other bordering states. ===Protestant Reformation=== Martin Luther at first made overtures towards the Jews, believing that the "evils" of Catholicism had prevented their conversion to Christianity. When his call to convert to his version of Christianity was unsuccessful, he became hostile to them. In his book On the Jews and Their Lies, Luther excoriates them as "venomous beasts, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate." He provided detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion, writing "Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables. Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud. Let them be forced to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies." At one point he wrote: "...we are at fault in not slaying them..." a passage that "may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust." Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism. In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached: "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord," but also in the same sermon stated that Jews were "our public enemy" and if they refused conversion were "malicious," guilty of blasphemy and would work to kill gentile believers in Christ. ==18th century== In accordance with the anti-Jewish precepts of the Russian Orthodox Church, Russia's discriminatory policies towards Jews intensified when the partition of Poland in the 18th century resulted, for the first time in Russian history, in the possession of land with a large Jewish population. ==19th century== Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism (opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds) and racial anti-Semitism. Brown University historian David Kertzer, working from the Vatican archive, has argued in his book The Popes Against the Jews that in the 19th and early 20th centuries the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about the accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when they were accused of promoting hatred of Jews, they would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. Kertzer's work is not without critics. Jewish-Christian relations scholar Rabbi David G. Dalin, for example, criticized Kertzer in the Weekly Standard for using evidence selectively. ===Opposition to the French Revolution=== The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian anti-Semitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and anti-Semitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them. Gougenot des Mousseaux's (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern anti-Semitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg. Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) had the walls of the Jewish ghetto in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were emancipated by Napoleon, and Jews were restricted to the ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870. Official Catholic organizations, such as the Jesuits, banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. ==20th century== In Russia, under the Tsarist regime, anti-Semitism intensified in the early years of the 20th century and was given official favor when the secret police forged the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fabricated document purported to be a transcription of a plan by Jewish elders to achieve global domination. Violence against the Jews in the Kishinev pogrom in 1903 was continued after the 1905 revolution by the activities of the Black Hundreds. The Beilis Trial of 1913 showed that it was possible to revive the blood libel accusation in Russia. Catholic writers such as Ernest Jouin, who published the Protocols in French, seamlessly blended racial and religious anti-Semitism, as in his statement that "from the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." Pope Pius XI praised Jouin for "combating our mortal [Jewish] enemy" and appointed him to high papal office as a protonotary apostolic. The Nazis used Martin Luther's book, On the Jews and Their Lies (1543), to justify their claim that their ideology was morally righteous. Luther seems to advocate the murder of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity by writing that "we are at fault in not slaying them." Archbishop Robert Runcie asserted that: "Without centuries of Christian anti-Semitism, Hitler's passionate hatred would never have been so fervently echoed... because for centuries Christians have held Jews collectively responsible for the death of Jesus. On Good Friday in times past, Jews have cowered behind locked doors with fear of a Christian mob seeking 'revenge' for deicide. Without the poisoning of Christian minds through the centuries, the Holocaust is unthinkable." The dissident Catholic priest Hans Küng has written that "Nazi anti-Judaism was the work of godless, anti-Christian criminals. But it would not have been possible without the almost two thousand years' pre-history of 'Christian' anti-Judaism..." The consensus among historians is that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated or actively opposed to Christianity, although Germany remained mostly Christian during the Nazi era. The document Dabru Emet was issued by over 220 rabbis and intellectuals from all branches of Judaism in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document states, Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity. According to American historian Lucy Dawidowicz, anti-Semitism has a long history within Christianity. The line of "anti-Semitic descent" from Luther, the author of On the Jews and Their Lies, to Hitler is "easy to draw." In her The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945, she contends that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz writes that the similarities between Luther's anti-Jewish writings and modern anti-Semitism are no coincidence because they derived from a common history of Judenhass, which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus. Although modern German anti-Semitism also has its roots in German nationalism and the liberal revolution of 1848, Christian anti-Semitism she writes is a foundation that was laid by the Roman Catholic Church and "upon which Luther built." ====Collaborating Christians==== German Christians (movement) Gleichschaltung Hanns Kerrl, Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs Positive Christianity (the approved Nazi version of Christianity) Protestant Reich Church ====Opposition to the Holocaust==== The Confessing Church was, in 1934, the first Christian opposition group. The Catholic Church officially condemned the Nazi theory of racism in Germany in 1937 with the encyclical "Mit brennender Sorge", signed by Pope Pius XI, and Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber led the Catholic opposition, preaching against racism. Many individual Christian clergy and laypeople of all denominations had to pay for their opposition with their lives, including: the Catholic priest Maximilian Kolbe. the Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer the Catholic parson of the Berlin Cathedral, Bernhard Lichtenberg. the mostly Catholic members of the Munich-based resistance group the White Rose which was led by Hans and Sophie Scholl. By the 1940s, few Christians were willing to publicly oppose Nazi policy, but many Christians secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, Yad Vashem, which are dedicated to honoring these "Righteous Among the Nations". ====Pope Pius XII==== Before he became Pope, Cardinal Pacelli addressed the International Eucharistic Congress in Budapest on 25–30 May 1938 during which he referred to the Jews "whose lips curse [Christ] and whose hearts reject him even today"; at this time anti-Semitic laws were in the process of being formulated in Hungary. The 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge was issued by Pope Pius XI, but it was drafted by the future Pope Pius XII and it was also read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it condemned Nazi ideology and scholars have characterized it as the "first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism" and "one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican." In the summer of 1942, in the presence of his college of Cardinals, Pius explained the reasons for the great gulf that existed between Jews and Christians at the theological level: "Jerusalem has responded to His call and to His grace with the same rigid blindness and stubborn ingratitude that has led it along the path of guilt to the murder of God." Historian Guido Knopp describes these comments of Pius as being "incomprehensible" at a time when "Jerusalem was being murdered by the million". This traditional adversarial relationship with Judaism would be reversed in Nostra aetate, which was issued during the Second Vatican Council starting from 1962, during the papacy of John XXIII. Prominent members of the Jewish community have contradicted the criticisms of Pius and they have also spoken highly about his efforts to protect Jews. The Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide interviewed war survivors and concluded that Pius XII "was instrumental in saving at least 700,000, but probably as many as 860,000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands". Some historians dispute this estimate. ==="White Power" movement=== The Christian Identity movement, the Ku Klux Klan, and other White supremacist groups have expressed anti-Semitic views. They claim that their anti-Semitism is based on purported Jewish control of the media, control of international banks, involvement in radical left-wing politics, and the Jews' promotion of multiculturalism, anti-Christian groups, liberalism and perverse organizations. They rebuke charges of racism by claiming that Jews who share their views maintain membership in their organizations. A racial belief that is common among these groups, but not universal among them, is an alternative history doctrine concerning the descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel. In some of its forms, this doctrine absolutely denies the view that modern Jews have any ethnic connection to the Israel of the Bible. Instead, according to extreme forms of this doctrine, the true Israelites and the true humans are the members of the Adamic (white) race. These groups are often rejected and they are not even considered Christian groups by mainstream Christian denominations and the vast majority of Christians around the world. ===Post World War II anti-Semitism=== Anti-Semitism remains a substantial problem in Europe and to a greater or lesser degree, it also exists in many other nations, including Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, and tensions between some Muslim immigrants and Jews have increased across Europe. The US State Department reports that anti-Semitism has increased dramatically in Europe and Eurasia since 2000. While it has been on the decline since the 1940s, a measurable amount of anti-Semitism still exists in the United States, although acts of violence are rare. For example, the influential Evangelical preacher Billy Graham and the then-president Richard Nixon were caught on tape in the early 1970s while they were discussing matters like how to address the Jews' control of the American media. This belief in Jewish conspiracies and domination of the media was similar to those of Graham's former mentors: William Bell Riley chose Graham to succeed him as the second president of Northwestern Bible and Missionary Training School and evangelist Mordecai Ham led the meetings where Graham first believed in Christ. Both held strongly anti-Semitic views. The 2001 survey by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), a Jewish group which devotes its efforts to the fight against anti-Semitism and other forms of racism, reported 1432 acts of anti-Semitism in the United States that year. The figure included 877 acts of harassment, including verbal intimidation, threats, and physical assaults. Many Christian Zionists are also accused of espousing anti-Semitism, such as John Hagee, who argued that the Jews brought the Holocaust upon themselves by angering God. Relations between Jews and Christians have dramatically improved since the 20th century. According to a global poll which was conducted in 2014 by the ADL, data was collected from 102 countries concerning their population's attitudes towards Jews and it revealed that only 24% of the world's Christians held views that were considered anti-Semitic according to the ADL's index, compared to 49% of the world's Muslims. ==Anti-Judaism== Many Christians do not consider anti-Judaism anti-Semitism. They regard anti-Judaism as a disagreement with the tenets of Judaism by religiously sincere people, while they regard anti-Semitism as an emotional bias or hatred which does not specifically target the religion of Judaism. Under this approach, anti-Judaism is not regarded as anti-Semitism because it does not involve actual hostility towards the Jewish people, instead, anti-Judaism only rejects the religious beliefs of Judaism. Others believe that anti-Judaism is the rejection of Judaism as a religion or opposition to Judaism's beliefs and practices essentially because of their source in Judaism or because a belief or practice is associated with the Jewish people. (But see supersessionism) Several scholars, including Susannah Heschel, and Uriel Tal The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), the largest Protestant Christian denomination in the U.S., has explicitly rejected suggestions that it should back away from seeking to convert Jews, a position which critics have called anti-Semitic, but a position which Baptists believe is consistent with their view that salvation is solely found through faith in Christ. In 1996 the SBC approved a resolution calling for efforts to seek the conversion of Jews "as well as the salvation of 'every kindred and tongue and people and nation.'" Most Evangelicals agree with the SBC's position, and some of them also support efforts that specifically seek the Jews' conversion. Additionally, these Evangelical groups are among the most pro-Israel groups. (For more information, see Christian Zionism.) One controversial group which has received a considerable amount of support from some Evangelical churches is Jews for Jesus, which claims that Jews can "complete" their Jewish faith by accepting Jesus as the Messiah. The Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Canada have ended their efforts to convert Jews. While Anglicans do not, as a rule, seek converts from other Christian denominations, the General Synod has affirmed that "the good news of salvation in Jesus Christ is for all and must be shared with all including people from other faiths or of no faith and that to do anything else would be to institutionalize discrimination". The Roman Catholic Church formerly operated religious congregations that specifically aimed to convert Jews. Some of these congregations were founded by Jewish converts, like the Congregation of Our Lady of Sion, whose members were nuns and ordained priests. Many Catholic saints were specifically noted for their missionary zeal to convert Jews, such as Vincent Ferrer. After the Second Vatican Council, many missionary orders that aimed to convert Jews to Christianity no longer actively sought to missionize (or proselytize) them. However, Traditionalist Roman Catholic groups, congregations, and clergymen continue to advocate the missionizing of Jews according to traditional patterns, sometimes with success (e.g., the Society of St. Pius X which has notable Jewish converts among its faithful, many of whom have become traditionalist priests). The Church's Ministry Among Jewish People (CMJ) is one of the ten official mission agencies of the Church of England. The Society for Distributing Hebrew Scriptures is another organization, but it is not affiliated with the established Church. There are several prophecies concerning the conversion of the Jewish people to Christianity in the scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS). The Book of Mormon teaches that the Jewish people need to believe in Jesus to be gathered to Israel. The Doctrine & Covenants teaches that the Jewish people will be converted to Christianity during the second coming when Jesus appears to them and shows them his wounds. It teaches that if the Jewish people do not convert to Christianity, then the world would be cursed. Early LDS prophets, such as Brigham Young and Wildord Woodruff, However, after the establishment of the state of Israel, many LDS members felt that it was time for the Jewish people to start converting to Mormonism. During the 1950s, the LDS Church established several missions that specifically targeted Jewish people in several cities in the United States. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has also been criticized for baptizing deceased Jewish Holocaust victims. In 1995, in part as a result of public pressure, church leaders promised to put new policies into place that would help the church to end the practice, unless it was specifically requested or approved by the surviving spouses, children or parents of the victims. However, the practice has continued, including the baptism of the parents of Holocaust survivor and Jewish rights advocate Simon Wiesenthal. ==Reconciliation between Judaism and Christian groups== In recent years, there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jews.	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Malina", "La Civiltà Cattolica", "host desecration", "Alfred Rosenberg", "early years of Christianity", "left-wing politics", "hell", "Jesus", "Pope Alexander III", "Cum nimis absurdum", "Vincent Ferrer", "Religious views of Adolf Hitler", "Resurrection of Jesus", "St. Jerome", "proselyte", "Hebrew language", "rabbi", "History of the Jews in England", "Manuel I of Portugal", "Shabbat", "Pillar of Fire Church", "Traditionalist Catholic", "Jules Isaac", "Rintfleisch massacres", "Blood libel", "Hyam Maccoby", "Isabella I of Castile", "Pharisees", "Ecclesia et Synagoga", "Julius Caesar", "Hanns Kerrl", "Church Father", "Luther and antisemitism", "Antipope Alexander V", "Protestant Reich Church", "Messianic Age", "structural inequality", "Napoléon Bonaparte", "synagogue", "Church of England", "The Context Group", "Shoah", "Portuguese Inquisition", "Paolo Orano", "John XXIII", "Caeca et Obdurata", "The War Against the Jews", "Christianity and Judaism", "Sermon on the Mount", "Billy Graham", "Edict of Expulsion", "Nostra aetate", "Doctrine & Covenants", "blood curse", "Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux", "Pope John XXII", "Alphonse Toussenel", "nationalism", "Religious antisemitism", "International Eucharistic Congress", "Pope Gregory IX", "Pope Pius XI", "Nero", "Mormonism", "Anti-antisemitism", "French Revolution", "Spain", "pogrom", "Anglicans", "Roman imperial cult", "Martin Luther", "Ahasuerus", "Shepherds' Crusade (1320)", "World War I", "Pauline Christianity", "Bible", "Martin Rhonheimer", "Proselytization and counter-proselytization of Jews", "Christopher Wood (art historian)", "Black Death Jewish persecutions", "Collective responsibility", "Hillel, son of Gamaliel III", "Rhineland massacres", "Christendom", "apocatastasis", "Simon Wiesenthal", "Lives of the Twelve Caesars", "Harvey Falk", "Geography of antisemitism", "Pope Pius IV", "historian", "Pope Pius VII", "Positive Christianity", "proselytism", "deicide", "Mit brennender Sorge", "Catherine the Great", "antisemitism", "Christianity", "God in Christianity", "rejection of Jesus", "Ebionites", "Abrahamic religions", "Rabbinical Judaism", "Jews for Jesus", "Pope Innocent IV", "Pope Sixtus IV", "Dabru Emet", "multiculturalism", "Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany", "hatred against Jews as a race", "Black Hundreds", "Christian Church", "Ferdinand II of Aragon", "Anathema", "Louis de Bonald", "Lucy Dawidowicz", "liberalism", "Sephardic Jews", "Blood libels", "Hippolytus of Rome", "The Popes Against the Jews", "North Africa", "Criticism of Christianity", "anti-Semitism", "Reconquista", "Hillel and Shammai", "Middle Ages", "Sophie Scholl", "supersessionism", "Society of St. Pius X", "Antisemitism by country", "Pope John Paul II", "Origen", "France", "Bernhard Lichtenberg", "Richard Nixon", "Augustine of Hippo", "Nazism", "Heroes of the Fiery Cross", "Oath More Judaico", "Pope Paul III", "Racial antisemitism", "Pope Pius XII", "Holy Roman Emperor", "Napoleon and the Jews", "Europe", "devil", "John Dominic Crossan", "David Kertzer", "Charles Maurras", "United Methodist Church", "ostracism", "Dietrich Bonhoeffer", "Israelites", "Netherlands", "nun", "oppression", "Christian heresy", "Nazi Germany", "White people", "BBC", "Fourth Lateran Council", "Peter of Antioch", "Ernest Jouin", "Witness People", "Scientific racism", "Pope Eugene IV", "William Bell Riley", "White supremacy", "Fiscus Judaicus", "Manichaeism", "Christopher Columbus", "Pope Pius V", "Anti-Defamation League", "Historical revisionism (political)", "Messianic Judaism", "Roman Empire", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "ghetto", "Jesuits", "Kishinev pogrom", "Constantine I (emperor)", "Burning of Judas", "shtetls", "Louis Veuillot", "Christian mission", "Russian Orthodox Church", "Robin Lane Fox", "Presbyterian Church USA", "Great Fire of Rome", "Weekly Standard", "Righteous Among the Nations", "encyclical", "Eastern Europe", "First Crusade", "counter-revolutionary", "Zarephath, New Jersey", "Calixtus II", "University Press of America", "Christian denomination", "partition of Poland", "Ku Klux Klan", "Church (building)", "Christian", "History of ancient Israel and Judah", "expropriation", "Deggendorf", "Congregation of Our Lady of Sion", "Age of Enlightenment", "Humiliation", "Jewish Emancipation", "Cyprian", "Hans Küng", "Messiah in Judaism", "Judas Iscariot", "Hans Scholl", "the Holocaust", "deity", "Tertullian", "Post-Soviet states", "Western Christianity", "Armand Mauss", "Bernard of Clairvaux", "Titus Flavius Clemens (consul)", "Treaty of Granada (1491)", "Christian theology", "Christian Identity", "New World Order (conspiracy theory)", "Catholicism", "Split of early Christianity and Judaism", "Zealot", "Roman Ghetto", "Crypto-Judaism", "Catholic Church", "United Church of Canada", "Massacre of 1391", "Far-left politics", "United States Department of State", "Tacitus", "Papal States", "Menahem Mendel Beilis", "Talmud", "Second Temple period", "Jewish messianism", "Third Council of the Lateran", "Gospel of Matthew", "Budapest", "Ten Lost Tribes", "Southern Baptist Convention", "Saint Paul", "History of antisemitism in the United States", "Vienna Gesera", "Mordecai Ham", "anti-Judaism", "History of the Jews in Poland", "Good Friday prayer for the Jews", "Eucharist", "Criticism of Judaism", "Ephraim the Syrian", "state church of the Roman Empire", "Christian Zionism", "Jesus of Nazareth", "Persecution of Jews", "History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance", "Portugal", "New Testament", "John Gager", "Alexander IV", "Christian–Jewish reconciliation", "Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)", "God the Son", "Ethiopian Orthodox", "Jewish conspiracy", "Jews in the Roman Empire", "Franciscans", "Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire", "St. John Chrysostom", "Expulsions and exoduses of Jews", "Edward I of England", "blood libel", "Church's Ministry Among Jewish People", "Old Testament", "Jews", "Christian privilege", "racism", "Confessing Church", "Pope Paul IV", "American Jews", "Synan, Edward A.", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "Italy", "Maximilian Kolbe", "Rabbi David G. Dalin", "Jewish ethnic divisions", "Catholic Monarchs of Spain", "biblical canon", "World War II", "Antisemitism in the United States", "Converso", "Essene", "Michael Berenbaum", "Christian groups", "Édouard Drumont", "Paul Johnson (writer)", "Antisemitism in Europe", "Jewish Messiah claimants", "John Chrysostom", "Baptism for the dead", "Antonio Bresciani (writer)", "Judensau", "papal bull", "Judaism", "Rabbi Akiva", "Protocols of the Elders of Zion", "Alma White", "White Rose", "Jewish–Roman wars", "Media of the United States", "Anna Sapir Abulafia", "Sadducee", "priest", "Marcion of Sinope", "Richard and Clara Winston", "Islam in Europe" ]
6,731	Boeing C-17 Globemaster III	The McDonnell Douglas/Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is a large military transport aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF) between the 1980s to the early 1990s by McDonnell Douglas. The C-17 carries forward the name of two previous piston-engined military cargo aircraft, the Douglas C-74 Globemaster and the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II. The C-17 is based upon the YC-15, a smaller prototype airlifter designed during the 1970s. It was designed to replace the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, and also fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. The redesigned airlifter differs from the YC-15 in that it is larger and has swept wings and more powerful engines. Development was protracted by a series of design issues, causing the company to incur a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the program's development phase. On 15 September 1991, roughly one year behind schedule, the first C-17 performed its maiden flight. The C-17 formally entered USAF service on 17 January 1995. Boeing, which merged with McDonnell Douglas in 1997, continued to manufacture the C-17 for almost two decades. The final C-17 was completed at the Long Beach, California, plant and flown on 29 November 2015. The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic airlift missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout the world; additional roles include medical evacuation and airdrop duties. The transport is in service with the USAF along with the air forces of India, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and the Europe-based multilateral organization Heavy Airlift Wing. The type played a key logistical role during both Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq, as well as in providing humanitarian aid in the aftermath of various natural disasters, including the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Sindh floods and the 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake. ==Development== ===Background and design phase=== In the 1970s, the U.S. Air Force began looking for a replacement for its Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical cargo aircraft. The Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15. Though both entrants exceeded specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner was selected. The USAF started the C-X program in November 1979 to develop a larger AMST with longer range to augment its strategic airlift. By 1980, the USAF had a large fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, increased strategic airlift capabilities were needed to fulfill its rapid-deployment airlift requirements. The USAF set mission requirements and released a request for proposals (RFP) for C-X in October 1980. McDonnell Douglas chose to develop a new aircraft based on the YC-15. Boeing bid an enlarged three-engine version of its AMST YC-14. Lockheed submitted both a C-5-based design and an enlarged C-141 design. On 28 August 1981, McDonnell Douglas was chosen to build its proposal, then designated C-17. Compared to the YC-15, the new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines. This would allow it to perform the work done by the C-141, and to fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for outsize cargo. At this time, first flight was planned for 1990. The USAF had formed a requirement for 210 aircraft. Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s. Criticisms were made of the developing aircraft and questions were raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time. In April 1990, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced the order from 210 to 120 aircraft. The maiden flight of the C-17 took place on 15 September 1991 from the McDonnell Douglas's plant in Long Beach, California, about a year behind schedule. Two complete airframes were built for static and repeated load testing. ===Development difficulties=== A static test of the C-17 wing in October 1992 resulted in its failure at 128% of design limit load, below the 150% requirement. Both wings buckled rear to the front and failures occurred in stringers, spars, and ribs. Some $100 million was spent to redesign the wing structure; the wing failed at 145% during a second test in September 1993. A review of the test data, however, showed that the wing was not loaded correctly and did indeed meet the requirement. The C-17 received the "Globemaster III" name in early 1993. By accepting the 1993 terms, McDonnell Douglas incurred a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the program's development phase. The NDAA program was initiated after the C-17 program was temporarily capped at a 40-aircraft buy (in December 1993) pending further evaluation of C-17 cost and performance and an assessment of commercial airlift alternatives. Problems were found with the mission software, landing gear, and other areas. In May 1994, it was proposed to cut production to as few as 32 aircraft; these cuts were later rescinded. A July 1994 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report revealed that USAF and DoD studies from 1986 and 1991 stated the C-17 could use 6,400 more runways outside the U.S. than the C-5, but these studies had only considered runway dimensions, but not runway strength or load classification numbers (LCN). The C-5 has a lower LCN, but the USAF classifies both in the same broad load classification group. When considering runway dimensions and load ratings, the C-17's worldwide runway advantage over the C-5 shrank from 6,400 to 911 airfields. The report also stated "current military doctrine that does not reflect the use of small, austere airfields", thus the C-17's short field capability was not considered. A January 1995 GAO report stated that the USAF originally planned to order 210 C-17s at a cost of $41.8 billion, and that the 120 aircraft on order were to cost $39.5 billion based on a 1992 estimate. In March 1994, the U.S. Army decided it did not need the low-altitude parachute-extraction system delivery with the C-17 and that the C-130's capability was sufficient. The YC-15 was transferred to AMARC to be made flightworthy again for further flight tests for the C-17 program in March 1997. By September 1995, most of the prior issues were reportedly resolved and the C-17 was meeting all performance and reliability targets. The first USAF squadron was declared operational in January 1995. ===Production and deliveries=== In 1996, the DoD ordered another 80 aircraft for a total of 120. In 1997, McDonnell Douglas merged with domestic competitor Boeing. In April 1999, Boeing offered to cut the C-17's unit price if the USAF bought 60 more; in August 2002, the order was increased to 180 aircraft. In 2007, 190 C-17s were on order for the USAF. On 6 February 2009, Boeing was awarded a $2.95 billion contract for 15 additional C-17s, increasing the total USAF fleet to 205 and extending production from August 2009 to August 2010. On 6 April 2009, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that there would be no more C-17s ordered beyond the 205 planned. However, on 12 June 2009, the House Armed Services Air and Land Forces Subcommittee added a further 17 C-17s. Debate arose over follow-on C-17 orders, the USAF requested line shutdown while Congress called for further production. In FY2007, the USAF requested $1.6 billion (~$ in ) in response to "excessive combat use" on the C-17 fleet. In 2008, USAF General Arthur Lichte, Commander of Air Mobility Command, indicated before a House of Representatives subcommittee on air and land forces a need to extend production to another 15 aircraft to increase the total to 205, and that C-17 production may continue to satisfy airlift requirements. The USAF finally decided to cap its C-17 fleet at 223 aircraft; the final delivery was on 12 September 2013. In 2010, Boeing reduced the production rate to 10 aircraft per year from a high of 16 per year, due to dwindling orders and to extend the production line's life while additional orders were sought. The workforce was reduced by about 1,100 through 2012, a second shift at the Long Beach plant was also eliminated. By April 2011, 230 production C-17s had been delivered, including 210 to the USAF. The C-17 prototype "T-1" was retired in 2012 after use as a testbed by the USAF. In January 2010, the USAF announced the end of Boeing's performance-based logistics contracts to maintain the type. On 19 June 2012, the USAF ordered its 224th and final C-17 to replace one that crashed in Alaska in July 2010. In September 2013, Boeing announced that C-17 production was starting to close down. In October 2014, the main wing spar of the 279th and last aircraft was completed; this C-17 was delivered in 2015, after which Boeing closed the Long Beach plant. Production of spare components was to continue until at least 2017. The C-17 is projected to be in service for several decades. In February 2014, Boeing was engaged in sales talks with "five or six" countries for the remaining 15 C-17s; thus Boeing decided to build ten aircraft without confirmed buyers in anticipation of future purchases. ==Design== The C-17 Globemaster III is a strategic transport aircraft, able to airlift cargo close to a battle area. The size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown in recent decades from increased air mobility requirements, particularly for large or heavy non-palletized outsize cargo. It has a length of and a wingspan of , The aircraft features an anhedral wing configuration, providing pitch and roll stability to the aircraft. The aircraft's stability is furthered by its T-tail design, raising the center of pressure even higher above the center of mass. Drag is also lowered, as the horizontal stabilizer is far removed from the vortices generated by the two wings of the aircraft. The C-17 is powered by four Pratt & Whitney F117-PW-100 turbofan engines, which are based on the commercial Pratt & Whitney PW2040 used on the Boeing 757. Each engine is rated at of thrust. The engine's thrust reversers direct engine exhaust air upwards and forward, reducing the chances of foreign object damage by ingestion of runway debris, and providing enough reverse thrust to back up the aircraft while taxiing. The thrust reversers can also be used in flight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-rate descents. In vortex surfing tests performed by two C-17s, up to 10% fuel savings were reported. For cargo operations the C-17 requires a crew of three: pilot, copilot, and loadmaster. The cargo compartment is long by wide by high. The cargo floor has rollers for palletized cargo but it can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for vehicles and other rolling stock. Cargo is loaded through a large aft ramp that accommodates rolling stock, such as a 69-ton (63-metric ton) M1 Abrams main battle tank, other armored vehicles, trucks, and trailers, along with palletized cargo. Maximum payload of the C-17 is , and its maximum takeoff weight is . With a payload of and an initial cruise altitude of , the C-17 has an unrefueled range of about on the first 71 aircraft, and on all subsequent extended-range models that include a sealed center wing bay as a fuel tank. Boeing informally calls these aircraft the C-17 ER. The C-17's cruise speed is about (Mach 0.74). It is designed to airdrop 102 paratroopers and their equipment. The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as and as narrow as . The C-17 can also operate from unpaved, unimproved runways (although with a higher probability to damage the aircraft). It has broken 22 records for oversized payloads. The C-17 was awarded U.S. aviation's most prestigious award, the Collier Trophy, in 1994. A Congressional report on operations in Kosovo and Operation Allied Force noted "One of the great success stories...was the performance of the Air Force's C-17A" It flew half of the strategic airlift missions in the operation, the type could use small airfields, easing operations; rapid turnaround times also led to efficient utilization. In 2006, eight C-17s were delivered to March Joint Air Reserve Base, California; controlled by the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), assigned to the 452nd Air Mobility Wing and subsequently assigned to AMC's 436th Airlift Wing and its AFRC "associate" unit, the 512th Airlift Wing, at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, supplementing the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. The Mississippi Air National Guard's 172 Airlift Group received their first of eight C-17s in 2006. In 2011, the New York Air National Guard's 105th Airlift Wing at Stewart Air National Guard Base transitioned from the C-5 to the C-17. C-17s delivered military supplies during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq as well as humanitarian aid in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, and the 2011 Sindh floods, delivering thousands of food rations, tons of medical and emergency supplies. On 26 March 2003, 15 USAF C-17s participated in the biggest combat airdrop since the United States invasion of Panama in December 1989: the night-time airdrop of 1,000 paratroopers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade occurred over Bashur, Iraq. These airdrops were followed by C-17s ferrying M1 Abrams, M2 Bradleys, M113s and artillery. USAF C-17s have also assisted allies in their airlift needs, such as Canadian vehicles to Afghanistan in 2003 and Australian forces for the Australian-led military deployment to East Timor in 2006. In 2006, USAF C-17s flew 15 Canadian Leopard C2 tanks from Kyrgyzstan into Kandahar in support of NATO's Afghanistan mission. In 2013, five USAF C-17s supported French operations in Mali, operating with other nations' C-17s (RAF, NATO and RCAF deployed a single C-17 each). Flight crews have nicknamed the aircraft "the Moose", because during ground refueling, the pressure relief vents make a sound like the call of a female moose in heat. Since 1999, C-17s have flown annually to Antarctica on Operation Deep Freeze in support of the US Antarctic Research Program, replacing the C-141s used in prior years. The initial flight was flown by the USAF 62nd Airlift Wing. The C-17s fly round trip between Christchurch Airport and McMurdo Station around October each year and take 5 hours to fly each way. In 2006, the C-17 flew its first Antarctic airdrop mission, delivering 70,000 pounds of supplies. Further air drops occurred during subsequent years. A C-17 accompanies the President of the United States on his visits to both domestic and foreign arrangements, consultations, and meetings. It is used to transport the Presidential Limousine, Marine One, and security detachments. On several occasions, a C-17 has been used to transport the President himself, using the Air Force One call sign while doing so. ====Rapid Dragon missile launcher testing==== In 2015, as part of a missile-defense test at Wake Island, simulated medium-range ballistic missiles were launched from C-17s against THAAD missile defense systems and the USS John Paul Jones (DDG-53). In early 2020, palletized munitions–"Combat Expendable Platforms"– were tested from C-17s and C-130Js with results the USAF considered positive. In 2021, the Air Force Research Laboratory further developed the concept into tests of the Rapid Dragon system, which transforms the C-17 into a lethal cruise missile arsenal ship capable of mass launching 45 JASSM-ER with 500 kg warheads from a standoff distance of . Anticipated improvements included support for JDAM-ER, mine laying, drone dispersal as well as improved standoff range when full production of the JASSM-XR was expected to deliver large inventories in 2024. ====Evacuation of Afghanistan==== On 15 August 2021, USAF C-17 02-1109 from the 62nd Airlift Wing and 446th Airlift Wing at Joint Base Lewis-McChord departed Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul, Afghanistan, while crowds of people trying to escape the 2021 Taliban offensive ran alongside the aircraft. The C-17 lifted off with people holding on to the outside, and at least two died after falling from the aircraft. There were an unknown number possibly crushed and killed by the landing gear retracting, with human remains found in the landing-gear stowage. Also that day, C-17 01-0186 from the 816th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron at Al Udeid Air Base transported 823 Afghan citizens from Hamid Karzai International Airport on a single flight, setting a new record for the type, which was previously over 670 people during a 2013 typhoon evacuation from Tacloban, Philippines. ===Royal Air Force=== Boeing marketed the C-17 to many European nations including Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. The Royal Air Force (RAF) has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the USAF. The 1998 Strategic Defence Review identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift competition commenced in September of that year, but the tender was canceled in August 1999 with some bids identified by ministers as too expensive, including the Boeing/BAe C-17 bid, and others unsuitable. The project continued, with the C-17 seen as the favorite. The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on 17 May 2001 and flown to RAF Brize Norton by a crew from No. 99 Squadron. The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on 24 August 2001. The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new center wing fuel tank found in Block 13 aircraft. In RAF service, the C-17 has not been given an official service name and designation (for example, C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5), but is referred to simply as the C-17 or "C-17A Globemaster". Although it was to be a fallback for the A400M, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on 21 July 2004 that they had elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, though the A400M appeared to be closer to production. The C-17 gives the RAF strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of compared to the A400M's . Another C-17 was ordered in August 2006, and delivered on 22 February 2008. The four leased C-17s were to be purchased later in 2008. Due to fears that the A400M may suffer further delays, the MoD announced in 2006 that it planned to acquire three more C-17s, for a total of eight, with delivery in 2009–2010. On 3 December 2007, the MoD announced a contract for a sixth C-17, which was received on 11 June 2008. On 18 December 2009, Boeing confirmed that the RAF had ordered a seventh C-17, which was delivered on 16 November 2010. The UK announced the purchase of its eighth C-17 in February 2012. The RAF showed interest in buying a ninth C-17 in November 2013. On 13 January 2013, the RAF deployed two C-17s from RAF Brize Norton to the French Évreux Air Base, transporting French armored vehicles to the Malian capital of Bamako during the French intervention in Mali. In June 2015, an RAF C-17 was used to medically evacuate four victims of the 2015 Sousse attacks from Tunisia. On 13 September 2022, C-17 ZZ177 carried the body of Queen Elizabeth II from Edinburgh Airport to RAF Northolt in London. She had been lying in state at St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland. ===Royal Australian Air Force=== The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) began investigating an acquisition of strategic transport aircraft in 2005. In late 2005, the then Minister for Defence Robert Hill stated that such aircraft were being considered due to the limited availability of strategic airlift aircraft from partner nations and air freight companies. The C-17 was considered to be favored over the A400M as it was a "proven aircraft" and in production. One major RAAF requirement was the ability to airlift the Army's M1 Abrams tanks; another requirement was immediate delivery. Though unstated, commonality with the USAF and the RAF was also considered advantageous. RAAF aircraft were ordered directly from the USAF production run and are identical to American C-17s even in paint scheme, the only difference being the national markings, allowing deliveries to commence within nine months of commitment to the program. On 2 March 2006, the Australian government announced the purchase of three aircraft and one option with an entry into service date of 2006. Australia also signed a US$80.7M contract to join the global 'virtual fleet' C-17 sustainment program; RAAF C-17s receive the same upgrades as the USAF's fleet. The RAAF took delivery of its first C-17 in a ceremony at Boeing's plant at Long Beach, California on 28 November 2006. Several days later the aircraft flew from Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii to Defence Establishment Fairbairn, Canberra, arriving on 4 December 2006. The aircraft was formally accepted in a ceremony at Fairbairn shortly after arrival. The second aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 11 May 2007 and the third was delivered on 18 December 2007. The fourth Australian C-17 was delivered on 19 January 2008. All the Australian C-17s are operated by No. 36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland. On 18 April 2011, Boeing announced that Australia had signed an agreement with the U.S. government to acquire a fifth C-17 due to an increased demand for humanitarian and disaster relief missions. The aircraft was delivered to the RAAF on 14 September 2011. On 23 September 2011, Australian Minister for Defence Materiel Jason Clare announced that the government was seeking information from the U.S. about the price and delivery schedule for a sixth Globemaster. In November 2011, Australia requested a sixth C-17 through the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program; it was ordered in June 2012, and was delivered on 1 November 2012. In August 2014, Defence Minister David Johnston announced the intention to purchase one or two additional C-17s. On 3 October 2014, Johnston announced the government's approval to buy two C-17s at a total cost of (). The United States Congress approved the sale under the Foreign Military Sales program. Prime Minister Tony Abbott confirmed in April 2015 that two additional aircraft were to be ordered, with both delivered by 4 November 2015; these added to the six C-17s it had . A combination of leased Ruslans, Ilyushins and USAF C-17s was also used to move heavy equipment to Afghanistan. In 2002, the Canadian Forces Future Strategic Airlifter Project began to study alternatives, including long-term leasing arrangements. On 5 July 2006, the Canadian government issued a notice of intent to negotiate with Boeing to procure four airlifters for the Canadian Forces Air Command (Royal Canadian Air Force after August 2011). On 1 February 2007, Canada awarded a contract for four C-17s with delivery beginning in August 2007. Like Australia, Canada was granted airframes originally slated for the USAF to accelerate delivery. The official Canadian designation is CC-177 Globemaster III. On 23 July 2007, the first Canadian C-17 made its initial flight. It was turned over to Canada on 8 August, and participated at the Abbotsford International Airshow on 11 August prior to arriving at its new home base at 8 Wing, CFB Trenton, Ontario on 12 August. Its first operational mission was to deliver disaster relief to Jamaica following Hurricane Dean that month. The last of the initial four aircraft was delivered in April 2008. On 19 December 2014, it was reported that Canada intended to purchase one more C-17. On 30 March 2015, Canada's fifth C-17 arrived at CFB Trenton. The aircraft are assigned to 429 Transport Squadron based at CFB Trenton. On 14 April 2010, a Canadian C-17 landed for the first time at CFS Alert, the world's most northerly airport. Canadian Globemasters have been deployed in support of numerous missions worldwide, including Operation Hestia after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, providing airlift as part of Operation Mobile and support to the Canadian mission in Afghanistan. After Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013, Canadian C-17s established an air bridge between the two nations, deploying Canada's DART and delivering humanitarian supplies and equipment. In 2014, they supported Operation Reassurance and Operation Impact. ===Strategic Airlift Capability program=== At the 2006 Farnborough Airshow, a number of NATO member nations signed a letter of intent to jointly purchase and operate several C-17s within the Strategic Airlift Capability (SAC). The purchase was for two C-17s, and a third was contributed by the U.S. On 14 July 2009, Boeing delivered the first C-17 for the SAC program with the second and third C-17s delivered in September and October 2009. SAC members are Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Sweden and the U.S. as of 2024. The SAC C-17s are based at Pápa Air Base, Hungary. The Heavy Airlift Wing is hosted by Hungary, which acts as the flag nation. The aircraft are crewed in similar fashion as the NATO E-3 AWACS aircraft. The C-17 flight crew are multi-national, but each mission is assigned to an individual member nation based on the SAC's annual flight hour share agreement. The NATO Airlift Management Programme Office (NAMPO) provides management and support for the Heavy Airlift Wing. NAMPO is a part of the NATO Support Agency (NSPA). In September 2014, Boeing stated that the three C-17s supporting SAC missions had achieved a readiness rate of nearly 94 percent over the last five years and supported over 1,000 missions. ===Indian Air Force=== In June 2009, the Indian Air Force (IAF) selected the C-17 for its Very Heavy Lift Transport Aircraft requirement to replace several types of transport aircraft. the sale was approved by Congress in June 2010. On 23 June 2010, the IAF successfully test-landed a USAF C-17 at the Gaggal Airport, India to complete the IAF's C-17 trials. In February 2011, the IAF and Boeing agreed terms for the order of 10 C-17s with an option for six more; the US$4.1 billion order was approved by the Indian Cabinet Committee on 6 June 2011. Deliveries began in June 2013 and were to continue to 2014. In 2012, the IAF reportedly finalized plans to buy six more C-17s in its five-year plan for 2017–2022. It provides strategic airlift, the ability to deploy special forces, and to operate in diverse terrain – from Himalayan air bases in North India at to Indian Ocean bases in South India. The C-17s are based at Hindon Air Force Station and are operated by No. 81 Squadron IAF Skylords. The first C-17 was delivered in January 2013 for testing and training; it was officially accepted on 11 June 2013. The second C-17 was delivered on 23 July 2013 and put into service immediately. IAF Chief of Air Staff Norman AK Browne called it "a major component in the IAF's modernization drive" while taking delivery of the aircraft at Boeing's Long Beach factory. On 2 September 2013, the Skylords squadron with three C-17s officially entered IAF service. The Skylords regularly fly missions within India, such as to high-altitude bases at Leh and Thoise. The IAF first used the C-17 to transport an infantry battalion's equipment to Port Blair on Andaman Islands on 1 July 2013. Foreign deployments to date include Tajikistan in August 2013, and Rwanda to support Indian peacekeepers. One C-17 was used for transporting relief materials during Cyclone Phailin. The sixth aircraft was received in July 2014. In June 2017, the U.S. Department of State approved the potential sale of one C-17 to India under a proposed $366 million (~$ in ) U.S. Foreign Military Sale. This aircraft, the last C-17 produced, increased the IAF's fleet to 11 C-17s. On 26 August 2019, Boeing delivered the 11th C-17 Globemaster III to the Indian Air Force. On 7 February 2023, an IAF C-17 delivered humanitarian aid packages for earthquake victims in Turkey and Syria by taking a detour around Pakistan's airspace in the aftermath of 2021 Taliban takeover of Afghanistan. An IAF C-17 executed a precision airdrop of two Combat Rubberised Raiding Craft along with a platoon of 8 MARCOS commandos in an operation to rescue the ex-MV Ruen, a Maltese-flagged cargo ship hijacked by Somali pirates in December 2023. The mission was conducted on 16 March 2024 in a 10-hour round trip mission to an area 2600 km away from the Indian coast. The ship was being used as a mothership for piracy. In a joint operation carried out with the Indian Navy assets such as P-8I Neptune maritime patrol aircraft, SeaGuardian drones, destroyer INS Kolkata and patrol vessel INS Subhadra, the IAF C-17 airdropped Navy's MARCOS commandos, who boarded the hijacked ship, rescued 17 sailors and disarmed 35 pirates in the operation. ===Qatar=== Boeing delivered Qatar's first C-17 on 11 August 2009 and the second on 10 September 2009 for the Qatar Emiri Air Force. Qatar received its third C-17 in 2012, and fourth C-17 was received on 10 December 2012. In June 2013, The New York Times reported that Qatar was allegedly using its C-17s to ship weapons from Libya to the Syrian opposition during the civil war via Turkey. On 15 June 2015, it was announced at the Paris Airshow that Qatar agreed to order four additional C-17s from the five remaining "white tail" C-17s to double Qatar's C-17 fleet. One Qatari C-17 bears the civilian markings of government-owned Qatar Airways, although the airplane is owned and operated by the Qatar Emiri Air Force. The head of Qatar's airlift selection committee, Ahmed Al-Malki, said the paint scheme was "to build awareness of Qatar's participation in operations around the world." In January 2010, a contract was signed for six C-17s. In May 2011, the first C-17 was handed over and the final was received in June 2012. ===Kuwait=== Kuwait requested the purchase of one C-17 in September 2010 and a second in April 2013 through the U.S.'s Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program. The nation ordered two C-17s; the first was delivered on 13 February 2014. ===Proposed operators=== In 2015, New Zealand's Minister of Defence, Gerry Brownlee, was considering the purchase of two C-17s for the Royal New Zealand Air Force at an estimated cost of $600 million as a heavy air transport option. However, the New Zealand Government eventually decided not to acquire the C-17. ==Variants== C-17A: Initial military airlifter version. C-17A "ER": Unofficial name for C-17As with extended range due to the addition of the center wing tank. Block 16: This software/hardware upgrade was a major improvement of the improved Onboard Inert Gas-Generating System (OBIGGS II), a new weather radar, an improved stabilizer strut system and other avionics. Block 21: Adds ADS-B capability, IFF modification, communication/navigation upgrades and improved flight management. C-17B: A proposed tactical airlifter version with double-slotted flaps, an additional main landing gear on the center fuselage, more powerful engines, and other systems for shorter landing and take-off distances. Boeing offered the C-17B to the U.S. military in 2007 for carrying the Army's Future Combat Systems (FCS) vehicles and other equipment. KC-17: Proposed tanker variant of the C-17. MD-17: Proposed variant for US airlines participating in the Civil Reserve Air Fleet, later redesignated as BC-17X after 1997 merger. ==Operators== Royal Australian Air Force – 8 C-17A ERs in service as of January 2018. No. 36 Squadron Royal Canadian Air Force – 5 CC-177 (C-17A ER) aircraft in use as of January 2018. 429 Transport Squadron, CFB Trenton Indian Air Force – 11 C-17s as of August 2019. including 1 C-17 contributed by the USAF; based at Pápa Air Base, Hungary. Qatar Emiri Air Force – 8 C-17As in use as of January 2018, United Arab Emirates Air Force – 8 C-17As in operation as of January 2018 Royal Air Force – 8 C-17A ERs in use as of May 2021 No. 24 Squadron, RAF Brize Norton – Charlotte Air National Guard Base, North Carolina 156th Airlift Squadron 154th Wing – Hickam AFB, Hawaii 204th Airlift Squadron (Associate) 164th Airlift Wing – Memphis ANGB, Tennessee 155th Airlift Squadron 167th Airlift Wing – Shepherd Field ANGB, West Virginia 167th Airlift Squadron 172d Airlift Wing – Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB, Mississippi 183d Airlift Squadron 176th Wing – Elmendorf AFB, Alaska 144th Airlift Squadron ==Accidents and notable incidents == On 10 September 1998, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 96-0006) delivered Keiko the orca to Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, a runway, and suffered a landing gear failure during landing. There were no injuries, but the landing gear sustained major damage. On 10 December 2003, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 98-0057) was hit by a surface-to-air missile after take-off from Baghdad, Iraq. One engine was disabled and the aircraft returned for a safe landing. It was repaired and returned to service. On 6 August 2005, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 01-0196) ran off the runway at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan while attempting to land, destroying its nose and main landing gear. After two months making it flightworthy, a test pilot flew the aircraft to Boeing's Long Beach facility as the temporary repairs imposed performance limitations. In October 2006, it returned to service following repairs. On 30 January 2009, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 96-0002 – "Spirit of the Air Force") made a gear-up landing at Bagram Air Base. It was ferried from Bagram AB, making several stops along the way, to Boeing's Long Beach plant for extensive repairs. The USAF Aircraft Accident Investigation Board concluded the cause was the crew's failure to follow the pre-landing checklist and lower the landing gear. On 28 July 2010, a USAF C-17 (AF Serial No. 00-0173 – "Spirit of the Aleutians") crashed at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, while practicing for the 2010 Arctic Thunder Air Show, killing all four aboard. It crashed near a railroad, disrupting rail operations. A military investigation found pilot error caused a stall. This is the C-17's only fatal crash and the only hull loss accident. On 20 July 2012, a USAF C-17 of the 305th Air Mobility Wing, flying from McGuire AFB, New Jersey, to MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, mistakenly landed at nearby Peter O. Knight Airport, a small municipal field without a control tower, with Gen. Jim Mattis, then commander of CENTCOM, on board. After a few hours, the Globemaster took off from the airport's runway without incident and made the short trip to MacDill AFB. The mistaken landing followed an extended duration flight from Europe to Southwest Asia to embark military passengers before returning to the U.S. The USAF investigation attributed the incident to fatigue leading to pilot error, as both airfields' main runways share the same magnetic heading and are only four miles apart along the shore of Tampa Bay. On 9 April 2021, USAF C-17 10-0223 suffered a fire in its undercarriage after landing at Charleston AFB following a flight from RAF Mildenhall, UK. The fire spread to the fuselage before it was extinguished. ==Specifications (C-17A)==	[ "156th Airlift Squadron", "Tacloban", "US Antarctic Research Program", "Washington, D.C.", "United States Air Force", "No. 429 Squadron RCAF", "West Virginia", "Future of the Indian Air Force", "MacDill Air Force Base", "Lockheed C-130 Hercules", "97th Airlift Squadron", "Qatar Emiri Air Force", "Altus AFB", "732d Airlift Squadron", "Hamid Karzai International Airport", "Afghanistan", "center of mass", "729th Airlift Squadron", "United Arab Emirates Air Force", "305th Air Mobility Wing", "14th Airlift Squadron", "medical evacuation", "Advanced Medium STOL Transport", "cargo ship", "United States Congress", "Boeing", "moose", "Royal New Zealand Air Force", "ballistic missile", "97th Air Mobility Wing", "Mali War", "164th Airlift Wing", "172d Airlift Wing", "March Joint Air Reserve Base", "Fiscal year", "maximum takeoff weight", "Flight International", "Charleston AFB", "E-3 Sentry", "429 Transport Squadron", "Vestmannaeyjar Airport", "Marine One", "Air traffic control", "Libya", "Stryker", "2015 Sousse attacks", "Tampa Bay Times", "16th Airlift Squadron", "military transport aircraft", "Greg Combet", "No. 81 Squadron IAF", "Douglas C-74 Globemaster", "2010 Haiti earthquake", "New York Air National Guard", "List of active United States military aircraft", "surface-to-air missile", "NATO Strategic Airlift Capability", "Air National Guard", "airlift", "No. 99 Squadron RAF", "Keiko (orca)", "Charleston Air Force Base", "thrust reversal", "Iraq", "816th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron", "Gerry Brownlee", "15th Wing", "United States Department of Defense", "German Air Force", "paratrooper", "Boeing 747-400", "60th Air Mobility Wing", "RAF Brize Norton", "Air Force Reserve Command", "89th Airlift Squadron", "Arthur Lichte", "349th Air Mobility Wing", "Arctic Thunder Air Show", "Operation Halo", "436th Airlift Wing", "cruise missile", "P-8I Neptune", "452nd Air Mobility Wing", "535th Airlift Squadron", "Pratt & Whitney PW2000", "CFS Alert", "728th Airlift Squadron", "176th Wing", "List of active Canadian military aircraft", "Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base", "Canadian Armed Forces", "Vortex", "Strategic Defence Review", "437th Airlift Wing", "Stewart ANGB", "British military aircraft designation systems", "nickname", "154th Wing", "Iraq War", "418th Flight Test Squadron", "Foreign Military Sales", "Joint Direct Attack Munition", "144th Airlift Squadron", "McGuire AFB", "Government Accountability Office", "Strategic Airlift Capability", "CENTCOM", "RAF Mildenhall", "vortex surfing", "INS Jarawa", "Indian Air Force", "Boeing 757", "letter of intent", "Piracy off the coast of Somalia", "300th Airlift Squadron", "911th Airlift Wing", "flyaway cost", "7th Airlift Squadron", "foreign object damage", "Joint Base Lewis-McChord", "105th Airlift Wing", "Syrian opposition", "orca", "INS Kolkata", "drop zone", "Australian Army", "airdrop", "Edwards AFB", "3d Wing", "Collier Trophy", "Air Force One", "Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast", "Disaster Assistance Response Team", "low-altitude parachute-extraction system", "Canadian Army", "758th Airlift Squadron", "Kharkiv International Airport", "McMurdo Station", "Operation Allied Force", "Operation Deep Freeze", "RAF Fairford", "Hurricane Dean", "Edwards Air Force Base", "137th Airlift Squadron", "YouTube", "Operation Astute", "2021 Taliban offensive", "Civil Reserve Air Fleet", "Forward Operating Base Shank", "452d Air Mobility Wing", "Air Mobility Command", "517th Airlift Squadron", "701st Airlift Squadron", "arsenal ship", "183d Airlift Squadron", "6th Airlift Squadron", "412th Test Wing", "IFF Mark X", "MARCOS", "Tampa Bay", "McDonnell Douglas YC-15", "2011 Sindh floods", "2010 Alaska USAF C-17 crash", "445th Airlift Wing", "cargo", "Humvee", "Yochi Dreazen", "3d Airlift Squadron", "Royal International Air Tattoo", "155th Airlift Squadron", "Airbus A400M", "Flightglobal", "aerial refueling", "Robert Hill (Australian diplomat)", "Mother ship", "WP:Air/PC", "317th Airlift Squadron", "Dihedral (aeronautics)", "17th Airlift Squadron", "Cabinet Committee on Security", "New Jersey", "Ilyushin", "Bagram Air Base", "Memphis Air National Guard Base", "313th Airlift Squadron", "Gaggal Airport", "145th Airlift Wing", "landing gear", "Special warfare combatant-craft crewmen", "Douglas C-124 Globemaster II", "humanitarian aid", "446th Airlift Wing", "Channel 4", "St Giles' Cathedral", "Aviation Week & Space Technology", "Typhoon Haiyan", "Royal Australian Air Force", "Évreux-Fauville Air Base", "No. 36 Squadron RAAF", "David Johnston (Australian politician)", "McGuire Air Force Base", "pallet", "McChord AFB", "McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender", "General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper", "hull loss", "Secretary of State for Defence", "United Kingdom military aircraft serial numbers", "Leopard 1", "RAAF Base Amberley", "British Aerospace", "Terminal High Altitude Area Defense", "Qatar Airways", "Bamako", "Pound sterling", "England", "10th Airlift Squadron", "Operation Mobile", "21st Airlift Squadron", "Travis Air Force Base", "Hungarian Air Force", "CFB Trenton", "Minister for Defence (Australia)", "Royal Canadian Air Force", "8th Airlift Squadron", "March ARB", "4th Airlift Squadron", "509th Infantry Regiment (United States)", "The Wall Street Journal", "INS Subhadra (P51)", "Malta", "Abbotsford International Airshow", "Kabul", "rolling stock", "Elizabeth II", "Pápa Air Base", "463L master pallet", "Baghdad International Airport", "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)", "Farnborough Airshow", "Leh Air Force Station", "AGM-158 JASSM", "Edinburgh Airport", "M1 Abrams", "Cyclone Phailin", "Future Combat Systems", "Indian Navy", "Rwanda", "507th Air Refueling Wing", "Operation Enduring Freedom", "Jim Mattis", "167th Airlift Wing", "Jason Clare", "Military aircraft insignia", "belly landing", "514th Air Mobility Wing", "Dover Air Force Base", "Royal Air Force", "62d Airlift Wing", "Boeing Integrated Defense Systems", "maritime patrol aircraft", "Al Udeid Air Base", "main battle tank", "outsize cargo", "326th Airlift Squadron", "Boeing Defense, Space & Security", "List of active United Kingdom military aircraft", "Peter O. Knight Airport", "maiden flight", "No. 24 Squadron RAF", "Fairbairn, Canberra", "Philippines", "Ilyushin Il-76", "Kuwait Air Force", "Rigid inflatable boat", "15th Airlift Squadron", "United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces", "turbofan", "Christchurch Airport", "United States invasion of Panama", "Tampa, Florida", "USS John Paul Jones (DDG-53)", "Stewart Air National Guard Base", "Boeing YC-14", "Bradley Fighting Vehicle", "Hindon Air Force Station", "Tajikistan", "Airbus A400M Atlas", "2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake", "Elmendorf Air Force Base", "Tinker AFB", "Long Beach Press-Telegram", "Turkey", "167th Airlift Squadron", "Presidential State Car (United States)", "McDonnell Douglas", "Rapid Dragon", "Norman Anil Kumar Browne", "730th Air Mobility Training Squadron", "Heavy Airlift Wing", "Joint Base Charleston", "The Boeing Company", "News.com.au", "301st Airlift Squadron", "Antonov An-124", "Operation Hestia", "58th Airlift Squadron", "Xi'an Y-20", "Geoff Hoon", "309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group", "Antonov", "315th Airlift Wing", "Mississippi", "Stall (fluid dynamics)", "Hickam Air Force Base", "62nd Airlift Wing", "Pittsburgh Air Reserve Station", "Long Beach, California", "Syrian Civil War", "The Times of India", "512th Airlift Wing", "385th Air Expeditionary Group", "Five-Year plans of India", "Wake Island", "Thoise", "173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team (United States)", "Mali", "Dick Cheney", "Air Force Reserve", "Wright-Patterson AFB", "204th Airlift Squadron", "Lockheed C-141 Starlifter", "Three-point turn", "man-hour", "Charlotte Air National Guard Base", "RAF Northolt", "Lockheed C-5 Galaxy", "Robert Gates", "ensign (flag)", "Indian Army United Nations peacekeeping missions" ]
6,732	Caber	Caber can refer to: Caber toss, a sport ==Places== Caber, Çivril, a village in Çivril District, Denizli Province, Turkey Caber, Sarayköy, a village in Sarayköy District, Denizli Province, Turkey Çabër, a village in Zubin Potok, Mitrovica district, Kosovo ==Other uses== CaBER, Capillary Breakup Extensional Rheometer Caber (comics), a deity in Marvel Comics Caber Music, a British record label founded in 1998 by Tom Bancroft	[ "CaBER", "Caber (comics)", "Caber Music", "Kaber (disambiguation)", "Çabër", "Caber, Sarayköy", "Caber, Çivril", "Caber toss" ]
6,734	Garbage collection (computer science)	thumb\|400px\|Stop-and-copy garbage collection in a [[Lisp (programming language)\|Lisp architecture: The garbage collector attempts to reclaim memory that was allocated by the program, but is no longer referenced; such memory is called garbage. Garbage collection was invented by American computer scientist John McCarthy around 1959 to simplify manual memory management in Lisp. These are said to be garbage-collected languages. Other languages, such as C and C++, were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage-collected implementations available. Some languages, like Ada, Modula-3, and C++/CLI, allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects. Still others, like D, are garbage-collected but allow the user to manually delete objects or even disable garbage collection entirely when speed is required. Although many languages integrate GC into their compiler and runtime system, post-hoc GC systems also exist, such as Automatic Reference Counting (ARC). Some of these post-hoc GC systems do not require recompilation. === Advantages === GC frees the programmer from manually de-allocating memory. This helps avoid some kinds of errors: Dangling pointers, which occur when a piece of memory is freed while there are still pointers to it, and one of those pointers is dereferenced. By then the memory may have been reassigned to another use, with unpredictable results. Double free bugs, which occur when the program tries to free a region of memory that has already been freed, and perhaps already been allocated again. Certain kinds of memory leaks, in which a program fails to free memory occupied by objects that have become unreachable, which can lead to memory exhaustion. === Disadvantages === GC uses computing resources to decide which memory to free. Therefore, the penalty for the convenience of not annotating object lifetime manually in the source code is overhead, which can impair program performance. A peer-reviewed paper from 2005 concluded that GC needs five times the memory to compensate for this overhead and to perform as fast as the same program using idealized explicit memory management. The comparison however is made to a program generated by inserting deallocation calls using an oracle, implemented by collecting traces from programs run under a profiler, and the program is only correct for one particular execution of the program. Interaction with memory hierarchy effects can make this overhead intolerable in circumstances that are hard to predict or to detect in routine testing. The impact on performance was given by Apple as a reason for not adopting garbage collection in iOS, despite it being the most desired feature. The moment when the garbage is actually collected can be unpredictable, resulting in stalls (pauses to shift/free memory) scattered throughout a session. Unpredictable stalls can be unacceptable in real-time environments, in transaction processing, or in interactive programs. Incremental, concurrent, and real-time garbage collectors address these problems, with varying trade-offs. == Strategies == === Tracing === Tracing garbage collection is the most common type of garbage collection, so much so that "garbage collection" often refers to tracing garbage collection, rather than other methods such as reference counting. The overall strategy consists of determining which objects should be garbage collected by tracing which objects are reachable by a chain of references from certain root objects, and considering the rest as garbage and collecting them. However, there are a large number of algorithms used in implementation, with widely varying complexity and performance characteristics. === Reference counting === Reference counting garbage collection is where each object has a count of the number of references to it. Garbage is identified by having a reference count of zero. An object's reference count is incremented when a reference to it is created and decremented when a reference is destroyed. When the count reaches zero, the object's memory is reclaimed. As with manual memory management, and unlike tracing garbage collection, reference counting guarantees that objects are destroyed as soon as their last reference is destroyed, and usually only accesses memory which is either in CPU caches, in objects to be freed, or directly pointed to by those, and thus tends to not have significant negative side effects on CPU cache and virtual memory operation. There are a number of disadvantages to reference counting; this can generally be solved or mitigated by more sophisticated algorithms: Cycles: If two or more objects refer to each other, they can create a cycle whereby neither will be collected as their mutual references never let their reference counts become zero. Some garbage collection systems using reference counting (like the one in CPython) use specific cycle-detecting algorithms to deal with this issue. Another strategy is to use weak references for the "backpointers" which create cycles. Under reference counting, a weak reference is similar to a weak reference under a tracing garbage collector. It is a special reference object whose existence does not increment the reference count of the referent object. Furthermore, a weak reference is safe in that when the referent object becomes garbage, any weak reference to it lapses, rather than being permitted to remain dangling, meaning that it turns into a predictable value, such as a null reference. Space overhead (reference count): Reference counting requires space to be allocated for each object to store its reference count. The count may be stored adjacent to the object's memory or in a side table somewhere else, but in either case, every single reference-counted object requires additional storage for its reference count. Memory space with the size of an unsigned pointer is commonly used for this task, meaning that 32 or 64 bits of reference count storage must be allocated for each object. On some systems, it may be possible to mitigate this overhead by using a tagged pointer to store the reference count in unused areas of the object's memory. Often, an architecture does not actually allow programs to access the full range of memory addresses that could be stored in its native pointer size; a certain number of high bits in the address is either ignored or required to be zero. If an object reliably has a pointer at a certain location, the reference count can be stored in the unused bits of the pointer. For example, each object in Objective-C has a pointer to its class at the beginning of its memory; on the ARM64 architecture using iOS 7, 19 unused bits of this class pointer are used to store the object's reference count. Speed overhead (increment/decrement): In naive implementations, each assignment of a reference and each reference falling out of scope often require modifications of one or more reference counters. However, in a common case when a reference is copied from an outer scope variable into an inner scope variable, such that the lifetime of the inner variable is bounded by the lifetime of the outer one, the reference incrementing can be eliminated. The outer variable "owns" the reference. In the programming language C++, this technique is readily implemented and demonstrated with the use of const references. Reference counting in C++ is usually implemented using "smart pointers" whose constructors, destructors, and assignment operators manage the references. A smart pointer can be passed by reference to a function, which avoids the need to copy-construct a new smart pointer (which would increase the reference count on entry into the function and decrease it on exit). Instead, the function receives a reference to the smart pointer which is produced inexpensively. The Deutsch-Bobrow method of reference counting capitalizes on the fact that most reference count updates are in fact generated by references stored in local variables. It ignores these references, only counting references in the heap, but before an object with reference count zero can be deleted, the system must verify with a scan of the stack and register that no other reference to it still exists. A further substantial decrease in the overhead on counter updates can be obtained by update coalescing introduced by Levanoni and Petrank. Consider a pointer that in a given interval of the execution is updated several times. It first points to an object O1, then to an object O2, and so forth until at the end of the interval it points to some object On. A reference counting algorithm would typically execute rc(O1)--, rc(O2)++, rc(O2)--, rc(O3)++, rc(O3)--, ..., rc(On)++. But most of these updates are redundant. In order to have the reference count properly evaluated at the end of the interval it is enough to perform rc(O1)-- and rc(On)++. Levanoni and Petrank measured an elimination of more than 99% of the counter updates in typical Java benchmarks. Requires atomicity: When used in a multithreaded environment, these modifications (increment and decrement) may need to be atomic operations such as compare-and-swap, at least for any objects which are shared, or potentially shared among multiple threads. Atomic operations are expensive on a multiprocessor, and even more expensive if they have to be emulated with software algorithms. It is possible to avoid this issue by adding per-thread or per-CPU reference counts and only accessing the global reference count when the local reference counts become or are no longer zero (or, alternatively, using a binary tree of reference counts, or even giving up deterministic destruction in exchange for not having a global reference count at all), but this adds significant memory overhead and thus tends to be only useful in special cases (it is used, for example, in the reference counting of Linux kernel modules). Update coalescing by Levanoni and Petrank can be used to eliminate all atomic operations from the write-barrier. Counters are never updated by the program threads in the course of program execution. They are only modified by the collector which executes as a single additional thread with no synchronization. This method can be used as a stop-the-world mechanism for parallel programs, and also with a concurrent reference counting collector. Not real-time: Naive implementations of reference counting do not generally provide real-time behavior, because any pointer assignment can potentially cause a number of objects bounded only by total allocated memory size to be recursively freed while the thread is unable to perform other work. It is possible to avoid this issue by delegating the freeing of unreferenced objects to other threads, at the cost of extra overhead. === Escape analysis === Escape analysis is a compile-time technique that can convert heap allocations to stack allocations, thereby reducing the amount of garbage collection to be done. This analysis determines whether an object allocated inside a function is accessible outside of it. If a function-local allocation is found to be accessible to another function or thread, the allocation is said to "escape" and cannot be done on the stack. Otherwise, the object may be allocated directly on the stack and released when the function returns, bypassing the heap and associated memory management costs. == Availability == Generally speaking, higher-level programming languages are more likely to have garbage collection as a standard feature. In some languages lacking built-in garbage collection, it can be added through a library, as with the Boehm garbage collector for C and C++. Most functional programming languages, such as ML, Haskell, and APL, have garbage collection built in. Lisp is especially notable as both the first functional programming language and the first language to introduce garbage collection. Other dynamic languages, such as Ruby and Julia (but not Perl 5 or PHP before version 5.3, which both use reference counting), JavaScript and ECMAScript also tend to use GC. Object-oriented programming languages such as Smalltalk, ooRexx, RPL and Java usually provide integrated garbage collection. Notable exceptions are C++ and Delphi, which have destructors. === BASIC === BASIC and Logo have often used garbage collection for variable-length data types, such as strings and lists, so as not to burden programmers with memory management details. On the Altair 8800, programs with many string variables and little string space could cause long pauses due to garbage collection. Similarly the Applesoft BASIC interpreter's garbage collection algorithm repeatedly scans the string descriptors for the string having the highest address in order to compact it toward high memory, resulting in O(n^2) performance and pauses anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes. A replacement garbage collector for Applesoft BASIC by Randy Wigginton identifies a group of strings in every pass over the heap, reducing collection time dramatically. BASIC.SYSTEM, released with ProDOS in 1983, provides a windowing garbage collector for BASIC that is many times faster. === Objective-C === While the Objective-C traditionally had no garbage collection, with the release of OS X 10.5 in 2007 Apple introduced garbage collection for Objective-C 2.0, using an in-house developed runtime collector. However, with the 2012 release of OS X 10.8, garbage collection was deprecated in favor of LLVM's automatic reference counter (ARC) that was introduced with OS X 10.7. Furthermore, since May 2015 Apple even forbade the usage of garbage collection for new OS X applications in the App Store. For iOS, garbage collection has never been introduced due to problems in application responsivity and performance; instead, iOS uses ARC. === Limited environments === Garbage collection is rarely used on embedded or real-time systems because of the usual need for very tight control over the use of limited resources. However, garbage collectors compatible with many limited environments have been developed. The Microsoft .NET Micro Framework, .NET nanoFramework and Java Platform, Micro Edition are embedded software platforms that, like their larger cousins, include garbage collection. === Java === Garbage collectors available in Java OpenJDKs virtual machine (JVM) include: Serial Parallel CMS (Concurrent Mark Sweep) G1 (Garbage-First) ZGC (Z Garbage Collector) Epsilon Shenandoah GenZGC (Generational ZGC) GenShen (Generational Shenandoah) IBM Metronome (only in IBM OpenJDK) SAP (only in SAP OpenJDK) Azul C4 (Continuously Concurrent Compacting Collector) (only in Azul Systems OpenJDK) === Compile-time use === Compile-time garbage collection is a form of static analysis allowing memory to be reused and reclaimed based on invariants known during compilation. This form of garbage collection has been studied in the Mercury programming language, and it saw greater usage with the introduction of LLVM's automatic reference counter (ARC) into Apple's ecosystem (iOS and OS X) in 2011. === Real-time systems === Incremental, concurrent, and real-time garbage collectors have been developed, for example by Henry Baker and by Henry Lieberman. In Baker's algorithm, the allocation is done in either half of a single region of memory. When it becomes half full, a garbage collection is performed which moves the live objects into the other half and the remaining objects are implicitly deallocated. The running program (the 'mutator') has to check that any object it references is in the correct half, and if not move it across, while a background task is finding all of the objects. Generational garbage collection schemes are based on the empirical observation that most objects die young. In generational garbage collection, two or more allocation regions (generations) are kept, which are kept separate based on the object's age. New objects are created in the "young" generation that is regularly collected, and when a generation is full, the objects that are still referenced from older regions are copied into the next oldest generation. Occasionally a full scan is performed. Some high-level language computer architectures include hardware support for real-time garbage collection. Most implementations of real-time garbage collectors use tracing. Such real-time garbage collectors meet hard real-time constraints when used with a real-time operating system.	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6,736	Canidae	{{Automatic taxobox \| display_parents = 3 \| taxon = Canidae \| authority = Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 \| name = Canids \| fossil_range = Late Eocene-Holocene from Latin, canis, "dog") is a biological family of caniform carnivorans, colloquially referred to as dogs, and constitutes a clade. A member of this family is also called a canid (). The family includes three subfamilies: the Caninae, and the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae. The Canidae first appeared in North America during the Late Eocene (37.8-33.9 Mya). They did not reach Eurasia until the Late Miocene or to South America until the Late Pliocene. ===Eocene epoch=== Carnivorans evolved after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Around 50 million years ago, or earlier, in the Paleocene, the Carnivora split into two main divisions: caniform (dog-like) and feliform (cat-like). By 40 Mya, the first identifiable member of the dog family had arisen. Named Prohesperocyon wilsoni, its fossils have been found in southwest Texas. The chief features which identify it as a canid include the loss of the upper third molar (part of a trend toward a more shearing bite), and the structure of the middle ear which has an enlarged bulla (the hollow bony structure protecting the delicate parts of the ear). Prohesperocyon probably had slightly longer limbs than its predecessors, and also had parallel and closely touching toes which differ markedly from the splayed arrangements of the digits in bears. Canidae soon divided into three subfamilies, each of which diverged during the Eocene: Hesperocyoninae (about 39.74–15 Mya), Borophaginae (about 34–32 Mya), and Caninae (about 34–30 Mya; the only surviving subfamily). Members of each subfamily showed an increase in body mass with time and some exhibited specialized hypercarnivorous diets that made them prone to extinction. ===Oligocene epoch=== By the Oligocene, all three subfamilies (Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae) had appeared in the fossil record of North America. The earliest and most primitive branch of the Canidae was Hesperocyoninae, which included the coyote-sized Mesocyon of the Oligocene (38–24 Mya). These early canids probably evolved for the fast pursuit of prey in a grassland habitat; they resembled modern viverrids in appearance. Hesperocyonines eventually became extinct in the middle Miocene. One of the early Hesperocyonines, the genus Hesperocyon, gave rise to Archaeocyon and Leptocyon. These branches led to the borophagine and canine radiations. ===Miocene epoch=== Around 8 Mya, the Beringian land bridge allowed members of the genus Eucyon a means to enter Asia from North America and they continued on to colonize Europe. ===Pliocene epoch=== The Canis, Urocyon, and Vulpes genera developed from canids from North America, where the canine radiation began. The success of these canids was related to the development of lower carnassials that were capable of both mastication and shearing. In the Pliocene, around 4–5 Mya, Canis lepophagus appeared in North America. This was small and sometimes coyote-like. Others were wolf-like. C. latrans (the coyote) is theorized to descend from C. lepophagus. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama, about 3 Mya, joined South America to North America, allowing canids to invade South America, where they diversified. However, the last common ancestor of the South American canids lived in North America some 4 Mya and more than one incursion across the new land bridge is likely given the fact that more than one lineage is present in South America. Two North American lineages found in South America are the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargentus) and the now-extinct dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus). Besides these, there are species endemic to South America: the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), the short-eared dog (Atelocynus microtis), the bush dog (Speothos venaticus), the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), and the South American foxes (Lycalopex spp.). The monophyly of this group has been established by molecular means. By 0.3 Mya, a number of subspecies of the gray wolf (C. lupus) had developed and had spread throughout Europe and northern Asia. The gray wolf colonized North America during the late Rancholabrean era across the Bering land bridge, with at least three separate invasions, with each one consisting of one or more different Eurasian gray wolf clades. MtDNA studies have shown that there are at least four extant C. lupus lineages. The dire wolf shared its habitat with the gray wolf, but became extinct in a large-scale extinction event that occurred around 11,500 years ago. It may have been more of a scavenger than a hunter; its molars appear to be adapted for crushing bones and it may have gone extinct as a result of the extinction of the large herbivorous animals on whose carcasses it relied. ==== Wild canids are native to all continents except Australasia and Antarctica, and also occur as feral (human-introduced) in New Guinea and Australia. They inhabit a wide range of different habitats, including deserts, mountains, forests, and grasslands. They vary in size from the fennec fox, which may be as little as in length and weigh , to the gray wolf, which may be up to long, and can weigh up to . Only a few species are arboreal—the gray fox, the closely related island fox and the raccoon dog habitually climb trees. All canids have a similar basic form, as exemplified by the gray wolf, although the relative length of muzzle, limbs, ears, and tail vary considerably between species. With the exceptions of the bush dog, the raccoon dog and some domestic dog breeds, canids have relatively long legs and lithe bodies, adapted for chasing prey. The tails are bushy and the length and quality of the pelage vary with the season. The muzzle portion of the skull is much more elongated than that of the cat family. The zygomatic arches are wide, there is a transverse lambdoidal ridge at the rear of the cranium and in some species, a sagittal crest running from front to back. The bony orbits around the eye never form a complete ring and the auditory bullae are smooth and rounded. Females have three to seven pairs of mammae. All canids are digitigrade, meaning they walk on their toes. The tip of the nose is always naked, as are the cushioned pads on the soles of the feet. These latter consist of a single pad behind the tip of each toe and a more-or-less three-lobed central pad under the roots of the digits. Hairs grow between the pads and in the Arctic fox the sole of the foot is densely covered with hair at some times of the year. With the exception of the four-toed African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), five toes are on the forefeet, but the pollex (thumb) is reduced and does not reach the ground. On the hind feet are four toes, but in some domestic dogs, a fifth vestigial toe, known as a dewclaw, is sometimes present, but has no anatomical connection to the rest of the foot. In some species, slightly curved nails are non-retractile and more-or-less blunt Young canids are born blind, with their eyes opening a few weeks after birth. All living canids (Caninae) have a ligament analogous to the nuchal ligament of ungulates used to maintain the posture of the head and neck with little active muscle exertion; this ligament allows them to conserve energy while running long distances following scent trails with their nose to the ground. However, based on skeletal details of the neck, at least some of the Borophaginae (such as Aelurodon) are believed to have lacked this ligament. ===Dentition=== Dentition relates to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth, with the dental notation for the upper-jaw teeth using the upper-case letters I to denote incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, and M for molars, and the lower-case letters i, c, p and m to denote the mandible teeth. Teeth are numbered using one side of the mouth and from the front of the mouth to the back. In carnivores, the upper premolar P4 and the lower molar m1 form the carnassials that are used together in a scissor-like action to shear the muscle and tendon of prey. Canids use their premolars for cutting and crushing except for the upper fourth premolar P4 (the upper carnassial) that is only used for cutting. They use their molars for grinding except for the lower first molar m1 (the lower carnassial) that has evolved for both cutting and grinding depending on the canid's dietary adaptation. On the lower carnassial, the trigonid is used for slicing and the talonid is used for grinding. The ratio between the trigonid and the talonid indicates a carnivore's dietary habits, with a larger trigonid indicating a hypercarnivore and a larger talonid indicating a more omnivorous diet. In most foxes, and in many of the true dogs, a male and female pair work together to hunt and to raise their young. Gray wolves and some of the other larger canids live in larger groups called packs. African wild dogs have packs which may consist of 20 to 40 animals and packs of fewer than about seven individuals may be incapable of successful reproduction. Hunting in packs has the advantage that larger prey items can be tackled. Some species form packs or live in small family groups depending on the circumstances, including the type of available food. In most species, some individuals live on their own. Within a canid pack, there is a system of dominance so that the strongest, most experienced animals lead the pack. In most cases, the dominant male and female are the only pack members to breed. === Communication === Canids communicate with each other by scent signals, by visual clues and gestures, and by vocalizations such as growls, barks, and howls. In most cases, groups have a home territory from which they drive out other conspecifics. Canids use urine scent marks to mark their food caches or warn trespassing individuals. Social behavior is also mediated by secretions from glands on the upper surface of the tail near its root and from the anal glands, and supracaudal glands. ===Reproduction=== Canids as a group exhibit several reproductive traits that are uncommon among mammals as a whole. They are typically monogamous, provide paternal care to their offspring, have reproductive cycles with lengthy proestral and dioestral phases and have a copulatory tie during mating. They also retain adult offspring in the social group, suppressing the ability of these to breed while making use of the alloparental care they can provide to help raise the next generation. Most canid species are spontaneous ovulators, though maned wolves are induced ovulators. During the proestral period, increased levels of estradiol make the female attractive to the male. There is a rise in progesterone during the estral phase when female is receptive. Following this, the level of estradiol fluctuates and there is a lengthy dioestrous phase during which the female is pregnant. Pseudo-pregnancy often occurs in canids that have ovulated but failed to conceive. A period of anestrus follows pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy, there being only one oestral period during each breeding season. Small and medium-sized canids mostly have a gestation of 50 to 60 days, while larger species average 60 to 65 days. The time of year in which the breeding season occurs is related to the length of day, as has been shown for several species that have been moved across the equator and experiences a six-month shift of phase. Domestic dogs and certain small canids in captivity may come into oestrus more often, perhaps because the photoperiod stimulus breaks down under conditions of artificial lighting. The size of a litter varies, with from one to 16 or more pups being born. The young are born small, blind and helpless and require a long period of parental care. They are kept in a den, most often dug into the ground, for warmth and protection. Young canids may take a year to mature and learn the skills they need to survive. In some species, such as the African wild dog, male offspring usually remain in the natal pack, while females disperse as a group and join another small group of the opposite sex to form a new pack. ==Canids and humans== One canid, the domestic dog, entered into a partnership with humans a long time ago. The dog was the first domesticated species. Among canids, only the gray wolf has widely been known to prey on humans. Nonetheless, at least two records of coyotes killing humans have been published, and at least two other reports of golden jackals killing children. Human beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and some, especially the gray wolf, the coyote and the red fox, for sport. Canids such as the dhole are now endangered in the wild because of persecution, habitat loss, a depletion of ungulate prey species and transmission of diseases from domestic dogs.	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6,739	Subspecies of Canis lupus	thumb\|Present and historical range of wild subspecies of C. lupus. This map uses the more broadly defined North American subspecies of Nowak (1995), and under this [[genus he listed the dog-like carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris, and on the next page he classified the wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its head, body, and cauda recurvata – its upturning tail – which is not found in any other canid. In 2005, MSW3 included C. l. filchneri. \| A large, light-furred subspecies. \| Northern tundra and forest zones in the European and Asian parts of Russia and Kamchatka. Outside Russia, its range includes the extreme north of Scandinavia. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. arabsArabian wolf \| \| Pocock, 1934 \| A small, "desert-adapted" subspecies that is around 66 cm tall and weighs, on average, about 18 kg. Its fur coat varies from short in the summer to long in the winter, possibly because of solar radiation. \| Southern Palestine, southern Israel, southern and western Iraq, Oman, Yemen, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Sinai Peninsula). \| \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. campestrisSteppe wolf \| \| Dwigubski, 1804 \| An average-sized subspecies with short, coarse and sparse fur. \| Northern Ukraine, southern Kazakhstan, the Caucasus and the Trans-Caucasus \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. chancoHimalayan wolf \| \| Matschie, 1907 Fur color is mostly sandy- to reddish-brown, but can include tan patterns and can also be occasionally light brown, black or white. \| Australia and New Guinea \| antarticus Kerr, 1792 [suppressed ICZN O451:1957], australasiae Desmarest, 1820, australiae Gray, 1826, dingoides Matschie, 1915, macdonnellensis Matschie, 1915, novaehollandiae Voigt, 1831, papuensis Ramsay, 1879, tenggerana Kohlbrugge, 1896, hallstromi Troughton, 1957, harappensis Prashad, 1936 Sometimes included within Canis familiaris when the domestic dog is recognised as a species. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. familiarisDomestic dogbut refer Synonyms \| \| Linnaeus, 1758 \|The domestic dog is a divergent subspecies of the gray wolf and was derived from an extinct population of Late Pleistocene wolves. \| Worldwide in association with humans \| Increasingly proposed as the species Canis familiaris but debated }} \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. italicusItalian wolf \| \| Altobello, 1921 \| The pelt is generally of a grey-fulvous colour, which reddens in summer. The belly and cheeks are more lightly coloured, and dark bands are present on the back and tail tip, and occasionally along the fore limbs. \| Native to the Italian Peninsula; recently expanded into Switzerland and southeastern France. \| lupus Linnaeus, 1758 \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. lupusEurasian wolf(nominate subspecies) \| \| Linnaeus, 1758 \| Generally a large subspecies with rusty ocherous or light gray fur. \| Has the largest range among wolf subspecies and is the most common subspecies in Europe and Asia, ranging through Western Europe, Scandinavia, the Caucasus, Russia, China, and Mongolia. Its habitat overlaps with the Indian wolf in some regions of Turkey. \| altaicus Noack, 1911, argunensis Dybowski, 1922, canus Sélys Longchamps, 1839, communis Dwigubski, 1804, deitanus Cabrera, 1907, desertorum Bogdanov, 1882, flavus Kerr, 1792, fulvus Sélys Longchamps, 1839, kurjak Bolkay, 1925, lycaon Trouessart, 1910, major Ogérien, 1863, minor Ogerien, 1863, niger Hermann, 1804, orientalis Wagner, 1841, orientalis Dybowski, 1922 \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. pallipesIndian wolf \| \| Sykes, 1831 \| A small subspecies with pelage shorter than that of northern wolves and with little to no underfur. Fur color ranges from grayish-red to reddish-white with black tips. The dark V-shaped stripe over the shoulders is much more pronounced than in northern wolves. The underparts and legs are more or less white. \|India, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, northern Israel, and northern Palestine \| \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. signatusIberian wolf \| \| Cabrera, 1907 \| A subspecies with slighter frame than C. l. lupus, white marks on the upper lips, dark marks on the tail, and a pair of dark marks on its front legs. \| Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, which includes northwestern Spain and northern Portugal \| lupus Linnaeus, 1758 \|- \|} ===North America=== For North America, in 1944 the zoologist Edward Goldman recognized as many as 23 subspecies based on morphology. In 1959, E. Raymond Hall proposed that there had been 24 subspecies of lupus in North America. In 1970, L. David Mech proposed that there was "probably far too many subspecific designations...in use", as most did not exhibit enough points of differentiation to be classified as separate subspecies. The 24 subspecies were accepted by many authorities in 1981 and these were based on morphological or geographical differences, or a unique history. In 1995, the American mammalogist Robert M. Nowak analyzed data on the skull morphology of wolf specimens from around the world. For North America, he proposed that there were only five subspecies of the wolf. These include a large-toothed Arctic wolf named C. l. arctos, a large wolf from Alaska and western Canada named C. l. occidentalis, a small wolf from southeastern Canada named C. l. lycaon, a small wolf from the southwestern U.S. named C. l. baileyi and a moderate-sized wolf that was originally found from Texas to Hudson Bay and from Oregon to Newfoundland named C. l. nubilus. \| A medium-sized, almost completely white subspecies. \| Melville Island (the Northwest Territories and Nunavut), Ellesmere Island \| The current (2025) classification of the more broadly defined C. l. arctos of Nowak (1995) synonymizes C. l. orion and C. l. bernardi. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. baileyiMexican wolf \| \| Nelson and Goldman, 1929 \| The smallest of the North American subspecies, with dark fur. \| Southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona as well as northern Mexico; once ranged into western Texas \| \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. columbianusBritish Columbian wolf \| \| Goldman, 1941 \| Smaller-sized; unique diet of fish and smaller-sized deer in temperate rainforest; similar to crassodon. \| Coastal British Columbia and coastal Yukon \| Currently (2023) synonymized under C. l. crassodon. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. crassodonVancouver Island wolf \| \| Hall, 1932 \| A medium-sized subspecies with grayish fur; similar to columbianus. \| Vancouver Island, British Columbia \| Currently (2023) C. l. crassodon synonymizes C. l. ligoni and C. l. columbianus. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. familiarisDomestic dogbut refer Synonyms \| \| \| \| worldwide \|The domestic dog is a divergent subspecies of the gray wolf and was derived from an extinct population of Late Pleistocene wolves. }} Increasingly proposed as the species Canis familiaris but debated \| Northern Manitoba and the Northwest Territories \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. irremotusNorthern Rocky Mountain wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| A medium-sized to large subspecies with pale fur. \| The northern Rocky Mountains \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. labradoriusLabrador wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| Labrador and northern Quebec; confirmed presence on Newfoundland \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. ligoniAlexander Archipelago wolf \| \| Goldman, 1937 \| The Alexander Archipelago, Alaska \| Currently (2023) synonymized under C. l. crassodon. \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. lycaonEastern wolfbut refer Synonyms \| \| Schreber, 1775 \| Two forms are known – a small, reddish-brown colored form called the Algonquin wolf; and a slightly larger, more grayish-brown form called the Great Lakes wolf, which is an admixture of the Algonquin wolf and other gray wolves. \| The Algonquin form occupies central Ontario and southwestern Quebec, particularly in and nearby protected areas, such as Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario, and possibly extreme northeastern U.S. and western New Brunswick. The Great Lakes form occupies northern Ontario, Wisconsin and Minnesota, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and southern Manitoba. Overlaps of the two forms occur, with intermixing in the southern portions of northern Ontario. \| canadensis de Blainville, 1843, ungavensis Comeau, 1940The Algonquin form is currently (2025) recognized as the species Canis lycaon \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. mackenziiMackenzie River wolf \| \| Anderson, 1943 \| A subspecies with variable fur and intermediate in size between occidentalis and manningi. \| The southern Northwest Territories \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. manningiBaffin Island wolf \| \| Anderson, 1943 \| The smallest subspecies of the Arctic, with buffy-white fur. \| Baffin Island \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. nubilus \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. occidentalisNorthwestern wolf \| \| Richardson, 1829 \| A very large, usually light-colored subspecies, and the biggest subspecies. \| Alaska, Yukon, the Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and the northwestern United States \| ater Richardson, 1829, sticte Richardson, 1829 The C. l. occidentalis of Nowak (1995) synonymizes alces, columbianus, griseoalbus, mackenzii, pambasileus and tundrarum, which is the currently (2025) recognized classification. \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. arctos \|- ! scope="row" \| C. l. pambasileusAlaskan Interior wolf \| \| Miller, 1912 \| The second largest subspecies of wolf, second in skull and tooth proportions only to occidentalis (see chart above), with fur that is black, white or a mixture of both in color. \| The Alaskan Interior and Yukon, save for the tundra region of the Arctic Coast \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis \|- ! scope="row" \|C. l. nubilusGreat Plains wolf \| \| Say, 1823 \| A medium-sized, light-colored subspecies. \| Throughout the Great Plains from southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan southward to northern Texas \| variabilis Wied-Neuwied, 1841. Previously thought extinct in 1926, the Great Plains wolf's descendants were found in the northeastern region of the United States and have become federally protected since 1974. As of 2025 the classification of the more broadly defined C. l. nubilus of Nowak (1995) synonymizes beothucus, fuscus, hudsonicus, irremotus, labridorius, manningi, mogollonensis, monstrabilis and youngi, in which case the subspecies is extant in Canada (see infobox map). \| Historically distributed throughout the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, from southernmost New York south to Florida and west to Texas. Modern range is eastern North Carolina. \| {{smalldiv\|Currently considered a distinct species, Canis rufus, but this proposal is still debated. \| The Barren Grounds of the Arctic Coast region from near Point Barrow eastward toward Hudson Bay and probably northwards to the Arctic Archipelago \| Currently (2025) synonymized under C. l. occidentalis \|} ==List of extinct subspecies== Subspecies discovered since the publishing of MSW3 in 2005 which have gone extinct over the past 150 years: ==Disputed subspecies== ===Global=== In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be feral dogs (Canis familiaris). In 2020, a literature review of canid domestication stated that modern dogs were not descended from the same Canis lineage as modern wolves, and proposed that dogs may be descended from a Pleistocene wolf closer in size to a village dog. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered dingos a feral dog (Canis familiaris) population. Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock, who synonymised C. l. italicus with C. l. lupus. In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M. Nowak reaffirmed the morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf and recommended the recognition of Canis lupus italicus. In 2004, the genetic distinction of the Italian wolf subspecies was supported by analysis which consistently assigned all the wolf genotypes of a sample in Italy to a single group. This population also showed a unique mitochondrial DNA control-region haplotype, the absence of private alleles and lower heterozygosity at microsatellite loci, as compared to other wolf populations. In 2010, a genetic analysis indicated that a single wolf haplotype (w22) unique to the Apennine Peninsula and one of the two haplotypes (w24, w25), unique to the Iberian Peninsula, belonged to the same haplogroup as the prehistoric wolves of Europe. Another haplotype (w10) was found to be common to the Iberian peninsula and the Balkans. These three populations with geographic isolation exhibited a near lack of gene flow and spatially correspond to three glacial refugia. ====Iberian wolf==== The Iberian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies (Canis lupus signatus) in 1907 by zoologist Ángel Cabrera. The wolves of the Iberian peninsula have morphologically distinct features from other Eurasian wolves and each are considered by their researchers to represent their own subspecies. The taxonomic reference Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize Canis lupus signatus; however, NCBI/Genbank does list it. ====Himalayan wolf==== The Himalayan wolf is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves. The taxonomic name of this wolf is disputed, with the species Canis himalayensis being proposed based on two limited DNA studies. ====Indian plains wolf==== The Indian plains wolf is a proposed clade within the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) that is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves except for the Himalayan wolf. The taxonomic status of this wolf clade is disputed, with the separate species Canis indica being proposed based on two limited DNA studies. ====Southern Chinese wolf==== In 2017, a comprehensive study found that the gray wolf was present across all of mainland China, both in the past and today. It exists in southern China, which refutes claims made by some researchers in the Western world that the wolf had never existed in southern China. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered Canis lycaon a valid species. ====Red wolf==== The red wolf is an enigmatic taxon, of which there are two proposals over its origin. One is that the red wolf is a distinct species (C. rufus) that has undergone human-influenced admixture with coyotes. The other is that it was never a distinct species but was derived from past admixture between coyotes and gray wolves, due to the gray wolf population being eliminated by humans. The taxonomic reference Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize Canis rufus; however, NCBI/Genbank does list it. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered Canis rufus a valid species.	[ "Eastern United States", "W. Chris Wozencraft", "Dingo", "Canis lupus dingo", "Greenland", "mitochondrial DNA", "List of dog breeds", "France", "Yemen", "Florida", "Cave wolf", "Kamchatka peninsula", "Mammal Species of the World", "Palestine (region)", "Northwestern wolf", "Dingo (taxon)", "Hokkaido", "African golden wolf", "Integrated Taxonomic Information System", "Bernard's wolf", "Carl Linnaeus", "Western Europe", "Texas wolf", "Midwestern United States", "Canis rufus floridanus", "Europe", "Cascade mountain wolf", "Synonym (taxonomy)", "binomial nomenclature", "Australia (continent)", "Vancouver Island wolf", "Honshū", "dingo", "Greenland wolf", "forest", "Shikoku", "Interior Alaska", "Canis lupus italicus", "Steppe wolf", "Mogollon mountain wolf", "Locus (genetics)", "Israel", "Kuril Islands", "Gregory's wolf", "Alberta", "British Columbia wolf", "Hudson Bay", "Mexico", "Mackenzie River wolf", "American Society of Mammalogists", "Alaskan tundra wolf", "Cascade Range", "Pleistocene wolf", "Caucasus", "Great Plains", "Paul Matschie", "Dog", "Spain", "Kenai Peninsula", "Saudi Arabia", "ecotype", "Phylogenetic tree", "Himalayas", "Italian wolf", "Heterozygous", "Sicilian wolf", "Kazakhstan", "North Carolina", "Jordan", "Sakhalin", "Oman", "Megafaunal wolf", "Florida black wolf", "Ukraine", "Reginald Innes Pocock", "Kenai Peninsula wolf", "Iturup", "Portugal", "genotype", "Labrador", "United States", "fulvous", "Mexican wolf", "Alexander Archipelago wolf", "Arctic wolf", "Newfoundland (island)", "Saskatchewan", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "Y-chromosome", "Baffin Island", "coyote", "Zhejiang", "Turkey", "Manitoba", "Point Barrow", "New York (state)", "Ussuri River", "India", "MSW3", "alleles", "Evolution of the wolf", "Wolf distribution", "Alexander Archipelago", "Egypt", "Edward Alphonso Goldman", "New Mexico", "IUCN Red List", "Iberian Peninsula", "Yukon", "Hokkaido wolf", "canid", "Wyoming", "Michigan", "New Guinea singing dog", "Southern United States", "Vancouver Island", "largest prehistoric animals", "extinction", "Indian wolf", "Great Lakes wolf", "species", "St. Petersburg Times", "Canis", "Tibetan Plateau", "Korea", "Sinai Peninsula", "Red wolf", "Arabian wolf", "Ontario", "Baffin Island wolf", "Victoria Island (Canada)", "Kunashir Island", "Northern Rocky Mountain wolf", "Kamchatka", "Queen Elizabeth Islands", "Pakistan", "Quebec", "Eurasian wolf", "red wolf", "Idaho", "Newfoundland wolf", "Australasia", "China", "Ellesmere Island", "Canis rufus gregoryi", "Mongolia", "Wisconsin", "Canis rufus rufus", "Sicily", "Asia", "Italy", "taxonomic synonym", "Texas", "Ángel Cabrera (naturalist)", "Coenraad Jacob Temminck", "10th edition of Systema Naturae", "Mississippi River", "Great Plains wolf", "Kyūshū", "New Guinea", "Genbank", "Colorado", "Switzerland", "Wolf", "tundra", "genus", "Nevada", "common name", "Scandinavia", "IUCN", "Brian Houghton Hodgson", "John Edward Gray", "Russia", "Iraq", "Austro-Hungarian wolf", "L. David Mech", "Southern Rocky Mountain wolf", "Labrador wolf", "Rocky Mountains", "subspecies", "northwestern United States", "Algonquin Provincial Park", "Japanese wolf", "Basal (phylogenetics)", "Mongolian wolf", "X-chromosome", "Alaska", "Vancouver Coastal Sea wolf", "Hudson Bay wolf", "Minnesota", "Tundra wolf", "Morphology (biology)", "Melville Island (Northwest Territories and Nunavut)", "Honshu wolf", "Banks Island", "Iberian wolf", "Kyukichi Kishida", "Iran", "List of gray wolf populations by country", "Edmond de Sélys Longchamps", "Northwest Territories", "Manitoba wolf", "Philip Sclater", "Eastern wolf", "Arctic Archipelago", "Russian wolf", "Utah", "Italian Peninsula", "Subspecies", "British Columbia", "Interior Alaskan wolf", "Avetrana", "Inner Mongolia", "Evolutionary pressure", "type specimen", "Himalayan wolf", "haplotype", "nominate subspecies", "selective breeding", "Arizona", "dhole", "Barren Grounds", "Modest Bogdanov" ]
6,742	Central Asia	{{Infobox continent \| title = Central Asia \| image = Central Asia (orthographic projection).svg \| area = \| population = 75,897,577 (2021) (16th) \| density = \| GDP_nominal = $446 billion (2023) \| GDP_PPP = $1.25 trillion (2023) The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian suffix "-stan" (meaning ) in both respective native languages and most other languages. The region is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the southwest, European Russia to the northwest, China and Mongolia to the east, Afghanistan and Iran to the south, and Siberia to the north. In the pre-Islamic and early Islamic eras ( and earlier) Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by Iranian peoples, populated by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Dahae. As the result of Turkic migration, Central Asia also became the homeland for the Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Tatars, Turkmens, Uyghurs, and Uzbeks; Turkic languages largely replaced the Iranian languages spoken in the area, with the exception of Tajikistan and areas where Tajik is spoken. The Silk Road trade routes crossed through Central Asia, leading to the rise of prosperous trade cities. acting as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe and the Far East. Most countries in Central Asia are still integral to parts of the world economy. From the mid-19th century until near the end of the 20th century, Central Asia was colonised by the Russians, and incorporated into the Russian Empire, and later the Soviet Union, which led to Russians and other Slavs migrating into the area. Modern-day Central Asia is home to a large population of descendants of European settlers, who mostly live in Kazakhstan: 7 million Russians, 500,000 Ukrainians, and about 170,000 Germans. During the Stalinist period, the forced deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union resulted in a population of over 300,000 Koreans in the region. Central Asia has a population of about 72 million, in five countries: Kazakhstan ( million), Kyrgyzstan ( million), Tajikistan ( million), Turkmenistan ( million), and Uzbekistan (35million). == Definitions == One of the first geographers to mention Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Historically, political geography and culture have been two significant parameters widely used in scholarly definitions of Central Asia. Humboldt's definition comprised every country between 5° North and 5° South of the latitude 44.5°N. Humboldt mentions some geographic features of this region, which include the Caspian Sea in the west, the Altai mountains in the north and the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains in the South. He did not give an eastern border for the region. His legacy is still seen: Humboldt University of Berlin, named after him, offers a course in Central Asian studies. The Russian geographer Nikolaĭ Khanykov questioned the latitudinal definition of Central Asia and preferred a physical one of all countries located in the region landlocked from water, including Afghanistan, Khorasan (Northeast Iran), Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, East Turkestan (Xinjiang), Mongolia, and Uzbekistan. Russian culture has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия (Srednyaya Aziya or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition, which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, Central Asian lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия (Tsentralnaya Aziya or "Central Asia", the wider definition, which includes Central Asian lands that have never been part of historical Russia). The latter definition includes Afghanistan and 'East Turkestan'. The most limited definition was the official one of the Soviet Union, which defined Middle Asia as consisting solely of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, omitting Kazakhstan. Soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the leaders of the four former Soviet Central Asian Republics met in Tashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia. In 1978, UNESCO defined the region as "Afghanistan, north-eastern Iran, Pakistan, northern India, western China, Mongolia and the Soviet Central Asian Republics". An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by Eastern Turkic, Eastern Iranian, or Mongolian peoples. These areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan and the Kashmir Valley of India may also be included. The Tibetans and Ladakhis are also included. Most of the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan. == Geography == Central Asia is a region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains (Tian Shan), vast deserts (Kyzyl Kum, Taklamakan), and especially treeless, grassy steppes. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a homogeneous geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming. The Gobi Desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77°E, to the Great Khingan (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118°E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes: The world's northernmost desert (sand dunes), at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, 50°18'N. The Northern Hemisphere's southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17'N. The world's shortest distance between non-frozen desert and permafrost: . The Eurasian pole of inaccessibility. A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in the region's cities. Major rivers of the region include the Amu Darya, the Syr Darya, Irtysh, the Hari River and the Murghab River. Major bodies of water include the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash, both of which are part of the huge west-central Asian endorheic basin that also includes the Caspian Sea. Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to the diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia and can lead to rather significant international disputes. == Historical regions == Central Asia is bounded on the north by the forests of Siberia. The northern half of Central Asia (Kazakhstan) is the middle part of the Eurasian steppe. Westward the Kazakh steppe merges into the Russian-Ukrainian steppe and eastward into the steppes and deserts of Dzungaria and Mongolia. Southward the land becomes increasingly dry and the nomadic population increasingly thin. The south supports areas of dense population and cities wherever irrigation is possible. The main irrigated areas are along the eastern mountains, along the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers and along the north flank of the Kopet Dagh near the Persian border. East of the Kopet Dagh is the important oasis of Merv and then a few places in Afghanistan like Herat and Balkh. Two projections of the Tian Shan create three "bays" along the eastern mountains. The largest, in the north, is eastern Kazakhstan, traditionally called Jetysu or Semirechye which contains Lake Balkhash. In the center is the small but densely-populated Ferghana valley. In the south is Bactria, later called Tocharistan, which is bounded on the south by the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan. The Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rises in the Ferghana valley and the Amu Darya (Oxus) rises in Bactria. Both flow northwest into the Aral Sea. Where the Oxus meets the Aral Sea it forms a large delta called Khwarazm and later the Khanate of Khiva. North of the Oxus is the less-famous but equally important Zarafshan River which waters the great trading cities of Bokhara and Samarkand. The other great commercial city was Tashkent northwest of the mouth of the Ferghana valley. The land immediately north of the Oxus was called Transoxiana and also Sogdia, especially when referring to the Sogdian merchants who dominated the silk road trade. To the east, Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin were united into the Manchu-Chinese province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang; Hsin-kiang) about 1759. Caravans from China usually went along the north or south side of the Tarim basin and joined at Kashgar before crossing the mountains northwest to Ferghana or southwest to Bactria. A minor branch of the silk road went north of the Tian Shan through Dzungaria and Zhetysu before turning southwest near Tashkent. Nomadic migrations usually moved from Mongolia through Dzungaria before turning southwest to conquer the settled lands or continuing west toward Europe. The Kyzyl Kum Desert or semi-desert is between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and the Karakum Desert is between the Oxus and Kopet Dagh in Turkmenistan. Khorasan meant approximately northeast Persia and northern Afghanistan. Margiana was the region around Merv. The Ustyurt Plateau is between the Aral and Caspian Seas. To the southwest, across the Kopet Dagh, lies Persia. From here Persian and Islamic civilisation penetrated Central Asia and dominated its high culture until the Russian conquest. In the southeast is the route to India. In early times Buddhism spread north and throughout much of history warrior kings and tribes would move southeast to establish their rule in northern India. Most nomadic conquerors entered from the northeast. After 1800 western civilisation in its Russian and Soviet form penetrated from the northwest. Names of historical regions Ariana Bactria Dahistan Khorasan Khwarazm Margiana Parthia Sogdia Tokharistan Transoxiana Turan Turkestan == Climate == Because Central Asia is landlocked and not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are often severe, excluding the hot, sunny summer months. In most areas, the climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cool to cold winters, with occasional snowfall. Outside high-elevation areas, the climate is mostly semi-arid to arid. In lower elevations, summers are hot with blazing sunshine. Winters feature occasional rain or snow from low-pressure systems that cross the area from the Mediterranean Sea. Average monthly precipitation is very low from July to September, rises in autumn (October and November) and is highest in March or April, followed by swift drying in May and June. Winds can be strong, producing dust storms sometimes, especially toward the end of the summer in September and October. Specific cities that exemplify Central Asian climate patterns include Tashkent and Samarkand, Uzbekistan, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, and Dushanbe, Tajikistan. The last of these represents one of the wettest climates in Central Asia, with an average annual precipitation of over . Biogeographically, Central Asia is part of the Palearctic realm. The largest biome in Central Asia is the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Central Asia also contains the montane grasslands and shrublands, deserts and xeric shrublands and temperate coniferous forests biomes. === Climate change === As of 2022, there has been a scarcity of research on climate impacts in Central Asia, even though it experiences faster warming than the global average and is generally considered to be one of the more climate-vulnerable regions in the world. Along with West Asia, it has already had greater increases in hot temperature extremes than the other parts of Asia, == History == Although, during the golden age of Orientalism the place of Central Asia in the world history was marginalised, contemporary historiography has rediscovered the "centrality" of the Central Asia. The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult, and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus, few major cities developed in the region; instead, the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the steppe. Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare, and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, limited only by their lack of internal unity. Any internal unity that was achieved was most probably due to the influence of the Silk Road, which traveled along Central Asia. Periodically, great leaders or changing conditions would organise several tribes into one force and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the Hun invasion of Europe, the Five Barbarians rebellions in China and most notably the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia. During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by speakers of Iranian languages. Among the ancient sedentary Iranian peoples, the Sogdians and Chorasmians played an important role, while Iranian peoples such as Scythians and the later on Alans lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 6th and 11th centuries, when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Eurasian Steppe slowly transitioned from Indo European and Iranian-speaking groups with dominant West-Eurasian ancestry to a more heterogeneous region with increasing East Asian ancestry through Turkic and Mongolian groups in the past thousands years, including extensive Turkic and later Mongol migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations. In the 8th century AD, the Islamic expansion reached the region but had no significant demographic impact. In the 13th century AD, the Mongolian invasion of Central Asia brought most of the region under Mongolian influence, which had "enormous demographic success", but did not impact the cultural or linguistic landscape. === Invasion routes through Central Asia === Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European speaking people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Southern Siberia and Mongolia that would drastically affect the region. Genetic data shows that the different Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples have between ~22% and ~70% East Asian ancestry (represented by "Baikal hunter-gatherer ancestry" shared with other Northeast Asians and Eastern Siberians), in contrast to Iranian-speaking Central Asians, specifically Tajiks, which display genetic continuity to Indo-Iranians of the Iron Age. Certain Turkic ethnic groups, specifically the Kazakhs, display even higher East Asian ancestry. This is explained by substantial Mongolian influence on the Kazakh genome, through significant admixture between blue eyes, blonde hair, the medieval Kipchaks of Central Asia and the invading medieval Mongolians. The data suggests that the Mongol invasion of Central Asia had lasting impacts onto the genetic makeup of Kazakhs. According to recent genetic genealogy testing, the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between the Iranian peoples and the Mongols. Another study shows that the Uzbeks are closely related to other Turkic peoples of Central Asia and rather distant from Iranian people. The study also analysed the maternal and paternal DNA haplogroups and shows that Turkic speaking groups are more homogenous than Iranian speaking groups. Genetic studies analyzing the full genome of Uzbeks and other Central Asian populations found that about ~27-60% of the Uzbek ancestry is derived from East Asian sources, with the remainder ancestry (~40–73%) being made up by European and Middle Eastern components. According to a recent study, the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens share more of their gene pool with various East Asian and Siberian populations than with West Asian or European populations, though the Turkmens have a large percentage from populations to the east, their main components are Central Asian. The study further suggests that both migration and linguistic assimilation helped to spread the Turkic languages in Eurasia. === Medieval to modern history === The Tang dynasty of China expanded westwards and controlled large parts of Central Asia, directly and indirectly through their Turkic vassals. Tang China actively supported the Turkification of Central Asia, while extending its cultural influence. The Tang Chinese were defeated by the Abbasid Caliphate at the Battle of Talas in 751, marking the end of the Tang dynasty's western expansion and the 150 years of Chinese influence. The Tibetan Empire would take the chance to rule portions of Central Asia and South Asia. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols conquered and ruled the largest contiguous empire in recorded history. Most of Central Asia fell under the control of the Chagatai Khanate. The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, as firearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. Russia, China, and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Qing dynasty gained control of East Turkestan in the 18th century as a result of a long struggle with the Dzungars. The Russian Empire conquered the lands of the nomadic Kazakhs, Turkmens, Kyrgyz and Central Asian khanates in the 19th century. A major revolt known as the Dungan Revolt occurred in the 1860s and 1870s in the eastern part of Central Asia, and Qing rule almost collapsed in all of East Turkestan. After the Russian Revolution, the western Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. The eastern part of Central Asia, known as Xinjiang, was incorporated into the People's Republic of China, having been previously ruled by the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Mongolia gained its independence from China and has remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the Soviet Union until the Saur Revolution of 1978. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialisation and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivisation programmes, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. Soviet authorities deported millions of people, including entire nationalities, from western areas of the Soviet Union to Central Asia and Siberia. According to Touraj Atabaki and Sanjyot Mehendale, "From 1959 to 1970, about two million people from various parts of the Soviet Union migrated to Central Asia, of which about one million moved to Kazakhstan." === After the collapse of the Soviet Union === With the collapse of the Soviet Union, five countries gained independence, that is, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The historian and Turkologist Peter B. Golden explains that without the imperial manipulations of the Russian Empire but above all the Soviet Union, the creation of said republics would have been impossible. In nearly all the new states, former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies in the early days of independence, although in recent years Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Mongolia have made further progress towards more open societies, unlike Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, which have maintained many Soviet-style repressive tactics. Beginning in the early 2000s, the Chinese government engaged in a series of human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in Xinjiang. == Culture == === Arts === At the crossroads of Asia, shamanistic practices live alongside Buddhism. Thus, Yama, Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism, in particular, was influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. The Qianlong Emperor of Qing China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist and would sometimes travel from Beijing to other cities for personal religious worship. Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisational oral poetry that is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by akyns, lyrical improvisationalists. They engage in lyrical battles, the aytysh or the alym sabak. The tradition arose out of early bardic oral historians. They are usually accompanied by a stringed instrument—in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed komuz, and in Kazakhstan, a similar two-stringed instrument, the dombra. Photography in Central Asia began to develop after 1882, when a Russian Mennonite photographer named Wilhelm Penner moved to the Khanate of Khiva during the Mennonite migration to Central Asia led by Claas Epp, Jr. Upon his arrival to Khanate of Khiva, Penner shared his photography skills with a local student Khudaybergen Divanov, who later became the founder of Uzbek photography. Some also learn to sing the Manas, Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the Manas exclusively but do not improvise are called manaschis). During Soviet rule, akyn performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of the Soviet Union, it has enjoyed a resurgence, although akyns still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. A 2005 The Washington Post article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art of akyns and modern freestyle rap performed in the West. As a consequence of Russian colonisation, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia. The first years of the Soviet regime saw the appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement. Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts. In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes. Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organisations. The years of 1990–2000 were times for the establishment of contemporary arts. In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organised since 2005. === Sports === Equestrian sports are traditional in Central Asia, with disciplines like endurance riding, buzkashi, dzhigit and kyz kuu. The traditional game of Buzkashi is played throughout the Central Asian region, the countries sometimes organise Buzkashi competition amongst each other. The First regional competition among the Central Asian countries, Russia, Chinese Xinjiang and Turkey was held in 2013. The first world title competition was played in 2017 and won by Kazakhstan. Association football is popular across Central Asia. Most countries are members of the Central Asian Football Association, a region of the Asian Football Confederation. However, Kazakhstan is a member of the UEFA. Wrestling is popular across Central Asia, with Kazakhstan having claimed 14 Olympic medals, Uzbekistan seven, and Kyrgyzstan three. As former Soviet states, Central Asian countries have been successful in gymnastics. Mixed Martial Arts is one of more common sports in Central Asia, Kyrgyz athlete Valentina Shevchenko holding the UFC Flyweight Champion title. Cricket is the most popular sport in Afghanistan. The Afghanistan national cricket team, first formed in 2001, has claimed wins over Bangladesh, West Indies and Zimbabwe. Notable Kazakh competitors include cyclists Alexander Vinokourov and Andrey Kashechkin, boxer Vassiliy Jirov and Gennady Golovkin, runner Olga Shishigina, decathlete Dmitriy Karpov, gymnast Aliya Yussupova, judoka Askhat Zhitkeyev and Maxim Rakov, skier Vladimir Smirnov, weightlifter Ilya Ilyin, and figure skaters Denis Ten and Elizabet Tursynbaeva. Notable Uzbekistani competitors include cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov, boxer Ruslan Chagaev, canoer Michael Kolganov, gymnast Oksana Chusovitina, tennis player Denis Istomin, chess player Rustam Kasimdzhanov, and figure skater Misha Ge. == Economy == Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Central Asian republics have gradually been moving from a state-controlled economy to a market economy. However, reform has been deliberately gradual and selective, as governments strive to limit the social cost and ameliorate living standards. All five countries are implementing structural reforms to improve competitiveness. Kazakhstan is the only CIS country to be included in the 2020 and 2019 IWB World Competitiveness rankings. In particular, they have been modernizing the industrial sector and fostering the development of service industries through business-friendly fiscal policies and other measures, to reduce the share of agriculture in GDP. Between 2005 and 2013, the share of agriculture dropped in all but Tajikistan, where it increased while industry decreased. The fastest growth in industry was observed in Turkmenistan, whereas the services sector progressed most in the other four countries. Although both exports and imports have grown significantly over the past decade, Central Asian republics countries remain vulnerable to economic shocks, owing to their reliance on exports of raw materials, a restricted circle of trading partners and a negligible manufacturing capacity. Kyrgyzstan has the added disadvantage of being considered resource poor, although it does have ample water. Most of its electricity is generated by hydropower. In terms of the economic influence of big powers, China is viewed as one of the key economic players in Central Asia, especially after Beijing launched its grand development strategy known as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. The Central Asian countries attracted $378.2billion of foreign direct investment (FDI) between 2007 and 2019. Kazakhstan accounted for 77.7% of the total FDI directed to the region. Kazakhstan is also the largest country in Central Asia accounting for more than 60 percent of the region's gross domestic product (GDP). Central Asian nations fared better economically throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Many variables are likely to have been at play, but disparities in economic structure, the intensity of the pandemic, and accompanying containment efforts may all be linked to part of the variety in nations' experiences. Central Asian countries are, however, predicted to be hit the worst in the future. Only 4% of permanently closed businesses anticipate to return in the future, with huge differences across sectors, ranging from 3% in lodging and food services to 27% in retail commerce. In 2022, experts assessed that global climate change is likely to pose multiple economic risks to Central Asia and may possibly result in many billions of losses unless proper adaptation measures are developed to counter growing temperatures across the region. == Education, science and technology == === Modernisation of research infrastructure === Bolstered by strong economic growth in all but Kyrgyzstan, national development strategies are fostering new high-tech industries, pooling resources and orienting the economy towards export markets. Many national research institutions established during the Soviet era have since become obsolete with the development of new technologies and changing national priorities. This has led countries to reduce the number of national research institutions since 2009 by grouping existing institutions to create research hubs. Several of the Turkmen Academy of Sciences's institutes were merged in 2014: the Institute of Botany was merged with the Institute of Medicinal Plants to become the Institute of Biology and Medicinal Plants; the Sun Institute was merged with the Institute of Physics and Mathematics to become the Institute of Solar Energy; and the Institute of Seismology merged with the State Service for Seismology to become the Institute of Seismology and Atmospheric Physics. In Uzbekistan, more than 10 institutions of the Academy of Sciences have been reorganised, following the issuance of a decree by the Cabinet of Ministers in February 2012. The aim is to orient academic research towards problem-solving and ensure continuity between basic and applied research. For example, the Mathematics and Information Technology Research Institute has been subsumed under the National University of Uzbekistan and the Institute for Comprehensive Research on Regional Problems of Samarkand has been transformed into a problem-solving laboratory on environmental issues within Samarkand State University. Other research institutions have remained attached to the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, such as the Centre of Genomics and Bioinformatics. Kazakhstan and Tajikistan participated in the Innovative Biotechnologies Programme (2011–2015) launched by the Eurasian Economic Community, the predecessor of the Eurasian Economic Union, The programme also involved Belarus and the Russian Federation. Within this programme, prizes were awarded at an annual bio-industry exhibition and conference. In 2012, 86 Russian organisations participated, plus three from Belarus, one from Kazakhstan and three from Tajikistan, as well as two scientific research groups from Germany. At the time, Vladimir Debabov, scientific director of the Genetika State Research Institute for Genetics and the Selection of Industrial Micro-organisms in the Russian Federation, stressed the paramount importance of developing bio-industry. "In the world today, there is a strong tendency to switch from petrochemicals to renewable biological sources", he said. "Biotechnology is developing two to three times faster than chemicals." Four of the five Central Asian republics have also been involved in a project launched by the European Union in September 2013, IncoNet CA. The aim of this project is to encourage Central Asian countries to participate in research projects within Horizon 2020, the European Union's eighth research and innovation funding programme. The focus of this research projects is on three societal challenges considered as being of mutual interest to both the European Union and Central Asia, namely: climate change, energy and health. IncoNet CA builds on the experience of earlier projects which involved other regions, such as Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus and the Western Balkans. IncoNet CA focuses on twinning research facilities in Central Asia and Europe. It involves a consortium of partner institutions from Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Portugal, Tajikistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan. In May 2014, the European Union launched a 24-month call for project applications from twinned institutions – universities, companies and research institutes – for funding of up to €10, 000 to enable them to visit one another's facilities to discuss project ideas or prepare joint events like workshops. \| style="text-align:right;" \| 69.1 \| style="text-align:right;" \| $92.332billion \| style="text-align:right;" \| $2,563 \| style="text-align:right;" \| 0.727 \| style="text-align:left;" \| Tashkent \| style="text-align:left;" \| Uzbek \|} == Demographics == By a broad definition including Mongolia and Afghanistan, more than 90 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only North Asia has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km2, vastly less than the 80.5 people per km2 of the continent as a whole. Kazakhstan is one of the least densely populated countries in the world. === Languages === Russian, as well as being spoken by around six million ethnic Russians and Ukrainians of Central Asia, is the de facto lingua franca throughout the former Soviet Central Asian Republics. Mandarin Chinese has an equally dominant presence in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Xinjiang. The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former Soviet Central Asian Republics belong to the Turkic language group. Turkmen is mainly spoken in Turkmenistan, and as a minority language in Afghanistan, Russia, Iran and Turkey. Kazakh and Kyrgyz are related languages of the Kypchak group of Turkic languages and are spoken throughout Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and as a minority language in Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Xinjiang. Uzbek and Uyghur are spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan and Xinjiang. Middle Iranian languages were once spoken throughout Central Asia, such as the once prominent Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Bactrian and Scythian, which are now extinct and belonged to the Eastern Iranian family. The Eastern Iranian Pashto language is still spoken in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Other minor Eastern Iranian languages such as Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi, Sarikoli, Wakhi, Yaghnobi and Ossetic are also spoken at various places in Central Asia. Varieties of Persian are also spoken as a major language in the region, locally known as Dari (in Afghanistan), Tajik (in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), and Bukhori (by the Bukharan Jews of Central Asia). Tocharian, another Indo-European language group, which was once predominant in oases on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang, is now extinct. Other language groups include the Tibetic languages, spoken by around six million people across the Tibetan Plateau and into Qinghai, Sichuan (Szechwan), Ladakh and Baltistan, and the Nuristani languages of northeastern Afghanistan. Korean is spoken by the Koryo-saram minority, mainly in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. === Religions === Islam is the religion most common in the Central Asian Republics, Afghanistan, Xinjiang, and the peripheral western regions, such as Bashkortostan. Most Central Asian Muslims are Sunni, although there are sizable Shia minorities in Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Buddhism and Zoroastrianism were the major faiths in Central Asia before the arrival of Islam. Zoroastrian influence is still felt today in such celebrations as Nowruz, held in all five of the Central Asian states. The transmission of Buddhism along the Silk Road eventually brought the religion to China. Amongst the Turkic peoples, Tengrism was the leading religion before Islam. Tibetan Buddhism is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, Ladakh, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia. The form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries was Nestorianism, but now the largest denomination is the Russian Orthodox Church, with many members in Kazakhstan, where about 25% of the population of 19 million identify as Christian, 17% in Uzbekistan and 5% in Kyrgyzstan. Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, around 6 million Christians lived in Central Asian countries, the Pew Forum study finds that Kazakhstan (4.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the region, followed by Uzbekistan (710,000), Kyrgyzstan (660,000), Turkmenistan (320,000) and Tajikistan (100,000). The Bukharan Jews were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but nearly all have emigrated since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In Siberia, shaministic practices persist, including forms of divination such as Kumalak. Contact and migration with Han people from China has brought Confucianism, Daoism, Mahayana Buddhism, and other Chinese folk beliefs into the region. Central Asia is where many integral beliefs and elements in various religious traditions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism.]] Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus, it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers than as a power in its own right. Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes to and from all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated. To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian Empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan. To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia since the Silk Road period of Han dynasty. However, with the Sino-Soviet split and collapse of Soviet Union, China would project its soft power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region. To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond. From its base in India, the British Empire competed with the Russian Empire for influence in the region in the 19th and 20th centuries. To the Southwest, West Asian powers have expanded into the southern areas of Central Asia (usually Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well. Turkey, through a common Turkic nation identity, has gradually increased its ties and influence as well in the region. Furthermore, since Uzbekistan announced their intention to join in April 2018, Turkey and all of the Central Asian Turkic-speaking states except Turkmenistan are together part of the Turkic Council. In the post–Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States: Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the former SSRs; although, as other countries move into the area, Russia's influence has begun to wane though Russia still maintains military bases in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The United States, with its military involvement in the region and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics. India has geographic proximity to the Central Asian region and, in addition, enjoys considerable influence on Afghanistan. India maintains a military base at Farkhor, Tajikistan, and also has extensive military relations with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Turkey also exerts considerable influence in the region on account of its ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and its involvement in the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline. Political and economic relations are growing rapidly (e.g., Turkey recently eliminated visa requirements for citizens of the Central Asian Turkic republics). Iran, the seat of historical empires that controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region and is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf. Pakistan, a nuclear-armed Islamic state, has a history of political relations with neighbouring Afghanistan and is termed capable of exercising influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeks natural gas from Central Asia and supports the development of pipelines from its countries. According to an independent study, Turkmenistan is supposed to be the fifth largest natural gas field in the world. The mountain ranges and areas in northern Pakistan lie on the fringes of Greater Central Asia; the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan lies adjacent to Tajikistan, separated only by the narrow Afghan Wakhan Corridor. Being located on the northwest of South Asia, the area forming modern-day Pakistan maintained extensive historical and cultural links with the central Asian region. Japan has an important and growing influence in Central Asia, with the master plan of the capital city of Astana in Kazakhstan being designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, and the Central Asia plus Japan initiative designed to strengthen ties between them and promote development and stability of the region. Russian historian Lev Gumilev wrote that Xiongnu, Mongols (Mongol Empire, Zunghar Khanate) and Turkic peoples (First Turkic Khaganate, Uyghur Khaganate) played a role to stop Chinese aggression to the north. The Turkic Khaganate had special policy against Chinese assimilation policy. The region, along with Russia, is also part of "the great pivot" as per the Heartland Theory of Halford Mackinder, which says that the power which controls Central Asia—richly endowed with natural resources—shall ultimately be the "empire of the world". For example, the region is endowed with various mineral resources such as chromium, cobalt, zinc, copper, silver, lithium, lead, molybdenum and many others making it a potential major global supplier of critical materials for clean energy technologies. === War on Terror === In the context of the United States' War on Terror, Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S. government to Major non-NATO ally because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden. Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda under the protection of Mullah Omar and the Taliban, was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001 and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region. Western governments have accused Russia, China and the former Soviet republics of justifying the suppression of separatist movements, and the associated ethnics and religion with the War on Terror. == Major cultural, scientific and economic centres == === Cities in Central Asia ===	[ "Abbasid Caliphate", "Silk Road", "Dari", "Halford Mackinder", "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe", "Washington, D.C.", "Pamirs", "Michael Kolganov", "Martha Brill Olcott", "Singapore", "Hindutash", "Inner Asia", "Uzbekistan", "International Oil and Gas University", "Kyrgyz language", "endurance riding", "List of endangered languages in China", "firearm", "Official languages", "Afghanistan", "Caucasus", "zinc", "northern India", "Freestyle battle", "Gennady Golovkin", "Kurmanbek Bakiyev", "Cambridge", "Inha University in Tashkent", "Christians", "Sarikoli language", "Bukhori", "Pustaka Nasional", "Dmitriy Karpov", "Qianlong Emperor", "UTC+06:00", "Jetysu", "temperate coniferous forests", "Time in Kazakhstan", "Kumalak", "Russian Turkestan", "Mediterranean Sea", "Bishkek", "Ferghana valley", "Ted Rall", "Fergana Region", "Lake Balkhash", "Dzungar–Qing Wars", "Yaghnobi language", "Kazakh language", "Columbia University", "climate change vulnerability", "Andijan", "Russian Revolution", "Nestorianism", "lithium", "Time in Tajikistan", "Elizabet Tursynbaeva", "Persecution of Uyghurs in China", "Tibetan Plateau", "Mountains of Central Asia", "Volga Tatars", "Iranian languages", "Humboldt University of Berlin", ".kz", "Andronovo culture", "China", "Tokharistan", "marketplace", "Pew Research Center", "Eurasia", "Soviet infrastructure in Central Asia", "Kyrgyzstan", "Tajiks", "satellite state", "Great Khingan", "European Union's scientific cooperation beyond the bloc", "Persian language", "Koryo-mar", "Tibetic languages", "Askhat Zhitkeyev", "United Nations", "National University of Uzbekistan", "Taklamakan", "Andrey Kashechkin", "Denis Istomin", "stringed instrument", "Maxim Rakov", "Tibetan Empire", "Russia", "Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program", "Climate Action Tracker", "International Monetary Fund", "dombra", "Science and technology in Turkmenistan", "Gobi Desert", "shaministic", "Tibetan Buddhism", "Kazakh SSR", "Horizon 2020", "Russian language", "Scythian language", "The Washington Post", "British Empire", "Eurasian steppe", "nomad", "Chagatai Khanate", "Bactria", "Iran", "Irreligion", "land use", "Greater Central Asia", "Uzbek photography", "Fergana", "Turan", "Xinjiang", "shamanistic", "Manas (epic)", ".tm", "Timeline of Mongol conquests", "West Asia", "Sogdia", "East Turkestan", "National Bureau of Asian Research", "Mixed Martial Arts", "Mongol Empire", "Siberia", "Ulugh Beg", "Russian Mennonite", "Continentality", "Kipchaks", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Institute of Biology and Medicinal Plants", "the Pentagon", "Osh", "Capital (political)", "Uzbeks", "dust storm", "Indo European", "Aliya Yussupova", "Russian Empire", "Turkestan", "Ethnic groups in Chinese history", "Time in Uzbekistan", "Five Barbarians", "Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)", "Osh Region", "aytysh", "Nuristani languages", "Pashto language", "European Russia", "New York City", "Drought", "Buddhism in Central Asia", "Ustyurt Plateau", "Scythians", "Invasion and rebellion of the Five Barbarians", "Iron Age", "UNESCO Institute for Statistics", "Cricket", "Soviet Union", "Ukrainians", "Folk religion", "oasis", "Russian conquest of Central Asia", "Zarafshan River", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "Food prices", "Balkh", "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation", "alym sabak", "Uzbek Academy of Sciences", "Greater Khorasan", "UNESCO", "Han people", "Murghab River", "Tajik language", "Chirchik River", "Almazbek Atambayev", "Uzbek language", "Eurasian Economic Community", "Time in Turkmenistan", "International Solar Energy Institute", "Turkic peoples", "nomadic empire", "Khorasan province", "Horses in warfare", "Khwarezmian language", "World", "Shughni language", "Tian Shan", "Chagatai language", "Bukhara Region", "Kyrgyzstan Time", "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita", "People's Republic of China", "Saur Revolution", "Wakhan Corridor", "kyz kuu", "Samarqand Region", "Tocharian languages", "Agriculture in Central Asia", "Vladimir Smirnov (skier)", "Central Asian Union", "Nazarbayev University", "sand dunes", "Russian conquest of Bukhara", "Farkhor Air Base", "Hari River, Afghanistan", "Almaty", "Christianity", "Turkmenistan", "dzhigit", "Central Asian Games", "Uyghur language", "Heartland Theory", "Wrestling", "Amu Darya", "Kokand", "Karakalpak language", "Tashkent", "Qing dynasty", "Bashkortostan", "Margiana", "deserts and xeric shrublands", "International Security Assistance Force", "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia", "Silk Road transmission of Buddhism", "Tengrism", "Hun", "Dungan language", "Institute of Solar Energy", "Ruslan Chagaev", "Central Asian studies", "Peter B. Golden", "War on Terror", "Xinjiang under Qing rule", "Pontic steppes", "natural gas", "Islam in Central Asia", "European emigration", "Transoxiana", "Turkologist", "cobalt", "Namangan", "Tarim Basin", ".tj", "Islamic expansion", "Aral Sea", "Bologna Process", "The Australian Academy of Science", "Gilgit–Baltistan", "Kazakhs", "buzkashi", "Turkmens", "komuz", "Cosmos (magazine)", "Major non-NATO ally", "Asian Development Bank", "Mahayana Buddhism", "Ariana", "gymnastics", "steppe nomads", "Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline", "List of continents by population", "biome", "History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine and the Soviet Union", "Karakum Desert", "-stan", "Population transfer in the Soviet Union", "Russians", "Economic Cooperation Organization", "Flyweight", "steppe", "Hartford", "Lev Gumilev", "List of countries by area", "divination", "semi-arid", "Osama bin Laden", "Science and technology in Kyrgyzstan", "Persian art", "Dushanbe", "Iranian peoples", "North Asia", "Jaxartes", "Turkic Council", "Pole of inaccessibility", "Beijing", "Science and technology in Kazakhstan", "molybdenum", "Nisa (village)", "Uyghur Khaganate", "dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Kazakhstan", "List of countries by population density", "desert", "Oxus", "Khanate of Khiva", "Middle Iranian languages", "Bactrians", "Sogdian language", "Confucianism", "Olga Shishigina", "Zoroastrianism", "Golestan", "Afghanistan national cricket team", "Taliban", "Turkmen Academy of Sciences", "UTC+05:00", "Ilya Ilyin", "Eurasian Economic Union", "Palearctic realm", "Uyghurs", "Russian Orthodox Church", "Khwarazm", "Irtysh", "khanat", "Bactrian language", "Eastern Europe", "Baltistan", "Battle of Talas", "Wakhi language", "Slavs", "mountain ranges", "Djamolidine Abdoujaparov", "Han dynasty", "Ashgabat", "Mongolia", "Svat Soucek", "Orbis Books", "UFC", "Cambridge University Press", "Sogdians", "copper", "Zunghar Khanate", "Samarkand", "Tang dynasty", ".kg", "International Science and Technology Center", "Council on Foreign Relations", "oral poetry", "Russian culture", "Islamic Republic of Afghanistan", "Time (magazine)", "Proto-Indo-Europeans", "Hindu Kush", "Kyrgyz people", "Kyrgyzs", "Alans", "Far East", "Mandarin Chinese", "Erdenetsogt", "Association football", "Qinghai", "Buddhism", "Equestrianism", "permafrost", "genetic genealogy", "Central Asian Football Association", "Inner Mongolia", "Sichuan", "Bukharan Jews", "temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands", ".uz", "United States Institute of Peace Press", "Claas Epp, Jr.", "Pakistan", "First Turkic Khaganate", "Oksana Chusovitina", "Soviet Central Asia", "Centre of Genomics and Bioinformatics", "Indo-Iranians", "Central Asia plus Japan", "lingua franca", "Central Asian Football Federation", "Islam", "Kashgar", "Institute of Seismology and Atmospheric Physics", "List of country calling codes", "Northern Hemisphere", "Oral tradition", "war", "Shymkent", "Science and technology in Uzbekistan", "Misha Ge", "cleric", "BBC News", "NBM Publishing", "AACAR", "Mongols", "Central Asians in ancient Indian literature", "Tibetans", "Chinese Folk Religion", "Kopet Dagh", "Rustam Kasimdzhanov", "Bokhara", "List of countries by population", "Daoism", "World Trade Organization", "Astana", "Vintage Books", "endorheic", "Turkmen language", "Chüy Region", "Asian Football Confederation", "Herat", "Caspian Sea", "Sunni", "collapse of the Soviet Union", "Eastern Iranian", "Koryo-saram", "Rainfall", "Ishkashimi language", "Tajikistan", "Munji language", "Merv", "UEFA", "European Union", "Turkey", "Western Regions", "Vassiliy Jirov", "Mongolian Buddhism", "Afghan Turkestan", "Mongolian language", "Country", "Aktöbe", "Mandelbaum, Michael", "Samarkand State University", "Google Books", "Buzkashi", "Ossetic", "Eurasian Steppe", "montane grasslands and shrublands", "deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union", "Nowruz", "lead", "HDI", "Karagandy", "freestyle rap", "chromium", "Kashmir Valley", "Asia", "Kangju", "List of countries by GDP (nominal)", "Mongol invasion of Central Asia", "silver", "Dahae", "Mullah Omar", "1948 Ashgabat earthquake", "Syr Darya", "Physics Sun Institute", "Shia", "Turkic languages", "Yama (East Asia)", "Parthia", "Bukhara", "Mongolic peoples", "Alexander Vinokourov", "Korean language", "pole of inaccessibility", "Denis Ten", "Judaism", "Kyzyl Kum", "Roza Otunbayeva", "Turkic migration", "Chinese Turkestan", "Ladakh", "Valentina Shevchenko", "Timurid Empire", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "Alexander von Humboldt", "Indo-European languages", "Fergana Valley", "Xiongnu", "Southern Siberia", "Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China" ]
6,744	Constantine II	Constantine II may refer to: Constantine II (emperor) (317–340), Roman Emperor 337–340 Constantine III (usurper) (died 411), known as Constantine II of Britain in British legend Patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople from 754 to 766 Antipope Constantine II (died 768), antipope from 767 to 768 Constantine II of Scotland (c.878 – 952), King of Scotland 900–942 or 943 Constantine II, Prince of Armenia (died 1129) Constantine II of Cagliari (c. 1100 – 1163) Constantine II of Torres (died 1198), called de Martis, was the giudice of Logudoro Constantine II the Woolmaker (died 1322), Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church Constantine II, King of Armenia (died 1344), first Latin King of Armenian Cilicia of the Lusignan dynasty Constantine II of Bulgaria (early 1370s–1422), last emperor of Bulgaria 1396–1422. Eskender (1471–1494), Emperor of Ethiopia sometimes known as Constantine II Constantine II of Georgia (c. 1447 – 1505) Constantine II, Prince of Mukhrani (died 1716), Georgian nobleman Constantine II of Kakheti (died 1732), King of Kakheti 1722–1732 Constantine II of Greece (1940–2023), Olympic champion (1960) and formerly King of the Hellenes March 6, 1964 – June 1, 1973	[ "Constantine II of Georgia", "Constantine III (usurper)", "Constantine II of Bulgaria", "Constantine II of Kakheti", "Constantius II", "Patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople", "Constantine II, King of Armenia", "Constantine II, Prince of Armenia", "Constantine II the Woolmaker", "Constans II (Byzantine Empire)", "Constantine II (emperor)", "Constantine II of Cagliari", "Constantine II, Prince of Mukhrani", "Constantine II of Greece", "Constantine II of Scotland", "Antipope Constantine II", "Constantine II of Torres", "Eskender" ]
6,745	Couscous	Couscous () is a traditional North African dish of small steamed granules of rolled semolina that is often served with a stew spooned on top. Pearl millet, sorghum, bulgur, and other cereals are sometimes cooked in a similar way in other regions, and the resulting dishes are also sometimes called couscous. Couscous is a staple food throughout the Maghrebi cuisines of Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, Morocco, and Libya. It was integrated into French and European cuisine at the beginning of the twentieth century, through the French colonial empire and the Pieds-Noirs of Algeria. In 2020, couscous was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list. == Etymology == The word "couscous" (alternately cuscus or kuskus) was first noted in early 17th century French, from Arabic kuskus, from kaskasa 'to pound', and is probably of Berber origin. The term seksu is attested in various Berber dialects such as Kabyle and Rifain, while Saharan Berber dialects such as Touareg and Ghadames have a slightly different form, keskesu. This widespread geographical dispersion of the term strongly suggests its local Berber origin, lending further support to its likely Berber roots as Algerian linguist Salem Chaker suggests. == History == It is unclear when couscous originated. Food historian Lucie Bolens believes couscous originated millennia ago, during the reign of Masinissa in the ancient kingdom of Numidia in present-day Algeria. Traces of cooking vessels akin to couscoussiers have been found in graves from the 3rd century BC, from the time of the berber kings of Numidia, in the city of Tiaret, Algeria. Couscoussiers dating back to the 12th century were found in the ruins of Igiliz, located in the Sous valley of Morocco. According to food writer Charles Perry, couscous originated among the Berbers of Algeria and Morocco between the end of the 11th-century Zirid dynasty, modern-day Algeria, and the rise of the 13th-century Almohad Caliphate. The historian Maxime Rodinson found three recipes for couscous from the 13th century Arabic cookbook Kitab al-Wusla ila al-Habib, written by an Ayyubid author, Known in France since the 16th century, it was brought into French cuisine at the beginning of the 20th century via the French colonial empire and the Pieds-Noirs. == Preparation == Couscous is traditionally made from semolina, the hardest part of the grain of durum wheat (the hardest of all forms of wheat), which resists the grinding of the millstone. The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets, sprinkled with dry flour to keep them separate, and then sieved. Any pellets that are too small to be finished, granules of couscous fall through the sieve and are again rolled and sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets. This labor-intensive process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny couscous granules. In the traditional method of preparing couscous, groups of people come together to make large batches over several days, which are then dried in the sun and used for several months. Handmade couscous may need to be rehydrated as it is prepared; this is achieved by a process of moistening and steaming over stew until the couscous reaches the desired light and fluffy consistency. In some regions, couscous is made from farina or coarsely ground barley or pearl millet. In modern times, couscous production is largely mechanized, and the product is sold worldwide. This couscous can be sauteed before it is cooked in water or another liquid. and voted the third most popular dish in a 2011 survey. == Recognition == In December 2020, Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia obtained official recognition for the knowledge, know-how, and practices pertaining to the production and consumption of couscous on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The joint submission by the four countries was hailed as an "example of international cooperation." == Local variations == Couscous proper is about 2 mm in diameter, but there also exists a larger variety (3 mm more) known as berkoukes, as well as an ultra-fine version (around 1 mm). === Tunisia === In Tunisia, couscous is usually spicy, made with harissa sauce, and served commonly with vegetables and meat, including lamb, fish, seafood, beef, and sometimes (in southern regions) camel. Fish couscous is a Tunisian specialty and can also be made with octopus, squid or other seafood in a hot, red, spicy sauce. Couscous can also be served as a dessert. It is then called Masfuf. Masfuf can also contain raisins, grapes, or pomegranate seeds. === Libya === In Libya, couscous is mostly served with lamb (but sometimes camel meat or, rarely, beef) in Tripoli and the western parts of Libya, but not during official ceremonies or weddings. Another way to eat couscous is as a dessert; it is prepared with dates, sesame, and pure honey and is locally referred to as maghrood. === Malta === In Malta, small round pasta slightly larger than typical couscous is known as kusksu. It is commonly used in a dish of the same name, which includes broad beans (known in Maltese as ful) and ġbejniet, a local type of cheese. === Mauritania === In Mauritania, the couscous uses large wheat grains (mabroum) and is darker than the yellow couscous of Morocco. It is cooked with lamb, beef, or camel meat together with vegetables, primarily onion, tomato, and carrots, then mixed with a sauce and served with ghee, locally known as dhen. == Similar foods == Couscous is made from crushed wheat flour rolled into its constituent granules or pearls, making it distinct from pasta, even pasta such as orzo and risoni of similar size, which is made from ground wheat and either molded or extruded. Couscous and pasta have similar nutritional value, although pasta is usually more refined. In the state of São Paulo, a speciality known as , is made with cornmeal, tomato sauce, tomato pieces, olive oil, boiled egg and other ingredients, such as peas, sweetcorn, hearts of palm and sardines. It is also possible to find the dish made with shredded chicken, tuna or shrimp. All the ingredients are cooked in a pan and then placed and left to set in a mould with a hole in the middle. The Mould is then inverted onto a serving dish. Dambou is a couscous-like dish from Niger. It may be made from semolina for special occasions but is often made with rice, millet, or other grain. Moringa leaves are traditionally included in the dish. In France, this Nigerien dish has been adapted as a specific variant (called couscous aux épinards) of the Maghreb-syle couscous commonly found there, often using spinach in place of the moringa. Fregula is a type of pasta from Sardinia. It is similar to North African Berkoukes and Middle Eastern Moghrabieh. Fregula comes in varying sizes but typically consists of semolina dough rolled into balls 2–3 mm in diameter and toasted in an oven. Kouskousaki (Κουσκουσάκι (in Greek) or kuskus (in Turkish) is a pasta from Greece and Turkey, that is boiled and served with cheese and walnuts. In the Levant, the dish known as moghrabieh (a reference to the Maghreb region) uses the same durum-based semolina flour but rolled into larger ( in diameter) 'pearls' to create a dish that is popular across Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. The pearls are either cooked as part of a stew or flavored with cinnamon and served alongside a chicken and chickpea broth. Palestinian maftoul uses granules that are larger than the North African variety but smaller than moghrabieh pearls ( in diameter) and made with bulgur or Semolina, or a mix of both, white or whole wheat flour are sometimes used in place of semolina, which can sometimes be expensive. It is similarly served alongside a chicken and chickpea broth. "Maftoul" is an Arabic word derived from the root "fa-ta-la," which means to roll or to twist, describing the hand-rolling method used to make the granules. == Dishes with similar names == Israeli couscous is an extruded and toasted pasta and does not share main ingredients or method of production with couscous.	[ "semolina", "Western culture", "Libyan cuisine", "Almohad Caliphate", "Trapani", "stew", "Andalusia", "Attiéké", "Fish as food", "Pearl millet", "Farina (food)", "List of Middle Eastern dishes", "Salem Chaker", "pearl millet", "Ghadamès language", "orzo", "Algerian cuisine", "São Paulo", "carrot", "seafood", "Tunisia", "Israeli couscous", "Chicken (food)", "Tabarka", "barley", "Igiliz", "Berber cuisine", "cornmeal", "UNESCO", "Kabylia", "Northeast Region, Brazil", "Zirid dynasty", "cassava", "Berbers", "The Daily Telegraph", "Moroccan cuisine", "UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists", "Arabic literature", "Algeria", "Morocco", "staple food", "Masinissa", "Maghreb", "food steamer", "Egyptian cuisine", "List of African dishes", "Maghrebi cuisine", "Deutsche Welle", "couscoussier", "Fregula", "INALCO", "Rifians", "Hafsid dynasty", "Libya", "Charles Perry (food writer)", "risoni", "potato", "Tunisian cuisine", "Kitab al tabikh fi-l-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus fi `asr al-Muwahhidin, limu'allif majhul", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Maltese language", "Kabyle people", "Tuareg people", "steaming", "Sicily", "broth", "bulgur", "fonio", "Encyclopedia Britannica", "squid as food", "Maxime Rodinson", "Sous", "sorghum", "Carloforte", "lamb and mutton", "ghee", "Sardinia", "grocery store", "Berber language", "turnip", "Tiaret", "camel meat", "North African cuisine", "Haaretz", "cheesecloth", "Dambou", "Centre de Recherche Berbère", "Berber languages", "octopus as food", "Moringa (genus)", "Ayyubid dynasty", "French colonial empire", "Couscoussier", "Pied-Noir", "Semolina", "harissa", "Algerian couscous", "Mauritania", "Numidia" ]
6,746	Constantius II	Constantius II (; ; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic peoples, while internally the Roman Empire went through repeated civil wars, court intrigues, and usurpations. His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death. Constantius was a son of Constantine the Great, who elevated him to the imperial rank of Caesar on 8 November 324 and after whose death Constantius became Augustus together with his brothers, Constantine II and Constans on 9 September 337. He promptly oversaw the massacre of his father-in-law, an uncle, and several cousins, consolidating his hold on power. The brothers divided the empire among themselves, with Constantius receiving Greece, Thrace, the Asian provinces, and Egypt in the east. For the following decade a costly and inconclusive war against Persia took most of Constantius's time and attention. In the meantime, his brothers Constantine and Constans warred over the western provinces of the empire, leaving the former dead in 340 and the latter as sole ruler of the west. The two remaining brothers maintained an uneasy peace with each other until, in 350, Constans was overthrown and assassinated by the usurper Magnentius. Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a civil war against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of Mursa Major in 351 and Mons Seleucus in 353. Magnentius died by suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire. In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of Caesar to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus's younger half-brother Julian, to the rank of Caesar. As emperor, Constantius promoted Arianism, banned pagan sacrifices, and issued laws against Jews. His military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357. The war against the Sasanians, which had been in a lull since 350, erupted with renewed intensity in 359 and Constantius travelled to the east in 360 to restore stability after the loss of several border fortresses. However, Julian claimed the rank of Augustus in 360, leading to war between the two after Constantius's attempts to persuade Julian to back down failed. No battle was fought, as Constantius became ill and died of fever on 3 November 361 in Mopsuestia, allegedly naming Julian as his rightful successor before his death. ==Early life== Flavius Julius Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia, now Serbia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made caesar by his father on 8 November 324. In 336, religious unrest in Armenia and tense relations between Constantine and king Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and Sassanid Persia. Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier. Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran Mesopotamia and captured Amida. Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara. Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it Antinopolis. == Augustus in the east == In early 337, Constantius hurried to Constantinople after receiving news that his father was near death. After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the Church of the Holy Apostles. Soon after his father's death, the army massacred his relatives descended from the marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus to Flavia Maximiana Theodora, though the details are unclear. Two of Constantius's uncles (Julius Constantius and Flavius Dalmatius) and seven of his cousins were killed, including Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, rulers of Pontus and Moesia respectively, leaving Constantius, his two brothers Constantine II and Constans, and three cousins Gallus, Julian and Nepotianus as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great. While the “official version” was that Constantius's relatives were merely the victims of a mutinous army, Ammianus Marcellinus, Zosimus, Libanius, Athanasius and Julian all blamed Constantius for the event. While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege. Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall. However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses. Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains. Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans's realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush. As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until January 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius. ===War against Magnentius=== Constantius was determined to march west to fight the usurper. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to caesar of the eastern provinces. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to him. Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as augustus. However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius's offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia. In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with a large army. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies. The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube. After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul. In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor. Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353. == Solo reign == Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alamanni on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus. Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to Mediolanum (Milan). In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned Ursicinus, Gallus's magister equitum, for reasons that remain unclear. Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina. Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in Bithynia, Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Poetovio (Ptuj) in Pannonia. In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio. Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces. This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus's execution. He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order. Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius's eunuchs, and Gallus was executed. The Walters Art Museum]] ====Paganism==== Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan sacrifices, and for the worshipping of idols. Pagan temples were shut down, There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments. Paganism was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates. In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins. He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa. Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion. ====Christianity==== Although often considered an Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicene Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism. During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian A. H. M. Jones. "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church." According to the Greek historian Philostorgius (d. 439) in his Ecclesiastical History, Constantius sent an Arian bishop known as Theophilus the Indian (also known as "Theophilus of Yemen") to Tharan Yuhanim, then the king of the South Arabian Himyarite Kingdom to convert the people to Christianity. According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital Zafar. ====Judaism==== Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father. This included edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women. However, Constantius's actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses. ===Further crises=== On 11 August 355, the magister militum Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him magister militum in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius's court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355, he elevated his last remaining male relative, Julian, to the rank of caesar. A few days later, Julian was married to Helena, the last surviving sister of Constantius. Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul. In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by Narseh. Despite rejecting these terms, Constantius tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II. Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed Singara (Sinjar), and taken Kiphas (Hasankeyf), Amida (Diyarbakır), and Ad Tigris (Cizre), he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat. ===Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east=== In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alamanni, who had once again invaded Roman Gaul. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian augustus. On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of augustus and be satisfied with that of caesar. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris. After a time he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II. The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian. ===Death=== Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor. Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361. Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis. ==Marriages and children== Constantius II was married three times: First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3. Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessalonica, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died before 361. Third and lastly, in 361, to Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius's only child, a posthumous daughter named Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian. ==Family tree== Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings 2: Constantine's children ==Reputation== According to DiMaio and Frakes, “...Constantius is hard for the modern historian to fully understand both due to his own actions and due to the interests of the authors of primary sources for his reign.” A. H. M. Jones writes that he "appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage." However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that the emperor "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not". Eutropius wrote of him,He was a man of a remarkably tranquil disposition, good-natured, trusting too much to his friends and courtiers, and at last too much in the power of his wives. He conducted himself with great moderation in the commencement of his reign; he enriched his friends, and suffered none, whose active services he had experienced, to go unrewarded. He was however somewhat inclined to severity, whenever any suspicion of an attempt on the government was excited in him; otherwise he was gentle. His fortune is more to be praised in civil than in foreign wars.	[ "Fausta", "Marcus Nummius Albinus Triturrius", "Mopsuestia", "Eusebius (consul 347)", "damnatio memoriae", "magister militum", "Codex Theodosianus", "Gaiso", "Eusebius (praepositus sacri cubiculi)", "Zosimus (historian)", "Libanius", "Constans I", "Bithynia", "Dalmatius", "Nusaybin", "Cizre", "Pannonia Inferior", "Roman Calendar", "List of Roman consuls", "Sarmatians", "Festus (historian)", "Nicene Creed", "Western Roman Empire", "Bassianus (executed by Constantine)", "Neratius Cerealis", "Ammianus Marcellinus", "Thrace", "Penn Museum", "History of Roman Egypt", "Petronius Probinus (consul 341)", "Constantina", "Arnold Hugh Martin Jones", "Magnentius", "Licinius", "Flavius Dalmatius", "De Imperatoribus Romanis", "Ancient Macedonians", "Vetranio", "Ecumenical council", "Marcus Maecius Memmius Furius Baburius Caecilianus Placidus", "Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)", "Byzantine coinage", "cult image", "Sasanian Persia", "Julius Constantius", "Persian wars of Constantius II", "Flavia Julia Constantia", "A. H. M. Jones", "Eunapius", "Censorius Datianus", "Constantia (wife of Gratian)", "Perso-Roman wars of 337–361", "Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia", "Ursicinus (magister equitum)", "Florentius (consul 361)", "Claudius Silvanus", "Constantius Gallus", "Hispania", "Church of the Holy Apostles", "Moesia", "Philostorgius", "Serbia", "Illyricum (Roman province)", "Sinjar", "Faustina (wife of Constantius II)", "Macedonia (Roman province)", "Tharan Yuhanim", "Roman civil war of 350–353", "Arianism", "Tony Honoré", "Eutropia (sister of Constantine I)", "Narseh", "Julius Julianus", "Sozomen", "Roman Empire", "Hasankeyf", "Greek historian", "Antonius Marcellinus", "List of Roman usurpers", "Taurus (consul 361)", "al-Bab", "Cologne", "South Arabia", "Helena, wife of Julian", "Flavia Maximiana Theodora", "Battle of Mons Seleucus", "Athanasius of Alexandria", "Apostacy", "De Ceremoniis", "Basilina", "Quadi", "Galla (wife of Julius Constantius)", "Siscia", "Joannes Zonaras", "Crispus", "Constantius I", "Cilicia", "Roman Gaul", "Milan", "Pannonia", "magister equitum", "Roman Mesopotamia", "Greece in the Roman era", "Otto Seeck", "Jews", "Antioch", "Porphyry (geology)", "Singara", "Flavius Romulus (consul)", "Sirmium", "Ptuj", "Renaissance", "iarchive:PaulysReal-encyclopadieDerClassischenAltertumswissenschaftVolume7/page/n263/mode/2up", "Lucius Aradius Valerius Proculus", "Constantinople", "Augustus (title)", "Roman Britain", "Colosseum", "Maximian", "Diocese of Pontus", "Daughter of Julius Constantius", "Sextus Anicius Paulinus", "Arbitio", "Quintus Flavius Maesius Egnatius Lollianus Mavortius", "Julian the Apostate", "Licinius II", "Zafar, Yemen", "Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft", "Alexandria", "Poetovio", "Roman Thrace", "Roman Syria", "sacrifice", "Vestal Virgin", "Constantine II (emperor)", "Helena (wife of Julian)", "Syria", "Cyrenaica", "Achaea (Roman province)", "Valerius Maximus (praetorian prefect)", "Himyarite Kingdom", "Battle of Mursa Major", "Theophilos the Indian", "s:de:RE:Constantius 4", "Gratian", "Constantine VII", "Carolingian art", "Julian (emperor)", "Mediolanum", "Constantine the Great", "Nepotianus", "Theophanes the Confessor", "Eutropius (historian)", "Constantinian dynasty", "Constantius Chlorus", "Minervina", "Semi-Arianism", "Roman usurper", "Altar of Victory", "Septimius Acindynus", "Eusebia (empress)", "Italia (Roman Empire)", "Praetorian prefecture of Gaul", "Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–363", "Asia Minor", "Thessaloniki", "Constantine I", "Pula", "Germanic peoples", "Roman emperor", "Wilmer Cave Wright", "Abinnaeus Archive", "Hypatius (consul 359)", "Barbatio", "List of Roman emperors", "Sassanid Empire", "Mauretania Tingitana", "Helena, mother of Constantine I", "Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius", "Sassanid Persia", "Danube", "Vulcacius Rufinus", "Caesar (title)", "Aquileia", "pontifex maximus", "Sasanian Empire", "Diocese of Moesia", "Roman Egypt", "Mesopotamia (Roman province)", "Nisibis", "Praetorian prefecture of Italy", "Constans", "Dominic Montserrat", "Diyarbakir", "Augusti", "Claudius Gothicus", "Eusebius (consul 359)", "Alamanni", "Shapur II", "Hannibalianus", "Rome", "Africa Province", "Thracia (Roman province)" ]
6,747	Constans	Flavius Julius Constans ( 323 – 350), also called Constans I, was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of caesar from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great. After his father's death, he was made augustus alongside his brothers in September 337. Constans was given the administration of the praetorian prefectures of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. He defeated the Sarmatians in a campaign shortly afterwards. In the following years he campaigned against the Franks, and in 343 he visited Roman Britain, Magnentius overthrew and killed Constans. According to the works of both Ausonius and Libanius, he was educated at Constantinople under the tutelage of the poet Aemilius Magnus Arborius, who instructed him in Latin. On 25 December 333, Constans was elevated to the imperial rank of caesar at Constantinople by his father. Prior to 337, Constans became engaged to Olympias, the daughter of the praetorian prefect Ablabius, although the two never actually married.]] After Constantine's death, Constans and his two brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II were proclaimed augusti and divided the Roman empire among themselves on 9 September 337. Constans was left with Italy, Africa and Illyricum. In 338, he campaigned against the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, Constans came into conflict with his eldest brother Constantine II over the latter's presumed authority over Constans' territory. After attempting to issue legislation to Africa in 339, which was part of Constans' realm, Constantine led his army into an invasion of Italy only a year later. However, he was ambushed and killed by Constans' troops, and Constans then took control of his brother's territories. Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion. From 341 to 342, he led a campaign against the Franks where, after an initial setback, the military operation concluded with a victory and a favorable peace treaty. Eutropius wrote that he "had performed many gallant actions in the field, and had made himself feared by the army through the whole course of his life, though without exercising any extraordinary severity," while Ammianus Marcellinus remarked that Julian was the only person the Alamanni feared after the death of Constans. In the early months of 343, he visited Britain, an event celebrated enough for Libanius to dedicate several sections of his panegyric to explaining it. Although the reasons for the visit remain unclear, the ancient writers were primarily interested in Constans' precarious journey to the province, rather than his actions within it. One theory considers it to have involved the northern frontier, based on Ammianus' remark that he had discussed the Areani in his now-lost coverage of Constans' reign. Additionally, after recording attacks "near the frontiers" in 360, the historian wrote that the Alamanni were too much of a threat for Julian to confront the problem, in contrast to what Constans was able to do. Constans was accused of employing corrupt ministers during his reign, due to his purported personal greed. One example included the magister officiorum (master of the offices) Flavius Eugenius, who remained in his position throughout most of the 340s. Despite Eugenius being alleged to have misused his power to seize property, the emperor continued to support him, his trust going as far as to honor him with a statue in the Forum of Trajan in Rome. ===Religion=== Constans issued an edict banning superstition and pagan sacrifices in 341, his justification being that he was following the precedent set by his father. Only a short while later though, he tried to moderate his stance by legislating against the destruction of temple buildings. Constans' support of Nicene orthodoxy and the bishop Athanasius of Alexandria brought him into conflict with his brother Constantius. Although the two emperors called the Council of Serdica in 343 to settle the conflict, it was a complete failure, and by 345 Constans was outright threatening civil war against his brother. Eventually, Constantius agreed to allow Athanasius to return to his position, as the bishop's replacement had recently died. Constans also used the military to suppress Donatism in Africa, where the church was split between Donatists and Catholics. ===Alleged homosexuality=== Unlike Constantius, Constans was targeted with gossip over his personal life. Numerous sources suspected him of homosexuality, presumably based on the fact that he never married. Aurelius Victor charged Constans with "rabid" pederasty towards young barbarian hostages, though Hunt remarked that "the allegation that he kept a coterie of captive barbarians to gratify his homosexual tastes sounds more like hostile folklore." Constans' legislation against homosexuality has been cited to dispute the rumor. ==Death== On 18 January 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum (Autun) with the support of a number of court officials such as Marcellinus, Constans' comes rerum privatarum, as well as Fabius Titianus, who had previously served as the praetorian prefect of Gaul. At the time, Constans was distracted by a hunting trip. As he was trying to reach Hispania, supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in Helena (Elne) in the eastern Pyrenees of southwestern Gaul, where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple. An alleged prophecy at his birth had said Constans would die "in the arms of his grandmother". His place of death happens to have been named after Helena, mother of Constantine and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy. Constans' name would later be erased from inscriptions in places that recognized Magnentius as emperor. Regarding possible motives for Constans' overthrow, ancient sources assert that he was widely unpopular, and attribute his downfall to his own failings. Along with the accusation of corruption, he is also accused of neglecting portions of the empire and treating his soldiers with contempt. Ammianus lamented the emperor's failure to listen to wise counsel, referencing one man he believed could have saved Constans from his own faults. However, some modern scholars have questioned this portrayal. According to historian Jill Harries, "The detail that Constans was in the habit of making journeys with only a small escort may account for his vulnerability in 350." Based on several factors - the small number of people behind the plot, how the setting for Magnentius' coup was not a military centre, Vetranio's proclamation as emperor in opposition to Magnentius, and Julian's report that the usurper had to murder several of Constans' generals to take control of the Gallic army – she concluded that Magnentius' revolt was "the result of a private grudge on the part of an apprehensive official and not the outcome of widespread discontent among the military or the wider population." This view is supported by Peter Crawford, who considered the explanation from the ancient sources to be a misconception caused by the rapid success of the coup. Harries does, however, acknowledge how the Gallic army accepted Magnentius seemingly without difficulty, and how according to Zosimus, Constantius' official Philippus emphasized Constantine, rather than Constans, when addressing Magnentius' troops. On speculating the basis for Constans' overthrow, she suggested that one reason may have been regarding financial difficulties in Gaul by the end of his reign, which could have been related to the finance officer Marcellinus' support of him. After Magnentius took power, he levied taxes, sold imperial estates in Gaul and debased the coinage. Nicholas Baker-Brian also observed how Magnentius sent his brother Decentius to defend the region after Constans had neglected it, writing that, "it is apparent that among the reasons for Magnentius' rebellion was a desire to remedy Constans' governmental failings in Gaul." ==Family tree== Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings 2: Constantine's children	[ "Fausta", "Marcus Nummius Albinus Triturrius", "Eusebius (consul 347)", "damnatio memoriae", "Areani", "Praetorian prefecture of Africa", "Forum of Trajan", "Zosimus (historian)", "Libanius", "Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–361", "praetorian prefect", "Jill Harries", "List of Roman consuls", "Sarmatians", "Ausonius", "Western Roman Empire", "Bassianus (executed by Constantine)", "Decentius", "Ammianus Marcellinus", "Pyrenees", "Petronius Probinus (consul 341)", "Constantina", "Magnentius", "Licinius", "Flavius Dalmatius", "De Imperatoribus Romanis", "Vetranio", "Aemilius Magnus Arborius", "Marcus Maecius Memmius Furius Baburius Caecilianus Placidus", "Julius Constantius", "Fabius Titianus", "Helena (empress)", "Acclamatio", "Flavia Julia Constantia", "Elne", "Constantia (wife of Gratian)", "Hispania", "Constantius Gallus", "Romulus (consul 343)", "Faustina (wife of Constantius II)", "Eutropia (sister of Constantine I)", "Antonius Marcellinus", "Flavia Maximiana Theodora", "Athanasius of Alexandria", "Nicene Christianity", "Basilina", "Robert Frakes", "prophecy", "Galla (wife of Julius Constantius)", "Council of Serdica", "Crispus", "Roman Gaul", "pederasty", "Byzantine Empire", "Autun", "Bode Museum", "Lucius Aradius Valerius Proculus", "Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum", "Constantinople", "Augustus (title)", "Roman Britain", "Constantius II", "Ablabius (consul)", "Late Roman army", "Licinius II", "praetorian prefectures", "Constantine II (emperor)", "Victoria (mythology)", "comes rerum privatarum", "Helena (wife of Julian)", "praetorian prefecture of Gaul", "Marcellinus (magister officiorum)", "Gratian", "Julian (emperor)", "Aurelius Victor", "Constantine the Great", "Nepotianus", "Eutropius (historian)", "Constantinian dynasty", "Constantius Chlorus", "Minervina", "chi-rho", "Septimius Acindynus", "Constantine I", "Olympias of Armenia", "Donatism", "Jovians and Herculians", "Roman emperor", "Comes rerum privatarum", "List of Roman emperors", "Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius", "Helena, mother of Constantine I", "Vulcacius Rufinus", "Caesar (title)", "Aquileia", "Praetorian prefecture of Italy", "Claudius Gothicus", "Augusti", "Franks", "Timothy Barnes (classicist)", "Louvre", "Hannibalianus", "Rome" ]
6,749	Cheerleading	Cheerleading is an activity in which the participants (called cheerleaders) cheer for their team as a form of encouragement. It can range from chanting slogans to intense physical activity. It can be performed to motivate sports teams, to entertain the audience, or for competition. Cheerleading routines typically range anywhere from one to three minutes, and contain components of tumbling, dance, jumps, cheers, and stunting. Cheerleading originated in the United States, where it has become a tradition. It is less prevalent in the rest of the world, except via its association with American sports or organized cheerleading contests. Modern cheerleading is very closely associated with American football and basketball. Sports such as association football (soccer), ice hockey, volleyball, baseball, and wrestling will sometimes sponsor cheerleading squads. The ICC Twenty20 Cricket World Cup in South Africa in 2007 was the first international cricket event to have cheerleaders. Some Brazilian association football (soccer) teams that plays in the Brazilian Serie A have cheerleading squads, such as Bahia, Fortaleza and Botafogo. In baseball, the Florida Marlins were the first Major League Baseball team to have a cheerleading team. Cheerleading originated as an all-male activity in the United States, and is popular predominantly in America, with an estimated 3.85 million participants in 2017. The global presentation of cheerleading was led by the 1997 broadcast of ESPN's International cheerleading competition, and the worldwide release of the 2000 film Bring It On. The International Cheer Union (ICU) now claims 116 member nations with an estimated 7.5 million participants worldwide. Around the end of the 2000s the sport had gained traction outside of the United States in countries like Australia, Canada, Mexico, China, Colombia, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. However, the sport does not have the international popularity of other American sports, such as baseball or basketball, despite efforts being made to popularize the sport at an international level. In 2016, the IOC (International Olympic Committee) recognized the ICU (International Cheer Union) as part of the sports federations; in practice this means that the modality is considered a sport by the IOC, and in the future, depending on negotiations and international popularization, it could become part of the Olympic Games. Scientific studies of cheerleading show that it carries the highest rate of catastrophic injuries to female athletes in sports, with most injuries associated with stunting, also known as pyramids. One 2011 study of American female athletes showed that cheerleading resulted in 65% of all catastrophic injuries in female sports. On November 6, 1869, the United States witnessed its first intercollegiate football game. It took place between Princeton University and Rutgers University, and marked the day the original "Sis Boom Rah!" cheer was shouted out by student fans. ===Beginning of organized cheerleading=== Organized cheerleading began as an all-male activity. As early as 1877, Princeton University had a "Princeton Cheer", documented in the February 22, 1877, March 12, 1880, and November 4, 1881, issues of The Daily Princetonian. This cheer was yelled from the stands by students attending games, as well as by the athletes themselves. The cheer, "Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah! Tiger! S-s-s-t! Boom! A-h-h-h!" remains in use with slight modifications today, where it is now referred to as the "Locomotive". Princeton class of 1882 graduate Thomas Peebles moved to Minnesota in 1884. He transplanted the idea of organized crowds cheering at football games to the University of Minnesota. The term "Cheer Leader" had been used as early as 1897, with Princeton's football officials having named three students as Cheer Leaders: Thomas, Easton, and Guerin from Princeton's classes of 1897, 1898, and 1899, respectively, on October 26, 1897. These students would cheer for the team also at football practices, and special cheering sections were designated in the stands for the games themselves for both the home and visiting teams. It was not until 1898 that University of Minnesota student Johnny Campbell directed a crowd in cheering "Rah, Rah, Rah! Ski-u-mah, Hoo-Rah! Hoo-Rah! Varsity! Varsity! Varsity, Minn-e-So-Tah!", making Campbell the very first cheerleader. November 2, 1898, is the official birth date of organized cheerleading. Soon after, the University of Minnesota organized a "yell leader" squad of six male students, who still use Campbell's original cheer today. ===Early 20th century cheerleading and female participation=== In 1903, the first cheerleading fraternity, Gamma Sigma, was founded. In 1923, at the University of Minnesota, women were permitted to participate in cheerleading. However, it took time for other schools to follow. In the late 1920s, many school manuals and newspapers that were published still referred to cheerleaders as "chap", "fellow", and "man". Women cheerleaders were overlooked until the 1940s when collegiate men were drafted for World War II, creating the opportunity for more women to make their way onto sporting event sidelines. As noted by Kieran Scott in Ultimate Cheerleading: "Girls really took over for the first time." In 1949, Lawrence Herkimer, a former cheerleader at Southern Methodist University and inventor of the herkie jump, founded his first cheerleading camp in Huntsville, Texas. 52 girls were in attendance. The clinic was so popular that Herkimer was asked to hold a second, where 350 young women were in attendance. Herkimer also patented the pom-pom. ===Growth in popularity (1950–1979)=== In 1951, Herkimer created the National Cheerleading Association to help grow the activity and provide cheerleading education to schools around the country. An overview written on behalf of cheerleading in 1955 explained that in larger schools, "occasionally boys as well as girls are included", and in smaller schools, "boys can usually find their place in the athletic program, and cheerleading is likely to remain solely a feminine occupation". Cheerleading could be found at almost every school level across the country; even pee wee and youth leagues began to appear. In the 1950s, professional cheerleading also began. The first recorded cheer squad in National Football League (NFL) history was for the Baltimore Colts. Professional cheerleaders put a new perspective on American cheerleading. Women were exclusively chosen for dancing ability as well as to conform to the male gaze, as heterosexual men were the targeted marketing group. By the 1960s, college cheerleaders employed by the NCA were hosting workshops across the nation, teaching fundamental cheer skills to tens of thousands of high-school-age girls. and creating the "Spirit Stick". In 1978, America was introduced to competitive cheerleading by the first broadcast of Collegiate Cheerleading Championships on CBS. In 2003, the National Council for Spirit Safety and Education (NCSSE) was formed to offer safety training for youth, school, all-star, and college coaches. The NCAA now requires college cheer coaches to successfully complete a nationally recognized safety-training program. Even with its athletic and competitive development, cheerleading at the school level has retained its ties to its spirit leading traditions. Cheerleaders are quite often seen as ambassadors for their schools, and leaders among the student body. At the college level, cheerleaders are often invited to help at university fundraisers and events. Debuting in 2003, the "Marlin Mermaids" gained national exposure, and have influenced other MLB teams to develop their own cheer/dance squads. In 2005, overall statistics show around 97% of all modern cheerleading participants are female, although at the collegiate level, cheerleading is co-ed with about 50% of participants being male. === Safety regulation changes === Kristi Yamaoka, a cheerleader for Southern Illinois University, suffered a fractured vertebra when she hit her head after falling from a human pyramid. She also suffered from a concussion, and a bruised lung. The fall occurred when Yamaoka lost her balance during a basketball game between Southern Illinois University and Bradley University at the Savvis Center in St. Louis on March 5, 2006. On July 11, 2006, the bans were made permanent by the AACCA rules committee: The committee unanimously voted for sweeping revisions to cheerleading safety rules, the most major of which restricts specific upper-level skills during basketball games. Basket tosses, high pyramids, one-arm stunts, stunts that involve twisting or flipping, and twisting tumbling skills may be performed only during halftime and post-game on a matted surface and are prohibited during game play or time-outs. ====Middle school==== Middle school cheerleading evolved shortly after high school squads were created and is set at the district level. In middle school, cheerleading squads serve the same purpose, but often follow a modified set of rules from high school squads with possible additional rules. Squads can cheer for basketball teams, football teams, and other sports teams in their school. Squads may also perform at pep rallies and compete against other local schools from the area. Cheerleading in middle school sometimes can be a two-season activity: fall and winter. However, many middle school cheer squads will go year-round like high school squads. Middle school cheerleaders use the same cheerleading movements as their older counterparts, yet may perform less extreme stunts and tumbling elements, depending on the rules in their area.. ====High school==== In high school, there are usually two squads per school: varsity and a junior varsity. High school cheerleading contains aspects of school spirit as well as competition. These squads have become part of a year-round cycle. Starting with tryouts in the spring, year-round practice, cheering on teams in the fall and winter, and participating in cheerleading competitions. Most squads practice at least three days a week for about two hours each practice during the summer. Many teams also attend separate tumbling sessions outside of practice. During the school year, cheerleading is usually practiced five- to six-days-a-week. During competition season, it often becomes seven days with practice twice a day sometimes. The school spirit aspect of cheerleading involves cheering, supporting, and "hyping up" the crowd at football games, basketball games, and even at wrestling meets. Along with this, cheerleaders usually perform at pep rallies, and bring school spirit to other students. In May 2009, the National Federation of State High School Associations released the results of their first true high school participation study. They estimated that the number of high school cheerleaders from public high schools is around 394,700. There are different cheerleading organizations that put on competitions; some of the major ones include state and regional competitions. Many high schools will often host cheerleading competitions, bringing in IHSA judges. The regional competitions are qualifiers for national competitions, such as the UCA (Universal Cheerleaders Association) in Orlando, Florida, every year. Many teams have a professional choreographer that choreographs their routine in order to ensure they are not breaking rules or regulations and to give the squad creative elements. ===College=== Most American universities have a cheerleading squad to cheer for football, basketball, volleyball, wrestling, and soccer. Most college squads tend to be larger coed teams, although in recent years; all-girl squads and smaller college squads have increased rapidly. Cheerleading is not recognized by NCAA, NAIA, and NJCAA as athletics; therefore, there are few to no scholarships offered to athletes wanting to pursue cheerleading at the collegiate level. However, some community colleges and universities offer scholarships directly from the program or sponsorship funds. Some colleges offer scholarships for an athlete's talents, academic excellence, and/or involvement in community events. College squads perform more difficult stunts which include multi-level pyramids, as well as flipping and twisting basket tosses. Not only do college cheerleaders cheer on the other sports at their university, many teams at universities compete with other schools at either UCA College Nationals or NCA College Nationals. This requires the teams to choreograph a 2-minute and 30 second routine that includes elements of jumps, tumbling, stunting, basket tosses, pyramids, and a crowd involvement section. Winning one of these competitions is a very prestigious accomplishment, and is seen as another national title for most schools. ===Youth leagues and athletic associations=== Organizations that sponsor youth cheer teams usually sponsor either youth league football or basketball teams as well. This allows for the two, under the same sponsor, to be intermingled. Both teams have the same mascot name and the cheerleaders will perform at their football or basketball games. Examples of such sponsors include Pop Warner, American Youth Football, and the YMCA. The purpose of these squads is primarily to support their associated football or basketball players, but some teams do compete at local or regional competitions. The Pop Warner Association even hosts a national championship each December for teams in their program who qualify. ===All-star or club cheerleading=== "All-star" or club cheerleading differs from school or sideline cheerleading because all-star teams focus solely on performing a competition routine and not on leading cheers for other sports teams. All-star cheerleaders are members of a privately owned gym or club which they typically pay dues or tuition to, similar to a gymnastics gym. During the early 1980s, cheerleading squads not associated with a school or sports league, whose main objective was competition, began to emerge. The first organization to call themselves all-stars were the Q94 Rockers from Richmond, Virginia, founded in 1982. All-star teams competing prior to 1987 were placed into the same divisions as teams that represented schools and sports leagues. In 1986, the National Cheerleaders Association (NCA) addressed this situation by creating a separate division for teams lacking a sponsoring school or athletic association, calling it the All-Star Division and debuting it at their 1987 competitions. As the popularity of this type of team grew, more and more of them were formed, attending competitions sponsored by many different organizations and companies, each using its own set of rules, regulations, and divisions. This situation became a concern to coaches and gym owners, as the inconsistencies caused coaches to keep their routines in a constant state of flux, detracting from time that could be better utilized for developing skills and providing personal attention to their athletes. More importantly, because the various companies were constantly vying for a competitive edge, safety standards had become more and more lax. In some cases, unqualified coaches and inexperienced squads were attempting dangerous stunts as a result of these expanded sets of rules. The United States All Star Federation (USASF) was formed in 2003 by the competition companies to act as the national governing body for all star cheerleading and to create a standard set of rules and judging criteria to be followed by all competitions sanctioned by the Federation. Eager to grow the sport and create more opportunities for high-level teams, The USASF hosted the first Cheerleading Worlds on April 24, 2004. In addition to cheering at games and competing, professional cheerleaders often do a lot of philanthropy and charity work, modeling, motivational speaking, television performances, and advertising. ==Injuries and accidents== Cheerleading carries the highest rate of catastrophic injuries to female athletes in high school and collegiate sports. Of the United States' 2.9 million female high school athletes, only 3% are cheerleaders, yet cheerleading accounts for nearly 65% of all catastrophic injuries in girls' high school athletics. In data covering the 1982–83 academic year through the 2018–19 academic year in the US, the rate of serious, direct traumatic injury per 100,000 participants was 1.68 for female cheerleaders at the high school level, the highest for all high school sports surveyed. The college rate could not be determined, as the total number of collegiate cheerleaders was unknown, but the total number of traumatic, direct catastrophic injuries over this period was 33 (28 female, 5 male), higher than all sports at this level aside from football. The main source of injuries comes from stunting, also known as pyramids. These stunts are performed at games and pep rallies, as well as competitions. Sometimes competition routines are focused solely around the use of difficult and risky stunts. These stunts usually include a flyer (the person on top), along with one or two bases (the people on the bottom), and one or two spotters in the front and back on the bottom. The most common cheerleading related injury is a concussion. 96% of those concussions are stunt related. Sometimes, however, injuries can be as serious as whiplash, broken necks, broken vertebrae, and death. The journal Pediatrics has reportedly said that the number of cheerleaders suffering from broken bones, concussions, and sprains has increased by over 100 percent between the years of 1990 and 2002, and that in 2001, there were 25,000 hospital visits reported for cheerleading injuries dealing with the shoulder, ankle, head, and neck. Meanwhile, in the US, cheerleading accounted for 65.1% of all major physical injuries to high school females, and to 66.7% of major injuries to college students due to physical activity from 1982 to 2007, with 22,900 minors being admitted to hospital with cheerleading-related injuries in 2002. The risks of cheerleading were highlighted at the death of Lauren Chang. Chang died on April 14, 2008, after competing in a competition where her teammate had kicked her so hard in the chest that her lungs collapsed. Cheerleading (for both girls and boys) was one of the sports studied in the Pediatric Injury Prevention, Education and Research Program of the Colorado School of Public Health in 2009/10–2012/13. Data on cheerleading injuries is included in the report for 2012–13. ==Associations, federations, and organizations== International Cheer Union (ICU): Established on April 26, 2004, the ICU is recognized by the SportAccord as the world governing body of cheerleading and the authority on all matters with relation to it. Including participation from its 105-member national federations reaching 3.5 million athletes globally, the ICU continues to serve as the unified voice for those dedicated to cheerleading's positive development around the world. Following a positive vote by the SportAccord General Assembly on May 31, 2013, in Saint Petersburg, the International Cheer Union (ICU) became SportAccord's 109th member, and SportAccord's 93rd international sports federation to join the international sports family. In accordance with the SportAccord statutes, the ICU is recognized as the world governing body of cheerleading and the authority on all matters related to it. The ICU has introduced a Junior aged team (12–16) to compete at the Cheerleading Worlds, because cheerleading is now in provisional status to become a sport in the Olympics. For cheerleading to one day be in the Olympics, there must be a junior and senior team that competes at the world championships. The first junior cheerleading team that was selected to become the junior national team was Eastside Middle School, located in Mount Washington Kentucky and will represent the United States in the inaugural junior division at the world championships. The ICU holds training seminars for judges and coaches, global events and the World Cheerleading Championships. The ICU is also fully applied to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is compliant under the code set by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC): Established on July 5, 1998, the International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC) is a non-profit federation based in Tokyo, Japan, and is a world governing body of cheerleading, primarily in Asia. The IFC objectives are to promote cheerleading worldwide, to spread knowledge of cheerleading, and to develop friendly relations among the member associations and federations. USA Cheer: The USA Federation for Sport Cheering (USA Cheer) was established in 2007 to serve as the national governing body for all types of cheerleading in the United States and is recognized by the ICU. "The USA Federation for Sport Cheering is a not-for profit 501(c)(6) organization that was established in 2007 to serve as the National Governing Body for Sport Cheering in the United States. USA Cheer exists to serve the cheer community, including club cheering (all star) and traditional school based cheer programs, and the growing sport of STUNT. USA Cheer has three primary objectives: help grow and develop interest and participation in cheer throughout the United States; promote safety and safety education for cheer in the United States; and represent the United States of America in international cheer competitions." Additionally, they organize the USA National Team. Universal Cheerleading Association: UCA is an association owned by the company brand Varsity. "Universal Cheerleaders Association was founded in 1974 by Jeff Webb to provide the best educational training for cheerleaders with the goal of incorporating high-level skills with traditional crowd leading. It was Jeff's vision that would transform cheerleading into the dynamic, athletic combination of high energy entertainment and school leadership that is loved by so many." "Today, UCA is the largest cheerleading camp company in the world, offering the widest array of dates and locations of any camp company. We also celebrate cheerleader's incredible hard work and athleticism through the glory of competition at over 50 regional events across the country and our Championships at the Walt Disney World Resort every year." Organised by the Cheerleading Association of Thailand (CAT) in accordance with the rules and regulations of the International Federation of Cheerleading (IFC). The ATCI is held every year since 2009. At the ATCI, many teams from all over Thailand compete, joining them are many invited neighbouring nations who also send cheer squads. Cheerleading Asia International Open Championships (CAIOC): Hosted by the Foundation of Japan Cheerleading Association (FJCA) in accordance with the rules and regulations of the IFC. The CAIOC has been a yearly event since 2007. Every year, many teams from all over Asia converge in Tokyo to compete. Cheerleading World Championships (CWC): Organised by the IFC. The IFC is a non-profit organisation founded in 1998 and based in Tokyo, Japan. The CWC has been held every two years since 2001, and to date, the competition has been held in Japan, the United Kingdom, Finland, Germany, and Hong Kong. The 6th CWC was held at the Hong Kong Coliseum on November 26–27, 2011. ICU World Championships: The International Cheer Union currently encompasses 105 National Federations from countries across the globe. Every year, the ICU host the World Cheerleading Championship. This competition uses a more collegiate style performance and rulebook. Countries assemble and send only one team to represent them. National Cheerleading Championships (NCC): The NCC is the annual IFC-sanctioned national cheerleading competition in Indonesia organised by the Indonesian Cheerleading Community (ICC). Since NCC 2010, the event is now open to international competition, representing a significant step forward for the ICC. Teams from many countries such as Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore participated in the ground breaking event. Pan-American Cheerleading Championships (PCC): The PCC was held for the first time in 2009 in the city of Latacunga, Ecuador and is the continental championship organised by the Pan-American Federation of Cheerleading (PFC). The PFC, operating under the umbrella of the IFC, is the non-profit continental body of cheerleading whose aim it is to promote and develop cheerleading in the Americas. The PCC is a biennial event, and was held for the second time in Lima, Peru, in November 2010. USASF/IASF Worlds: Many United States cheerleading organizations form and register the not-for-profit entity the United States All Star Federation (USASF) and also the International All Star Federation (IASF) to support international club cheerleading and the World Cheerleading Club Championships. The first World Cheerleading Championships, or Cheerleading Worlds, were hosted by the USASF/IASF at the Walt Disney World Resort and taped for an ESPN global broadcast in 2004. This competition is only for All-Star/Club cheer. Only level 6 and 7 teams may attend and must receive a bid from a partner company. Varsity: Varsity Spirit, a branch of Varsity Brands is a parent company which, over the past 10 years, has absorbed or bought most other cheerleading event production companies. The following is a list of subsidiary competition companies owned by Varsity Spirit: All Star Challenge All Star Championships All Things Cheer Aloha Spirit Championships America's Best Championships American Cheer and Dance American Cheer Power American Cheerleaders Association AmeriCheer: Americheer was founded in 1987 by Elizabeth Rossetti. It is the parent company to Ameridance and Eastern Cheer and Dance Association. In 2005, Americheer became one of the founding members of the NLCC. This means that Americheer events offer bids to The U.S. Finals: The Final Destination. AmeriCheer InterNational Championship competition is held every March at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida. Athletic Championships Champion Cheer and Dance Champion Spirit Group Cheer LTD CHEERSPORT: CHEERSPORT was founded in 1993 by all star coaches who believed they could conduct competitions that would be better for the athletes, coaches and spectators. Their main event is CHEERSPORT Nationals, held each February at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta, Georgia CheerStarz COA Cheer and Dance Coastal Cheer and Dance Encore Championships GLCC Events Golden State Spirit Association The JAM Brands: The JAM Brands, headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky, provides products and services for the cheerleading and dance industry. It was previously made up of approximately 12 different brands that produce everything from competitions to camps to uniforms to merchandise and apparel, but is now owned by the parent company Varsity. JAMfest, the original brand of The JAM Brands, has been around since 1996 and was founded by Aaron Flaker and Emmitt Tyler. Mardi Gras Spirit Events Mid Atlantic Championships Nation's Choice National Cheerleaders Association (NCA): The NCA was founded in 1948 by Lawrence Herkimer. Every year, the NCA hosts a variety of competitions all across the United States, most notably the NCA High School Cheerleading Nationals and the NCA All-Star Cheerleading Nationals in Dallas, Texas. They also host the NCA/NDA Collegiate Cheer & Dance Championship in Daytona Beach, Florida. In addition to competitions, they also provide summer camps for school cheerleaders. Their sister organization is the National Dance Alliance (NDA). The National Cheerleaders Association was the first company in cheerleading and also is accredited with many other firsts in cheerleading. These firsts include the first All Star National Championship, cheer camp, uniform company, and more. One Up Championships PacWest Sea to Sky Spirit Celebration Spirit Cheer Spirit Sports Spirit Unlimited Spirit Xpress The American Championships The U.S. Finals: This event was formerly hosted by Nation's Leading Cheer Companies which was a multi brand company, partnered with other companies such as: Americheer/Ameridance, American Cheer & Dance Academy, Eastern Cheer & Dance Association, and Spirit Unlimited before they were all acquired by Varsity. Every year, starting in 2006, the NLCC hosted The US Finals: The Final Destination of Cheerleading and Dance. Every team that attends must qualify and receive a bid at a partner company's competition. In May 2008, the NLCC and The JAM Brands announced a partnership to produce The U.S. Finals - Final Destination. This event is still produced under the new parent company, Varsity. There are nine Final Destination locations across the country. After the regional events, videos of all the teams that competed are sent to a new panel of judges and rescored to rank teams against those against whom they may never have had a chance to compete. Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA): Universal Cheerleaders Association was founded in 1974 by Jeff Webb. Since 1980, UCA has hosted the National High School Cheerleading Championship in Walt Disney World Resort. They also host the National All-Star Cheerleading Championship, and the College Cheerleading National Championship at Walt Disney World Resort. All of these events air on ESPN. United Spirit Association: In 1950, Robert Olmstead directed his first summer training camp, and USA later sprouted from this. USA's focus is on the game day experience as a way to enhance audience entertainment. This focus led to the first American football half-time shows to reach adolescences from around the world and expose them to American style cheerleading. USA provides competitions for cheerleading squads without prior qualifications needed in order to participate. The organization also allows the opportunity for cheerleaders to become an All-American, participate in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, and partake in London's New Year's Day Parade and other special events much like UCA and NCA allow participants to do. Universal Spirit Association World Spirit Federation ==Title IX sports status== In the United States, the designation of a "sport" is important because of Title IX. There is a large debate on whether or not cheerleading should be considered a sport for Title IX (a portion of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 forbidding discrimination under any education program on the basis of sex) purposes. These arguments have varied from institution to institution and are reflected in how they treat and organize cheerleading within their schools. Some institutions have been accused of not providing equal opportunities to their male students or for not treating cheerleading as a sport, which reflects on the opportunities they provide to their athletes. The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) issued memos and letters to schools that cheerleading, both sideline and competitive, may not be considered "athletic programs" for the purposes of Title IX. Supporters consider cheerleading, as a whole, a sport, citing the heavy use of athletic talents while critics see it as a physical activity because a "sport" implies a competition among all squads and not all squads compete, along with subjectivity of competitions where—as with gymnastics, diving, and figure skating—scores are assessed based on human judgment and not an objective goal or measurement of time. The Office for Civil Rights' primary concern was ensuring that institutions complied with Title IX, which means offering equal opportunities to all students despite their gender. In their memos, their main point against cheerleading being a sport was that the activity is underdeveloped and unorganized to have varsity-level athletic standing among students. This claim was not universal and the Office for Civil Rights would review cheerleading on a case-by-case basis. Due to this the status of cheerleading under Title IX has varied from region to region based on the institution and how they organize their teams. However, within their decisions, the Office for Civil Rights never clearly stated any guidelines on what was and was not considered a sport under Title IX. On January 27, 2009, in a lawsuit involving an accidental injury sustained during a cheerleading practice, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that cheerleading is a full-contact sport in that state, not allowing any participants to be sued for accidental injury. In contrast, on July 21, 2010, in a lawsuit involving whether college cheerleading qualified as a sport for purposes of Title IX, a federal court, citing a current lack of program development and organization, ruled that it is not a sport at all. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) does not recognize cheerleading as a sport. In 2014, the American Medical Association adopted a policy that, as the leading cause of catastrophic injuries of female athletes both in high school and college, cheerleading should be considered a sport. While there are cheerleading teams at the majority of the NCAA's Division I schools, they are still not recognized as a sport. This results in many teams not being properly funded. Additionally, there are little to no college programs offering scholarships because their universities cannot offer athletic scholarships to "spirit" team members. === Title IX Guidelines for Sports ports === In 2010, Quinnipiac University was sued for not providing equal opportunities for female athletes as required by Title IX. The university disbanded its volleyball team and created a new competitive cheerleading sports team. The issue with Biediger v. Quinnipiac University is centered around whether competitive cheerleading could be considered a sport for Title IX. The university had not provided additional opportunities for their female athletes which led to the court ruling in favor that cheerleading could not count as a varsity sport. This case established clear guidelines on what qualifies as a sport under Title IX, these guidelines are known as the three-pronged approach. The three-pronged approach is as follows: Prong 1. Whether the number of female and male student participation within the intercollegiate sport is at a sustainable ratio based on the number of students enrolled at the institution Prong 2. Whether the institution has provided, both in the past and ongoing, opportunities to intercollegiate athletes that are members of a sex that is currently underrepresented in their sport. Prong 3. Whether intercollegiate athletes of an underrepresented sex have been fully accommodated by their institution based on their athlete's interests in sports. The three-pronged approach was the first official guideline that clearly stated what criteria were necessary when deciding what activity was considered a sport or not under Title IX. ===Competition and governance in Canada=== Cheer Canada acts as the Canadian national governing body for cheer, as recognised by the International Cheer Union. There are a number of provincial sports organizations that also exist in Canada under Cheer Canada, each governing cheer within their province which BC Sport Cheer, Alberta Cheerleading Association, Saskatchewan Cheerleading Association, Cheer Manitoba, Ontario Cheerleading Federation, Federation de Cheerleading du Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador Cheerleading Athletics, Cheer New Brunswick and Cheer Nova Scotia. Cheer Canada and the provincial organizations utilise the IASF divisions and rules for all star cheer and performance cheer (all star dance) and the ICU divisions and rules for scholastic cheer. Canadian Cheer (previously known as Cheer Evolution) is the largest cheer and dance organization for Canada, and currently comply to Cheer Canada's rules and guidelines for their 15 events. Varsity Spirit also hosts events within Canada utilising the Cheer Canada/IASF rules. There are currently over 400 clubs and schools recognised by Cheer Canada, with over 25,000 participants in 2023. Although athletes can compete in both International Cheer Union (ICU) and IASF championships, crossovers between teams at each individual competition are not permitted. Teams compete against the other teams from their countries on the first day of competition and the top three teams from each country in each division continue to finals. At the end of finals, the top team scoring the highest for their country earns the "Nations Cup". Canada has multiple teams across their country that compete in the IASF Cheerleading Worlds Championship. In total, Canada has had 98 International podium finishes at cheer events. who are eligible to field teams to compete against one another at the ICU World Championships in a number of divisions in both cheerleading and performance cheer, with special divisions for youth, junior and adaptive abilities athletes. Cheer Canada fields a national team, with up to 40 athletes from around the country for both a senior national all girl and senior national coed team training at three training camps across the season in Canada before 28 athletes per team are selected to train in Florida, with 24 athletes going on to compete on the competition floor at ICU Worlds. In the 2023 ICU World Championships, Canada won a total of 4 medals (1 gold and 3 silver) with teams entered in the Youth All Girl, Youth Coed, Unified Median, Unified Advanced, Premier All Girl, Premier Coed, Performance Cheer Hip Hop doubles, Performance Cheer Pom Doubles and Performance Cheer Pom divisions. In total, Team Canada holds podium placements at the ICU World Championships from the following years/divisions: {\| class="wikitable" \|+ ! !Year !Place !Team !Source \|- \| \|2023 \|1st \|Adaptive Abilities Unified \| \|- \| \|2022 \|2nd \|Youth All Girl Median \| \|- \| \|2019 \|2nd \|Special Abilities Traditional \| \|- \| \|2018 \|3rd \|Coed Premier \| \|- \| \|2017 \|2nd \|Junior Coed Advanced \| \|- \| \|2012 \|1st \|All Girl Elite \| \|- \| \|2012 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| \|- \| \|2011 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| \|- \| \|2010 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| \|- \| \|2009 \|1st \|Coed Elite \| === Competition in Mexico === In Mexico, this sport is endorsed by the Mexican Federation of Cheerleaders and Cheerleading Groups (Federación Mexicana de Porristas y Grupos de Animación) (FMPGA), a body that regulates competitions in Mexico and subdivisions such as the Olympic Confederation of Cheerleaders (COP Brands), National Organization of Cheerleaders (Organización Nacional de Porristas) (ONP) and the Mexican Organization of Trainers and Animation Groups (Organización Mexicana de Entrenadores y Grupos de Animación) (OMEGA Mexico), these being the largest in the country. In 2021, the third edition of the National Championship of State Teams was held and organized by The Mexican Federation of Cheerleaders and Cheerleading Groups, on this occasion, the event was held virtually, broadcasting live, through the Vimeo platform. === Mexican Cheer of the Global Stage === In Mexico there are more than 500 teams and almost 10,000 athletes who practice this sport, in addition to a representative national team of Mexico, which won first place in the cheerleading world championship organized by the ICU (International Cheer Union) on April 24, 2015, receiving a gold medal; In 2016, Mexico became the second country with the most medals in the world in this sport. With 27 medals, it is considered the second world power in this sport, only behind the United States. In the 2019 Coed Premier World Cheerleading Championship Mexico ranked 4th just behind the United States, Canada and Taiwan. In 2021, the Mexican team won 3rd place at the Junior Boom category in World Cheerleading Championship 2021 hosted by international cheerleading federation. ==Cheerleading in the United Kingdom== This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that talks about the history and growth of cheerleading in the United Kingdom. This can be used to compare and contrast the activity in the U.S. and in Australia. ==Cheerleading in Australia== This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that talks about the history and growth of cheerleading in Australia. This can be used to compare and contrast the activity in the U.S. and in Australia. ==Notable former cheerleaders== This section has a link to a separate Wikipedia page that lists former cheerleaders and well-known cheerleading squads.	[ "hockey", "International Cheer Union (ICU)", "Army Black Knights", "Southern Illinois University", "Hong Kong", "Georgia World Congress Center", "Diving (sport)", "Florida", "CBS", "Richmond, Virginia", "The United States All Star Federation", "Cheerleading Philippines", "Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders", "Fox NFL Sunday", "Cheerleading in Japan", "Florida Gators football", "herkie", "Singapore", "figure skating", "Orlando, Florida", "Princeton University", "Collegiate Cheerleading Championships", "Tumbling (gymnastics)", "varsity team", "Hong Kong Coliseum", "cricket", "cheerleading uniform", "Cheerleader effect", "Minnesota Golden Gophers Spirit Squads", "SportAccord", "Quinton Peron", "National Autonomous University of Mexico", "International Cheer Union", "University of Minnesota", "UAAP Cheerdance Competition", "Southern Methodist University", "model (person)", "human pyramid", "sprain", "Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City", "Contact sport", "advertising", "American Medical Association", "Basket toss", "association football", "Kieran Scott", "The Daily Princetonian", "St. Louis", "Wisconsin Supreme Court", "cheering", "National Collegiate Athletic Association", "Irish Examiner", "Super Bowl X", "American Youth Football", "National Basketball Association Cheerleading", "MLS", "Scholastic wrestling", "International Olympic Committee", "Atlanta, Georgia", "National Hockey League", "United States", "Bring It On (film)", "Dance squad", "Walt Disney World", "Simon Fraser University", "Cheerleading Worlds", "Title IX", "Simon & Schuster", "MSNBC", "college football", "Colorado School of Public Health", "Cheerleader Nation", "Secondary school", "Fortaleza Esporte Clube", "Autumn", "Rutgers University", "American football", "National Dance Alliance", "Brasileirão", "junior varsity team", "reality television", "catastrophic injury", "Great Britain", "History of the Baltimore Colts", "pom-pom", "CFL", "World Anti-Doping Agency", "fractured vertebra", "YMCA", "The Cheerleading Worlds", "Gainesville, Florida", "volleyball", "fraternities and sororities", "Physical exercise", "London's New Year's Day Parade", "Olympic Games", "Color guard", "Catastrophic injury", "Pediatrics (journal)", "Scottrade Center", "Goucher College", "ESPN", "Liga MX", "Bone fracture", "Pep squad", "The Stanford Daily", "Miami Marlins", "Pop Warner Little Scholars", "wrestling", "National Football League Cheerleading", "Pom-pom", "philanthropy", "National Federation of State High School Associations", "Jacksonville University", "World War II", "Middle school", "football", "List of cheerleading stunts", "male gaze", "Napoleon Jinnies", "Associated Press", "Super Bowl", "NCAA", "Bradley University", "Fox News", "Missouri Valley Conference", "Major League Baseball", "winter", "Majorette (dancer)", "Organización Nacional Estudiantil de Fútbol Americano", "basketball", "MLB", "Mercer Island, Washington", "concussion", "stunt", "Esporte Clube Bahia", "baseball", "Charitable trust", "Walt Disney World Resort", "Latacunga", "ice hockey", "Daytona Beach, Florida", "dance", "Donald Rumsfeld", "Motivational speaker", "International Federation of Cheerleading", "List of cheerleading jumps", "Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade", "U.S. All Star Federation", "Dallas, Texas", "Varsity Brands", "Lawrence Herkimer", "2000s", "National Cheerleaders Association", "Sexual attraction", "USA Today", "Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas", "National Football League", "gymnastics", "Japan", "Mexico City", "Newsweek", "Tokyo", "Louisville, Kentucky", "Office for Civil Rights", "Thomas Peebles (American football)" ]
6,751	Cottingley Fairies	The Cottingley Fairies appear in a series of five photographs taken by Elsie Wright (1901–1988) and Frances Griffiths (1907–1986), two young cousins who lived in Cottingley, near Bradford in England. In 1917, when the first two photographs were taken, Elsie was 16 years old and Frances was 9. The pictures came to the attention of writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who used them to illustrate an article on fairies he had been commissioned to write for the Christmas 1920 edition of The Strand Magazine. Doyle was enthusiastic about the photographs, and interpreted them as clear and visible evidence of supernatural phenomena. Public reaction was mixed; some accepted the images as genuine, others believed that they had been faked. Interest in the Cottingley Fairies gradually declined after 1921. Both girls married and lived abroad for a time after they grew up, and yet the photographs continued to hold the public imagination. In 1966 a reporter from the Daily Express newspaper traced Elsie, who had by then returned to the United Kingdom. Elsie left open the possibility that she believed she had photographed her thoughts, and the media once again became interested in the story. In the early 1980s Elsie and Frances admitted that the photographs were faked, using cardboard cutouts of fairies copied from a popular children's book of the time, but Frances maintained that the fifth and final photograph was genuine. As of 2019 the photographs and the cameras used are in the collections of the National Science and Media Museum in Bradford, England. ==1917 photographs== In mid-1917 nine-year-old Frances Griffiths and her motherboth newly arrived in England from South Africawere staying with Frances's aunt, Elsie Wright's mother, Polly, in the village of Cottingley in West Yorkshire; Elsie was then 16 years old. The two girls often played together beside the beck at the bottom of the garden, much to their mothers' annoyance, because they frequently came back with wet feet and clothes. Frances and Elsie said they only went to the beck to see the fairies, and to prove it, Elsie borrowed her father's camera, a Midg quarter-plate. The girls returned about 30 minutes later, "triumphant". Elsie's father, Arthur, was a keen amateur photographer, and had set up his own darkroom. The picture on the photographic plate he developed showed Frances behind a bush in the foreground, on which four fairies appeared to be dancing. Knowing his daughter's artistic ability, and that she had spent some time working in a photographer's studio, he dismissed the figures as cardboard cutouts. Two months later the girls borrowed his camera again, and this time returned with a photograph of Elsie sitting on the lawn holding out her hand to a gnome. Exasperated by what he believed to be "nothing but a prank", and convinced that the girls must have tampered with his camera in some way, Arthur Wright refused to lend it to them again. His wife Polly, however, believed the photographs to be authentic. Towards the end of 1918, Frances sent a letter to Johanna Parvin, a friend in Cape Town, South Africa, where Frances had lived for most of her life, enclosing the photograph of herself with the fairies. On the back she wrote "It is funny, I never used to see them in Africa. It must be too hot for them there." The photographs became public in mid-1919, after Elsie's mother attended a meeting of the Theosophical Society in Bradford. The lecture that evening was on "fairy life", and at the end of the meeting Polly Wright showed the two fairy photographs taken by her daughter and niece to the speaker. As a result, the photographs were displayed at the society's annual conference in Harrogate, held a few months later. There they came to the attention of a leading member of the society, Edward Gardner. One of the central beliefs of theosophy is that humanity is undergoing a cycle of evolution, towards increasing "perfection", and Gardner recognised the potential significance of the photographs for the movement: ==Initial examinations== Gardner sent the prints along with the original glass-plate negatives to Harold Snelling, a photography expert. Snelling's opinion was that "the two negatives are entirely genuine, unfaked photographs ... [with] no trace whatsoever of studio work involving card or paper models". He did not go so far as to say that the photographs showed fairies, stating only that "these are straight forward photographs of whatever was in front of the camera at the time". Gardner had the prints "clarified" by Snelling, and new negatives produced, "more conducive to printing", for use in the illustrated lectures he gave around Britain. Snelling supplied the photographic prints which were available for sale at Gardner's lectures. As it turned out, Iris with the Gnome sold for a hammer price of £5,400 (plus 24% buyer's premium incl. VAT), while Alice and the Fairies sold for a hammer price of £15,000 (plus 24% buyer's premium incl. VAT). ==1920 photographs== Doyle was preoccupied with organising an imminent lecture tour of Australia, and in July 1920, sent Gardner to meet the Wright family. By this point, Frances was living with her parents in Scarborough, but Elsie's father told Gardner that he had been so certain the photographs were fakes that while the girls were away he searched their bedroom and the area around the beck (stream), looking for scraps of pictures or cutouts, but found nothing "incriminating". Gardner believed the Wright family to be honest and respectable. To place the matter of the photographs' authenticity beyond doubt, he returned to Cottingley at the end of July with two W. Butcher & Sons Cameo folding plate cameras and 24 secretly marked photographic plates. Frances was invited to stay with the Wright family during the school summer holiday so that she and Elsie could take more pictures of the fairies. Gardner described his briefing in his 1945 Fairies: A Book of Real Fairies: {{blockquote\|I went off, to Cottingley again, taking the two cameras and plates from London, and met the family and explained to the two girls the simple working of the cameras, giving one each to keep. The cameras were loaded, and my final advice was that they need go up to the glen only on fine days as they had been accustomed to do before and tice the fairies, as they called their way of attracting them, and see what they could get. I suggested only the most obvious and easy precautions about lighting and distance, for I knew it was essential they should feel free and unhampered and have no burden of responsibility. If nothing came of it all, I told them, they were not to mind a bit. in the December 1920 issue of The Strand contained two higher-resolution prints of the 1917 photographs, and sold out within days of publication. To protect the girls' anonymity, Frances and Elsie were called Alice and Iris respectively, and the Wright family was referred to as the "Carpenters". An enthusiastic and committed spiritualist, Doyle hoped that if the photographs convinced the public of the existence of fairies then they might more readily accept other psychic phenomena. He ended his article with the words: {{blockquote\|The recognition of their existence will jolt the material twentieth-century mind out of its heavy ruts in the mud, and will make it admit that there is a glamour and mystery to life. Having discovered this, the world will not find it so difficult to accept that spiritual message supported by physical facts which have already been put before it. The historical novelist and poet Maurice Hewlett published a series of articles in the literary journal John O' London's Weekly, in which he concluded: "And knowing children, and knowing that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle has legs, I decide that the Miss Carpenters have pulled one of them." The London newspaper Truth on 5 January 1921 expressed a similar view; "For the true explanation of these fairy photographs what is wanted is not a knowledge of occult phenomena but a knowledge of children." In a letter to Gardner he wrote: "Look at Alice's [Frances'] face. Look at Iris's [Elsie's] face. There is an extraordinary thing called Truth which has 10 million faces and forms – it is God's currency and the cleverest coiner or forger can't imitate it." Major John Hall-Edwards, a keen photographer and pioneer of medical X-ray treatments in Britain, was a particularly vigorous critic: {{blockquote\|On the evidence I have no hesitation in saying that these photographs could have been "faked". I criticize the attitude of those who declared there is something supernatural in the circumstances attending to the taking of these pictures because, as a medical man, I believe that the inculcation of such absurd ideas into the minds of children will result in later life in manifestations and nervous disorder and mental disturbances. They said they had then cut out the cardboard figures and supported them with hatpins, disposing of their props in the beck once the photograph had been taken. But the cousins disagreed about the fifth and final photograph, which Doyle in his The Coming of the Fairies described in this way: Elsie maintained it was a fake, just like all the others, but Frances insisted that it was genuine. In an interview given in the early 1980s Frances said: {{blockquote\|It was a wet Saturday afternoon and we were just mooching about with our cameras and Elsie had nothing prepared. I saw these fairies building up in the grasses and just aimed the camera and took a photograph. In a letter published in The Times newspaper on 9 April 1983, Geoffrey Crawley explained the discrepancy by suggesting that the photograph was "an unintended double exposure of fairy cutouts in the grass", and thus "both ladies can be quite sincere in believing that they each took it". In a 1985 interview on Yorkshire Television's Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers, Elsie said that she and Frances were too embarrassed to admit the truth after fooling Doyle, the author of Sherlock Holmes: "Two village kids and a brilliant man like Conan Doyle – well, we could only keep quiet." In the same interview Frances said: "I never even thought of it as being a fraud – it was just Elsie and I having a bit of fun and I can't understand to this day why they were taken in – they wanted to be taken in." That same year, Geoffrey Crawley sold his Cottingley Fairy material to the National Museum of Film, Photography and Television in Bradford (now the National Science and Media Museum), where it is on display. The collection included prints of the photographs, two of the cameras used by the girls, watercolours of fairies painted by Elsie, and a nine-page letter from Elsie admitting to the hoax. The glass photographic plates were bought for £6,000 by an unnamed buyer at a London auction held in 2001. Frances's daughter, Christine Lynch, appeared in an episode of the television programme Antiques Roadshow in Belfast, broadcast on BBC One in January 2009, with the photographs and one of the cameras given to the girls by Doyle. Christine told the expert, Paul Atterbury, that she believed, as her mother had done, that the fairies in the fifth photograph were genuine. Atterbury estimated the value of the items at between £25,000 and £30,000. The first edition of Frances's memoirs was published a few months later, under the title Reflections on the Cottingley Fairies. The book contains correspondence, sometimes "bitter", between Elsie and Frances. In one letter, dated 1983, Frances wrote: The 1997 films FairyTale: A True Story and Photographing Fairies were inspired by the events surrounding the Cottingley Fairies. The photographs were parodied in a 1994 book written by Terry Jones and Brian Froud, Lady Cottington's Pressed Fairy Book. In A. J. Elwood's 2021 novel, The Cottingley Cuckoo, a series of letters were written soon after the Cottingley fairy photographs were published claiming further sightings of fairies and proof of their existence. In 2017 a further two fairy photographs were presented as evidence that the girls' parents were part of the conspiracy. Dating from 1917 and 1918, both photographs are poorly executed copies of two of the original fairy photographs. One was published in 1918 in The Sphere newspaper, which was before the originals had been seen by anyone outside the girls' immediate family. In 2019, a print of the first of the five photographs sold for £1,050. A print of the second was also put up for sale but failed to sell as it did not meet its £500 reserve price. The pictures previously belonged to the Reverend George Vale Owen. In December 2019, the third camera used to take the images was acquired by the National Science and Media Museum.	[ "Cape Town", "George Vale Owen", "Theosophy (Boehmian)", "Scarborough, North Yorkshire", "parapsychology", "scientific skepticism", "Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers", "ITV (TV network)", "Brian Froud", "Cottingley, Bradford", "Margaret McMillan", "Daily Express", "The Times", "Yorkshire Television", "Project Gutenberg", "British Journal of Photography", "Theosophical Society", "John Hall-Edwards", "Sir Arthur Conan Doyle", "The Cottingley Cuckoo", "Austin Mitchell", "Sherlock Holmes", "photographic plate", "double exposure", "Geoffrey Hodson", "Photographing Fairies", "National Science and Media Museum", "Atlas Obscura", "Antiques Roadshow", "Maurice Hewlett", "Telegraph & Argus", "A. J. Elwood", "Belfast", "Arthur C. Clarke", "Terry Jones", "Film format", "Gill (ravine)", "beck (stream)", "watercolour", "Strand Magazine", "Geoffrey Crawley", "fairy", "Anna Ford", "FairyTale: A True Story", "hammer price", "Truth (British periodical)", "The Strand Magazine", "Theosophy", "Ilford Photo", "physicist", "Melbourne", "Nationwide (TV series)", "The Unexplained (magazine)", "Campanula rotundifolia", "BBC One", "Sir Oliver Lodge", "Fiona Bruce", "Gloucestershire", "The Sphere (newspaper)", "Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal", "Bradford", "buyer's premium", "Magnus Magnusson", "Spiritualism (religious movement)", "X-ray", "hatpin", "Paul Atterbury", "James Randi", "Harrogate", "Eastman Kodak", "Henry De Vere Stacpoole", "BBC" ]
6,752	Cheka	The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (), abbreviated as VChK (), and commonly known as the Cheka (), was the first Soviet secret police organization. It was established on by the Council of People's Commissars of the Russian SFSR, and was led by Felix Dzerzhinsky. By the end of the Russian Civil War in 1921, the Cheka had at least 200,000 personnel. Ostensibly created to protect the October Revolution from "class enemies" such as the bourgeoisie and members of the clergy, the Cheka soon became a tool of repression wielded against all political opponents of the Bolshevik regime. The organization had responsibility for counterintelligence, oversight of the loyalty of the Red Army, and protection of the country's borders, as well as the collection of human and technical intelligence. At the direction of Vladimir Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, torture, and executions without trial in what came to be known as the "Red Terror". It policed the Gulag system of labor camps, conducted requisitions of food, and put down rebellions by workers and peasants. The Cheka was responsible for executing at least 50,000 to as many as 200,000 people, though estimates vary widely. The Cheka, the first in a long succession of Soviet secret police agencies, established the security service as a major player in Soviet politics. It was dissolved in February 1922, and succeeded by the State Political Directorate (GPU). Throughout the Soviet era, members of the secret police were referred to as "Chekists". == Name == The official designation was All-Russian Extraordinary (or Emergency) Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage under the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (, Vserossiyskaya chrezvychaynaya komissiya po borbe s kontrrevolyutsiyey i sabotazhem pri Sovete narodnykh komisarov RSFSR). In 1918 its name was changed, becoming All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Corruption. A member of Cheka was called a chekist (). Also, the term chekist often referred to Soviet secret police throughout the Soviet period, despite official name changes over time. In The Gulag Archipelago, Alexander Solzhenitsyn recalls that zeks in the labor camps used old chekist as a mark of special esteem for particularly experienced camp administrators. The term is still found in use in Russia today (for example, President Vladimir Putin has been referred to in the Russian media as a chekist due to his career in the KGB and as head of the KGB's successor, FSB). The Chekists commonly dressed in black leather, including long flowing coats, reportedly after being issued such distinctive coats early in their existence. Western communists adopted this clothing fashion. The Chekists also often carried with them Greek-style worry beads made of amber, which had become "fashionable among high officials during the time of the 'cleansing'". == History == In 1921, the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered at least 200,000. These troops policed labor camps, ran the Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, and subjected political opponents to secret arrest, detention, torture and summary execution. They also put down rebellions and riots by workers or peasants, and mutinies in the desertion-plagued Red Army. After 1922 Cheka groups underwent the first of a series of reorganizations; however the theme of a government dominated by "the organs" persisted indefinitely afterward, and Soviet citizens continued to refer to members of the various organs as Chekists. === Creation === In the first month and a half after the October Revolution (1917), the duty of "extinguishing the resistance of exploiters" was assigned to the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee (or PVRK). It represented a temporary body working under directives of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) and Central Committee of RDSRP(b). The VRK created new bodies of government, organized food delivery to cities and the Army, requisitioned products from bourgeoisie, and sent its emissaries and agitators into provinces. One of its most important functions was the security of revolutionary order, and the fight against counterrevolutionary activity (see: Anti-Soviet agitation). On December 1, 1917, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK or TsIK) reviewed a proposed reorganization of the VRK, and possible replacement of it. On December 5, the Petrograd VRK published an announcement of dissolution and transferred its functions to the department of TsIK for the fight against "counterrevolutionaries". On December 6, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) strategized how to persuade government workers to strike across Russia. They decided that a special commission was needed to implement the "most energetically revolutionary" measures. Felix Dzerzhinsky (the Iron Felix) was appointed as Director and invited the participation of the following individuals: V. K. Averin, V.V Yakovlev, D. G. Yevseyev, N. A. Zhydelev, I. K. Ksenofontov, G. K. Ordjonikidze, Ya. Kh. Peters, K. A. Peterson, V. A. Trifonov. On December 7, 1917, all invited except Zhydelev and Vasilevsky gathered in the Smolny Institute to discuss the competence and structure of the commission to combat counterrevolution and sabotage. The obligations of the commission were: "to liquidate to the root all of the counterrevolutionary and sabotage activities and all attempts to them in all of Russia, to hand over counter-revolutionaries and saboteurs to the revolutionary tribunals, develop measures to combat them and relentlessly apply them in real-world applications. The commission should only conduct a preliminary investigation". The commission should also observe the press and counterrevolutionary parties, sabotaging officials and other criminals. Three sections were created: informational, organizational, and a unit to combat counter-revolution and sabotage. Upon the end of the meeting, Dzerzhinsky reported to the Sovnarkom with the requested information. The commission was allowed to apply such measures of repression as 'confiscation, deprivation of ration cards, publication of lists of enemies of the people etc.'". On December 8, 1917, some of the original members of the VCheka were replaced. Averin, Ordzhonikidze, and Trifonov were replaced by V. V. Fomin, S. E. Shchukin, Ilyin, and Chernov. and "corruption" was raised at the same meeting, which was assigned to Peters to address and report with results to one of the next meetings of the commission. A circular, published on , gave the address of VCheka's first headquarters as "Petrograd, Gorokhovaya 2, 4th floor". The Left SRs were expelled or arrested later in 1918, following the attempted assassination of Lenin by an SR, Fanni Kaplan. === Consolidation of VCheKa and National Establishment === By the end of January 1918, the Investigatory Commission of Petrograd Soviet (probably same as of Revtribunal) petitioned Sovnarkom to delineate the role of detection and judicial-investigatory organs. It offered to leave, for the VCheKa and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich, only the functions of detection and suppression, while investigative functions entirely transferred to it. The Investigatory Commission prevailed. On January 31, 1918, Sovnarkom ordered to relieve VCheKa of the investigative functions, leaving for the commission only the functions of detection, suppression, and prevention of anti revolutionary crimes. At the meeting of the Council of People's Commissars on January 31, 1918, a merger of VCheKa and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich was proposed. The existence of both commissions, VCheKa of Sovnarkom and the Commission of Bonch-Bruyevich of VTsIK, with almost the same functions and equal rights, became impractical. A decision followed two weeks later. On February 23, 1918, VCheKa sent a radio telegram to all Soviets with a petition to immediately organize emergency commissions to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and speculation, if such commissions had not been yet organized. February 1918 saw the creation of local Extraordinary Commissions. One of the first founded was the Moscow Cheka. Sections and commissariats to combat counterrevolution were established in other cities. The Extraordinary Commissions arose, usually in the areas during the moments of the greatest aggravation of political situation. On February 25, 1918, as the counterrevolutionary organization Union of Front-liners was making advances, the executive committee of the Saratov Soviet formed a counter-revolutionary section. On March 7, 1918, because of the move from Petrograd to Moscow, the Petrograd Cheka was created. On March 9, a section for combating counterrevolution was created under the Omsk Soviet. Extraordinary commissions were also created in Penza, Perm, Novgorod, Cherepovets, Rostov, Taganrog. On March 18, VCheKa adopted a resolution, The Work of VCheKa on the All-Russian Scale, foreseeing the formation everywhere of Extraordinary Commissions after the same model, and sent a letter that called for the widespread establishment of the Cheka in combating counterrevolution, speculation, and sabotage. Establishment of provincial Extraordinary Commissions was largely completed by August 1918. In the Soviet Republic, there were 38 gubernatorial Chekas (Gubcheks) by this time. On June 12, 1918, the All-Russian Conference of Cheka adopted the Basic Provisions on the Organization of Extraordinary Commissions. They set out to form Extraordinary Commissions not only at Oblast and Guberniya levels, but also at the large Uyezd Soviets. In August 1918, in the Soviet Republic had accounted for some 75 Uyezd-level Extraordinary Commissions. By the end of the year, 365 Uyezd-level Chekas were established. In 1918, the All-Russia Extraordinary Commission and the Soviets managed to establish a local Cheka apparatus. It included Oblast, Guberniya, Raion, Uyezd, and Volost Chekas, with Raion and Volost Extraordinary Commissioners. In addition, border security Chekas were included in the system of local Cheka bodies. In the autumn of 1918, as consolidation of the political situation of the republic continued, a move toward elimination of Uyezd-, Raion-, and Volost-level Chekas, as well as the institution of Extraordinary Commissions was considered. On January 20, 1919, VTsIK adopted a resolution prepared by VCheKa, On the abolition of Uyezd Extraordinary Commissions. On January 16 the presidium of VCheKa approved the draft on the establishment of the Politburo at Uyezd militsiya. This decision was approved by the Conference of the Extraordinary Commission IV, held in early February 1920. === Other types of Cheka === On August 3, a VCheKa section for combating counterrevolution, speculation and sabotage on railways was created. On August 7, 1918, Sovnarkom adopted a decree on the organization of the railway section at VCheKa. Combating counterrevolution, speculation, and crimes on railroads was passed under the jurisdiction of the railway section of VCheKa and local Cheka. In August 1918, railway sections were formed under the Gubcheks. Formally, they were part of the non-resident sections, but in fact constituted a separate division, largely autonomous in their activities. The gubernatorial and oblast-type Chekas retained in relation to the transportation sections only control and investigative functions. The beginning of a systematic work of organs of VCheKa in RKKA refers to July 1918, the period of extreme tension of the civil war and class struggle in the country. On July 16, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars formed the Extraordinary Commission for combating counterrevolution at the Czechoslovak (Eastern) Front, led by M. I. Latsis. In the fall of 1918, Extraordinary Commissions to combat counterrevolution on the Southern (Ukraine) Front were formed. In late November, the Second All-Russian Conference of the Extraordinary Commissions accepted a decision after a report from I. N. Polukarov to establish at all frontlines, and army sections of the Cheka and granted them the right to appoint their commissioners in military units. On December 9, 1918, the collegiate (or presidium) of VCheKa had decided to form a military section, headed by M. S. Kedrov, to combat counterrevolution in the Army. In early 1919, the military control and the military section of VCheKa were merged into one body, the Special Section of the Republic, with Kedrov as head. On January 1, he issued an order to establish the Special Section. The order instructed agencies everywhere to unite the Military control and the military sections of Chekas and to form special sections of frontlines, armies, military districts, and guberniyas. In November 1920 the Soviet of Labor and Defense created a Special Section of VCheKa for the security of the state border. On February 6, 1922, after the Ninth All-Russian Soviet Congress, the Cheka was dissolved by VTsIK, "with expressions of gratitude for heroic work." It was replaced by the State Political Administration or GPU, a section of the NKVD of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Dzerzhinsky remained as chief of the new organization. == Operations == === Suppression of political opposition === As its name implied, the Extraordinary Commission had virtually unlimited powers and could interpret them in any way it wished. No standard procedures were ever set up, except that the commission was supposed to send the arrested to the Military-Revolutionary tribunals if outside of a war zone. This left an opportunity for a wide range of interpretations, as the whole country was in total chaos. At the direction of Lenin, the Cheka performed mass arrests, imprisonments, and executions of "enemies of the people". In this, the Cheka said that they targeted "class enemies" such as the bourgeoisie, and members of the clergy. Within a month, the Cheka had extended its repression to all political opponents of the communist government, including anarchists and others on the left. On April 11/12, 1918, some 26 anarchist political centres in Moscow were attacked. Forty anarchists were killed by Cheka forces, and about 500 were arrested and jailed after a pitched battle took place between the two groups. In response to the anarchists' resistance, the Cheka orchestrated a massive retaliatory campaign of repression, executions, and arrests against all opponents of the Bolshevik government, in what came to be known as "Red Terror". The Red Terror, implemented by Dzerzhinsky on September 5, 1918, was vividly described by the Red Army journal Krasnaya Gazeta: Without mercy, without sparing, we will kill our enemies in scores of hundreds. Let them be thousands, let them drown themselves in their own blood. For the blood of Lenin and Uritsky … let there be floods of blood of the bourgeoisie – more blood, as much as possible..." An early Bolshevik, Victor Serge described in his book Memoirs of a Revolutionary: The Cheka was also used against Nestor Makhno's Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine. After the Insurgent Army had served its purpose in aiding the Red Army to stop the Whites under Denikin, the Soviet communist government decided to eliminate the anarchist forces. In May 1919, two Cheka agents sent to assassinate Makhno were caught and executed. Many victims of Cheka repression were "bourgeois hostages" rounded up and held in readiness for summary execution in reprisal for any alleged counter-revolutionary act. Wholesale, indiscriminate arrests became an integral part of the system. The Cheka used trucks disguised as delivery trucks, called "Black Marias", for the secret arrest and transport of prisoners. It was during the Red Terror that the Cheka, hoping to avoid the bloody aftermath of having half-dead victims writhing on the floor, developed a technique for execution known later by the German words "Nackenschuss or "Genickschuss, a shot to the nape of the neck, which caused minimal blood loss and instant death. The victim's head was bent forward, and the executioner fired slightly downward at point-blank range. This had become the standard method used later by the NKVD to liquidate Joseph Stalin's purge victims and others. === Persecution of deserters === It is believed that there were more than three million deserters from the Red Army in 1919 and 1920 . Approximately 500,000 deserters were arrested in 1919 and close to 800,000 in 1920, by troops of the 'Special Punitive Department' of the Cheka, created to punish desertions. These troops were used to forcibly repatriate deserters, taking and shooting hostages to force compliance or to set an example. In September 1918, according to The Black Book of Communism, in only twelve provinces of Russia, 48,735 deserters and 7,325 "bandits" were arrested, 1,826 were killed and 2,230 were executed. The exact identity of these individuals is confused by the fact that the Soviet Bolshevik government used the term 'bandit' to cover ordinary criminals as well as armed and unarmed political opponents, such as the anarchists. == Repression == === Number of victims === Estimates on Cheka executions vary widely. The lowest figures (disputed below) are provided by Dzerzhinsky's lieutenant Martyn Latsis, limited to RSFSR over the period 1918–1920: For the period 1918 – July 1919, covering only twenty provinces of central Russia: In 1918: 6,300; in 1919 (up to July): 2,089; Total: 8,389 For the whole period 1918–19: In 1918: 6,185; in 1919: 3,456; Total: 9,641 For the whole period 1918–20: In January–June 1918: 22; in July–December 1918: more than 6,000; in 1918–20: 12,733. Experts generally agree these semi-official figures are vastly understated. Pioneering historian of the Red Terror Sergei Melgunov claims that this was done deliberately in an attempt to demonstrate the government's humanity. For example, he refutes the claim made by Latsis that only 22 executions were carried out in the first six months of the Cheka's existence by providing evidence that the true number was 884 executions. W. H. Chamberlin claims, "It is simply impossible to believe that the Cheka only put to death 12,733 people in all of Russia up to the end of the civil war." Donald Rayfield concurs, noting that, "Plausible evidence reveals that the actual numbers … vastly exceeded the official figures." Chamberlin provides the "reasonable and probably moderate" estimate of 50,000, Several scholars put the number of executions at about 250,000. Some believe it is possible more people were murdered by the Cheka than died in battle. Historian James Ryan gives a modest estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922. Lenin himself seemed unfazed by the killings. On 12 January 1920, while addressing trade union leaders, he said: "We did not hesitate to shoot thousands of people, and we shall not hesitate, and we shall save the On 14 May 1921, the Politburo, chaired by Lenin, passed a motion "broadening the rights of the [Cheka] in relation to the use of the [death penalty]." === Scholarly estimates === There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922. Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000. Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000 to highs of 140,000 and 200,000 executed. Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000. According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people. According to Robert Conquest, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922. Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals – 14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the Red Army as well. According to anti-Bolshevik Socialist Revolutionary Sergei Melgunov (1879–1956), at the end of 1919, the Special Investigation Commission to investigate the atrocities of the Bolsheviks estimated the number of deaths at 1,766,188 people in 1918–1919 only. == Atrocities == The Cheka engaged in the widespread practice of torture. Depending on Cheka committees in various cities, the methods included: being skinned alive, scalped, "crowned" with barbed wire, impaled, crucified, hanged, stoned to death, tied to planks and pushed slowly into furnaces or tanks of boiling water, or rolled around naked in internally nail-studded barrels. Chekists reportedly poured water on naked prisoners in the winter-bound streets until they became living ice statues. Others beheaded their victims by twisting their necks until their heads could be torn off. The Cheka detachments stationed in Kiev would attach an iron tube to the torso of a bound victim and insert a rat in the tube closed off with wire netting, while the tube was held over a flame until the rat began gnawing through the victim's guts in an effort to escape. All of these atrocities were published on numerous occasions in Pravda and Izvestiya: January 26, 1919 Izvestiya #18 article Is it really a medieval imprisonment? («Неужели средневековый застенок?»); February 22, 1919 Pravda #12 publishes details of the Vladimir Cheka's tortures, September 21, 1922 Socialist Herald publishes details of series of tortures conducted by the Stavropol Cheka (hot basement, cold basement, skull measuring, etc.). The Chekists were also supplemented by the militarized Units of Special Purpose (the Party's Spetsnaz or ). Cheka was actively and openly utilizing kidnapping methods. With kidnapping methods, Cheka was able to extinguish numerous cases of discontent especially among the rural population. Among the notorious ones was the Tambov rebellion. Villages were bombarded to complete annihilation, as in the case of Tretyaki, Novokhopersk uyezd, Voronezh Governorate. As a result of this relentless violence, more than a few Chekists ended up with psychopathic disorders, which Nikolai Bukharin said were "an occupational hazard of the Chekist profession." Many hardened themselves to the executions by heavy drinking and drug use. Some developed a gangster-like slang for the verb to kill in an attempt to distance themselves from the killings, such as 'shooting partridges', or 'sealing' a victim, or giving him a natsokal (onomatopoeia of the trigger action). On November 30, 1992, by the initiative of the President of the Russian Federation the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation recognized the Red Terror as unlawful, which in turn led to the suspension of Communist Party of the RSFSR. == Regional Chekas == Cheka departments were organized not only in big cities and guberniya seats, but also in each uyezd, at any front-lines and military formations. Nothing is known on what resources they were created. Many who were hired to head those departments were so-called "nestlings of Alexander Kerensky". Moscow Cheka (1918–1919) Chairman – Felix Dzerzhynsky, Deputy – Yakov Peters (initially heading the Petrograd Department), other members – Shklovsky, Kneyfis, Tseystin, Razmirovich, Kronberg, Khaikina, Karlson, Shauman, Lentovich, Rivkin, Antonov, Delafabr, Tsytkin, G.Sverdlov, Bizensky, Yakov Blumkin, Aleksandrovich, Fines, Zaks, Yakov Goldin, Galpershtein, Kniggisen, Martin Latsis (later transfer (chief of jail), Fogel, Zakis, Shillenkus, Yanson). Petrograd Cheka (1918–1919) Chairman – Meinkman, Moisei Uritsky (reiller, Kozlovsky, Model, Rozmirovich, I.Diesporov, Iselevich, Krassikov, Bukhan, Merbis, Paykis, Anvelt. Kharkov Cheka Deych, Vikhman, Timofey, Vera (Dora) Grebenshchikova, Aleksandra (ag Ashykin. == Popular culture == The Cheka were popular staples in Soviet film and literature. This was partly due to a romanticization of the organisation in the post-Stalin period, and also because they provided a useful action/detection template. Films featuring the Cheka include Ostern's Miles of Fire, Nikita Mikhalkov's At Home among Strangers, the miniseries The Adjutant of His Excellency, and also Dead Season (starring Donatas Banionis), and the 1992 Russian drama film The Chekist. In Spain, during the Spanish Civil War, the detention and torture centers operated by the Republicans were named "checas" after the Soviet organization. Alfonso Laurencic was their promoter, ideologist and builder. Dzerzhinsky, who rarely drank, is said to have told Lenin – on an occasion in which he did so excessively – that secret police work could be done by "only saints or scoundrels ... but now the saints are running away from me and I am left with the scoundrels". The Chekist, directed by Aleksandr Rogozhkin, is a 1992 French–Russian film based on a 1923 short story by Vladimir Zazubrin. It tells the story of a bloody work and downfall of a Soviet Cheka security official involved in mass executions during the Russian Civil War. The Soviet Story, a 2008 Latvian film, mentioned that Cheka is the Soviet terror machine, and Cheka is the "teacher" of Nazi gestapo. == Legacy == Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy criticised the continuing celebration of the professional holiday of the old and the modern Russian security services on the anniversary of the creation of the Cheka, , with the assent of the Presidents of Russia. (Vladimir Putin, former KGB officer, chose not to change the date to another): "The successors of the KGB still haven't renounced anything; they even celebrate their professional holiday the same day, as during repression, on the 20th of December. It is as if the present intelligence and counterespionage services of Germany celebrated Gestapo Day. I can imagine how indignant our press would be!"	[ "Prodrazvyorstka", "Council of People's Commissars", "Joseph Stalin", "Sergei Melgunov", "gestapo", "All-Russian Central Executive Committee", "Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine", "Penza", "crimes", "Harvard University Press", "Robert Conquest", "Rafael Chacón", "News media", "Grigory Petrovsky", "Bolshevik", "Miami Herald", "Red Army", "Anti-Soviet agitation", "I. N. Polukarov", "Secret police", "Vasily Yakovlev", "Socialist Revolutionary Party", "Harper Perennial", "Political repression in the Soviet Union", "Free Press (publisher)", "Richard Overy", "summary execution", "Alexander Kerensky", "Uyezd", "KGB", "Yakov Blumkin", "State Political Directorate", "October Revolution", "Russian Civil War", "labor camps", "The Gulag Archipelago", "Special Section of the Republic", "secret police", "Council of Labor and Defense", "The Chekist", "Voronezh Governorate", "Nikolai Bukharin", "Guberniya", "Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)", "Left Socialist-Revolutionaries", "Inquisitor", "NKVD", "Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee", "Ostern", "Novgorod", "Vasili Mitrokhin", "President of the Russian Federation", "W. Bruce Lincoln", "postage stamp", "Volost", "pogrom", "counterintelligence", "Sovnarkom", "Russian Revolution of 1917", "Petrograd", "WP:NOTRS", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "Donald Rayfield", "Izvestiya", "Taganrog", "Kyiv", "Chekism", "Dead Season", "Jaan Anvelt", "Great Purge", "Donatas Banionis", "Mitrokhin Archive", "Yakov Peters", "Repatriation", "Nikolai Yezhov", "Valentin Trifonov", "Okhrana", "Christopher Andrew (historian)", "clergy", "Internal Troops", "Oxford University Press", "Anarchism", "counterrevolutionary", "Nestor Makhno", "Petrograd Soviet", "Central Case Examination Group", "torture", "Isaac Steinberg", "People's Commissariat for State Security (Soviet Union)", "Moisei Uritsky", "Miles of Fire", "E. H. Carr", "revolutionary tribunal (Russia)", "Stavropol", "uyezd", "Felix Dzerzhynsky", "Alfonso Laurencic", "Mieczysław Kozłowski", "speculation", "Bonch-Bruyevich Commission", "Leonard Schapiro", "Routledge", "Penguin Books", "Lavrenti Beria", "Military Revolutionary Committee", "Ministry of Justice (Soviet Union)", "Ukrainian SSR", "Felix Dzerzhinsky", "Genrikh Yagoda", "White Sea–Baltic Canal", "Black Book of Communism", "Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze", "holiday", "Gestapo", "Commanders of the border troops USSR and RF", "bourgeoisie", "Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy", "1992 in film", "Aleksandr Rogozhkin", "Martin Latsis", "Omsk", "R. J. Rummel", "cinema of Russia", "worry beads", "enemies of the people", "communism", "Saratov", "Józef Unszlicht", "Gorokhovaya Street", "Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies", "Spanish Civil War", "deserter", "Gulag", "Vladimir Lenin", "Vladimir, Russia", "Smolny Institute", "At Home among Strangers", "Yakov Goldin", "Mikhail Sergeevich Kedrov", "Alexander Solzhenitsyn", "Raion", "Nikita Mikhalkov", "nape", "Orlando Figes", "Abram Belenky", "technical intelligence", "White Army", "Basic Books", "Anton Denikin", "Tambov rebellion", "State Archive of the Russian Federation", "RKKA", "Chinese in Russian Revolution", "Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich", "Politburo", "Dmitri Volkogonov", "White movement", "Ivan Ksenofontov", "Vasiliy Averin", "Lubyanka (KGB)", "Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Karl Peterson", "guberniya", "State Political Administration", "Vyacheslav Menzhinsky", "Lenin", "Stalin and His Hangmen", "Victor Serge", "revolutionary", "Wayback Machine", "corruption", "The Adjutant of His Excellency", "The Black Book of Communism", "Drama (film and television)", "Pravda", "Federal Security Service", "Oblast", "Fanni Kaplan", "D. G. Yevseyev", "N. A. Zhydelev", "militsiya", "The Soviet Story", "Russian Social Democratic Labour Party", "Cherepovets", "Soviet Studies", "Stéphane Courtois", "Random House", "Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast", "Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)", "Vladimir Putin", "Ministry for State Security (Soviet Union)", "Perm, Russia", "Red Terror" ]
6,753	Clitic	In morphology and syntax, a clitic ( , backformed from Greek "leaning" or "enclitic") is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase. In this sense, it is syntactically independent but phonologically dependent—always attached to a host. A clitic is pronounced like an affix, but plays a syntactic role at the phrase level. In other words, clitics have the form of affixes, but the distribution of function words. Clitics can belong to any grammatical category, although they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions. Note that orthography is not always a good guide for distinguishing clitics from affixes: clitics may be written as separate words, but sometimes they are joined to the word they depend on (like the Latin clitic , meaning "and") or separated by special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes (like the English clitic s in "it's" for "it has" or "it is"). ==Classification== Clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to the word they connect to. Endoclitics have also been claimed for Pashto and Degema. However, other authors treat such forms as a sequence of clitics docked to the stem. === Mesoclitic === A mesoclitic is a type of clitic that occurs between the stem of a verb and its affixes. Mesoclisis is rare outside of formal standard Portuguese, where it is predominantly found. In Portuguese, mesoclitic constructions are typically formed with the infinitive form of the verb, a clitic pronoun, and a lexicalized tense affix. For example, in the sentence conquistar-se-á ("it will be conquered"), the reflexive pronoun "se" appears between the stem conquistar and the future tense affix á. This placement of the clitic is characteristic of mesoclisis. Other examples include dá-lo-ei ("I will give it") and matá-la-ia ("he/she/it would kill her"). These forms are typically found much more frequently in written Portuguese than in spoken varieties. Additionally, it is possible to use two clitics within a verb, as in dar-no-lo-á ("he/she/it will give it to us") and dar-ta-ei (ta = te + a, "I will give it/her to you"). This phenomenon is possible due to the historical evolution of the Portuguese synthetic future tense, which comes from the fusion of the infinitive form of the verb and the finite forms of the auxiliary verb haver (from Latin habēre). This origin explains why the clitic can appear between the verb stem and its tense marker, as the future tense was originally a separate word. Colloquial Turkish exhibits an instance of a mesoclitic where the conjunction enclitic de ("also, as well") is inserted after the gerundive suffix -e connecting the verb stem to the potential suffix -(e)bilmek, effectively rendering it in its original auxiliary verb form bilmek (to know). Suffixed auxiliary verbs cannot be converted into individual verbs in Standard Turkish, and the gerundive suffix is considered an inseparable part of them. ==Distinction== One distinction drawn by some scholars divides the broad term "clitics" into two categories, simple clitics and special clitics. This distinction is, however, disputed. === Simple clitics === Simple clitics are free morphemes: can stand alone in a phrase or sentence. They are unaccented and thus phonologically dependent upon a nearby word. They derive meaning only from that "host". lexical item → clitic → affix According to this model from Judith Klavans, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.). At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as a "clitic". As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties. Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between clitics and affixes. There is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a diachronic point of view, a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization). However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for a clitic-affix distinction. An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech, such as a verb, to form a new word. A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to. The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called "clitics" actually have the status of affixes (e.g., the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below). ===Comparison with words=== Similar to the discussion above, clitics must be distinguishable from words. Linguists have proposed a number of tests to differentiate between the two categories. Some tests, specifically, are based upon the understanding that when comparing the two, clitics resemble affixes, while words resemble syntactic phrases. Clitics and words resemble different categories, in the sense that they share certain properties. Six such tests are described below. These are not the only ways to differentiate between words and clitics. If a morpheme is bound to a word and can never occur in complete isolation, then it is likely a clitic. In contrast, a word is not bound and can appear on its own. If the addition of a morpheme to a word prevents further affixation, then it is likely a clitic. If a morpheme combines with single words to convey a further degree of meaning, then it is likely a clitic. A word combines with a group of words or phrases to denote further meaning. If a morpheme must be in a certain order with respect to other morphemes within the construction, then it is likely a clitic. Independent words enjoy free ordering with respect to other words, within the confines of the word order of the language. If a morpheme's allowable behavior is determined by one principle, it is likely a clitic. For example, "a" precedes indefinite nouns in English. Words can rarely be described with one such description. In general, words are more morphologically complex than clitics. Clitics are rarely composed of more than one morpheme. Latin had three enclitics that appeared in second or third position of a clause: -enim 'indeed, for', -autem 'but, moreover', -vero 'however'. For example, quis enim (quisenim) potest negare? (from Martial's epigram LXIV, literally "who indeed can deny [her riches]?"). Spevak (2010) reports that in her corpus of Caesar, Cicero and Sallust, these three words appear in such position in 100% of the cases. Russian has one: ли (li) which acts as a general question marker. It always appears in second position in its sentence or proposition, and if the interrogation concerns one word in particular, that word is placed before it: Он завтра придёт (on zavtra pridyot), He'll arrive tomorrow. Придёт ли он завтра?, Will he arrive tomorrow? Завтра ли он придёт?, Is it tomorrow that he'll arrive? Он ли завтра придёт?, Is it he who'll arrive tomorrow? Я не знаю, придёт ли он завтра (Ya nye znayu, pridyot li on zavtra), I don't know if he'll arrive tomorrow. ==Indo-European languages== ===Germanic languages=== ==== English ==== English enclitics include the contracted versions of auxiliary verbs, as in I'm and we've. Some also regard the possessive marker, as in The Queen of England's crown as an enclitic, rather than a (phrasal) genitival inflection. Some consider the infinitive marker to and the English articles a, an, the to be proclitics. The negative marker -n't as in couldn't etc. is typically considered a clitic that developed from the lexical item not. Linguists Arnold Zwicky and Geoffrey Pullum argue, however, that the form has the properties of an affix rather than a syntactically independent clitic. ====Other Germanic languages==== Old Norse: The definite article was the enclitic , , (masculine, feminine and neuter nominative singular), as in ("the elf"), ("the gift"), and ("the tree"), an abbreviated form of the independent pronoun , cognate of the German pronoun . It was fully declined for gender, case and number. Since both the noun and enclitic were declined, this led to "double declension". The situation remains similar in modern Faroese and Icelandic, but in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, the enclitics have become endings. Old Norse had also some enclitics of personal pronouns that were attached to verbs. These were (from ), (from ), (from ), and (from ). These could even be stacked up, e.g. (Hávamál, stanza 116). Dutch: definite article of neuter nouns and third person singular neuter pronoun, first person pronoun, second person singular pronoun, third person masculine singular pronoun, third person plural pronoun Plautdietsch: ("Will he do it today?") Gothic: Sentence clitics appear in 2nd position in accordance with Wackernagel's Law, including (yes–no question), ("and"), ("then"), ("anything"), for example ("of thyself?"). Multiple clitics could be stacked up, and split a preverb from its rest of the verb if the preverb comes at the beginning of the clause, e.g. ("and then he seized them (fem.)"), ("whether he saw anything"). Yiddish: The unspecified pronoun can be contracted to . ===Celtic languages=== In Cornish, the clitics ma / na are used after a noun and definite article to express "this" / "that" (singular) and "these" / "those" (plural). For example: an lyver "the book", an lyver ma "this book", an lyver na "that book" an lyvrow "the books", an lyvrow ma "these books", an lyvrow na "those books" Irish Gaelic uses seo / sin as clitics in a similar way, also to express "this" / "that" and "these" / "those". For example: an leabhar "the book", an leabhar seo "this book", an leabhar sin "that book" na leabhair "the books", na leabhair seo "these books", na leabhair sin "those books" ===Romance languages=== In Romance languages, some have treated the object personal pronoun forms as clitics, though they only attach to the verb they are the object of and so are affixes by the definition used here. There is no general agreement on the issue. For the Spanish object pronouns, for example: lo atamos ("it tied-1PL" = "we tied it" or "we tied him"; can only occur with the verb it is the object of) dámelo ("give me it") Portuguese allows object suffixes before the conditional and future suffixes of the verbs: Ela levá-lo-ia ("She take-it-would" – "She would take it"). Eles dar-no-lo-ão ("They give-us-it-will" – "They will give it to us"). Colloquial Portuguese allows ser to be conjugated as a verbal clitic adverbial adjunct to emphasize the importance of the phrase compared to its context, or with the meaning of "really" or "in truth": Ele estava era gordo ("He was was fat" – "He was very fat"). Ele ligou é para Paula ("He phoned is Paula" – "He phoned Paula (with emphasis)"). Note that this clitic form is only for the verb ser and is restricted to only third-person singular conjugations. It is not used as a verb in the grammar of the sentence but introduces prepositional phrases and adds emphasis. It does not need to concord with the tense of the main verb, as in the second example, and can be usually removed from the sentence without affecting the simple meaning. ===Proto-Indo-European=== In the Indo-European languages, some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European: for example, is the original form of Sanskrit च (-ca), Greek τε (-te), and Latin -que. Latin: -que "and", -ve "or", -ne (yes–no question) Greek: τε "and", δέ "but", γάρ "for" (in a logical argument), οὖν "therefore" ===Slavic languages=== Russian: ли (yes–no question), же (emphasis), то (emphasis), не "not" (proclitic), бы (subjunctive) Czech: special clitics: weak personal and reflexive pronouns (mu, "him"), certain auxiliary verbs (by, "would"), and various short particles and adverbs (tu, "here"; ale, "though"). "Nepodařilo by se mi mu to dát" "I would not succeed in giving it to him". In addition there are various simple clitics including short prepositions. Polish: -by (conditional mood particle), się (reflexive, also modifies meaning of certain verbs), no and -że (emphasis), -m, -ś, -śmy, -ście (personal auxiliary), mi, ci, cię, go, mu &c. (unstressed personal pronouns in oblique cases) ==== Serbo-Croatian ==== Serbo-Croatian: the reflexive pronoun forms si and se, li (yes–no question), unstressed present and aorist tense forms of biti ("to be"; sam, si, je, smo, ste, su; and bih, bi, bi, bismo, biste, bi, for the respective tense), unstressed personal pronouns in genitive (me, te, ga, je, nas, vas, ih), dative (mi, ti, mu, joj, nam, vam, im) and accusative (me, te, ga (nj), je (ju), nas, vas, ih), and unstressed present tense of htjeti ("want/will"; ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će) These clitics follow the first stressed word in the sentence or clause in most cases, which may have been inherited from Proto-Indo-European (see Wackernagel's Law), even though many of the modern clitics became cliticised much more recently in the language (e.g. auxiliary verbs or the accusative forms of pronouns). In subordinate clauses and questions, they follow the connector and/or the question word respectively. Examples (clitics – sam "I am", biste "you would (pl.)", mi "to me", vam "to you (pl.)", ih "them"): Pokažite mi ih. "Show (pl.) them to me." Pokazao sam vam ih jučer. "I showed them to you (pl.) yesterday." Sve sam vam ih (jučer) pokazao. / Sve sam vam ih pokazao (jučer). "I showed all of them to you (yesterday)." (focus on "all") Jučer sam vam ih (sve) pokazao. "I showed (all of) them to you yesterday." (focus on "yesterday") Znam da sam vam ih već pokazao. "I know that I have already shown them to you." Zašto sam vam ih jučer pokazao? "Why did I show them to you yesterday?" Zar sam vam ih jučer pokazao? "Did I (really) show them to you yesterday?" Kad biste mi ih sada dali... "If you (pl.) gave them to me now..." (lit. If you-would to-me them now give-participle...) Što sam god vidio... "Whatever I saw..." (lit. What I-am ever see-participle...) In certain rural dialects this rule is (or was until recently) very strict, whereas elsewhere various exceptions occur. These include phrases containing conjunctions (e. g. Ivan i Ana "Ivan and Ana"), nouns with a genitival attribute (e. g. vrh brda "the top of the hill"), proper names and titles and the like (e. g. (gospođa) Ivana Marić "(Mrs) Ivana Marić", grad Zagreb "the city (of) Zagreb"), and in many local varieties clitics are hardly ever inserted into any phrases (e. g. moj najbolji prijatelj "my best friend", sutra ujutro "tomorrow morning"). In cases like these, clitics normally follow the initial phrase, although some Standard grammar handbooks recommend that they should be placed immediately after the verb (many native speakers find this unnatural). Examples: Ja smo i on otišli u grad. "He and I went to town." (lit. I are and him gone to town) – this is dialectal. Ja i on smo otišli u grad. – commonly heard Ja i on otišli smo u grad. – prescribed by some standard grammars Moja mu je starija sestra to rekla. "My elder sister told him that." (lit. my to-him is elder sister that say-participle) – standard and usual in many dialects Moja starija sestra mu je to rekla. – common in many dialects Clitics are however never inserted after the negative particle ne, which always precedes the verb in Serbo-Croatian, or after prefixes (earlier preverbs), and the interrogative particle li always immediately follows the verb. Colloquial interrogative particles such as da li, dal, jel appear in sentence-initial position and are followed by clitics (if there are any). Examples: Ne vidim te. "I don't (or can't) see you." Dovedite ih. "Bring them (over here)!" (a prefixed verb: do+vedite) Vidiš li me? "Do/can you see me?" Vidiš li sestru? "Do you see the sister?" (It is impossible to say, e. g. **Sestru li vidiš?, although Sestru vidiš. "It's the sister that you see." is natural) Jel (me) vidiš? "Do/Can you see (me)?" (colloquial) ==Other languages== Arabic: Suffixes standing for direct object pronouns and/or indirect object pronouns (as found in Indo-European languages) are suffixed to verbs, possessive determiners are suffixed to nouns, and pronouns are suffixed to particles. Australian Aboriginal languages: Many Australian languages use bound pronoun enclitics to mark inanimate arguments and, in many pro-drop languages like Warlpiri, animate arguments as well. Pronominal enclitics may also mark possession and other less common argument structures like causal and reciprocal arguments (see Pintupi). In some Australian languages, case markers also seem to operate like special clitics since they are distributed at the phrasal instead of word level (indeed, clitics have been referred to as "phrasal affixes") see for example in Wangkatja. Finnish: Finnish has seven clitics, which change according to the vowel harmony: -kO (-ko ~ -kö), -kA (-ka ~ -kä), -kin, -kAAn (-kaan ~ -kään), -pA (-pa ~ -pä), -hAn (-han ~ -hän) and -s. One word can have multiple clitics attached to it: onkohan? "I wonder if it is?" -kO attached to a verb makes it a question. It is used in yes/no questions: Katsot televisiota "You are watching television" → Katsotko televisiota? "Are you watching television?". It can also be added to words that are not verbs but the emphasis changes: Televisiotako katsot? "Is it television you're watching?", Sinäkö katsot televisiota? "Is it you who is watching television?" -kA gives the host word a colloquial tone: miten ~ mitenkä ("how"). When attached to a negative verb it corresponds with "and": En pidä mansikoista enkä mustikoista "I don't like strawberries nor blueberries". It can also make a negative verb stronger: Enkä tule! "I definitely won't come!" -kin is a focus particle, often used instead of myös ("also" / "as well"): Minäkin olin siellä "I was there, too". Depending on the context when attached to a verb it can also express that something happened according to the plan or as a surprise and not according to the plan. It can also make exclamations stronger. It can be attached to several words in the same sentence, changing the focus of the host word, but can only appear once per sentence: Minäkin olin siellä ("I, too, was there"), Minä olinkin siellä ("Surprisingly, I was there" or "As expected, I was there"), Minä olin sielläkin ("I was there as well") -kAAn is also a focus particle and it corresponds with -kin in negative sentences: Minäkään en ollut siellä "I wasn't there either". Like -kin it can be attached to several host words in the same sentence. The only word it cannot be attached to is a negative verb. In questions it acts as a confirmation, like the word again in English: Missä sanoitkaan asuvasi? "Where did you say you lived again?" -pA is a tone particle which can either add an arguing or patronising tone, or strengthen the host word: Minäpä tiedän paremmin! "Well, I know better!", Onpa kaunis kissa! "Wow what a beautiful cat!", No, kerropa, miksi teit sen! "Well, go ahead and tell why you did it" -hAn is also a tone particle. In interrogative sentences it can make the question more polite and not as pressing: Onkohan isäsi kotona? "(I wonder if your dad is at home?" In command phrases it makes the command softer: Tulehan tänne "Come here you". It can also make a sentence more explanatory, make a claim more self-evident, express that something happened according to one's expectations, or that something came as a surprise etc. Pekka tuntee minut, onhan hän minun opettajani "Pekka knows me, he is my teacher after all", Kaikkihan niin tekevät "Everyone does that after all", Maijahan se siinä! "Well, if it isn't Maija!" Luulin, ettette osaisi, mutta tehän puhutte suomea hyvin "I thought you wouldn't be able to, but you speak Finnish well" -s is a tone particle as well. It can also be used as a mitigating or softening phrase like -hAn: Annikos se on? "Oh, but isn't it Anni?", Tules tänne "Come here, you", Miksikäs ei? "Well, why not?", Paljonkos kello on? "Say, what time it is?" Ganda: -nga attached to a verb to form the progressive; -wo 'in' (also attached to a verb) Georgian: Georgian has several clitics, that are used for paraphrasing, emphasis, question, focus, etc. -ო -o (2nd and 3rd person, as well as 1st person plural speakers), -მეთქი -metki (1st person speakers), and -თქო -tko (colloquial misspelling of თქვა tkva "they said", 3rd person singular form of the verb თქმა tkma "to say") are used once in a sentence and preferably attach to the last word of what someone else said to show reported speech. -მეთქი is used when repeating own words and is separated by a hyphen: ხომ მოგწერე, პური ვიყიდე-მეთქი khom mogts'ere, p'uri viq'ide-metki "I told you I bought bread". -თქო is exclusively used when speaker (1st person) is asking a listener (2nd person) to convey their words to someone else (3rd person), and is also separated by a hyphen: ნინო, ანას უთხარი, ბებია გეძახის-თქო nino, anas utkhari, bebia gedzakhis-tko "Nino, tell Anne I'm calling her". -ო has multiple uses. Usually, it reports a speech of 2nd and 3rd person singular speakers: ხომ თქვი, კინოში მივდივარო khom tkvi, k'inoshi mivdivaro "you said you were going to the cinema" (2nd person); გიოს მეგობარმა დაურეკა, თეატრში წავიდეთო gios megobarma daurek'a, teat'rshi ts'avideto "A friend called Gio and said "let's go to the theater" (3rd person). It is also used when reporting a speech of 1st person plural speakers: მეგობრებს ვპატიჟობდით, საღამოს გვესტუმრეთო megobrebs vp'at'izhobdit, saghamos gvest'umreto "we were inviting our friends and asking them to visit us on the evening". The -ო particle is never separated from a host word. -ც -ts is a focus particle meaning "also" or "as well": მეც მინდა თქვენთან ერთად პარკში წამოსვლა mets minda tkventan ertad p'ark'shi ts'amosvla "I want to go to the park together with you too". -ც is also frequently used in a combination with an emphasis particle კი k'i → მეც კი მინდა წამოსვლა mets k'i minda ts'amosvla "even I want to come". -ღა -gha is an intensifier particle, that can also mean "only", "already" or "again". მეღა სად წავიდე? megha sad ts'avide? "where should I go?". ესღა მაკლია esgha mak'lia "just what I needed/I don't need this at all". ერთი ფანქარიღა დამრჩა erti pankarigha damrcha "I have only one pencil left". -მე -me and -ღაც(ა) -ghats(a) are particles, that form indefinite pronominal adjectives and adverbs: ვინმე vinme "somebody", სადმე sadme "wherever", როგორმე rogorme "however", რამდენიმე ramdenime "a few", რამე rame "something" and რაღაც(ა) raghats(a) "something", ვიღაც(ა) vighats(a) "someone", სადღაც sadghats "somewhere", საიდანღაც saidanghats "from somewhere", რომელიღაც romelighats "some kind" etc. Hungarian: the marker of indirect questions is -e: Nem tudja még, jön-e. "He doesn't know yet if he'll come." This clitic can also mark direct questions with a falling intonation. Is ("as well") and se ("not... either") also function as clitics: although written separately, they are pronounced together with the preceding word, without stress: Ő is jön. "He'll come too." Ő sem jön. "He won't come, either." Korean: The copula 이다 (ida) and the adjectival 하다 (hada), as well as some nominal and verbal particles (e.g. 는, neun). However, alternative analysis suggests that the nominal particles do not function as clitics, but as phrasal affixes. Somali: pronominal clitics, either subject or object clitics, are required in Somali. These exist as simple clitics postponed to the noun they apply to. Lexical arguments can be omitted from sentences, but pronominal clitics cannot be. Turkish: there are some clitics which are independent words, while others are suffixes: the clitic mI (realised as mi, mı, mu, or mü depending on vowel harmony) is used to form yes/no questions, such as iyi mi? "is it good?". It can be inflected by person: iyi misin? "are you good?". The clitic dA (realised as da or de) means "too", "as well" or "also": Sen de iyi misin? means "are you also good?". However, this word must be pronounced and written carefully, as the -dA (another clitic) suffix creates the locative case: o da means "him too", but oda means "room"; oda da means "the room too" and odada means in the room. Verbal clitics also exist, for pronouns as well as for certain meanings like "if" (-sa) or "can" (-Abil). Pronominal clitics make pronouns redundant in most situations.	[ "wikt:-que", "English articles", "Norwegian language", "Finnish language", "function word", "Apptek", "wikt:οὖν", "Danish language", "Polish language", "aorist", "syntax", "wikt:τε", "Irish-Gaelic", "part of speech", "Martial", "Negative verb", "Australian Aboriginal languages", "SPQR", "English possessive", "wikt:이다", "Argument (linguistics)", "wikt:하다", "Faroese language", "wikt:не", "Pashto language", "apostrophe", "Hávamál", "Plautdietsch", "Greek language", "Jacob Wackernagel", "Tmesis", "hyphen", "wikt:że", "Serbo-Croatian", "Devanagari", "wikt:się", "Yiddish", "Gothic language", "Present tense", "Wangkatja language", "oblique case", "adposition", "Clitic climbing", "orthography", "Spanish object pronouns", "wikt:च", "Estonian language", "Turkish language", "Judith Klavans", "wikt:γάρ", "Arnold Zwicky", "cognate", "affix", "grammaticalization", "wikt:бы", "wikt:by", "Ancient Greek", "Wackernagel's Law", "pronoun", "Functional item", "Dutch language", "wikt:-ne", "Ganda language", "Geoffrey Pullum", "Sanskrit", "Namaste", "Possessive (linguistics)", "Diachrony and synchrony", "Tamil language", "Proto-Indo-European", "separable verb", "Cornish language", "Udi language", "locative case", "Old Norse", "Swedish language", "Spanish language", "Suffix", "phrase", "Grammatical particle", "V2 word order", "Czech language", "wikt:no", "comitative", "preverb", "Uses of English verb forms", "Telugu language", "Vowel harmony", "wikt:는", "Clitic doubling", "Object (grammar)", "wikt:que", "Warlpiri language", "Icelandic language", "English language", "clause", "progressive aspect", "Separable affix", "Latin", "Craig Kopris", "Romance languages", "Degema language", "Georgian language", "wikt:-ve", "Weak and strong forms in English", "Predicate (grammar)", "Possessive case", "sandhi", "Weak pronoun", "Russian language", "Hungarian language", "Korean language", "Arabic language", "wikt:же", "Cicero", "Personal pronoun", "morpheme", "Genitive case", "Latin language", "Pro-drop language", "wikt:ли", "Portuguese language", "Pintupi dialect", "Proto-Indo-European language", "yes–no question", "wikt:δέ", "reflexive pronoun", "Sallust", "personal pronoun", "Back-formation", "Indo-European languages", "determiner", "Somali language", "Caesar", "Word stem", "Morphology (linguistics)", "phonology" ]
6,759	Context-free grammar	In formal language theory, a context-free grammar (CFG) is a formal grammar whose production rules can be applied to a nonterminal symbol regardless of its context. In particular, in a context-free grammar, each production rule is of the form A\ \to\ \alpha with A a single nonterminal symbol, and \alpha a string of terminals and/or nonterminals (\alpha can be empty). Regardless of which symbols surround it, the single nonterminal A on the left hand side can always be replaced by \alpha on the right hand side. This distinguishes it from a context-sensitive grammar, which can have production rules in the form \alpha A \beta \rightarrow \alpha \gamma \beta with A a nonterminal symbol and \alpha, \beta, and \gamma strings of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. A formal grammar is essentially a set of production rules that describe all possible strings in a given formal language. Production rules are simple replacements. For example, the first rule in the picture, \langle\text{Stmt}\rangle \to \langle\text{Id}\rangle = \langle\text{Expr}\rangle ; replaces \langle\text{Stmt}\rangle with \langle\text{Id}\rangle = \langle\text{Expr}\rangle ;. There can be multiple replacement rules for a given nonterminal symbol. The language generated by a grammar is the set of all strings of terminal symbols that can be derived, by repeated rule applications, from some particular nonterminal symbol ("start symbol"). Nonterminal symbols are used during the derivation process, but do not appear in its final result string. Languages generated by context-free grammars are known as context-free languages (CFL). Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language. It is important to distinguish the properties of the language (intrinsic properties) from the properties of a particular grammar (extrinsic properties). The language equality question (do two given context-free grammars generate the same language?) is undecidable. Context-free grammars arise in linguistics where they are used to describe the structure of sentences and words in a natural language, and they were invented by the linguist Noam Chomsky for this purpose. By contrast, in computer science, as the use of recursively-defined concepts increased, they were used more and more. In an early application, grammars are used to describe the structure of programming languages. In a newer application, they are used in an essential part of the Extensible Markup Language (XML) called the document type definition. In linguistics, some authors use the term phrase structure grammar to refer to context-free grammars, whereby phrase-structure grammars are distinct from dependency grammars. In computer science, a popular notation for context-free grammars is Backus–Naur form, or BNF. == Background == Since at least the time of the ancient Indian scholar Pāṇini, linguists have described the grammars of languages in terms of their block structure, and described how sentences are recursively built up from smaller phrases, and eventually individual words or word elements. An essential property of these block structures is that logical units never overlap. For example, the sentence: John, whose blue car was in the garage, walked to the grocery store. can be logically parenthesized (with the logical metasymbols [ ]) as follows: [John[, [whose [blue car]] [was [in [the garage]]],]] [walked [to [the [grocery store]]]]. A context-free grammar provides a simple and mathematically precise mechanism for describing the methods by which phrases in some natural language are built from smaller blocks, capturing the "block structure" of sentences in a natural way. Its simplicity makes the formalism amenable to rigorous mathematical study. Important features of natural language syntax such as agreement and reference are not part of the context-free grammar, but the basic recursive structure of sentences, the way in which clauses nest inside other clauses, and the way in which lists of adjectives and adverbs are swallowed by nouns and verbs, is described exactly. Context-free grammars are a special form of Semi-Thue systems that in their general form date back to the work of Axel Thue. The formalism of context-free grammars was developed in the mid-1950s by Noam Chomsky, and also their classification as a special type of formal grammar (which he called phrase-structure grammars). Some authors, however, reserve the term for more restricted grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy: context-sensitive grammars or context-free grammars. In a broader sense, phrase structure grammars are also known as constituency grammars. The defining trait of phrase structure grammars is thus their adherence to the constituency relation, as opposed to the dependency relation of dependency grammars. In Chomsky's generative grammar framework, the syntax of natural language was described by context-free rules combined with transformation rules. Block structure was introduced into computer programming languages by the Algol project (1957–1960), which, as a consequence, also featured a context-free grammar to describe the resulting Algol syntax. This became a standard feature of computer languages, and the notation for grammars used in concrete descriptions of computer languages came to be known as Backus–Naur form, after two members of the Algol language design committee. The "block structure" aspect that context-free grammars capture is so fundamental to grammar that the terms syntax and grammar are often identified with context-free grammar rules, especially in computer science. Formal constraints not captured by the grammar are then considered to be part of the "semantics" of the language. Context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient parsing algorithms that, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An Earley parser is an example of such an algorithm, while the widely used LR and LL parsers are simpler algorithms that deal only with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars. == Formal definitions == A context-free grammar is defined by the 4-tuple G = (V, \Sigma, R, S), where is a finite set; each element v\in V is called a nonterminal character or a variable. Each variable represents a different type of phrase or clause in the sentence. Variables are also sometimes called syntactic categories. Each variable defines a sub-language of the language defined by . is a finite set of terminals, disjoint from , which make up the actual content of the sentence. The set of terminals is the alphabet of the language defined by the grammar . is a finite relation in V\times(V\cup\Sigma)^{}, where the asterisk represents the Kleene star operation. The members of are called the (rewrite) rules or productions of the grammar. (also commonly symbolized by a ) is the start variable (or start symbol), used to represent the whole sentence (or program). It must be an element of . === Production rule notation === A production rule in is formalized mathematically as a pair (\alpha, \beta)\in R, where \alpha \in V is a nonterminal and \beta \in (V\cup\Sigma)^{} is a string of variables and/or terminals; rather than using ordered pair notation, production rules are usually written using an arrow operator with \alpha as its left hand side and as its right hand side: \alpha\rightarrow\beta. It is allowed for to be the empty string, and in this case it is customary to denote it by ε. The form \alpha\rightarrow\varepsilon is called an -production. It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using \| (the vertical bar) to separate them. Rules \alpha\rightarrow \beta_1 and \alpha\rightarrow\beta_2 can hence be written as \alpha\rightarrow\beta_1\mid\beta_2. In this case, \beta_1 and \beta_2 are called the first and second alternative, respectively. === Rule application === For any strings u, v\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}, we say directly yields , written as u\Rightarrow v\,, if \exists (\alpha, \beta)\in R with \alpha \in V and u_{1}, u_{2}\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{} such that u\,=u_{1}\alpha u_{2} and v\,=u_{1}\beta u_{2}. Thus, is a result of applying the rule (\alpha, \beta) to . === Repetitive rule application === For any strings u, v\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{}, we say yields or is derived from if there is a positive integer and strings u_{1}, \ldots, u_{k}\in (V\cup\Sigma)^{} such that u = u_{1} \Rightarrow u_{2} \Rightarrow \cdots \Rightarrow u_{k} = v. This relation is denoted u\stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} v, or u\Rightarrow\Rightarrow v in some textbooks. If k\geq 2, the relation u\stackrel{+}{\Rightarrow} v holds. In other words, (\stackrel{}{\Rightarrow}) and (\stackrel{+}{\Rightarrow}) are the reflexive transitive closure (allowing a string to yield itself) and the transitive closure (requiring at least one step) of (\Rightarrow), respectively. === Context-free language === The language of a grammar G = (V, \Sigma, R, S) is the set L(G) = \{ w\in\Sigma^{} : S\stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} w\} of all terminal-symbol strings derivable from the start symbol. A language is said to be a context-free language (CFL), if there exists a CFG , such that L\,=\,L(G). Non-deterministic pushdown automata recognize exactly the context-free languages. == Examples == === Words concatenated with their reverse === The grammar G = (\{S\}, \{a, b\}, P, S), with productions , , , is context-free. It is not proper since it includes an ε-production. A typical derivation in this grammar is . This makes it clear that L(G) = \{ww^R:w\in\{a,b\}^\}. The language is context-free; however, it can be proved that it is not regular. If the productions , , are added, a context-free grammar for the set of all palindromes over the alphabet is obtained. === Well-formed parentheses === The canonical example of a context-free grammar is parenthesis matching, which is representative of the general case. There are two terminal symbols "(" and ")" and one nonterminal symbol S. The production rules are , , The first rule allows the S symbol to multiply; the second rule allows the S symbol to become enclosed by matching parentheses; and the third rule terminates the recursion. === Well-formed nested parentheses and square brackets === A second canonical example is two different kinds of matching nested parentheses, described by the productions: with terminal symbols [ ] ( ) and nonterminal S. The following sequence can be derived in that grammar: === Matching pairs === In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with brackets. The simplest example: This grammar generates the language \{ a^n b^n : n \ge 1 \} , which is not regular (according to the pumping lemma for regular languages). The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to we obtain a grammar generating the language \{ a^n b^n : n \ge 0 \} instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not. === Distinct number of a's and b's === A context-free grammar for the language consisting of all strings over {a,b} containing an unequal number of a's and b's: Here, the nonterminal T can generate all strings with more a's than b's, the nonterminal U generates all strings with more b's than a's and the nonterminal V generates all strings with an equal number of a's and b's. Omitting the third alternative in the rules for T and U does not restrict the grammar's language. === Second block of b's of double size === Another example of a non-regular language is \{ \text{b}^n \text{a}^m \text{b}^{2n} : n \ge 0, m \ge 0 \} . It is context-free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar: === First-order logic formulas === The formation rules for the terms and formulas of formal logic fit the definition of context-free grammar, except that the set of symbols may be infinite and there may be more than one start symbol. == Examples of languages that are not context free == In contrast to well-formed nested parentheses and square brackets in the previous section, there is no context-free grammar for generating all sequences of two different types of parentheses, each separately balanced disregarding the other, where the two types need not nest inside one another, for example: or The fact that this language is not context free can be proven using pumping lemma for context-free languages and a proof by contradiction, observing that all words of the form {(}^n {[}^n {)}^n {]}^n should belong to the language. This language belongs instead to a more general class and can be described by a conjunctive grammar, which in turn also includes other non-context-free languages, such as the language of all words of the form \text{a}^n \text{b}^n \text{c}^n . == Regular grammars == Every regular grammar is context-free, but not all context-free grammars are regular. The following context-free grammar, for example, is also regular. The terminals here are and , while the only nonterminal is . The language described is all nonempty strings of as and bs that end in a. This grammar is regular: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side. Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a nondeterministic finite automaton, so we know that this is a regular language. Using vertical bars, the grammar above can be described more tersely as follows: == Derivations and syntax trees == A derivation of a string for a grammar is a sequence of grammar rule applications that transform the start symbol into the string. A derivation proves that the string belongs to the grammar's language. A derivation is fully determined by giving, for each step: the rule applied in that step the occurrence of its left-hand side to which it is applied For clarity, the intermediate string is usually given as well. For instance, with the grammar: the string can be derived from the start symbol with the following derivation: (by rule 1. on ) (by rule 1. on the second ) (by rule 2. on the first ) (by rule 2. on the second ) (by rule 3. on the third ) Often, a strategy is followed that deterministically chooses the next nonterminal to rewrite: in a leftmost derivation, it is always the leftmost nonterminal; in a rightmost derivation, it is always the rightmost nonterminal. Given such a strategy, a derivation is completely determined by the sequence of rules applied. For instance, one leftmost derivation of the same string is (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) (by rule 3 on the leftmost ), which can be summarized as rule 1 rule 2 rule 1 rule 2 rule 3. One rightmost derivation is: (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) (by rule 3 on the rightmost ) (by rule 2 on the rightmost ) (by rule 2 on the rightmost ), which can be summarized as rule 1 rule 1 rule 3 rule 2 rule 2. The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most parsers the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore, it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example LL parsers and LR parsers. A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example, if the string "1 + 1 + a" is derived according to the leftmost derivation outlined above, the structure of the string would be: where indicates a substring recognized as belonging to . This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree: This tree is called a parse tree or "concrete syntax tree" of the string, by contrast with the abstract syntax tree. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same parse tree; however, there is another rightmost derivation of the same string (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) (by rule 3 on the rightmost ) (by rule 1 on the rightmost ) (by rule 2 on the rightmost ) (by rule 2 on the rightmost ), which defines a string with a different structure and a different parse tree: Note however that both parse trees can be obtained by both leftmost and rightmost derivations. For example, the last tree can be obtained with the leftmost derivation as follows: (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) (by rule 1 on the leftmost ) (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) (by rule 2 on the leftmost ) (by rule 3 on the leftmost ), If a string in the language of the grammar has more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ambiguous grammar. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply. Usually, ambiguity is a feature of the grammar, not the language, and an unambiguous grammar can be found that generates the same context-free language. However, there are certain languages that can only be generated by ambiguous grammars; such languages are called inherently ambiguous languages. == Normal forms == Every context-free grammar with no ε-production has an equivalent grammar in Chomsky normal form, and a grammar in Greibach normal form. "Equivalent" here means that the two grammars generate the same language. The especially simple form of production rules in Chomsky normal form grammars has both theoretical and practical implications. For instance, given a context-free grammar, one can use the Chomsky normal form to construct a polynomial-time algorithm that decides whether a given string is in the language represented by that grammar or not (the CYK algorithm). ==Closure properties== Context-free languages are closed under the various operations, that is, if the languages K and L are context-free, so is the result of the following operations: union K ∪ L; concatenation K ∘ L; Kleene star L substitution (in particular homomorphism) inverse homomorphism intersection with a regular language They are not closed under general intersection (hence neither under complementation) and set difference. == Decidable problems == The following are some decidable problems about context-free grammars. === Parsing === The parsing problem, checking whether a given word belongs to the language given by a context-free grammar, is decidable, using one of the general-purpose parsing algorithms: CYK algorithm (for grammars in Chomsky normal form) Earley parser GLR parser LL parser (only for the proper subclass of LL(k) grammars) Context-free parsing for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to Boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of O(n2.3728639). Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown O(n3−ε) Boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to O(n3−3ε) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter. === Reachability, productiveness, nullability === A nonterminal symbol X is called productive, or generating, if there is a derivation X \stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} w for some string w of terminal symbols. X is called reachable if there is a derivation S \stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} \alpha X \beta for some strings \alpha,\beta of nonterminal and terminal symbols from the start symbol. X is called useless if it is unreachable or unproductive. X is called nullable if there is a derivation X \stackrel{}{\Rightarrow} \varepsilon. A rule X \rightarrow \varepsilon is called an ε-production. A derivation X \stackrel{+}{\Rightarrow} X is called a cycle. Algorithms are known to eliminate from a given grammar, without changing its generated language, unproductive symbols, unreachable symbols, ε-productions, with one possible exception, and cycles. In particular, an alternative containing a useless nonterminal symbol can be deleted from the right-hand side of a rule. Such rules and alternatives are called useless. In the depicted example grammar, the nonterminal D is unreachable, and E is unproductive, while C → C causes a cycle. Hence, omitting the last three rules does not change the language generated by the grammar, nor does omitting the alternatives "\| Cc \| Ee" from the right-hand side of the rule for S. A context-free grammar is said to be proper if it has neither useless symbols nor ε-productions nor cycles. Combining the above algorithms, every context-free grammar not generating ε can be transformed into a weakly equivalent proper one. === Regularity and LL(k) checks === It is decidable whether a given grammar is a regular grammar, as well as whether it is an LL(k) grammar for a given k≥0. If k is not given, the latter problem is undecidable. nor whether it is an LL(k) language for a given k. === Grammar ambiguity === Given a CFG, is it ambiguous? The undecidability of this problem follows from the fact that if an algorithm to determine ambiguity existed, the Post correspondence problem could be decided, which is known to be undecidable. This may be proved by Ogden's lemma. === Language disjointness === Given two CFGs, is there any string derivable from both grammars? If this problem was decidable, the undecidable Post correspondence problem (PCP) could be decided, too: given strings \alpha_1, \ldots, \alpha_N, \beta_1, \ldots, \beta_N over some alphabet \{a_1, \ldots, a_k\}, let the grammar consist of the rule S \to \alpha_1 S \beta_1^{rev} \| \cdots \| \alpha_N S \beta_N^{rev} \| b; where \beta_i^{rev} denotes the reversed string \beta_i and b does not occur among the a_i; and let grammar consist of the rule T \to a_1 T a_1^{rev} \| \cdots \| a_k T a_k^{rev} \| b; Then the PCP instance given by \alpha_1, \ldots, \alpha_N, \beta_1, \ldots, \beta_N has a solution if and only if and share a derivable string. The left of the string (before the b ) will represent the top of the solution for the PCP instance while the right side will be the bottom in reverse. == Extensions == An obvious way to extend the context-free grammar formalism is to allow nonterminals to have arguments, the values of which are passed along within the rules. This allows natural language features such as agreement and reference, and programming language analogs such as the correct use and definition of identifiers, to be expressed in a natural way. E.g. we can now easily express that in English sentences, the subject and verb must agree in number. In computer science, examples of this approach include affix grammars, attribute grammars, indexed grammars, and Van Wijngaarden two-level grammars. Similar extensions exist in linguistics. An extended context-free grammar (or regular right part grammar) is one in which the right-hand side of the production rules is allowed to be a regular expression over the grammar's terminals and nonterminals. Extended context-free grammars describe exactly the context-free languages. Another extension is to allow additional terminal symbols to appear at the left-hand side of rules, constraining their application. This produces the formalism of context-sensitive grammars. == Subclasses == There are a number of important subclasses of the context-free grammars: LR(k) grammars (also known as deterministic context-free grammars) allow parsing (string recognition) with deterministic pushdown automata (PDA), but they can only describe deterministic context-free languages. Simple LR, Look-Ahead LR grammars are subclasses that allow further simplification of parsing. SLR and LALR are recognized using the same PDA as LR, but with simpler tables, in most cases. LL(k) and LL() grammars allow parsing by direct construction of a leftmost derivation as described above, and describe even fewer languages. Simple grammars are a subclass of the LL(1) grammars mostly interesting for its theoretical property that language equality of simple grammars is decidable, while language inclusion is not. Bracketed grammars have the property that the terminal symbols are divided into left and right bracket pairs that always match up in rules. Linear grammars have no rules with more than one nonterminal on the right-hand side. Regular grammars are a subclass of the linear grammars and describe the regular languages, i.e. they correspond to finite automata and regular expressions. LR parsing extends LL parsing to support a larger range of grammars; in turn, generalized LR parsing extends LR parsing to support arbitrary context-free grammars. On LL grammars and LR grammars, it essentially performs LL parsing and LR parsing, respectively, while on nondeterministic grammars, it is as efficient as can be expected. Although GLR parsing was developed in the 1980s, many new language definitions and parser generators continue to be based on LL, LALR or LR parsing up to the present day. == Linguistic applications == Chomsky initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding transformation rules. although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of context-free grammars in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproved. Gerald Gazdar and Geoffrey Pullum have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as cross-serial dependencies in Swiss German), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.	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6,760	Cryonics	Cryonics (from kryos, meaning "cold") is the low-temperature freezing (usually at ) and storage of human remains in the hope that resurrection may be possible in the future. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism by the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. It is not possible to reanimate a corpse that has undergone vitrification, as this damages the brain, including its neural circuits. The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford, in 1967. As of 2014, remains from about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of theirs. Even if the resurrection promised by cryonics were possible, economic considerations make it unlikely cryonics corporations could remain in business long enough to deliver. Cryonics uses temperatures below −130 °C, called cryopreservation, in an attempt to preserve enough brain information to permit the revival of the cryopreserved person. Cryopreservation is accomplished by freezing with or without cryoprotectant to reduce ice damage, or by vitrification to avoid ice damage. Even using the best methods, cryopreservation of whole bodies or brains is very damaging and irreversible with current technology. Cryonicists call the human remains packed into low-temperature vats "patients". They hope that some kind of presently nonexistent nanotechnology will be able to bring the dead back to life and treat the diseases that killed them. Mind uploading has also been proposed. ==Cryonics in practice== Cryonics is expensive. , the cost of preparing and storing corpses using cryonics ranged from US$28,000 to $200,000. At high concentrations, cryoprotectants can stop ice formation completely. Cooling and solidification without crystal formation is called vitrification. In the late 1990s, cryobiologists Gregory Fahy and Brian Wowk developed the first cryoprotectant solutions that could vitrify at very slow cooling rates while still allowing whole organ survival, for the purpose of banking transplantable organs. This has allowed animal brains to be vitrified, thawed, and examined for ice damage using light and electron microscopy. No ice crystal damage was found; cellular damage was due to dehydration and toxicity of the cryoprotectant solutions. Costs can include payment for medical personnel to be on call for death, vitrification, transportation in dry ice to a preservation facility, and payment into a trust fund intended to cover indefinite storage in liquid nitrogen and future revival costs. As of 2011, U.S. cryopreservation costs can range from $28,000 to $200,000, and are often financed via life insurance. A more recent development is Tomorrow Biostasis GmbH, a Berlin-based firm offering cryonics and standby and transportation services in Europe. Founded in 2019 by Emil Kendziorra and Fernando Azevedo Pinheiro, it partners with the European Biostasis Foundation in Switzerland for long-term corpse storage. The facility was completed in 2022. It seems extremely unlikely that any cryonics company could exist long enough to take advantage of the supposed benefits offered; historically, even the most robust corporations have only a one-in-a-thousand chance of lasting 100 years. Many cryonics companies have failed; , all but one of the pre-1973 batch had gone out of business, and their stored corpses have been defrosted and disposed of. ==Obstacles to success== === Preservation damage === Medical laboratories have long used cryopreservation to maintain animal cells, human embryos, and even some organized tissues, for periods as long as three decades. But recovering large animals and organs from a frozen state is not considered possible now. Large vitrified organs tend to develop fractures during cooling, a problem worsened by the large tissue masses and very low temperatures of cryonics. Without cryoprotectants, cell shrinkage and high salt concentrations during freezing usually prevent frozen cells from functioning again after thawing. Ice crystals can also disrupt connections between cells that are necessary for organs to function. Some cryonics organizations use vitrification without a chemical fixation step, sacrificing some structural preservation quality for less damage at the molecular level. Some scientists, like João Pedro Magalhães, have questioned whether using a deadly chemical for fixation eliminates the possibility of biological revival, making chemical fixation unsuitable for cryonics. Outside of cryonics firms and cryonics-linked interest groups, many scientists are very skeptical about cryonics methods. Cryobiologist Dayong Gao has said, "we simply don't know if [subjects have] been damaged to the point where they've 'died' during vitrification because the subjects are now inside liquid nitrogen canisters." Based on experience with organ transplants, biochemist Ken Storey argues that "even if you only wanted to preserve the brain, it has dozens of different areas which would need to be cryopreserved using different protocols". This revival technology remains speculative. But secular courts began to exercise jurisdiction over corpses and use discretion in carrying out deceased people's wishes. In France, cryonics is not considered a legal mode of body disposal; only burial, cremation, and formal body donation to science are allowed, though bodies may legally be shipped to other countries for cryonic freezing. As of 2015, British Columbia prohibits the sale of arrangements for cryonic body preservation. In Russia, cryonics falls outside both the medical industry and the funeral services industry, making it easier than in the U.S. to get hospitals and morgues to release cryonics candidates. In Alcor Life Extension Foundation v. Richardson, the Iowa Court of Appeals ordered the disinterment of Richardson, who was buried against his wishes, for cryopreservation. A detailed legal examination by Jochen Taupitz concludes that cryonic storage is legal in Germany for an indefinite period. ==Ethics== Writing in Bioethics in 2009, David Shaw examined cryonics. The arguments he cited against it included changing the concept of death, the expense of preservation and revival, lack of scientific advancement to permit revival, temptation to use premature euthanasia, and failure due to catastrophe. Arguments in favor of cryonics include the potential benefit to society, the prospect of immortality, and the benefits associated with avoiding death. Shaw explores the expense and the potential payoff, and applies an adapted version of Pascal's Wager to the question. He argues that someone who bets on cryonic preservation risks losing "a bit of money" but potentially gains a longer life and perhaps immortality. Shaun Pattinson responds that Shaw's calculation is incomplete because "being revived only equates to winning the wager if the revived life is worth living. A longer life of unremitting suffering, perhaps due to irreparable nerve damage or even the actions of an evil reviver, is unlikely to be considered preferable to non-revival". In 2016, Charles Tandy wrote in support of cryonics, arguing that honoring someone's last wishes is seen as a benevolent duty in American and many other cultures. ==History== Cryopreservation was applied to human cells beginning in 1954 with frozen sperm, which was thawed and used to inseminate three women. The freezing of humans was first scientifically proposed by Michigan professor Robert Ettinger in The Prospect of Immortality (1962). In 1966, the first human body was frozen—though it had been embalmed for two months—by being placed in liquid nitrogen and stored at just above freezing. The middle-aged woman from Los Angeles, whose name is unknown, was soon thawed and buried by relatives. The first body to be cryopreserved and then frozen in hope of future revival was that of James Bedford. Alcor's Mike Darwin says Bedford's body was cryopreserved around two hours after his death by cardiorespiratory arrest (secondary to metastasized kidney cancer) on January 12, 1967. Bedford's corpse is the only one frozen before 1974 still preserved today. In 2018, a Y-Combinator startup called Nectome was recognized for developing a method of preserving brains with chemicals rather than by freezing. The method is fatal, performed as euthanasia under general anesthesia, but the hope is that future technology will allow the brain to be physically scanned into a computer simulation, neuron by neuron. ==Demographics== According to The New York Times, cryonicists are predominantly non-religious white men, outnumbering women by about three to one. According to The Guardian, as of 2008, while most cryonicists used to be young, male, and "geeky", recent demographics have shifted slightly toward whole families. ==Reception== Cryonics is generally regarded as a fringe pseudoscience. Between 1982 and November 2018, the Society for Cryobiology rejected members who practiced cryonics, Russian company KrioRus is the first non-U.S. vendor of cryonics services. Yevgeny Alexandrov, chair of the Russian Academy of Sciences commission against pseudoscience, said there was "no scientific basis" for cryonics, and that the company was based on "unfounded speculation". Scientists have expressed skepticism about cryonics in media sources, few will comment directly on cryonics due to its speculative nature. People who intend to be frozen are often "looked at as a bunch of kooks". Cryobiologist Kenneth B. Storey said in 2004 that cryonics is impossible and will never be possible, as cryonics proponents are proposing to "overturn the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular science". Neurobiologist Michael Hendricks has said, "Reanimation or simulation is an abjectly false hope that is beyond the promise of technology and is certainly impossible with the frozen, dead tissue offered by the 'cryonics' industry". William T. Jarvis has written, "Cryonics might be a suitable subject for scientific research, but marketing an unproven method to the public is quackery". According to cryonicist Aschwin de Wolf and others, cryonics can often produce intense hostility from spouses who are not cryonicists. James Hughes, the executive director of the pro-life-extension Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, has not personally signed up for cryonics, calling it a worthy experiment but saying, "I value my relationship with my wife." While it is universally agreed that personal identity is uninterrupted when brain activity temporarily ceases during incidents of accidental drowning (where people have been restored to normal functioning after being completely submerged in cold water for up to 66 minutes), one argument against cryonics is that a centuries-long absence from life might interrupt personal identity, such that the revived person would "not be themself". ==In popular culture== The town of Nederland, Colorado, hosts an annual Frozen Dead Guy Days festival to commemorate a substandard attempt at cryopreservation. == Notable people == Corpses subjected to the cryonics process include those of baseball players Ted Williams and his son John Henry Williams (in 2002 and 2004, respectively), engineer and doctor L. Stephen Coles (in 2014), economist and entrepreneur Phil Salin, and software engineer Hal Finney (in 2014). People known to have arranged for cryonics upon death include PayPal founders Luke Nosek and Peter Thiel, Oxford transhumanists Nick Bostrom and Anders Sandberg, and transhumanist philosopher David Pearce. Larry King once arranged for cryonics but, according to Inside Edition, changed his mind. Sex offender and financier Jeffrey Epstein wanted to have his head and penis frozen after death. The corpses of some are mistakenly believed to have undergone cryonics. The urban legend that Walt Disney's remains were cryopreserved is false; it was cremated and interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery. Timothy Leary was a long-time cryonics advocate and signed up with a major cryonics provider, but changed his mind shortly before his death and was not cryopreserved.	[ "Brain in a vat", "penis", "Mental Floss", "Cryobiology", "KOIN", "Society for Cryobiology", "PayPal", "Ole Martin Moen", "crystal", "Hibernation", "James Bedford", "Europe", "Portland Tribune", "Supercooling", "Chicago Tribune", "Philip J. Fry", "BBC News", "David Pearce (transhumanist)", "Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest", "The Independent", "Los Angeles Times", "Cryogenic storage dewar", "personal identity", "CBC News", "cryoprotectant", "Bioethics (journal)", "High Court of Justice", "Maastricht University", "William T. Jarvis", "Timothy Leary", "Jeffrey Epstein", "New Scientist", "falsifiability", "Robert Ettinger", "resurrection", "United States", "quackery", "The Walt Disney Company", "scientific community", "Kenneth B. Storey", "Peter Thiel", "neural circuits", "body donation", "The New York Times Magazine", "liquid nitrogen", "Public Radio Exchange", "Cryobiologist", "urban legend", "Technological utopianism", "Inside Edition", "Khan Noonien Singh", "John Henry Williams (baseball)", "Larry King", "Nick Bostrom", "Regeneration (biology)", "Mind uploading", "Snopes", "transhumanist", "nanotechnology", "Smithsonian Magazine", "deceased", "Cryptobiosis", "L. Stephen Coles", "Scientific consensus", "fixation (histology)", "Life extension", "Ted Williams", "The Guardian", "Nederland, Colorado", "Russian Academy of Sciences", "Y-Combinator", "Journal of Medical Ethics", "Berlin", "Luke Nosek", "Mike Darwin", "Simon Dein", "Zero to One", "Switzerland", "Alcor Life Extension Foundation", "TheGuardian.com", "Pascal's Wager", "cryopreservation", "skepticism", "Toronto Sun", "legal death", "Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation", "electron microscopy", "Greg Fahy", "will and testament", "Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies", "Emergency Preservation and Resuscitation", "Hal Finney (computer scientist)", "Targeted temperature management", "clinical death", "Suspended animation", "Walt Disney", "The Observer", "Human Tissue Authority", "Anders Sandberg", "Phil Salin", "cryoprotectants", "Extropianism", "British Columbia", "WBEZ", "pseudoscience", "Financial Times", "Cryonics Institute", "Star Trek", "The New York Times", "Iowa Court of Appeals", "Futurama", "degree Celsius", "Frozen Dead Guy Days", "Cryopreservation", "KrioRus", "Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)", "Brian Wowk" ]
6,761	Unitary patent	The European patent with unitary effect, also known as the unitary patent, is a European patent which benefits from unitary effect in the participating member states of the European Union. Unitary effect means the patent has a common legal status throughout all the participating states, eliminating scenarios in which a patent may be invalidated by courts in one participating member state yet upheld by courts in another. Unitary effect may be requested by the proprietor within one month of grant of a European patent, replacing validation of the European patent in the individual countries concerned. Infringement and revocation proceedings are conducted before the Unified Patent Court (UPC), which decisions have a uniform effect for the unitary patent in the participating member states as a whole rather than in each country individually. The unitary patent may be only limited, transferred or revoked, or lapse, in respect of all the participating Member States. Licensing is however possible for part of the unitary territory. The unitary patent may coexist with nationally enforceable patents ("classical" patents) in the non-participating states. The unitary patent's stated aims are to make access to the patent system "easier, less costly and legally secure within the European Union" and "the creation of uniform patent protection throughout the Union". and "COMPAT". On 17 December 2012, agreement was reached between the European Council and European Parliament on the two EU regulations that made the unitary patent possible through enhanced cooperation at EU level. The legality of the two regulations was challenged by Spain and Italy, but all their claims were rejected by the European Court of Justice. Italy subsequently joined the unitary patent regulation in September 2015, ==Background== ===Legislative history=== In 2009, three draft documents were published regarding a community patent: a European patent in which the European Community was designated: Council regulation on the community patent, Agreement on the European and Community Patents Court (open to the European Community and all states of the European Patent Convention) Decision to open negotiations regarding this Agreement Based on those documents, the European Council requested on 6 July 2009 an opinion from the Court of Justice of the European Union, regarding the compatibility of the envisioned Agreement with EU law: "'Is the envisaged agreement creating a Unified Patent Litigation System (currently named European and Community Patents Court) compatible with the provisions of the Treaty establishing the European Community?’" In December 2010, the use of the enhanced co-operation procedure, under which Articles 326–334 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provides that a group of member states of the European Union can choose to co-operate on a specific topic, was proposed by twelve Member States to set up a unitary patent applicable in all participating European Union Member States. The use of this procedure had only been used once in the past, for harmonising rules regarding the applicable law in divorce across several EU Member States. and on 10 March 2011 the Council gave their authorisation. Two days earlier, on 8 March 2011, the Court of Justice of the European Union had issued its opinion, stating that the draft Agreement creating the European and Community Patent Court would be incompatible with EU law. The same day, the Hungarian Presidency of the Council insisted that this opinion would not affect the enhanced co-operation procedure. In November 2011, negotiations on the enhanced co-operation system were reportedly advancing rapidly—too fast, in some views. It was announced that implementation required an enabling European Regulation, and a Court agreement between the states that elect to take part. The European Parliament approved the continuation of negotiations in September. A draft of the agreement was issued on 11 November 2011 and was open to all member states of the European Union, but not to other European Patent Convention states. However, serious criticisms of the proposal remained mostly unresolved. A meeting of the Competitiveness Council on 5 December failed to agree on the final text. In particular, there was no agreement on where the Central Division of a Unified Patent Court should be located, "with London, Munich and Paris the candidate cities." The Polish Presidency acknowledged on 16 December 2011 the failure to reach an agreement "on the question of the location of the seat of the central division." According to the President of the European Commission in January 2012, the only question remaining to be settled was the location of the Central Division of the Court. However, evidence presented to the UK House of Commons European Scrutiny Committee in February suggested that the position was more complicated. At an EU summit at the end of January 2012, participants agreed to press on and finalise the system by June. On 26 April, Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council, wrote to members of the council, saying "This important file has been discussed for many years and we are now very close to a final deal,.... This deal is needed now, because this is an issue of crucial importance for innovation and growth. I very much hope that the last outstanding issue will be sorted out at the May Competitiveness Council. If not, I will take it up at the June European Council." The Competitiveness Council met on 30 May and failed to reach agreement. A compromise agreement on the seat(s) of the unified court was eventually reached at the June European Council (28–29 June 2012), splitting the central division according to technology between Paris (the main seat), London and Munich. However, on 2 July 2012, the European Parliament decided to postpone the vote following a move by the European Council to modify the arrangements previously approved by MEPs in negotiations with the European Council. The modification was considered controversial and included the deletion of three key articles (6–8) of the legislation, seeking to reduce the competence of the European Union Court of Justice in unitary patent litigation. On 9 July 2012, the Committee on Legal Affairs of the European Parliament debated the patent package following the decisions adopted by the General Council on 28–29 June 2012 in camera in the presence of MEP Bernhard Rapkay. A later press release by Rapkay quoted from a legal opinion submitted by the Legal Service of the European Parliament, which affirmed the concerns of MEPs to approve the decision of a recent EU summit to delete said articles as it "nullifies central aspects of a substantive patent protection". A Europe-wide uniform protection of intellectual property would thus not exist with the consequence that the requirements of the corresponding EU treaty would not be met and that the European Court of Justice could therefore invalidate the legislation. By the end of 2012 a new compromise was reached between the European Parliament and the European Council, including a limited role for the European Court of Justice. The Unified Court will apply the Unified Patent Court Agreement, which is considered national patent law from an EU law point of view, but still is equal for each participant. [However the draft statutory instrument aimed at implementation of the Unified Court and UPC in the UK provides for different infringement laws for: European patents (unitary or not) litigated through the Unified Court; European patents (UK) litigated before UK courts; and national patents]. The legislation for the enhanced co-operation mechanism was approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012 and the regulations were signed by the European Council and European Parliament officials on 17 December 2012. On 30 May 2011, Italy and Spain challenged the council's authorisation of the use of enhanced co-operation to introduce the trilingual (English, French, German) system for the unitary patent, which they viewed as discriminatory to their languages, with the CJEU on the grounds that it did not comply with the EU treaties. In January 2013, Advocate General Yves Bot delivered his recommendation that the court reject the complaint. Suggestions by the Advocate General are advisory only, but are generally followed by the court. The case was dismissed by the court in April 2013, however Spain launched two new challenges with the EUCJ in March 2013 against the regulations implementing the unitary patent package. The court hearing for both cases was scheduled for 1 July 2014. Advocate-General Yves Bot published his opinion on 18 November 2014, suggesting that both actions be dismissed ( and ). The court handed down its decisions on 5 May 2015 as and fully dismissing the Spanish claims. Following a request by its government, ===European patents=== European patents are granted in accordance with the provisions of the European Patent Convention (EPC), via a unified procedure before the European Patent Office (EPO). While upon filing of a European patent application, all 39 Contracting States are automatically designated, a European patent becomes a bundle of "national" European patents upon grant. In contrast to the unified character of a European patent application, a granted European patent has, in effect, no unitary character, except for the centralized opposition procedure (which can be initiated within 9 months from grant, by somebody else than the patent proprietor), and the centralized limitation and revocation procedures (which can only be instituted by the patent proprietor). In other words, a European patent in one Contracting State, i.e. a "national" European patent, is effectively independent of the same European patent in each other Contracting State, except for the opposition, limitation and revocation procedures. The enforcement of a European patent is dealt with by national law. The abandonment, revocation or limitation of the European patent in one state does not affect the European patent in other states. While the EPC already provided the possibility for a group of member states to allow European patents to have a unitary character also after grant, until now, only Liechtenstein and Switzerland have opted to create a unified protection area (see Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)). By requesting unitary effect within one month of grant, the patent proprietor is now able to obtain uniform protection in the participating members states of the European Union in a single step, considerably simplifying obtaining patent protection in a large part of the EU. The unitary patent system co-exists with national patent systems and European patent without unitary effects. The unitary patent does not cover EPC countries that are not member of the European Union, such as UK or Turkey. ==Legal basis and implementation== The implementation of the unitary patent is based on three legal instruments: Regulation (EU) No 1257/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2012 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection; Council Regulation (EU) No 1260/2012 of 17 December 2012 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of the creation of unitary patent protection with regard to the applicable translation arrangements; Agreement on a Unified Patent Court. Thus the unitary patent is based on EU law as well as the European Patent Convention (EPC). provides the legal basis for establishing a common system of patents for Parties to the EPC. Previously, only Liechtenstein and Switzerland had used this possibility to create a unified protection area (see Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)). \|implementation=1 June 2023 \|CommProp= \|ESCOpin= \|ParlOpin= \|Reports= \|replaces= \|amends= \|amendedby= \|replacedby= \|status=Pending }} The first two regulations were approved by the European Parliament on 11 December 2012, with future application set for the 25 member states then participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent (all then EU member states except Croatia, Italy and Spain). The instruments were adopted as regulations EU 1257/2012 on 17 December 2012, and entered into force in January 2013. Following a request by its government, Italy became a participant of the unitary patent regulations in September 2015. The unitary effect of unitary patents means a single renewal fee, a single ownership, a single object of property, a single court (the Unified Patent Court) and uniform protection, which means that revocation as well as infringement proceedings are to be decided for the unitary patent as a whole rather than for each country individually. Licensing is however to remain possible for part of the unitary territory. as authorized by . These tasks include the collection of renewal fees and registration of unitary effect upon grant, recording licenses and statements that licenses are available to any person. Translation requirements for the participating states in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent are shown below: === Unitary patent as an object of property === Article 7 of Regulation 1257/2012 provides that, as an object of property, a European patent with unitary effect will be treated "in its entirety and in all participating Member States as a national patent of the participating Member State in which that patent has unitary effect and in which the applicant had her/his residence or principal place of business or, by default, had a place of business on the date of filing the application for the European patent." When the applicant had no domicile in a participating Member State, German law will apply. ====Parties==== The UPC Agreement was signed on 19 February 2013 by 24 EU member states, including all states then participating in the enhanced co-operation measures except Bulgaria and Poland. Bulgaria signed the agreement on 5 March 2013 following internal administrative procedures. Italy, which did not originally join the enhanced co-operation measures but subsequently signed up, did sign the UPC agreement. The agreement remains open to accession for all remaining EU member states, with all European Union Member States except Spain and Poland having signed the Agreement. States which do not participate in the unitary patent regulations can still become parties to the UPC agreement, which would allow the new court to handle European patents validated in the country. On 18 January 2019, Kluwer Patent Blog wrote, "a recurring theme for some years has been that 'the UPC will start next year'". Then, Brexit and German constitutional court complaint were considered as the main obstacles. The German constitutional court first decided in a decision of 13 February 2020 against the German ratification of the Agreement on the ground that the German Parliament did not vote with the required majority (2/3 according to the judgement). After a second vote and further, this time unsuccessful, constitutional complaints, Germany formally ratified the UPC Agreement on 7 August 2021. While the UK ratified the agreement in April 2018, the UK later withdrew from the Agreement following Brexit. As of the entry into force of the UPC on 1 June 2023, 17 countries had ratified the Agreement. Romania ratified the agreement in May 2024, and will join as the 18th participating member on 1 September 2024. ====Jurisdiction==== The Unified Patent Court has exclusive jurisdiction in infringement and revocation proceedings involving European patents with unitary effect, and during a transition period non-exclusive jurisdiction regarding European patents without unitary effect in the states where the Agreement applies, unless the patent proprietor decides to opt out. It furthermore has jurisdiction to hear cases against decisions of the European Patent Office regarding unitary patents. As a court of several member states of the European Union it may (Court of First Instance) or must (Court of Appeal) ask prejudicial questions to the European Court of Justice when the interpretation of EU law (including the two unitary patent regulations, but excluding the UPC Agreement) is not obvious. ====Organization==== The court has two instances: a court of first instance and a court of appeal. The court of appeal and the registry have their seats in Luxembourg, while the central division of the court of first instance would have its seat in Paris. The central division has a thematic branch in Munich (the London location has yet to be replaced by a new location within the EU). The court of first instance may further have local and regional divisions in all member states that wish to set up such divisions. ===Geographical scope of and request for unitary effect=== While the regulations formally apply to all 25 member states participating in the enhanced cooperation for a unitary patent, from the date the UPC agreement has entered into force for the first group of ratifiers, unitary patents will only extend to the territory of those participating member states where the UPC Agreement had entered into force when the unitary effect was registered. If the unitary effect territory subsequently expands to additional participating member states for which the UPC Agreement later enters into force, this will be reflected for all subsequently registered unitary patents, but the territorial scope of the unitary effect of existing unitary patents will not be extended to these states. although designations may be withdrawn before grant. It was not possible to designate Malta before it became a party to the EPC on 1 March 2007.\|group=notes}} whether the unitary effect applies to them or not. European patents automatically become a bundle of "national" European patents upon grant. Upon the grant of unitary effect, the "national" European patents will retroactively be considered to never have existed in the territories where the unitary patent has effect. The unitary effect does not affect "national" European patents in states where the unitary patent does not apply. Any "national" European patents applying outside the "unitary effect" zone will co-exist with the unitary patent. In following of those territories, the unitary patent is de facto extended through application of national (French, or Dutch) law: France: French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Saint Barthélemy, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon and Wallis and Futuna However, the unitary patent does not apply in the French territories French Polynesia and New Caledonia as implementing legislation would need to be passed by those jurisdictions (rather than the French national legislation required in the other territories) and this has not been done. == Costs == The renewal fees are planned to be based on the cumulative renewal fees due in the four countries where European patents were most often validated in 2015 (Germany, France, the UK and the Netherlands). This is despite the UK leaving the unitary patent system following Brexit. The renewal fees of the unitary patent would thus be ranging from 35 Euro in the second year to 4855 in the 20th year. The renewal fees will be collected by the EPO, with the EPO keeping 50% of the fees and the other 50% being redistributed to the participating member states. Translation requirements as well as the requirement to pay yearly patent maintenance fees in individual countries presently renders the European patent system costly to obtain protection in the whole of the European Union. In an impact assessment from 2011, the European Commission estimated that the costs of obtaining a patent in all 27 EU countries would drop from over 32 000 euro (mainly due to translation costs) to 6 500 euro (for the combination of an EU, Spanish and Italian patent) due to introduction of the Unitary patent. Per capita costs of an EU patent were estimated at just 6 euro/million in the original 25 participating countries (and 12 euro/million in the 27 EU countries for protection with a Unitary, Italian and Spanish patent). How the EU Commission has presented the expected cost savings has however been sharply criticized as exaggerated and based on unrealistic assumptions. The EU Commission has notably considered the costs for validating a European patent in 27 countries while in reality only about 1% of all granted European patents are currently validated in all 27 EU states. Based on more realistic assumptions, the cost savings are expected to be much lower than actually claimed by the commission. For example, the EPO calculated that for an average EP patent validated and maintained in 4 countries, the overall savings to be between 3% and 8%. ==Earlier attempts== ===1970s and 1980s: proposed Community Patent Convention=== Work on a Community patent started in the 1970s, but the resulting Community Patent Convention (CPC) was a failure. The "Luxembourg Conference on the Community Patent" took place in 1975 and the Convention for the European Patent for the common market, or (Luxembourg) Community Patent Convention (CPC), was signed at Luxembourg on 15 December 1975, by the 9 member states of the European Economic Community at that time. However, the CPC never entered into force. It was not ratified by enough countries. Fourteen years later, the Agreement relating to Community patents was made at Luxembourg on 15 December 1989. It attempted to revive the CPC project, but also failed. This Agreement consisted of an amended version of the original Community Patent Convention. Twelve states signed the Agreement: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom. All of those states would need to have ratified the Agreement to cause it to enter into force, but only seven did so: Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and United Kingdom. Nevertheless, a majority of member states of the EEC at that time introduced some harmonisation into their national patent laws in anticipation of the entry in force of the CPC. A more substantive harmonisation took place at around the same time to take account of the European Patent Convention and the Strasbourg Convention. ===2000 to 2004: EU Regulation proposal=== In 2000, renewed efforts from the European Union resulted in a Community Patent Regulation proposal, sometimes abbreviated as CPR. It provides that the patent, once it has been granted by the European Patent Office (EPO) in one of its procedural languages (English, German or French) and published in that language, with a translation of the claims into the two other procedural languages, will be valid without any further translation. This proposal is aimed to achieve a considerable reduction in translation costs. Nevertheless, additional translations could become necessary in legal proceedings against a suspected infringer. In such a situation, a suspected infringer who has been unable to consult the text of the patent in the official language of the Member State in which he is domiciled, is presumed, until proven otherwise, not to have knowingly infringed the patent. To protect a suspected infringer who, in such a situation, has not acted in a deliberate manner, it is provided that the proprietor of the patent will not be able to obtain damages in respect of the period prior to the translation of the patent being notified to the infringer. The proposed Community Patent Regulation should also establish a court holding exclusive jurisdiction to invalidate issued patents; thus, a Community Patent's validity will be the same in all EU member states. This court will be attached to the present European Court of Justice and Court of First Instance through use of provisions in the Treaty of Nice. Discussion regarding the Community patent had made clear progress in 2003 when a political agreement was reached on 3 March 2003. However, one year later in March 2004 under the Irish presidency, the Competitiveness Council failed to agree on the details of the Regulation. In particular the time delays for translating the claims and the authentic text of the claims in case of an infringement remained problematic issues throughout discussions and in the end proved insoluble. In view of the difficulties in reaching an agreement on the community patent, other legal agreements have been proposed outside the European Union legal framework to reduce the cost of translation (of patents when granted) and litigation, namely the London Agreement, which entered into force on 1 May 2008—and which has reduced the number of countries requiring translation of European patents granted nowadays under the European Patent Convention, and the corresponding costs to obtain a European patent—and the European Patent Litigation Agreement (EPLA), a proposal that has now lapsed. ====Reactions to the failure==== After the council in March 2004, EU Commissioner Frits Bolkestein said that "The failure to agree on the Community Patent I am afraid undermines the credibility of the whole enterprise to make Europe the most competitive economy in the world by 2010." Adding: Jonathan Todd, Commission's Internal Market spokesman, declared: European Commission President Romano Prodi, asked to evaluate his five-year term, cited as his weak point the failure of many EU governments to implement the "Lisbon Agenda", agreed in 2001. In particular, he cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent, or even the languages to be used for such a patent, "because member states did not accept a change in the rules; they were not coherent". ===Since 2005: stalemate and new debate=== Thus, in 2005, the Community patent looked unlikely to be implemented in the near future. However, on 16 January 2006 the European Commission "launched a public consultation on how future action in patent policy to create an EU-wide system of protection can best take account of stakeholders' needs." The Community patent was one of the issues the consultation focused on. More than 2500 replies were received. }} The European Commission released a white paper in April 2007 seeking to "improve the patent system in Europe and revitalise the debate on this issue." On 18 April 2007, at the European Patent Forum in Munich, Germany, Günter Verheugen, vice-president of the European Commission, said that his proposal to support the European economy was "to have the London Agreement ratified by all member states, and to have a European patent judiciary set up, in order to achieve rapid implementation of the Community patent, which is indispensable". He further said that he believed this could be done within five years. In October 2007, the Portuguese presidency of the Council of the European Union proposed an EU patent jurisdiction, "borrowing heavily from the rejected draft European Patent Litigation Agreement (EPLA)". In November 2007, EU ministers were reported to have made some progress towards a community patent legal system, with "some specific results" expected in 2008. In 2008, the idea of using machine translations to translate patents was proposed to solve the language issue, which is partially responsible for blocking progress on the community patent. Meanwhile, European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry Günter Verheugen declared at the European Patent Forum in May 2008 that there was an "urgent need" for a community patent. ===Agreement in December 2009, and language issue=== In December 2009, it was reported that the Swedish EU presidency had achieved a breakthrough in negotiations concerning the community patent. The breakthrough was reported to involve setting up a single patent court for the EU, however ministers conceded much work remained to be done before the community patent would become a reality. According to the agreed plan, the EU would accede to the European Patent Convention as a contracting state, and patents granted by the European Patent Office will, when validated for the EU, have unitary effect in the territory of the European Union. On 10 November 2010, it was announced that no agreement had been reached and that, "in spite of the progress made, [the Competitiveness Council of the European Union had] fallen short of unanimity by a small margin," with commentators reporting that the Spanish representative, citing the aim to avoid any discrimination, had "re-iterated at length the stubborn rejection of the Madrid Government of taking the 'Munich' three languages regime (English, German, French) of the European Patent Convention (EPC) as a basis for a future EU Patent."	[ "Munich", "Poland", "Denmark", "European Union regulation", "Limitation and revocation procedures before the European Patent Office", "Caribbean Netherlands", "Bulgaria", "Helgoland", "Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure", "European patent", "Presidency of the Council of the European Union", "CORDIS", "Bernhard Rapkay", "Büsingen am Hochrhein", "United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus", "Netherlands", "Unified Patent Court", "Yves Bot", "Unitary patent (Switzerland and Liechtenstein)", "s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union/Title VII: Common Rules on Competition, Taxation and Approximation of Laws", "Lisbon Agenda", "Greece", "Unified Patent Court Agreement", "presidency of the Council of the European Union", "Spain", "Advocate General", "Belgium", "Günter Verheugen", "Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union", "member states of the European Union", "protectionism", "European Patent Convention", "s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union/Title III: Enhanced Cooperation", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property", "Portugal", "European economy", "European Commission", "French Southern and Antarctic Lands", "applicable law", "Saint-Pierre and Miquelon", "machine translation", "Licensing Executives Society International", "Opposition procedure before the European Patent Office", "President of the European Commission", "European Patent Office", "Martinique", "Sint Maarten", "European Court of Justice", "Council of the European Union", "Court of Justice of the European Union", "European Patent Litigation Agreement", "French Guiana", "Åland", "lawsuit", "Croatia", "Community Design", "Azores", "Agreement on a Unified Patent Court", "Community Trademark", "nu.nl", "Managing Intellectual Property", "Treaty of Nice", "mud", "Romano Prodi", "Mayotte", "patent infringement", "Réunion", "s:Agreement on a Unified Patent Court", "Charlie McCreevy", "The Wall Street Journal", "Special member state territories and the European Union", "The Guardian", "World Intellectual Property Review", "Saint Barthélemy", "Court of First Instance", "claim (patent)", "European Parliament", "Frits Bolkestein", "April (French association)", "wikt:back to the wall", "C-146/13 and C-147/13", "Madeira", "OJ EPO", "French Polynesia", "Grant procedure before the European Patent Office", "Herman Van Rompuy", "Collectivity of Saint Martin", "renewal fees", "Enforcement of European patents", "Free Software Foundation Europe", "Republic of Ireland", "Convention on the Unification of Certain Points of Substantive Law on Patents for Invention", "European Economic Community", "Curaçao", "European Journal of Law and Economics", "Mount Athos", "German law", "European Scrutiny Committee", "London Agreement (2000)", "Guadeloupe", "Wallis and Futuna", "European Council", "Official Journal of the European Patent Office", "Enhanced cooperation", "Paris", "enhanced co-operation", "European Patent Bulletin", "Luxembourg", "EPO Boards of Appeal", "New Caledonia" ]
6,763	Cistron	A cistron is a region of DNA that is conceptually equivalent to some definitions of a gene, such that the terms are synonymous from certain viewpoints, especially with regard to the molecular gene as contrasted with the Mendelian gene. The question of which scope of a subset of DNA (that is, how large a segment of DNA) constitutes a unit of selection is the question that governs whether cistrons are the same thing as genes. The word cistron is used to emphasize that molecular genes exhibit a specific behavior in a complementation test (cis-trans test); distinct positions (or loci) within a genome are cistronic. == History == The words cistron and gene were coined before the advancing state of biology made it clear to many people that the concepts they refer to, at least in some senses of the word gene, are either equivalent or nearly so. The same historical naming practices are responsible for many of the synonyms in the life sciences. The term cistron was coined by Seymour Benzer in an article entitled The elementary units of heredity. The cistron was defined by an operational test applicable to most organisms that is sometimes referred to as a cis-trans test, but more often as a complementation test. Richard Dawkins in his influential book The Selfish Gene argues against the cistron being the unit of selection and against it being the best definition of a gene. (He also argues against group selection.) He does not argue against the existence of cistrons, or their being elementary, but rather against the idea that natural selection selects them; he argues that it used to, back in earlier eras of life's development, but not anymore. He defines a gene as a larger unit, which others may now call gene clusters, as the unit of selection. He also defines replicators, more general than cistrons and genes, in this gene-centered view of evolution. == Definition == Defining a Cistron as a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide, the structural gene in a transcription unit could be said as monocistronic (mostly in eukaryotes) or polycistronic (mostly in bacteria and prokaryotes). For example, suppose a mutation at a chromosome position x is responsible for a change in recessive trait in a diploid organism (where chromosomes come in pairs). We say that the mutation is recessive because the organism will exhibit the wild type phenotype (ordinary trait) unless both chromosomes of a pair have the mutation (homozygous mutation). Similarly, suppose a mutation at another position, y, is responsible for the same recessive trait. The positions x and y are said to be within the same cistron when an organism that has the mutation at x on one chromosome and has the mutation at position y on the paired chromosome exhibits the recessive trait even though the organism is not homozygous for either mutation. When instead the wild type trait is expressed, the positions are said to belong to distinct cistrons / genes. Or simply put, mutations on the same cistrons will not complement; as opposed to mutations on different cistrons may complement (see Benzer's T4 bacteriophage experiments T4 rII system). For example, an operon is a stretch of DNA that is transcribed to create a contiguous segment of RNA, but contains more than one cistron / gene. The operon is said to be polycistronic, whereas ordinary genes are said to be monocistronic.	[ "homozygous", "diploid", "complementation test", "gene cluster", "T4 rII system", "locus (genetics)", "synonym", "DNA", "transcription (genetics)", "RNA", "operon", "Seymour Benzer", "gene", "recessive trait", "unit of selection", "group selection", "Richard Dawkins", "gene-centered view of evolution", "wild type", "genome", "phenotype", "mutation", "The Selfish Gene", "biology" ]
6,766	Commonwealth	A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century. Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym "public wealth"), it comes from the old meaning of "wealth", which is "well-being", and was deemed analogous to the Latin res publica. The term literally meant "common well-being". In the 17th century, the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "public welfare" or "commonweal" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a republic or democratic state". The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four U.S. states and two U.S. territories. Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some fraternal associations of states, most notably the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation primarily of former territories of the British Empire. It is also used in the translation for the organisation made up of formerly Soviet states, the Commonwealth of Independent States. ==Historical use== ===Rome=== Translations of Ancient Roman writers' works to English have on occasion translated "Res publica", and variants thereof, to "the commonwealth", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole. ===England=== The Commonwealth of England was the official name of the political unit (de facto military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the Kingdom of England (after the English Civil War) from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son and successor Richard. From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former Kingdom of Scotland, operated under different institutions (at times as a de facto monarchy) and is known by historians as the Protectorate. In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the "Old Commonwealth". In the later 20th century a socialist political party known as the Common Wealth Party was active. Previously a similarly named party, the Commonwealth Land Party, was in existence. ===Iceland=== The period of Icelandic history from the establishment of the Althing in 930 to the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262 is usually called the Icelandic Nation () in Icelandic and the Icelandic Commonwealth in English. In this period Iceland was colonized by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair. ===Philippines=== The Commonwealth of the Philippines was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country. It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence, which was achieved in 1946. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a founding member of the United Nations. ===Poland–Lithuania=== Republic is still an alternative translation of the traditional name Rzeczpospolita of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Wincenty Kadłubek (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term res publica in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland". The name was used officially for the confederal union formed by Poland and Lithuania (1569–1795). It is also often referred as "Nobles' Commonwealth" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union). In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King". The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance called Warsaw Confederation, had its own parliament Sejm (although elections were restricted to nobility and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts Pacta conventa from the beginning of the reign). "A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. ===Catalonia=== Between 1914 and 1925, Catalonia was an autonomous region of Spain. Its government during that time was given the title mancomunidad (Catalan: mancomunitat), which is translated into English as "commonwealth". The Commonwealth of Catalonia had limited powers and was formed as a federation of the four Catalan provinces. A number of Catalan-language institutions were created during its existence. ===Liberia=== Between 1838 and 1847, Liberia was officially known as the "Commonwealth of Liberia". It changed its name to the "Republic of Liberia" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847. ==Current use== ===Australia=== "Commonwealth" was first proposed as a term for a federation of the six Australian crown colonies at the 1891 constitutional convention in Sydney. Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of Oliver Cromwell (see above), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution. The term was finally incorporated into law in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which established the federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the state governments (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the federal government, and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country. ===The Bahamas=== The Bahamas, a Commonwealth realm, has used the official style Commonwealth of The Bahamas since its independence in 1973. ===Dominica=== The small Caribbean republic of Dominica has used the official style Commonwealth of Dominica since 1978. ===Certain U.S. states and territories=== ====States==== Four states of the United States of America officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of Great Britain's possessions along the Atlantic coast of North America prior to the American Revolution. As such, they share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The four are: Kentucky is designated a commonwealth by the Kentucky Constitution as the "Commonwealth of Kentucky". Massachusetts is a commonwealth, declaring itself as such in its constitution, which states: "[T]he body politic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals: it is a social compact, by which the whole people covenants with each citizen, and each citizen with the whole people, that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good." Pennsylvania uses the "Commonwealth of Pennsylvania" constitutionally and in its official title. Virginia has been known as the "Commonwealth of Virginia" since before the American Revolutionary War, and is referred to as a commonwealth in its constitution. ====Territories==== Two organized but unincorporated U.S. territories are called commonwealths. The two are: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, since 1952 Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, since 1978 In 2016, the Washington, D.C. city council also selected "Douglass Commonwealth" as the potential name of State of Washington, D.C., following the 2016 statehood referendum, at least partially in order to retain the initials "D.C." as the state's abbreviation. ===International bodies=== ====Commonwealth of Nations==== The Commonwealth of Nations—formerly the British Commonwealth—is a voluntary association of 56 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The Head of the Commonwealth is King Charles III, who also reigns as monarch directly in the 15 member states known as Commonwealth realms since his accession in 2022. ====Commonwealth of Independent States==== The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alliance or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 former Soviet Republics, the exceptions being Turkmenistan (a CIS associate member), Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, and Georgia. Georgia left the CIS in August 2008 following the 2008 invasion of the Russian military into South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Its creation signalled the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its purpose being to "allow a civilised divorce" between the Soviet Republics. The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in economics, defence, and foreign policy. ==Proposed use== ===United Kingdom=== Labour MP Tony Benn sponsored a Commonwealth of Britain Bill several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic. It never reached second reading.	[ "Pennsylvania", "Commonwealth of Independent States", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "elected king", "Wincenty Kadłubek", "republic", "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "Government of Australia", "common good", "Althing", "Kentucky", "Sejm", "Icelandic Commonwealth", "Philippines", "South Ossetia", "Richard Cromwell", "Council of the District of Columbia", "Dominica", "2016 Washington, D.C. statehood referendum", "Soviet Union", "States and territories of Australia", "Kingdom of England", "Commonwealth of Britain Bill", "King", "common law", "Golden Liberty", "Republicanism in the United Kingdom", "American Revolution", "Estonia", "Caribbean", "East Coast of the United States", "U.S. state", "Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)", "military alliance", "territory of the United States", "Sydney", "Head of the Commonwealth", "Rzeczpospolita", "Tydings–McDuffie Act", "Confederation", "Massachusetts", "Ukraine", "United States", "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act", "Commonwealth of Catalonia", "Federation of Australia", "Territory", "The Protectorate", "crown colony", "Virginia", "Political alliance", "Republics of the Soviet Union", "Constitutional Convention (Australia)", "Japanese occupation of the Philippines", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Liberia", "Latvia", "democracy", "Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands", "Unincorporated territories of the United States", "English Civil War", "Oliver Cromwell", "wealth", "Commonwealth of England", "Catalan language", "King of Norway", "Government in exile of the Commonwealth of the Philippines", "Defence (military)", "Turkmenistan", "Pacta conventa (Poland)", "Lithuania", "Warsaw Confederation", "Commonwealth Land Party (UK)", "wikt:commonweal", "United Nations", "Kentucky Constitution", "public welfare", "Tony Benn", "Federation", "Harald Fairhair", "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico", "The Bahamas", "Russia", "Territories of the United States", "Commonwealth of the Philippines", "American Revolutionary War", "Common Wealth Party", "Australia", "Abkhazia", "Second World War", "Catalonia", "mancomunidad", "Georgia (country)", "second reading", "British Empire", "Crown of the Kingdom of Poland", "Democracy", "Labour Party (UK)", "Kingdom of Scotland", "Bahamas", "Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki", "Post-Soviet states", "religious tolerance", "Charles III", "res publica", "British America", "Commonwealth realm", "Statehood movement in the District of Columbia", "economics", "foreign policy", "Insular Government", "Ancient Rome", "2008 South Ossetia war", "nobility", "Res publica" ]
6,767	Commodore 1541	{{Infobox information appliance \| name = Commodore 1541 \| title = \| image = Commodore-64-1541-Floppy-Drive-01.jpg \| caption = The second-most common version of the Commodore 1541 disk drive, using a Newtronics drive mechanism \| manufacturer = Commodore Business Machines \| type = Floppy disk drive \| releasedate = \| power = 100, 120, 220, or 240 V 50/60 Hz 25 W (30 W max) \| memory = 2 KB RAM, 16 KB ROM and Compute!'s Gazette reported in December 1983 that four of the magazine's seven drives had failed; "COMPUTE! Publications sorely needs additional 1541s for in-house use, yet we can't find any to buy. After numerous phone calls over several days, we were able to locate only two units in the entire continental United States", reportedly because of Commodore's attempt to resolve a manufacturing issue that caused the high failures. The early (1982 to 1983) 1541s have a spring-eject mechanism (Alps drive), and the disks often fail to release. This style of drive has the popular nickname "Toaster Drive", because it requires the use of a knife or other hard thin object to pry out the stuck media, just like a piece of toast stuck in an actual toaster. This was fixed later when Commodore changed the vendor of the drive mechanism (Mitsumi) and adopted the flip-lever Newtronics mechanism, greatly improving reliability. In addition, Commodore made the drive's controller board smaller and reduced its chip count compared to the early 1541s (which had a large PCB running the length of the case, with dozens of TTL chips). The beige-case Newtronics 1541 was produced from 1984 to 1986. === Versions and third-party clones === All but the very earliest non-II model 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism. Visually, the first models, of the VIC-1541 denomination, have an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540. Then, to match the look of the C64, CBM changed the drive's color to brown-beige and the name to Commodore 1541. The 1541's numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive. Examples include the Oceanic OC-118 a.k.a. Excelerator+, the MSD Super Disk single and dual drives, the Enhancer 2000, the Indus GT, Blue Chip Electronics's BCD/5.25, and CMDs FD-2000 and FD-4000. Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units. In 1986, Commodore released the 1541C, a revised version that offers quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C. It was replaced in 1988 by the 1541-II, which uses an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allows the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply "brick" being placed elsewhere, typically on the floor). Later ROM revisions fixed assorted problems, including a software bug that causes the save-and-replace command to corrupt data. === Successors === The Commodore 1570 is an upgrade from the 1541 for use with the Commodore 128, available in Europe. It offers MFM capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the 1571, the double-sided drive. Finally, the small, external-power-supply-based, MFM-based Commodore 1581 3½-inch drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64. == Design == === Hardware === The 1541 does not have DIP switches to change the device number. If a user adds more than one drive to a system, the user has to cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive's device number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally. It is also possible to change the drive number via a software command, which is temporary and would be erased as soon as the drive was powered off. 1541 drives at power up always default to device #8. If multiple drives in a chain are used, then the startup procedure is to power on the first drive in the chain, alter its device number via a software command to the highest number in the chain (if three drives were used, then the first drive in the chain would be set to device #10), then power on the next drive, alter its device number to the next lowest, and repeat the procedure until the final drive at the end of the chain was powered on and left as device #8. Unlike the Apple II, where support for two drives is normal, it is relatively uncommon for Commodore software to support this setup, and the CBM DOS copy file command is not able to copy files between drives – a third party copy utility is necessary. The pre-II 1541s also have an internal power source, which generates a lot of heat. The heat generation was a frequent source of humour. For example, Compute! stated in 1988 that "Commodore 64s used to be a favorite with amateur and professional chefs since they could compute and cook on top of their 1500-series disk drives at the same time". A series of humorous tips in MikroBitti in 1989 said "When programming late, coffee and kebab keep nicely warm on top of the 1541." The MikroBitti review of the 1541-II said that its external power source "should end the jokes about toasters". The drive-head mechanism installed in the early production years is notoriously easy to misalign. The most common cause of the 1541's drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment is copy-protection schemes on commercial software. The main cause of the problem is that the disk drive itself does not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head reaches track zero. Accordingly, when a disk is not formatted or a disk error occurs, the unit tries to move the head 40 times in the direction of track zero (although the 1541 DOS only uses 35 tracks, the drive mechanism itself is a 40-track unit, so this ensured track zero would be reached no matter where the head was before). Once track zero is reached, every further attempt to move the head in that direction would cause it to be rammed against a solid stop: for example, if the head happened to be on track 18 (where the directory is located) before this procedure, the head would be actually moved 18 times, and then rammed against the stop 22 times. This ramming gives the characteristic "machine gun" noise and sooner or later throws the head out of alignment. A defective head-alignment part likely caused many of the reliability issues in early 1541 drives; one dealer told Compute!s Gazette in 1983 that the part had caused all but three of several hundred drive failures that he had repaired. The drives were so unreliable that Info magazine joked, "Sometimes it seems as if one of the original design specs ... must have said 'Mean time between failure: 10 accesses.'" Users can realign the drive themselves with a software program and a calibration disk. The user can remove the drive from its case and then loosen the screws holding the stepper motor that move the head, then with the calibration disk in the drive gently turn the stepper motor back and forth until the program shows a good alignment. The screws are then tightened and the drive is put back into its case. A third-party fix for the 1541 appeared in which the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop, giving the head a much easier life. The later 1571 drive (which is 1541-compatible) incorporates track-zero detection by photo-interrupter and is thus immune to the problem. Also, a software solution, which resides in the drive controller's ROM, prevents the rereads from occurring, though this can cause problems when genuine errors do occur. Due to the alignment issues on the Alps drive mechanisms, Commodore switched suppliers to Newtronics in 1984. The Newtronics mechanism drives have a lever rather than a pull-down tab to close the drive door. Although the alignment issues were resolved after the switch, the Newtronics drives add a new reliability problem in that many of the read/write heads are improperly sealed, causing moisture to penetrate the head and short it out. The 1541's PCB consists mainly of a 6502 CPU, two 6522 VIA chips, and 2k of work RAM. Up to 48k of RAM can be added; this is mainly useful for defeating copy protection schemes since an entire disk track could be loaded into drive RAM, while the standard 2k only accommodates a few sectors (theoretically eight, but some of the RAM was used by CBM DOS as work space). Some Commodore users use 1541s as an impromptu math coprocessor by uploading math-intensive code to the drive for background processing. === Interface === The 1541 uses a proprietary serialized derivative of the IEEE-488 parallel interface, found in previous disk drives for the PET/CBM range of personal and business computers, but when the VIC-20 was in development, a cheaper alternative to the expensive IEEE-488 cables was sought. To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard DIN connectors for the serial interface. Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers connect to the computer via a daisy chain setup, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself. === Control === ==Throughput and software== IEEE Spectrum in 1985 stated that: The C-64's designers blamed the 1541's slow speed on the marketing department's insistence that the computer be compatible with the 1540, which is slow because of a flaw in the 6522 VIA interface controller. Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (one component of the 6522) to maintain fast drive speeds with the new serial interface. However, a hardware bug with this chip prevents the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software. According to Jim Butterfield, this causes a speed reduction by a factor of five; had 1540 compatibility not been a requirement, the disk interface would have been much faster. In any case, the C64 normally cannot work with a 1540 unless the VIC-II display output is disabled via a register write to the DEN bit (register $D011, bit 4), which stops the halting of the CPU during certain video lines to ensure correct serial timing. As implemented on the VIC-20 and C64, Commodore DOS transfers 512 bytes per second, compared to the Atari 810's 1,000 bytes per second, the Apple Disk II's 15,000 bytes per second, and the 300-baud data rate of the Commodore Datasette storage system. About 20 minutes are needed to copy one disk—10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time. However, since both the computer and the drive can easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically. Without hardware modifications, some "fast loader" utilities (which bypassed routines in the 1541's onboard ROM) managed to achieve speeds of up to 2.5 kilobytes per second. The most common of these products are the Epyx Fast Load, the Final Cartridge, and the Action Replay plug-in ROM cartridges, which all have machine code monitor and disk editor software on board as well. The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with Compute!'s Gazette publishing TurboDisk in 1985 and RUN publishing Sizzle in 1987. Even though each 1541 has its own on-board disk controller and disk operating system, it is not possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing) as with older dual drives like the 4040 that was often found with the PET computer, and which the 1541 is backward-compatible with (it can read 4040 disks but not write to them as a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes the 4040 and 1541 only read-compatible). Originally, to copy from drive to drive, software running on the C64 was needed and it would first read from one drive into computer memory, then write out to the other. Only when Fast Hack'em and, later, other disk backup programs were released, was true drive-to-drive copying possible for a pair of 1541s. The user could, if they wished, unplug the C64 from the drives (i.e., from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to copy the entire disk. == Media == The 1541 drive uses standard 5¼-inch double-density floppy media; high-density media will not work due to its different magnetic coating requiring a higher magnetic coercivity. As the GCR encoding scheme does not use the index hole, the drive was also compatible with hard-sectored disks. The standard CBM DOS format is 170 KB with 35 tracks and 256-byte sectors. It is similar to the format used on the PET 2031, 2040 & 4040 drives, but a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes these drives and the 1541 only read-compatible; disks formatted with one drive cannot be written to by the other. The drives will allow writes to occur, but the inconsistent header size will damage the data in the data portions of each track. The 4040 drives use Shugart SA-400s, which were 35-track units, thus the format there is due to physical limitations of the drive mechanism. The 1541 uses 40 track mechanisms, but Commodore intentionally limited the CBM DOS format to 35 tracks because of reliability issues with the early units. It is possible via low-level programming to move the drive head to tracks 36–40 and write on them, this is sometimes done by commercial software for copy protection purposes and/or to get additional data on the disk. However, one track is reserved by DOS for directory and file allocation information (the BAM, block availability map). And since for normal files, two bytes of each physical sector are used by DOS as a pointer to the next physical track and sector of the file, only 254 out of the 256 bytes of a block are used for file contents. If the disk side is not otherwise prepared with a custom format, (e.g. for data disks), 664 blocks would be free after formatting, giving 664254 = (or almost ) for user data. By using custom formatting and load/save routines (sometimes included in third-party DOSes, see below), all of the mechanically possible 40 tracks can be used. Owing to the drive's non-use of the index hole, it is also possible to make "flippy floppies" by inserting the diskette upside-down and formatting the other side, and it is commonplace and normal for commercial software to be distributed on such disks. Tracks 36–42 are non-standard. The bitrate is the raw one between the read/write head and signal circuitry so actual useful data rate is a factor 5/4 less due to GCR encoding. The 1541 disk typically has 35 tracks. Track 18 is reserved; the remaining tracks are available for data storage. The header is on 18/0 (track 18, sector 0) along with the BAM, and the directory starts on 18/1 (track 18, sector 1). The file interleave is 10 blocks, while the directory interleave is 3 blocks. Header contents: The header is similar to other Commodore disk headers, the structural differences being the BAM offset () and size, and the label+ID+type offset (). $00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (18/1) 02 DOS version ('A') 04-8F BAM entries (4 bytes per track: Free Sector Count + 24 bits for sectors) 90-9F Disk Label, $A0 padded A2-A3 Disk ID A5-A6 DOS type ('2A') == Uses == Early copy protection schemes deliberately introduce read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message is returned. The general idea is that simple disk-copy programs are incapable of copying the errors. When one of these errors is encountered, the disk drive (as do many floppy disk drives) will attempt one or more reread attempts after first resetting the head to track zero. Few of these schemes have much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released "nibbler" utilities that enable protected disks to be copied and, in some cases, the protection removed. Commodore copy protection sometimes fails on specific hardware configurations. Gunship, for example, does not load if a second disk drive or printer is connected to the computer. Similarly Roland's Ratrace will crash if additional hardware is detected. The tape version will even crash if a floppy drive is switched on while the game is running.	[ "Floppy disk variants", "disk sector", "Fast Hack'em", "serial interface", "read/write head", "Compute!", "Toast (food)", "printed circuit board", "copy-protection", "header (computing)", "shift register", "Commodore 128", "Commodore International", "Apple II", "Commodore 4040", "Mitsumi", "VIC-20", "floppy disk drive", "Compute!'s Gazette", "bytes", "machine code monitor", "Datasette", "home computer", "copy protection", "Bit nibbler", ".info (magazine)", "clone (computing)", "coercivity", "track (disk drive)", "Commodore 1571", "Blue Chip Electronics", "Commodore 1581", "Creative Computing", "floppy disk", "Run (magazine)", "Group coded recording", "MOS Technology 6522", "Indus GT", "Hard sectoring", "Epyx Fast Load", "Disk II", "Roland's Ratrace", "backward-compatible", "baud", "DIP switch", "Commodore 1551", "disk operating system", "Commodore DOS", "Creative Micro Designs", "continental United States", "Commodore 64", "disk editor", "CP/M", "daisy chain (electrical engineering)", "Commodore 1540", "IEEE Spectrum", "block availability map", "group coded recording", "MSD Super Disk", "Commodore 2031", "Atari 810", "MOS Technology VIC-II", "toaster", "math coprocessor", "zone bit recording", "ROM cartridge", "background process", "MikroBitti", "Modified frequency modulation", "Commodore PET", "low-level programming language", "IEEE-488", "MOS Technology 6502", "Commodore 1570", "stepper motor", "fast loader", "kilobyte", "Floppy disk format", "The Final Cartridge III", "Jim Butterfield", "transistor–transistor logic", "Gunship (video game)", "Alps Electric", "Action Replay", "1541 Ultimate", "ZCAV", "Mean time between failure", "Commodore bus", "disk controller", "DIN connector", "Commodore 64 peripherals" ]
6,769	Commodore 1581	{{Infobox information appliance \| name = \| title = \| image = Commodore 1581 Disk Drive Front.jpg \| caption = Commodore 1581 \| manufacturer = Commodore Business Machines \| type = Floppy drive \| releasedate = \| price = (1987) \| discontinued = 1990 \| media = 3½" floppy disk DS DD or WD1772 \| memory = 8 kB RAM 32 kB ROM \| storage = 790 KB \|connectivity = Commodore proprietary serial IEEE-488 burst mode \| dimensions = but formats different from the MS-DOS (720 kB), Amiga (880 kB), and Mac Plus (800 kB) formats. With special software it's possible to read C1581 disks on an x86 PC system, and likewise, read MS-DOS and other formats of disks in the C1581 (using Big Blue Reader), provided that the PC or other floppy handles the size format. The WD1770 controller chip, however, was the seat of some early problems with 1581 drives when the first production runs were recalled due to a high failure rate; the problem was quickly corrected. Later versions of the 1581 drive have a smaller, more streamlined-looking external power supply provided with them. == Specifications == === 1581 Image Layout === The 1581 disk has 80 logical tracks, each with 40 logical sectors (the actual physical layout of the diskette is abstracted and managed by a hardware translation layer). The directory starts on 40/3 (track 40, sector 3). The disk header is on 40/0, and the BAM (block availability map) resides on 40/1 and 40/2. Header Contents $00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (40/3) 02 DOS version ('D') 04-13 Disk Label, $A0 padded 16-17 Disk ID 19-1A DOS type ('3D') BAM Contents, 40/1 $00–01 T/S to next BAM sector (40/2) 02 DOS version ('D') 04-05 Disk ID 06 I/O byte 07 Autoboot flag 10-FF BAM entries for Tracks 1–40 BAM Contents, 40/2 $00–01 00/FF 02 DOS version ('D') 04-05 Disk ID 06 I/O byte 07 Autoboot flag 10-FF BAM entries for Tracks 41–80	[ "Macintosh Plus", "CMD FD-2000", "high density", "Creative Micro Designs", "zero page", "Microchip Technology", "Commodore 64", "MOS Technology 8520", "IEEE-488", "MOS Technology 6502", "Sams Publishing", "CMD FD-4000", "Amiga", "Directory (computing)", "byte", "Disk partitioning", "Burst mode (computing)", "Commodore 1571", "kilobyte", "Volt-ampere", "Floppy disk format", "MS-DOS", "floppy disk", "double density", "Western Digital FD1771", "Commodore 128", "Commodore 1541", "Commodore Plus/4", "Commodore International", "bulletin board system", "VIC-20", "Double-sided disk", "Commodore 16", "personal computer", "job queue", "Commodore bus", "Hertz", "Internet Archive", "Issuu", "Modified Frequency Modulation", "extra-high density", "Commodore 64 peripherals", "home computer", "Ahoy!", "Modified frequency modulation", "Commodore DOS" ]
6,771	College football	College football is gridiron football that is played by teams of amateur student-athletes at universities and colleges. It was through collegiate competition that gridiron football first gained popularity in the United States. Like gridiron football generally, college football is most popular in the United States and Canada. While no single governing body exists for college football in the United States, most schools, especially those at the highest levels of play, are members of the NCAA. In Canada, collegiate football competition is governed by U Sports for universities. The Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (for colleges) governs soccer and other sports but not gridiron football. Other countries, such as Mexico, Japan and South Korea, also host college football leagues with modest levels of support. Unlike most other major sports in North America, no official minor league farm organizations exist for American football or Canadian football. Therefore, college football is generally considered to be the second tier of American and Canadian football; ahead of high school competition, but below professional competition. In some parts of the United States, especially the South and Midwest, college football is more popular than professional football. For much of the 20th century, college football was generally considered to be more prestigious than professional football. The overwhelming majority of professional football players in the NFL and other leagues previously played college football. The NFL draft each spring sees 224 players selected and offered a contract to play in the league, with the vast majority coming from the NCAA. Other professional leagues, such as the CFL and UFL, additionally hold their own drafts each year which also see primarily college players selected. Players who are not selected can still attempt to obtain a professional roster spot as an undrafted free agent. Despite these opportunities, only around 1.6% of NCAA college football players end up playing professionally in the NFL. ==History== Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League (NFL), college football has remained extremely popular throughout the U.S. Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs – the highest level – playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although many stadiums do have a small number of chair back seats in addition to the bench seating). This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium, which tends to have more features and comforts for fans. Only three stadiums owned by U.S. colleges or universities, L&N Stadium at the University of Louisville, Center Parc Stadium at Georgia State University, and FAU Stadium at Florida Atlantic University, consist entirely of chair back seating. College athletes, unlike players in the NFL, are not permitted by the NCAA to be paid salaries. Colleges are only allowed to provide non-monetary compensation such as athletic scholarships that provide for tuition, housing, and books. With new bylaws made by the NCAA, college athletes can now receive "name, image, and likeness" (NIL) deals, a way to get sponsorships and money before their pro debut. ===Rugby football in Great Britain and Canada=== Modern North American football has its origins in various games, all known as "football", played at public schools in Great Britain in the mid-19th century. By the 1840s, students at Rugby School were playing a game in which players were able to pick up the ball and run with it, a sport later known as rugby football. The game was taken to Canada by British soldiers stationed there and was soon being played at Canadian colleges. The first documented gridiron football game was played at University College, a college of the University of Toronto, on November 9, 1861. One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was William Mulock, later chancellor of the school. A football club was formed at the university soon afterward, although its rules of play then are unclear. In 1864, at Trinity College, also a college of the University of Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland and Frederick A. Bethune devised rules based on rugby football. Modern Canadian football is widely regarded as having originated with a game played in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians. The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, the first recorded non-university football club in Canada. ===American college football=== Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional "mob football" played in Great Britain. The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses. Each school played its own variety of football. Princeton University students played a game called "ballown" as early as 1820. In 1827, a Harvard tradition known as "Bloody Monday" began, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes. In 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go. Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called "Football Fightum", for whom they conducted funeral rites. The authorities held firm, and it was another dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard. Dartmouth played its own version called "Old division football", the rules of which were first published in 1871, though the game dates to at least the 1830s. All of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities. They remained largely "mob" style games, with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area, often by any means necessary. Rules were simple, and violence and injury were common. The violence of these mob-style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them. Yale, under pressure from the city of New Haven, banned the play of all forms of football in 1860. ====Princeton–Columbia–Yale–Rutgers==== On November 6, 1869, Rutgers University faced Princeton University, then known as the College of New Jersey, in the first collegiate football game. The game more closely resembled soccer than football as it is played in the 21st century. It was played with a round ball, and used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett, based on The Football Association's first set of rules, which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England's public schools, to unify the rules of their various public schools. The game was played at a Rutgers Field in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team's goal. Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed, but there was plenty of physical contact between players. The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner. Rutgers won by a score of six to four. A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton's own set of rules (one notable difference was the awarding of a "free kick" to any player that caught the ball on the fly, which was a feature adopted from The Football Association's rules; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game). Princeton won that game by a score of 8 – 0. Columbia joined the series in 1870 and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams, including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology. The games featured a round ball instead of a rugby-style oblong ball. In October 1874, the Harvard team once again traveled to Montreal to play McGill in rugby, where they won by three tries. In as much as Rugby football had been transplanted to Canada from England, the McGill team played under a set of rules which allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it whenever he wished. Another rule, unique to McGill, was to count tries (the act of grounding the football past the opposing team's goal line; there was no end zone during this time), as well as goals, in the scoring. In the Rugby rules of the time, a try only provided the attempt to kick a free goal from the field. If the kick was missed, the try did not score any points itself. ====Harvard–Tufts, Harvard–Yale (1875)==== Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game, and its use of the try which, until that time, was not used in American football. The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown. On June 4, 1875, Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill/Harvard contest, which was won by Tufts 1–0. The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time, the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it, and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play – actions of which have carried over to the modern version of football played today. Harvard later challenged its closest rival, Yale, to which the Bulldogs accepted. The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the "Concessionary Rules", which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard's rugby. They decided to play with 15 players on each team. On November 13, 1875, Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever, where Harvard won 4–0. At the first The Game (as the annual contest between Harvard and Yale came to be named) the future "father of American football" Walter Camp was among the 2000 spectators in attendance. Walter, a native of New Britain, Connecticut, would enroll at Yale the next year. He was torn between an admiration for Harvard's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat, and became determined to avenge Yale's defeat. Spectators from Princeton also carried the game back home, where it quickly became the most popular version of football. ====Walter Camp: Father of American football==== Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football. ===Scoring table=== ===Expansion=== College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century. Several major rivalries date from this time period. November 1890 was an active time in the sport. In Baldwin City, Kansas, on November 22, 1890, college football was first played in the state of Kansas. Baker beat Kansas 22–9. On the 27th, Vanderbilt played Nashville (Peabody) at Athletic Park and won 40–0. It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee. The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army–Navy Game. Navy won 24–0. ====East==== Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game. An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2, 1872. It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport. Yale football starts the same year and has its first match against Columbia, the nearest college to play football. It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England. The game was essentially soccer with 20-man sides, played on a field 400 by 250 feet. Yale wins 3–0, Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two. After the first game against Harvard, Tufts took its squad to Bates College in Lewiston, Maine for the first football game played in Maine. This occurred on November 6, 1875. Penn's Athletic Association was looking to pick "a twenty" to play a game of football against Columbia. This "twenty" never played Columbia, but did play twice against Princeton. Princeton won both games 6 to 0. The first of these happened on November 11, 1876, in Philadelphia and was the first intercollegiate game in the state of Pennsylvania. Brown entered the intercollegiate game in 1878. The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25, 1884, when Yale routed Dartmouth 113–0. It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out. The next week, Princeton outscored Lafayette 140 to 0. The first intercollegiate game in the state of Vermont happened on November 6, 1886, between Dartmouth and Vermont at Burlington, Vermont. Dartmouth won 91 to 0. Penn State played its first season in 1887, but had no head coach for their first five years, from 1887 to 1891. The Army–Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game. Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head. ====Middle West==== In 1879, the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team. On May 30, 1879, Michigan beat Racine College 1–0 in a game played in Chicago. The Chicago Daily Tribune called it "the first rugby-football game to be played west of the Alleghenies." Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit, including the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Minnesota. The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team, which played at Harvard, Yale and Princeton. The nation's first college football league, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (also known as the Western Conference), a precursor to the Big Ten Conference, was founded in 1895. Led by coach Fielding H. Yost, Michigan became the first "western" national power. From 1901 to 1905, Michigan had a 56-game undefeated streak that included a 1902 trip to play in the first college football bowl game, which later became the Rose Bowl Game. During this streak, Michigan scored 2,831 points while allowing only 40. Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Minnesota on September 30, 1882, when Hamline was convinced to play Minnesota. Minnesota won 2 to 0. It was the first game west of the Mississippi River. November 30, 1905, saw Chicago defeat Michigan 2 to 0. Dubbed "The First Greatest Game of the Century", it broke Michigan's 56-game unbeaten streak and marked the end of the "Point-a-Minute" years. ====South==== Organized collegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2, 1873, in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI. Washington and Lee won 4–2. Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23, 1869, but it was rained out. Students of the University of Virginia were playing pickup games of the kicking-style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim it organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871; but no record has been found of the score of this contest. Due to scantiness of records of the prior matches some will claim Virginia v. Pantops Academy November 13, 1887, as the first game in Virginia. On April 9, 1880, at Stoll Field, Transylvania University (then called Kentucky University) beat Centre College by the score of –0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South. The first game of "scientific football" in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke (then known as Trinity College) held on Thanksgiving Day, 1888, at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh, North Carolina. On November 13, 1887, the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia. Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking-style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871, just two years after Rutgers and Princeton's historic first game in 1869. But no record has been found of the score of this contest. Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873. On December 14, 1889, Wofford defeated Furman 5 to 1 in the first intercollegiate game in the state of South Carolina. The game featured no uniforms, no positions, and the rules were formulated before the game. January 30, 1892, saw the first football game played in the Deep South when the Georgia Bulldogs defeated Mercer 50–0 at Herty Field. The beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1894. The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) was founded on December 21, 1894, by William Dudley, a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt. The original members were Alabama, Auburn, Georgia, Georgia Tech, North Carolina, Sewanee, and Vanderbilt. Clemson, Cumberland, Kentucky, LSU, Mercer, Mississippi, Mississippi A&M (Mississippi State), Southwestern Presbyterian University, Tennessee, Texas, Tulane, and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members. The conference was originally formed for "the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South". The first forward pass in football likely occurred on October 26, 1895, in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when, out of desperation, the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball. On November 9, 1895, John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick using quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt. It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal. Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner's Georgia team. Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897. He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention. The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all-time great teams of the early sport. The team went 12–0, outscoring opponents 322 to 10. Known as the "Iron Men", with just 13 men they had a six-day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A&M; Texas; Tulane; LSU; and Ole Miss. It is recalled memorably with the phrase "... and on the seventh day they rested." Grantland Rice called them "the most durable football team I ever saw." Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Florida in 1901. A 7-game series between intramural teams from Stetson and Forbes occurred in 1894. The first intercollegiate game between official varsity teams was played on November 22, 1901. Stetson beat Florida Agricultural College at Lake City, one of the four forerunners of the University of Florida, 6–0, in a game played as part of the Jacksonville Fair. On September 27, 1902, Georgetown beat Navy 4 to 0. It is claimed by Georgetown authorities as the game with the first ever "roving center" or linebacker when Percy Given stood up, in contrast to the usual tale of Germany Schulz. The first linebacker in the South is often considered to be Frank Juhan. On Thanksgiving Day 1903, a game was scheduled in Montgomery, Alabama between the best teams from each region of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association for an "SIAA championship game", pitting Cumberland against Heisman's Clemson. The game ended in an 11–11 tie causing many teams to claim the title. Heisman pressed hardest for Cumberland to get the claim of champion. It was his last game as Clemson head coach. 1904 saw big coaching hires in the south: Mike Donahue at Auburn, John Heisman at Georgia Tech, and Dan McGugin at Vanderbilt were all hired that year. Both Donahue and McGugin just came from the north that year, Donahue from Yale and McGugin from Michigan, and were among the initial inductees of the College Football Hall of Fame. The undefeated 1904 Vanderbilt team scored an average of 52.7 points per game, the most in college football that season, and allowed just four points. ====Southwest==== The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7, 1895, when the "Oklahoma City Terrors" defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0. The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college and high school students. The Sooners did not manage a single first down. By next season, Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic. Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29, 1894, between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School. The high school won 24 to 0. USC faced its first collegiate opponent the following year in fall 1889, playing St. Vincent's College to a 40–0 victory. In 1891, the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four-game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach. Following the season, Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford. To Whittemore's surprise, Camp agreed to coach the team himself, on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first. As a result of Camp's late arrival, Stanford played just three official games, against San Francisco's Olympic Club and rival California. The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles area teams that Stanford does not include in official results. Camp returned to the East Coast following the season, then returned to coach Stanford in 1894 and 1895. On December 25, 1894, Amos Alonzo Stagg's Chicago Maroons agreed to play Camp's Stanford football team in San Francisco in the first postseason intersectional contest, foreshadowing the modern bowl game. Future president Herbert Hoover was Stanford's student financial manager. Chicago won 24 to 4. Stanford won a rematch in Los Angeles on December 29 by 12 to 0. The Big Game between Stanford and California is the oldest college football rivalry in the West. The first game was played on San Francisco's Haight Street Grounds on March 19, 1892, with Stanford winning 14–10. The term "Big Game" was first used in 1900, when it was played on Thanksgiving Day in San Francisco. During that game, a large group of men and boys, who were observing from the roof of the nearby S.F. and Pacific Glass Works, fell into the fiery interior of the building when the roof collapsed, resulting in 13 dead and 78 injured. On December 4, 1900, the last victim of the disaster (Fred Lilly) died, bringing the death toll to 22; and, to this day, the "Thanksgiving Day Disaster" remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event. The University of Oregon began playing American football in 1894 and played its first game on March 24, 1894, defeating Albany College 44–3 under head coach Cal Young. Cal Young left after that first game and J.A. Church took over the coaching position in the fall for the rest of the season. Oregon finished the season with two additional losses and a tie, but went undefeated the following season, winning all four of its games under head coach Percy Benson. In 1899, the Oregon football team left the state for the first time, playing the California Golden Bears in Berkeley, California. Bloss's son William started the first team, on which he served as both coach and quarterback. The team's first game was an easy 63–0 defeat over the home team, Albany College. In May 1900, Yost was hired as the football coach at Stanford University, and, after traveling home to West Virginia, he arrived in Palo Alto, California, on August 21, 1900. Yost led the 1900 Stanford team to a 7–2–1, outscoring opponents 154 to 20. The next year in 1901, Yost was hired by Charles A. Baird as the head football coach for the Michigan Wolverines football team. On January 1, 1902, Yost's dominating 1901 Michigan Wolverines football team agreed to play a 3–1–2 team from Stanford University in the inaugural "Tournament East-West football game" what is now known as the Rose Bowl Game by a score of 49–0 after Stanford captain Ralph Fisher requested to quit with eight minutes remaining. The 1905 season marked the first meeting between Stanford and USC. Consequently, Stanford is USC's oldest existing rival. The Big Game between Stanford and Cal on November 11, 1905, was the first played at Stanford Field, with Stanford winning 12–5. At the time, the future of American football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby union would eventually be adopted nationwide. During 12 seasons of playing rugby union, Stanford was remarkably successful: the team had three undefeated seasons, three one-loss seasons, and an overall record of 94 wins, 20 losses, and 3 ties for a winning percentage of .816. However, after a few years, the school began to feel the isolation of its newly adopted sport, which was not spreading as many had hoped. Students and alumni began to clamor for a return to American football to allow wider intercollegiate competition.}} In 1909, the Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference was founded, featuring four members: Colorado, Colorado College, Colorado School of Mines, and Colorado Agricultural College. The University of Denver and the University of Utah joined the RMAC in 1910. For its first thirty years, the RMAC was considered a major conference equivalent to today's Division I, before 7 larger members left and formed the Mountain States Conference (also called the Skyline Conference). ===Violence, formation of NCAA=== College football increased in popularity through the remainder of the 19th and early 20th century. It also became increasingly violent. Between 1890 and 1905, 330 college athletes died as a direct result of injuries sustained on the football field. These deaths could be attributed to the mass formations and gang tackling that characterized the sport in its early years. The 1894 Harvard–Yale game, known as the "Hampden Park Blood Bath", resulted in crippling injuries for four players; the contest was suspended until 1897. The annual Army–Navy game was suspended from 1894 to 1898 for similar reasons. One of the major problems was the popularity of mass-formations like the flying wedge, in which a large number of offensive players charged as a unit against a similarly arranged defense. The resultant collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death. Georgia fullback Richard Von Albade Gammon notably died on the field from concussions received against Virginia in 1897, causing Georgia, Georgia Tech, and Mercer to suspend their football programs. The situation came to a head in 1905 when there were 19 fatalities nationwide. President Theodore Roosevelt reportedly threatened to shut down the game if drastic changes were not made. However, the threat by Roosevelt to eliminate football is disputed by sports historians. What is absolutely certain is that on October 9, 1905, Roosevelt held a meeting of football representatives from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Though he lectured on eliminating and reducing injuries, he never threatened to ban football. He also lacked the authority to abolish football and was, in fact, actually a fan of the sport and wanted to preserve it. The President's sons were also playing football at the college and secondary levels at the time. Meanwhile, John H. Outland held an experimental game in Wichita, Kansas that reduced the number of scrimmage plays to earn a first down from four to three in an attempt to reduce injuries. The Los Angeles Times reported an increase in punts and considered the game much safer than regular play but that the new rule was not "conducive to the sport". In 1906, President Roosevelt organized a meeting among thirteen school leaders at the White House to find solutions to make the sport safer for the athletes. Because the college officials could not agree upon a change in rules, it was decided over the course of several subsequent meetings that an external governing body should be responsible. Finally, on December 28, 1905, 62 schools met in New York City to discuss rule changes to make the game safer. As a result of this meeting, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States was formed in 1906. The IAAUS was the original rule-making body of college football, but would go on to sponsor championships in other sports. The IAAUS would get its current name of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1910, and still sets rules governing the sport. The rules committee considered widening the playing field to "open up" the game, but Harvard Stadium (the first large permanent football stadium) had recently been built at great expense; it would be rendered useless by a wider field. The rules committee legalized the forward pass instead. Though it was underused for years, this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game. Another rule change banned "mass momentum" plays (many of which, like the infamous "flying wedge", were sometimes literally deadly). ===Modernization and innovation (1906–1930)=== As a result of the 1905–1906 reforms, mass formation plays became illegal and forward passes legal. Bradbury Robinson, playing for visionary coach Eddie Cochems at Saint Louis University, threw the first legal pass in a September 5, 1906, game against Carroll College at Waukesha. Other important changes, formally adopted in 1910, were the requirements that at least seven offensive players be on the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap, that there be no pushing or pulling, and that interlocking interference (arms linked or hands on belts and uniforms) was not allowed. These changes greatly reduced the potential for collision injuries. Several coaches emerged who took advantage of these sweeping changes. Amos Alonzo Stagg introduced such innovations as the huddle, the tackling dummy, and the pre-snap shift. Other coaches, such as Pop Warner and Knute Rockne, introduced new strategies that still remain part of the game. Besides these coaching innovations, several rules changes during the first third of the 20th century had a profound impact on the game, mostly in opening up the passing game. In 1914, the first roughing-the-passer penalty was implemented. In 1918, the rules on eligible receivers were loosened to allow eligible players to catch the ball anywhere on the field—previously strict rules were in place allowing passes to only certain areas of the field. Scoring rules also changed during this time: field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 Star players that emerged in the early 20th century include Jim Thorpe, Red Grange, and Bronko Nagurski; these three made the transition to the fledgling NFL and helped turn it into a successful league. Sportswriter Grantland Rice helped popularize the sport with his poetic descriptions of games and colorful nicknames for the game's biggest players, including Notre Dame's "Four Horsemen" backfield and Fordham University's linemen, known as the "Seven Blocks of Granite". In 1907 at Champaign, Illinois Chicago and Illinois played in the first game to have a halftime show featuring a marching band. Chicago won 42–6. On November 25, 1911 Kansas played at Missouri in the first homecoming football game. The game was "broadcast" play-by-play over telegraph to at least 1,000 fans in Lawrence, Kansas. It ended in a 3–3 tie. The game between West Virginia and Pittsburgh on October 8, 1921, saw the first live radio broadcast of a college football game when Harold W. Arlin announced that year's Backyard Brawl played at Forbes Field on KDKA. Pitt won 21–13. On October 28, 1922, Princeton and Chicago played the first game to be nationally broadcast on radio. Princeton won 21–18 in a hotly contested game which had Princeton dubbed the "Team of Destiny". ====Rise of the South==== One publication claims "The first scouting done in the South was in 1905, when Dan McGugin and Captain Innis Brown, of Vanderbilt went to Atlanta to see Sewanee play Georgia Tech." Fuzzy Woodruff claims Davidson was the first in the south to throw a legal forward pass in 1906. The following season saw Vanderbilt execute a double pass play to set up the touchdown that beat Sewanee in a meeting of the unbeaten for the SIAA championship. Grantland Rice cited this event as the greatest thrill he ever witnessed in his years of watching sports. Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin in Spalding's Football Guide summation of the season in the SIAA wrote "The standing. First, Vanderbilt; second, Sewanee, a might good second;" and that Aubrey Lanier "came near winning the Vanderbilt game by his brilliant dashes after receiving punts." Bob Blake threw the final pass to center Stein Stone, catching it near the goal among defenders. Honus Craig then ran in the winning touchdown. =====Heisman shift===== Using the "jump shift" offense, John Heisman's Georgia Tech Golden Tornado won 222 to 0 over Cumberland on October 7, 1916, at Grant Field in the most lopsided victory in college football history. Tech went on a 33-game winning streak during this period. The 1917 team was the first national champion from the South, led by a powerful backfield. It also had the first two players from the Deep South selected first-team All-American in Walker Carpenter and Everett Strupper. Pop Warner's Pittsburgh Panthers were also undefeated, but declined a challenge by Heisman to a game. When Heisman left Tech after 1919, his shift was still employed by protégé William Alexander. =====Notable intersectional games===== In 1906, Vanderbilt defeated Carlisle 4 to 0, the result of a Bob Blake field goal. In 1907 Vanderbilt fought Navy to a 6 to 6 tie. In 1910 Vanderbilt held defending national champion Yale to a scoreless tie. Commodore fans celebrated by throwing some 3,000 seat cushions onto the field. The game features prominently in Vanderbilt's history. That same year, Alabama upset Penn 9 to 7. Vanderbilt's line coach then was Wallace Wade, who coached Alabama to the South's first Rose Bowl victory in 1925. This game is commonly referred to as "the game that changed the south". Wade followed up the next season with an undefeated record and Rose Bowl tie. Georgia's 1927 "dream and wonder team" defeated Yale for the first time. Georgia Tech, led by Heisman protégé William Alexander, gave the dream and wonder team its only loss, and the next year were national and Rose Bowl champions. The Rose Bowl included Roy Riegels' wrong-way run. On October 12, 1929, Yale lost to Georgia in Sanford Stadium in its first trip to the south. Wade's Alabama again won a national championship and Rose Bowl in 1930. ====Coaches of the era==== =====Glenn "Pop" Warner===== Glenn "Pop" Warner coached at several schools throughout his career, including the University of Georgia, Cornell University, University of Pittsburgh, Stanford University, Iowa State University, and Temple University. One of his most famous stints was at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, where he coached Jim Thorpe, who went on to become the first president of the National Football League, an Olympic Gold Medalist, and is widely considered one of the best overall athletes in history. Warner wrote one of the first important books of football strategy, Football for Coaches and Players, published in 1927. Though the shift was invented by Stagg, Warner's single wing and double wing formations greatly improved upon it; for almost 40 years, these were among the most important formations in football. As part of his single and double wing formations, Warner was one of the first coaches to effectively use the forward pass. Among his other innovations are modern blocking schemes, the three-point stance, and the reverse play. The youth football league, Pop Warner Little Scholars, was named in his honor. =====Knute Rockne===== Knute Rockne rose to prominence in 1913 as an end for the University of Notre Dame, then a largely unknown Midwestern Catholic school. When Army scheduled Notre Dame as a warm-up game, they thought little of the small school. Rockne and quarterback Gus Dorais made innovative use of the forward pass, still at that point a relatively unused weapon, to defeat Army 35–13 and helped establish the school as a national power. Rockne returned to coach the team in 1918, and devised the powerful Notre Dame Box offense, based on Warner's single wing. He is credited with being the first major coach to emphasize offense over defense. Rockne is also credited with popularizing and perfecting the forward pass, a seldom used play at the time. The 1924 team featured the Four Horsemen backfield. In 1927, his complex shifts led directly to a rule change whereby all offensive players had to stop for a full second before the ball could be snapped. Rather than simply a regional team, Rockne's "Fighting Irish" became famous for barnstorming and played any team at any location. It was during Rockne's tenure that the annual Notre Dame-University of Southern California rivalry began. He led his team to an impressive 105–12–5 record before his premature death in a plane crash in 1931. He was so famous at that point that his funeral was broadcast nationally on radio. ===From a regional to a national sport (1930–1958)=== In the early 1930s, the college game continued to grow, particularly in the South, bolstered by fierce rivalries such as the "South's Oldest Rivalry", between Virginia and North Carolina and the "Deep South's Oldest Rivalry", between Georgia and Auburn. Although before the mid-1920s most national powers came from the Northeast or the Midwest, the trend changed when several teams from the South and the West Coast achieved national success. Wallace William Wade's 1925 Alabama team won the 1926 Rose Bowl after receiving its first national title and William Alexander's 1928 Georgia Tech team defeated California in the 1929 Rose Bowl. College football quickly became the most popular spectator sport in the South. Several major modern college football conferences rose to prominence during this time period. The Southwest Athletic Conference had been founded in 1915. Consisting mostly of schools from Texas, the conference saw back-to-back national champions with Texas Christian University (TCU) in 1938 and Texas A&M in 1939. The Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), a precursor to the Pac-12 Conference (Pac-12), had its own back-to-back champion in the University of Southern California which was awarded the title in 1931 and 1932. The Southeastern Conference (SEC) formed in 1932 and consisted mostly of schools in the Deep South. As in previous decades, the Big Ten continued to dominate in the 1930s and 1940s, with Minnesota winning 5 titles between 1934 and 1941, and Michigan (1933, 1947, and 1948) and Ohio State (1942) also winning titles. As it grew beyond its regional affiliations in the 1930s, college football garnered increased national attention. Four new bowl games were created: the Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, the Sun Bowl in 1935, and the Cotton Bowl in 1937. In lieu of an actual national championship, these bowl games, along with the earlier Rose Bowl, provided a way to match up teams from distant regions of the country that did not otherwise play. In 1936, the Associated Press began its weekly poll of prominent sports writers, ranking all of the nation's college football teams. Since there was no national championship game, the final version of the AP poll was used to determine who was crowned the National Champion of college football. The 1930s saw growth in the passing game. Though some coaches, such as General Robert Neyland at Tennessee, continued to eschew its use, several rules changes to the game had a profound effect on teams' ability to throw the ball. In 1934, the rules committee removed two major penalties—a loss of five yards for a second incomplete pass in any series of downs and a loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone—and shrunk the circumference of the ball, making it easier to grip and throw. Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer "Slingin" Sammy Baugh. In 1935, New York City's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger, who was also the first ever NFL draft pick in 1936. The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith. The trophy recognizes the nation's "most outstanding" college football player and has become one of the most coveted awards in all of American sports. During World War II, college football players enlisted in the armed forces, some playing in Europe during the war. As most of these players had eligibility left on their college careers, some of them returned to college at West Point, bringing Army back-to-back national titles in 1944 and 1945 under coach Red Blaik. Doc Blanchard (known as "Mr. Inside") and Glenn Davis (known as "Mr. Outside") both won the Heisman Trophy, in 1945 and 1946. On the coaching staff of those 1944–1946 Army teams was future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Vince Lombardi. The 1950s saw the rise of yet more dynasties and power programs. Oklahoma, under coach Bud Wilkinson, won three national titles (1950, 1955, 1956) and all ten Big Eight Conference championships in the decade while building a record 47-game winning streak. Woody Hayes led Ohio State to two national titles, in 1954 and 1957, and won three Big Ten titles. The Michigan State Spartans were known as the "football factory" during the 1950s, where coaches Biggie Munn and Duffy Daugherty led the Spartans to two national titles and two Big Ten titles after joining the Big Ten athletically in 1953. Wilkinson and Hayes, along with Robert Neyland of Tennessee, oversaw a revival of the running game in the 1950s. Passing numbers dropped from an average of 18.9 attempts in 1951 to 13.6 attempts in 1955, while teams averaged just shy of 50 running plays per game. Nine out of ten Heisman Trophy winners in the 1950s were runners. Notre Dame, one of the biggest passing teams of the decade, saw a substantial decline in success; the 1950s were the only decade between 1920 and 1990 when the team did not win at least a share of the national title. Paul Hornung, Notre Dame quarterback, did, however, win the Heisman in 1956, becoming the only player from a losing team ever to do so. The 1956 Sugar Bowl also gained international attention when Georgia's pro-segregationist Gov. Griffin publicly threatened Georgia Tech and its President Blake Van Leer over allowing the first African American player to play in a collegiate bowl game in the south. ===Modern college football (since 1958)=== Following the enormous success of the 1958 NFL Championship Game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college football has maintained strong regional ties. As professional football became a national television phenomenon, college football did as well. In the 1950s, Notre Dame, which had a large national following, formed its own network to broadcast its games, but by and large the sport still retained a mostly regional following. In 1952, the NCAA claimed all television broadcasting rights for the games of its member institutions, and it alone negotiated television rights. This situation continued until 1984, when several schools brought a suit under the Sherman Antitrust Act; the Supreme Court ruled against the NCAA and schools are now free to negotiate their own television deals. ABC Sports began broadcasting a national Game of the Week in 1966, bringing key matchups and rivalries to a national audience for the first time. New formations and play sets continued to be developed. Emory Bellard, an assistant coach under Darrell Royal at the University of Texas, developed a three-back option style offense known as the wishbone. The wishbone is a run-heavy offense that depends on the quarterback making last second decisions on when and to whom to hand or pitch the ball to. Royal went on to teach the offense to other coaches, including Bear Bryant at Alabama, Chuck Fairbanks at Oklahoma and Pepper Rodgers at UCLA; who all adapted and developed it to their own tastes. The strategic opposite of the wishbone is the spread offense, developed by professional and college coaches throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Though some schools play a run-based version of the spread, its most common use is as a passing offense designed to "spread" the field both horizontally and vertically. Some teams have managed to adapt with the times to keep winning consistently. In the rankings of the most victorious programs, Michigan, Ohio State, and Alabama ranked first, second, and third in total wins. ====Growth of bowl games==== In 1940, for the highest level of college football, there were only five bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar, Sun, and Cotton). By 1950, three more had joined that number and in 1970, there were still only eight major college bowl games. The number grew to eleven in 1976. At the birth of cable television and cable sports networks like ESPN, there were fifteen bowls in 1980. With more national venues and increased available revenue, the bowls saw an explosive growth throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the thirty years from 1950 to 1980, seven bowl games were added to the schedule. From 1980 to 2008, an additional 20 bowl games were added to the schedule. Some have criticized this growth, claiming that the increased number of games has diluted the significance of playing in a bowl game. Yet others have countered that the increased number of games has increased exposure and revenue for a greater number of schools, and see it as a positive development. Teams participating in bowl games also get to practice up to four hours per day or 20 hours per week until their bowl game concludes. There is no limit on the number of practices during the bowl season, so teams that play later in the season (usually ones with more wins) get more opportunity to practice than ones that play earlier. This bowl practice period can be compared to the spring practice schedule when teams can have 15 on-field practice sessions. Many teams that play late in the bowl season use the first few practices for evaluation and development of younger players while resting the starters. ==Determination of national champion == Currently, the NCAA Division I football teams are divided into two divisions – the "football bowl subdivision" (FBS) and the "football championship subdivision"(FCS). As indicated by the name, the FBS teams are eligible to play in post-season bowls. The FCS teams, Division II, Division III, National Junior College teams play in sanctioned tournaments to determine their annual champions. There is not now, and never has been, an NCAA-sanctioned tournament to determine the champion of the top-level football teams. With the growth of bowl games, it became difficult to determine a national champion in a fair and equitable manner. As conferences became contractually bound to certain bowl games (a situation known as a tie-in), match-ups that guaranteed a consensus national champion became increasingly rare. ===Bowl Coalition=== In 1992, seven conferences and independent Notre Dame formed the Bowl Coalition, which attempted to arrange an annual No. 1 versus No. 2 matchup based on the final AP poll standings. The Coalition lasted for three years; however, several scheduling issues prevented much success; tie-ins still took precedence in several cases. For example, the Big Eight and SEC champions could never meet, since they were contractually bound to different bowl games. The coalition also excluded the Rose Bowl, arguably the most prestigious game in the nation, and two major conferences—the Pac-10 and Big Ten—meaning that it had limited success. ===Bowl Alliance=== In 1995, the Coalition was replaced by the Bowl Alliance, which reduced the number of bowl games to host a national championship game to three—the Fiesta, Sugar, and Orange Bowls—and the participating conferences to five—the ACC, SEC, Southwest, Big Eight, and Big East. It was agreed that the No.1 and No.2 ranked teams gave up their prior bowl tie-ins and were guaranteed to meet in the national championship game, which rotated between the three participating bowls. The system still did not include the Big Ten, Pac-10, or the Rose Bowl, and thus still lacked the legitimacy of a true national championship. However, one positive side effect is that if there were three teams at the end of the season vying for a national title, but one of them was a Pac-10/Big Ten team bound to the Rose Bowl, then there would be no difficulty in deciding which teams to place in the Bowl Alliance "national championship" bowl; if the Pac-10 / Big Ten team won the Rose Bowl and finished with the same record as whichever team won the other bowl game, they could have a share of the national title. This happened in the final year of the Bowl Alliance, with Michigan winning the 1998 Rose Bowl and Nebraska winning the 1998 Orange Bowl. Without the Pac-10/Big Ten team bound to a bowl game, it would be difficult to decide which two teams should play for the national title. ===Bowl Championship Series=== In 1998, a new system was put into place called the Bowl Championship Series. For the first time, it included all major conferences (ACC, Big East, Big 12, Big Ten, Pac-10, and SEC) and four major bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar and Fiesta). The champions of these six conferences, along with two "at-large" selections, were invited to play in the four bowl games. Each year, one of the four bowl games served as a national championship game. Also, a complex system of human polls, computer rankings, and strength of schedule calculations was instituted to rank schools. Based on this ranking system, the No.1 and No.2 teams met each year in the national championship game. Traditional tie-ins were maintained for schools and bowls not part of the national championship. For example, in years when not a part of the national championship, the Rose Bowl still hosted the Big Ten and Pac-10 champions. A player is considered down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground or when the ball carrier is tackled or otherwise falls and loses possession of the ball as he contacts the ground with any part of his body, with the sole exception of the holder for field goal and extra point attempts. In the NFL a player is active until he is tackled or forced down by a member of the opposing team (down by contact). Before the 2023 season, the clock stopped after the offense completed a first down and began again—assuming it is following a play in which the clock would not normally stop—once the referee declared the ball ready for play. Since 2023, this has only been the case in the last two minutes of a half in NCAA Divisions I and II; Division III adopted this rule in 2024. In the NFL the clock does not explicitly stop for a first down. Overtime was introduced in 1996, eliminating most ties except in the regular season. Since 2021, during each of the first two overtime periods, each team is given one possession from its opponent's 25-yard line with no game clock. The play clock remains in use, and each team is allowed one timeout per period. Any team that scores a touchdown in either of the first two overtimes must attempt a two-point conversion. Beginning with the third overtime, each team takes possession at the opponent's 3-yard line and can only score by conversion. A coin toss determines which team will have possession first at the start of each overtime period. Play continues until one team leads the other at the end of a period. [In the NFL overtime is decided by a modified sudden-death period of 10 minutes in regular-season games (no overtime in preseason up to & since ) and 15 minutes in playoff games, and regular-season games can still end in a tie if neither team scores. Overtime for regular-season games in the NFL began with the 1974 season; the overtime period for all games was 15 minutes until it was shortened for non-playoff games effective in . In the postseason, if the teams are still tied, teams will play multiple overtime periods until either team scores.] A tie game is still possible, per NCAA Rule 3–3–3 (c) and (d). If a game is suspended because of inclement weather while tied, typically in the second half or at the end of regulation, and the game is unable to be continued, the game ends in a tie. Similar to baseball, if one team has scored in its possession and the other team has not completed its possession, the score during the overtime can be wiped out and the game ruled a tie. Some conferences may enforce a curfew for the safety of the players. If, because of numerous overtimes or weather, the game reaches the time-certain finish imposed by the curfew tied, the game is ruled a tie. Extra point tries are attempted from the three-yard line. Kicked tries count as one point. Teams can also go for "the two-point conversion" which is when a team will line up at the three-yard line and try to score. If they are successful, they receive two points, if they are not, then they receive zero points. Starting with the 2015 season, the NFL uses the 15-yard line as the line of scrimmage for placekick attempts, but the two-yard line for two-point attempts. The two-point conversion was not implemented in the NFL until 1994, but it had been previously used in the old American Football League (AFL) before it merged with the NFL in 1970. The defensive team may score two points on a point-after touchdown attempt by returning a blocked kick, fumble, or interception into the opposition's end zone. In addition, if the defensive team gains possession, but then moves backward into the end zone and is stopped, a one-point safety will be awarded to the offense, although, unlike a real safety, the offense kicks off, opposed to the team charged with the safety. This college rule was added in 1988. The NFL, which previously treated the ball as dead during a conversion attempt—meaning that the attempt ended when the defending team gained possession of the football—adopted the college rule in 2015. Through 2023, the two-minute warning was not used in college football, except in rare cases where the scoreboard clock has malfunctioned and is not being used. The NCAA adopted the two-minute warning (under the name "two-minute timeout") in 2024. There is an option to use instant replay review of officiating decisions. Division I FBS schools use replay in virtually all games; replay is rarely used in lower division games. Every play is subject to booth review with coaches only having one challenge. In the NFL, only scoring plays, turnovers, the final 2:00 of each half and all overtime periods are reviewed, and coaches are issued two challenges (with the option for a third if one of the two challenges was successful). Since the 2012 season, the ball is placed on the 25-yard line following a touchback on either a kickoff or a free kick following a safety. The NFL adopted this rule in 2018. In all other touchback situations at all levels of the game, the ball is placed on the 20. Among other rule changes in 2007, kickoffs were moved from the 35-yard line back five yards to the 30-yard line, matching a change that the NFL had made in 1994. Some coaches and officials questioned this rule change as it could lead to more injuries to the players as there will likely be more kickoff returns. The rationale for the rule change was to help reduce dead time in the game. The NFL returned its kickoff location to the 35-yard line effective in 2011; college football did not do so until 2012. Several changes were made to college rules in 2011, all of which differ from NFL practice: If a player is penalized for unsportsmanlike conduct for actions that occurred during a play ending in a touchdown by that team, but before the goal line was crossed, the touchdown will be nullified. In the NFL, the same foul would result in a penalty on the conversion attempt or ensuing kickoff, at the option of the non-penalized team. If a team is penalized in the final minute of a half and the penalty causes the clock to stop, the opposing team now has the right to have 10 seconds run off the clock in addition to the yardage penalty. The NFL has a similar rule in the final minute of the half, but it applies only to specified violations against the offensive team. The new NCAA rule applies to penalties on both sides of the ball. Players lined up outside the tackle box—more specifically, those lined up more than 7 yards from the center—will now be allowed to block below the waist only if they are blocking straight ahead or toward the nearest sideline. On placekicks, each offensive lineman can be engaged by no more than two defensive players. The defenders risk a 5-yard penalty upon violation. In 2018, the NCAA made a further change to touchback rules that the NFL adopted in ; a fair catch on a kickoff or a free kick following a safety that takes place between the receiving team's goal line and 25-yard lines is treated as a touchback, with the ball placed at the 25. Yards lost on quarterback sacks are included in individual rushing yardage under NCAA rules. In the NFL, yards lost on sacks are included in team passing yardage, but are not included in individual passing statistics. ==Organization== College teams mostly play other similarly sized schools through the NCAA's divisional system. Division I generally consists of the major collegiate athletic powers with larger budgets, more elaborate facilities, and (with the exception of a few conferences such as the Pioneer Football League) more athletic scholarships. Division II primarily consists of smaller public and private institutions that offer fewer scholarships than those in Division I. Division III institutions also field teams, but do not offer any scholarships. Football teams in Division I are further divided into the Bowl Subdivision (consisting of the largest programs) and the Championship Subdivision. The Bowl Subdivision has historically not used an organized tournament to determine its champion, and instead teams compete in post-season bowl games. That changed with the debut of the four-team College Football Playoff at the end of the 2014 season, However, the NCAA does not operate that tournament, and its winner is not automatically crowned National Champion. Teams in each of these four divisions are further divided into various regional conferences. Several organizations operate college football programs outside the jurisdiction of the NCAA: The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics has jurisdiction over more than 80 college football teams, mostly in the Midwest. The National Junior College Athletic Association has jurisdiction over two-year institutions, except in California. The California Community College Athletic Association governs sports, including football, at that state's two-year institutions. CCCAA members compete for their own championships and do not participate in the NJCAA. Club football, a sport in which student clubs run the teams instead of the colleges themselves, is overseen by two organizations: the National Club Football Association and the Intercollegiate Club Football Federation. The two competing sanctioning bodies have some overlap, and several clubs are members of both organizations. As of the most recent 2024 season, 16 schools play sprint football, played under standard NCAA rules but with a requirement that all players must weigh less than the average college student (that threshold is set, , at , with the added requirement of a minimum body fat content of 5%). Nine schools, all in the northeastern quadrant of the U.S., play in the Collegiate Sprint Football League, which has operated since 1934. The Midwest Sprint Football League started play in 2022 with six members, all in the Midwest and Upper South, added two members in that region in 2023, and lost one of its charter members after the 2023 season due to the school's impending closure. A college that fields a team in the NCAA is not restricted from fielding teams in club or sprint football, and several colleges field two teams, a varsity (NCAA) squad and a club or sprint squad (no schools, , field both club and sprint teams at the same time). ==Coaching== ==National championships== College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS – Overview of systems for determining national champions at the highest level of college football from 1869 to present. College Football Playoff – Four-team playoff for determining national champions at the highest level of college football beginning in 2014. After a vote by the College Football Playoff's Board of Managers, the Playoff was expanded to 12 teams in 2024. Bowl Championship Series – The primary method of determining the national champion at the highest level of college football from 1998 to 2013; preceded by the Bowl Alliance (1995–1997) and the Bowl Coalition (1992–1994). NCAA Division I Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the second highest level of college football, Division I FCS, from 1978 to present. NCAA Division I FCS Consensus Mid-Major Football National Championship – Awarded by poll from 2001 to 2007 for a subset of the second-highest level of play in college football, FCS. NCAA Division II Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the third highest level of college football from 1973 to present. NCAA Division III Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champion at the fourth highest level of college football from 1973 to present. NAIA National Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champions of college football governed by the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. NJCAA National Football Championship – Playoff for determining the national champions of college football governed by the National Junior College Athletic Association. CSFL Championship – Champions of the Collegiate Sprint Football League, a conference that plays the weight-restricted variant of sprint football. MSFL Championship – Launched in 2022 as the championship for the Midwest Sprint Football League, another sprint football league. ==Team maps== File:NCAA FBS programs.png\|Map of Division I (A) FBS File:NCAA FCS programs.png\|Map of Division I (AA) FCS File:NCAA D2 programs.png\|Map of NCAA Division II File:NCAA D3 programs.png\|Map of NCAA Division III File:NAIA programs.png\|Map of NAIA File:NJCAA fb.png\|Map of NJCAA File:CCCAA fb.png\|Map of CCCAA ==Playoff games== Started in the 2014 season, four Division I FBS teams are selected at the end of regular season to compete in a playoff for the FBS national championship. The inaugural champion was Ohio State University. The College Football Playoff replaced the Bowl Championship Series, which had been used as a selection method to determine the national championship game participants since in the 1998 season. The Ohio State Buckeyes won the most recent playoff 34–23 over the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in the 2025 College Football Playoff. At the Division I FCS level, the teams participate in a 24-team playoff (most recently expanded from 20 teams in 2013) to determine the national championship. Under the current playoff structure, the top eight teams are all seeded, and receive a bye week in the first round. The highest seed receives automatic home field advantage. Starting in 2013, non-seeded teams can only host a playoff game if both teams involved are unseeded; in such a matchup, the schools must bid for the right to host the game. Selection for the playoffs is determined by a selection committee, although usually a team must have an 8–4 record to even be considered. Losses to an FBS team count against their playoff eligibility, while wins against a Division II opponent do not count towards playoff consideration. Thus, only Division I wins (whether FBS, FCS, or FCS non-scholarship) are considered for playoff selection. The Division I National Championship game is held in Frisco, Texas. Division II and Division III of the NCAA also participate in their own respective playoffs, crowning national champions at the end of the season. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics also holds a playoff. ==Bowl games== Unlike other college football divisions and most other sports—collegiate or professional—the Football Bowl Subdivision, formerly known as Division I-A college football, has historically not employed a playoff system to determine a champion. Instead, it has a series of postseason "bowl games". The annual National Champion in the Football Bowl Subdivision is then instead traditionally determined by a vote of sports writers and other non-players. This system has been challenged often, beginning with an NCAA committee proposal in 1979 to have a four-team playoff following the bowl games. However, little headway was made in instituting a playoff tournament until 2014, given the entrenched vested economic interests in the various bowls. Although the NCAA publishes lists of claimed FBS-level national champions in its official publications, it has never recognized an official FBS national championship; this policy continues even after the establishment of the College Football Playoff (which is not directly run by the NCAA) in 2014. As a result, the official Division I National Champion is the winner of the Football Championship Subdivision, as it is the highest level of football with an NCAA-administered championship tournament. (This also means that FBS student-athletes are the only NCAA athletes who are ineligible for the Elite 90 Award, an academic award presented to the upper class player with the highest grade-point average among the teams that advance to the championship final site.) The first bowl game was the 1902 Rose Bowl, played between Michigan and Stanford; Michigan won 49–0. It ended when Stanford requested and Michigan agreed to end it with 8 minutes on the clock. That game was so lopsided that the game was not played annually until 1916, when the Tournament of Roses decided to reattempt the postseason game. The term "bowl" originates from the shape of the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California, which was built in 1923 and resembled the Yale Bowl, built in 1915. This is where the name came into use, as it became known as the Rose Bowl Game. Other games came along and used the term "bowl", whether the stadium was shaped like a bowl or not. At the Division I FBS level, teams must earn the right to be bowl eligible by winning at least 6 games during the season (teams that play 13 games in a season, which is allowed for Hawaii and any of its home opponents, must win 7 games). They are then invited to a bowl game based on their conference ranking and the tie-ins that the conference has to each bowl game. For the 2009 season, there were 34 bowl games, so 68 of the 120 Division I FBS teams were invited to play at a bowl. These games are played from mid-December to early January and most of the later bowl games are typically considered more prestigious. After the Bowl Championship Series, additional all-star bowl games round out the post-season schedule through the beginning of February. ===Division I FBS National Championship Games=== Partly as a compromise between both bowl game and playoff supporters, the NCAA created the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) in 1998 to create a definitive national championship game for college football. The series included the four most prominent bowl games (Rose Bowl, Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, Fiesta Bowl), while the national championship game rotated each year between one of these venues. The BCS system was slightly adjusted in 2006, as the NCAA added a fifth game to the series, called the National Championship Game. This allowed the four other BCS bowls to use their normal selection process to select the teams in their games while the top two teams in the BCS rankings would play in the new National Championship Game. The BCS selection committee used a complicated, and often controversial, computer system to rank all Division I-FBS teams and the top two teams at the end of the season played for the national championship. This computer system, which factored in newspaper polls, online polls, coaches' polls, strength of schedule, and various other factors of a team's season, led to much dispute over whether the two best teams in the country were being selected to play in the National Championship Game. The BCS ended after the 2013 season and, since the 2014 season, the FBS national champion has been determined by a four-team tournament known as the College Football Playoff (CFP). A selection committee of college football experts decides the participating teams. Six major bowl games known as the New Year's Six (NY6)—the Rose, Sugar, Cotton, Orange, Peach, and Fiesta Bowls—rotate on a three-year cycle as semi-final games, with the winners advancing to the College Football Playoff National Championship. This arrangement was contractually locked in until the 2026 season, but an agreement was reached on CFP expansion to 12 teams effective with the 2024 season. In the new CFP format, no conferences will receive automatic bids. Playoff berths will be awarded to the top six conference champions in the CFP rankings, plus the top six remaining teams (which may include other conference champions). The top four conference champions receive first-round byes. All first-round games will be played at the home field of the higher seed. The winners of these games advance to meet the top four seeds in the quarterfinals. The NY6 games will host the quarterfinals and semi-finals, rotating so that each bowl game will host two quarterfinals and one semi-final in a three-year cycle. The CFP National Championship will continue to be held at a site determined by open bidding several years in advance. ==Controversy== College football is a controversial institution within American higher education, where the amount of money involved—what people will pay for the entertainment provided—is a corrupting factor within universities that they are usually ill-equipped to deal with. According to William E. Kirwan, chancellor of the University of Maryland System and co-director of the Knight Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, "We've reached a point where big-time intercollegiate athletics is undermining the integrity of our institutions, diverting presidents and institutions from their main purpose." Football coaches often make more than the presidents of the universities which employ them. Athletes are alleged to receive preferential treatment both in academics and when they run afoul of the law. Although in theory football is an extra-curricular activity engaged in as a sideline by students, it is widely believed to turn a substantial profit, from which the athletes receive no direct benefit. There has been serious discussion about making student-athletes university employees to allow them to be paid. In reality, the majority of major collegiate football programs operated at a financial loss in 2014. There had been discussions on changing rules that prohibited compensation for the use of a player's name, image, and likeness (NIL), but change did not start to come until the mid-2010s. This reform first took place in the NAIA, which initially allowed all student-athletes at its member schools to receive NIL compensation in 2014, and beginning in 2020 specifically allowed these individuals to reference their athletic participation in their endorsement deals. The NCAA passed its own NIL reform, very similar to the NAIA's most recent reform, in July 2021, after its hand was forced by multiple states that had passed legislation allowing NIL compensation, most notably California. On June 3 of 2021, "The NCAA's board of directors adopted a temporary rule change that opened the door for NIL activity, instructing schools to set their own policy for what should be allowed with minimal guidelines" (Murphy 2021). On July 1 of 2021, the new rules set in and student athletes could start signing endorsements using their name, image and likeness. "The NCAA has asked Congress for help in creating a federal NIL law. While several federal options have been proposed, it's becoming increasingly likely that state laws will start to go into effect before a nationwide change is made. There are 28 states with NIL laws already in place and multiple others that are actively pursuing legislation" (Murphy 2021). Charlie Baker called for a ban on all college football betting (and betting on college sports in general) because of prop bets for student athletes. With past scandals and threats to college athletes, Baker requested states with sports betting to adjust their regulations to remove these bet types. While some were quick to do so (including Louisiana, Colorado, Ohio), others rejected the notion and continued to offer sports betting the same way. ==College football outside the United States== Canadian football, which parallels American football, is played by university teams in Canada under the auspices of U Sports. (Unlike in the United States, no junior colleges play football in Canada, and the sanctioning body for junior college athletics in Canada, CCAA, does not sanction the sport.) However, amateur football outside of colleges is played in Canada, such as in the Canadian Junior Football League. Organized competition in American football also exists at the collegiate level in Mexico (ONEFA), the UK (British Universities American Football League), Japan (Japan American Football Association, Koshien Bowl), and South Korea (Korea American Football Association). ==Injuries== According to 2017 study on brains of deceased gridiron football players, 99% of tested brains of NFL players, 88% of CFL players, 64% of semi-professional players, 91% of college football players, and 21% of high school football players had various stages of CTE. The study noted it has limitations due to "selection bias" in that the brains donated are from families who suspected CTE, but "The fact that we were able to gather so many instances of a disease that was previously considered quite rare, in eight years, speaks volumes." ==Awards== ===Division I FBS=== Heisman Trophy Maxwell Award Walter Camp Award Outland Trophy Associated Press Player of the Year Johnny Rodgers Award Fred Biletnikoff Award Lou Groza Award Lombardi Award Bronko Nagurski Trophy Dick Butkus Award Jim Thorpe Award Doak Walker Award Campbell Trophy Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award Home Depot Award Ray Guy Award John Mackey Award Burlsworth Trophy Jet Award Paul Hornung Award Jon Cornish Trophy Patrick Mannelly Award ===Division I FCS=== Walter Payton Award Buck Buchanan Award Jerry Rice Award	[ "Frisco, Texas", "Navy Midshipmen football", "marching band", "Southwest Athletic Conference", "William Mulock", "List of NCAA college football rivalry games", "Rutgers Scarlet Knights football", "Canadian Football League", "Athletic Park (Nashville)", "Parke H. Davis", "Rugby School", "Johnny Rodgers Award", "Seven Blocks of Granite", "Midwestern United States", "Military of the United States", "Forbes Field", "Cotton Bowl Classic", "Vermont Catamounts football", "Supreme Court of the United States", "NCAA Division I FCS Consensus Mid-Major Football National Championship", "Baker Wildcats football", "Big Eight Conference", "Paul Hornung", "2010 Fiesta Bowl", "Jay Berwanger", "Wallace William Wade", "1917 Auburn Tigers football team", "Stanford Field", "1918 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team", "Sammy Baugh", "Philadelphia", "Chaffey College", "1912 Summer Olympics", "Jon Cornish Trophy", "NFL draft", "John A. Harts", "National Club Football Association", "Tom Davies (American football)", "Haverford College", "Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football", "single wing", "Old Main (Pennsylvania State University)", "1917 Ohio State Buckeyes football team", "Pac-10", "1881 Michigan Wolverines football team", "Harvard University", "Bowl Coalition", "Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association", "2014 Ohio State Buckeyes football team", "Eddie Cochems", "Bo McMillin", "1925 Alabama Crimson Tide football team", "Virginia", "Sherman Antitrust Act", "Thanksgiving (United States)", "NCAA Division I", "Columbia University", "Intramural sports", "Reynolds Tichenor", "Dartmouth Big Green football", "reverse (American football)", "Vanderbilt Commodores football", "Mansfield University of Pennsylvania", "two-point conversion", "University of Kentucky", "bowl eligible", "KDKA (AM)", "Vanderbilt University", "1997 Michigan Wolverines football team", "USC Trojans football", "University of Georgia", "NCAA Division I football win–loss records", "Automatic bids to non-BCS bowls", "minor league", "Student athlete", "Walter Payton Award", "Newspapers.com", "West Virginia Mountaineers football", "Georgia State Panthers football", "Bud Wilkinson", "Oregon State University", "sports in North America", "Pop Warner Little Scholars", "Army–Navy Game", "Earl Blaik", "UCLA Bruins football", "Bristol Motor Speedway", "NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma", "U Sports football", "FAU Stadium", "Harvard College", "Michigan Wolverines football", "Scott Stadium", "jump shift", "1931 Rose Bowl", "Try (American football)", "Associated Press", "Super Bowl XXXIII", "Fielding Yost", "Charlie Baker", "2012 Northern Illinois Huskies football team", "Gus Dorais", "College Football Playoff", "Safety (American football score)", "Big Ten Conference football champions", "College athletics", "Group of Five conferences", "Jet Award", "Florida Atlantic Owls football", "Grant Field", "Conference USA", "Rugby Football Union", "Danville, Kentucky", "1917 Pittsburgh Panthers football team", "Brown Bears football", "Lou Groza Award", "Carlisle Indians football", "1927 Georgia vs. Yale football game", "Colorado Buffaloes football", "1931 Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 crash", "three-point stance", "Proposition bet", "Hamilton Park (New Haven)", "Franklin & Marshall College", "University of Denver", "College basketball", "Olympic Club", "1901 Michigan Wolverines football team", "Field goal (football)", "athletic scholarship", "Virginia Tech Hokies football", "Division I FCS", "The New York Times", "College baseball", "Champaign, Illinois", "Bowl Championship Series", "1924 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team", "1895 Stanford football team", "Atlantic Coast Conference", "John Heisman", "Ed Smith (running back)", "Atlanta", "2009 TCU Horned Frogs football team", "Pop Warner", "Fair Pay to Play Act", "Racine College", "Henry H. Goddard", "Mississippi State University", "Home Depot Award", "Stanford University", "Tennessee Volunteers football", "Oklahoma Sooners football", "1892 Wyoming Seminary vs. Mansfield State Normal football game", "1905 Fairmount vs. Washburn football game", "College Football Hall of Fame", "1917 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team", "1895 Auburn Tigers football team", "1899 LSU Tigers football team", "Fuzzy Woodruff", "Georgia Institute of Technology", "NCAA Football Championship Subdivision", "Princeton University", "Big Game (American football)", "NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision", "Transylvania University", "All-America", "Auburn Tigers football", "Korea American Football Association", "University of Chicago", "Mid-American Conference", "Los Angeles Times", "University of California, Berkeley", "fair catch kick", "Dudley Field", "Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association", "Dan McGugin", "Santa Clara Broncos", "California Community College Athletic Association", "Northwestern University", "Centre Colonels football", "ABC Sports", "mythical national championship", "Mythical National Championship", "Walter Camp Football Foundation", "UConn Huskies football", "touchdown", "Chronic traumatic encephalopathy", "center (American football)", "Mercer Bears football", "North Carolina", "Paul Hornung Award", "Louisville Cardinals football", "play-the-ball", "University of Nevada, Reno", "Cornell Big Red football", "Referee (American football)", "1894 Stanford football team", "Southeastern Conference", "William Alexander (coach)", "Orange Bowl (game)", "Lexington, Virginia", "rugby football", "John Mackey Award", "McGill University", "British Universities American Football League", "line of scrimmage", "1918 Pittsburgh Panthers football team", "California Golden Bears football", "Woody Hayes", "Trinity College (University of Toronto)", "University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill", "Kansas", "Rutgers University", "American football", "forward pass", "AP Poll", "American football in Japan", "Stein Stone", "Texas A&M Aggies football", "Georgetown Hoyas football", "University of Toronto", "ONEFA", "Japan American Football Association", "quarterback sack", "University of Oregon", "bowl game", "Honus Craig", "1921 Centre vs. Harvard football game", "Chic Harley", "ESPN", "Bum Day", "University of Notre Dame", "2013 Orange Bowl", "NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision", "1907 Vanderbilt Commodores football team", "Orange Bowl", "Innis Brown", "Red Grange", "Richard Von Albade Gammon", "Davidson Wildcats football", "1958 NFL Championship Game", "Harvard Stadium", "Fordham Rams football", "Duffy Daugherty", "NCAA Division II football championship", "Organización Nacional Estudiantil de Fútbol Americano", "Walter Camp", "Baldwin City, Kansas", "Pioneer Football League", "Wallace Wade", "Four Horsemen (American football)", "Furman Paladins football", "Outland Trophy", "TCU Horned Frogs football", "Minnesota", "Bronko Nagurski", "1899 Texas A&M Aggies football team", "Triple threat man", "Washington Huskies football", "1927 Georgia Bulldogs football team", "National Christian College Athletic Association", "Yale Bulldogs football", "Northeastern United States", "Harvard Crimson football", "William Lofland Dudley", "Wake Forest Demon Deacons football", "Conversion (gridiron football)", "Montreal Football Club", "Columbia Lions football", "1891 Stanford football team", "1903 Clemson Tigers football team", "1998 Orange Bowl", "1902 Michigan Wolverines football team", "List of nicknamed college football games and plays", "National Football League", "Pro Football Hall of Fame", "Annapolis", "State College, Pennsylvania", "List of Collegiate Sprint Football League champions", "Rhodes College", "ball (association football)", "Tufts University", "Darrell Royal", "NJCAA National Football Championship", "Rugby league", "Pennsylvania", "Albany College", "The Football Association", "University of Utah", "Dickinson College", "LSU Tigers football", "NCAA Division III Football Championship", "Pepper Rodgers", "Bronko Nagurski Trophy", "Big East Conference (1979–2013)", "New Haven, Connecticut", "Downtown Athletic Club", "United States Collegiate Athletic Association", "Club football", "Knight Commission", "Penn Quakers football", "List of sports attendance figures", "Google books", "The Daily Targum", "Wofford Terriers football", "Glenn Warner", "list of college bowl games", "1902 Rose Bowl", "Rose Bowl (stadium)", "1997 Nebraska Cornhuskers football team", "Wyoming Seminary", "Buck Buchanan Award", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Down (gridiron football)", "Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award", "NCAA Division II", "Deep South", "Roy Riegels", "2009 Boise State Broncos football team", "VMI Keydets football", "end (American football)", "2004 Utah Utes football team", "South's Oldest Rivalry", "High school football", "two-minute warning", "University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign", "University of Tennessee", "University of Southern California", "1899 Sewanee Tigers football team", "1929 Rose Bowl", "East Coast of the United States", "Sun Bowl", "Sun Belt Conference", "College lacrosse", "Frank Eliscu", "Bear Bryant", "Occidental College", "Glenn Davis (halfback)", "Doak Walker Award", "Aubrey Lanier", "Football Bowl Subdivision", "Bucknell University", "Cumberland University", "Jeweled Shillelagh", "Lombardi Award", "Duke Blue Devils football", "conversion (gridiron football)", "Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference", "National Junior College Athletic Association", "Knute Rockne", "University of Alabama", "Georgia Tech", "sprint football", "Dartmouth College", "Southern United States", "Lawrence, Kansas", "Pac-12 Conference", "Berkeley, California", "Heisman Trophy", "Canadian football", "South Carolina", "1869 college football season", "College athletics in the United States", "Sports injury", "1956 Sugar Bowl", "Pennsylvania Intercollegiate Football Association", "Walter Camp Award", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "2021–2026 NCAA conference realignment", "Georgia Bulldogs football", "1911 Kansas vs. Missouri football game", "Missouri Tigers football", "1873 VMI Keydets football team", "George Stephens (American football)", "Formation (American football)", "Army Black Knights football", "Colorado State University", "Mississippi River", "Emory Bellard", "Chicago Maroons football", "Notre Dame Fighting Irish football", "Center Parc Stadium", "flying wedge", "Homosexuality in American football", "rugby union", "Pasadena, California", "Raleigh, North Carolina", "NCAA Division II Football Championship", "Victory Bell (Duke–North Carolina)", "Southwest Conference", "United Football League (2024)", "Alabama Crimson Tide football", "Allegheny Mountains", "College Football Playoff National Championship", "California Golden Bears", "Fielding H. Yost", "Waukesha, Wisconsin", "Tennessee", "Battle at Bristol", "Peach Bowl", "Texas Longhorns football", "Yale", "Stevens Institute of Technology", "North Carolina Tar Heels football", "Robert Neyland", "Grantland Rice", "Rose Bowl (game)", "Jim Thorpe", "USC Trojans", "1916 Cumberland vs. Georgia Tech football game", "Lafayette College", "California Institute of Technology", "American football in the United States", "Professional gridiron football", "Utah", "Big Game (football)", "Mercer University", "USA Today", "Koshien Bowl", "Montgomery, Alabama", "Princeton Tigers football", "Fred Biletnikoff Award", "Sewanee Tigers football", "Harvard–Yale football rivalry", "Chuck Fairbanks", "Percy Given", "Ole Miss Rebels football", "Hamline University", "Jerry Rice Award", "Montreal", "Stanford Cardinal football", "1926 Rose Bowl", "Everett Strupper", "Barnstorm (athletics)", "Maxwell Award", "1927 Rose Bowl", "College ice hockey", "Penn State Nittany Lions football", "College Football Data Warehouse", "Big Ten Conference", "Touchdown", "History of the football helmet", "Herty Field", "Auburn University", "Washington and Lee Generals football", "Public school (United Kingdom)", "United States Military Academy", "1903 Cumberland Bulldogs football team", "Blake Van Leer", "Colorado School of Mines", "Pittsburgh Panthers football", "Sugar Bowl", "high school football", "Notre Dame Box", "Vince Lombardi", "Marvin Griffin", "1904 Vanderbilt Commodores football team", "Deep South's Oldest Rivalry", "UMass Minutemen football", "Lehigh University", "College rugby", "wishbone formation", "Fiesta Bowl", "Carroll University", "British Columbia Rugby Union", "William V. Campbell Trophy", "1922 Michigan vs. Vanderbilt football game", "Amos Alonzo Stagg", "NCAA Division III football championship", "National Collegiate Athletic Association", "Power Five conferences", "spread offense", "1905 Stanford football team", "1884 Yale Bulldogs football team", "Cal Young", "Virginia Cavaliers football", "Mountain States Conference", "New Year's Six", "Tulane University", "Helmet stickers", "Dynasty (sports)", "New Britain, Connecticut", "NCAA Division I Football Championship", "Dick Butkus Award", "Track and field athletics", "Clemson University", "University of Colorado Boulder", "gridiron football", "Germany Schulz", "linebacker", "Ray Guy Award", "Joseph M. Reeves", "William J. Leggett", "Charles A. Baird", "1895 Vanderbilt Commodores football team", "Rose Bowl Game", "Burlington, Vermont", "White House", "Wichita, Kansas", "Massasoit House", "U Sports", "Big Ten", "Haight Street Grounds", "Sanford Stadium", "Kansas Jayhawks football", "John H. Outland", "University System of Maryland", "BCS National Championship Game", "Charles William Eliot", "Try (rugby)", "1899 Tulane Green Wave football team", "Farm team", "laws of the Game (association football)", "College soccer in the United States", "Carlisle Indian Industrial School", "Loyola Marymount Lions", "option offense", "Herbert Hoover", "1921 Centre Praying Colonels football team", "Associated Press College Football Player of the Year", "Free agent", "University of Mississippi", "University of Nashville", "Jim Thorpe Award", "Canadian Junior Football League", "CFL", "Temple Owls football", "Mountain West Conference", "Trick play", "Medieval football", "SCIAC", "Western Athletic Conference", "Palo Alto, California", "1998 Rose Bowl", "University of Texas at Austin", "Illinois Fighting Illini football", "List of american football games in Europe during World War II", "L&N Federal Credit Union Stadium", "University of Virginia", "Hawaii Rainbow Warriors football", "Extra point", "Pomona College", "West Coast of the United States", "Snap (football)", "Sewanee: The University of the South", "Saint Louis University", "Backyard Brawl", "Walker Carpenter", "Pacific Coast Conference", "huddle", "Concussions in American football", "Swarthmore College", "Name, image and likeness", "Mansfield, Pennsylvania", "New Brunswick, New Jersey", "Power conferences", "Lawrence Journal-World", "Biggie Munn", "Minnesota Golden Gophers football", "Old division football", "Maine", "1892 Georgia Bulldogs football team", "Nevada", "National Football League draft", "Springfield, Massachusetts", "homecoming", "College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS", "Santa Clara University", "NYU Violets", "Ohio State Buckeyes football", "Saint Mary's College of California", "1869 New Jersey vs. Rutgers football game", "National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics", "Elite 90 Award", "Oklahoma Territory", "Frank Juhan", "Bowl Alliance", "American South", "Stoll Field/McLean Stadium", "1974 NFL season", "Bates College", "NCAA Division III", "Colorado College", "Los Angeles High School", "Patrick Mannelly Award", "quarterback", "Bob Blake (American football)", "Mike Donahue", "NAIA Football National Championship", "University College, University of Toronto", "Iowa State Cyclones football", "Burlsworth Trophy", "Doc Blanchard", "Two-point conversion", "NFL", "Bradbury Robinson", "Michigan State Spartans football", "Official (American football)", "Don Hutson", "Overtime (sports)", "Lewiston, Maine" ]
6,773	Ciprofloxacin	{{Infobox drug \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 443526033 \| image = Ciprofloxacin.svg \| image_class = skin-invert-image \| width = 200 \| alt = ciprofloxacin molecule \| caption = structure \| image2 = Ciprofloxacin-zwitterion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png \| width2 = \| alt2 = ciprofloxacin zwitterion molecule \| caption2 = 3D model of ciprofloxacin zwitterion \| pronounce = \| tradename = Ciloxan, Cipro, Neofloxin, others \| Drugs.com = \| MedlinePlus = a688016 \| DailyMedID = Ciprofloxacin \| pregnancy_AU = B3 \| pregnancy_AU_comment = \| pregnancy_category = \| routes_of_administration = By mouth, intravenous, topical (ear drops, eye drops) \| class = Fluoroquinolone \| ATCvet = \| ATC_prefix = J01 \| ATC_suffix = MA02 \| ATC_supplemental = \| legal_AU = S4 \| legal_AU_comment = \| legal_BR = \| legal_BR_comment = \| legal_CA = Rx-only \| legal_CA_comment = \| legal_DE = \| legal_DE_comment = \| legal_NZ = \| legal_NZ_comment = \| legal_UK = POM \| legal_UK_comment = \| legal_US = Rx-only \| legal_US_comment = \| legal_EU = \| legal_EU_comment = \| legal_UN = \| legal_UN_comment = \| legal_status = \| bioavailability = 70% \| protein_bound = 30% This includes bone and joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, certain types of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, typhoid fever, and urinary tract infections, among others. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Studies in other animals raise concerns regarding use in pregnancy. It appears to be safe during breastfeeding. Ciprofloxacin was patented in 1980 and introduced by Bayer in 1987. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies ciprofloxacin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication. In 2022, it was the 181st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions. ==Medical uses== Ciprofloxacin is used to treat a wide variety of infections, including infections of bones and joints, endocarditis, bacterial gastroenteritis, malignant otitis externa, bubonic plague, respiratory tract infections, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, prostatitis, anthrax, and chancroid. It also features prominently in treatment guidelines for acute pyelonephritis, complicated or hospital-acquired urinary tract infection, acute or chronic prostatitis, certain types of endocarditis, certain skin infections, and prosthetic joint infections. In other cases, treatment guidelines are more restrictive, recommending in most cases that older, narrower-spectrum drugs be used as first-line therapy for less severe infections to minimize fluoroquinolone-resistance development. For example, the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends the use of ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones in urinary tract infections be reserved to cases of proven or expected resistance to narrower-spectrum drugs such as nitrofurantoin or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. The European Association of Urology recommends ciprofloxacin as an alternative regimen for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections, but cautions that the potential for "adverse events have to be considered". "Respiratory quinolones" such as levofloxacin, having greater activity against this pathogen, are recommended as first line agents for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with important co-morbidities and in patients requiring hospitalization (Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007). Similarly, ciprofloxacin is not recommended as a first-line treatment for acute sinusitis. Ciprofloxacin is approved for the treatment of gonorrhea in many countries, but this recommendation is widely regarded as obsolete due to resistance development. ===Pregnancy=== An expert review of published data on experiences with ciprofloxacin use during pregnancy concluded therapeutic doses during pregnancy are unlikely to pose a substantial teratogenic risk (quantity and quality of data=fair), but the data is insufficient to state that no risks exist. Exposure to quinolones, including levofloxacin, during the first-trimester is not associated with an increased risk of stillbirths, premature births, birth defects, or low birth weight. Two small post-marketing epidemiology studies of mostly short-term, first-trimester exposure found that fluoroquinolones did not increase risk of major malformations, spontaneous abortions, premature birth, or low birth weight. ===Breastfeeding=== Fluoroquinolones have been reported as present in a mother's milk and thus passed on to the nursing child. ===Children=== Oral and intravenous ciprofloxacin are approved by the FDA for use in children for only two indications due to the risk of permanent injury to the musculoskeletal system: Inhalational anthrax (postexposure) Complicated urinary tract infections and pyelonephritis due to Escherichia coli, but never as first-line agents. ===Spectrum of activity=== Its spectrum of activity includes most strains of bacterial pathogens responsible for community-acquired pneumonias, bronchitis, urinary tract infections, and gastroenteritis. Ciprofloxacin is particularly effective against Gram-negative bacteria (such as Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Moraxella catarrhalis, Proteus mirabilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa), but is less effective against Gram-positive bacteria (such as methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Enterococcus faecalis) than newer fluoroquinolones. ===Bacterial resistance=== As a result of its widespread use to treat minor infections readily treatable with older, narrower-spectrum antibiotics, many bacteria have developed resistance to this drug, leaving it significantly less effective than it would have been otherwise. Resistance to ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones may evolve rapidly, even during a course of treatment. Numerous pathogens, including enterococci, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Klebsiella pneumoniae (quinolone-resistant) now exhibit resistance. Widespread veterinary usage of fluoroquinolones, particularly in Europe, has been implicated. Meanwhile, some Burkholderia cepacia, Clostridium innocuum, and Enterococcus faecium strains have developed resistance to ciprofloxacin to varying degrees. Fluoroquinolones had become the class of antibiotics most commonly prescribed to adults in 2002. Nearly half (42%) of those prescriptions in the US were for conditions not approved by the FDA, such as acute bronchitis, otitis media, and acute upper respiratory tract infection. Ciprofloxacin is also considered to be contraindicated in children (except for the indications outlined above), in pregnancy, to nursing mothers, and in people with epilepsy or other seizure disorders. Caution may be required in people with Marfan syndrome or Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. ==Adverse effects== Adverse effects can involve the tendons, muscles, joints, nerves, and the central nervous system. Rates of adverse effects appear to be higher than with some groups of antibiotics such as cephalosporins but lower than with others such as clindamycin. while others find no difference. In clinical trials most of the adverse events were described as mild or moderate in severity, abated soon after the drug was discontinued, and required no treatment. ===Tendon problems=== Ciprofloxacin includes a boxed warning in the United States due to an increased risk of tendinitis and tendon rupture, especially in people who are older than 60 years, people who also use corticosteroids, and people with kidney, lung, or heart transplants. Tendon rupture can occur during therapy or even months after discontinuation of the medication. One study found that fluoroquinolone use was associated with a 1.9-fold increase in tendon problems. The risk increased to 3.2 in those over 60 years of age and to 6.2 in those over the age of 60 who were also taking corticosteroids. Among the 46,766 quinolone users in the study, 38 (0.08%) cases of Achilles tendon rupture were identified. ===Cardiac arrhythmia=== The fluoroquinolones, including ciprofloxacin, are associated with an increased risk of cardiac toxicity, including QT interval prolongation, torsades de pointes, ventricular arrhythmia, and sudden death. The 2013 FDA label warns of nervous system effects. Ciprofloxacin, like other fluoroquinolones, is known to trigger seizures or lower the seizure threshold, and may cause other central nervous system adverse effects. Headache, dizziness, and insomnia have been reported as occurring fairly commonly in postapproval review articles, along with a much lower incidence of serious CNS adverse effects such as tremors, psychosis, anxiety, hallucinations, paranoia, and suicide attempts, especially at higher doses. Fluoroquinolones have already been reported for movement disorders. A wide range of rare but potentially fatal adverse effects reported to the US FDA or the subject of case reports includes aortic dissection, toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, low blood pressure, allergic pneumonitis, bone marrow suppression, hepatitis or liver failure, and sensitivity to light. The medication should be discontinued if a rash, jaundice, or other sign of hypersensitivity occurs. ==Overdose== Overdose of ciprofloxacin may result in reversible renal toxicity. Treatment of overdose includes emptying of the stomach by induced vomiting or gastric lavage, as well as administration of antacids containing magnesium, aluminium, or calcium to reduce drug absorption. Renal function and urinary pH should be monitored. Important support includes adequate hydration and urine acidification if necessary to prevent crystalluria. Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis can only remove less than 10% of ciprofloxacin. Ciprofloxacin may be quantified in plasma or serum to monitor for drug accumulation in patients with hepatic dysfunction or to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in acute overdose victims. == Interactions == Ciprofloxacin interacts with certain foods and several other drugs leading to undesirable increases or decreases in the serum levels or distribution of one or both drugs. Ciprofloxacin should not be taken with antacids containing magnesium or aluminum, highly buffered drugs (sevelamer, lanthanum carbonate, sucralfate, didanosine), or with supplements containing calcium, iron, or zinc. It should be taken two hours before or six hours after these products. Magnesium or aluminum antacids turn ciprofloxacin into insoluble salts that are not readily absorbed by the intestinal tract, reducing peak serum concentrations by 90% or more, leading to therapeutic failure. Additionally, it should not be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices alone, as peak serum concentration and the area under the serum concentration-time curve can be reduced up to 40%. However, ciprofloxacin may be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices as part of a meal. Ciprofloxacin inhibits the drug-metabolizing enzyme CYP1A2 and thereby can reduce the clearance of drugs metabolized by that enzyme. CYP1A2 substrates that exhibit increased serum levels in ciprofloxacin-treated patients include tizanidine, theophylline, caffeine, methylxanthines, clozapine, olanzapine, and ropinirole. Co-administration of ciprofloxacin with the CYP1A2 substrate tizanidine (Zanaflex) is contraindicated due to a 583% increase in the peak serum concentrations of tizanidine when administered with ciprofloxacin as compared to administration of tizanidine alone. Use of ciprofloxacin is cautioned in patients on theophylline due to its narrow therapeutic index. The authors of one review recommended that patients being treated with ciprofloxacin reduce their caffeine intake. Evidence for significant interactions with several other CYP1A2 substrates such as cyclosporine is equivocal or conflicting. The Committee on Safety of Medicines and the FDA warn that central nervous system adverse effects, including seizure risk, may be increased when NSAIDs are combined with quinolones. The mechanism for this interaction may involve a synergistic increased antagonism of GABA neurotransmission. Altered serum levels of the antiepileptic drugs phenytoin and carbamazepine (increased and decreased) have been reported in patients receiving concomitant ciprofloxacin. Ciprofloxacin is a potent inhibitor of CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4. ==Mechanism of action== Ciprofloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic of the fluoroquinolone class. It is active against some Gram-positive and many Gram-negative bacteria. It functions by inhibiting a type II topoisomerase (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, necessary to separate bacterial DNA, thereby inhibiting cell division. Bacterial DNA fragmentation will occur as a result of inhibition of the enzymes. ==Pharmacokinetics== Ciprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, extended-release tablets, an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous administration. When administered over one hour as an intravenous infusion, allow once-daily administration by releasing the drug more slowly in the gastrointestinal tract. These tablets contain 35% of the administered dose in an immediate-release form and 65% in a slow-release matrix. Maximum serum concentrations are achieved between 1 and 4 hours after administration. Compared to the 250- and 500-mg immediate-release tablets, the 500-mg and 1000-mg XR tablets provide higher Cmax, but the 24‑hour AUCs are equivalent. Ciprofloxacin immediate-release tablets contain ciprofloxacin as the hydrochloride salt, and the XR tablets contain a mixture of the hydrochloride salt and the free base. In 2010, over 20 million prescriptions were written, making it the 35th-most-commonly prescribed generic drug and the 5th-most-commonly prescribed antibacterial in the US. ==History== The first members of the quinolone antibacterial class were relatively low-potency drugs such as nalidixic acid, used mainly in the treatment of urinary tract infections owing to their renal excretion and propensity to be concentrated in urine. In 1979, the publication of a patent filed by the pharmaceutical arm of Kyorin Seiyaku Kabushiki Kaisha disclosed the discovery of norfloxacin, and the demonstration that certain structural modifications including the attachment of a fluorine atom to the quinolone ring leads to dramatically enhanced antibacterial potency. In the aftermath of this disclosure, several other pharmaceutical companies initiated research and development programs with the goal of discovering additional antibacterial agents of the fluoroquinolone class. The fluoroquinolone program at Bayer focused on examining the effects of very minor changes to the norfloxacin structure. In 1983, the company published in vitro potency data for ciprofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibacterial having a chemical structure differing from that of norfloxacin by the presence of a single carbon atom. This small change led to a two- to 10-fold increase in potency against most strains of Gram-negative bacteria. Importantly, this structural change led to a four-fold improvement in activity against the important Gram-negative pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, making ciprofloxacin one of the most potent known drugs for the treatment of this intrinsically antibiotic-resistant pathogen. The oral tablet form of ciprofloxacin was approved in October 1987, just one year after the approval of norfloxacin. In 1991, the intravenous formulation was introduced. Ciprofloxacin sales reached a peak of about 2 billion euros in 2001, before Bayer's patent expired in 2004, after which annual sales have averaged around €200 million. The name probably originates from the International Scientific Nomenclature: ci- (alteration of cycl-) + propyl + fluor- + ox- + az- + -mycin. ==Society and culture== ===Economics=== It is available as a generic medication and not very expensive. in effect upholding Bayer's agreement with its competitors. ===Available forms=== Ciprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, as extended-release tablets, as an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous infusion. It is available for local administration as eye drops and ear drops. It is available in combination with dexamethasone, with celecoxib, with hydrocortisone, and with fluocinolone acetonide. ===Litigation=== A class action was filed against Bayer AG on behalf of employees of the Brentwood Post Office in Washington, D.C., and workers at the U.S. Capitol, along with employees of American Media, Inc. in Florida and postal workers in general who alleged they developed serious adverse effects from taking ciprofloxacin in the aftermath of the anthrax attacks in 2001. The action alleged Bayer failed to warn class members of the potential side effects of the drug, thereby violating the Pennsylvania Unfair Trade Practices and Consumer Protection Laws. The class action was defeated and the litigation abandoned by the plaintiffs. A similar action was filed in 2003 in New Jersey by four New Jersey postal workers but was withdrawn for lack of grounds, as workers had been informed of the risks of ciprofloxacin when they were given the option of taking the drug. ==Research== As resistance to ciprofloxacin has grown since its introduction, research has been conducted to discover and develop analogs that can be effective against resistant bacteria; some have been looked at in antiviral models as well.	[ "bronchitis", "carbamazepine", "Marfan syndrome", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "DNA gyrase", "pathogen", "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines", "Canadian Medical Association Journal", "Generic drugs", "Food and Drug Administration", "olanzapine", "2001 anthrax attacks", "Ehlers–Danlos syndrome", "zwitterion", "metronidazole", "breastfeeding", "Marion Merrell Dow", "eye drop", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", "Kidney", "bacterial infections", "Bactericidal", "phenytoin", "anthrax", "European Association of Urology", "cellulitis", "myoclonus", "Broad-spectrum antibiotic", "blood–brain barrier", "CYP2D6", "pregnancy", "Gram-positive", "tendinitis", "clozapine", "Hemodialysis", "community-acquired pneumonia", "peritoneal dialysis", "ropinirole", "Moraxella catarrhalis", "ear drop", "Ciprofloxacin/dexamethasone", "Enterococcus faecium", "topoisomerase", "typhoid fever", "clindamycin", "methylxanthines", "Gram-positive bacteria", "acute sinusitis", "pyelonephritis", "seizure", "gastric lavage", "Liver", "CYP1A2", "gonorrhea", "cyclosporine", "QT interval", "prostatitis", "enterococci", "quinolone", "endocarditis", "Clostridium innocuum", "antibiotic", "epilepsy", "tizanidine", "Haemophilus influenzae", "Proteus mirabilis", "myasthenia gravis", "Gram-negative", "Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences", "sucralfate", "Gastroenteritis", "norfloxacin", "common cold", "generic medication", "aortic dissection", "gastroenteritis", "torsades de pointes", "billion", "Bayer", "intravenous therapy", "tendon rupture", "broad-spectrum antibiotic", "The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery", "CYP3A4", "Streptococcus pyogenes", "Ciprofloxacin/celecoxib", "hallucinations", "bubonic plague", "Actavis", "caffeine", "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "fluoroquinolone", "United States Pharmacopeia", "Infectious Diseases Society of America", "NSAID", "Barr Pharmaceuticals", "By mouth", "toxic epidermal necrolysis", "lanthanum carbonate", "osteomylitis", "Escherichia coli", "boxed warning", "Burkholderia cepacia", "levofloxacin", "Enterococcus faecalis", "Staphylococcus aureus", "sevelamer", "Antibiotic resistance", "nitrofurantoin", "respiratory tract infections", "nalidixic acid", "Stevens–Johnson syndrome", "Fluoroquinolone", "joint infection", "didanosine", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "chancroid", "Center for Veterinary Medicine", "cephalosporin", "urinary tract infections", "respiratory tract infection", "Legionella pneumophila", "topical", "central nervous system", "urinary tract infection", "Ciprofloxacin/hydrocortisone", "malignant otitis externa", "Clostridioides difficile (bacteria)", "theophylline", "sudden cardiac death", "Ciprofloxacin/fluocinolone acetonide", "Quinolone antibiotic", "John Wiley & Sons", "Gram-negative bacteria", "Committee on Safety of Medicines", "Synergy", "trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole" ]
6,774	Consubstantiation	Consubstantiation is a Christian theological doctrine that (like transubstantiation) describes the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. It holds that during the sacrament, the substance of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present. It was part of the doctrines of Lollardy, It was later championed by Edward Pusey of the Oxford Movement, and is therefore held by many high church Anglicans, ==Development== In England in the late 14th century, there was a political and religious movement known as Lollardy. Among much broader goals, the Lollards affirmed a form of consubstantiation—that the Eucharist remained physically bread and wine, while becoming spiritually the body and blood of Christ. Lollardy survived up until the time of the English Reformation. Whilst ultimately rejected by him on account of the authority of the Church of Rome, William of Ockham entertains a version of consubstantiation in his Fourth Quodlibet, Question 30, where he claims that "the substance of the bread and the substance of the wine remain there and that the substance of the body of Christ remains in the same place, together with the substance of the bread". Literary critic Kenneth Burke's dramatism takes this concept and utilizes it in secular rhetorical theory to look at the dialectic of unity and difference within the context of logology. The doctrine of consubstantiation is often held in contrast to the doctrine of transubstantiation. To explain the manner of Christ's presence in Holy Communion, many high church Anglicans teach the philosophical explanation of consubstantiation. A major leader in the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Edward Pusey, championed the view of consubstantiation. Pusey's view is that:}} The Irvingian Churches adhere to the doctrine of consubstantiation; for example, The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church states: Lutheran theologians reject the term because it refers to a philosophical construct that they believe differs from the Lutheran doctrine of the sacramental union, denotes a mixing of substances (bread and wine with body and blood), and suggests a "gross, Capernaitic, carnal" presence of the body and blood of Christ.	[ "dialectic", "Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist", "real presence of Christ in the Eucharist", "high church", "Anglo-Catholic", "English Reformation", "logology (theology)", "Anglican", "Kenneth Burke", "Martin Luther", "Impanation", "sacrament", "William of Ockham", "sacramental union", "Christ", "Edward Pusey", "Substance theory", "dramatism", "transubstantiation", "Catholic Apostolic Church", "heresy", "Christian theology", "John 6", "Eucharistic theology", "New Apostolic Church", "Transignification", "Lollardy", "Black Rubric", "Oxford Movement", "England", "Roman Catholic Church", "Book of Common Prayer" ]
6,775	Chlorophyta	Chlorophyta () is a division of green algae informally called chlorophytes. == Description == Chlorophytes are eukaryotic organisms composed of cells with a variety of coverings or walls, and usually a single green chloroplast in each cell. They are structurally diverse: most groups of chlorophytes are unicellular, such as the earliest-diverging prasinophytes, but in two major classes (Chlorophyceae and Ulvophyceae) there is an evolutionary trend toward various types of complex colonies and even multicellularity. === Chloroplasts === Chlorophyte cells contain green chloroplasts surrounded by a double-membrane envelope. These contain chlorophylls a and b, and the carotenoids carotin, lutein, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin, which are also present in the leaves of land plants. Some special carotenoids are present in certain groups, or are synthesized under specific environmental factors, such as siphonaxanthin, prasinoxanthin, echinenon, canthaxanthin, loroxanthin, and astaxanthin. They accumulate carotenoids under nitrogen deficiency, high irradiance of sunlight, or high salinity. In addition, they store starch inside the chloroplast as carbohydrate reserves. The thylakoids can appear single or in stacks. In contrast to other divisions of algae such as Ochrophyta, chlorophytes lack a chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum. === Flagellar apparatus === Chlorophytes often form flagellate cells that generally have two or four flagella of equal length, although in prasinophytes heteromorphic (i.e. differently shaped) flagella are common because different stages of flagellar maturation are displayed in the same cell. Flagella have been independently lost in some groups, such as the Chlorococcales. Flagellate chlorophyte cells have symmetrical cross-shaped ('cruciate') root systems, in which ciliary rootlets with a variable high number of microtubules alternate with rootlets composed of just two microtubules; this forms an arrangement known as the "X-2-X-2" arrangement, unique to chlorophytes. They are also distinguished from streptophytes by the place where their flagella are inserted: directly at the cell apex, whereas streptophyte flagella are inserted at the sides of the cell apex (sub-apically). Below the flagellar apparatus of prasinophytes are rhizoplasts, contractile muscle-like structures that sometimes connect with the chloroplast or the cell membrane. In core chlorophytes, this structure connects directly with the surface of the nucleus. The surface of flagella lacks microtubular hairs, but some genera present scales or fibrillar hairs. The earliest-branching groups have flagella often covered in at least one layer of scales, if not naked. === Metabolism === Chlorophytes and streptophytes differ in the enzymes and organelles involved in photorespiration. Chlorophyte algae use a dehydrogenase inside the mitochondria to process glycolate during photorespiration. In contrast, streptophytes (including land plants) use peroxisomes that contain glycolate oxidase, which converts glycolate to glycoxylate, and the hydrogen peroxide created as a subproduct is reduced by catalases located in the same organelles. === Reproduction and life cycle === Asexual reproduction is widely observed in chlorophytes. Among core chlorophytes, both unicellular groups can reproduce asexually through autospores, wall-less zoospores, fragmentation, plain cell division, and exceptionally budding. Multicellular thalli can reproduce asexually through motile zoospores, non-motile aplanospores, autospores, filament fragmentation, differentiated resting cells, and even unmated gametes. Colonial groups can reproduce asexually through the formation of autocolonies, where each cell divides to form a colony with the same number and arrangement of cells as the parent colony. Many chlorophytes exclusively conduct asexual reproduction, but some display sexual reproduction, which may be isogamous (i.e., gametes of both sexes are identical), anisogamous (gametes are different) or oogamous (gametes are sperm and egg cells), with an evolutionary tendency towards oogamy. Their gametes are usually specialized cells differentiated from vegetative cells, although in unicellular Volvocales the vegetative cells can function simultaneously as gametes. Most chlorophytes have a diplontic life cycle (also known as zygotic), where the gametes fuse into a zygote which germinates, grows and eventually undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores (gametes), similarly to ochrophytes and animals. Some exceptions display a haplodiplontic life cycle, where there is an alternation of generations, similarly to land plants. These generations can be isomorphic (i.e., of similar shape and size) or heteromorphic. The formation of reproductive cells usually does not occur in specialized cells, but some Ulvophyceae have specialized reproductive structures: gametangia, to produce gametes, and sporangia, to produce spores. The earliest-diverging unicellular chlorophytes (prasinophytes) produce walled resistant stages called cysts or 'phycoma' stages before reproduction; in some groups the cysts are as large as 230 μm in diameter. To develop them, the flagellate cells form an inner wall by discharging mucilage vesicles to the outside, increase the level of lipids in the cytoplasm to enhance buoyancy, and finally develop an outer wall. Inside the cysts, the nucleus and cytoplasm undergo division into numerous flagellate cells that are released by rupturing the wall. In some species these daughter cells have been confirmed to be gametes; otherwise, sexual reproduction is unknown in prasinophytes. == Ecology == === Free-living === Chlorophytes are an important portion of the phytoplankton in both freshwater and marine habitats, fixating more than a billion tons of carbon every year. They also live as multicellular macroalgae, or seaweeds, settled along rocky ocean shores. Most species of Chlorophyta are aquatic, prevalent in both marine and freshwater environments. About 90% of all known species live in freshwater. Some species have adapted to a wide range of terrestrial environments. For example, Chlamydomonas nivalis lives on summer alpine snowfields, and Trentepohlia species, live attached to rocks or woody parts of trees. Several species have adapted to specialised and extreme environments, such as deserts, arctic environments, hypersaline habitats, marine deep waters, deep-sea hydrothermal vents and habitats that experience extreme changes in temperature, light and salinity. Some groups, such as the Trentepohliales, are exclusively found on land. === Symbionts === Several species of Chlorophyta live in symbiosis with a diverse range of eukaryotes, including fungi (to form lichens), ciliates, forams, cnidarians and molluscs. Some species of Chlorophyta are heterotrophic, either free-living or parasitic. Others are mixotrophic bacterivores through phagocytosis. Two common species of the heterotrophic green alga Prototheca are pathogenic and can cause the disease protothecosis in humans and animals. With the exception of the three classes Ulvophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae and Chlorophyceae in the UTC clade, which show various degrees of multicellularity, all the Chlorophyta lineages are unicellular. Some members of the group form symbiotic relationships with protozoa, sponges, and cnidarians. Others form symbiotic relationships with fungi to form lichens, but the majority of species are free-living. All members of the clade have motile flagellated swimming cells. Monostroma kuroshiense, an edible green alga cultivated worldwide and most expensive among green algae, belongs to this group. == Systematics == === Taxonomic history === The first mention of Chlorophyta belongs to German botanist Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach in his 1828 work Conspectus regni vegetabilis. Under this name, he grouped all algae, mosses ('musci') and ferns ('filices'), as well as some seed plants (Zamia and Cycas). This usage did not gain popularity. In 1914, Bohemian botanist Adolf Pascher modified the name to encompass exclusively green algae, that is, algae which contain chlorophylls a and b and store starch in their chloroplasts. Pascher established a scheme where Chlorophyta was composed of two groups: Chlorophyceae, which included algae now known as Chlorophyta, and Conjugatae, which are now known as Zygnematales and belong to the Streptophyta clade from which land plants evolved. During the 20th century, many different classification schemes for the Chlorophyta arose. The Smith system, published in 1938 by American botanist Gilbert Morgan Smith, distinguished two classes: Chlorophyceae, which contained all green algae (unicellular and multicellular) that did not grow through an apical cell; and Charophyceae, which contained only multicellular green algae that grew via an apical cell and had special sterile envelopes to protect the sex organs. With the advent of electron microscopy studies, botanists published various classification proposals based on finer cellular structures and phenomena, such as mitosis, cytokinesis, cytoskeleton, flagella and cell wall polysaccharides. British botanist proposed in 1971 a scheme which distinguishes Chlorophyta from other green algal divisions Charophyta, Prasinophyta and Euglenophyta. He included four classes of chlorophytes: Zygnemaphyceae, Oedogoniophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Bryopsidophyceae. Other proposals retained the Chlorophyta as containing all green algae, and varied from one another in the number of classes. For example, the 1984 proposal by Mattox & Stewart included five classes, while the 1985 proposal by Bold & Wynne included only two, and the 1995 proposal by Christiaan van den Hoek and coauthors included up to eleven classes. The modern usage of the name 'Chlorophyta' was established in 2004, when phycologists Lewis & McCourt firmly separated the chlorophytes from the streptophytes on the basis of molecular phylogenetics. All green algae that were more closely related to land plants than to chlorophytes were grouped as a paraphyletic division Charophyta. Within the green algae, the earliest-branching lineages were grouped under the informal name of "prasinophytes", and they were all believed to belong to the Chlorophyta clade. However, in 2020 a study recovered a new clade and division known as Prasinodermophyta, which contains two prasinophyte lineages previously considered chlorophytes. Below is a cladogram representing the current state of green algal classification: \|label2=Streptophyta\|2= }} }} \|grouplabel1= }} === Classification === Currently eleven chlorophyte classes are accepted, here presented in alphabetical order with some of their characteristics and biodiversity: Chlorodendrophyceae (60 species, 15 extinct): unicellular flagellates (monadoids) surrounded by an outer cell covering or theca of organic extracellular scales composed of proteins and ketosugars. Some of these scales make up hair-like structures. Capable of asexual reproduction through cell division inside the theca. No sexual reproduction has been described. Each cell contains a single chloroplast and exhibits two flagella. Present in marine and freshwater habitats. Chlorophyceae (3,974 species): either unicellular monadoids (flagellated) or coccoids (without flagella) living solitary or in varied colonial forms (including coenobial), or multicellular filamentous (branch-like) thalli that may be ramified, or foliose (leaf-like) thalli. Cells are surrounded by a crystalline covering composed of glycoproteins abundant in glycine and hydroxyproline, as well as pectins, arabinogalactan proteins, and extensin. They exhibit a haplontic life cycle with isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy. They are capable of asexual reproduction through flagellated zoospores, aplanospores, or autospores. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a variable number of pyrenoids (including lack thereof), and from one to hundreds of flagella without mastigonemes. Present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Chloropicophyceae (8 species): unicellular solitary coccoids. Cells are surrounded by a multi-layered cell wall. No sexual or asexual reproduction has been described. Each cell contains a single chloroplast with astaxanthin and loroxanthin, and lacks pyrenoids or flagella. They are exclusively marine. Chuariophyceae (3 extinct species): exclusively fossil group containing carbonaceous megafossils found in Ediacaran rocks, such as Tawuia. Mamiellophyceae (25 species): unicellular solitary monadoids. Cells are naked or covered by one or two layers of flat scales, mainly with spiderweb-like or reticulate ornamentation. Each cell contains one or rarely two chloroplasts, almost always with prasinoxanthin; two equal or unequal flagella, or just one flagellum, or lacking any flagella. If flagella are present, they can be either smooth or covered in scales in the same manner as the cells. Present in marine and freshwater habitats. Nephroselmidophyceae (29 species): unicellular monadoids. Cells are covered by scales. They are capable of sexual reproduction through hologamy (fusion of entire cells), and of asexual reproduction through binary fission. Each cell contains a single cloroplast, a pyrenoid, and two flagella covered by scales. Present in marine and freshwater habitats. Pedinophyceae (24 species): unicellular asymmetrical monadoids that undergo a coccoid palmelloid phase covered by mucilage. Cells lack extracellular scales, but in rare cases are covered on the posterior side by a theca. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a pyrenoid, and a single flagellum usually covered in mastigonemes. Present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Picocystophyceae (1 species): unicellular coccoids, ovoid and trilobed in shape. Cells are surrounded by a multi-layered cell wall of poly-arabinose, mannose, galactose and glucose. No sexual reproduction has been described. They are capable of asexual reproduction through autosporulation, resulting in two or rarely four daughter cells. Each cell contains a single bilobed chloroplast with diatoxanthin and monadoxanthin, without any pyrenoid or flagella. Present in saline lakes. Pyramimonadophyceae (166 species, 59 extinct): unicellular monadoids or coccoids. Cells are covered by two or more layers of organic scales. No sexual reproduction has been described, but some cells with only one flagellum have been interpreted as potential gametes. Asexual reproduction has only been observed in the coccoid forms, via zoospores. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a pyrenoid, and between 4 and 16 flagella. The flagella are covered in at least two layers of organic scales: a bottom layer of pentagonal scales organized in 24 rows, and a top layer of limuloid scales distributed in 11 rows. They are exclusively marine. Trebouxiophyceae (926 species, 1 extinct): unicellular monadoids occasionally without flagella, or colonial, or ramified filamentous thalli, or living as the photobionts of lichen. Cells are covered by a cell wall of cellulose, algaenans, and β-galactofuranane. No sexual reproduction has been described with the exception of some observations of gamete fusion and presence of meiotic genes. They are capable of asexual reproduction through autospores or zoospores. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, a pyrenoid, and one or two pairs of smooth flagella. They are present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Ulvophyceae (2,695 species, 990 extinct): macroscopic thalli, either filamentous (which may be ramified) or foliose (composed of monostromatic or distromatic layers) or even compact tubular forms, generally multinucleate. Cells surrounded by a cell wall that may be calcified, composed of cellulose, β-manane, β-xilane, sulphated or piruvilated polysaccharides or sulphated ramnogalacturonanes, arabinogalactan proteins, and extensin. They exhibit a haplodiplontic life cycle where the alternating generations can be isomorphic or heteromorphic. They reproduce asexually via zoospores that may be covered in scales. Each cell contains a single chloroplast, and one or two pairs of flagella without mastigonemes but covered in scales. They are present in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. == Evolution == In February 2020, the fossilized remains of a green alga, named Proterocladus antiquus were discovered in the northern province of Liaoning, China. At around a billion years old, it is believed to be one of the oldest examples of a multicellular chlorophyte. It is currently classified as a member of order Siphonocladales, class Ulvophyceae. In 2023, a study calculated the molecular age of green algae as calibrated by this fossil. The study estimated the origin of Chlorophyta within the Mesoproterozoic era, at around 2.04–1.23 billion years ago. == Usage == === Model organisms === Among chlorophytes, a small group known as the volvocine green algae is being researched to understand the origins of cell differentiation and multicellularity. In particular, the unicellular flagellate Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the colonial organism Volvox carteri are object of interest due to sharing homologous genes that in Volvox are directly involved in the development of two different cell types with full division of labor between swimming and reproduction, whereas in Chlamydomonas only one cell type exists that can function as a gamete. Other volvocine species, with intermediate characters between these two, are studied to further understand the transition towards the cellular division of labor, namely Gonium pectorale, Pandorina morum, Eudorina elegans and Pleodorina starrii. === Industrial uses === Chlorophyte microalgae are a valuable source of biofuel and various chemicals and products in industrial amounts, such as carotenoids, vitamins and unsaturated fatty acids. The genus Botryococcus is an efficient producer of hydrocarbons, which are converted into biodiesel. Various genera (Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Haematococcus, Dunaliella and Tetraselmis) are used as cellular factories of biomass, lipids and different vitamins for either human or animal consumption, and even for usage as pharmaceuticals. Some of their pigments are employed for cosmetics.	[ "bacterivore", "flagella", "theca", "macroalgae", "phagocytosis", "nucleolus", "Charophyceae", "canthaxanthin", "binary fission", "Zygnematophyceae", "extensin", "Haematococcus", "biodiesel", "anisogamy", "microalgae", "Tetraphytina", "cytokinesis", "streptophyte", "parasitic", "prasinophyte", "ciliary rootlet", "Ochrophyta", "mitosis", "catalase", "molecular clock", "glycoprotein", "antheraxanthin", "aplanospore", "gene", "carotin", "glycolate", "galactose", "Cladophorales", "lichen", "Cycas", "multinucleate", "Tawuia", "hydrothermal vent", "cell division", "Chlorococcales", "heterotrophic", "Palmophyllophyceae", "land plant", "vegetative cell", "University of California Press", "vitamin", "Ulvophyceae", "pectin", "Gilbert Morgan Smith", "protozoa", "Taiwan", "siphonaxanthin", "Nephroselmidophyceae", "chlorophyll b", "phytoplankton", "apical cell", "mitochondrion", "flagellate", "Streptophyta", "biodiversity", "cell differentiation", "Chlorokybophyceae", "Ernst Haeckel", "Mamiellophyceae", "Botryococcus", "arabinose", "coenocyte", "Chlamydomonas nivalis", "fungi", "haploid", "microtubule", "mixotroph", "hologamy", "polysaccharides", "Homology (biology)", "Golgi apparatus", "leaves", "multicellular", "Embryophyta", "mucilage", "Pyramimonadophyceae", "ochrophyte", "mitochondria", "mosses", "asexual reproduction", "Mesostigmatophyceae", "saline lake", "Molecular clock", "eyespot apparatus", "protein", "ferns", "unicellular", "chloroplast", "photobiont", "thalli", "cnidarian", "glycine", "gamete", "Chuariophyceae", "Prasinodermophyceae", "Chlorella", "chlorophyll a", "carotenoid", "pyrenoid", "multicellularity", "Foraminifera", "astaxanthin", "Volvox carteri", "vacuole", "photorespiration", "molecular phylogenetics", "Chlamydomonas reinhardtii", "peroxisome", "UTC clade", "Conjugatae", "Prototheca", "Trebouxiophyceae", "mannose", "Biological life cycle", "Picocystophyceae", "division (botany)", "lutein", "loroxanthin", "Asexual reproduction", "Chlorodendrophyceae", "ciliate", "Charophyta", "zoospore", "China", "Chlorophytina", "Trentepohlia (alga)", "protothecosis", "Gonium pectorale", "Eudorina elegans", "Scenedesmus", "chlorophyll", "animal", "microbial cyst", "Marine biogenic calcification", "Zamia", "cell wall", "paraphyletic", "echinenon", "Pseudoscourfieldiales", "charophyte", "Monostroma kuroshiense", "Klebsormidiophyceae", "Zygnemaphyceae", "autospore", "Smith system", "Hoek, Mann and Jahns system", "Adolf Pascher", "spore", "hypersaline", "Viridiplantae", "green algae", "flagellum", "Kunstformen der Natur", "Tetraselmis", "sexual reproduction", "Chloropicophyceae", "prasinoxanthin", "Chlorophyceae", "isogamy", "electron microscopy", "glycolate oxidase", "Proterocladus antiquus", "meiosis", "eukaryotic", "basal body", "Ediacaran", "thylakoid", "Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach", "arabinogalactan protein", "cell membrane", "zygote", "rhizoplast", "nuclear envelope", "symbiosis", "oogamy", "neoxanthin", "carbon fixation", "starch", "Trentepohliales", "cytoskeleton", "mastigoneme", "violaxanthin", "Mesoproterozoic", "seed plants", "Liaoning", "Pleodorina starrii", "biofuel", "Pandorina morum", "glucose", "Volvocales", "buoyancy", "Dunaliella", "endoplasmic reticulum", "mollusc", "algaenan", "genes", "eukaryote", "seaweed", "cell nucleus", "Prasinodermophyta", "colonial organism", "zeaxanthin", "cellulose", "Coleochaetophyceae", "dehydrogenase", "glycoxylate", "hydroxyproline", "wikt:coccoid", "Pedinophyceae", "unsaturated fatty acid", "carbohydrate", "pathogenic" ]
6,776	Capybara	The capybara or greater capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) is the largest living rodent, native to South America. It is a member of the genus Hydrochoerus. The only other extant member is the lesser capybara (Hydrochoerus isthmius). Its close relatives include guinea pigs and rock cavies, and it is more distantly related to the agouti, the chinchilla, and the nutria. The capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests, and lives near bodies of water. It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals, but usually live in groups of 10–20 individuals. The capybara is hunted for its meat and hide and also for grease from its thick fatty skin. ==Etymology== Its common name is derived from Tupi , a complex agglutination of (leaf) + (slender) + (eat) + (a suffix for agent nouns), meaning "one who eats slender leaves", or "grass-eater". The genus name, hydrochoerus, comes from Greek (' "water") and (' "pig, hog") and the species name, hydrochaeris, comes from Greek (' "water") and (' "feel happy, enjoy"). ==Classification and phylogeny== The capybara and the lesser capybara both belong to the subfamily Hydrochoerinae along with the rock cavies. The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae. The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux. In recent years, the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced. Adult capybaras grow to in length, stand tall at the withers, and typically weigh , with an average in the Venezuelan llanos of . The dental formula is . Capybaras have slightly webbed feet and vestigial tails. Their muzzles are blunt, with nostrils, and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads. Its karyotype has 2n = 66 and FN = 102, meaning it has 66 chromosomes with a total of 102 arms. In 2011, one specimen was spotted on the Central Coast of California. These escaped populations occur in areas where prehistoric capybaras inhabited; late Pleistocene capybaras inhabited Florida and Hydrochoerus hesperotiganites in California and Hydrochoerus gaylordi in Grenada, and feral capybaras in North America may actually fill the ecological niche of the Pleistocene species. ===Diet and predation=== Capybaras are herbivores, grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants, In addition, a female alerts males she is in estrus by whistling through her nose. ==Conservation and human interaction== Capybaras are not considered a threatened species; The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria asked Drusillas Park in Alfriston, Sussex, England, to keep the studbook for capybaras, to monitor captive populations in Europe. The studbook includes information about all births, deaths and movements of capybaras, as well as how they are related. Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America. There is widespread perception in Venezuela that consumption of capybaras is exclusive to rural people. Brazilian Lyme-like borreliosis likely involves capybaras as reservoirs and Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks as vectors. == In popular culture == Izu Shaboten Zoo and other zoos in Japan have prepared hot spring baths for capybaras. Video clips of the bathing capybaras have gained millions of views. A Capybara café opened in St. Augustine, Florida in 2024 which allows visitors to interact with and give head scratches to the rodents. Capybaras have long been a figure in meme culture, particularly in the 2020s. In 2022, Peronists in Argentina presented them as figures of class struggle after the disturbances in Nordelta.	[ "European Association of Zoos and Aquaria", "Don Toliver", "aquatic plants", "Florida", "onsen", "semiaquatic", "Carl Linnaeus", "gut flora", "Rhipicephalus", "herbivore", "llanos", "harpy eagle", "Petrópolis", "Peronists", "lesser capybara", "Eadweard Muybridge", "agouti", "World Association of Zoos and Aquariums", "Los Angeles Times", "Diploid", "tick", "New York Sun", "Internet meme", "karyotype", "nutria", "Cavia", "Alfriston", "Drusillas Park", "cougar", "Hydrochoerinae", "Ancient Greek", "Chile", "borreliosis", "Izu Shaboten Zoo", "studbook", "Tupi language", "big cats", "jaguar", "St. Augustine, Florida", "genus name", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America", "After Party (song)", "Josephoartigasia monesi", "Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church", "Eunectes murinus", "scurvy", "withers", "Amblyomma", "Interdigital webbing", "Mato Grosso", "plush toy", "Revista Brasileira de Zoologia", "late Pleistocene", "Central Coast (California)", "California", "Sussex", "Capybara Walking", "Fur", "estrus", "Rocky Mountain spotted fever", "communism", "The Guardian", "Hydrochoerus hesperotiganites", "vector (epidemiology)", "Kurloff cell", "Caviidae", "Kerodon", "Novo Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa", "class struggle", "Animal cafe", "vitamin C", "Buenos Aires", "Lent", "extant taxon", "Periodontal disease", "Revista de Biología Tropical", "Henry Colburn", "Smithsonian National Zoological Park", "12th edition of Systema Naturae", "Hydrochoerus gaylordi", "chinchilla", "Behavioral Ecology (journal)", "Quartz (publication)", "South America", "anal gland", "dental formula", "Grenada", "piranha", "gestation", "Hydrochoerus", "Reuters", "Neochoerus", "Fundamental number", "Alloparenting", "scent gland", "Holy Week", "caiman", "cellulose", "Vestigiality", "gregarious", "coprophagous", "Nordelta" ]
6,777	Computer animation	Computer animation is the process used for digitally generating moving images. The more general term computer-generated imagery (CGI) encompasses both still images and moving images, while computer animation refers to moving images. Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics. Computer animation is a digital successor to stop motion and traditional animation. Instead of a physical model or illustration, a digital equivalent is manipulated frame-by-frame. Also, computer-generated animations allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without using actors, expensive set pieces, or props. To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer monitor and repeatedly replaced by a new similar image but advanced slightly in time (usually at a rate of 24, 25, or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures. To trick the visual system into seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 75 to 120 frames per second, no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and the brain both process images. At rates below 12 frames per second, most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. To produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates. Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement. == Computer-generated animation == Computer-generated animation is an umbrella term for three-dimensional (3D) animation, and 2D computer animation. These also include subcategories like asset driven, hybrid, and digital drawn animation. Creators animate using code or software instead of pencil-to-paper drawings. There are many techniques and disciplines in computer generated animation, some of which are digital representations of traditional animation - such as key frame animation - and some of which are only possible with a computer - such fluid simulation. 'CG' Animators can break physical laws by using mathematical algorithms to cheat mass, force and gravity, and more. Fundamentally, computer-generated animation is a powerful tool which can improve the quality of animation by using the power of computing to unleash the animator's imagination. This is because Computer Generated Animation allows for things like onion skinning which allows 2D animators to see the flow of their work all at once, and interpolation which allows 3D animators to automate the process of inbetweening. ==3D computer animation== === Overview === For 3D computer animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. Normally, the differences between key frames are drawn in a process known as tweening. However, in 3D computer animation, this is done automatically, and is called interpolation. Finally, the animation is rendered and composited. Before becoming a final product, 3D computer animations only exist as a series of moving shapes and systems within 3d software, and must be rendered. This can happen as a separate process for animations developed for movies and short films, or it can be done in real-time when animated for videogames. After an animation is rendered, it can be composited into a final product. === Animation attributes === For 3D models, attributes can describe any characteristic of the object that can be animated. This includes transformation (movement from one point to another), scaling, rotation, and more complex attributes like blend shape progression (morphing from one shape to another). Each attribute gets a channel on which keyframes can be set. These keyframes can be used in more complex ways such as animating in layers (combining multiple sets of key frame data), or keying control objects to deform or control other objects. For instance, a character's arms can have a skeleton applied, and the joints can have transformation and rotation keyframes set. The movement of the arm joints will then cause the arm shape to deform. === Interpolation === 3D animation software interpolates between keyframes by generating a spline between keys plotted on a graph which represents the animation. Additionally, these splines can follow Bézier curves to control how the spline curves relative to the keyframes. Using interpolation allows 3D animators to dynamically change animations without having to redo all the in-between animation. This also allows the creation of complex movements such as ellipses with only a few keyframes. Lastly, interpolation allows the animator to change the framerate, timing, and even scale of the movements at any point in the animation process. === Procedural and node-based Animation === Another way to automate 3D animation is to use procedural tools such as 4D noise. Noise is any algorithm that plots pseudo-random values within a dimensional space. 4D noise can be used to do things like move a swarm of bees around; the first three dimensions correspond to the position of the bees in space, and the fourth is used to change the bee's position over time. Noise can also be used as a cheap replacement for simulation. For example, smoke and clouds can be animated using noise. Node-based animation is useful for animating organic and chaotic shapes. By using nodes, an animator can build up a complex set of animation rules that can be applied either to many objects at once, or one very complex object. A good example of this would be setting the movement of particles to match the beat of a song. === Disciplines of 3D animation === There are many different disciplines of 3D animation, some of which include entirely separate artforms. For example, hair simulation for computer animated characters in and of itself is a career path which involves separate workflows, and different software and tools. The combination of all or some 3D computer animation disciplines is commonly referred to within the animation industry as the 3D animation pipeline. ==2D computer animation== 2D computer graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings. Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to stop motion techniques, but using 3D models, and traditional animation techniques using frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton. ===2D sprites and pseudocode=== In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as "sprites." A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right: var int x := 0, y := screenHeight / 2; while x < screenWidth drawBackground() drawSpriteAtXY (x, y) // draw on top of the background x := x + 5 // move to the right ===Computer-assisted animation=== Computer-assisted animation is usually classed as two-dimensional (2D) animation and is also known as digital ink and paint. Drawings are either hand drawn (pencil to paper) or interactively drawn (on the computer) using different assisting appliances and are positioned into specific software packages. Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different key frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements. The computer then fills in the "in-between frames", a process commonly known as Tweening. Computer-assisted animation employs new technologies to produce content faster than is possible with traditional animation, while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally drawn characters or objects. Examples of films produced using computer-assisted animation are the rainbow sequence at the end of The Little Mermaid (the rest of the films listed use digital ink and paint in their entirety), The Rescuers Down Under, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, The Lion King, Pocahontas, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Hercules, Mulan, Tarzan, We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story, Balto, Anastasia, Titan A.E., The Prince of Egypt, The Road to El Dorado, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron and Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas. ===Text-to-video=== ==History== Early digital computer animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward E. Zajac, Frank W. Sinden, Kenneth C. Knowlton, and A. Michael Noll. Other digital animation was also practiced at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. In 1967, a computer animation named "Hummingbird" was created by Charles Csuri and James Shaffer. In 1968, a computer animation called "Kitty" was created with BESM-4 by Nikolai Konstantinov, depicting a cat moving around. In 1971, a computer animation called "Metadata" was created, showing various shapes. An early step in the history of computer animation was the sequel to the 1973 film Westworld, a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans. The sequel, Futureworld (1976), used the 3D wire-frame imagery, which featured a computer-animated hand and face both created by University of Utah graduates Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke. This imagery originally appeared in their student film A Computer Animated Hand, which they completed in 1972. Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH, an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques that is attended by thousands of computer professionals each year. Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies, which led to the art form Machinima. ===Film and television=== CGI short films have been produced as independent animation since 1976. Early examples of feature films incorporating CGI animation include the live-action films Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Tron (both 1982), and the Japanese anime film Golgo 13: The Professional (1983). VeggieTales is the first American fully 3D computer-animated series sold directly (made in 1993); its success inspired other animation series, such as ReBoot (1994) and Transformers: Beast Wars (1996) to adopt a fully computer-generated style. The first full-length computer-animated television series was ReBoot, which debuted in September 1994; the series followed the adventures of characters who lived inside a computer. The first feature-length computer-animated film is Toy Story (1995), which was made by Disney and Pixar: following an adventure centered around anthropomorphic toys and their owners, this groundbreaking film was also the first of many fully computer-animated movies. The popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of special effects) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.S. animation. Films like Avatar (2009) and The Jungle Book (2016) use CGI for the majority of the movie runtime, but still incorporate human actors into the mix. Computer animation in this era has achieved photorealism, to the point that computer-animated films such as The Lion King (2019) are able to be marketed as if they were live-action. ==Animation methods== In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure. They are arranged into a default position known as a bind pose, or T-Pose. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars for short. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character "Woody" in Toy Story, for example, uses 712 Avars (212 in the face alone). The computer does not usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame. There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or tween between them in a process called keyframing. Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation. In contrast, a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action footage. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. Their motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers and that performance is then applied to the animated character. Each method has its advantages and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor. For example, in the 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones. Even though Nighy does not appear in the movie himself, the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done throughout the conventional costuming. ==Modeling== 3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand "keyframed" movement. These models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. Unless a 3D model is intended to be a solid color, it must be painted with "textures" for realism. A bone/joint animation system is set up to deform the CGI model (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk). In a process known as rigging, the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement. Animation data can be created using motion capture, or keyframing by a human animator, or a combination of the two. 3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points — for example, "Woody" from Toy Story uses 700 specialized animation controllers. Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, which had about 1,851 controllers (742 in the face alone). In the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow, designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. For the 2005 remake of King Kong, actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model "human" characteristics onto the creature. Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings trilogy. ==Equipment== Computer animation can be created with a computer and an animation software. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; however, the rendering can require much time on an ordinary home computer. Professional animators of movies, television and video games could make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take hundreds of years to create on a home computer. Instead, many powerful workstation computers are used; Silicon Graphics said in 1989 that the animation industry's needs typically caused graphical innovations in workstations. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and they are a lot more powerful than an actual home computer and are specialized for rendering. Many workstations (known as a "render farm") are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer, resulting in a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (however, this process is not composed solely of rendering). A workstation typically costs $2,000 to $16,000 with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster due to the more technologically advanced hardware that they contain. Professionals also use digital movie cameras, motion/performance capture, bluescreens, film editing software, props, and other tools used for movie animation. Programs like Blender allow for people who can not afford expensive animation and rendering software to be able to work in a similar manner to those who use the commercial grade equipment. ==Facial animation== The realistic modeling of human facial features is both one of the most challenging and sought after elements in computer-generated imagery. Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables. Historically speaking, the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on State of the art in Facial Animation in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning point in the field by bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements and sparked interest among a number of researchers. The Facial Action Coding System (with 46 "action units", "lip bite" or "squint"), which had been developed in 1976, became a popular basis for many systems. As early as 2001, MPEG-4 included 68 Face Animation Parameters (FAPs) for lips, jaws, etc., and the field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial microexpression has increased. In some cases, an affective space, the PAD emotional state model, can be used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars. In this approach, the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space and the lower level space is the MPEG-4 Facial Animation Parameters (FAP). A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters (PEP) space is then used to in a two-level structure – the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model. ==Realism== Realism in computer animation can mean making each frame look photorealistic, in the sense that the scene is rendered to resemble a photograph or make the characters' animation believable and lifelike. Computer animation can also be realistic with or without the photorealistic rendering. One trend in computer animation has been the effort to create human characters that look and move with the highest degree of realism. A possible outcome when attempting to make pleasing, realistic human characters is the uncanny valley, the concept where the human audience (up to a point) tends to have an increasingly negative, emotional response as a human replica looks and acts more and more human. Films that have attempted photorealistic human characters, such as The Polar Express, Beowulf, and A Christmas Carol have been criticized as "disconcerting" and "creepy". The goal of computer animation is not always to emulate live action as closely as possible, so many animated films instead feature characters who are anthropomorphic animals, legendary creatures and characters, superheroes, or otherwise have non-realistic, cartoon-like proportions. Computer animation can also be tailored to mimic or substitute for other kinds of animation, like traditional stop-motion animation (as shown in Flushed Away or The Peanuts Movie). Some of the long-standing basic principles of animation, like squash and stretch, call for movement that is not strictly realistic, and such principles still see widespread application in computer animation. ==Web animations== The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing community of independent and amateur computer animators. With utilities and programs often included free with modern operating systems, many users can make their own animated movies and shorts. Several free and open-source animation software applications exist as well. The ease at which these animations can be distributed has attracted professional animation talent also. Companies such as PowToon and Vyond attempt to bridge the gap by giving amateurs access to professional animations as clip art. The oldest (most backward compatible) web-based animations are in the animated GIF format, which can be uploaded and seen on the web easily. However, the raster graphics format of GIF animations slows the download and frame rate, especially with larger screen sizes. The growing demand for higher quality web-based animations was met by a vector graphics alternative that relied on the use of a plugin. For decades, Flash animations were a common format, until the web development community abandoned support for the Flash Player plugin. Web browsers on mobile devices and mobile operating systems never fully supported the Flash plugin. By this time, internet bandwidth and download speeds increased, making raster graphic animations more convenient. Some of the more complex vector graphic animations had a slower frame rate due to complex rendering compared to some of the raster graphic alternatives. Many of the GIF and Flash animations were already converted to digital video formats, which were compatible with mobile devices and reduced file sizes via video compression technology. However, compatibility was still problematic as some of the video formats such as Apple's QuickTime and Microsoft Silverlight required plugins. YouTube was also relying on the Flash plugin to deliver digital video in the Flash Video format. The latest alternatives are HTML5 compatible animations. Technologies such as JavaScript and CSS animations made sequencing the movement of images in HTML5 web pages more convenient. SVG animations offered a vector graphic alternative to the original Flash graphic format, SmartSketch. YouTube offers an HTML5 alternative for digital video. APNG (Animated PNG) offered a raster graphic alternative to animated GIF files that enables multi-level transparency not available in GIFs. ==Detailed example== Computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated mathematics is used to manipulate complex three-dimensional polygons, apply "textures", lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image. A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting Boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution. ==Animation studios== Some notable producers of computer-animated feature films include: Animal Logic – Films include Happy Feet (2006), Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole (2010), Walking with Dinosaurs (2013), and The Lego Movie (2014) Aardman Animations – Films include Flushed Away (2006) and Arthur Christmas (2011) Big Idea Entertainment – Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie (2002) and The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie (2008) Bron Animation – Films include The Addams Family (2019) and The Willoughbys (2020) Blue Sky Studios – Films include Ice Age (2002), Robots (2005), Horton Hears a Who! (2008), Rio (2011), Epic (2013), and The Peanuts Movie (2015) DNA Productions – Films include Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius (2001), Santa vs. the Snowman 3D (2002), and The Ant Bully (2006) DreamWorks Animation – Films include Shrek (2001), Shark Tale (2004), Madagascar (2005), Over the Hedge (2006), Bee Movie (2007), Kung Fu Panda (2008), Monsters vs. Aliens (2009), How to Train Your Dragon (2010), Rise of the Guardians (2012), The Croods (2013), Trolls (2016), The Boss Baby (2017), Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie (2017), The Bad Guys (2022), and Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken (2023) Framestore - Films include The Tale of Despereaux (2008) ImageMovers – Films include The Polar Express (2004), Monster House (2006), Beowulf (2007), A Christmas Carol (2009), and Mars Needs Moms (2011) Imagi Animation Studios – Films include TMNT (2007) and Astro Boy (2009) Ilion Animation Studios — Films include Planet 51 (2009), Mortadelo and Filemon: Mission Implausible (2014), and Wonder Park (2019) Illumination — Films include Despicable Me (2010), The Lorax (2012), Minions (2015), The Secret Life of Pets (2016), Sing (2016), The Grinch (2018), The Secret Life of Pets 2 (2019), and The Super Mario Bros. Movie (2023) Industrial Light & Magic – Films include Rango (2011) and Strange Magic (2015) Locksmith Animation - Films include Ron's Gone Wrong (2021) and That Christmas (2024) Omation Animation Studios – Films include Barnyard (2006) Pacific Data Images – Films include Antz (1998), Shrek (2001), Shrek 2 (2004), Madagascar (2005), Megamind (2010), and Mr. Peabody and Sherman (2014) Paramount Animation – Films include The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water (2015), Monster Trucks (2017), Sherlock Gnomes (2018), Wonder Park (2019), The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run (2020), and Under the Boardwalk (2023) Pixar Animation Studios – Films include Toy Story (1995), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Finding Nemo (2003), The Incredibles (2004), Cars (2006), Ratatouille (2007), WALL-E (2008), Up (2009), Inside Out (2015), Coco (2017), Soul (2020), and Luca (2021) Rainmaker Studios – Films include Escape from Planet Earth (2013) and Ratchet & Clank (2016) Reel FX Animation Studios – Films include Free Birds (2013) and The Book of Life (2014) Wizart Animation – Films include The Snow Queen (2012) and Sheep and Wolves (2016) Shirogumi – Films include Friends: Mononoke Shima no Naki (2011), Stand by Me Doraemon (2014), and Dragon Quest: Your Story (2019) Skydance Animation – Films include Luck (2022) and Spellbound (2024) Square Pictures - Films include Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (2001) Sony Pictures Animation – Films include Open Season (2006), Surf's Up (2007), Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (2009), Hotel Transylvania (2012), Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), and The Mitchells vs. the Machines (2021) Sony Pictures Imageworks – Films include The Angry Birds Movie (2016) and Over the Moon (2020) Triggerfish Animation Studios – Films include Zambezia (2013) and Khumba (2014) Vanguard Animation - Films include Valiant (2005), Space Chimps (2008), and Gnome Alone (2017) Walt Disney Animation Studios – Films include Chicken Little (2005), Meet the Robinsons (2007), Bolt (2008), Tangled (2010), Wreck-It Ralph (2012), Frozen (2013), Big Hero 6 (2014), Zootopia (2016), Moana (2016), and Encanto (2021) Warner Bros. Pictures Animation – Films include The Lego Movie (2014), Storks (2016), The Lego Batman Movie (2017), Smallfoot (2018), and Scoob! (2020) Weta Digital – Films include The Adventures of Tintin (2011)	[ "Triggerfish Animation Studios", "live action", "Mulan (1998 film)", "Tarzan (1999 film)", "PowToon", "APNG", "game engine", "MIT Press", "Horton Hears a Who! 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6,778	Ceawlin of Wessex	Ceawlin ( ; also spelled Ceaulin, Caelin, Celin, died ca. 593) was a King of Wessex. He may have been the son of Cynric of Wessex and the grandson of Cerdic of Wessex, whom the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle represents as the leader of the first group of Saxons to come to the land which later became Wessex. Ceawlin was active during the last years of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, with little of southern England remaining in the control of the native Britons by the time of his death. The chronology of Ceawlin's life is highly uncertain. The historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the later Anglo-Saxon Chronicle have been called into question, and his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years. The Chronicle records several battles of Ceawlin's between the years 556 and 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of Anglo-Saxons, and indicates that under Ceawlin Wessex acquired significant territory, some of which was later to be lost to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Ceawlin is also named as one of the eight "bretwaldas", a title given in the Chronicle to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern Britain, although the extent of Ceawlin's control is not known. Ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, Ceol. He is recorded in various sources as having two sons, Cutha and Cuthwine, but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable. == Historical context == The history of the sub-Roman period in Britain is poorly sourced and the subject of a number of important disagreements among historians. It appears, however, that in the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples developed into migrations. The newcomers included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians. These peoples captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mons Badonicus halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years. Near the year 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years, it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders. The peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus is attested partly by Gildas, a monk, who wrote De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae or On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain during the middle of the sixth century. This essay is a polemic against corruption and Gildas provides little in the way of names and dates. He appears, however, to state that peace had lasted from the year of his birth to the time he was writing. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the other main source that bears on this period, in particular in an entry for the year 827 that records a list of the kings who bore the title "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". That list shows a gap in the early sixth century that matches Gildas's version of events. Ceawlin's reign belongs to the period of Anglo-Saxon expansion at the end of the sixth century. Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain. == Early West Saxon sources == The two main written sources for early West Saxon history are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. The Chronicle is a set of annals which were compiled near the year 890, during the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex. They record earlier material for the older entries, which were assembled from earlier annals that no longer survive, as well as from saga material that might have been transmitted orally. The Chronicle dates the arrival of the future "West Saxons" in Britain to 495, when Cerdic and his son, Cynric, land at Cerdices ora, or Cerdic's shore. Almost twenty annals describing Cerdic's campaigns and those of his descendants appear interspersed through the next hundred years of entries in the Chronicle. Although these annals provide most of what is known about Ceawlin, the historicity of many of the entries is uncertain. The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List is a list of rulers of Wessex, including the lengths of their reigns. It survives in several forms, including as a preface to the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle. Like the Chronicle, the List was compiled in its present form during the reign of Alfred the Great, but an earlier version of the List was also one of the sources of the Chronicle itself. Both the list and the Chronicle are influenced by the desire of their writers to use a single line of descent to trace the lineage of the Kings of Wessex through Cerdic to Gewis, the legendary eponymous ancestor of the West Saxons, who is made to descend from Woden. The result served the political purposes of the scribe but is riddled with contradictions for historians. The contradictions may be seen clearly by calculating dates by different methods from various sources. The first event in West Saxon history whose date can be regarded as reasonably certain is the baptism of Cynegils, which occurred in the late 630s, perhaps as late as 640. The Chronicle dates Cerdic's arrival to 495, but adding up the lengths of the reigns as given in the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List leads to the conclusion that Cerdic's reign might have started in 532, a difference of 37 years. Neither 495 nor 532 may be treated as reliable; however, the latter date relies on the presumption that the Regnal List is correct in presenting the Kings of Wessex as having succeeded one another, with no omitted kings, and no joint kingships, and that the durations of the reigns are correct as given. None of these presumptions may be made safely. The sources do agree that Ceawlin is the son of Cynric and he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine. There is one discrepancy in this case: the entry for 685 in the [A] version of the Chronicle assigns Ceawlin a son, Cutha, but in the 855 entry in the same manuscript, Cutha is listed as the son of Cuthwine. Cutha also is named as Ceawlin's brother in the [E] and [F] versions of the Chronicle, in the 571 and 568 entries, respectively. Whether Ceawlin is a descendant of Cerdic is a matter of debate. Subgroupings of different West Saxon lineages give the impression of separate groups, of which Ceawlin's line is one. Some of the problems in the Wessex genealogies may have come about because of efforts to integrate Ceawlin's line with the other lineages: it became very important to the West Saxons to be able to trace the ancestors of their rulers back to Cerdic. Another reason for doubting the literal nature of these early genealogies is that the etymology of the names of several early members of the dynasty does not appear to be Germanic, as would be expected in the names of leaders of an apparently Anglo-Saxon dynasty. The name Ceawlin has no convincing Old English etymology; it seems more likely to be of British origin. The earliest sources do not use the term "West Saxon". According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the term is interchangeable with the Gewisse. The term "West Saxon" appears only in the late seventh century, after the reign of Cædwalla. == West Saxon expansion == thumb\|right\|A map of places mentioned by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in annals relating to Ceawlin; modern versions of the place names are given here, rather than the Anglo-Saxon names used in the chronicle. These records are in direct conflict with [[Bede, who states that the Isle of Wight was settled by Jutes, not Saxons; the archaeological record is somewhat in favour of Bede on this. Subsequent entries in the Chronicle give details of some of the battles by which the West Saxons won their kingdom. Ceawlin's campaigns are not given as near the coast. They range along the Thames Valley and beyond, as far as Surrey in the east and the mouth of the Severn in the west. Ceawlin clearly is part of the West Saxon expansion, but the military history of the period is difficult to understand. === 568: Wibbandun === The first battle Ceawlin fought as king is dated by the Chronicle to 568 when he and Cutha fought with Æthelberht, the king of Kent. The entry says "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against Aethelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen, Oslaf and Cnebba, on Wibbandun." The location of "Wibbandun", which can be translated as "Wibba's Mount", has not been identified definitely; it was at one time thought to be Wimbledon, but this now is known to be incorrect. David Cooper proposes Wyboston, a small village 8 miles north-east of Bedford on the west bank of the Great Ouse. Wibbandun is often written as Wibba's Dun, which is close phonetically to Wyboston and Æthelberht's dominance, from Kent to the Humber according to Bede, extended across those Anglian territories south of the Wash. It was this region that came under threat from Ceawlin as he looked to establish a defensible boundary on the Great Ouse River in the easternmost part of his territory. In addition, Cnebba, named as slain in this battle, has been associated with Knebworth, which lies 20 miles to the south of Wyboston. Half a mile south of Wyboston is a village called Chawston. The origin of the place name is unknown but might be derived from the Old English Ceawston or Ceawlinston. A defeat at Wyboston for Æthelberht would have damaged his overlord status and diminished his influence over the Anglians. The idea that he was driven or "pursued" into Kent (depending on which Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translation is preferred) should not be taken literally. Similar phraseology is often found in the Chronicle when one king bests another. A defeat suffered as part of an expedition to help his Anglian clients would have caused Æthelberht to withdraw into Kent to recover. This battle is notable as the first recorded conflict between the invading peoples: previous battles recorded in the Chronicle are between the Anglo-Saxons and the native Britons. === 571: Bedcanford === The annal for 571 reads: "Here Cuthwulf fought against the Britons at Bedcanford, and took four settlements: Limbury and Aylesbury, Benson and Eynsham; and in the same year he passed away." Cuthwulf's relationship with Ceawlin is unknown, but the alliteration common to Anglo-Saxon royal families suggests Cuthwulf may be part of the West Saxon royal line. The location of the battle itself is unidentified. It has been suggested that it was Bedford, but what is known of the early history of Bedford's names does not support this. This battle is of interest because it is surprising that an area so far east should still be in Briton hands this late: there is ample archaeological evidence of early Saxon and Anglian presence in the Midlands, and historians generally have interpreted Gildas's De Excidio as implying that the Britons had lost control of this area by the mid-sixth century. One possible explanation is that this annal records a reconquest of land that was lost to the Britons in the campaigns ending in the battle of Mons Badonicus. This entry is all that is known of these Briton kings; their names are in an archaic form that makes it very likely that this annal derives from a much older written source. The battle itself has long been regarded as a key moment in the Saxon advance, since in reaching the Bristol Channel, the West Saxons divided the Britons west of the Severn from land communication with those in the peninsula to the south of the Channel. Wessex almost certainly lost this territory to Penda of Mercia in 628, when the Chronicle records that "Cynegils and Cwichelm fought against Penda at Cirencester and then came to an agreement." It is possible that when Ceawlin and Cuthwine took Bath, they found the Roman baths still operating to some extent. Nennius, a ninth-century historian, mentions a "Hot Lake" in the land of the Hwicce, which was along the Severn, and adds "It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot". Bede also describes hot baths in the geographical introduction to the Ecclesiastical History in terms very similar to those of Nennius. Wansdyke, an early-medieval defensive linear earthwork, runs from south of Bristol to near Marlborough, Wiltshire, passing not far from Bath. It probably was built in the fifth or sixth centuries, perhaps by Ceawlin. === 584: Fethan leag === Ceawlin's last recorded victory is in 584. The entry reads "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fethan leag, and Cutha was killed, and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot, and in anger, he turned back to his own [territory]." The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in an entry for the year 827, repeats Bede's list, adds Egbert of Wessex, and also mentions that they were known as "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership. Bede says that these kings had authority "south of the Humber", but the span of control, at least of the earlier bretwaldas, likely was less than this. In Ceawlin's case the range of control is hard to determine accurately, but Bede's inclusion of Ceawlin in the list of kings who held imperium, and the list of battles he is recorded as having won, indicates an energetic and successful leader who, from a base in the upper Thames valley, dominated much of the surrounding area and held overlordship over the southern Britons for some period. The gap between Ælle and Ceawlin, on the other hand, has been taken as supporting evidence for the story told by Gildas in De Excidio of a peace lasting a generation or more following a Briton victory at Mons Badonicus. Æthelberht of Kent succeeds Ceawlin on the list of bretwaldas, but the reigns may overlap somewhat: recent evaluations give Ceawlin a likely reign of 581–588, and place Æthelberht's accession near to the year 589, but these analyses are no more than scholarly guesses. Ceawlin's eclipse in 592, probably by Ceol, may have been the occasion for Æthelberht to rise to prominence; Æthelberht very likely was the dominant Anglo-Saxon king by 597. Æthelberht's rise may have been earlier: the 584 annal, even if it records a victory, is the last victory of Ceawlin's in the Chronicle, and the period after that may have been one of Æthelberht's ascent and Ceawlin's decline. Alternatively, it may have been Ceol, who is supposed to have been the next king of Wessex, ruling for six years according to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. According to the Regnal List, Ceol was a son of Cutha, who was a son of Cynric; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him. It is possible that some fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at Ceawlin's death: Ceol and Ceolwulf may have been based in Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley. This split also may have contributed to Æthelberht's ability to rise to dominance in southern England. The West Saxons remained influential in military terms, however: the Chronicle and Bede record continued military activity against Essex and Sussex within twenty or thirty years of Ceawlin's death.	[ "Cuthwine", "Woden", "Gregory the Great", "Penda of Mercia", "Angles (tribe)", "Clarendon Press", "Hwicce", "West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List", "W. W. Norton & Company", "archaeological record", "Blackwell Publishing", "Jutes", "Adam's Grave", "Mons Badonicus", "Limbury", "Leo Sherley-Price", "sub-Roman Britain", "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", "Oxfordshire", "Alton Priors", "David Dumville", "Aylesbury", "Bedford", "House of Wessex", "Heptarchy", "Oxford University Press", "Bretwalda", "Thames Valley", "Dyrham", "Bede", "Gewis", "Bristol Channel", "Cerdic of Wessex", "Routledge", "Penguin Books", "Cædwalla of Wessex", "King of Wessex", "Egbert of Wessex", "Severn", "List of monarchs of Wessex", "Æthelberht of Kent", "Nennius", "ealdormen", "Gloucester", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "Northumbria", "Wansdyke (earthwork)", "Stoke Lyne", "Cynric", "Eynsham", "Benson, Oxfordshire", "Æthelbald of Mercia", "Bath, Somerset", "Wiltshire", "Cynric of Wessex", "Isle of Wight", "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae", "Ceawlin (name)", "Bristol", "Cambridge University Press", "Barbury Castle", "Cirencester", "Mercia", "Frisii", "Ceol of Wessex", "Marlborough, Wiltshire", "Ecclesiastical History of the English People", "Coregency", "Cerdic", "Anglo-Saxon", "Gildas", "bretwalda", "Gewisse", "Wessex", "R. E. Latham", "Wyboston", "Celtic Britons", "political fiction", "Humber", "William of Malmesbury", "Saxons", "Cynegils", "Ælle of Sussex", "River Great Ouse", "Surrey", "Alfred the Great" ]
6,779	Christchurch (disambiguation)	Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand. Christchurch may also refer to: ==Places== === New Zealand === Christchurch, New Zealand Christchurch (New Zealand electorate), a former electorate in New Zealand, also called Town (or City) of Christchurch Christchurch Central, the current electorate of Christchurch in New Zealand Christchurch mosque shootings, a 2019 terrorist attack in Christchurch, New Zealand === United Kingdom === Christchurch, Cambridgeshire, in England Christchurch, Dorset, town on the south coast of England RAF Christchurch, a WW II airfield near the town Christchurch (UK Parliament constituency), England, centred on the town Christchurch (Dorset) railway station, a railway station serving the town Christchurch, Gloucestershire, hamlet in the west of the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, England Christchurch, Newport, in Wales Christchurch Mansion, a stately home in Ipswich, Suffolk Christchurch Park, a park surrounding Christchurch Mansion Southwark Christchurch, England === Other countries === Christchurch, Virginia, United States Christ Church, Barbados, Barbados ==Educational institutions== Canterbury Christ Church University Christchurch School, Christchurch, Virginia, U.S. Christchurch Boys' High School, Christchurch, New Zealand Christchurch Girls' High School, Christchurch, New Zealand Christ Church, Oxford University of Otago Christchurch School of Medicine, one of three medical schools of University of Otago, New Zealand Christchurch Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School, Christchurch, Chennai, India ==Sports teams== Christchurch F.C., England Christchurch United, New Zealand Christchurch Technical, New Zealand Christchurch High School Old Boys, New Zealand ==Other uses== Christchurch-Campbell, an automobile made in 1922 ChristChurch London, an evangelic church in London, England Christchurch, Ilkley, a church in West Yorkshire, England	[ "Church of Christ (disambiguation)", "Christchurch Central", "Christchurch, Gloucestershire", "Christchurch Park", "Christchurch F.C.", "Christchurch Technical", "Canterbury Christ Church University", "Christchurch", "Christchurch Boys' High School", "Christchurch-Campbell", "Christ Church Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School", "Christchurch (New Zealand electorate)", "Christchurch, Virginia", "Christchurch, Dorset", "Christ Church (disambiguation)", "Christchurch High School Old Boys", "Christchurch (UK Parliament constituency)", "Southwark Christchurch", "Christchurch United", "Christchurch, Newport", "ChristChurch London", "Christchurch, Cambridgeshire", "Christian Church (disambiguation)", "Christchurch Mansion", "Christ Church, Barbados", "Christchurch Girls' High School", "Christchurch (Dorset) railway station", "RAF Christchurch", "Christchurch, Ilkley", "Christchurch mosque shootings", "Christchurch School", "History of Christchurch (disambiguation)", "University of Otago Christchurch School of Medicine", "Christchurch railway station (disambiguation)", "Christ Church Cathedral (disambiguation)", "Christ Church, Oxford" ]
6,780	CD-R	CD-R (Compact disc-recordable) is a digital optical disc storage format. A CD-R disc is a compact disc that can only be written once and read arbitrarily many times. CD-R discs (CD-Rs) are readable by most CD readers manufactured prior to the introduction of CD-R, unlike CD-RW discs. ==History== Originally named CD Write-Once (WO), the CD-R specification was first published in 1988 by Philips and Sony in the Orange Book, which consists of several parts that provide details of the CD-WO, CD-MO (Magneto-Optic), and later CD-RW (Re Writable). The latest editions have abandoned the use of the term CD-WO in favor of CD-R, while CD-MO was rarely used. Written CD-Rs and CD-RWs are, in the aspect of low-level encoding and data format, fully compatible with the audio CD (Red Book CD-DA) and data CD (Yellow Book CD-ROM) standards. The Yellow Book standard for CD-ROM only specifies a high-level data format and refers to the Red Book for all physical format and low-level code details, such as track pitch, linear bit density, and bitstream encoding. This means they use Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation, CIRC error correction, and, for CD-ROM, the third error correction layer defined in the Yellow Book. Properly written CD-R discs on blanks of less than 80 minutes in length are fully compatible with the audio CD and CD-ROM standards in all details including physical specifications. 80-minute CD-R discs marginally violate the Red Book physical format specifications, and longer discs are non-compliant. CD-RW discs have lower reflectivity than CD-R or pressed (non-writable) CDs and for this reason cannot meet the Red Book standard. Some hardware compatible with Red Book CDs may have difficulty reading CD-Rs and, because of their lower reflectivity, especially CD-RWs. To the extent that CD hardware can read extended-length discs or CD-RW discs, it is because that hardware has capability beyond the minimum required by the Red Book and Yellow Book standards (the hardware is more capable than it needs to be to bear the Compact Disc logo). CD-R recording systems available in 1990 were similar to the washing machine-sized Meridian CD Publisher, based on the two-piece rack mount Yamaha PDS audio recorder costing $35,000, not including the required external ECC circuitry for data encoding, SCSI hard drive subsystem, and MS-DOS control computer. On July 3, 1991, the first recording of a concert directly to CD was made using a Yamaha YPDR 601. The concert was performed by Claudio Baglioni at the Stadio Flaminio in Rome, Italy. At that time, it was generally anticipated that recordable CDs would have a lifetime of no more than 10 years. However, as of July 2020 the CD from this live recording still plays back with no uncorrectable errors. In the same year, the first company to successfully & professionally duplicate CD-R media was CDRM Recordable Media. With quality technical media being limited from Taiyo Yuden, Early CD-R Media used Phthalocyanine dye for duplication, which has a light aqua color. By 1992, the cost of typical recorders was down to $10,000–12,000, and in September 1995, Hewlett-Packard introduced its model 4020i manufactured by Philips, which, at $995, was the first recorder to cost less than $1000. As of the 2010s, devices capable of writing to CD-Rs and other types of writable CDs could be found under $20. The dye materials developed by Taiyo Yuden made it possible for CD-R discs to be compatible with Audio CD and CD-ROM discs. In the United States, there is a market separation between "music" CD-Rs and "data" CD-Rs, the former being notably more expensive than the latter due to industry copyright arrangements with the RIAA. Specifically, the price of every music CD-R includes a mandatory royalty disbursed to RIAA members by the disc manufacturer; this grants the disc an "application flag" indicating that the royalty has been paid. Consumer standalone music recorders refuse to burn CD-Rs that are missing this flag. Professional CD recorders are not subject to this restriction and can record music to data discs. The two types of discs are functionally and physically identical other than this, and computer CD burners can record data and/or music to either. New music CD-Rs are still being manufactured as of the late 2010s, although demand for them has declined as CD-based music recorders have been supplanted by other devices incorporating the same or similar functionality. Prior to CD-R, Tandy Corporation had announced a rewritable CD system known as the Tandy High-Density Optical Recording (THOR) system, claiming to offer support for erasable and rewritable discs, made possible by a "secret coating material" on which Tandy had applied for patents, and reportedly based partly on a process developed by Optical Data Inc., Known also as the Tandy High-Intensity Optical Recording system, THOR-CD media was intended to be playable in existing CD players, being compatible with existing CD audio and CD-ROM equipment, with the discs themselves employing a layer in which the "marks", "bumps" or "pits" readable by a conventional CD player could be established in, and removed from, the medium by a laser operating at a different frequency. Tandy's announcement was surprising enough to "catch half a dozen industries off guard", claiming availability of consumer-level audio and video products below $500 by the end of 1990, The announcement attracted enthusiasm but also skepticism of Tandy's capability to deliver the system, ==Physical characteristics== A standard CD-R is a thick disc made of polycarbonate about 120 mm (5") in diameter. The 120 mm (5") disc has a storage capacity of 74 minutes of audio or 650 Megabytes (MBs) of data. CD-R/RWs are available with capacities of 80 minutes of audio or 737,280,000 bytes (703.125 MiB), which they achieve by molding the disc at the tightest allowable tolerances specified in the Orange Book CD-R/CD-RW standards. The engineering margin that was reserved for manufacturing tolerance has been used for data capacity instead, leaving no tolerance for manufacturing; for these discs to be truly compliant with the Orange Book standard, the manufacturing process must be perfect. Despite the foregoing, most CD-Rs on the market have an 80-minute capacity. There are also 90 minute/790 MB and 99 minute/870 MB discs, although they are less common and depart from the Orange Book standard. Due to the limitations of the data structures in the ATIP, 90 and 99-minute blanks will identify as 80-minute ones. As the ATIP is part of the Orange Book standard, its design does not support some nonstandard disc configurations. In order to use the additional capacity, these discs have to be burned using overburn options in the CD recording software. Overburning itself is so named because it is outside the written standards, but, due to market demand, it has nonetheless become a de facto standard function in most CD writing drives and software for them. Some drives use special techniques, such as Plextor's GigaRec or Sanyo's HD-BURN, to write more data onto a given disc; these techniques are deviations from the compact disc (Red, Yellow, and/or Orange Book) standards, making the recorded discs proprietary-formatted and not fully compatible with standard CD players and drives. In certain applications where discs will not be distributed or exchanged outside a private group and will not be archived for a long time, a proprietary format may be an acceptable way to obtain greater capacity (up to 1.2 GB with GigaRec or 1.8 GB with HD-BURN on 99-minute media). The greatest risk in using such a proprietary data storage format, assuming that it works reliably as designed, is that it may be difficult or impossible to repair or replace the hardware used to read the media if it fails, is damaged, or is lost after its original vendor discontinues it. Nothing in the Red, Yellow, or Orange Book standards prohibits disc reading/writing devices from having the capacity to read/write discs beyond the compact disc standards. The standards do require discs to meet precise requirements in order to be called compact discs, but the other discs may be called by other names; if this were not true, no DVD drive could legally bear the compact disc logo. While disc players and drives may have capabilities beyond the standards, enabling them to read and write nonstandard discs, there is no assurance, in the absence of explicit additional manufacturer specifications beyond normal compact disc logo certification, that any particular player or drive will perform beyond the standards at all or consistently. If the same device with no explicit performance specs beyond the compact disc logo initially handles nonstandard discs reliably, there is no assurance that it will not later stop doing so, and in that case, there is no assurance that it can be made to do so again by service or adjustment. Discs with capacities larger than 650 MB, and especially those larger than 700 MB, are less interchangeable among players/drives than standard discs and are not very suitable for archival use, as their readability on future equipment, or even on the same equipment at a future time, is not assured unless specifically tested and certified in that combination, even under the assumption that the discs will not degrade at all. The polycarbonate disc contains a spiral groove, called the pregroove because it is molded in before data are written to the disc; it guides the laser beam upon writing and reading information. The pregroove is molded into the top side of the polycarbonate disc, where the pits and lands would be molded if it were a pressed, nonrecordable Red Book CD. The bottom side, which faces the laser beam in the player or drive, is flat and smooth. The polycarbonate disc is coated on the pregroove side with a very thin layer of organic dye. Then, on top of the dye is coated a thin, reflecting layer of silver, a silver alloy, or gold. Finally, a protective coating of a photo-polymerizable lacquer is applied on top of the metal reflector and cured with UV light. A blank CD-R is not "empty"; the pregroove has a wobble (the ATIP), which helps the writing laser to stay on track and to write the data to the disc at a constant rate. Maintaining a constant rate is essential to ensure the proper size and spacing of the pits and lands burned into the dye layer. As well as providing timing information, the ATIP (absolute time in pregroove) is also a data track containing information about the CD-R manufacturer, the dye used, and media information (disc length and so on). The pregroove is not destroyed when the data are written to the CD-R, a point which some copy protection schemes use to distinguish copies from an original CD. === Dyes === There are three basic formulations of dye used in CD-Rs: Cyanine dye CD-Rs were the earliest ones developed, and their formulation is patented by Taiyo Yuden. CD-Rs based on this dye are mostly green in color. The earlier models were very chemically unstable and this made cyanine-based discs unsuitable for archival use; they could fade and become unreadable in a few years. Many manufacturers like Taiyo Yuden use proprietary chemical additives, typically a metal atom bonded to the cyanine molecule, to make more stable cyanine discs ("metal-stabilized Cyanine", "Super Cyanine"). Older cyanine dye-based CD-Rs, as well as all the hybrid dyes based on cyanine, are very sensitive to UV-rays and can become unreadable after only a few days if they were exposed to direct sunlight. Although the additives used have made cyanine more stable, it is still the most sensitive of the dyes in UV rays (showing signs of degradation within a week of direct sunlight exposure). A common mistake users make is to leave the CD-Rs with the "clear" (recording) surface upwards, in order to protect it from scratches, as this lets the sun hit the recording surface directly. Phthalocyanine dye CD-Rs are usually silver, gold, or light green. The patents on phthalocyanine CD-Rs are held by Mitsui and Ciba Specialty Chemicals. Phthalocyanine is a natively stable dye (has no need for stabilizers) and CD-Rs based on this are often given a rated lifetime of hundreds of years. Unlike cyanine, phthalocyanine is more resistant to UV rays, and CD-Rs based on this dye show signs of degradation only after two weeks of direct sunlight exposure. However, phthalocyanine is more sensitive than cyanine to writing laser power calibration, meaning that the power level used by the writing laser has to be more accurately adjusted for the disc in order to get a good recording; this may erode the benefits of dye stability, as marginally written discs (with higher correctable error rates) will lose data (i.e. have uncorrectable errors) after less dye degradation than well-written discs (with lower correctable error rates). Azo dye CD-Rs are dark blue in color, and their formulation is patented by Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation. Azo dyes are also chemically stable, and Azo CD-Rs are typically rated with a lifetime of decades. Azo is the most resistant dye against UV light and begins to degrade only after the third or fourth week of direct sunlight exposure. More modern implementations of this kind of dye include Super Azo which is not as deep blue as the earlier Metal Azo. This change of composition was necessary in order to achieve higher writing speeds. There are many hybrid variations of the dye formulations, such as Formazan by Kodak (a hybrid of cyanine and phthalocyanine). Many manufacturers have added additional coloring to disguise their unstable cyanine CD-Rs in the past, so the formulation of a disc cannot be determined based purely on its color. Similarly, a gold reflective layer does not guarantee the use of phthalocyanine dye. The quality of the disc is also not only dependent on the dye used, it is also influenced by sealing, the top layer, the reflective layer, and the polycarbonate. Simply choosing a disc based on its dye type may be problematic. Furthermore, correct power calibration of the laser in the writer, as well as correct timing of the laser pulses, stable disc speed, and so on, is critical to not only the immediate readability but the longevity of the recorded disc, so for archiving it is important to have not only a high-quality disc but a high-quality writer. In fact, a high-quality writer may produce adequate results with medium-quality media, but high-quality media cannot compensate for a mediocre writer, and discs written by such a writer cannot achieve their maximum potential archival lifetime. ==Speed== These times only include the actual optical writing pass over the disc. For most disc recording operations, additional time is used for overhead processes, such as organizing the files and tracks, which adds to the theoretical minimum total time required to produce a disc. (An exception might be making a disc from a prepared ISO image, for which the overhead would likely be trivial.) At the lowest write speeds, this overhead takes so much less time than the actual disc writing pass that it may be negligible, but at higher write speeds, the overhead time becomes a larger proportion of the overall time taken to produce a finished disc and may add significantly to it. Also, above 20× speed, drives use a Zoned-CLV or CAV strategy, where the advertised maximum speed is only reached near the outer rim of the disc. This is not taken into account by the above table. (If this were not done, the faster rotation that would be required at the inner tracks could cause the disc to fracture and/or could cause excessive vibration which would make accurate and successful writing impossible.) ==Writing methods== The blank disc has a pre-groove track onto which the data are written. The pre-groove track, which also contains timing information, ensures that the recorder follows the same spiral path as a conventional CD. A CD recorder writes data to a CD-R disc by pulsing its laser to heat areas of the organic dye layer. The writing process does not produce indentations (pits); instead, the heat permanently changes the optical properties of the dye, changing the reflectivity of those areas. Using a low power laser, so as not to further alter the dye, the disc is read back in the same way as a CD-ROM. However, the reflected light is modulated not by pits, but by the alternating regions of heated and unaltered dye. The change of the intensity of the reflected laser radiation is transformed into an electrical signal, from which the digital information is recovered ("decoded"). Once a section of a CD-R is written, it cannot be erased or rewritten, unlike a CD-RW. A CD-R can be recorded in multiple sessions. A CD recorder can write to a CD-R using several methods including: Disc At Once – the whole CD-R is written in one session with no gaps and the disc is "closed" meaning no more data can be added and the CD-R effectively becomes a standard read-only CD. With no gaps between the tracks, the Disc At Once format is useful for "live" audio recordings. Track At Once – data are written to the CD-R one track at a time but the CD is left "open" for further recording at a later stage. It also allows data and audio to reside on the same CD-R. Packet Writing – used to record data to a CD-R in "packets", allowing extra information to be appended to a disc at a later time, or for information on the disc to be made "invisible". In this way, CD-R can emulate CD-RW; however, each time information on the disc is altered, more data has to be written to the disc. There can be compatibility issues with this format and some CD drives. With careful examination, the written and unwritten areas can be distinguished by the naked eye. CD-Rs are written from the center outwards, so the written area appears as an inner band with slightly different shading. CDs have a Power Calibration Area, used to calibrate the writing laser before and during recording. CDs contain two such areas: one close to the inner edge of the disc, for low-speed calibration, and another on the outer edge on the disc, for high-speed calibration. The calibration results are recorded on a Recording Management Area (RMA) that can hold up to 99 calibrations. The disc cannot be written after the RMA is full, however, the RMA may be emptied in CD-RW discs. ===Formatting CD-R into CD-ROM=== Choosing a finalize disc or close disc option during a burn setup, it will no longer accept any future writes, and become read-only. ==Lifespan== Real-life (not accelerated aging) tests have revealed that some CD-Rs degrade quickly even if stored normally. The quality of a CD-R disc has a large and direct influence on longevity—low-quality discs should not be expected to last very long. According to research conducted by J. Perdereau, CD-Rs are expected to have an average life expectancy of 10 years. Branding is not a reliable guide to quality, because many brands (major as well as no name) do not manufacture their own discs. Instead, they are sourced from different manufacturers of varying quality. For best results, the actual manufacturer and material components of each batch of discs should be verified. Burned CD-Rs suffer from material degradation, just like most writable media. CD-R media have an internal layer of dye used to store data. In a CD-RW disc, the recording layer is made of an alloy of silver and other metals—indium, antimony, and tellurium. In CD-R media, the dye itself can degrade, causing data to become unreadable. As well as degradation of the dye, failure of a CD-R can be due to the reflective surface. While silver is less expensive and more widely used, it is more prone to oxidation, resulting in a non-reflecting surface. Gold, on the other hand, although more expensive and no longer widely used, is an inert material, so gold-based CD-Rs do not suffer from this problem. Manufacturers have estimated the longevity of gold-based CD-Rs to be as high as 100 years. By measuring the rate of correctable data errors, the data integrity and/or manufacturing quality of CD-R media can be measured, allowing for a reliable prediction of future data losses caused by media degradation. ==Labeling== It is recommended if using adhesive-backed paper labels that the labels be specially made for CD-Rs. A balanced CD vibrates only slightly when rotated at high speed. Bad or improperly made labels, or labels applied off-center, unbalance the CD and can cause it to vibrate when it spins, which causes read errors and even risks damaging the drive. A professional alternative to CD labels is pre-printed CDs using a 5-color silkscreen or offset press. Using a permanent marker pen is also a common practice. However, solvents from such pens can affect the dye layer. ==Disposal== ===Data confidentiality=== Since CD-Rs, in general, cannot be logically erased to any degree, the disposal of CD-Rs presents a possible security issue if they contain sensitive/private data. Destroying the data requires physically destroying the disc or data layer. Heating the disc in a microwave oven for 10–15 seconds effectively destroys the data layer by causing arcing in the metal reflective layer, but this same arcing may cause damage or excessive wear to the microwave oven. Many office paper shredders are also designed to shred CDs. Some recent burners (Plextor, LiteOn) support erase operations on -R media, by "overwriting" the stored data with strong laser power, although the erased area cannot be overwritten with new data. ===Recycling=== The polycarbonate material and possible gold or silver in the reflective layer would make CD-Rs highly recyclable. However, the polycarbonate is of very little value and the quantity of precious metals is so small that it is not profitable to recover them. Consequently, recyclers that accept CD-Rs typically do not offer compensation for donating or transporting the materials.	[ "GD-ROM", "DVD-R", "data storage device", "Absolute Time In Pregroove", "Optical Storage Technology Association", "CD caddy", "Orange Book (CD standard)", "Optical disc", "ultraviolet", "SCSI", "Claudio Baglioni", "Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation", "Kilobit", "Gold", "digital media", "TechRepublic", "red", "Hewlett-Packard", "DVD recordable", "Write once read many", "Packet Writing", "DVD+R DL", "Track At Once", "Internet Archive", "Imagine Media", "Ciba Specialty Chemicals", "BBC", "Taiyo Yuden", "alloy", "polycarbonate", "Tandy Corporation", "CD recorder", "copy protection", "Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation", "compact disc", "DVD-RW", "Megabyte", "Absolute Time in Pregroove", "Next Generation (magazine)", "LaserDisc", "Optical disc authoring", "patent", "Cyanine", "dye", "Labelflash", "List of optical disc manufacturers", "CD-DA", "MIL-CD", "Rainbow Books", "Kilobyte", "Philips", "RIAA", "Overburn", "copyright", "DVD+R", "Formazan", "HD DVD", "Constant linear velocity", "Kodak", "MS-DOS", "oxidation", "Sony", "Nanometre", "CD-ROM", "silver", "Mitsui", "Yamaha Corporation", "Error correction code", "CD-MO", "LightScribe", "Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding", "gold", "laser", "Time (magazine)", "CD-RW", "DVD", "infrared", "Phthalocyanine", "Disc At Once", "Blu-ray Disc", "Royalty payment", "Compact disc", "MultiLevel Recording", "cyanine", "Yamaha YPDR 601", "Azo dye", "disc rot", "optical disc" ]
6,781	Cytosol	thumb\|right\|300px\|The cytosol is a crowded solution of many different types of molecules that occupy up to 30% of the cytoplasmic volume. is one of the liquids found inside cells ([[Fluid compartments#Intracellular compartment\|intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into many compartments. In the eukaryotic cell, the cytosol is surrounded by the cell membrane and is part of the cytoplasm, which also comprises the mitochondria, plastids, and other organelles (but not their internal fluids and structures); the cell nucleus is separate. The cytosol is thus a liquid matrix around the organelles. In prokaryotes, most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol, while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space. In eukaryotes, while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol, others take place within organelles. The cytosol is a complex mixture of substances dissolved in water. Although water forms the large majority of the cytosol, its structure and properties within cells is not well understood. The concentrations of ions such as sodium and potassium in the cytosol are different to those in the extracellular fluid; these differences in ion levels are important in processes such as osmoregulation, cell signaling, and the generation of action potentials in excitable cells such as endocrine, nerve and muscle cells. The cytosol also contains large amounts of macromolecules, which can alter how molecules behave, through macromolecular crowding. Although it was once thought to be a simple solution of molecules, the cytosol has multiple levels of organization. These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium, large complexes of enzymes that act together and take part in metabolic pathways, and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol. ==Definition== The term "cytosol" was first introduced in 1965 by H. A. Lardy, and initially referred to the liquid that was produced by breaking cells apart and pelleting all the insoluble components by ultracentrifugation. This excludes any part of the cytoplasm that is contained within organelles. were used for the cell fluid, not always synonymously, as its nature was not well understood (see protoplasm). The cytosol consists mostly of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as proteins). The majority of these non-protein molecules have a molecular mass of less than 300 Da. This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex, as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism (the metabolites) is immense. For example, up to 200,000 different small molecules might be made in plants, although not all these will be present in the same species, or in a single cell. Estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as E. coli and baker's yeast predict that under 1,000 are made. ===Water=== Most of the cytosol is water, which makes up about 70% of the total volume of a typical cell. The pH of the intracellular fluid is 7.4. while mouse cell cytosolic pH ranges between 7.0 and 7.4, and is usually higher if a cell is growing. The viscosity of cytoplasm is roughly the same as pure water, although diffusion of small molecules through this liquid is about fourfold slower than in pure water, due mostly to collisions with the large numbers of macromolecules in the cytosol. Studies in the brine shrimp have examined how water affects cell functions; these saw that a 20% reduction in the amount of water in a cell inhibits metabolism, with metabolism decreasing progressively as the cell dries out and all metabolic activity halting when the water level reaches 70% below normal. Although water is vital for life, the structure of this water in the cytosol is not well understood, mostly because methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy only give information on the average structure of water, and cannot measure local variations at the microscopic scale. Even the structure of pure water is poorly understood, due to the ability of water to form structures such as water clusters through hydrogen bonds. However, others argue that the effects of the high concentrations of macromolecules in cells extend throughout the cytosol and that water in cells behaves very differently from the water in dilute solutions. These ideas include the proposal that cells contain zones of low and high-density water, which could have widespread effects on the structures and functions of the other parts of the cell. However, the use of advanced nuclear magnetic resonance methods to directly measure the mobility of water in living cells contradicts this idea, as it suggests that 85% of cell water acts like that pure water, while the remainder is less mobile and probably bound to macromolecules. ===Ions=== The concentrations of the other ions in cytosol are quite different from those in extracellular fluid and the cytosol also contains much higher amounts of charged macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids than the outside of the cell structure. In contrast to extracellular fluid, cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions. This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside. Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential. To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions also exit the cell, through selective chloride channels. The loss of sodium and chloride ions compensates for the osmotic effect of the higher concentration of organic molecules inside the cell. In this state the cytosol and osmoprotectants become a glass-like solid that helps stabilize proteins and cell membranes from the damaging effects of desiccation. The low concentration of calcium in the cytosol allows calcium ions to function as a second messenger in calcium signaling. Here, a signal such as a hormone or an action potential opens calcium channel so that calcium floods into the cytosol. This sudden increase in cytosolic calcium activates other signalling molecules, such as calmodulin and protein kinase C. Other ions such as chloride and potassium may also have signaling functions in the cytosol, but these are not well understood. ===Macromolecules=== Protein molecules that do not bind to cell membranes or the cytoskeleton are dissolved in the cytosol. The amount of protein in cells is extremely high, and approaches 200 mg/ml, occupying about 20–30% of the volume of the cytosol. However, measuring precisely how much protein is dissolved in cytosol in intact cells is difficult, since some proteins appear to be weakly associated with membranes or organelles in whole cells and are released into solution upon cell lysis. However, the idea that the majority of the proteins in cells are tightly bound in a network called the microtrabecular lattice is now seen as unlikely. In prokaryotes the cytosol contains the cell's genome, within a structure known as a nucleoid. This is an irregular mass of DNA and associated proteins that control the transcription and replication of the bacterial chromosome and plasmids. In eukaryotes the genome is held within the cell nucleus, which is separated from the cytosol by nuclear pores that block the free diffusion of any molecule larger than about 10 nanometres in diameter. This high concentration of macromolecules in cytosol causes an effect called macromolecular crowding, which is when the effective concentration of other macromolecules is increased, since they have less volume to move in. This crowding effect can produce large changes in both the rates and the position of chemical equilibrium of reactions in the cytosol. ==Organization== Although the components of the cytosol are not separated into regions by cell membranes, these components do not always mix randomly and several levels of organization can localize specific molecules to defined sites within the cytosol. ===Concentration gradients=== Although small molecules diffuse rapidly in the cytosol, concentration gradients can still be produced within this compartment. A well-studied example of these are the "calcium sparks" that are produced for a short period in the region around an open calcium channel. These are about 2 micrometres in diameter and last for only a few milliseconds, although several sparks can merge to form larger gradients, called "calcium waves". Concentration gradients of other small molecules, such as oxygen and adenosine triphosphate may be produced in cells around clusters of mitochondria, although these are less well understood. ===Protein complexes=== Proteins can associate to form protein complexes, these often contain a set of proteins with similar functions, such as enzymes that carry out several steps in the same metabolic pathway. This organization can allow substrate channeling, which is when the product of one enzyme is passed directly to the next enzyme in a pathway without being released into solution. Channeling can make a pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol, and can also prevent the release of unstable reaction intermediates. Although a wide variety of metabolic pathways involve enzymes that are tightly bound to each other, others may involve more loosely associated complexes that are very difficult to study outside the cell. Consequently, the importance of these complexes for metabolism in general remains unclear. ===Protein compartments=== Some protein complexes contain a large central cavity that is isolated from the remainder of the cytosol. One example of such an enclosed compartment is the proteasome. Here, a set of subunits form a hollow barrel containing proteases that degrade cytosolic proteins. Since these would be damaging if they mixed freely with the remainder of the cytosol, the barrel is capped by a set of regulatory proteins that recognize proteins with a signal directing them for degradation (a ubiquitin tag) and feed them into the proteolytic cavity. Another large class of protein compartments are bacterial microcompartments, which are made of a protein shell that encapsulates various enzymes. These compartments are typically about 100–200 nanometres across and made of interlocking proteins. A well-understood example is the carboxysome, which contains enzymes involved in carbon fixation such as RuBisCO. ===Biomolecular condensates=== Non-membrane bound organelles can form as biomolecular condensates, which arise by clustering, oligomerisation, or polymerisation of macromolecules to drive colloidal phase separation of the cytoplasm or nucleus. ===Cytoskeletal sieving=== Although the cytoskeleton is not part of the cytosol, the presence of this network of filaments restricts the diffusion of large particles in the cell. For example, in several studies tracer particles larger than about 25 nanometres (about the size of a ribosome) were excluded from parts of the cytosol around the edges of the cell and next to the nucleus. These "excluding compartments" may contain a much denser meshwork of actin fibres than the remainder of the cytosol. These microdomains could influence the distribution of large structures such as ribosomes and organelles within the cytosol by excluding them from some areas and concentrating them in others. ==Function== The cytosol is the site of multiple cell processes. Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell, such as the cell nucleus, or organelles. This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis, after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis. Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used. This is relatively simple for water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol. Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles, which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins. The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes, and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes. For instance, in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol. The most complete data are available in yeast, where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol. Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms, for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa.	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Rev. Biochem.", "metabolic pathway", "adenosine triphosphate", "protein kinase C", "osmoregulation", "oxygen", "plasmid", "vesicle (biology)", "nanometre", "bacterial microcompartments", "plastid", "Fluid compartments", "osmoprotectant", "dissociation constant", "Bicarbonate", "fatty acid", "saponin", "betaines", "water cluster", "reaction rate", "actin", "motor protein", "molecular mass", "Escherichia coli", "membrane potential", "ubiquitin", "intracellular pH", "colloid", "viscosity", "chromosome", "Potassium", "action potential", "Atomic mass unit", "nucleoid", "carboxysome", "nuclear membrane", "oligomerisation", "cell membrane", "Sodium", "Chloride", "carbon fixation", "eukaryotic cell", "water", "osmosis", "cytoskeleton", "diffusion", "metabolite", "biomolecular condensate", "DNA replication", "macromolecules", "cell nucleus", "Amino acid", "Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase", "Annu. Rev. Physiol.", "action potentials", "activity (chemistry)", "electron microscope", "bacteria" ]
6,782	Compound	Compound may refer to: ==Architecture and built environments== Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive structures Compound (migrant labour), a hostel for migrant workers such as those historically connected with mines in South Africa The Compound, an area of Palm Bay, Florida, US Komboni or compound, a type of slum in Zambia ==Government and law== Composition (fine), a legal procedure in use after the English Civil War Committee for Compounding with Delinquents, an English Civil War institution that allowed Parliament to compound the estates of Royalists Compounding treason, an offence under the common law of England Compounding a felony, a previous offense under the common law of England ==Linguistics== Compound (linguistics), a word that consists of more than one radical element Compound sentence (linguistics), a type of sentence made up of two or more independent clauses and no subordinate (dependent) clauses ==Science, technology, and mathematics== ===Biology and medicine=== Compounding, the mixing of drugs in pharmacy Compound fracture, a complete fractures of bone where at least one fragment has damaged the skin, soft tissue or surrounding body cavity Compound leaf, a type of leaf being divided into smaller leaflets ===Chemistry and materials science=== Chemical compound, combination of two or more elements Plastic compounding, a method of preparing plastic formulations ===Vehicles and engines=== Compound engine, a steam engine in which steam is expanded through a series of two or three cylinders before exhaust Turbo-compound engine, an internal combustion engine where exhaust gases expand through power-turbines Compounding pressure, a method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages ===Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics=== Compound bow, a type of bow for archery Polyhedral compound, a polyhedron composed of multiple polyhedra sharing the same centre ==Other uses== ===Common names=== Compound (music), an attribute of a time signature Compound interest, in finance, unpaid interest that is added to the principal Compound chocolate, an inexpensive chocolate substitute that uses cocoa but excludes cocoa butter ===Proper names=== The Compound (book), a 2008 young adult novel by S. A. Bodeen Compound (company), a venture capital firm previously known as Metamorphic Ventures Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company, or Compound, a former US automobile manufacturer	[ "Compound (migrant labour)", "Plastic compounding", "Polyhedral compound", "Compound interest", "Compound fracture", "Compound chocolate", "Compound engine", "Committee for Compounding with Delinquents", "Compound operation (disambiguation)", "The Compound", "Komboni", "Compound bow", "WP:LONGDAB", "Compound sentence (linguistics)", "Compound (fortification)", "Compounding a felony", "Compound (company)", "Compound (enclosure)", "Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company", "Chemical compound", "Compounding pressure", "Compound (music)", "Composition (fine)", "Compounding", "Turbo-compound engine", "Compound (linguistics)", "The Compound (book)", "Composite (disambiguation)", "Compounding treason", "Compound leaf" ]
6,784	Citizenship	Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state. Though citizenship is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use the term citizenship to refer to nationality; these two notions are conceptually different dimensions of collective membership. Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work, reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring a passport. Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid, citizens have been made second-class citizens. Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects, Place of residence. In some countries, non-citizens can vote. Citizenship by honorary conferment. This type of citizenship is conferred to an individual as a sign of honour. Excluded categories. In most countries, minors are not considered as full citizens. In the past, there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as skin color, ethnicity, sex, land ownership status, and free status (not being a slave). Most of these exclusions no longer apply in most places. Modern examples include some Gulf countries which rarely grant citizenship to non-Muslims, e.g. Qatar is known for granting citizenship to foreign athletes, but they all have to profess the Islamic faith in order to receive citizenship. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, and internationally adopted children born after February 27, 1983. Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before February 27, 1983, even though their parents meet citizenship criteria. === Responsibilities of a citizen === Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community. The Constitution of Ghana (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote the prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana. Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword. These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians. Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights. Some of the rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness, the right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself. === Polis === Many thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben in his work extending the biopolitical framework of Foucault's History of Sexuality in the book, Homo Sacer, point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights. An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of Homo Sacer or the bare life. Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom. Hosking explained: {{Blockquote\|It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men.\|Geoffrey Hosking, 2005 Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long", but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship. The Naturalization Act of 1790, the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming a citizen thereof." Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford, which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them." It was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Two years later, the Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent". Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans, Asians, and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by the US Congress, such as laws in 1906, 1917, and 1924, would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories. Supreme Court cases such as Ozawa v. the United States (1922) and U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law. Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans. It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However, the act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920". It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of a less discriminatory system. ====Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics==== The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class." It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election." The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia. ====Nazi Germany==== Nazism, the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship was conferred only on males of German (or so-called "Aryan") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich, and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship. The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany). The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights. In 2021, the German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens. ====Israel==== The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent) for Jews and jus soli (citizenship by place of birth) for others. ====India==== Indian Citizenship Act, 1955, the first law in Indian history to establish rules for citizenship are jus soli (citizenship by place of birth), jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent), citizenship by registration, citizenship by naturalization and citizenship by incorporation of territory. ==Different senses== Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and a political one. For further information, see History of citizenship. Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties. In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations." Citizenship is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time. In China, for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship", argued by an academic article. How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As a bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government. It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as the family, military service, the individual, freedom, religion, ideas of right, and wrong, ethnicity, and patterns for how a person should behave in society. Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas: The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizens should have entitlements necessary for human dignity. It assumes people act for the purpose of enlightened self-interest. According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it comes under attack, Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean. One last distinction within citizenship is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent. ==International== Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship. ===European Union=== The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship. An agreement is known as the amended EC Treaty which predate the introduction of Union citizenship. ===Mercosur=== Citizenship of the Mercosur is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states. It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of "Mercosur Citizen". ===Commonwealth=== The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: Some such countries do not require tourist visas of citizens of other Commonwealth countries or allow some Commonwealth citizens to stay in the country for tourism purposes without a visa for longer than citizens of other countries. In some Commonwealth countries, resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the right to vote in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election. In some instances the right to work in any position (including the civil service) is granted, except for certain specific positions, such as in the defense departments, Governor-General or President or Prime Minister. In the United Kingdom, all Commonwealth citizens legally residing in the country can vote and stand for office at all elections. Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom. Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 provided for a distinct Canadian Citizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand, by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. ==Subnational== Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is a citizenship of an individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy special provincial citizenship within Finland, hembygdsrätt. The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence, such as New York or California, as well as a citizen of the United States. State constitutions may grant certain rights above and beyond what is granted under the United States Constitution and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and some states maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization. ==Education== "Active citizenship" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, citizenship education is taught in schools, as an academic subject in some countries. By the time children reach secondary education there is an emphasis on such unconventional subjects to be included in an academic curriculum. While the diagram on citizenship to the right is rather facile and depthless, it is simplified to explain the general model of citizenship that is taught to many secondary school pupils. The idea behind this model within education is to instill in young pupils that their actions (i.e. their vote) affect collective citizenship and thus in turn them. ===Republic of Ireland=== It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE). A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics & Society' is being developed by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) and is expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012. ===United Kingdom=== Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools in the United Kingdom. As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, the justice system, human rights and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community. Citizenship is a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state schools in England for all pupils aged 11–16. Some schools offer a qualification in this subject at GCSE and A level. All state schools have a statutory requirement to teach the subject, assess pupil attainment and report student's progress in citizenship to parents. In Wales the model used is personal and social education. Citizenship is not taught as a discrete subject in Scottish schools, but is a cross-curricular strand of the Curriculum for Excellence. However they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues. Citizenship is taught as a standalone subject in all state schools in Northern Ireland and most other schools in some forms from year 8 to 10 prior to GCSEs. Components of Citizenship are then also incorporated into GCSE courses such as 'Learning for Life and Work'. ==Criticism== The concept of citizenship is criticized by open borders advocates, who argue that it functions as a caste, feudal, or apartheid system in which people are assigned dramatically different opportunities based on the accident of birth. It is also criticized by some libertarians, especially anarcho-capitalists. In 1987, moral philosopher Joseph Carens argued that "citizenship in Western liberal democracies is the modern equivalent of feudal privilege—an inherited status that greatly enhances one's life chances. Like feudal birthright privileges, restrictive citizenship is hard to justify when one thinks about it closely".	[ "sociology", "equality under the law", "Law of the United States", "Indian nationality law", "Princeton University Press", "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Qatar", "feudal", "International Organization for Migration", "human rights", "Honorary citizenship", "Chinese Exclusion Act", "Nazism", "Permanent residency", "city-state", "Citizenship Studies", "republic", "Giorgio Agamben", "women in Nazi Germany", "rights", "Helen Irving", "enlightened self-interest", "Supreme Court of the United States", "passport", "ancient Greece", "Irish citizen", "Naturalization Act of 1870", "discrimination", "dominion", "Election", "Ancient Greece", "Aristotle", "military service", "Canton (country subdivision)", "Crime of apartheid", "Indian Citizenship Act", "Credit score", "GCSEs", "religion", "Burgher (social class)", "right to vote", "Joseph Carens", "slave", "political freedom", "Immigration Act of 1924", "Soviet Union", "Recorded Books", "French Revolution", "social class", "ethnicity", "Aryan", "ethics", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "constitution", "Germans", "citizenship of the European Union", "New Zealand", "Mercosur", "United States", "Homo Sacer", "Islamic", "Non-resident citizen voting", "people", "Subnational entity", "Geoffrey Hosking", "Roman Empire", "civic responsibilities", "Nationality", "civitas", "Citizen rights", "sovereign state", "public", "Republics of the Soviet Union", "Arthur Stinchcombe", "New York (state)", "open borders", "law", "Ethics (journal)", "social contract", "guild", "United Kingdom", "Egypt", "New Mexico", "public sphere", "Commonwealth of Nations", "country", "democracy", "England", "caste", "Michel Foucault", "population", "Political freedom", "History of Sexuality", "A level", "metic", "disfranchisement", "duties", "Åland", "bourgeoisie", "Civic virtue", "Peoples", "Polis", "California", "Renaissance", "Privilege (legal ethics)", "Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946", "J. G. A. Pocock", "intergovernmental organization", "Subject (monarchy)", "Prime Minister", "Naturalization Act of 1790", "China", "Inter-Parliamentary Union", "Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918", "State (polity)", "Non-citizens (Latvia)", "plebs", "libertarian", "human dignity", "commoner", "Four Freedoms (European Union)", "National Council for Curriculum and Assessment", "Wales", "Spatial citizenship", "Solon", "Nationalism", "city", "United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind", "jus sanguinis", "Switzerland", "Irish Free State", "Right of abode", "General Certificate of Secondary Education", "permanent resident", "Education in Northern Ireland", "Citizen's dividend", "Residency (domicile)", "Gulf countries", "British subject", "British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948", "Maastricht Treaty", "Soviet (council)", "Canadian nationality law", "grand burgher", "jus soli", "Reich Citizenship Law", "Treaties of the European Union", "medieval commune", "Constitution of Ghana", "Native Americans in the United States", "civil service", "Transnational citizenship", "Republic of Ireland", "Patrician (ancient Rome)", "representative democracy", "visa (document)", "Governor-General", "President (government title)", "Finland", "United States Constitution", "family", "History of citizenship", "Scotland", "Non-citizen suffrage", "Civis Romanus sum", "Asian Americans", "UNHCR", "Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952", "Social rights (social contract theory)", "Member states of Mercosur", "British Nationality Act 1948", "Commune (administrative division)", "Daniele Archibugi", "anarcho-capitalist", "Loss of citizenship", "Dred Scott v. Sandford", "Racial policy of Nazi Germany", "Ozawa v. the United States", "American Civil War", "GCSE", "second-class citizen", "Citizenship in the United States", "History of British nationality law", "Active citizenship", "Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965", "Naturalization Act of 1906", "Suffrage", "aristocracy", "Immigration Act of 1917", "nobility", "apartheid", "Burgher (title)", "international law", "EC Treaty", "personal and social education", "Middle Ages", "nationality", "republicanism" ]
6,787	Chiapas	Chiapas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas, is one of the states that make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 124 municipalities and its capital and largest city is Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Other important population centers in Chiapas include Ocosingo, Tapachula, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán, and Arriaga. Chiapas is the southernmost state in Mexico, and it borders the states of Oaxaca to the west, Veracruz to the northwest, and Tabasco to the north, and the Petén, Quiché, Huehuetenango, and San Marcos departments of Guatemala to the east and southeast. Chiapas has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. In general, Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate. In the northern area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than per year. In the past, natural vegetation in this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been almost completely cleared to allow agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is still abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas and many other tropical crops near Tapachula. On the several parallel sierras or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, the climate can be quite moderate and foggy, allowing the development of cloud forests like those of Reserva de la Biosfera El Triunfo, home to a handful of horned guans, resplendent quetzals, and azure-rumped tanagers. Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak, Lacanha, Chinkultic, El Lagartero and Toniná. It is also home to one of the largest indigenous populations in the country, with twelve federally recognized ethnicities. == Etymology == The official name of the state is Chiapas, which is believed to have come from the ancient city of Chiapan, which in Náhuatl means "the place where the chia sage grows." After the Spanish arrived (1522), they established two cities called Chiapas de los Indios and Chiapas de los Españoles (1528), with the name of Provincia de Chiapas for the area around the cities. The first coat of arms of the region dates from 1535 as that of the Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal de las Casas). Chiapas painter Javier Vargas Ballinas designed the modern coat of arms. ==History== ===Pre-Columbian Era=== Hunter gatherers began to occupy the central valley of the state around 7000 BCE, but little is known about them. In the pre Classic period from 1800 BCE to 300 CE, agricultural villages appeared all over the state although hunter gather groups would persist for long after the era. Recent excavations in the Soconusco region of the state indicate that the oldest civilization to appear in what is now modern Chiapas is that of the Mokaya, which were cultivating corn and living in houses as early as 1500 BCE, making them one of the oldest in Mesoamerica. There is speculation that these were the forefathers of the Olmec, migrating across the Grijalva Valley and onto the coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico to the north, which was Olmec territory. The descendants of Mokaya are the Mixe-Zoque. Mayan civilization began in the pre-Classic period as well, but did not come into prominence until the Classic period (300–900 CE). Development of this culture was agricultural villages during the pre-Classic period with city building during the Classic as social stratification became more complex. In Chiapas, Mayan sites are mostly concentrated along the state's borders with Tabasco and Guatemala, near Mayan sites in those entities. Most of this area belongs to the Lacandon Jungle. Mayan civilization in the Lacandon area is marked by rising exploitation of rain forest resources, rigid social stratification, fervent local identity, waging war against neighboring peoples. The Spanish introduced new crops such as sugar cane, wheat, barley and indigo as main economic staples along native ones such as corn, cotton, cacao and beans. Livestock such as cattle, horses and sheep were introduced as well. Regions would specialize in certain crops and animals depending on local conditions and for many of these regions, communication and travel were difficult. Initially, "Chiapas" referred to the first two cities established by the Spanish in what is now the center of the state and the area surrounding them. Two other regions were also established, the Soconusco and Tuxtla, all under the regional colonial government of Guatemala. Chiapas, Soconusco and Tuxla regions were united to the first time as an intendencia during the Bourbon Reforms in 1790 as an administrative region under the name of Chiapas. However, within this intendencia, the division between Chiapas and Soconusco regions would remain strong and have consequences at the end of the colonial period. Following the end of Spanish rule in New Spain, it was unclear what new political arrangements would emerge. The isolation of Chiapas from centers of power, along with the strong internal divisions in the intendencia caused a political crisis after the royal government collapsed in Mexico City in 1821, ending the Mexican War of Independence. In 1821, a number of cities in Chiapas, starting in Comitán, declared the state's separation from the Spanish empire. In 1823, Guatemala became part of the United Provinces of Central America, which united to form a federal republic that would last from 1823 to 1839. With the exception of the pro-Mexican Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal) and some others, many Chiapanecan towns and villages favored a Chiapas independent of Mexico and some favored unification with Guatemala. Elites in highland cities pushed for incorporation into Mexico. Guatemala would not recognize Mexico's annexation of the Soconusco region until 1895, even though the border between Chiapas and Guatemala had been agreed upon in 1882. These families split into Liberals in the lowlands, who wanted further reform and Conservatives in the highlands who still wanted to keep some of the traditional colonial and church privileges. For most of the early and mid 19th century, Conservatives held most of the power and were concentrated in the larger cities of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapa (de Corzo), Tuxtla and Comitán. As Liberals gained the upper hand nationally in the mid-19th century, one Liberal politician Ángel Albino Corzo gained control of the state. Corzo became the primary exponent of Liberal ideas in the southeast of Mexico and defended the Palenque and Pichucalco areas from annexation by Tabasco. However, Corzo's rule would end in 1875, when he opposed the regime of Porfirio Díaz. ===Porfiriato, 1876–1911=== The Porfirio Díaz era at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th was initially thwarted by regional bosses called caciques, bolstered by a wave of Spanish and mestizo farmers who migrated to the state and added to the elite group of wealthy landowning families. He modernized public administration, transportation and promoted education. He also changed state policies to favor foreign investment, favored large land mass consolidation for the production of cash crops such as henequen, rubber, guayule, cochineal and coffee. Agricultural production boomed, especially coffee, which induced the construction of port facilities in Tonalá. The economic expansion and investment in roads also increased access to tropical commodities such as hardwoods, rubber and chicle. ===Early 20th century to 1960=== In the early 20th century and into the Mexican Revolution, the production of coffee was particularly important but labor-intensive. This would lead to a practice called enganche (hook), where recruiters would lure workers with advanced pay and other incentives such as alcohol and then trap them with debts for travel and other items to be worked off. This practice would lead to a kind of indentured servitude and uprisings in areas of the state, although they never led to large rebel armies as in other parts of Mexico. Since the 1930s, many indigenous and mestizos have migrated from the highland areas into the Lacandon Jungle with the populations of Altamirano, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo and Palenque rising from less than 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000. These migrants came to the jungle area to clear forest and grow crops and raise livestock, especially cattle. In Chiapas poor farmland and severe poverty afflict the Mayan Indians which led to unsuccessful non violent protests and eventually armed struggle started by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in January 1994. These events began to lead to political crises in the 1970s, with more frequent land invasions and takeovers of municipal halls. The arrival of thousands of refugees from Central America stressed Mexico's relationship with Guatemala, at one point coming close to war as well as a politically destabilized Chiapas. Although Mexico is not a signatory to the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, international pressure forced the government to grant official protection to at least some of the refugees. Camps were established in Chiapas and other southern states, and mostly housed Mayan peoples. However, most Central American refugees from that time never received any official status, estimated by church and charity groups at about half a million from El Salvador alone. The Mexican government resisted direct international intervention in the camps, but eventually relented somewhat because of finances. By 1990, it was estimated that there were over 200,000 Guatemalans and half a million from El Salvador, almost all peasant farmers and most under age twenty. In the 1980s, the politization of the indigenous and rural populations of the state that began in the 1960s and 1970s continued. In 1980, several ejido (communal land organizations) joined to form the Union of Ejidal Unions and United Peasants of Chiapas, generally called the Union of Unions, or UU. By 1988, this organization joined with other to form the ARIC-Union of Unions (ARIC-UU) and took over much of the Lacandon Jungle portion of the state. However, the movement was an economic one as well. Although the area has extensive resources, much of the local population of the state, especially in rural areas, did not benefit from this bounty. In the 1990s, two thirds of the state's residents did not have sewage service, only a third had electricity and half did not have potable water. Over half of the schools offered education only to the third grade and most pupils dropped out by the end of first grade. Grievances, strongest in the San Cristóbal and Lacandon Jungle areas, were taken up by a small leftist guerrilla band led by a man called only "Subcomandante Marcos." This small band, called the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN), came to the world's attention when on January 1, 1994 (the day the NAFTA treaty went into effect) EZLN forces occupied and took over the towns of San Cristobal de las Casas, Las Margaritas, Altamirano, Ocosingo and three others. They read their proclamation of revolt to the world and then laid siege to a nearby military base, capturing weapons and releasing many prisoners from the jails. There was some ambiguity about the relationship between Ruiz and Marcos and it was a constant feature of news coverage, with many in official circles using such to discredit Ruiz. Eventually, the activities of the Zapatistas began to worry the Roman Catholic Church in general and to upstage the diocese's attempts to re establish itself among Chiapan indigenous communities against Protestant evangelization. This would lead to a breach between the Church and the Zapatistas. The Zapatista story remained in headlines for a number of years. One reason for this was the December 1997 massacre of forty-five unarmed Tzotzil peasants, mostly women and children, by a government-backed paramilitary in the Zapatista-controlled village of Acteal in the Chenhaló municipality just north of San Cristóbal. This allowed many media outlets in Mexico to step up their criticisms of the government. The Zapatista movement has had some successes. The agricultural sector of the economy now favors ejidos and other commonly-owned land. Its economy is important to Mexico as a whole as well, producing coffee, corn, cacao, tobacco, sugar, fruit, vegetables and honey for export. It is also a key state for the nation's petrochemical and hydroelectric industries. A significant percentage of PEMEX's drilling and refining takes place in Chiapas and Tabasco, and Chiapas produces fifty-five percent of Mexico's hydroelectric energy. Chiapas is still considered isolated and distant from the rest of Mexico, both culturally and geographically. It has significantly underdeveloped infrastructure compared to the rest of the country, and its significant indigenous population with isolationist tendencies keep the state distinct culturally. Caracoles will remain open to locals but remain closed to outsiders, and the previous MAREZ system will be reorganized into a new autonomous system. Major cities include Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Tapachula, Palenque, Comitán, and Chiapa de Corzo. The Sierra Madre de Chiapas runs parallel to the Pacific coastline of the state, northwest to southeast as a continuation of the Sierra Madre del Sur. This area has the highest altitudes in Chiapas including the Tacaná Volcano, which rises above sea level. Most of these mountains are volcanic in origin although the nucleus is metamorphic rock. It has a wide range of climates but little arable land. It is mostly covered in middle altitude rainforest, high altitude rainforest, and forests of oaks and pines. The main commercial center of the sierra is the town of Motozintla, also near the Guatemalan border. The Central Depression is in the center of the state. It is an extensive semi flat area bordered by the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Central Highlands and the Northern Mountains. Within the depression there are a number of distinct valleys. The climate here can be very hot and humid in the summer, especially due to the large volume of rain received in July and August. The original vegetation was lowland deciduous forest with some rainforest of middle altitudes and some oaks above above sea level. The Eastern Mountains (Montañas del Oriente) are in the east of the state, formed by various parallel mountain chains mostly made of limestone and sandstone. Its altitude varies from . This area receives moisture from the Gulf of Mexico with abundant rainfall and exuberant vegetation, which creates the Lacandon Jungle, one of the most important rainforests in Mexico. The Northern Mountains (Montañas del Norte) are in the north of the state. They separate the flatlands of the Gulf Coast Plains from the Central Depression. Its rock is mostly limestone. These mountains also receive large amounts of rainfall with moisture from the Gulf of Mexico giving it a mostly hot and humid climate with rains year round. In the highest elevations around , temperatures are somewhat cooler and do experience a winter. The terrain is rugged with small valleys whose natural vegetation is high altitude rainforest. The ecosystem covers an area of approximately extending from Chiapas into northern Guatemala and southern Yucatán Peninsula and into Belize. This area contains as much as 25% of Mexico's total species diversity, most of which has not been researched. It has a predominantly hot and humid climate (Am w" i g) with most rain falling from summer to part of fall, with an average of between 2300 and 2600 mm per year. There is a short dry season from March to May. The predominant wild vegetation is perennial high rainforest. During the 20th century, the Lacandon has had a dramatic increase in population and along with it, severe deforestation. The population of municipalities in this area, Altamirano, Las Margaritas, Ocosingo and Palenque have risen from 11,000 in 1920 to over 376,000 in 2000. Migrants include Ch'ol, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal indigenous peoples along with mestizos, Guatemalan refugees and others. Most of these migrants are peasant farmers, who cut forest to plant crops. However, the soil of this area cannot support annual crop farming for more than three or four harvests. Of this remaining portion, Mexico is losing over five percent each year. The best preserved portion of the Lacandon is within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve. It is centered on what was a commercial logging grant by the Porfirio Díaz government, which the government later nationalized. However, this nationalization and conversion into a reserve has made it one of the most contested lands in Chiapas, with the already existing ejidos and other settlements within the park along with new arrivals squatting on the land. The highest peak in Chiapas is the Tacaná Volcano at above sea level. In accordance with an 1882 treaty, the dividing line between Mexico and Guatemala goes right over the summit of this volcano. The Sumidero Canyon was once the site of a battle between the Spaniards and Chiapanecan Indians. Many Chiapanecans chose to throw themselves from the high edges of the canyon rather than be defeated by Spanish forces. Today, the canyon is a popular destination for ecotourism. Visitors can take boat trips down the river that runs through the canyon and see the area's many birds and abundant vegetation. The El Ocote Biosphere Reserve was decreed in 1982 located in the Northern Mountains at the boundary with the Sierra Madre del Sur in the municipalities of Ocozocoautla, Cintalapa and Tecpatán. It has a surface area of and preserves a rainforest area with karst formations. The Lagunas de Montebello National Park was decreed in 1959 and consists of near the Guatemalan border in the municipalities of La Independencia and La Trinitaria. It contains two of the most threatened ecosystems in Mexico the "cloud rainforest" and the Soconusco rainforest. The El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, decreed in 1990, is located in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in the municipalities of Acacoyagua, Ángel Albino Corzo, Montecristo de Guerrero, La Concordia, Mapastepec, Pijijiapan, Siltepec and Villa Corzo near the Pacific Ocean with . It conserves areas of tropical rainforest and many freshwater systems endemic to Central America. ==Demographics== === Largest cities=== ===General statistics=== As of 2010, the population is 4,796,580, the eighth most populous state in Mexico. The 20th century saw large population growth in Chiapas. From fewer than one million inhabitants in 1940, the state had about two million in 1980, and over 4 million in 2005. Overcrowded land in the highlands was relieved when the rainforest to the east was subject to land reform. Cattle ranchers, loggers, and subsistence farmers migrated to the rain forest area. The population of the Lacandon was only one thousand people in 1950, but by the mid-1990s this had increased to 200 thousand. As of 2010, 78% lives in urban communities with 22% in rural communities. While birthrates are still high in the state, they have come down in recent decades from 7.4 per woman in 1950. However, these rates still mean significant population growth in raw numbers. About half of the state's population is under age 20, with an average age of 19. In 2005, there were 924,967 households, 81% headed by men and the rest by women. Most households were nuclear families (70.7%) with 22.1% consisting of extended families. More migrate out of Chiapas than migrate in, with emigrants leaving for Tabasco, Oaxaca, Veracruz, State of Mexico and the Federal District (Mexico City) primarily. There are a number of people in the state with African features. These are the descendants of slaves brought to the state in the 16th century. There are also those with predominantly European features who are the descendants of the original Spanish colonizers as well as later immigrants to Mexico. The latter mostly came at the end of the 19th and early 20th century under the Porfirio Díaz regime to start plantations. According to the 2020 Census, 1.02% of Chiapas's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent. ===Indigenous population=== ====Numbers and influence==== Over the history of Chiapas, there have been three main indigenous groups: the Mixes-Zoques, the Mayas and the Chiapas. Out of Chiapas's 111 municipios, 99 have majority indigenous populations. 22 municipalities have indigenous populations over 90%, and 36 municipalities have native populations exceeding 50%. However, despite population growth in indigenous villages, the percentage of indigenous to non indigenous continues to fall with less than 35% indigenous. Indian populations are concentrated in a few areas, with the largest concentration of indigenous-language-speaking individuals is living in 5 of Chiapas's 9 economic regions: Los Altos, Selva, Norte, Fronteriza, and Sierra. The remaining three regions, Soconusco, Centro and Costa, have populations that are considered to be predominantly mestizo. The state has about 13.5% of all of Mexico's indigenous population, These indigenous peoples have been historically resistant to assimilation into the broader Mexican society, with it best seen in the retention rates of indigenous languages and the historic demands for autonomy over geographic areas as well as cultural domains. Much of the latter has been prominent since the Zapatista uprising in 1994. Most of Chiapas's indigenous groups are descended from the Mayans, speaking languages that are closely related to one another, belonging to the Western Maya language group. The state was part of a large region dominated by the Mayans during the Classic period. The most common Western Maya languages are Tzeltal and Tzotzil along with Chontal, Ch’ol, Tojolabal, Chuj, Kanjobal, Acatec, Jacaltec and Motozintlec. Most indigenous communities are found in the municipalities of the Centro, Altos, Norte and Selva regions, with many having indigenous populations of over fifty percent. These include Bochil, Sitalá, Pantepec, Simojovel to those with over ninety percent indigenous such as San Juan Cancuc, Huixtán, Tenejapa, Tila, Oxchuc, Tapalapa, Zinacantán, Mitontic, Ocotepec, Chamula, and Chalchihuitán. Although most indigenous language speakers are bilingual, especially in the younger generations, many of these languages have shown resilience. Four of Chiapas's indigenous languages, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and Chol, are high-vitality languages, meaning that a high percentage of these ethnicities speak the language and that there is a high rate of monolingualism in it. It is used in over 80% of homes. Zoque is considered to be of medium-vitality with a rate of bilingualism of over 70% and home use somewhere between 65% and 80%. Maya is considered to be of low-vitality with almost all of its speakers bilingual with Spanish. The most spoken indigenous languages as of 2010 are Tzeltal with 461,236 speakers, Tzotzil with 417,462, Ch’ol with 191,947 and Zoque with 53,839. In total, there are 1,141,499 who speak an indigenous language or 27% of the total population. Of these, 14% do not speak Spanish. Studies done between 1930 and 2000 have indicated that Spanish is not dramatically displacing these languages. In raw number, speakers of these languages are increasing, especially among groups with a long history of resistance to Spanish/Mexican domination. The state's rich indigenous tradition along with its associated political uprisings, especially that of 1994, has great interest from other parts of Mexico and abroad. One major exception to the separatist, indigenous identity has been the case of the Chiapa people, from whom the state's name comes, who have mostly been assimilated and intermarried into the mestizo population. The raising of livestock, particularly chicken and turkey and to a lesser extent beef and farmed fish is also a major economic activity. Many indigenous people, in particular the Maya, are employed in the production of traditional clothing, fabrics, textiles, wood items, artworks and traditional goods such as jade and amber works. Tourism has provided a number of a these communities with markets for their handcrafts and works, some of which are very profitable. Relations between the indigenous ethnic groups is complicated. While there has been inter-ethnic political activism such as that promoted by the Diocese of Chiapas in the 1970s and the Zapatista movement in the 1990s, there has been inter-indigenous conflict as well. ====Tzeltals==== The Tzeltals call themselves Winik atel, which means "working men." This is the largest ethnicity in the state, mostly living southeast of San Cristóbal with the largest number in Amatenango. Tzotzils are found in the highlands or Los Altos and spread out towards the northeast near the border with Tabasco. However, Tzotzil communities can be found in almost every municipality of the state. They are concentrated in Chamula, Zinacantán, Chenalhó, and Simojovel. Their language is closely related to Tzeltal and distantly related to Yucatec Mayan and Lacandon. Men dress in short pants tied with a red cotton belt and a shirt that hangs down to their knees. They also wear leather huaraches and a hat decorated with ribbons. The women wear a red or blue skirt, a short huipil as a blouse, and use a chal or rebozo to carry babies and bundles. Tzotzil communities are governed by a katinab who is selected for life by the leaders of each neighborhood. The Tzotzils are also known for their continued use of the temazcal for hygiene and medicinal purposes. According to oral tradition, the Tojolabales came north from Guatemala. They are mostly located in the communities of Lacanjá Chansayab, Najá, and Mensabak in the Lacandon Jungle. They live near the ruins of Bonampak and Yaxchilan and local lore states that the gods resided here when they lived on Earth. They inhabit about a million hectares of rainforest but from the 16th century to the present, migrants have taken over the area, most of which are indigenous from other areas of Chiapas. This dramatically altered their lifestyle and worldview. Traditional Lacandon shelters are huts made with fonds and wood with an earthen floor, but this has mostly given way to modern structures. ====Mams==== The Mams are a Mayan ethnicity that numbers about 20,000 found in thirty municipalities, especially Tapachula, Motozintla, El Porvenir, Cacahoatán and Amatenango in the southeastern Sierra Madre of Chiapas. The state is divided into nine economic regions. These regions were established in the 1980s in order to facilitate statewide economic planning. Many of these regions are based on state and federal highway systems. These include Centro, Altos, Fronteriza, Frailesca, Norte, Selva, Sierra, Soconusco and Istmo-Costa. Despite being rich in resources, Chiapas, along with Oaxaca and Guerrero, lags behind the rest of the country in almost all socioeconomic indicators. , there were 889,420 residential units; 71% had running water, 77.3% sewerage, and 93.6% electricity. Because of its high rate of economic marginalization, more people migrate from Chiapas than migrate to it. Most of its socioeconomic indicators are the lowest in the country including income, education, health and housing. It has a significantly higher percentage of illiteracy than the rest of the country, although that situation has improved since the 1970s when over 45% were illiterate and 1980s, about 32%. The tropical climate presents health challenges, with most illnesses related to the gastro-intestinal tract and parasites. Although until the 1960s, many indigenous communities were considered by scholars to be autonomous and economically isolated, this was never the case. Economic conditions began forcing many to migrate to work, especially in agriculture for non-indigenous. However, unlike many other migrant workers, most indigenous in Chiapas have remained strongly tied to their home communities. The production of bananas, cacao and corn make Chiapas Mexico's second largest agricultural producer overall. Main power stations are located at Malpaso, La Angostura, Chicoasén and Peñitas, which produce about eight percent of Mexico's hydroelectric energy. One commercial reason is the market for crafts provided by the tourism industry. Another is that most indigenous communities can no longer provide for their own needs through agriculture. The need to generate outside income has led to many indigenous women producing crafts communally, which has not only had economic benefits but also involved them in the political process as well. One of the main minerals of the state is amber, much of which is 25 million years old, with quality comparable to that found in the Dominican Republic. Chiapan amber has a number of unique qualities, including much that is clear all the way through and some with fossilized insects and plants. Most Chiapan amber is worked into jewelry including pendants, rings and necklaces. Colors vary from white to yellow/orange to a deep red, but there are also green and pink tones as well. Since pre-Hispanic times, native peoples have believed amber to have healing and protective qualities. The largest amber mine is in Simojovel, a small village 130 km from Tuxtla Gutiérrez, which produces 95% of Chiapas's amber. Other mines are found in Huitiupán, Totolapa, El Bosque, Pueblo Nuevo Solistahuacán, Pantelhó and San Andrés Duraznal. According to the Museum of Amber in San Cristóbal, almost 300 kg of amber is extracted per month from the state. Prices vary depending on quality and color. The most traditional ceramic in Amatenango and Aguacatenango is a type of large jar called a cantaro used to transport water and other liquids. In addition to the sites on the Mayan Route, there are others within the state away from the border such as Toniná, near the city of Ocosingo. Other attractions along this route include Comitán de Domínguez and Chiapa de Corzo, along with small indigenous communities such as San Juan Chamula. The Coffee Route begins in Tapachula and follows a mountainous road into the Suconusco regopm. The route passes through Puerto Chiapas, a port with modern infrastructure for shipping exports and receiving international cruises. Others are based on the state's lakes and rivers. Laguna Verde is a lake in the Coapilla municipality. The lake is generally green but its tones constantly change through the day depending on how the sun strikes it. In the early morning and evening hours there can also be blue and ochre tones as well. The El Chiflón Waterfall is part of an ecotourism center located in a valley with reeds, sugarcane, mountains and rainforest. It is formed by the San Vicente River and has pools of water at the bottom popular for swimming. The Las Nubes Ecotourism center is located in the Las Margaritas municipality near the Guatemalan border. The area features a number of turquoise blue waterfalls with bridges and lookout points set up to see them up close. It is one of the most elaborately decorated in Mexico. The churches and former monasteries of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Francisco have ornamentation similar to that of the cathedral. The main structures in Chiapa de Corzo are the Santo Domingo monastery and the La Pila fountain. Santo Domingo has indigenous decorative details such as double headed eagles as well as a statue of the founding monk. In San Cristóbal, the Diego de Mazariegos house has a Plateresque facade, while that of Francisco de Montejo, built later in the 18th century has a mix of Baroque and Neoclassical. Art Deco structures can be found in San Cristóbal and Tapachula in public buildings as well as a number of rural coffee plantations from the Porfirio Díaz era. The two best-known poets from the state are Jaime Sabines and Rosario Castellanos, both from prominent Chiapan families. The first was a merchant and diplomat and the second was a teacher, diplomat, theatre director and the director of the Instituto Nacional Indigenista. Jaime Sabines is widely regarded as Mexico's most influential contemporary poet. His work celebrates everyday people in common settings. Chiapan dishes do not incorporate many chili peppers as part of their dishes. Rather, chili peppers are most often found in the condiments. One reason for that is that a local chili pepper, called the simojovel, is far too hot to use except very sparingly. Chiapan cuisine tends to rely more on slightly sweet seasonings in their main dishes such as cinnamon, plantains, prunes and pineapple are often found in meat and poultry dishes. The Diocese of Chiapas comprises almost the entire state, and centered on San Cristobal de las Casas. It was founded in 1538 by Pope Paul III to evangelize the area with its most famous bishop of that time Bartolomé de las Casas. Evangelization focused on grouping indigenous peoples into communities centered on a church. This bishop not only graciously evangelized the people in their own language, he worked to introduce many of the crafts still practiced today. While still a majority, only 53.9% percent of Chiapas residents profess the Catholic faith as of 2020, Some indigenous people mix Christianity with Indian beliefs. One particular area where this is strong is the central highlands in small communities such as San Juan Chamula. In one church in San Cristobal, Mayan rites including the sacrifice of animals is permitted inside the church to ask for good health or to "ward off the evil eye." By 2015, many indigenous Mayans and more than 700 Tzotzils have converted to Islam. In San Cristóbal, the Murabitun established a pizzeria, a carpentry workshop and a Quranic school (madrasa) where children learned Arabic and prayed five times a day in the backroom of a residential building, and women in head scarves have become a common sight. ==Archaeology== The earliest population of Chiapas was in the coastal Soconusco region, where the Chantuto peoples appeared, going back to 5500 BC. This was the oldest Mesoamerican culture discovered to date. The largest and best-known archaeological sites in Chiapas belong to the Mayan civilization. Apart from a few works by Franciscan friars, knowledge of Maya civilisation largely disappeared after the Spanish Conquest. In the mid-19th century, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood traveled though the sites in Chiapas and other Mayan areas and published their writings and illustrations. This led to serious work on the culture including the deciphering of its hieroglyphic writing. In Chiapas, principal Mayan sites include Palenque, Toniná, Bonampak, Lacanja, Sak Tz'i, Chinkultic and Tenam Puente, all or near in the Lacandon Jungle. They are technically more advanced than earlier Olmec sites, which can best be seen in the detailed sculpting and novel construction techniques, including structures of four stories in height. Mayan sites are not only noted for large numbers of structures, but also for glyphs, other inscriptions, and artwork that has provided a relatively complete history of many of the sites. Today, Palenque is a World Heritage Site and one of the best-known sites in Mexico. The site contains impressive ruins, with palaces and temples bordering a large plaza upon a terrace above the Usumacinta River. Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the monolithic carved stelae and the narrative stone reliefs carved on lintels spanning the temple doorways. Over 120 inscriptions have been identified on the various monuments from the site. The major groups are the Central Acropolis, the West Acropolis and the South Acropolis. The South Acropolis occupies the highest part of the site. The city of Bonampak features some of the finest remaining Maya murals. The realistically rendered paintings depict human sacrifices, musicians and scenes of the royal court. Multiple domestic constructions used by the population for religious purposes. “Plaza Muk’ul Ton” or Monuments Plaza where people used to gather for ceremonies was also unearthed by the team. ===Pre-Mayan cultures=== While the Mayan sites are the best-known, there are a number of other important sites in the state, including many older than the Maya civilization. The oldest sites are in the coastal Soconusco region. This includes the Mokaya culture, the oldest ceramic culture of Mesoamerica. Later, Paso de la Amada became important, in this site is built the oldest Mesoamerican ballcourt. Many of these sites are in Mazatan, Chiapas area. Izapa became an important pre-Mayan site as well. There are also other ancient sites including Tapachula and Tecpatán, and Pijijiapan. These sites contain numerous embankments and foundations that once lay beneath pyramids and other buildings. Some of these buildings have disappeared and others have been covered by jungle for about 3,000 years, unexplored. Pijijiapan and Izapa are on the Pacific coast and were the most important pre Hispanic cities for about 1,000 years, as the most important commercial centers between the Mexican Plateau and Central America. Sima de las Cotorras is a sinkhole 140 meters deep with a diameter of 160 meters in the municipality of Ocozocoautla. It contains ancient cave paintings depicting warriors, animals and more. It is best known as a breeding area for parrots, thousands of which leave the area at once at dawn and return at dusk. The state as its Museo Regional de Antropologia e Historia located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez focusing on the pre Hispanic peoples of the state with a room dedicated to its history from the colonial period. Most of Chiapas's illiterate population are indigenous women, who are often prevented from going to school. School absenteeism and dropout rates are highest among indigenous girls. ==Infrastructure== ===Transport=== The state has approximately of highway with 10,857 federally maintained and 11,660 maintained by the state. Almost all of these kilometers are paved. Major highways include the Las Choapas-Raudales-Ocozocoautla, which links the state to Oaxaca, Veracruz, Puebla and Mexico City. Major airports include Llano San Juan in Ocozocoautla, Francisco Sarabia National Airport (which was replaced by Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport) in Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Corazón de María Airport (which closed in 2010) in San Cristóbal de las Casas. These are used for domestic flights with the airports in Palenque and Tapachula providing international service into Guatemala. There are 22 other airfields in twelve other municipalities. Rail lines extend over 547.8 km. There are two major lines: one in the north of the state that links the center and southeast of the country, and the Costa Panamericana route, which runs from Oaxaca to the Guatemalan border. The port serves the state of Chiapas and northern Guatemala. Puerto Chiapas serves to import and export products across the Pacific to Asia, the United States, Canada and South America. It also has connections with the Panama Canal. A marina serves yachts in transit. There is an international airport located away as well as a railroad terminal ending at the port proper. 2010, the port gained a terminal for cruise ships with tours to the Izapa site, the Coffee Route, the city of Tapachula, Pozuelos Lake and an Artesanal Chocolate Tour. Principal exports through the port include banana and banana trees, corn, fertilizer and tuna. File:Puertochis1.JPG\|View of Port Chiapas File:TGZ Airport.jpg\|Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport ===Media=== There are thirty-six AM radio stations and sixteen FM stations. There are thirty-seven local television stations and sixty-six repeaters.	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languages", "Eduardo Ramírez Aguilar", "Sitalá", "Tumbalá", "Mayan Muslims", "Bonampak", "Chanal, Chiapas", "Tzotzil language", "Senate of Mexico", "adobo", "El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve", "Venustiano Carranza", "Luis Armando Melgar Bravo", "Marist Brothers", "Comitán", "Carnival", "tasajo", "Boca del Cielo", "Héctor Ventura Cruz", "indigo", "Chiapas Depression dry forests", "Francisco Sarabia National Airport", "V Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "Colombia", "La Libertad, Chiapas", "Irreligion", "sandstone", "Sak tzʼi (Maya site)", "Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees", "Guatemala", "Zoque language", "karst", "San Juan Cancuc", "New Spain", "Plateresque", "Honduras", "cloud forests", "Agustín de Iturbide", "Bourbon Reforms", "chayote", "Lacandon language", "Presbyterian", "epidemics", "emerald", "Quiché Department", "yo yos", "Olmec", "Misol Há", "Orographic lift", "Tonalá, Chiapas", "Hernán Cortés", "lacquer", "Tila, Chiapas", "List of cities in Mexico", "stucco", "jatropha", "Joaquín Zebadúa Alva", "Tabasco", "Afro-Mexican", "United Provinces of Central America", "Veracruz", "NAFTA", "shale", "iguana", "Abronia lythrochila", "salamander", "Mesoamerican chronology", "Yucatec Maya language", "Spain", "Presbyterians", "Ch'orti' people", "Sumidero Canyon", "Leopardus pardalis", "UNESCO", "crocodile", "Mayan peoples", "Captaincy General of Guatemala", "Usumacinta River", "Huitepec", "Chiapa de Corzo (Mesoamerican site)", "Alfredo Vázquez Vázquez", "Simojovel", "Montecristo de Guerrero", "sweet potato", "Corazón de María Airport", "Vietnam", "John Lloyd Stephens", "Bursera simaruba", "Ceiba pentandra", "cajita de la serpiente", "Frederick Catherwood", "Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mexico", "Port of Chiapas", "Manuel de Jesús Narcía Coutiño", "mango", "deforestation", "Ocotepec, Chiapas", "marimba", "Battle of Tepetchia", "Roberto Rubio Montejo", "Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities", "Chinkultic", "Palenque", "Indonesia", "Sovereign state", "encomienda", "Akatek people", "railroad terminal", "Pantepec, Chiapas", "pozol", "Thomas Kitchin", "Textiles of Mexico", "Malpaso Dam", "Gulf of Mexico", "Acacoyagua", "San Cristobal de las Casas", "Mayans", "emir", "tianguis", "Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas", "Ocuilpa", "Mexican handcrafts and folk art", "sugar cane", "Motozintla", "Jaime Sabines", "Tojolabal people", "World Heritage Site", "weasel", "amate", "Ismael Brito Mazariegos", "XI Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "Zapatista Army of National Liberation", "World Network of Biosphere Reserves", "Lázaro Gómez", "lard", "chicle", "mahogany", "Nahá, Chiapas", "Ramiro Jiménez Chacón", "Amatenango del Valle", "Yaxchilán", "wild boar", "Toniná", "cacique", "Chiapanec language", "Náhuatl", "Köppen climate classification", "Der Spiegel", "cypress", "ixtle", "Area code", "Pope Paul III", "compote", "Altamirano, Chiapas", "Gustavo Díaz Ordaz", "Sumidero Canyon National Park", "Sierra Madre de Chiapas", "Starbucks", "quetzal", "Lacandon Forest", "United Nations Environment Programme", "Catazajá", "Boa constrictor", "El Chichón", "Diego de Mazariegos", "EZLN", "Salto de Agua", "jade", "Mestizo", "Panthera onca", "Lacanha", "Zinacantán", "Mexico", "Lacandon Jungle", "obsidian", "XII Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "Lakandon Ch'ol", "resplendent quetzal", "Teapa Municipality", "List of newspapers in Mexico", "barley", "States of Mexico", "List of Mexican states by area", "Acteal", "ejido", "Mixe people", "hearts of palm", "mestizo", "monkey", "Paso de la Amada", "Traditional fixed markets in Mexico", "Zapatista uprising", "María del Carmen Fernández Benavente", "Ocozocoautla", "Subcomandante Marcos", "Maravilla Tenejapa", "jaguar", "relief", "El Bosque, Chiapas", "Petróleos Mexicanos", "macaw", "mesophile", "Tenam Puente", "tuna", "Pentecostals", "List of Mexican state governors", "Tzotzil people", "Reform War", "ball in cup", "Kaqchikel people", "Ostuacán", "Alouatta palliata", "horned guan", "tierra fría", "Quran", "Yaxchilan", "Ocosingo", "Franciscan", "Salvia hispanica", "Municipalities of Chiapas", "Sack (unit)", "telegraph", "Eretmochelys imbricata", "Mitontic", "oak", "crustacean", "Pharomachrus mocinno", "Comitán, Chiapas", "San Juan Chamula", "Tojolab'al language", "sorghum", "Mazatan, Chiapas", "Pantheló", "Pichucalco", "Tzontehuitz", "Tapalapa", "VI Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "lagoon", "Mesoamerica", "mangrove", "Roman Catholic Diocese of San Cristóbal de Las Casas", "Postal codes in Mexico", "rainforest", "Chʼol people", "Chiapanec people", "Mokaya", "I Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "cocoa bean", "South America", "Tzeltal people", "nahuatl language", "Suchiapa", "vinaigrette", "peanut", "Mokaya culture", "Huixtán", "Quintana Roo", "xerophile", "Temple of Inscriptions", "Ocozocoautla de Espinosa", "Art Deco", "Palenque, Chiapas", "State of Mexico", "Ciudad Hidalgo, Chiapas", "Motozintlecos", "Petén Department", "Dominican Order", "Tapachula", "Granada", "pelican", "Chalchihuitán", "Catholic Church", "Cedrela odorata", "Mesoamerican ballcourt", "Central America", "Adriana Bustamante Castellanos", "huipil", "Mole (sauce)", "Máximo Prado Pozo", "opossum", "Q'anjob'al people", "Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712", "Tehuantepec", "Islam", "cantaro", "Tzeltal language", "Municipalities of Mexico", "Mexican Plateau", "Antonio López de Santa Anna", "amber", "Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve", "Institutional Revolutionary Party", "University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries", "Oaxaca", "Villa Corzo", "deer", "Comisión Federal de Electricidad", "Yucatán", "Sabanilla", "azure-rumped tanager", "GDP", "Bochil", "Capital (city)", "Basque Country (autonomous community)", "Political divisions of Mexico", "Central American pine-oak forests", "Chiapas montane forests", "uvala (landform)", "hacienda", "Chantuto Archaeological Site", "manioc", "LXV Legislature of the Mexican Congress", "Puerto Arista", "limestone", "Tayassu pecari", "Las Margaritas, Chiapas", "estuary", "Chamber of Deputies of Mexico", "Panama Canal", "palm oil", "Tecpatán", "stela", "Oxchuc", "Mullerried classification system", "La Independencia, Chiapas", "pendant", "Pacific Ocean", "Seville", "Gabriel Gallegos Ramos", "Cintalapa", "Muntingia calabura", "Villahermosa", "cedar wood", "Chenalhó", "Copán", "San Fernando, Chiapas", "II Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "Izapa", "Country", "Zapotal Ecological Center", "Mapastepec", "Vicente Fox", "Nahuatl language", "Mam language", "Jacalteco", "Sierra Madre de Chiapas moist forests", "Ramphastidae", "hoja santa", "Maya civilization", "K'iche' people", "cacao bean", "Pijijiapan", "INEGI", "Belize", "List of Mexican states by HDI", "Plantain (cooking)", "Nuevo Usumacinta", "Ángel Albino Corzo", "Larráinzar", "Zoque people", "Mayan languages", "Lázaro Cárdenas", "Rosario Castellanos", "Lacanjá Chansayab", "Campeche", "mangroves", "Guerrero", "Liquidambar", "Petén Basin", "manatee", "Mexican Spanish", "Agua Azul", "Q'eqchi' people", "Porfirio Díaz", "Arabic", "Álvaro Obregón", "Dominican Republic", "Baroque architecture", "Tuxtla Gutiérrez", "Comitán de Domínguez", "Soconusco", "chili pepper", "III Federal Electoral District of Chiapas", "Crotalaria", "lintel (architecture)", "Adela Ramos Juárez", "intendencia", "liberation theology", "Murabitun World Movement", "rebozo", "La Trinitaria, Mexico", "Grijalva River", "soybean", "Mexican War of Independence", "Cancún", "Cuniculus paca", "Chicoasén Dam", "Huehuetenango Department", "Tapirus bairdii", "Chamula", "Noé Castañón Ramírez", "Nahá–Metzabok", "Cacahoatán", "lime (material)", "Mexico City", "Tamale", "Abies religiosa" ]
6,788	Chrysler Building	The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper on the East Side of Manhattan in New York City, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue in Midtown Manhattan. At , it is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel framework. It was both the world's first supertall skyscraper and the world's tallest building for 11 months after its completion in 1930. , the Chrysler is the 12th-tallest building in the city, tied with The New York Times Building. Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was commissioned by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation. The construction of the Chrysler Building, an early skyscraper, was characterized by a competition with 40 Wall Street and the Empire State Building to become the world's tallest building. The Chrysler Building was designed and funded by Walter Chrysler personally as a real estate investment for his children, but it was not intended as the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters. An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners. When the Chrysler Building opened, there were mixed reviews of the building's design, some calling it inane and unoriginal, others hailing it as modernist and iconic. Reviewers in the late 20th and early 21st centuries regarded the building as a paragon of the Art Deco architectural style. In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the American Institute of Architects' list of America's Favorite Architecture. The facade and interior became New York City designated landmarks in 1978, and the structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1976. == Site == The Chrysler Building is on the eastern side of Lexington Avenue between 42nd and 43rd streets in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The land was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in 1902. The site is roughly a trapezoid with a frontage on Lexington Avenue; a frontage on 42nd Street; and a frontage on 43rd Street. The site bordered the old Boston Post Road, which predated, and ran aslant of, the Manhattan street grid established by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811. As a result, the east side of the building's base is similarly aslant. The building is assigned its own ZIP Code, 10174. It is one of 41 buildings in Manhattan that have their own ZIP Codes, . The Grand Hyatt New York hotel and the Graybar Building are across Lexington Avenue, while the Socony–Mobil Building is across 42nd Street. In addition, the Chanin Building is to the southwest, diagonally across Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street. The building is constructed of a steel frame infilled with masonry, with areas of decorative metal cladding. The structure contains 3,862 exterior windows. and the 61st-floor is adorned with eagles as a nod to America's national bird. The design of the Chrysler Building makes extensive use of bright "Nirosta" stainless steel, an austenitic alloy developed in Germany by Krupp. It was the first use of this "18-8 stainless steel" in an American project, composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Nirosta was used in the exterior ornaments, the window frames, the crown, and the needle. The steel was an integral part of Van Alen's design, as E.E. Thum explains: "The use of permanently bright metal was of greatest aid in the carrying of rising lines and the diminishing circular forms in the roof treatment, so as to accentuate the gradual upward swing until it literally dissolves into the sky...." Stainless steel producers used the Chrysler Building to evaluate the durability of the product in architecture. In 1929, the American Society for Testing Materials created an inspection committee to study its performance, which regarded the Chrysler Building as the best location to do so; a subcommittee examined the building's panels every five years until 1960, when the inspections were canceled because the panels had shown minimal deterioration. === Form === The Chrysler Building's height and legally mandated setbacks influenced Van Alen in his design. The walls of the lowermost sixteen floors rise directly from the sidewalk property lines, except for a recess on one side that gives the building a U-shaped floor plan above the fourth floor. There are setbacks on floors 16, 18, 23, 28, and 31, making the building compliant with the 1916 Zoning Resolution. This gives the building the appearance of a ziggurat on one side and a U-shaped palazzo on the other. Above the 31st floor, there are no more setbacks until the 60th floor, above which the structure is funneled into a Maltese cross shape that "blends the square shaft to the finial", according to author and photographer Cervin Robinson. The floor plans of the first sixteen floors were made as large as possible to optimize the amount of rental space nearest ground level, which was seen as most desirable. The U-shaped cut above the fourth floor served as a shaft for air flow and illumination. The area between floors 28 and 31 added "visual interest to the middle of the building, preventing it from being dominated by the heavy detail of the lower floors and the eye-catching design of the finial. They provide a base to the column of the tower, effecting a transition between the blocky lower stories and the lofty shaft." === Facade === ==== Base and shaft ==== The ground floor exterior is covered in polished black granite from Shastone, while the three floors above it are clad in white marble from Georgia. There are two main entrances, on Lexington Avenue and on 42nd Street, each three floors high with Shastone granite surrounding each proscenium-shaped entryway. At some distance into each main entryway, there are revolving doors "beneath intricately patterned metal and glass screens", designed so as to embody the Art Deco tenet of amplifying the entrance's visual impact. A smaller side entrance on 43rd Street is one story high. There are storefronts consisting of large Nirosta-steel-framed windows at ground level. Office windows penetrate the second through fourth floors. The west and east elevations contain the air shafts above the fourth floor, while the north and south sides contain the receding setbacks. Below the 16th floor, the facade is clad with white brick, interrupted by white-marble bands in a manner similar to basket weaving. The inner faces of the brick walls are coated with a waterproof grout mixture measuring about thick. The windows, arranged in grids, do not have window sills, the frames being flush with the facade. Between the 16th and 24th floors, the exterior exhibits vertical white brick columns that are separated by windows on each floor. This visual effect is made possible by the presence of aluminum spandrels between the columns of windows on each floor. There are abstract reliefs on the 20th through 22nd-floor spandrels, while the 24th floor contains decorative pineapples. Above the third setback, consisting of the 24th through 27th floors, the facade contains horizontal bands and zigzagged gray-and-black brick motifs. The section above the fourth setback, between the 27th and 31st floors, serves as a podium for the main shaft of the building. There are Nirosta-steel decorations above the setbacks. At each corner of the 31st floor, large car-hood ornaments were installed to make the base look larger. These corner extensions help counter a common optical illusion seen in tall buildings with horizontal bands, whose taller floors would normally look larger. The 31st floor also contains a gray and white frieze of hubcaps and fenders, which both symbolize the Chrysler Corporation and serves as a visual signature of the building's Art Deco design. The entire crown is clad with Nirosta steel, ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, reminiscent of the spokes of a wheel. According to Robinson, the terraced crown "continue[s] the wedding-cake layering of the building itself. This concept is carried forward from the 61st floor, whose eagle gargoyles echo the treatment of the 31st, to the spire, which extends the concept of 'higher and narrower' forward to infinite height and infinitesimal width. This unique treatment emphasizes the building's height, giving it an other worldly atmosphere reminiscent of the fantastic architecture of Coney Island or the Far East." Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originated its transmission from the top of the Chrysler Building in 1938. WCBS-TV transmissions were shifted to the Empire State Building in 1960 in response to competition from RCA's transmitter on that building. For many years WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also transmitted from the Chrysler Building, but their move to the Empire State Building by the 1970s ended commercial broadcasting from the structure. – was added in 1981, although it had been part of the original design. Until 1998, the lights were turned off at 2 a.m., but The New York Observer columnist Ron Rosenbaum convinced Tishman Speyer to keep the lights on until 6 a.m. Since 2015, the Chrysler Building and other city skyscrapers have been part of the Audubon Society's Lights Out program, turning off their lights during bird migration seasons. === Interior === The interior of the building has several elements that were innovative when the structure was constructed. The partitions between the offices are soundproofed and divided into interchangeable sections, so the layout of any could be changed quickly and comfortably. Pipes under the floors carry both telephone and electricity cables. The topmost stories are the smallest in the building and have about each. ==== Lobby ==== The lobby is triangular in plan, connecting with entrances on Lexington Avenue, 42nd Street, and 43rd Street. The lobby was the only publicly accessible part of the Chrysler Building by the 2000s. The three entrances contain Nirosta steel doors, above which are etched-glass panels that allow natural light to illuminate the space. The floors contain bands of yellow travertine from Siena, which mark the path between the entrances and elevator banks. The writer Eric Nash described the lobby as a paragon of the Art Deco style, with clear influences of German Expressionism. Chrysler wanted the design to impress other architects and automobile magnates, so he imported various materials regardless of the extra costs incurred. Vertical bars of fluorescent light are covered with Belgian blue marble and Mexican amber onyx bands, which soften and diffuse the light. The marble and onyx bands are designed as inverted chevrons. Opposite the Lexington Avenue entrance is a security guard's desk topped by a digital clock. The panel behind the desk is made of marble, surrounded by Nirosta steel. The lobby connects to four elevator banks, each of a different design. To the north and south of the security desk are terrazzo staircases leading to the second floor and basement. The stairs contain marble walls and Nirosta-steel railings. The outer walls are flat but are clad with marble strips that are slightly angled to each other, which give the impression of being curved. The inner railings of each stair are designed with zigzagging Art Deco motifs, ending at red-marble newel posts on the ground story. Above each stair are aluminum-leaf ceilings with etched-glass chandeliers. The ceiling contains a mural, Transport and Human Endeavor, designed by Edward Trumbull. The mural's theme is "energy and man's application of it to the solution of his problems", and it pays homage to the Golden Age of Aviation and the Machine Age. The mural is painted in the shape of a "Y" with ocher and golden tones. The central image of the mural is a "muscled giant whose brain directs his boundless energy to the attainment of the triumphs of this mechanical era", according to a 1930 pamphlet that advertised the building. The mural's Art Deco style is manifested in characteristic triangles, sharp angles, slightly curved lines, chrome ornaments, and numerous patterns. The exhibition, known as the Chrysler Automobile Salon, was near the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Streets, and opened in 1936. The ground floor featured "invisible glass" display windows, a diameter turntable upon which automobiles were displayed, and a ceiling with lights arranged in concentric circles. Escalators led to the showroom's second floor where Plymouths, Dodges, and DeSotos were sold. The Chrysler Salon remained operational through at least the 1960s. ==== Elevators ==== There are 32 elevators in the skyscraper, clustered into four banks. At the time of opening, 28 of the elevators were for passenger use. Each bank serves different floors within the building, with several "express" elevators going from the lobby to a few landings in between, while "local" elevators connect the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. As per Walter Chrysler's wishes, the elevators were designed to run at a rate of , despite the speed restriction enforced in all city elevators at the time. This restriction was loosened soon after the Empire State Building opened in 1931, as that building had also been equipped with high-speed elevators. The Chrysler Building also had three of the longest elevator shafts in the world at the time of completion. Over the course of a year, Van Alen painstakingly designed these elevators with the assistance of L.T.M. Ralston, who was in charge of developing the elevator cabs' mechanical parts. The cabs were manufactured by the Otis Elevator Company, while the doors were made by the Tyler Company. The dimensions of each elevator were deep by wide. Within the lobby, there are ziggurat-shaped Mexican onyx panels above the elevator doors. The doors are designed in a lotus pattern and are clad with steel and wood. When the doors are closed, they resemble "tall fans set off by metallic palm fronds rising through a series of silver parabolas, whose edges were set off by curved lilies" from the outside, as noted by Curcio. However, when a set of doors is open, the cab behind the doors resembles "an exquisite Art Deco room". These elements were influenced by ancient Egyptian designs, which significantly impacted the Art Deco style. According to Vincent Curcio, "these elevator interiors were perhaps the single most beautiful and, next to the dome, the most important feature of the entire building." Even though the woods in the elevator cabs were arranged in four basic patterns, each cab had a unique combination of woods. Curcio stated that "if anything the building is based on patterned fabrics, [the elevators] certainly are. Three of the designs could be characterized as having 'geometric', 'Mexican' and vaguely 'art nouveau' motifs, which reflect the various influences on the design of the entire building." The roof of each elevator was covered with a metal plate whose design was unique to that cab, which in turn was placed on a polished wooden pattern that was also customized to the cab. Hidden behind these plates were ceiling fans. Curcio wrote that these elevators "are among the most beautiful small enclosed spaces in New York, and it is fair to say that no one who has seen or been in them has forgotten them". Curcio compared the elevators to the curtains of a Ziegfeld production, noting that each lobby contains lighting that peaks in the middle and slopes down on either side. The decoration of the cabs' interiors was also a nod to the Chrysler Corporation's vehicles: cars built during the building's early years had dashboards with wooden moldings. Both the doors and cab interiors were considered to be works of extraordinary marquetry. ==== Basement ==== On the 42nd Street side of the Chrysler Building, a staircase from the street leads directly under the building to the New York City Subway's at Grand Central–42nd Street station. It is part of the structure's original design. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which at the time was the operator of all the routes serving the 42nd Street station, originally sued to block construction of the new entrance because it would cause crowding, but the New York City Board of Transportation pushed to allow the corridor anyway. Chrysler eventually built and paid for the building's subway entrance. Work on the new entrance started in March 1930 and it opened along with the Chrysler Building two months later. The basement also had a "hydrozone water bottling unit" that would filter tap water into drinkable water for the building's tenants. The drinkable water would then be bottled and shipped to higher floors. ==== Upper stories ==== ===== Cloud Club ===== The private Cloud Club formerly occupied the 66th through 68th floors. Its creation was spurred by Texaco's wish for a proper restaurant for its executives prior to renting fourteen floors in the building. The Cloud Club was a compromise between William Van Alen's modern style and Walter Chrysler's stately and traditional tastes. There was a Tudor-style foyer on the 66th floor with oak paneling, as well as an old English-style grill room with wooden floors, wooden beams, wrought-iron chandeliers, and glass and lead doors. and the club closed two years later. as then-owner Cooke reportedly did not want a "conventional" restaurant operating within the old club. Tishman Speyer rented the top two floors of the old Cloud Club. The office had a medieval ambience with leaded windows, elaborate wooden doors, and heavy plaster. Chrysler did not use his gym much, instead choosing to stay at the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters in Detroit. The office still had the suite's original bathroom and gymnasium. ===== Observation deck and attic ===== From the building's opening until 1945, it contained a observation deck on the 71st floor, called "Celestial". For fifty cents visitors could transit its circumference through a corridor with vaulted ceilings painted with celestial motifs and bedecked with small hanging glass planets. The center of the observatory contained the toolbox that Walter P. Chrysler used at the beginning of his career as a mechanic; Since 1986, the old observatory has housed the office of architects Harvey Morse and Cowperwood Interests. The stories above the 71st floor are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire and do not contain office space. They are very narrow, have low and sloping roofs, and are only used to house radio transmitters and other mechanical and electrical equipment. and its population exceeded ten million by the early 1930s. The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes. Consumer goods such as radio, cinema, and the automobile became widespread. The following year, Chrysler was named Time magazine's "Person of the Year". Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity. The 1916 Zoning Resolution restricted the height that street-side exterior walls of New York City buildings could rise before needing to be setback from the street. This led to the construction of Art Deco structures in New York City with significant setbacks, large volumes, and striking silhouettes that were often elaborately decorated. Art Deco buildings were constructed for only a short period of time; but because that period was during the city's late-1920s real estate boom, the numerous skyscrapers built in the Art Deco style predominated in the city skyline, giving it the romantic quality seen in films and plays. The Chrysler Building project was shaped by these circumstances. Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there in 1927. Van Alen's original design featured many Modernist stylistic elements, with glazed, curved windows at the corners. Van Alen was respected in his field for his work on the Albemarle Building at Broadway and 24th Street, designing it in collaboration with his partner H. Craig Severance. Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances. The relationship between them became tense over disagreements on how best to run the firm. The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building. A little more than a week after that, the plan was changed for the third time, with two additional stories added. By this time, 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue were both hubs for construction activity, due to the removal of the Third Avenue Elevated's 42nd Street spur, which was seen as a blight on the area. The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction. Because of the elevated spur's removal, real estate speculators believed that Lexington Avenue would become the "Broadway of the East Side", causing a ripple effect that would spur developments farther east. In April 1928, Reynolds signed a 67-year lease for the plot and finalized the details of his ambitious project. Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a base with first-floor showroom windows that would be triple-height, and above would be 12 stories with glass-wrapped corners, to create the impression that the tower was floating in mid-air. Reynolds's main contribution to the building's design was his insistence that it have a metallic crown, despite Van Alen's initial opposition; the metal-and-crystal crown would have looked like "a jeweled sphere" at night. Originally, the skyscraper would have risen , with 67 floors. Van Alen's drawings were unveiled in the following August and published in a magazine run by the American Institute of Architects (AIA). Reynolds ultimately devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928. The new design was much more conservative, with an Italianate dome that a critic compared to Governor Al Smith's bowler hat, and a brick arrangement on the upper floors that simulated windows in the corners, a detail that remains in the current Chrysler Building. This design almost exactly reflected the shape, setbacks, and the layout of the windows of the current building, but with a different dome. but by late 1928, Reynolds did not have the means to carry on construction. Walter Chrysler offered to buy the building in early October 1928, and Reynolds sold the plot, lease, plans, and architect's services to Chrysler on October 15, 1928, That day, the Goodwin Construction Company began demolition of what had been built. and demolition was completed on November 9. Chrysler's initial plans for the building were similar to Reynolds's, but with the 808-foot building having 68 floors instead of 67. The plans entailed a ground-floor pedestrian arcade; a facade of stone below the fifth floor and brick-and-terracotta above; and a three-story bronze-and-glass "observation dome" at the top. Meanwhile, excavation of the new building's foundation began in mid-November 1928 and was completed in mid-January 1929, when bedrock was reached. A total of of rock and of soil were excavated for the foundation, equal to 63% of the future building's weight. Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929. The Carnegie Steel Company provided the steel beams, the first of which was installed on March 27; and by April 9, the first upright beams had been set into place. The steel structure was "a few floors" high by June 1929, 35 floors high by early August, and completed by September. no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork. Chrysler lauded this achievement, saying, "It is the first time that any structure in the world has reached such a height, yet the entire steel construction was accomplished without loss of life". and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were laid to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper. Walter Chrysler personally financed the construction with his income from his car company. The Chrysler Building's height officially surpassed the Woolworth's on October 16, 1929, thereby becoming the world's tallest structure. ====Competition for "world's tallest building" title==== The same year that the Chrysler Building's construction started, banker George L. Ohrstrom proposed the construction of a 47-story office building at 40 Wall Street downtown, designed by Van Alen's former partner Severance. Shortly thereafter, Ohrstrom expanded his project to 60 floors, but it was still shorter than the Woolworth and Chrysler buildings. The Empire State Building, on 34th Street and Fifth Avenue, entered the competition in 1929. The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The "Race into the Sky", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, which helped fuel the building boom in major cities. Van Alen expanded the Chrysler Building's height to , prompting Severance to increase the height of 40 Wall Street to in April 1929. Construction of 40 Wall Street began that May and was completed twelve months later. Two days later, the Empire State Building's co-developer, former governor Al Smith, announced the updated plans for that skyscraper, with an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of , higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck at . === Completion === In January 1930, it was announced that the Chrysler Corporation would maintain satellite offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week. The skyscraper was never intended to become the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, which remained in Detroit. The first leases by outside tenants were announced in April 1930, before the building was officially completed. The building was formally opened on May 27, 1930, in a ceremony that coincided with the 42nd Street Property Owners and Merchants Association's meeting that year. In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read "in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement" was unveiled. Former Governor Smith, former Assemblyman Martin G. McCue, and 42nd Street Association president George W. Sweeney were among those in attendance. By June, it was reported that 65% of the available space had been leased. By August, the building was declared complete, but the New York City Department of Construction did not mark it as finished until February 1932. The added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. The Chrysler Building was thus the first man-made structure to be taller than and, by extension, the world's first supertall skyscraper. The tower remained the world's tallest for 11 months after its completion. The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union. The city had attempted to repeal the tax exemption, but Cooper Union had opposed that measure. Because the Chrysler Building retains the tax exemption, it has paid Cooper Union for the use of their land since opening. By contrast, Empire State had only leased 23 percent of its space and was popularly derided as the "Empty State Building". === Use === ==== 1940s to 1960s==== The Chrysler family inherited the property after the death of Walter Chrysler in 1940, with the property being under the ownership of W.P. Chrysler Building Corporation. In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue. In 1949, this was revised to a 32-story annex costing $9 million. The annex building, designed by Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist, had a facade similar to that of the original Chrysler Building. The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated. Construction started on the annex in June 1950, and the first tenants started leasing in June 1951. The building itself was completed by 1952, The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million. The 1953 deal included the annex and the nearby Graybar Building, which, along with the Chrysler Building, sold for a combined $52 million. The new owners were Zeckendorf's company Webb and Knapp, who held a 75% interest in the sale, and the Graysler Corporation, who held a 25% stake. At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history. In 1957, the Chrysler Building, its annex, and the Graybar Building were sold for $66 million to Lawrence Wien's realty syndicate, setting a new record for the largest sale in the city. In 1960, the complex was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, who received a mortgage from the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company. The next year, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time. A group of ten workers steam-cleaned the facade below the 30th floor, and manually cleaned the portion of the tower above the 30th floor, for a cost of about $200,000. The Chrysler Building remained profitable until 1974, when the owners faced increasing taxes and fuel costs. ====1970s to mid-1990s==== Foreclosure proceedings against the building began in August 1975, when Goldman and DiLorenzo defaulted on the $29 million first mortgage and a $15 million second mortgage. The building was about 17 percent vacant at the time. Texaco, one of the building's major tenants, was relocating to Westchester County, New York, by then, vacating hundreds of thousands of square feet at the Chrysler Building. In early 1978, Mass Mutual devised plans to renovate the facade, heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, elevators, lobby murals, and Cloud Club headquarters for $23 million. At a press conference announcing the renovation, mayor Ed Koch proclaimed that "the steel eagles and the gargoyles of the Chrysler Building are all shouting the renaissance of New York". After the renovation was announced, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered designating the Chrysler Building as a city landmark. At the time, the building had of vacant floor space, representing 40% of the total floor area. The LPC designated the lobby and facade as city landmarks in September 1978. Massachusetts Mutual had hired Josephine Sokolski to renovate the lobby, but the LPC objected that many aspects of Sokolski's planned redesign had deviated too much from Van Alen's original design. As a result of these disputes, the renovation of the lobby was delayed. At the time, the building was 96 percent occupied. The new owners hired Kenneth Kleiman of Descon Interiors to redesign the lobby and elevator cabs in a style that was much closer to Van Alen's original design. Cooke next hired Hoffman Architects to restore the exterior and spire from 1995 to 1996. The joints in the now-closed observation deck were polished, and the facade restored, as part of a $1.5 million project. Some damaged steel strips of the needle were replaced and several parts of the gargoyles were re-welded together. Cooke died in April 1997, and his mortgage lender Fuji Bank moved to foreclose on the building the next month. Shortly after Fuji announced its intent to foreclose, several developers and companies announced that they were interested in buying the building. Ultimately, 20 potential buyers submitted bids to buy the Chrysler Building and several adjacent buildings. ==== Late 1990s to 2010s ==== Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group won the right to buy the building in November 1997, having submitted a bid for about $220 million (equal to $ million in ). Tishman Speyer had negotiated a 150-year lease from the Cooper Union, which continued to own the land under the Chrysler Building. In 1998, Tishman Speyer announced that it had hired Beyer Blinder Belle to renovate the building and incorporate it into a commercial complex known as the Chrysler Center. As part of this project, EverGreene Architectural Arts restored the Transport and Human Endeavor mural in the lobby, which had been covered up during the late-1970s renovation. The building was 95 percent occupied by 2005. In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75 percent ownership stake, Tishman Speyer's 15 percent stake, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million. The transaction was completed the next month, and the Abu Dhabi Investment Council assumed a 90 percent stake in the building, with Tishman Speyer retaining 10 percent. Tishman continued to manage the building and paid the Cooper Union $7.5 million a year. That March, the media reported that Aby Rosen's RFR Holding LLC, in a joint venture with the Austrian Signa Group, had reached an agreement to purchase the leasehold at a steeply discounted $150 million. In exchange, Rosen had to pay the Cooper Union $32.5 million a year, a steep increase from the rate the previous leaseholders had paid. Rosen initially planned to convert the building into a hotel, but he dropped these plans in April 2019, citing difficulties with the ground lease. Rosen then announced plans for an observation deck on the 61st-story setback, which the LPC approved in May 2020. He also wanted to reopen the Cloud Club and attract multiple restaurateurs. and he evicted storeowners from all of the building's shops in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to renovate the retail space. To attract tenants following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020, he converted the Chrysler Building's ground-floor space into a tenant amenity center. RFR estimated that it had spent $170 million to renovate the building. By then, according to an anonymous source cited by Curbed, RFR was losing an estimated $1 million a month from the Chrysler Building's operation. RFR offered to buy Signa's ownership stake for a nominal fee of $1. By mid-2024, the building was aging significantly, and RFR had listed about of the Chrysler Building's office space as being "immediately available for rent". Additionally, it would cost millions of dollars to upgrade the building to meet modern energy-efficiency codes. In its lawsuit, RFR claimed that the Cooper Union had driven away some tenants and had directed other tenants to make rent payments to the college rather than to RFR. Subsequently, the Cooper Union requested that RFR be evicted, and a state judge ordered tenants to pay rent to the Cooper Union that October. RFR's lease was ultimately terminated in January 2025. == Chrysler Center == Chrysler Center is the building complex consisting of the Chrysler Building to the west, Chrysler Building East to the east, and the Chrysler Trylons commercial pavilion in the middle. After Tishman Speyer had acquired the entire complex, the firm renovated it completely from 1998 to 2000. The mechanical systems were modernized and the interior was modified. which surrounded the elevator core on the western end of the original Kent Building. After the addition, the total area of the Kent building was . A new building, also designed by Philip Johnson, was built between the original skyscraper and the annex. This became the Chrysler Trylons, a commercial pavilion three stories high with a retail area of . After these modifications, the total leasable area of the complex was . a LEED Gold designation; and the Skyscraper Museum Outstanding Renovation Award of 2001. == Tenants == In January 1930, the Chrysler Corporation opened satellite offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week. Time moved to Rockefeller Center in 1937. Texaco relocated to a more suburban workplace in Purchase, New York, in 1977. By the 21st century, many of the Chrysler Building's tenants leased space there because of the building's historical stature, rather than because of its amenities. Clyde & Co InterMedia Partners IWG PA Consulting Troutman Sanders == Impact == === Reception === The completed Chrysler Building garnered mixed reviews in the press. Van Alen was hailed as the "Doctor of Altitude" by Architect magazine, while architect Kenneth Murchison called Van Alen the "Ziegfeld of his profession", comparing him to popular Broadway producer Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. An anonymous critic wrote in Architectural Forum October 1930 issue: "The Chrysler...stands by itself, something apart and alone. It is simply the realization, the fulfillment in metal and masonry, of a one-man dream, a dream of such ambitions and such magnitude as to defy the comprehension and the criticism of ordinary men or by ordinary standards." or claimed it had a "Little Nemo"-like design. Lewis Mumford, a supporter of the International Style and one of the foremost architectural critics of the United States at the time, despised the building for its "inane romanticism, meaningless voluptuousness, [and] void symbolism". The public also had mixed reviews of the Chrysler Building, as Murchison wrote: "Some think it's a freak; some think it's a stunt." The architectural professor Gail Fenske said that, although the Chrysler Building was criticized as "too theatrical" at the time of its completion, the general public quickly took a liking to "the city's crowning skyscraper". Anthony W. Robins said the Chrysler Building was "one-of-a-kind, staggering, romantic, soaring, the embodiment of 1920s skyscraper pizzazz, the great symbol of Art Deco New York". Kim Velsey of Curbed said that the building "is unabashedly over the top" because of "its steel gargoyles, Moroccan marble lobby, and illuminated spire". and is widely considered one of the most positively acclaimed buildings in the city. In 2007, the building ranked ninth among 150 buildings in the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture. The Chrysler Building is widely heralded as an Art Deco icon. Fodor's New York City 2010 described the building as being "one of the great art deco masterpieces" which "wins many a New Yorker's vote for the city's most iconic and beloved skyscraper". Frommer's states that the Chrysler was "one of the most impressive Art Deco buildings ever constructed". Insight Guides 2016 edition maintains that the Chrysler Building is considered among the city's "most beautiful" buildings. Its distinctive profile has inspired similar skyscrapers worldwide, including One Liberty Place in Philadelphia, Two Prudential Plaza in Chicago, and the Al Kazim Towers in Dubai. In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the "Chrysler Tower", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall. A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Chrysler Building's interior. Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007), Two Weeks Notice (2002), The Avengers (2012) and Men in Black 3 (2012). The building is mentioned in the number "It's the Hard Knock Life" for the musical Annie, and it is the setting for the post-game content in the Squaresoft video game Parasite Eve. In addition, the introductory scenes of the TV show Sex and the City depict the Chrysler Building. She was deeply inspired by the new structure and especially smitten by the massive eagle's-head figures projecting off the building. According to one account, Bourke-White wanted to live in the building for the duration of the photo shoot, but the only person able to do so was the janitor, so she was instead relegated to co-leasing a studio with Time Inc. Bourke-White worked in a 61st-floor studio designed by John Vassos On October 5, 1998, Christie's auctioned the photograph for $96,000. The Chrysler Building has been the subject of other photographs as well. During a January 1931 dance organized by the Society of Beaux-Arts, six architects, including Van Alen, were photographed while wearing costumes resembling the buildings that each architect designed. In 1991, the photographer Annie Leibovitz took pictures of the dancer David Parsons reclining on a ledge near the top of the building.	[ "Higher: A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City", "New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission", "Architecture of New York City", "Paradise, Nevada", "Great Depression in the United States", "Douglas Haskell", "Time, Inc.", "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", "Government of New York City", "lower Manhattan", "ziggurat", "display window", "New England", "Carnegie Steel Company", "Independence Day (1996 film)", "lotus flower", "Auburn Hills, Michigan", "List of tallest buildings and structures in the world", "Parasite Eve (video game)", "1961 Zoning Resolution", "trapezoid", "East Side (Manhattan)", "Beyer Blinder Belle", "U.S. Green Building Council", "Time Person of the Year", "skyscraper", "Chrysler Building", "Two Prudential Plaza", "Architectural Review", "Grand Hyatt New York", "New York City Subway", "Ford Motor Company", "List of tallest buildings", "Brickwork", "Aby Rosen", "William Van Alen", "Pauline Frommer", "Architectural Forum", "Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design", "groin vault", "Severud Associates", "List of tallest buildings in New York City", "InterMedia Partners", "Robert A. M. Stern", "New York City designated landmark", "Lower Manhattan", "frontage", "Roaring Twenties", "Armageddon (1998 film)", "gargoyle", "Gothic cathedral", "William Zeckendorf", "List of tallest freestanding structures in the world", "National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets", "John J. Raskob", "Curbed", "Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist", "George S. Chappell", "Italianate architecture", "sky bridge", "Los Angeles Lakers", "IWG plc", "New York City", "Hood ornament", "Greater London", "Webb and Knapp", "air rights", "Annie Leibovitz", "Neal Bascomb", "List of tallest buildings in the world", "National Historic Landmark", "James Sanders (architect)", "sunburst", "nickel", "Philadelphia", "Pedestrian zone", "Otis Elevator Company", "WKTU", "Al Kazim Towers", "Boston Post Road", "Tishman Speyer Properties", "List of tallest buildings and structures", "Square Enix", "New York metropolitan area", "foyer", "Kenneth Murchison", "Chanin Building", "Godzilla (1998 film)", "New York City Board of Transportation", "ASTM International", "Old Fulton New York Postcards", "General Motors", "Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company", "Men in Black 3", "Eiffel Tower", "William H. Reynolds (New York politician)", "The New York Times Building", "Signa Holding", "Lawrence Wien", "Clyde & Co", "Sex and the City", "42nd Street (Manhattan)", "Spirit of St. Louis", "World War I", "Fultonhistory.com", "PA Consulting", "Fuji Bank", "Philip Johnson", "Setback (architecture)", "International Style (architecture)", "It's the Hard Knock Life", "Emporis", "Q - The Winged Serpent", "Spider-Man (2002 film)", "Machine Age", "Pan American World Airways", "Beaux-Arts Institute of Design", "The Travelers Companies", "Wall Street Crash of 1929", "American Institute of Architects", "Environmental Protection Agency", "spandrel", "Edward Trumbull", "Grand Central–42nd Street station", "Maltese cross", "Coney Island", "Manhattan", "The Wiz (film)", "David Parsons (dancer)", "Paul Goldberger", "Jerry Buss", "Expressionist architecture", "proscenium", "Dodge", "IRT Third Avenue Line", "List of tallest freestanding steel structures", "Texaco", "Nirosta", "Josephine Sokolski", "The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010 film)", "Abraham E. Lefcourt", "Sol Goldman", "New York-New York Hotel and Casino", "Ornament (art)", "Deep Impact (film)", "America's Favorite Architecture", "palazzo", "Lexington Avenue", "Headquarters of the United Nations", "Woolworth Building", "window sill", "Skyscraper Museum", "Empire State Building", "cameo appearance", "grout", "Midtown Manhattan", "List of America's Favorite Architecture according to the AIA", "Chevron (insignia)", "Mercury (god)", "Jack Kent Cooke", "observation deck", "The Avengers (2012 film)", "Dover Corporation", "ripple effect", "Audubon Society", "New York Herald Tribune", "Interborough Rapid Transit Company", "H. Craig Severance", "The New Yorker", "WP:IRS", "Troutman Sanders", "DeSoto (automobile)", "List of U.S. states by elevation", "Energy Star", "Frommer's", "King Kong (1933 film)", "Time Inc.", "Metropolitan Life North Building", "Annie (musical)", "chromium", "Westchester County, New York", "Commissioners' Plan of 1811", "1916 Zoning Resolution", "List of tallest buildings in the United States", "Skyscraper", "basket weaving", "austenitic", "Le Corbusier", "Rainbow Room", "facade", "white marble", "The Wall Street Journal", "ZIP Code", "Ada Louise Huxtable", "COVID-19 pandemic in New York City", "Creative Artists Agency", "marquetry", "New York Landmarks Conservancy", "EverGreene Architectural Arts", "Socony–Mobil Building", "Rimouski", "Fender (vehicle)", "One Liberty Place", "Chicago", "The Village Voice", "Purchase, New York", "Florenz Ziegfeld Jr.", "black granite", "Los Angeles Kings", "Fodor's", "Broadway theatre", "Abu Dhabi Investment Council", "Fortune (magazine)", "Martin G. McCue", "Chrysler Center", "Modern architecture", "YES Network", "architectural terracotta", "New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation", "Washington Redskins", "WPAT-FM", "Christie's", "bird migration", "Bloomberg News", "The New York Observer", "Default (finance)", "Art Deco architecture of New York City", "Margaret Bourke-White", "Cervin Robinson", "Little Nemo", "finial", "Aviation in the interwar period", "Walter Chrysler", "40 Wall Street", "Two Weeks Notice", "Time (magazine)", "Rockefeller Center", "A.I. Artificial Intelligence", "Ron Rosenbaum", "ancient Egyptian art", "Fred F. French", "A. B. Dick", "National Register of Historic Places", "Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)", "national bird of the United States", "RCA", "30 Rockefeller Plaza", "travertine", "Dubai", "mullion", "Ed Koch", "George W. Sweeney", "Krupp", "Plymouth (automobile)", "List of buildings and structures", "List of largest cities throughout history", "Hubcap", "Office building", "supertall skyscraper", "Chrysler", "Tudor Revival architecture", "granite", "WCBS-TV", "The New York Times", "Art Deco", "Dreamland (Coney Island, 1904)", "List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets", "Cloud Club", "Insight Guides", "Graybar Building", "Chrysler Technology Center", "John Vassos", "Cooper Union", "Transport and Human Endeavor", "Petasos", "Romanesque architecture", "Siena", "Early skyscrapers", "Atlanta", "Al Smith", "hood ornament" ]
6,790	Cape Breton (disambiguation)	Cape Breton Island is an island in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, in Canada. Cape Breton may also refer to: ==Places== ===On Cape Breton Island=== Cape Breton, a cape at the eastern tip of Cape Breton Island, Canada Cape Breton Highlands, a mountain range in the north of Cape Breton Island, Canada Cape Breton Highlands National Park Cape Breton Regional Municipality, a regional municipality in Nova Scotia Cape Breton—Canso, a federal electoral district Cape Breton (federal electoral district), former electoral district (1867 to 1904) === Elsewhere in Canada === Cape Breton, New Brunswick ===In France=== Capbreton or Cap Berton, a commune of the Landes département in southwestern France ==Organizations== Cape Breton Eagles, a Sydney-based ice hockey team Cape Breton Post Cape Breton Development Corporation Cape Breton University ==Other uses== Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway Jeanneau Cape Breton, a French sailboat design	[ "Cape Breton Highlands National Park", "Capbreton", "Cape Breton—Canso", "Cape Breton University", "Jeanneau Cape Breton", "Cape Breton Regional Municipality", "Cape Breton (federal electoral district)", "Cape Breton Island", "Cape Breton, New Brunswick", "Cape Breton Eagles", "Cape Breton Development Corporation", "Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway", "Cape Breton Post", "Cape (disambiguation)", "Breton (disambiguation)", "Cape Breton Highlands", "Cape Breton" ]
6,794	Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9	{{Infobox comet \| name = D/1993 F2 (Shoemaker–Levy) \| image = Shoemaker-Levy 9 on 1994-05-17.png \| image_scale = 1.67 \| discovery_site = Palomar Observatory \| caption = \| discoverer = Carolyn ShoemakerEugene ShoemakerDavid Levy \| discovery_date = March 24, 1993 \| inclination = 94.2° \| dimensions = This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its possible role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System. The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker, and David Levy in 1993. Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was the ninth periodic comet (a comet whose orbital period is 200 years or less) discovered by the Shoemakers and Levy, thence its name. It was their eleventh comet discovery overall including their discovery of two non-periodic comets, which use a different nomenclature. The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 5725 on March 26, 1993. The discovery image gave the first hint that comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50 arcseconds long and 10 arcseconds wide. Brian G. Marsden of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 degrees from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that although this could be a line-of-sight effect, its apparent motion in the sky suggested that the comet was physically close to the planet. Several other observers found images of the comet in precovery images obtained before March 24, including Kin Endate from a photograph exposed on March 15, Satoru Otomo on March 17, and a team led by Eleanor Helin from images on March 19. An image of the comet on a Schmidt photographic plate taken on March 19 was identified on March 21 by M. Lindgren, in a project searching for comets near Jupiter. However, as his team were expecting comets to be inactive or at best exhibit a weak dust coma, and SL9 had a peculiar morphology, its true nature was not recognised until the official announcement 5 days later. No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt. The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere. When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere. Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it. Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight toward Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jove-centric orbit of very high eccentricity—that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out. The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on July 7, 1992, just over above its cloud tops—a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of , and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon Metis and the planet's Roche limit, inside which tidal forces are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity. More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital calculations suggested that the comet would pass within of the center of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994. Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plow into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days. Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres (around ) to across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to across—somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant meteors. The most optimistic prediction was that large, asymmetric ballistic fireballs would rise above the limb of Jupiter and into sunlight to be visible from Earth. Other suggested effects of the impacts were seismic waves travelling across the planet, an increase in stratospheric haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the Jovian ring system. However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal.]] Anticipation grew as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained terrestrial telescopes on Jupiter. Several space observatories did the same, including the Hubble Space Telescope, the ROSAT X-ray-observing satellite, the W. M. Keck Observatory, and the Galileo spacecraft, then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1995. Although the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of from the planet, was able to see the impacts as they occurred. Jupiter's rapid rotation brought the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions. Two other space probes made observations at the time of the impact: the Ulysses spacecraft, primarily designed for solar observations, was pointed toward Jupiter from its location away, and the distant Voyager 2 probe, some from Jupiter and on its way out of the Solar System following its encounter with Neptune in 1989, was programmed to look for radio emission in the 1–390 kHz range and make observations with its ultraviolet spectrometer. Astronomer Ian Morison described the impacts as following: The first impact occurred at 20:13 UTC on July 16, 1994, when fragment A of the [[comet nucleus\|[comet's] nucleus]] slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at about . Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about , compared to the typical Jovian cloud-top temperature of about . It then expanded and cooled rapidly to about . The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over and was observed by the HST. A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, Galileo measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet. Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the limb of the planet shortly after the initial impact. Despite published predictions, and did not have any idea how visible the other atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth. Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact; the spot was visible from Earth. This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact. Over the next six days, 21 distinct impacts were observed, with the largest coming on July 18 at 07:33 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter. This impact created a giant dark spot over (almost one Earth diameter) across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000 megatons of TNT (600 times the world's nuclear arsenal). Two impacts 12 hours apart on July 19 created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until July 22, when fragment W struck the planet. == Observations and discoveries == === Chemical studies === Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere. Spectroscopic studies revealed absorption lines in the Jovian spectrum due to diatomic sulfur (S2) and carbon disulfide (CS2), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object. Other molecules detected included ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed. Oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers. As well as these molecules, emission from heavy atoms such as iron, magnesium and silicon were detected, with abundances consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus. Although a substantial amount of water was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough. === Other observations === Radio observations revealed a sharp increase in continuum emission at a wavelength of after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet. This was thought to be due to synchrotron radiation, caused by the injection of relativistic electrons—electrons with velocities near the speed of light—into the Jovian magnetosphere by the impacts. About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded auroral emission near the impact region, as well as at the antipode of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong magnetic field. The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal magnetic field and of the geometry of the impact sites. One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating shock waves from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving solar wind particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a magnetic pole. Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the Io torus, a torus of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly volcanic moon Io. High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion density, rotational velocity, and temperatures at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits. Voyager 2 failed to detect anything with calculations, showing that the fireballs were just below the craft's limit of detection; no abnormal levels of UV radiation or radio signals were registered after the blast. Ulysses also failed to detect any abnormal radio frequencies. These predictions were among the few that were actually confirmed by subsequent observation. One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to predictions. Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 30 kilopascals to a few tens of megapascals (from 0.3 to a few hundred bar), with some predictions that the comet would penetrate a layer of water and create a bluish shroud over that region of Jupiter. Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon disulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere. Atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact. At smaller sites, temperatures 10 K (10 °C; 18 °F) higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks. Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2–3 weeks afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures. == Frequency of impacts == SL9 is not unique in having orbited Jupiter for a time; five comets, including 82P/Gehrels, 147P/Kushida–Muramatsu, and 111P/Helin–Roman–Crockett, are known to have been temporarily captured by the planet. Cometary orbits around Jupiter are unstable, as they will be highly elliptical and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at apojove (the farthest point on the orbit from the planet). By far the most massive planet in the Solar System, Jupiter can capture objects relatively frequently, but the size of SL9 makes it a rarity: one post-impact study estimated that comets in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those in diameter do so just once in every 6,000 years. There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites. During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 crater chains on Callisto and three on Ganymede, the origin of which was initially a mystery. Crater chains seen on the Moon often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the Jovian moons did not lead back to a larger crater. The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites. === Impact of July 19, 2009 === On July 19, 2009, exactly 15 years after the SL9 impacts, a new black spot about the size of the Pacific Ocean appeared in Jupiter's southern hemisphere. Thermal infrared measurements showed the impact site was warm and spectroscopic analysis detected the production of excess hot ammonia and silica-rich dust in the upper regions of Jupiter's atmosphere. Scientists have concluded that another impact event had occurred, but this time a more compact and stronger object, probably a small undiscovered asteroid, was the cause. == Jupiter's role in protection of the inner Solar System == The events of SL9's interaction with Jupiter greatly highlighted Jupiter's role in protecting the inner planets from both interstellar and in-system debris by acting as a "cosmic vacuum cleaner" for the Solar System (Jupiter barrier). The planet's strong gravitational influence attracts many small comets and asteroids and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,000 times higher than the rate on Earth. The extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally thought to have been caused by the Cretaceous–Paleogene impact event, which created the Chicxulub crater, demonstrating that cometary impacts are indeed a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter's immense gravity, extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth and complex life might not have been able to develop. This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis. In 2009, it was shown that the presence of a smaller planet at Jupiter's position in the Solar System might increase the impact rate of comets on the Earth significantly. A planet of Jupiter's mass still seems to provide increased protection against asteroids, but the total effect on all orbital bodies within the Solar System is unclear. This and other recent models call into question the nature of Jupiter's influence on Earth impacts.	[ "Astronomical naming conventions", "Hubble Space Telescope", "Texas A&M University", "Galileo (spacecraft)", "magnetosphere", "Io (moon)", "Jupiter barrier", "Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams", "Eleanor Helin", "degree (angle)", "disulfur", "astronomer", "Voyager 2", "magnetic field", "Roche limit", "volcano", "carbon disulfide", "David H. Levy", "apoapsis", "IAU Circular", "iron", "National Space Science Data Center", "perihelion", "torus", "Astronomical spectroscopy", "theory of relativity", "Orbital eccentricity", "73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann", "Jupiter", "ellipse", "atom", "rotational velocity", "University of Arizona Press", "crater chain", "Seismology", "TNT equivalent", "waveguide", "arcsecond", "Sun", "Astronomy and Astrophysics", "bolide", "Neptune", "silicon", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Black body", "shock wave", "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event", "stratosphere", "density", "Earth radius", "Kin Endate", "Spectral line", "Moon", "naming of comets", "Aurora (phenomenon)", "bar (unit)", "Impact events on Jupiter", "Oxford University Press", "111P/Helin–Roman–Crockett", "Meteoroid", "apojove", "tidal force", "escape velocity", "Jovian planet", "Solar System", "antipodal point", "precovery", "sulfur dioxide", "comet", "Atmosphere of Jupiter", "dinosaurs", "Fireball (meteor)", "electron", "Oxygen", "Great Red Spot", "asteroid belt", "Carolyn S. Shoemaker", "near-Earth object", "California", "List of Jupiter events", "Ganymede (moon)", "Rare Earth hypothesis", "Palomar Observatory", "Callisto (moon)", "Stephen F. Austin State University", "Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "82P/Gehrels", "collision", "147P/Kushida–Muramatsu", "Astrobiology (journal)", "Cambridge University Press", "Satoru Otomo", "X-ray", "Cornell University", "ammonia", "kHz", "Ulysses (spacecraft)", "troposphere", "Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator-based Sciences and Education", "Comet Hyakutake", "Pascal (unit)", "Ian Morison", "hydrogen sulfide", "ROSAT", "International Journal of Astrobiology", "solar wind", "magnesium", "Brian G. Marsden", "Chicxulub crater", "Perturbation (astronomy)", "astronomical object", "W. M. Keck Observatory", "synchrotron radiation", "Cretaceous", "meteor air burst", "Astrophysics and Space Science", "Comet", "Space.com", "Eugene Merle Shoemaker", "molecule", "Rings of Jupiter", "Hill sphere", "Schmidt camera", "aphelion", "Students for the Exploration and Development of Space", "Poles of astronomical bodies", "satellite", "asteroid", "Metis (moon)", "Schmidt telescope", "Icarus (journal)" ]
6,796	Ceres Brewery	The Ceres Brewery was a beer and soft drink producing facility in Århus, Denmark, that operated from 1856 until 2008. Although the brewery was closed by its owner Royal Unibrew the Ceres brand continues, with the product brewed at other facilities. The area where the brewery stood is being redeveloped for residential and commercial use and has been named CeresByen (Ceres City). ==History== "Ceres Brewery" was founded in 1856 by Malthe Conrad Lottrup, a grocer, with chemists "A. S. Aagard" and "Knud Redelien", as the city's seventh brewery. It was named after the Roman goddess Ceres, and its opening was announced in the local newspaper, Århus Stiftstidende. Lottrup expanded the brewery after ten years, adding a grand new building as his private residence. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Laurits Christian Meulengracht, who ran the brewery for almost thirty years, expanding it further before selling it to "Østjyske Bryggerier", another brewing firm. The Ceres brewery was named an official purveyor to the "Royal Danish Court" in 1914.	[ "Århus Stiftstidende", "Malthe Conrad Lottrup", "Århus", "Denmark", "Royal Unibrew", "Ceres (Roman mythology)", "CeresByen", "Laurits Christian Meulengracht" ]
6,799	COBOL	COBOL (; an acronym for "common business-oriented language") is a compiled English-like computer programming language designed for business use. It is an imperative, procedural, and, since 2002, object-oriented language. COBOL is primarily used in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments. COBOL is still widely used in applications deployed on mainframe computers, such as large-scale batch and transaction processing jobs. Many large financial institutions were developing new systems in the language as late as 2006, COBOL was designed in 1959 by CODASYL and was partly based on the programming language FLOW-MATIC, designed by Grace Hopper. It was created as part of a U.S. Department of Defense effort to create a portable programming language for data processing. It was originally seen as a stopgap, but the Defense Department promptly pressured computer manufacturers to provide it, resulting in its widespread adoption. It was standardized in 1968 and has been revised five times. Expansions include support for structured and object-oriented programming. The current standard is ISO/IEC 1989:2023. COBOL statements have prose syntax such as , which was designed to be self-documenting and highly readable. However, it is verbose and uses over 300 reserved words compared to the succinct and mathematically inspired syntax of other languages. The COBOL code is split into four divisions (identification, environment, data, and procedure), containing a rigid hierarchy of sections, paragraphs, and sentences. Lacking a large standard library, the standard specifies 43 statements, 87 functions, and just one class. COBOL has been criticized for its verbosity, design process, and poor support for structured programming. These weaknesses result in monolithic programs that are hard to comprehend as a whole, despite their local readability. For years, COBOL has been assumed as a programming language for business operations in mainframes, although in recent years, many COBOL operations have been moved to cloud computing. ==History and specification== ===Background=== In the late 1950s, computer users and manufacturers were becoming concerned about the rising cost of programming. A 1959 survey had found that in any data processing installation, the programming cost US$800,000 on average and that translating programs to run on new hardware would cost US$600,000. At a time when new programming languages were proliferating, the same survey suggested that if a common business-oriented language were used, conversion would be far cheaper and faster. On 8 April 1959, Mary K. Hawes, a computer scientist at Burroughs Corporation, called a meeting of representatives from academia, computer users, and manufacturers at the University of Pennsylvania to organize a formal meeting on common business languages. Representatives included Grace Hopper (inventor of the English-like data processing language FLOW-MATIC), Jean Sammet, and Saul Gorn. At the April meeting, the group asked the Department of Defense (DoD) to sponsor an effort to create a common business language. The delegation impressed Charles A. Phillips, director of the Data System Research Staff at the DoD, who thought that they "thoroughly understood" the DoD's problems. The DoD operated 225 computers, had 175 more on order, and had spent over $200 million on implementing programs to run on them. Portable programs would save time, reduce costs, and ease modernization. Charles Phillips agreed to sponsor the meeting, and tasked the delegation with drafting the agenda. ===COBOL 60=== On 28 and 29 May 1959, a meeting was held at the Pentagon to discuss the creation of a common programming language for business (exactly one year after the Zürich ALGOL 58 meeting). It was attended by 41 people and was chaired by Phillips. The Department of Defense was concerned about whether it could run the same data processing programs on different computers. FORTRAN, the only mainstream language at the time, lacked the features needed to write such programs. Representatives enthusiastically described a language that could work in a wide variety of environments, from banking and insurance to utilities and inventory control. They agreed unanimously that more people should be able to program, and that the new language should not be restricted by the limitations of contemporary technology. A majority agreed that the language should make maximal use of English, be capable of change, be machine-independent, and be easy to use, even at the expense of power. The meeting resulted in the creation of a steering committee and short, intermediate, and long-range committees. The short-range committee was given until September (three months) to produce specifications for an interim language, which would then be improved upon by the other committees. Their official mission, however, was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing programming languages; it did not explicitly direct them to create a new language. The deadline was met with disbelief by the short-range committee. One member, Betty Holberton, described the three-month deadline as "gross optimism" and doubted that the language really would be a stopgap. The steering committee met on 4 June and agreed to name the entire activity the Committee on Data Systems Languages, or CODASYL, and to form an executive committee. The short-range committee members represented six computer manufacturers and three government agencies. The computer manufacturers were Burroughs Corporation, IBM, Minneapolis-Honeywell (Honeywell Labs), RCA, Sperry Rand, and Sylvania Electric Products. The government agencies were the U.S. Air Force, the Navy's David Taylor Model Basin, and the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology). The committee was chaired by Joseph Wegstein of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Work began by investigating data descriptions, statements, existing applications, and user experiences. The committee mainly examined the FLOW-MATIC, AIMACO, and COMTRAN programming languages. The FLOW-MATIC language was particularly influential because it had been implemented and because AIMACO was a derivative of it with only minor changes. FLOW-MATIC's inventor, Grace Hopper, also served as a technical adviser to the committee. FLOW-MATIC's major contributions to COBOL were long variable names, English words for commands, and the separation of data descriptions and instructions. Hopper is sometimes called "the mother of COBOL" or "the grandmother of COBOL", although Jean Sammet, a lead designer of COBOL, said Hopper "was not the mother, creator, or developer of Cobol." IBM's COMTRAN language, invented by Bob Bemer, was regarded as a competitor to FLOW-MATIC by a short-range committee made up of colleagues of Grace Hopper. Some of its features were not incorporated into COBOL so that it would not look like IBM had dominated the design process, and Jean Sammet said in 1981 that there had been a "strong anti-IBM bias" from some committee members (herself included). In one case, after Roy Goldfinger, author of the COMTRAN manual and intermediate-range committee member, attended a subcommittee meeting to support his language and encourage the use of algebraic expressions, Grace Hopper sent a memo to the short-range committee reiterating Sperry Rand's efforts to create a language based on English. In 1980, Grace Hopper commented that "COBOL 60 is 95% FLOW-MATIC" and that COMTRAN had had an "extremely small" influence. Furthermore, she said that she would claim that work was influenced by both FLOW-MATIC and COMTRAN only to "keep other people happy [so they] wouldn't try to knock us out.". Features from COMTRAN incorporated into COBOL included formulas, the clause, an improved IF statement, which obviated the need for GO TOs, and a more robust file management system. The usefulness of the committee's work was a subject of great debate. While some members thought the language had too many compromises and was the result of design by committee, others felt it was better than the three languages examined. Some felt the language was too complex; others, too simple. Controversial features included those some considered useless or too advanced for data processing users. Such features included Boolean expressions, formulas, and table (indices). Another point of controversy was whether to make keywords context-sensitive and the effect that would have on readability. Although context-sensitive keywords were rejected, the approach was later used in PL/I and partially in COBOL from 2002. Little consideration was given to interactivity, interaction with operating systems (few existed at that time), and functions (thought of as purely mathematical and of no use in data processing). The specifications were presented to the executive committee on 4 September. They fell short of expectations: Joseph Wegstein noted that "it contains rough spots and requires some additions," and Bob Bemer later described them as a "hodgepodge." The committee was given until December to improve it. At a mid-September meeting, the committee discussed the new language's name. Suggestions included "BUSY" (Business System), "INFOSYL" (Information System Language), and "COCOSYL" (Common Computer Systems Language). It is unclear who coined the name "COBOL", although Bob Bemer later claimed it had been his suggestion. In October, the intermediate-range committee received copies of the FACT language specification created by Roy Nutt. Its features impressed the committee so much that they passed a resolution to base COBOL on it. This was a blow to the short-range committee, who had made good progress on the specification. Despite being technically superior, FACT had not been created with portability in mind or through manufacturer and user consensus. It also lacked a demonstrable implementation, allowing supporters of a FLOW-MATIC-based COBOL to overturn the resolution. RCA representative Howard Bromberg also blocked FACT, so that RCA's work on a COBOL implementation would not go to waste. It soon became apparent that the committee was too large to make any further progress quickly. A frustrated Howard Bromberg bought a $15 tombstone with "COBOL" engraved on it and sent it to Charles Phillips to demonstrate his displeasure. A subcommittee was formed to analyze existing languages and was made up of six individuals: William Selden and Gertrude Tierney of IBM, Howard Bromberg and Howard Discount of RCA, Vernon Reeves and Jean E. Sammet of Sylvania Electric Products. The subcommittee did most of the work creating the specification, leaving the short-range committee to review and modify their work before producing the finished specification. The specifications were approved by the executive committee on 8 January 1960, and sent to the government printing office, which printed them as COBOL 60. The language's stated objectives were to allow efficient, portable programs to be easily written, to allow users to move to new systems with minimal effort and cost, and to be suitable for inexperienced programmers. The CODASYL Executive Committee later created the COBOL Maintenance Committee to answer questions from users and vendors and to improve and expand the specifications. During 1960, the list of manufacturers planning to build COBOL compilers grew. By September, five more manufacturers had joined CODASYL (Bendix, Control Data Corporation, General Electric (GE), National Cash Register, and Philco), and all represented manufacturers had announced COBOL compilers. GE and IBM planned to integrate COBOL into their own languages, GECOM and COMTRAN, respectively. In contrast, International Computers and Tabulators planned to replace their language, CODEL, with COBOL. Meanwhile, RCA and Sperry Rand worked on creating COBOL compilers. The first COBOL program ran on 17 August on an RCA 501. On 6 and 7 December, the same COBOL program (albeit with minor changes) ran on an RCA computer and a Remington-Rand Univac computer, demonstrating that compatibility could be achieved. The relative influence of the languages that were used is still indicated in the recommended advisory printed in all COBOL reference manuals: ===COBOL-61 to COBOL-65=== Many logical flaws were found in COBOL 60, leading General Electric's Charles Katz to warn that it could not be interpreted unambiguously. A reluctant short-term committee performed a total cleanup, and, by March 1963, it was reported that COBOL's syntax was as definable as ALGOL's, although semantic ambiguities remained. Early COBOL compilers were primitive and slow. COBOL is a difficult language to write a compiler for, due to the large syntax and many optional elements within syntactic constructs, as well as the need to generate efficient code for a language with many possible data representations, implicit type conversions, and necessary set-ups for I/O operations. A 1962 US Navy evaluation found compilation speeds of 3–11 statements per minute. By mid-1964, they had increased to 11–1000 statements per minute. It was observed that increasing memory would drastically increase speed and that compilation costs varied wildly: costs per statement were between $0.23 and $18.91. In late 1962, IBM announced that COBOL would be their primary development language and that development of COMTRAN would cease. The COBOL specification was revised three times in the five years after its publication. COBOL-60 was replaced in 1961 by COBOL-61. This was then replaced by the COBOL-61 Extended specifications in 1963, which introduced the sort and report writer facilities. The added facilities corrected flaws identified by Honeywell in late 1959 in a letter to the short-range committee. COBOL Edition 1965 brought further clarifications to the specifications and introduced facilities for handling mass storage files and tables. ===COBOL-68=== Efforts began to standardize COBOL to overcome incompatibilities between versions. In late 1962, both ISO and the United States of America Standards Institute (now ANSI) formed groups to create standards. ANSI produced USA Standard COBOL X3.23 in August 1968, which became the cornerstone for later versions. This version was known as American National Standard (ANS) COBOL and was adopted by ISO in 1972. ===COBOL-74=== By 1970, COBOL had become the most widely used programming language in the world. Independently of the ANSI committee, the CODASYL Programming Language Committee was working on improving the language. They described new versions in 1968, 1969, 1970, and 1973, including changes such as new inter-program communication, debugging, and file merging facilities, as well as improved string handling and library inclusion features. Although CODASYL was independent of the ANSI committee, the CODASYL Journal of Development was used by ANSI to identify features that were popular enough to warrant implementing. The Programming Language Committee also liaised with ECMA and the Japanese COBOL Standard committee. The Programming Language Committee was not well-known, however. The vice president, William Rinehuls, complained that two-thirds of the COBOL community did not know of the committee's existence. It also lacked the funds to make public documents, such as minutes of meetings and change proposals, freely available. In 1974, ANSI published a revised version of (ANS) COBOL, containing new features such as file organizations, the statement and the segmentation module. Deleted features included the statement, the statement (which was replaced by ), and the implementer-defined random access module (which was superseded by the new sequential and relative I/O modules). These made up 44 changes, which rendered existing statements incompatible with the new standard. The report writer was slated to be removed from COBOL but was reinstated before the standard was published. ISO later adopted the updated standard in 1978. Later that year, the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA) said it was "strongly opposed" to the new standard, citing "prohibitive" conversion costs and enhancements that were "forced on the user". During the first public review period, the committee received 2,200 responses, of which 1,700 were negative form letters. Other responses were detailed analyses of the effect COBOL-80 would have on their systems; conversion costs were predicted to be at least 50 cents per line of code. Fewer than a dozen of the responses were in favor of the proposed standard. ISO TC97-SC5 installed in 1979 the international COBOL Experts Group, on initiative of Wim Ebbinkhuijsen. The group consisted of COBOL experts from many countries, including the United States. Its goal was to achieve mutual understanding and respect between ANSI and the rest of the world with regard to the need of new COBOL features. After three years, ISO changed the status of the group to a formal Working Group: WG 4 COBOL. The group took primary ownership and development of the COBOL standard, where ANSI made most of the proposals. In 1983, the DPMA withdrew its opposition to the standard, citing the responsiveness of the committee to public concerns. In the same year, a National Bureau of Standards study concluded that the proposed standard would present few problems. A year later, DEC released a VAX/VMS COBOL-80, and noted that conversion of COBOL-74 programs posed few problems. The new EVALUATE statement and inline PERFORM were particularly well received and improved productivity, thanks to simplified control flow and debugging. The second public review drew another 1,000 (mainly negative) responses, while the last drew just 25, by which time many concerns had been addressed. were added, such as: Scope terminators (END-IF, END-PERFORM, END-READ, etc.) Nested subprograms CONTINUE, a no-operation statement EVALUATE, a switch statement INITIALIZE, a statement that can set groups of data to their default values Inline PERFORM loop bodies – previously, loop bodies had to be specified in a separate procedure Reference modification, which allows access to substrings I/O status codes. The new standard was adopted by all national standard bodies, including ANSI. In the early 1990s, work began on adding object-oriented programming in the next full revision of COBOL. Object-oriented features were taken from C++ and Smalltalk. The initial estimate was to have this revision completed by 1997, and an ISO Committee Draft (CD) was available by 1997. Some vendors (including Micro Focus, Fujitsu, and IBM) introduced object-oriented syntax based on drafts of the full revision. The final approved ISO standard was approved and published in late 2002. Fujitsu/GTSoftware, Micro Focus introduced object-oriented COBOL compilers targeting the .NET Framework. There were many other new features, many of which had been in the CODASYL COBOL Journal of Development since 1978 and had missed the opportunity to be included in COBOL-85. These other features included: Free-form code User-defined functions Recursion Locale-based processing Support for extended character sets such as Unicode Floating-point and binary data types (until then, binary items were truncated based on their declaration's base-10 specification) Portable arithmetic results Bit and Boolean data types Pointers and syntax for getting and freeing storage The for text-based user interfaces The facility Improved interoperability with other programming languages and framework environments such as .NET and Java. Three corrigenda were published for the standard: two in 2006 and one in 2009. ===COBOL 2014=== Between 2003 and 2009, three technical reports were produced describing object finalization, XML processing and collection classes for COBOL. COBOL 2014 includes the following changes: Portable arithmetic results have been replaced by IEEE 754 data types Major features have been made optional, such as the VALIDATE facility, the report writer and the screen-handling facility Method overloading Dynamic capacity tables (a feature dropped from the draft of COBOL 2002) ===COBOL 2023=== The COBOL 2023 standard added a few new features: Asynchronous messaging syntax using the SEND and RECEIVE statements A transaction processing facility with COMMIT and ROLLBACK XOR logical operator The CONTINUE statement can be extended as to pause the program for a specified duration A DELETE FILE statement LINE SEQUENTIAL file organization Defined infinite looping with PERFORM UNTIL EXIT SUBSTITUTE intrinsic function allowing for substring substitution of different length CONVERT function for base-conversion Boolean shifting operators There is as yet no known complete implementation of this standard. == Legacy == COBOL programs are used globally in governments and various industries including retail, travel, finance, and healthcare. Testimony before the House of Representatives in 2016 indicated that COBOL is still in use by many federal agencies. COBOL currently runs on diverse operating systems such as z/OS, z/VSE, VME, Unix, NonStop OS, OpenVMS and Windows. In 1997, the Gartner Group reported that 80% of the world's business ran on COBOL with over 200 billion lines of code and 5 billion lines more being written annually. As of 2020, COBOL ran background processes 95% of the time a credit or debit card was swiped. === Y2K === Near the end of the 20th century, the year 2000 problem (Y2K) was the focus of significant COBOL programming effort, sometimes by the same programmers who had designed the systems decades before. The particular level of effort required to correct COBOL code has been attributed to the large amount of business-oriented COBOL, as business applications use dates heavily, and to fixed-length data fields. Some studies attribute as much as "24% of Y2K software repair costs to Cobol". After the clean-up effort put into these programs for Y2K, a 2003 survey found that many remained in use. The authors said that the survey data suggest "a gradual decline in the importance of COBOL in application development over the [following] 10 years unless ... integration with other languages and technologies can be adopted". === Modernization efforts === In 2006 and 2012, Computerworld surveys (of 352 readers) found that over 60% of organizations used COBOL (more than C++ and Visual Basic .NET) and that for half of those, COBOL was used for the majority of their internal software. 36% of managers said they planned to migrate from COBOL, and 25% said that they would do so if not for the expense of rewriting legacy code. Alternatively, some businesses have migrated their COBOL programs from mainframes to cheaper, faster hardware. Several banks have undertaken multi-year COBOL modernization efforts, sometimes resulting in widespread service disruptions that result in fines. During the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing surge of unemployment, several US states reported a shortage of skilled COBOL programmers to support the legacy systems used for unemployment benefit management. Many of these systems had been in the process of conversion to more modern programming languages prior to the pandemic, but the process was put on hold. Similarly, the US Internal Revenue Service rushed to patch its COBOL-based Individual Master File in order to disburse the tens of millions of payments mandated by the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act. ==Features== ===Syntax=== COBOL has an English-like syntax, which is used to describe nearly everything in COBOL programs. For example, a condition can be expressed as or more concisely as or . More complex conditions can be abbreviated by removing repeated conditions and variables. For example, can be shortened to . To support this syntax, COBOL has over 300 keywords. Some of the keywords are simple alternative or pluralized spellings of the same word, which provides for more grammatically appropriate statements and clauses; e.g., the and keywords can be used interchangeably, as can and , and and . Each COBOL program is made up of four basic lexical items: words, literals, picture character-strings (see ) and separators. Words include reserved words and user-defined identifiers. They are up to 31 characters long and may include letters, digits, hyphens and underscores. Literals include numerals (e.g. ) and strings (e.g. ). Separators include the space character and commas and semi-colons followed by a space. A COBOL program is split into four divisions: the identification division, the environment division, the data division and the procedure division. The identification division specifies the name and type of the source element and is where classes and interfaces are specified. The environment division specifies any program features that depend on the system running it, such as files and character sets. The data division is used to declare variables and parameters. The procedure division contains the program's statements. Each division is sub-divided into sections, which are made up of paragraphs. ====Metalanguage==== COBOL's syntax is usually described with a unique metalanguage using braces, brackets, bars and underlining. The metalanguage was developed for the original COBOL specifications. As an example, consider the following description of an ADD statement: \begin{array}{l} \underline{\text{ADD}}\, \begin{Bmatrix} \text{identifier-1} \\ \text{literal-1} \end{Bmatrix}\dots \;\underline{\text{TO}}\,\left\{\text{identifier-2}\,\left[\,\underline{\text{ROUNDED}}\,\right]\right\}\dots \\[1em] \quad \left[\left\|\begin{array}{l} \text{ON}\,\underline{\text{SIZE}}\,\underline{\text{ERROR}}\,\text{imperative-statement-1} \\ \underline{\text{NOT}}\,\text{ON}\,\underline{\text{SIZE}}\,\underline{\text{ERROR}}\,\text{imperative-statement-2} \end{array}\right\|\right] \\[1em] \quad \left[\,\underline{\text{END-ADD}}\,\right] \end{array} This description permits the following variants: ADD 1 TO x ADD 1, a, b TO x ROUNDED, y, z ROUNDED ADD a, b TO c ON SIZE ERROR DISPLAY "Error" END-ADD ADD a TO b NOT SIZE ERROR DISPLAY "No error" ON SIZE ERROR DISPLAY "Error" ===Code format=== The height of COBOL's popularity coincided with the era of keypunch machines and punched cards. The program itself was written onto punched cards, then read in and compiled, and the data fed into the program was sometimes on cards as well. COBOL can be written in two formats: fixed (the default) or free. In fixed-format, code must be aligned to fit in certain areas (a hold-over from using punched cards). Until COBOL 2002, these were: In COBOL 2002, Areas A and B were merged to form the program-text area, which now ends at an implementor-defined column. COBOL 2002 also introduced free-format code. Free-format code can be placed in any column of the file, as in newer programming languages. Comments are specified using >, which can be placed anywhere and can also be used in fixed-format source code. Continuation lines are not present, and the >>PAGE directive replaces the / indicator. ===Identification division=== The identification division identifies the following code entity and contains the definition of a class or interface. ====Object-oriented programming==== Classes and interfaces have been in COBOL since 2002. Classes have factory objects, containing class methods and variables, and instance objects, containing instance methods and variables. Inheritance and interfaces provide polymorphism. Support for generic programming is provided through parameterized classes, which can be instantiated to use any class or interface. Objects are stored as references which may be restricted to a certain type. There are two ways of calling a method: the statement, which acts similarly to , or through inline method invocation, which is analogous to using functions. > These are equivalent. INVOKE my-class "foo" RETURNING var MOVE my-class::"foo" TO var > Inline method invocation COBOL does not provide a way to hide methods. Class data can be hidden, however, by declaring it without a property (programming)\| clause, which leaves external code no way to access it. Method overloading was added in COBOL 2014. ===Environment division=== The environment division contains the configuration section and the input-output section. The configuration section is used to specify variable features such as currency signs, locales and character sets. The input-output section contains file-related information. ====Files==== COBOL supports three file formats, or ': sequential, indexed and relative. In sequential files, records are contiguous and must be traversed sequentially, similarly to a linked list. Indexed files have one or more indexes which allow records to be randomly accessed and which can be sorted on them. Each record must have a unique key, but other, ', record keys need not be unique. Implementations of indexed files vary between vendors, although common implementations, such as C-ISAM and VSAM, are based on IBM's ISAM. Other implementations are Record Management Services on OpenVMS and Enscribe on HPE NonStop (Tandem). Relative files, like indexed files, have a unique record key, but they do not have alternate keys. A relative record's key is its ordinal position; for example, the 10th record has a key of 10. This means that creating a record with a key of 5 may require the creation of (empty) preceding records. Relative files also allow for both sequential and random access. A common non-standard extension is the organization, used to process text files. Records in a file are terminated by a newline and may be of varying length. ===Data division=== The data division is split into six sections which declare different items: the file section, for file records; the working-storage section, for static variables; the local-storage section, for automatic variables; the linkage section, for parameters and the return value; the report section and the screen section, for text-based user interfaces. ====Aggregated data==== Data items in COBOL are declared hierarchically through the use of level-numbers which indicate if a data item is part of another. An item with a higher level-number is subordinate to an item with a lower one. Top-level data items, with a level-number of 1, are called '. Items that have subordinate aggregate data are called '; those that do not are called . Level-numbers used to describe standard data items are between 1 and 49. 01 some-record. > Aggregate group record item 05 num PIC 9(10). > Elementary item 05 the-date. > Aggregate (sub)group record item 10 the-year PIC 9(4). > Elementary item 10 the-month PIC 99. > Elementary item 10 the-day PIC 99. > Elementary item In the above example, elementary item and group item are subordinate to the record , while elementary items , , and are part of the group item . Subordinate items can be disambiguated with the (or ) keyword. For example, consider the example code above along with the following example: 01 sale-date. 05 the-year PIC 9(4). 05 the-month PIC 99. 05 the-day PIC 99. The names , , and are ambiguous by themselves, since more than one data item is defined with those names. To specify a particular data item, for instance one of the items contained within the group, the programmer would use (or the equivalent ). This syntax is similar to the "dot notation" supported by most contemporary languages. ====Other data levels==== A level-number of 66 is used to declare a re-grouping of previously defined items, irrespective of how those items are structured. This data level, also referred to by the associated , is rarely used and, circa 1988, was usually found in old programs. Its ability to ignore the hierarchical and logical structure data meant its use was not recommended and many installations forbade its use. 01 customer-record. 05 cust-key PIC X(10). 05 cust-name. 10 cust-first-name PIC X(30). 10 cust-last-name PIC X(30). 05 cust-dob PIC 9(8). 05 cust-balance PIC 9(7)V99. 66 cust-personal-details RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-dob. 66 cust-all-details RENAMES cust-name THRU cust-balance. A 77 level-number indicates the item is stand-alone, and in such situations is equivalent to the level-number 01. For example, the following code declares two 77-level data items, and , which are non-group data items that are independent of (not subordinate to) any other data items: 77 property-name PIC X(80). 77 sales-region PIC 9(5). An 88 level-number declares a (a so-called 88-level) which is true when its parent data item contains one of the values specified in its clause. For example, the following code defines two 88-level condition-name items that are true or false depending on the current character data value of the data item. When the data item contains a value of , the condition-name is true, whereas when it contains a value of or , the condition-name is true. If the data item contains some other value, both of the condition-names are false. 01 wage-type PIC X. 88 wage-is-hourly VALUE "H". 88 wage-is-yearly VALUE "S", "Y". ====Data types==== Standard COBOL provides the following data types: Type safety is variable in COBOL. Numeric data is converted between different representations and sizes silently and alphanumeric data can be placed in any data item that can be stored as a string, including numeric and group data. In contrast, object references and pointers may only be assigned from items of the same type and their values may be restricted to a certain type. =====PICTURE clause===== A (or ) clause is a string of characters, each of which represents a portion of the data item and what it may contain. Some picture characters specify the type of the item and how many characters or digits it occupies in memory. For example, a indicates a decimal digit, and an indicates that the item is signed. Other picture characters (called ' and ' characters) specify how an item should be formatted. For example, a series of characters define character positions as well as how a leading sign character is to be positioned within the final character data; the rightmost non-numeric character will contain the item's sign, while other character positions corresponding to a to the left of this position will contain a space. Repeated characters can be specified more concisely by specifying a number in parentheses after a picture character; for example, is equivalent to . Picture specifications containing only digit () and sign () characters define purely ' data items, while picture specifications containing alphabetic () or alphanumeric () characters define ' data items. The presence of other formatting characters define ' or ' data items. =====USAGE clause===== The clause declares the format in which data is stored. Depending on the data type, it can either complement or be used instead of a clause. While it can be used to declare pointers and object references, it is mostly geared towards specifying numeric types. These numeric formats are: Binary, where a minimum size is either specified by the PICTURE clause or by a USAGE clause such as BINARY-LONG , where data may be stored in whatever format the implementation provides; often equivalent to , the default format, where data is stored as a string Floating-point, in either an implementation-dependent format or according to IEEE 754 , where data is stored as a string using an extended character set , where data is stored in the smallest possible decimal format (typically packed binary-coded decimal) ====Report writer==== The report writer is a declarative facility for creating reports. The programmer need only specify the report layout and the data required to produce it, freeing them from having to write code to handle things like page breaks, data formatting, and headings and footings. Reports are associated with report files, which are files which may only be written to through report writer statements. FD report-out REPORT sales-report. Each report is defined in the report section of the data division. A report is split into report groups which define the report's headings, footings and details. Reports work around hierarchical . Control breaks occur when a key variable changes it value; for example, when creating a report detailing customers' orders, a control break could occur when the program reaches a different customer's orders. Here is an example report description for a report which gives a salesperson's sales and which warns of any invalid records: RD sales-report PAGE LIMITS 60 LINES FIRST DETAIL 3 CONTROLS seller-name. 01 TYPE PAGE HEADING. 03 COL 1 VALUE "Sales Report". 03 COL 74 VALUE "Page". 03 COL 79 PIC Z9 SOURCE PAGE-COUNTER. 01 sales-on-day TYPE DETAIL, LINE + 1. 03 COL 3 VALUE "Sales on". 03 COL 12 PIC 99/99/9999 SOURCE sales-date. 03 COL 21 VALUE "were". 03 COL 26 PIC $$$$9.99 SOURCE sales-amount. 01 invalid-sales TYPE DETAIL, LINE + 1. 03 COL 3 VALUE "INVALID RECORD:". 03 COL 19 PIC X(34) SOURCE sales-record. 01 TYPE CONTROL HEADING seller-name, LINE + 2. 03 COL 1 VALUE "Seller:". 03 COL 9 PIC X(30) SOURCE seller-name. The above report description describes the following layout: Sales Report Page 1 Seller: Howard Bromberg Sales on 10/12/2008 were $1000.00 Sales on 12/12/2008 were $0.00 Sales on 13/12/2008 were $31.47 INVALID RECORD: Howard Bromberg XXXXYY Seller: Howard Discount ... Sales Report Page 12 Sales on 08/05/2014 were $543.98 INVALID RECORD: William Selden 12052014FOOFOO Sales on 30/05/2014 were $0.00 Four statements control the report writer: , which prepares the report writer for printing; , which prints a report group; , which suppresses the printing of a report group; and , which terminates report processing. For the above sales report example, the procedure division might look like this: OPEN INPUT sales, OUTPUT report-out INITIATE sales-report PERFORM UNTIL 1 1 READ sales AT END EXIT PERFORM END-READ VALIDATE sales-record IF valid-record GENERATE sales-on-day ELSE GENERATE invalid-sales END-IF END-PERFORM TERMINATE sales-report CLOSE sales, report-out . Use of the Report Writer facility tends to vary considerably; some organizations use it extensively and some not at all. In addition, implementations of Report Writer ranged in quality, with those at the lower end sometimes using excessive amounts of memory at runtime. ===Procedure division=== ====Procedures==== The sections and paragraphs in the procedure division (collectively called procedures) can be used as labels and as simple subroutines. Unlike in other divisions, paragraphs do not need to be in sections. Execution goes down through the procedures of a program until it is terminated. To use procedures as subroutines, the verb is used. A statement somewhat resembles a procedure call in a newer languages in the sense that execution returns to the code following the statement at the end of the called code; however, it does not provide a mechanism for parameter passing or for returning a result value. If a subroutine is invoked using a simple statement like , then control returns at the end of the called procedure. However, is unusual in that it may be used to call a range spanning a sequence of several adjacent procedures. This is done with the construct: PROCEDURE so-and-so. PERFORM ALPHA PERFORM ALPHA THRU GAMMA STOP RUN. ALPHA. DISPLAY 'A'. BETA. DISPLAY 'B'. GAMMA. DISPLAY 'C'. The output of this program will be: "A A B C". also differs from conventional procedure calls in that there is, at least traditionally, no notion of a call stack. As a consequence, nested invocations are possible (a sequence of code being 'ed may execute a statement itself), but require extra care if parts of the same code are executed by both invocations. The problem arises when the code in the inner invocation reaches the exit point of the outer invocation. More formally, if control passes through the exit point of a invocation that was called earlier but has not yet completed, the COBOL 2002 standard stipulates that the behavior is undefined. The reason is that COBOL, rather than a "return address", operates with what may be called a continuation address. When control flow reaches the end of any procedure, the continuation address is looked up and control is transferred to that address. Before the program runs, the continuation address for every procedure is initialized to the start address of the procedure that comes next in the program text so that, if no statements happen, control flows from top to bottom through the program. But when a statement executes, it modifies the continuation address of the called procedure (or the last procedure of the called range, if was used), so that control will return to the call site at the end. The original value is saved and is restored afterwards, but there is only one storage position. If two nested invocations operate on overlapping code, they may interfere which each other's management of the continuation address in several ways. The following example (taken from ) illustrates the problem: LABEL1. DISPLAY '1' PERFORM LABEL2 THRU LABEL3 STOP RUN. LABEL2. DISPLAY '2' PERFORM LABEL3 THRU LABEL4. LABEL3. DISPLAY '3'. LABEL4. DISPLAY '4'. One might expect that the output of this program would be "1 2 3 4 3": After displaying "2", the second causes "3" and "4" to be displayed, and then the first invocation continues on with "3". In traditional COBOL implementations, this is not the case. Rather, the first statement sets the continuation address at the end of so that it will jump back to the call site inside . The second statement sets the return at the end of but does not modify the continuation address of , expecting it to be the default continuation. Thus, when the inner invocation arrives at the end of , it jumps back to the outer statement, and the program stops having printed just "1 2 3". On the other hand, in some COBOL implementations like the open-source TinyCOBOL compiler, the two statements do not interfere with each other and the output is indeed "1 2 3 4 3". Therefore, the behavior in such cases is not only (perhaps) surprising, it is also not portable. but it was deemed obsolete in the COBOL 1985 standard and deleted in 2002. The statement was poorly regarded because it undermined "locality of context" and made a program's overall logic difficult to comprehend. As textbook author Daniel D. McCracken wrote in 1976, when "someone who has never seen the program before must become familiar with it as quickly as possible, sometimes under critical time pressure because the program has failed ... the sight of a GO TO statement in a paragraph by itself, signaling as it does the existence of an unknown number of ALTER statements at unknown locations throughout the program, strikes fear in the heart of the bravest programmer." ===Hello, world=== A "Hello, World!" program in COBOL: IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. PROGRAM-ID. hello-world. PROCEDURE DIVISION. DISPLAY "Hello, world!" . When the now famous "Hello, World!" program example in The C Programming Language was first published in 1978 a similar mainframe COBOL program sample would have been submitted through JCL, very likely using a punch card reader, and 80 column punch cards. The listing below, with an empty DATA DIVISION, was tested using Linux and the System/370 Hercules emulator running MVS 3.8J. The JCL, written in July 2015, is derived from the Hercules tutorials and samples hosted by Jay Moseley. In keeping with COBOL programming of that era, HELLO, WORLD is displayed in all capital letters. //COBUCLG JOB (001),'COBOL BASE TEST', 00010000 // CLASS=A,MSGCLASS=A,MSGLEVEL=(1,1) 00020000 //BASETEST EXEC COBUCLG 00030000 //COB.SYSIN DD * 00040000 00000* VALIDATION OF BASE COBOL INSTALL 00050000 01000 IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. 00060000 01100 PROGRAM-ID. 'HELLO'. 00070000 02000 ENVIRONMENT DIVISION. 00080000 02100 CONFIGURATION SECTION. 00090000 02110 SOURCE-COMPUTER. GNULINUX. 00100000 02120 OBJECT-COMPUTER. HERCULES. 00110000 02200 SPECIAL-NAMES. 00120000 02210 CONSOLE IS CONSL. 00130000 03000 DATA DIVISION. 00140000 04000 PROCEDURE DIVISION. 00150000 04100 00-MAIN. 00160000 04110 DISPLAY 'HELLO, WORLD' UPON CONSL. 00170000 04900 STOP RUN. 00180000 //LKED.SYSLIB DD DSNAME=SYS1.COBLIB,DISP=SHR 00190000 // DD DSNAME=SYS1.LINKLIB,DISP=SHR 00200000 //GO.SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A 00210000 // 00220000 After submitting the JCL, the MVS console displayed: 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP100 COBUCLG ON READER1 COBOL BASE TEST 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEF677I WARNING MESSAGE(S) FOR JOB COBUCLG ISSUED 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP373 COBUCLG STARTED - INIT 1 - CLASS A - SYS BSP1 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSLIB DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEC130I SYSPUNCH DD STATEMENT MISSING 19.52.48 JOB 3 IEFACTRT - Stepname Procstep Program Retcode 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST COB IKFCBL00 RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST LKED IEWL RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 +HELLO, WORLD 19.52.48 JOB 3 COBUCLG BASETEST GO PGM=*.DD RC= 0000 19.52.48 JOB 3 $HASP395 COBUCLG ENDED Line 10 of the console listing above is highlighted for effect, the highlighting is not part of the actual console output. The associated compiler listing generated over four pages of technical detail and job run information, for the single line of output from the 14 lines of COBOL. == Reception == ===Lack of structure=== In the 1970s, adoption of the structured programming paradigm was becoming increasingly widespread. Edsger Dijkstra, a preeminent computer scientist, wrote a letter to the editor of Communications of the ACM, published in 1975 entitled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?", in which he was critical of COBOL and several other contemporary languages; remarking that "the use of COBOL cripples the mind". In a published dissent to Dijkstra's remarks, the computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins claimed that unstructured COBOL tended to be "written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well", arguing that the issue was primarily one of training. One cause of spaghetti code was the statement. Attempts to remove s from COBOL code, however, resulted in convoluted programs and reduced code quality. s were largely replaced by the statement and procedures, which promoted modular programming and gave easy access to powerful looping facilities. However, could be used only with procedures so loop bodies were not located where they were used, making programs harder to understand. COBOL programs were infamous for being monolithic and lacking modularization. COBOL code could be modularized only through procedures, which were found to be inadequate for large systems. It was impossible to restrict access to data, meaning a procedure could access and modify data item. Furthermore, there was no way to pass parameters to a procedure, an omission Jean Sammet regarded as the committee's biggest mistake. Another complication stemmed from the ability to a specified sequence of procedures. This meant that control could jump to and return from any procedure, creating convoluted control flow and permitting a programmer to break the single-entry single-exit rule. This situation improved as COBOL adopted more features. COBOL-74 added subprograms, giving programmers the ability to control the data each part of the program could access. COBOL-85 then added nested subprograms, allowing programmers to hide subprograms. Further control over data and code came in 2002 when object-oriented programming, user-defined functions and user-defined data types were included. Nevertheless, much important legacy COBOL software uses unstructured code, which has become practically unmaintainable. It can be too risky and costly to modify even a simple section of code, since it may be used from unknown places in unknown ways. ===Compatibility issues=== COBOL was intended to be a highly portable, "common" language. However, by 2001, around 300 dialects had been created. One source of dialects was the standard itself: the 1974 standard was composed of one mandatory nucleus and eleven functional modules, each containing two or three levels of support. This permitted 104,976 possible variants. COBOL-85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions, and its development was controversial. Joseph T. Brophy, the CIO of Travelers Insurance, spearheaded an effort to inform COBOL users of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard. As a result, the ANSI COBOL Committee received more than 2,200 letters from the public, mostly negative, requiring the committee to make changes. On the other hand, conversion to COBOL-85 was thought to increase productivity in future years, thus justifying the conversion costs. ===Verbose syntax=== COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity. Proponents say that this was intended to make the code self-documenting, easing program maintenance. COBOL was also intended to be easy for programmers to learn and use, while still being readable to non-technical staff such as managers. The desire for readability led to the use of English-like syntax and structural elements, such as nouns, verbs, clauses, sentences, sections, and divisions. Yet by 1984, maintainers of COBOL programs were struggling to deal with "incomprehensible" code and the main changes in COBOL-85 were there to help ease maintenance. \| align=left \| width=30% \| quoted=1 }} Later, COBOL suffered from a shortage of material covering it; it took until 1963 for introductory books to appear (with Richard D. Irwin publishing a college textbook on COBOL in 1966). Donald Nelson, chair of the CODASYL COBOL committee, said in 1984 that "academics ... hate COBOL" and that computer science graduates "had 'hate COBOL' drilled into them". By the mid-1980s, there was also significant condescension towards COBOL in the business community from users of other languages, for example FORTRAN or assembler, implying that COBOL could be used only for non-challenging problems. In 2003, COBOL featured in 80% of information systems curricula in the United States, the same proportion as C++ and Java. Ten years later, a poll by Micro Focus found that 20% of university academics thought COBOL was outdated or dead and that 55% believed their students thought COBOL was outdated or dead. The same poll also found that only 25% of academics had COBOL programming on their curriculum even though 60% thought they should teach it. ===Concerns about the design process=== Doubts have been raised about the competence of the standards committee. Short-term committee member Howard Bromberg said that there was "little control" over the development process and that it was "plagued by discontinuity of personnel and ... a lack of talent." Jean Sammet and Jerome Garfunkel also noted that changes introduced in one revision of the standard would be reverted in the next, due as much to changes in who was in the standard committee as to objective evidence. COBOL standards have repeatedly suffered from delays: COBOL-85 arrived five years later than hoped, COBOL 2002 was five years late, To combat delays, the standard committee allowed the creation of optional addenda which would add features more quickly than by waiting for the next standard revision. However, some committee members raised concerns about incompatibilities between implementations and frequent modifications of the standard. ===Influences on other languages=== COBOL's data structures influenced subsequent programming languages. Its record and file structure influenced PL/I and Pascal, and the REDEFINES clause was a predecessor to Pascal's variant records. Explicit file structure definitions preceded the development of database management systems and aggregated data was a significant advance over Fortran's arrays. PICTURE data declarations were incorporated into PL/I, with minor changes. COBOL's facility, although considered "primitive", influenced the development of include directives. The focus on portability and standardization meant programs written in COBOL could be portable and facilitated the spread of the language to a wide variety of hardware platforms and operating systems. Additionally, the well-defined division structure restricts the definition of external references to the Environment Division, which simplifies platform changes in particular.	[ "Procedural programming", "Communications of the ACM", "National Bureau of Standards", "acronym", "VSAM", "design by committee", "information systems", "Unicode", "MIT Press", "signedness", "Richard W. Conway", "COVID-19 pandemic", "IBM", "Recursion", "XOR", "keyword (computer programming)", "the Pentagon", "formula", "CNC lathe", "transaction processing", "Mary K. Hawes", "label (programming)", "Chief Information Officer", "FACT computer language", "newline", "dangling else problem", "Betty Holberton", "static variable", "lexical items", "standardized", "Microsoft Windows", "Asynchronous messaging", "User-defined function", "XML", "C++", "Committee on Oversight and Government Reform", "Academic Press", "Compiled language", "debugging", "finalizer", "Saul Gorn", "ALGOL 58", "batch processing", "Government Accountability Office", "statement (computer science)", "unstructured programming", "structured programming", "packed binary-coded decimal", "The Jargon File", "CIO (magazine)", "letter to the editor", "Univac", "character sets", "dynamic memory", "Wim Ebbinkhuijsen", "Daniel D. McCracken", "variable (computer science)", "deprecation", "Bob Bemer", "PL/I", "undefined behavior", "Computer History Museum", "String operations", "Grace Hopper", "EGL (programming language)", "Philco", "Jean E. Sammet", "United States Department of the Navy", "Exception handling", ".NET Framework", "Fujitsu", "modular programming", "BLIS/COBOL", "table (information)", "Commit (data management)", "IBM COBOL", "Hercules emulator", "Locale (computer software)", "ICL VME", "Job Control Language", "return statement", "Burroughs Corporation", "Record (computer science)", "static typing", "CNN", "Enscribe", "University of Pennsylvania", "James Madison University", "Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act", "subroutines", "Software portability", "imperative programming", "The Irish Times", "switch statement", "X/Open", "Visual Basic .NET", "Record Management Services", "Smalltalk", "computer programming language", "Texas Public Radio", "The C Programming Language", "David Gries", "string (computer science)", "CRC Press", "class (computer programming)", "ISAM", "FACT (computer language)", "Concatenation", "IEEE 754", "Individual Master File", "mainframe computer", "US Air Force", "object-oriented programming", "function prototype", "weak typing", "Interface (object-oriented programming)", "International Computers and Tabulators", "Application framework", "Association for Computing Machinery", "Ecma International", "Logical shift", "CODASYL", "text-based user interface", "C-ISAM", "US Department of Defense", "cloud computing", "FLOW-MATIC", "library (computing)", "binary number", "Sperry Rand", "conditional (computer programming)", "lock (database)", "unique key", "memory segmentation", "include directive", "ALGOL", "self-documenting", "Java (Programming language)", "procedural programming", "Computerworld", "polymorphism (computer science)", "Generic programming", "MVS", "single-entry single-exit", "The Open Group", "automatic variable", "mass storage", "prose", "Pointer (computer programming)", "Unix", "Parameter (computer programming)", "assembler language", "decision table", "sequential access", "ISO", "Programming Language for Business", "Jean Sammet", "ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22", "General Electric", "Java (platform)", "National Cash Register", "Bit", "International Electrotechnical Commission", "International Organization for Standardization", "declarative programming", "parameter (computer programming)", "COMTRAN", "steering committee", "Cambridge University Press", "Erratum", "database management systems", "Unisys Corporation", "generic programming", "Charles Katz", "Micro Focus", "Data Processing Management Association", "z/OS", "OpenVMS", "standard library", "forward compatibility", "Micro Focus International", "UTF-8", "interactivity", "computer files", "Basic Books", "punched card", "call by value", "David Taylor Model Basin", "Joseph Wegstein", "United States Department of Defense", "random access", "year 2000 problem", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "Timeline of programming languages", "call by reference", "Eiffel (programming language)", "z/VSE", "St. Paul Travelers", "FORTRAN", "keypunch machine", "Roy Nutt", "Bendix Corporation", "NonStop (server computers)", "Rollback (data management)", "Boolean data type", "The Washington Post", "Control Data Corporation", "CobolScript", "base-10", "Floating-point", "self-modifying code", "assignment (computer science)", "Undefined behavior", "RCA", "VAX/VMS", "Method overloading", "metalanguage", "WP:EXPABBR", "Criticism of COBOL", "operating system", "infinite loop", "Boolean expression", "Sylvania Electric Products", "Internal Revenue Service", "Alphabetical list of programming languages", "Placeholder (Computer syntax)", "Gartner Group", "Annals of the History of Computing", "spaghetti code", "INCITS", "AIMACO", "control flow", "GO TO", "legacy code", "continue statement", "Comparison of programming languages", "Edsger Dijkstra", "GnuCOBOL", "method (computer programming)", "collection class", "property (programming)", "reserved word", "linked list", "Sams", "\"Hello, World!\" program", "Honeywell", "Pascal (programming language)", "WATBOL", "NIST", "John Wiley & Sons", "Object-oriented programming", "break statement", "substring", "ANSI", "Member visibility" ]
6,801	Crew	A crew is a body or a group of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization. A location in which a crew works is called a crewyard or a workyard. The word has nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship's crew, often organised with a chain of command. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship's company. Members of a crew are often referred to by the titles crewmate, crewman or crew-member. Crew also refers to the sport of rowing, where teams row competitively in racing shells. == Types == For a specific sporting usage, see rowing crew. For filmmaking usage, see film crew. For live music usage, see road crew. For analogous entities in research on human judgment and decision-making, see team and judge–advisor system. For stagecraft usage, see stage crew. For video production usage, see television crew. For crews in aviation and the airline industry, see groundcrew and aircrew. For crews in human spaceflight, see astronaut. Tank crew Boat crew	[ "stagehand", "video production", "Navy boat crew", "Space Shuttle Atlantis", "crewman", "astronaut", "aircrew", "film crew", "stagecraft", "rowing (sport)", "ship's company", "human spaceflight", "judge–advisor system", "road crew", "television crew", "hierarchy", "groundcrew", "aviation", "chain of command", "Tank commander", "sport", "rowing crew", "team", "filmmaking", "live music", "STS-112", "Space Shuttle", "Commissioned officer", "airline" ]
6,803	CCD	CCD may refer to: ==Science and technology== Charge-coupled device, an electronic light sensor used in various devices including digital cameras .ccd, the filename extension for CloneCD's CD image file Carbonate compensation depth, a property of oceans Colony collapse disorder, a phenomenon involving the abrupt disappearance of honey bees in a beehive or Western honey bee colony centicandela (ccd), an SI unit of luminous intensity denoting one hundredth of a candela Central composite design, an experimental design in response surface methodology for building a second order model for a response variable without a complete three-level factorial Complementary cumulative distribution function Continuous collision detection, especially in rigid-body dynamics Countercurrent distribution, used for separating mixtures Core complex die, an element of AMD Zen 2 and later microprocessor architectures ===Medicine=== Canine compulsive disorder, a behavioral condition in dogs, similar to human obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Caput-collum-diaphyseal angle, the angle between the neck and the shaft of the femur in the hip Cleidocranial dysostosis (also called cleidocranial dysplasia), a genetic abnormality in humans Central core disease, a rare neuromuscular disorder Congenital chloride diarrhea, a rare disorder in babies Continuity of Care Document, an XML-based markup standard for patient medical document exchange Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants, protein-linked carbohydrate structures that have a role in the phenomenon of cross-reactivity in allergic patients Cortical collecting duct, a segment of the kidney ==Politics and government== Census county division, a term used by the US Census Bureau Center City District, an economic development agency for the Center City area of Philadelphia Consular Consolidated Database, a database used for visa processing by the Bureau of Consular Affairs, US Department of State ==Religion== Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, a religious instruction program of the Catholic Church ==Organizations== Café Coffee Day, a chain of coffee shops in India Country Club of Detroit Centre of Cricket Development, a cricket team; see Namibia Cricket Board Cricket Club of Dhakuria; see Gopal Bose ===Education=== Community College of Denver, a public college in Denver, Colorado Cincinnati Country Day School, a non-parochial, private school in Indian Hill, Ohio ===Non-governmental=== Christian Care Foundation for Children with Disabilities, in Thailand Council for a Community of Democracies, in the US Canadian Coalition for Democracies, a former advocacy organization in Canada ===Politics and government=== Centro Cristiano Democratico (Christian Democratic Centre), a defunct Italian political party ==Other uses== Convention Centre Dublin, Ireland	[ "Continuity of Care Document", "Colony collapse disorder", "Christian Care Foundation for Children with Disabilities", "Carbonate compensation depth", "Air-independent propulsion", "Gopal Bose", "WP:DABMENTION", "Continuous collision detection", "Convention Centre Dublin", "Cincinnati Country Day School", "Caput-collum-diaphyseal angle", ".ccd", "Closed captioning", "Countercurrent distribution", "Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants", "Cortical collecting duct", "Community College of Denver", "Census county division", "Country Club of Detroit", "centicandela", "Central composite design", "Consular Consolidated Database", "Congenital chloride diarrhea", "Canine compulsive disorder", "Complementary cumulative distribution function", "Namibia Cricket Board", "Central core disease", "Council for a Community of Democracies", "WP:DABACRO", "Café Coffee Day", "Zen 2", "Center City, Philadelphia", "Charge-coupled device", "Canadian Coalition for Democracies", "Centro Cristiano Democratico", "Confraternity of Christian Doctrine", "Cleidocranial dysostosis" ]
6,804	Charge-coupled device	A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric charge to a neighboring capacitor. CCD sensors are a major technology used in digital imaging. == Overview == In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) capacitors. These MOS capacitors, the basic building blocks of a CCD, with MOS capacitors being the basic building blocks of a CCD, and a depleted MOS structure used as the photodetector in early CCD devices. In the late 1960s, Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs were researching MOS technology while working on semiconductor bubble memory. They realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The initial paper describing the concept in April 1970 listed possible uses as memory, a delay line, and an imaging device. The device could also be used as a shift register. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the bucket-brigade device (BBD), which was developed at Philips Research Labs during the late 1960s. The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on an oxidized silicon surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. It was demonstrated by Gil Amelio, Michael Francis Tompsett and George Smith in April 1970. This was the first experimental application of the CCD in image sensor technology, and used a depleted MOS structure as the photodetector. The first working CCD made with integrated circuit technology was a simple 8-bit shift register, reported by Tompsett, Amelio and Smith in August 1970. This device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight pixel linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate. By 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas Instruments, picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild's effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2D 100 × 100 pixel device. Peter Dillon, a scientist at Kodak Research Labs, invented the first color CCD image sensor by overlaying a color filter array on this Fairchild 100 x 100 pixel Interline CCD starting in 1974. Steven Sasson, an electrical engineer working for the Kodak Apparatus Division, invented a digital still camera using this same Fairchild CCD in 1975. The interline transfer (ILT) CCD device was proposed by L. Walsh and R. Dyck at Fairchild in 1973 to reduce smear and eliminate a mechanical shutter. To further reduce smear from bright light sources, the frame-interline-transfer (FIT) CCD architecture was developed by K. Horii, T. Kuroda and T. Kunii at Matsushita (now Panasonic) in 1981. Under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their camcorders. Before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982. Subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. The first mass-produced consumer CCD video camera, the CCD-G5, was released by Sony in 1983, based on a prototype developed by Yoshiaki Hagiwara in 1981. Early CCD sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode (PPD). They recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current. The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors. and in 2009 they were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their invention of the CCD concept. Michael Tompsett was awarded the 2010 National Medal of Technology and Innovation, for pioneering work and electronic technologies including the design and development of the first CCD imagers. He was also awarded the 2012 IEEE Edison Medal for "pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras and thermal imagers". ==Basics of operation== In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an epitaxial layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a shift register (the CCD, properly speaking). An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor. Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts the charge into a voltage. By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g. by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other processing. ==Detailed physics of operation== === Charge generation === Before the MOS capacitors are exposed to light, they are biased into the depletion region; in n-channel CCDs, the silicon under the bias gate is slightly p-doped or intrinsic. The gate is then biased at a positive potential, above the threshold for strong inversion, which will eventually result in the creation of an n channel below the gate as in a MOSFET. However, it takes time to reach this thermal equilibrium: up to hours in high-end scientific cameras cooled at low temperature. Initially after biasing, the holes are pushed far into the substrate, and no mobile electrons are at or near the surface; the CCD thus operates in a non-equilibrium state called deep depletion. Then, when electron–hole pairs are generated in the depletion region, they are separated by the electric field, the electrons move toward the surface, and the holes move toward the substrate. Four pair-generation processes can be identified: photo-generation (up to 95% of quantum efficiency), generation in the depletion region, generation at the surface, and generation in the neutral bulk. The last three processes are known as dark-current generation, and add noise to the image; they can limit the total usable integration time. The accumulation of electrons at or near the surface can proceed either until image integration is over and charge begins to be transferred, or thermal equilibrium is reached. In this case, the well is said to be full. The maximum capacity of each well is known as the well depth, typically about 105 electrons per pixel. === Design and manufacturing === The photoactive region of a CCD is, generally, an epitaxial layer of silicon. It is lightly p doped (usually with boron) and is grown upon a substrate material, often p++. In buried-channel devices, the type of design utilized in most modern CCDs, certain areas of the surface of the silicon are ion implanted with phosphorus, giving them an n-doped designation. This region defines the channel in which the photogenerated charge packets will travel. Simon Sze details the advantages of a buried-channel device: == Use in astronomy == Due to the high quantum efficiencies of charge-coupled device (CCD) (the ideal quantum efficiency is 100%, one generated electron per incident photon), linearity of their outputs, ease of use compared to photographic plates, and a variety of other reasons, CCDs were very rapidly adopted by astronomers for nearly all UV-to-infrared applications. Thermal noise and cosmic rays may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter such effects, astronomers take several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise. Once developed, the dark frame average image is then subtracted from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects (dead pixels, hot pixels, etc.) in the CCD. Newer Skipper CCDs counter noise by collecting data with the same collected charge multiple times and has applications in precision light Dark Matter searches and neutrino measurements. The Hubble Space Telescope, in particular, has a highly developed series of steps ("data reduction pipeline") to convert the raw CCD data to useful images. CCD cameras used in astrophotography often require sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations from wind and other sources, along with the tremendous weight of most imaging platforms. To take long exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as auto-guiding. Most autoguiders use a second CCD chip to monitor deviations during imaging. This chip can rapidly detect errors in tracking and command the mount motors to correct for them. An unusual astronomical application of CCDs, called drift-scanning, uses a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky. The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed. In this way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey is the most famous example of this, using the technique to produce a survey of over a quarter of the sky. The Gaia space telescope is another instrument operating in this mode, rotating about its axis at a constant rate of 1 revolution in 6 hours and scanning a 360° by 0.5° strip on the sky during this time; a star traverses the entire focal plane in about 40 seconds (effective exposure time). In addition to imagers, CCDs are also used in an array of analytical instrumentation including spectrometers and interferometers. ==Color cameras== Digital color cameras, including the digital color cameras in smartphones, generally use an integral color image sensor, which has a color filter array fabricated on top of the monochrome pixels of the CCD. The most popular CFA pattern is known as the Bayer filter, which is named for its inventor, Kodak scientist Bryce Bayer. In the Bayer pattern, each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green pixels (the human eye has greater acuity for luminance, which is more heavily weighted in green than in either red or blue). As a result, the luminance information is collected in each row and column using a checkerboard pattern, and the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution. Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices (3CCD) and a dichroic beam splitter prism, that splits the image into red, green and blue components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color. Many professional video camcorders, and some semi-professional camcorders, use this technique, although developments in competing CMOS technology have made CMOS sensors, both with beam-splitters and Bayer filters, increasingly popular in high-end video and digital cinema cameras. Another advantage of 3CCD over a Bayer mask device is higher quantum efficiency (higher light sensitivity), because most of the light from the lens enters one of the silicon sensors, while a Bayer mask absorbs a high proportion (more than 2/3) of the light falling on each pixel location. For still scenes, for instance in microscopy, the resolution of a Bayer mask device can be enhanced by microscanning technology. During the process of color co-site sampling, several frames of the scene are produced. Between acquisitions, the sensor is moved in pixel dimensions, so that each point in the visual field is acquired consecutively by elements of the mask that are sensitive to the red, green, and blue components of its color. Eventually every pixel in the image has been scanned at least once in each color and the resolution of the three channels become equivalent (the resolutions of red and blue channels are quadrupled while the green channel is doubled). ===Sensor sizes=== Sensors (CCD / CMOS) come in various sizes, or image sensor formats. These sizes are often referred to with an inch fraction designation such as 1/1.8″ or 2/3″ called the optical format. This measurement originates back in the 1950s and the time of Vidicon tubes. == Blooming == When a CCD exposure is long enough, eventually the electrons that collect in the "bins" in the brightest part of the image will overflow the bin, resulting in blooming. The structure of the CCD allows the electrons to flow more easily in one direction than another, resulting in vertical streaking. Some anti-blooming features that can be built into a CCD reduce its sensitivity to light by using some of the pixel area for a drain structure. James M. Early developed a vertical anti-blooming drain that would not detract from the light collection area, and so did not reduce light sensitivity.	[ "Hubble Space Telescope", "p–n junction", "pixel", "Texas Instruments", "camcorder", "photon counting", "human eye", "DSLR-A200", "range gate", "Dark matter", "bucket-brigade device", "capacitor", "Roper Industries", "Raman spectroscopy", "photographic film", "IEEE Edison Medal", "dichroic prism", "Sony α", "image scanner", "Andor Technology", "consumer electronic", "fluorescence microscopy", "infrared photography", "lux", "shift register", "KH-11 Kennen", "remote control", "Steven Sasson", "impact ionization", "integrated circuit", "semiconductor", "Argus (camera company)", "Yoshiaki Hagiwara", "Sloan Digital Sky Survey", "active pixel sensor", "avalanche diode", "NEC", "National Medal of Technology and Innovation", "avalanche breakdown", "red", "computer memory", "phosphorus", "silicon dioxide", "dark current (physics)", "image sensor", "3CCD", "Scientific American", "charge amplifier", "John Wiley and Sons", "phosphor", "Angle-sensitive pixel", "Simon Sze", "substrate (materials science)", "single-molecule", "LOCOS", "silicon", "Computer History Museum", "thermal noise", "thermoelectric cooling", "Photodiode", "blue", "ion implantation", "George E. Smith", "Blooming (CCD)", "lucky imaging", "James M. Early", "signal-to-noise ratio", "metal–oxide–semiconductor", "photodiode", "electron–hole pair", "Ray (optics)", "voltage", "neutrino", "polysilicon", "List of types of interferometers", "DSLR-A300", "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", "cosmic ray", "Bryce Bayer", "Kazuo Iwama (Sony)", "astrophotography", "Nikon D80", "patent", "Fabry-Pérot", "CRC Press", "shutter lag", "small animal imaging", "video camera tube", "Time delay and integration", "liquid nitrogen", "Depletion and enhancement modes", "noise (electronics)", "spectrometer", "photolithography", "Charles Stark Draper Prize", "astronomy", "micro-channel plate", "Hole accumulation diode", "Multi-layer CCD", "lens (optics)", "Glossary of video terms", "photon", "electron", "light", "semiconductor device fabrication", "Video camera tube", "thermal oxidation", "super resolution microscopy", "autoguider", "Bayer filter", "Philips", "Michael Francis Tompsett", "MOS capacitor", "channel stop", "digital imaging", "video camera", "rolling shutter effect", "empiricism", "Fairchild Semiconductor", "Kodak", "Gil Amelio", "Active pixel sensor", "luminance", "logarithm", "Sony", "Wide dynamic range", "Doping (semiconductor)", "chemical vapor deposition", "photodetector", "Pixel 3", "Gaia space telescope", "video cameras", "pinned photodiode", "night vision devices", "microscanning", "digital camera", "digestive system", "green", "professional video camera", "biasing", "bubble memory", "shutter (photography)", "dark frame subtraction", "MOSFET", "image", "CMOS sensor", "List of digital cameras with CCD sensors", "optical format", "oxide", "co-site sampling", "Nobukazu Teranishi", "digital still camera", "capacitors", "Rotating line camera", "National Academy of Engineering", "Nobel Prize for Physics", "infrared", "dead pixel", "fill factor (image sensor)", "night-vision", "photocathode", "RCA", "epitaxial", "quantum efficiency", "boron", "picosecond", "Category: Digital cameras with CCD image sensor", "Superconducting camera", "Panasonic", "dielectric", "John Wiley & Sons", "Willard Boyle", "epitaxy" ]
6,806	Computer memory	Computer memory stores information, such as data and programs, for immediate use in the computer. The term memory is often synonymous with the terms RAM, main memory, or primary storage. Archaic synonyms for main memory include core (for magnetic core memory) and store. Main memory operates at a high speed compared to mass storage which is slower but less expensive per bit and higher in capacity. Besides storing opened programs and data being actively processed, computer memory serves as a mass storage cache and write buffer to improve both reading and writing performance. Operating systems borrow RAM capacity for caching so long as it is not needed by running software. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to storage; a common way of doing this is through a memory management technique called virtual memory. Modern computer memory is implemented as semiconductor memory, where data is stored within memory cells built from MOS transistors and other components on an integrated circuit. There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM memory. Examples of volatile memory are dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) used for primary storage and static random-access memory (SRAM) used mainly for CPU cache. Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells each storing one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and a multi-level cell capable of storing multiple bits per cell. The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bits. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bits, making it possible to store 2N words in the memory. == History == In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic programmable digital computer, the ENIAC, using thousands of vacuum tubes, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits stored in the vacuum tubes. The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay-line memory, developed by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information in the form of sound waves propagating through the mercury, with the quartz crystals acting as transducers to read and write bits. Delay-line memory was limited to a capacity of up to a few thousand bits. Two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage. Using cathode-ray tubes, Fred Williams invented the Williams tube, which was the first random-access computer memory. The Williams tube was able to store more information than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands) and was less expensive. The Williams tube was nevertheless frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances. Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory. Magnetic-core memory allowed for memory recall after power loss. It was developed by Frederick W. Viehe and An Wang in the late 1940s, and improved by Jay Forrester and Jan A. Rajchman in the early 1950s, before being commercialized with the Whirlwind I computer in 1953. Magnetic-core memory was the dominant form of memory until the development of MOS semiconductor memory in the 1960s. Semiconductor memory made from discrete devices was first shipped by Texas Instruments to the United States Air Force in 1961. In the same year, the concept of solid-state memory on an integrated circuit (IC) chip was proposed by applications engineer Bob Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor. The first bipolar semiconductor memory IC chip was the SP95 introduced by IBM in 1965. === MOS memory === The invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements. MOS memory was developed by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964. In addition to higher performance, MOS semiconductor memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory. In 1965, J. Wood and R. Ball of the Royal Radar Establishment proposed digital storage systems that use CMOS (complementary MOS) memory cells, in addition to MOSFET power devices for the power supply, switched cross-coupling, switches and delay-line storage. The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips. NMOS memory was commercialized by IBM in the early 1970s. MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for the System/360 Model 95. While it offered improved performance, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was possible to build capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell. This led to the first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103 in October 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with the Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992. The term memory is also often used to refer to non-volatile memory including read-only memory (ROM) through modern flash memory. Programmable read-only memory (PROM) was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, while working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971. EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972. Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987. Toshiba commercialized NAND flash memory in 1987. ==Volatility categories== === Volatile memory === Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). DRAM dominates for desktop system memory. SRAM is used for CPU cache. SRAM is also found in small embedded systems requiring little memory. SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and may use a simpler interface, but commonly uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit costs. As a second example, an STT-RAM can be made non-volatile by building large cells, but doing so raises the cost per bit and power requirements and reduces the write speed. Using small cells improves cost, power, and speed, but leads to semi-volatile behavior. In some applications, the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non-volatile memory, for example by removing power but forcing a wake-up before data is lost; or by caching read-only data and discarding the cached data if the power-off time exceeds the non-volatile threshold. The term semi-volatile is also used to describe semi-volatile behavior constructed from other memory types, such as nvSRAM, which combines SRAM and a non-volatile memory on the same chip, where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non-volatile memory, but if power is removed before the copy occurs, the data is lost. Another example is battery-backed RAM, which uses an external battery to power the memory device in case of external power loss. If power is off for an extended period of time, the battery may run out, resulting in data loss. == Management == Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern operating systems have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs or slow performance. === Bugs === Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs and security vulnerabilities, including the following types: A memory leak occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never returns the memory when it is done with it. A program with this bug will gradually require more and more memory until the program fails as the operating system runs out. A segmentation fault results when a program tries to access memory that it does not have permission to access. Generally, a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system. A buffer overflow occurs when a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then continues to write data beyond this to memory that has been allocated for other purposes. This may result in erratic program behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security. They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited. === Virtual memory === Virtual memory is a system where physical memory is managed by the operating system typically with assistance from a memory management unit, which is part of many modern CPUs. It allows multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some data can be stored in RAM while other data is stored on a hard drive (e.g. in a swapfile), functioning as an extension of the cache hierarchy. This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where their data is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory. The operating system will place actively used data in RAM, which is much faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving data from RAM to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing. === Protected memory === Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is prevented from going outside that range. If the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated (or otherwise restricted or redirected). This way, only the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the misbehavior (whether accidental or intentional). Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and security of a computer system. Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results. If the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be rebooted. At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs. This is done by viruses and malware to take over computers. It may also be used benignly by desirable programs which are intended to modify other programs, debuggers, for example, to insert breakpoints or hooks.	[ "millipede memory", "Texas Instruments", "word length", "Federico Faggin", "Intel 1103", "Memory organization", "transducer", "dynamic RAM", "RAM", "United States Air Force", "IBM", "Programmable read-only memory", "embedded system", "cache hierarchy", "random-access memory", "Electronic Design", "delay-line memory", "Spin-transfer torque magnetic RAM", "Memory hierarchy", "Springer Science & Business Media", "bit", "hard drive", "digital computer", "memory leak", "Smithsonian Institution", "static RAM", "resistive random-access memory", "integrated circuit", "semiconductor", "discrete device", "Flash memory", "EPROM", "Battery-backed memory", "Academic Press", "power devices", "magnetic-core memory", "racetrack memory", "buffer overflow", "programmable metallization cell", "bytes", "An Wang", "NMOS logic", "Simon Sze", "magnetic tape", "dynamic random-access memory", "power supply", "Static random-access memory", "Computer History Museum", "main memory", "electronic calculator", "IBM System/360", "Reboot (computing)", "EEPROM", "bits of information", "memory management unit", "Dov Frohman", "metal–oxide–semiconductor", "magnetic drum", "non-volatile", "flash memory", "Processor register", "NOR flash", "Solid-state electronics", "memory chip", "IAS computer", "floppy disk", "bipolar transistors", "MOS integrated circuit", "cathode-ray tube", "SONOS", "Universal memory", "non-volatile memory", "Synchronous dynamic random-access memory", "ferroelectric RAM", "3D XPoint", "microSDHC", "semiconductor device", "IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center", "Toshiba", "Page cache", "J. Presper Eckert", "MOS transistor", "vacuum tubes", "nvSRAM", "Thrashing (computer science)", "Royal Radar Establishment", "paper tape", "Jay Forrester", "Whirlwind I", "write buffer", "ROM", "hard disk drive", "CPU", "memory cell (computing)", "static random-access memory", "mercury (element)", "Fairchild Semiconductor", "Intel", "Memory cell (computing)", "mass storage", "physical memory", "swapfile", "primary storage", "multi-level cell", "Encyclopedia Britannica", "read-only memory", "Samsung Electronics", "STT-RAM", "switches", "Samsung", "segmentation fault", "punched card", "MOSFET", "Memory geometry", "Microchip", "debugger", "Magnetic-core memory", "silicon-gate", "Jan A. Rajchman", "volatile memory", "Z-RAM", "vacuum tube", "Nano-RAM", "capacitors", "Selectron tube", "Wen Tsing Chow", "computer", "Fujio Masuoka", "Alan Turing", "applications engineers", "CPU cache", "operating system", "semiconductor memory", "IEEE", "NAND flash", "Electric battery", "International Electron Devices Meeting", "floating gate", "Flip-flop (electronics)", "CMOS", "A-RAM", "Robert H. Dennard", "eWeek", "virtual memory", "ENIAC", "Williams tube", "Electrotechnical Laboratory", "optical disc" ]
6,809	CDC (disambiguation)	The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the national public health agency of the United States. CDC may also refer to: ==Organizations== ===Business=== Caisse des dépôts et consignations ("Deposits and Consignments Fund"), a financial institution owned by the French government Cameroon Development Corporation, an agribusiness company located in Limbe, Cameroon CDC Group, formerly the Commonwealth Development Corporation and Colonial Development Corporation, a British development organisation owned by the UK Government Central Depository Company, a Pakistani central securities depository company ComfortDelGro Australia, a major Australian operator of buses formerly named ComfortDelGro Cabcharge Control Data Corporation, former supercomputer company Construction Data Company, also known as CDC News and CDC Publishing, a commercial construction reporting service Loong Air, by ICAO code ===Government=== Africa Centres for Disease Control Canadian Dairy Commission Chichester District Council, local authority in West Sussex, England Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Civil Defence Corps, UK, 1949–1968 Colonial Defence Committee, a body advising on the military defence of the British Empire, 1885–1908 Community Development Council, Singapore Community of Democratic Choice, of Eastern European countries Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council, Hong Kong Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a South Korean agency Taiwan Centers for Disease Control ===Non-profit=== Certified Development Company, a U.S. Small Business Administration program designed to provide financing for the purchase of fixed assets Community development corporation, any non-profit organization that promotes and supports a community Commission for Developing Countries, a Commission of the International Mathematical Union ===Politics=== California Democratic Council, US Coalition for Democratic Change, a Liberian political alliance Congress for Democratic Change, a Liberian political party Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (), a political party in Catalonia, Spain 1974–2016 ===Sport=== Cricket Discipline Commission (of the England and Wales Cricket Board) ===Other organizations=== Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc), a computer hacker and DIY media organization ==Places== Cedar City Regional Airport, by IATA code Center Day Camp, North Windham, Maine, U.S. Communicable Disease Centre, former hospital in Novena, Singapore ==Science== Cell-division cycle in biology cdc20 cdc25 Cdc42, cell-division cycle protein Cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, exotoxins secreted by bacteria Complement-dependent cytotoxicity Conventional dendritic cell, cDC Cross dehydrogenative coupling ==Technology== Carbide-derived carbon Change data capture, to track changed data Clock domain crossing of a signal Communications daughter card for notebook computers Connected Device Configuration, of required Java ME features USB communications device class ==Other uses== CDC?, a children's book by William Steig Chef de cuisine Combat Direction Center of an aircraft carrier Continuous Discharge Certificate, seafarer's identity document Cul de canard, duck feathers used in fly fishing	[ "cdc25", "Taiwan Centers for Disease Control", "ComfortDelGro Australia", "Cholesterol-dependent cytolysin", "Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "cdc20", "Construction Data Company", "Community of Democratic Choice", "Community Development Council", "Caisse des dépôts et consignations", "Connected Device Configuration", "Chef de cuisine", "USB communications device class", "Cult of the Dead Cow", "Africa Centres for Disease Control", "Certified Development Company", "California Democratic Council", "National Centre for Infectious Diseases", "Casimir de Candolle", "Center Day Camp", "Cdc42", "Control Data Corporation", "Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council", "Chichester District Council", "Colonial Defence Committee", "Democratic Convergence of Catalonia", "Conventional dendritic cell", "Carbide-derived carbon", "Complement-dependent cytotoxicity", "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "Africa CDC", "Change data capture", "England and Wales Cricket Board", "Continuous Discharge Certificate", "CDC Group", "Canadian Dairy Commission", "Cedar City Regional Airport", "International Mathematical Union", "Community development corporation", "CDC?", "Central Depository Company", "Cul de canard", "Cameroon Development Corporation", "Communications daughter card", "Congress for Democratic Change", "Cell-division cycle", "Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention", "Cross dehydrogenative coupling", "Loong Air", "Civil Defence Corps", "Clock domain crossing", "Coalition for Democratic Change", "Combat Direction Center" ]
6,811	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention	The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The CDC's current acting director is Susan Monarez who assumed the role on January 23, 2025. The agency's main goal is the protection of public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and worldwide. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention, and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens. The CDC also conducts research and provides information on non-infectious diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, and is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes. As part of the announced 2025 HHS reorganization, CDC is planned to be reoriented towards infectious disease programs. It is planned to absorb the Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response, while the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is planned to move into the new Administration for a Healthy America. ==History== === Establishment === The Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations and the Rockefeller Foundation. The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With a budget at the time of about $1million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States (see National Malaria Eradication Program). Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with DDT. In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn. Under Joseph Walter Mountin, the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases. In 1947, the CDC made a token payment of $10 to Emory University for of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2025. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the "gift" was Robert W. Woodruff, chairman of the board of the Coca-Cola Company. Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established. In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally. The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network (TEPHINET) has graduated 950 students. The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1, 1967, and the Center for Disease Control on June 24, 1970. At the end of the Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973, it was promoted to being a principal operating agency of PHS. An act of the United States Congress appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Since the 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects, West Nile virus, obesity, avian, swine, and pandemic flu, E. coli, and bioterrorism, to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of penicillin. In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including Botulinum toxin, West Nile virus, Yersinia pestis and Dengue fever virus. On April 21, 2005, then–CDC director Julie Gerberding formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats". She established four coordinating centers. In 2009 the Obama administration re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer. As of 2013, the CDC's Biosafety Level 4 laboratories were among the few that exist in the world. They included one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world, with the other one located at the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation. In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were "potentially infected" with anthrax. The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years; the Atlanta City Council had voted to do so the prior December. The headquarters were located in an unincorporated area, statistically in the Druid Hills census-designated place. On August 17, 2022, Walensky said the CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations." Based on the findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times). Around January 31, 2025, several CDC websites, pages, and datasets related to HIV and STI prevention, LGBT and youth health became unavailable for viewing after the agency was ordered to comply with Donald Trump's executive order to remove all material of "diversity, equity, and inclusion" and "gender identity". Shortly thereafter, the CDC ordered its scientists to retract or pause the publication of all research which had been submitted or accepted for publication, but not yet published, which included any of the following banned terms: "Gender, transgender, pregnant person, pregnant people, LGBT, transsexual, non-binary, nonbinary, assigned male at birth, assigned female at birth, biologically male, biologically female”. In January 2025, due to a pause in communications imposed by the second Trump administration at federal health agencies, publication of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) was halted, the first time that had happened since its inception in 1960. The president of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) called the pause in publication a "disaster." Attempts to halt publication had been made by the first Trump administration after MMWR published information about COVID-19 that "conflicted with messaging from the White House." The pause in communications also caused the cancellation of a meeting between the CDC and IDSA about threats to public health regarding the H5N1 influenza virus. On February 14, 2025, around 1,300 CDC employees were laid off by the administration, which included all first-year officers of the Epidemic Intelligence Service. The cuts also terminated 16 of the 24 Laboratory Leadership Service program fellows, a program designed for early career lab scientist to address laboratory testing shortcomings of the CDC. In the following month, the Trump administration quietly withdrew its CDC director nominee, Dave Weldon, just minutes before his scheduled Senate confirmation hearing on March 13. In April 2025, it was reported that among the reductions is the elimination of the Freedom of Information Act team, the Division of Violence Prevention, laboratories involved in testing for antibiotic resistance, and the team responsible for determining recalls of hazardous infant products. Additional cuts affect the technology branch of the Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics, which includes software engineers and computer scientists supporting the centre established during the COVID-19 pandemic to improve disease outbreak prediction. National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Division of Global Migration Health National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion National Center for Environmental Health / Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry National Center for Injury Prevention and Control National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Public Health Infrastructure Center Global Health Center Immediate Office of the Director Chief of Staff Office of the Chief Operating Officer Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation Office of Equal Employment Opportunity and Workplace Equity Office of Communications Office of Health Equity Office of Science CDC Washington Office Office of Laboratory Science and Safety Office of Readiness and Response Center for Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics Office of Public Health Data, Surveillance, and Technology National Center for Health Statistics The Office of Public Health Preparedness was created during the 2001 anthrax attacks shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Its purpose was to coordinate among the government the response to a range of biological terrorism threats. === Locations === Most CDC centers are located in the Atlanta metropolitan area, where it has three major campuses: The Chamblee Campus in Chamblee, Georgia opened in 1946, inheriting the site and buildings of Lawson General Hospital immediately adjacent to but not part of Naval Air Station Atlanta. Although it was initially planned to be shut down when the Roybal Campus opened, it was found that the latter was not suitable for live animal facilities. The buildings were slowly replaced with modern buildings over time. The Roybal Campus in Atlanta is the largest, named in honor of the late Representative Edward R. Roybal. It was originally called the Clifton Road Campus. Although its land was donated by adjacent Emory University in 1947, it did not open until 1960. Its Building 18, which opened in 2005, contains the premier BSL4 laboratory in the United States. The Lawrenceville Campus in Lawrenceville, Georgia was acquired as a destination for Chamblee's animal facilities if that campus was shut down. A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations: The National Center for Health Statistics is primarily located in Hyattsville, Maryland, with a branch in Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's primary locations are Cincinnati; Morgantown, West Virginia; Pittsburgh; Spokane, Washington; and Washington, D.C., with branches in Denver; Anchorage, Alaska; and Atlanta. The CDC Washington Office is based in Washington, D.C. Two divisions of the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases are based outside Atlanta. The Division of Vector-Borne Diseases is based in Fort Collins, Colorado, with a branch in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The Arctic Investigations Program is based in Anchorage. In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in the U.S. ==Budget== The CDC budget for fiscal year 2024 is $11.581billion. == Workforce == CDC staff numbered approximately 15,000 personnel (including 6,000 contractors and 840 United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers) in 170 occupations. Eighty percent held bachelor's degrees or higher; almost half had advanced degrees (a master's degree or a doctorate such as a PhD, D.O., or M.D.). Common CDC job titles include engineer, entomologist, epidemiologist, biologist, physician, veterinarian, behavioral scientist, nurse, medical technologist, economist, public health advisor, health communicator, toxicologist, chemist, computer scientist, and statistician. The CDC also operates a number of notable training and fellowship programs, including those indicated below. === Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) === The Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) is composed of "boots-on-the-ground disease detectives" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally. When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or "Epi-Aids", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks. The EIS program is a model for the international Field Epidemiology Training Program. === Public Health Associates Program === The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States. PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently has 159 associates in 34 states. ==Leadership== The Director of CDC is a position that currently requires Senate confirmation. The director serves at the pleasure of the President and may be fired at any time. The CDC director concurrently serves as the Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Prior to January 20, 2025, it was a Senior Executive Service position that could be filled either by a career employee, or as a political appointment that does not require Senate confirmation, with the latter method typically being used. The change to requiring Senate confirmation was due to a provision in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023. Twenty directors have served the CDC or its predecessor agencies, including three who have served during the Trump administration (including Anne Schuchat who twice served as acting director) and three who have served during the Carter administration (including one acting director not shown here). Two served under Bill Clinton, but only one under the Nixon to Ford terms. Past Directors ==Datasets and survey systems== CDC Scientific Data, Surveillance, Health Statistics, and Laboratory Information. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), the world's largest, ongoing telephone health-survey system. Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), a surveillance system on maternal and infant health with telephone and mail questionnaires in English and Spanish in 50 US jurisdictions. Mortality Medical Data System. Abortion statistics in the United States CDC WONDER (Wide-ranging ONline Data for Epidemiologic Research) Data systems of the National Center for Health Statistics ==Areas of focus== ===Communicable diseases=== The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox, measles, and others. ==== Influenza ==== The CDC targets the transmission of influenza, including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene. ==== Division of Select Agents and Toxins ==== Within the division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials." The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus. The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens. During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital, the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases. As a response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus. ===Non-communicable diseases=== The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity, physical inactivity and tobacco-use. The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by Lisa C. Richardson, is also within this remit. ===Antibiotic resistance=== The CDC implemented their National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria as a measure against the spread of antibiotic resistance in the United States. This initiative has a budget of $161million and includes the development of the Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network. === Global health === Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. They work with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate. The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID). The CDC has been working with the WHO to implement the International Health Regulations (IHR), an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD). The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and President's Malaria Initiative. ===Travelers' health=== The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in a comprehensive book, CDC Health Information for International Travel, which is commonly known as the "yellow book." The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific travel destinations. The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels: "Watch": Level 1 (practice usual precautions) "Alert": Level 2 (practice enhanced precautions) "Warning": Level 3 (avoid nonessential travel) === Vaccine safety === The CDC uses a number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines. The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA. "VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination." The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of the latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines. The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events. The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety. CDC also runs a program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot. == CDC Foundation == The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization incorporated in the State of Georgia. The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the Public Health Service Act to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals. From 1995 to 2022, the foundation raised over $1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs. Bill Cosby formerly served as a member of the foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term. === Activities === The foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, emergency response, and infectious diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS, Ebola, rotavirus, and COVID-19. Fries Prize for Improving Health: An annual prize first awarded in 1992 that "recognizes an individual who has made major accomplishments in health improvement and with the general criteria of the greatest good for the greatest number". === Criticism === In 2015, BMJ associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that the CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies. ==Controversies== ===Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis in Black men=== For 15 years, the CDC had direct oversight over the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. In the study, which lasted from 1932 to 1972, a group of Black men (nearly 400 of whom had syphilis) were studied to learn more about the disease. The disease was left untreated in the men, who had not given their informed consent to serve as research subjects. The Tuskegee Study was initiated in 1932 by the Public Health Service, with the CDC taking over the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program in 1995. Advocates for gun control oppose the amendment and have tried to overturn it. Looking at the history of the passage of the Dickey Amendment, in 1992, Mark L. Rosenberg and five CDC colleagues founded the CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, with an annual budget of approximately $260,000. They focused on "identifying causes of firearm deaths, and methods to prevent them". Their first report, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1993 entitled "Guns are a Risk Factor for Homicide in the Home", reported "mere presence of a gun in a home increased the risk of a firearm-related death by 2.7 percent, and suicide fivefolda "huge" increase." advocated for firearms research. Congress maintained the ban in subsequent budgets. === COVID-19 === The CDC has been widely criticized for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, CDC director Rochelle Walensky acknowledged "some pretty dramatic, pretty public mistakes, from testing to data to communications", based on the findings of an internal examination. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 was discovered in the U.S. on January 20, 2020. However, widespread COVID-19 testing in the United States was effectively stalled until February 28, when federal officials revised a faulty CDC test, and days afterward, when the Food and Drug Administration began loosening rules that had restricted other labs from developing tests. In February 2020, as the CDC's early coronavirus test malfunctioned nationwide, CDC Director Robert R. Redfield reassured fellow officials on the White House Coronavirus Task Force that the problem would be quickly solved, according to White House officials. It took about three weeks to sort out the failed test kits, which may have been contaminated during their processing in a CDC lab. Later investigations by the FDA and the Department of Health and Human Services found that the CDC had violated its own protocols in developing its tests. In November 2020, NPR reported that an internal review document they obtained revealed that the CDC was aware that the first batch of tests which were issued in early January had a chance of being wrong 33 percent of the time, but they released them anyway. In May 2020, The Atlantic reported that the CDC was conflating the results of two different types of coronavirus tests – tests that diagnose current coronavirus infections, and tests that measure whether someone has ever had the virus. The magazine said this distorted several important metrics, provided the country with an inaccurate picture of the state of the pandemic, and overstated the country's testing ability. In July 2020, the Trump administration ordered hospitals to bypass the CDC and instead send all COVID-19 patient information to a database at the Department of Health and Human Services. Some health experts opposed the order and warned that the data might become politicized or withheld from the public. On July 15, the CDC alarmed health care groups by temporarily removing COVID-19 dashboards from its website. It restored the data a day later. In August 2020, the CDC recommended that people showing no COVID-19 symptoms do not need testing. The new guidelines alarmed many public health experts. The guidelines were crafted by the White House Coronavirus Task Force without the sign-off of Anthony Fauci of the NIH. Objections by other experts at the CDC went unheard. Officials said that a CDC document in July arguing for "the importance of reopening schools" was also crafted outside the CDC. On August 16, the chief of staff, Kyle McGowan, and his deputy, Amanda Campbell, resigned from the agency. The testing guidelines were reversed on September 18, 2020, after public controversy. In September 2020, the CDC drafted an order requiring masks on all public transportation in the United States, but the White House Coronavirus Task Force blocked the order, refusing to discuss it, according to two federal health officials. In October 2020, it was disclosed that White House advisers had repeatedly altered the writings of CDC scientists about COVID-19, including recommendations on church choirs, social distancing in bars and restaurants, and summaries of public-health reports. In the lead up to 2020 Thanksgiving, the CDC advised Americans not to travel for the holiday saying, "It's not a requirement. It's a recommendation for the American public to consider." The White House coronavirus task force had its first public briefing in months on that date but travel was not mentioned. The New York Times later concluded that the CDC's decisions to "ben[d] to political pressure from the Trump White House to alter key public health guidance or withhold it from the public [...] cost it a measure of public trust that experts say it still has not recaptured" as of 2022. In December 2021, following a request from the CEO of Delta Air Lines, CDC shortened its recommended isolation period for asymptomatic individuals infected with COVID-19 from 10 days to five. Until 2022, the CDC withheld critical data about COVID-19 vaccine boosters, hospitalizations and wastewater data. On June 10, 2022, the Biden Administration ordered the CDC to remove the COVID-19 testing requirement for air travelers entering the United States. ====Controversy over the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report==== During the pandemic, the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo, the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to delay, suppress, change, and retroactively edit MMR releases about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In October 2020, emails obtained by Politico showed that Alexander requested multiple alterations in a report. The published alterations included a title being changed from "Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" to "Persons." One current and two former CDC officials who reviewed the email exchanges said they were troubled by the "intervention to alter scientific reports viewed as untouchable prior to the Trump administration" that "appeared to minimize the risks of the coronavirus to children by making the report's focus on children less clear." ==== Eroding trust in the CDC as a result of COVID-19 controversies ==== A poll conducted in September 2020 found that nearly 8 in 10 Americans trusted the CDC, a decrease from 87 percent in April 2020. Another poll showed an even larger drop in trust with the results dropping 16 percentage points. By January 2022, according to an NBC News poll, only 44% of Americans trusted the CDC compared to 69% at the beginning of the pandemic. As the trustworthiness eroded, so too did the information it disseminates. In addition, Mark Rosenberg, the first director of CDC's National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, also questioned Redfield's leadership and his lack of defense of the science. Politicization of the agency has continued into the Biden administration as COVID-19 guidance is contradicted by State guidance and the agency is criticized as "CDC's credibility is eroding". In 2021, the CDC, then under the leadership of the Biden administration, received criticism for its mixed messaging surrounding COVID-19 vaccines, mask-wearing guidance, and the state of the pandemic. === Gender censorship === On February 1, 2025, the CDC ordered its scientists to retract any not yet published research they had produced which included any of the following banned terms: "Gender, transgender, pregnant person, pregnant people, LGBT, transsexual, non-binary, nonbinary, assigned male at birth, assigned female at birth, biologically male, biologically female”. Other censored topics include DEI, climate change, and HIV. Following extensive public backlash, some, but not all, of the removed pages were reinstated. The CDC's censorship led to many researchers and journalists to preserve databases themselves, with many removed articles being uploaded to archival sites such as the Internet Archive. On February 4, Doctors for America filed a federal lawsuit against the CDC, Food and Drug Administration, and Department of Health and Human Services, asking the removed websites to be put back online. On February 11, a judge ordered removed pages to be restored temporarily while the suit is being considered, citing doctors who said the removed materials were "vital for real-time clinical decision-making". == Publications == CDC publications State of CDC report CDC Programs in Brief Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Emerging Infectious Diseases (monthly journal) Preventing Chronic Disease Vital statistics ==Popular culture== ===Zombie Apocalypse campaign=== On May 16, 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's blog published an article instructing the public on what to do to prepare for a zombie invasion. While the article did not claim that such a scenario was possible, it did use the popular culture appeal as a means of urging citizens to prepare for all potential hazards, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods. According to David Daigle, the associate director for communications, public health preparedness and response, the idea arose when his team was discussing their upcoming hurricane-information campaign and Daigle mused that "we say pretty much the same things every year, in the same way, and I just wonder how many people are paying attention." A social-media employee mentioned that the subject of zombies had come up a lot on Twitter when she had been tweeting about the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and radiation. The team realized that a campaign like this would most likely reach a different audience from the one that normally pays attention to hurricane-preparedness warnings and went to work on the zombie campaign, launching it right before hurricane season began. "The whole idea was, if you're prepared for a zombie apocalypse, you're prepared for pretty much anything," said Daigle. Once the blog article was posted, the CDC announced an open contest for YouTube submissions of the most creative and effective videos covering preparedness for a zombie apocalypse (or apocalypse of any kind), to be judged by the "CDC Zombie Task Force". Submissions were open until October 11, 2011. They also released a zombie-themed graphic novella available on their website. Zombie-themed educational materials for teachers are available on the site.	[ "Yersinia pestis", "XHTML", "Theodore J. Bauer", "Gun politics in the United States", "United States federal executive departments", "DeKalb–Peachtree Airport", "DDT", "Occupational safety and health", "CDC Foundation", "H1N1", "Select agent", "Jay Dickey", "Washington, D.C.", "COVID-19 pandemic", "vaccine hesitancy", "Safe Kids Worldwide", "hydroxychloroquine", "Justin M. Andrews", "Vital statistics (government records)", "CBS News", "National Malaria Eradication Program", "entomologist", "Bill Cosby", "Mark L. Rosenberg", "Appropriations bill (United States)", "Food and Drug Administration", "Cincinnati", "Ebola", "penicillin", "List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation", "Dickey Amendment", "Infectious diseases (medical specialty)", "Deseret News", "Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry", "BBC News", "San Juan, Puerto Rico", "BSL4", "CNBC", "anthrax", "National public health institutes", "Amgen", "Nirav D. Shah", "National Highway Traffic Safety Administration", "sexually transmitted disease", "West Nile virus", "biological warfare", "cardiovascular disease", "List of national public health agencies", "N95 respirator", "Congenital disorder", "measles", "Michael Caputo", "American Medical Association", "Donald Trump", "Chamblee, Georgia", "Internet Archive", "National Center for Injury Prevention and Control", "League of Nations", "Doctors for Responsible Gun Ownership", "Administration for a Healthy America", "Doctor of Medicine", "Abortion statistics in the United States", "International Health Regulations", "Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System", "David Sencer", "National Rifle Association of America", "Joseph Walter Mountin", "William Foege", "HIV", "antibiotic resistance", "climate change", "pandemic flu", "Pittsburgh", "chairman of the board", "Anchorage, Alaska", "nurse", "Raymond A. Vonderlehr", "cancer", "Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023", "Edward R. Roybal", "Spokane, Washington", "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States", "United States Congress", "unincorporated area", "New York Times", "American Psychological Association", "The Trace (website)", "OSHA", "Emory University", "Federal Register", "H5N1", "CNN", "Washington Post", "Foodborne illness", "Georgia (U.S. state)", "MARTA", "veterinarian", "Robert W. Woodruff", "Atlanta City Council", "Senior Executive Service (United States)", "Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine", "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health", "501(c)(3)", "COVID-19", "informed consent", "Botulinum toxin", "DEI", "Preparedness 101: Zombie Apocalypse", "2025 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reorganization", "Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa", "disability", "Julie Gerberding", "Avian influenza", "mosquito", "Alexander Langmuir", "non-infectious diseases", "United States Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973", "Liberia", "Epidemic Intelligence Service", "Cleveland", "Robert J. Anderson (public health administrator)", "rotavirus", "Advice and consent", "entomology", "health promotion", "William L. Roper", "Dengue fever", "New England Journal of Medicine", "Infectious disease", "United States Bureau of Mines", "Research Triangle Park", "Doctors for America", "Susan Monarez", "environmental health", "toxicologist", "James O. Mason", "David Satcher", "The Lancet", "U.S. Public Health Service", "TEPHINET", "Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response", "HIV/AIDS", "malaria", "United States Department of Health and Human Services", "National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention", "International Association of National Public Health Institutes", "Vaccine Safety Datalink", "Department of Health and Human Services", "The Hill (newspaper)", "NIOSH", "Field Epidemiology Training Program", "Richard E. Besser", "computer scientist", "BMJ", "United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps", "Twitter", "Anne Schuchat", "Federal agencies of the United States", "World Health Organization", "YouTube", "WTHR", "diabetes", "The Wall Street Journal", "American Journal of Epidemiology", "Infectious Diseases Society of America", "Lawrenceville, Georgia", "White House Coronavirus Task Force", "National Center for Health Statistics", "Fort Collins, Colorado", "President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief", "Mine Safety and Health Administration", "Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System", "Escherichia coli", "obesity", "Emerging Infectious Diseases", "Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network", "NBC News", "Emory University Hospital", "National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases", "Lisa C. Richardson", "World War II", "Atlanta Journal-Constitution", "Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report", "smallpox", "census-designated place", "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster", "U.S. Census Bureau", "Robert R. Redfield", "Anthony Fauci", "Korean War", "Disability", "zombie apocalypse", "Politico", "Louis L. Williams", "Preventing Chronic Disease", "Rochelle Walensky", "Division of Industrial Hygiene", "public health", "Mark D. Hollis", "Science (journal)", "Chronic (medical)", "Biosafety Level 4", "Ebola virus", "American Academy of Pediatrics", "Zombie (fictional)", "influenza", "Thanksgiving", "bioterrorism", "Division of Global Migration Health", "Clarence A. Smith", "Larry Gostin", "Presidency of Barack Obama", "Brenda Fitzgerald", "medical technologist", "President's Malaria Initiative", "2025 United States government data removals", "Tourist attraction", "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic", "occupational safety and health", "James L. Goddard", "The Washington Post", "Haddon Matrix", "radiation", "Paul Elias Alexander", "Morgantown, West Virginia", "Political appointments in the United States", "Druid Hills, Georgia", "Richard Besser", "Dave Weldon", "Delta Air Lines", "USAspending.gov", "Tuskegee syphilis experiment", "infectious disease", "The Coca-Cola Company", "National Archives and Records Administration", "Metro Atlanta", "epidemiologist", "Jeffrey Koplan", "Mortality Medical Data System", "NPR", "Reuters", "Behavioural sciences", "Tom Frieden", "Mandy Cohen", "United States citizens", "PBS NewsHour", "National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases", "Public Health Service Act", "USA Today", "Denver", "The New York Times", "injury prevention", "Rockefeller Foundation", "Swine influenza", "emergency response", "Newsweek", "State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR", "The Atlantic", "Gun violence in the United States", "Atlanta", "Hyattsville, Maryland" ]
6,813	Chandrasekhar limit	The Chandrasekhar limit () is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star. The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about (). The limit was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. White dwarfs resist gravitational collapse primarily through electron degeneracy pressure, compared to main sequence stars, which resist collapse through thermal pressure. The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction. ==Physics== Normal stars fuse gravitationally compressed hydrogen into helium, generating vast amounts of heat. As the hydrogen is consumed, the stars' core compresses further allowing the helium and heavier nuclei to fuse ultimately resulting in stable iron nuclei, a process called stellar evolution. The next step depends upon the mass of the star. Stars below the Chandrasekhar limit become stable white dwarf stars, remaining that way throughout the rest of the history of the universe (assuming the absence of external forces). Stars above the limit can become neutron stars or black holes. The Chandrasekhar limit is a consequence of competition between gravity and electron degeneracy pressure. Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of electron capture, relieving the pressure. In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form , where is the pressure, is the mass density, and is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a polytrope of index – and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass. As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form . This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, , depending only on . For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations for small and for large . When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at . This is the Chandrasekhar limit. or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses. Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the nuclear composition of the mass. gives the following expression, based on the equation of state for an ideal Fermi gas: M_\text{limit} = \frac{\omega_3^0 \sqrt{3\pi}}{2} \left ( \frac{\hbar c}{G}\right )^\frac{3}{2} \frac{1}{(\mu_\text{e} m_\text{H})^2} where: is the reduced Planck constant is the speed of light is the gravitational constant is the average molecular weight per electron, which depends upon the chemical composition of the star is the mass of the hydrogen atom is a constant connected with the solution to the Lane–Emden equation As is the Planck mass, the limit is of the order of \frac{M_\text{Pl}^3}{m_\text{H}^2} The limiting mass can be obtained formally from the Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation by taking the limit of large central density. A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature. Lieb and Yau have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation. ==History== In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist Edmund Clifton Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres. Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately . In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy–density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for ). Stoner went on to derive the pressure–density equation of state, which he published in 1932. These equations of state were also previously published by the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter. Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community. A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas. In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state, Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture. Michael Nauenberg claims that Stoner established the mass limit first. The priority dispute has also been discussed at length by Virginia Trimble who writes that: "Chandrasekhar famously, perhaps even notoriously did his critical calculation on board ship in 1930, and ... was not aware of either Stoner's or Anderson's work at the time. His work was therefore independent, but, more to the point, he adopted Eddington's polytropes for his models which could, therefore, be in hydrostatic equilibrium, which constant density stars cannot, and real ones must be." This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass. === Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute === Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington. Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied: Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law universally applicable, even for large . Although Niels Bohr, Fowler, Wolfgang Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar. Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, including his work on his fundamental theory. The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of Empire of the Stars, Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar. ==Applications== The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse. If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.) During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos. and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light. This process is believed responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II. A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, is approximately −19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3. may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles. Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, several more type Ia supernovae have been observed that are very bright, and thought to have originated from white dwarfs whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include SN 2006gz, SN 2007if, and SN 2009dc. The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 solar masses. One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2009dc showed it had a polarization smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely. ==Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit== Stars sufficiently massive to pass the Chandrasekhar limit provided by electron degeneracy pressure do not become white dwarf stars. Instead they explode as supernovae. If the final mass is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, then neutron degeneracy pressure contributes to the balance against gravity and the result will be a neutron star; but if the total mass is above the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkhoff limit, the result will be a black hole.	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6,814	Congregational polity	Congregational polity, or congregationalist polity, often known as congregationalism, is a system of ecclesiastical polity in which every local church (congregation) is independent, ecclesiastically sovereign, or "autonomous". Its first articulation in writing is the Cambridge Platform of 1648 in New England. Major Protestant Christian traditions that employ congregationalism include Baptist churches, the Congregational Methodist Church, and Congregational churches known by the Congregationalist name and having descended from the Independent Reformed wing of the Anglo-American Puritan movement of the 17th century. More recent generations have witnessed a growing number of nondenominational churches, which are often congregationalist in their governance. Although autonomous, like minded congregations may enter into voluntary associations with other congregations, sometimes called conventions, denominations, or associations. Congregationalism is distinguished from episcopal polity which is governance by a hierarchy of bishops, and is also distinct from presbyterian polity in which higher assemblies of congregational representatives can exercise considerable authority over individual congregations. Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian church congregations. The principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the Unitarian Universalist Association and the Canadian Unitarian Council. ==Basic form== The term congregational polity describes a form of church governance that is based on the local congregation. Each local congregation is independent and self-supporting, governed by its own members. Some band into loose voluntary associations with other congregations that share similar beliefs (e.g., the Willow Creek Association and the Unitarian Universalist Association). Others join "conventions", such as the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Baptist Convention or the American Baptist Churches USA (formerly the Northern Baptist Convention). These conventions generally provide stronger ties between congregations, including some doctrinal direction and pooling of financial resources. Congregations that belong to associations and conventions are still independently governed. Most non-denominational churches are organized along congregationalist lines. Many do not see these voluntary associations as "denominations", because they "believe that there is no church other than the local church, and denominations are in variance to Scripture." == Denominational families == These Christian traditions use forms of congregational polity. === Congregational churches === Congregationalism is a Protestant tradition with roots in the Puritan and Independent movements. In congregational government, the covenanted congregation exists prior to its officers, and as such the members are equipped to call and dismiss their ministers without oversight from any higher ecclesiastical body. Their churches ordinarily have at least one pastor, but may also install ruling elders. Statements of polity in the congregational tradition called "platforms". These include the Savoy Confession's platform, the Cambridge Platform, and the Saybrook Platform. Denominations in the congregational tradition include the UCC, NACCC, CCCC, and EFCC. Denominations in the tradition support but do not govern their constituent members. === Baptist churches === Most Baptists hold that no denominational or ecclesiastical organization has inherent authority over an individual Baptist church. Churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation, never by any sort of coercion. Furthermore, this Baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control. Exceptions to this local form of local governance include the Episcopal Baptists that have an episcopal system. Independent Baptist churches have no formal organizational structure above the level of the local congregation. More generally among Baptists, a variety of parachurch agencies and evangelical educational institutions may be supported generously or not at all, depending entirely upon the local congregation's customs and predilections. Usually doctrinal conformity is held as a first consideration when a church makes a decision to grant or decline financial contributions to such agencies, which are legally external and separate from the congregations they serve. These practices also find currency among non-denominational fundamentalist or charismatic fellowships, many of which derive from Baptist origins, culturally if not theologically. Most Southern Baptist and National Baptist congregations, by contrast, generally relate more closely to external groups such as mission agencies and educational institutions than do those of independent persuasion. However, they adhere to a very similar ecclesiology, refusing to permit outside control or oversight of the affairs of the local church. === Churches of Christ === Ecclesiastical government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level. Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations. Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles. Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders (also known in some congregations as shepherds, bishops, or pastors) who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons. Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church. Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries. Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership. Elders and deacons are chosen by the congregation based on the qualifications found in Timothy 3 and Titus 1. Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform governance functions. In lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by an unelected committee of the congregation's men. While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than "located Preachers", during the 20th century a long-term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ. Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders. While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created "significant de facto ministerial authority" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the "ultimate locus of authority in the congregation". There is a small group within the Churches of Christ which oppose a single preacher and, instead, rotate preaching duties among qualified elders (this group tends to overlap with groups which oppose Sunday School and also have only one cup to serve the Lord's Supper). Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers. No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as clergy. Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between "clergy" and "laity" and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church. === Congregational Methodist Church === Methodists who disagreed with the episcopal polity of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South left their mother church to form the Congregational Methodist Church, which retains Wesleyan-Arminian theology but adopts congregationalist polity as a distinctive.	[ "Minister (Christianity)", "autonomy", "Congregational Methodist Church", "ecclesiastical polity", "New England", "plurality (church governance)", "Charismatic (Christians)", "Conservative Congregational Christian Conference", "preacher", "Christian denomination", "Baptists", "Wesleyan-Arminian", "Puritan", "church (congregation)", "Willow Creek Community Church", "Independent (religion)", "National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.", "Churches of Christ", "clergy", "ecclesiology", "United and uniting churches", "Methodist Episcopal Church, South", "elder (religious)", "Congregational churches", "Nondenominational Christianity", "Everett Ferguson", "Savoy Declaration", "Non-denominational Christianity", "Protestantism", "Southern Baptist Convention", "Methodist", "bishop", "deacon", "American Baptist Churches USA", "Restoration Movement", "Evangelicalism", "Puritans", "Cambridge Platform", "Independent Baptist", "Unitarian Universalist Association", "Evangelical Fellowship of Congregational Churches", "Episcopal Baptist", "Parachurch organization", "Acephali", "priesthood of all believers", "presbyterian polity", "United Church of Christ", "laity", "Saybrook Platform", "National Association of Congregational Christian Churches", "Canadian Unitarian Council", "English Presbyterianism", "episcopal polity" ]
6,816	Cavalry	Historically, cavalry (from the French word cavalerie, itself derived from cheval meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in the roles of reconnaissance, screening, and skirmishing, or as heavy cavalry for decisive economy of force and shock attacks. An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations depending on era and tactics, such as a cavalryman, horseman, trooper, cataphract, knight, drabant, hussar, uhlan, mamluk, cuirassier, lancer, dragoon, samurai or horse archer. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals or platforms for mounts, such as chariots, camels or elephants. Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the early 17th to the early 18th century as dragoons, a class of mounted infantry which in most armies later evolved into standard cavalry while retaining their historic designation. Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly valued and exploited in warfare during the Ancient and Medieval eras. Some hosts were mostly cavalry, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia, notably the Huns of Attila and the later Mongol armies. In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mounted knights of the medieval period. During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained a small thickened cuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance. In the interwar period many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. The cavalry tank or cruiser tank was one designed with a speed and purpose beyond that of infantry tanks and would subsequently develop into the main battle tank. Nonetheless, some cavalry still served during World War II (notably in the Red Army, the Mongolian People's Army, the Royal Italian Army, the Royal Hungarian Army, the Romanian Army, the Polish Land Forces, and German light reconnaissance units within the Waffen SS). Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of the term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry). ==Role== Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry. The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by the mount and rider. Heavy cavalry, such as Byzantine cataphracts and knights of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, were used as shock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term battle cavalry. Light cavalry, such as horse archers, hussars, and Cossack cavalry, were assigned all the numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces. This includes scouting, deterring enemy scouts, foraging, raiding, skirmishing, pursuit of retreating enemy forces, screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles. Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare, but armor was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection from firearms. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. Military conservatism was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. With the development of armored warfare, the heavy cavalry role of decisive shock troops had been taken over by armored units employing medium and heavy tanks, and later main battle tanks. Despite horse-borne cavalry becoming obsolete, the term cavalry is still used, referring in modern times to units continuing to fulfill the traditional light cavalry roles, employing fast armored cars, light tanks, and infantry fighting vehicles instead of horses, while air cavalry employs helicopters. ==Early history== ===Origins=== Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots. The chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt from 1550 BC as well as the Assyrian army and Babylonian royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite Empire, and Mycenaean Greece. Cavalry techniques, and the rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Eurasian Steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Iranic Parthians and Sarmatians. Together with a core of armoured lancers, these were predominantly horse archers using the Parthian shot tactic. The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states, and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots. The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC. However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph, or for racing. Outside of mainland Europe, the southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, but by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia. The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD. ===Ancient Greece: city-states, Thebes, Thessaly and Macedonia=== During the classical Greek period, cavalry was usually limited to citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry - who armed with javelins could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry - using lances and having the ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did, however, remain secondary to that of the hoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states. Cavalry played a relatively minor role in ancient Greek city-states, with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, Thebes produced Pelopidas, their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by Philip II of Macedon when Philip was a guest-hostage in Thebes. Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The Macedonian kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the hetairoi (Companion cavalry) of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry. There were also the Ippiko (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of Persia, Bactria, and northwestern India. ===Roman Republic and early Empire=== The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the equites—men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions. Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with the status of being a cavalryman. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry. The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these was the Battle of Cannae, where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls, Iberians, and Numidians, the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see Numidian cavalry). Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the Cohortes Equitatae. Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion. For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion. The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia. After defeats such as the Battle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians. At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome. These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach the Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry. ===Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period=== In the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns. Other specialist weapons during this period included javelins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the Parthians and their Persian Sasanian successors. Both, but especially the former, were famed for the cataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman–Persian Wars. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and clibanarii. The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in Eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes. ==Asia== ===Central Asia=== Xiongnu, Tujue, Avars, Kipchaks, Khitans, Mongols, Don Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the Russian Empire. In Eastern Europe, and out onto the steppes, cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led. Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). ====Khanates of Central Asia==== File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg\|Mongol mounted archer of Genghis Khan late 12th century. File:Ryszkiewicz Tatars in the vanguard.jpg\|Tatar vanguard in Eastern Europe 13th–14th centuries. File:DiezAlbumsArmedRiders II.jpg\|Mongols at war 14th century ===East Asia=== ====China==== Further east, the military history of China, specifically northern China, held a long tradition of intense military exchange between Han Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted nomads or "barbarians" of the north. The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy. In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao, the ruler of the former state of Jin, ordered his commanders and troops to adopt the trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills. The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot-riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang dynasty (–1050 BC). By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force. The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow was invented in China in the fourth century BC; it was written by the Song dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with the Dayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized–Greek region of Fergana (established slightly earlier by Alexander the Great). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD. The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure. ====Korea==== The horse warfare of Korea was first started during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon. Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors. The cavalry of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as a fearsome heavy cavalry force. King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into the Baekje, Gaya confederacy, Buyeo, Later Yan and against Japanese invaders with his cavalry. In the 12th century, Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo Korea. After experiencing invasion by the Jurchen, Korean general Yun Kwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units. He reorganized the Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units. In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Kwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北九城). ====Japan==== The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of the samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units. An example is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets. This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice. Currently, the best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations. Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping the horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery. ===South Asia=== ====Indian subcontinent==== In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-stirrups. Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of the Central Asian horse nomads, notably the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas. Numerous Puranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC) in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" (pañca.ganan) or Kṣatriya hordes (Kṣatriya ganah), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic King Bahu The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars". J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e. the Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen". The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas, all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj. Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being ashva.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalrymen). In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura. Herodotus ( – ) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e. Gandharans/Kambojans of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids) from the 20th strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486–465 BC), which he led against the Hellas. Similarly, the men of the Mountain Land from north of Kabul-River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela, providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen (asva-yuddha-Kushalah). On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. the "horsemen" and their land was known as "Home of Horses". They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of the Kambojas. These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander () during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians. These highlanders, designated as "parvatiya Ayudhajivinah" in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord. The Sanskrit drama Mudra-rakashas by Visakha Dutta and the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's ( – ) alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat the ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India. The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II (Vikaramaditya) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta dynasty. As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province. Ancient Kambojas organised military sanghas and shrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata record. They are described as Ayuddha-jivi or Shastr-opajivis (nations-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its military services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations. ====Mughal Empire==== The Mughal armies (lashkar) were primarily a cavalry force. The elite corps were the ahadi who provided direct service to the Emperor and acted as guard cavalry. Supplementary cavalry or dakhilis were recruited, equipped and paid by the central state. This was in contrast to the tabinan horsemen who were the followers of individual noblemen. Their training and equipment varied widely but they made up the backbone of the Mughal cavalry. Finally there were tribal irregulars led by and loyal to tributary chiefs. These included Hindus, Afghans and Turks summoned for military service when their autonomous leaders were called on by the Imperial government. ==European Middle Ages== As the quality and availability of heavy infantry declined in Europe with the fall of the Roman Empire, heavy cavalry became more effective. Infantry that lack the cohesion and discipline of tight formations are more susceptible to being broken and scattered by shock combat—the main role of heavy cavalry, which rose to become the dominant force on the European battlefield. As heavy cavalry increased in importance, it became the main focus of military development. The arms and armour for heavy cavalry increased, the high-backed saddle developed, and stirrups and spurs were added, increasing the advantage of heavy cavalry even more. This shift in military importance was reflected in an increasingly hierarchical society as well. From the late 10th century onwards heavily armed horsemen, milites or knights, emerged as an expensive elite taking centre stage both on and off the battlefield. This class of aristocratic warriors was considered the "ultimate" in heavy cavalry: well-equipped with the best weapons, state-of-the-art armour from head to foot, leading with the lance in battle in a full-gallop, close-formation "knightly charge" that might prove irresistible, winning the battle almost as soon as it began. But knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few. While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (skirmishing, flank guards, scouting, holding ground, etc.). Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the common soldiers, which led early students of military history to suppose that heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on medieval European battlefields. But well-trained and disciplined infantry could defeat knights. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, while at Gisors (1188), Bannockburn (1314), and Laupen (1339), foot-soldiers proved they could resist cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. Once the Swiss developed their pike squares for offensive as well as defensive use, infantry started to become the principal arm. This aggressive new doctrine gave the Swiss victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensive combined arms doctrine, as evidenced in the Battle of Marignano. The introduction of missile weapons that required less skill than the longbow, such as the crossbow and hand cannon, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons. These missile weapons were very successfully used in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics. This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the Battle of the Dyle (891) and the Battle of Bremule (1119), but after the 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed swords and poleaxes. In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position. ==Islamic States== ===Arabs=== The Islamic Prophet Muhammad made use of cavalry in many of his military campaigns including the Expedition of Dhu Qarad, and the expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha in al-Is which took place in September, 627 AD, fifth month of 6 AH of the Islamic calendar. Early organized Arab mounted forces under the Rashidun caliphate comprised a light cavalry armed with lance and sword. Its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear. These relatively lightly armored horsemen formed the most effective element of the Muslim armies during the later stages of the Islamic conquest of the Levant. The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at the Battle of Yarmouk (636 AD) in which Khalid ibn Walid, knowing the skills of his horsemen, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage, disengage, then turn back and attack again from the flank or rear. A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria. Early Muslim historians have given it the name Tali'a mutaharrikah(طليعة متحركة), or the Mobile guard. This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against any Byzantine army. With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy. The Battle of Talas in 751 AD was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang dynasty over the control of Central Asia. Chinese infantry were routed by Arab cavalry near the bank of the River Talas. Until the 11th century the classic cavalry strategy of the Arab Middle East incorporated the razzia tactics of fast moving raids by mixed bodies of horsemen and infantry. Under the talented leadership of Saladin and other Islamic commanders the emphasis changed to Mamluk horse-archers backed by bodies of irregular light cavalry. Trained to rapidly disperse, harass and regroup these flexible mounted forces proved capable of withstanding the previously invincible heavy knights of the western crusaders at battles such as Hattin in 1187. ===Mamluks=== Originating in the 9th century as Central Asian ghulams or captives utilised as mounted auxiliaries by Arab armies, Mamluks were subsequently trained as cavalry soldiers rather than solely mounted-archers, with increased priority being given to the use of lances and swords. Mamluks were to follow the dictates of al-furusiyya, a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds. By the late 13th century the Manluk armies had evolved into a professional elite of cavalry, backed by more numerous but less well-trained footmen. ===Maghreb=== The Islamic Berber states of North Africa employed elite horse mounted cavalry armed with spears and following the model of the original Arab occupiers of the region. Horse-harness and weapons were manufactured locally and the six-monthly stipends for horsemen were double those of their infantry counterparts. During the 8th century Islamic conquest of Iberia large numbers of horses and riders were shipped from North Africa, to specialise in raiding and the provision of support for the massed Berber footmen of the main armies. Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number of sub-Saharan African polities in the medieval era. The Esos of Ikoyi, military aristocrats of the Yoruba peoples, were a notable manifestation of this phenomenon. ===Al-Andalus=== ===Iran=== Qizilbash, were a class of Safavid militant warriors in Iran during the 15th to 18th centuries, who often fought as elite cavalry. File:Qezelbash.JPG\|Manikin of a Safavid Qizilbash, showing characteristic red cap (Sa'dabad Palace, Tehran). File:Canonnier Persan. Auguste Wahlen. Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde. 1843.jpg\|Persian Zamburak. ===Ottoman=== During its period of greatest expansion, from the 14th to 17th centuries, cavalry formed the powerful core of the Ottoman armies. Registers dated 1475 record 22,000 Sipahi feudal cavalry levied in Europe, 17,000 Sipahis recruited from Anatolia, and 3,000 Kapikulu (regular body-guard cavalry). During the 18th century however the Ottoman mounted troops evolved into light cavalry serving in the thinly populated regions of the Middle East and North Africa. Such frontier horsemen were largely raised by local governors and were separate from the main field armies of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century modernised Nizam-I Credit ("New Army") regiments appeared, including full-time cavalry units officered from the horse guards of the Sultan. File:Sipahi.jpg\|Ottoman Sipahi. File:Mamluke.jpg\|An Ottoman Mamluk cavalryman from 1810, armed with a pistol. File:Sueleymanname Akinci-Beys.png\|Akinci of the Balkans. File:1396-Battle of Nicopolis-Hunername-2.jpg\|Ottoman Ghazi cavalrymen during the Battle of Nicopolis. ==Renaissance Europe== Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th-century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter. Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called gendarmes and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age, that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged, either by charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief. From the 1550s onwards, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to train a skilled horseman or a horse, while arquebusiers and later musketeers could be trained and kept in the field at much lower cost, and were much easier to recruit. The Spanish tercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The pistol was specifically developed to try to bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the caracole. The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with lance, sword, or pistol) remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before. The demi-lancers and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol reiters were among the types of cavalry whose heyday was in the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period the Polish Winged hussars were a dominating heavy cavalry force in Eastern Europe that initially achieved great success against Swedes, Russians, Turks and other, until repeatably beaten by either combined arms tactics, increase in firepower or beaten in melee with the Drabant cavalry of the Swedish Empire. From their last engagement in 1702 (at the Battle of Kliszów) until 1776, the obsolete Winged hussars were demoted and largely assigned to ceremonial roles. The Polish Winged hussars military prowess peaked at the Siege of Vienna in 1683, when hussar banners participated in the largest cavalry charge in history and successfully repelled the Ottoman attack. ==18th-century Europe and Napoleonic Wars== Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. They remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but extended linear infantry formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), Marengo (1800), Eylau and Friedland (1807), remaining significant throughout the Napoleonic Wars. Even with the increasing prominence of infantry, cavalry still had an irreplaceable role in armies, due to their greater mobility. Their non-battle duties often included patrolling the fringes of army encampments, with standing orders to intercept suspected shirkers and deserters, as well as, serving as outpost pickets in advance of the main body. During battle, lighter cavalry such as hussars and uhlans might skirmish with other cavalry, attack light infantry, or charge and either capture enemy artillery or render them useless by plugging the touchholes with iron spikes. Heavier cavalry such as cuirassiers, dragoons, and carabiniers usually charged towards infantry formations or opposing cavalry in order to rout them. Both light and heavy cavalry pursued retreating enemies, the point where most battle casualties occurred. The greatest cavalry charge of modern history was at the 1807 Battle of Eylau, when the entire 11,000-strong French cavalry reserve, led by Joachim Murat, launched a huge charge on and through the Russian infantry lines. Cavalry's dominating and menacing presence on the battlefield was countered by the use of infantry squares. The most notable examples are at the Battle of Quatre Bras and later at the Battle of Waterloo, the latter which the repeated charges by up to 9,000 French cavalrymen ordered by Michel Ney failed to break the British-Allied army, who had formed into squares. Massed infantry, especially those formed in squares were deadly to cavalry, but offered an excellent target for artillery. Once a bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to rout and pursue the scattered foot soldiers. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I. ==19th century== ===Europe=== By the beginning of the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories: Cuirassiers, heavy cavalry, adorned with body armor, especially a cuirass, and primarily armed with pistols and a sword Dragoons, originally mounted infantry, but later regarded as medium cavalry Hussars, light cavalry, primarily armed with sabres Lancers or Uhlans, light cavalry, primarily armed with lances There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had the chasseurs à cheval; Prussia had the Jäger zu Pferde; Bavaria, Saxony and Austria had the Chevaulegers; and Russia had Cossacks. Britain, from the mid-18th century, had Light Dragoons as light cavalry and Dragoons, Dragoon Guards and Household Cavalry as heavy cavalry. Only after the end of the Napoleonic wars were the Household Cavalry equipped with cuirasses, and some other regiments were converted to lancers. In the United States Army prior to 1862 the cavalry were almost always dragoons. The Imperial Japanese Army had its cavalry uniformed as hussars, but they fought as dragoons. In the Crimean War, the Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line at the Battle of Balaclava showed the vulnerability of cavalry, when deployed without effective support. ====Franco-Prussian War==== During the Franco-Prussian War, at the Battle of Mars-la-Tour in 1870, a Prussian cavalry brigade decisively smashed the centre of the French battle line, after skilfully concealing their approach. This event became known as Von Bredow's Death Ride after the brigade commander Adalbert von Bredow; it would be used in the following decades to argue that massed cavalry charges still had a place on the modern battlefield. ====Imperial expansion==== Cavalry found a new role in colonial campaigns (irregular warfare), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against indigenous insurgents (unless the latter offered a fight on an equal footing, as at Tel-el-Kebir, Omdurman, etc.). Cavalry "flying columns" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns—although an astute native commander (like Samori in western Africa, Shamil in the Caucasus, or any of the better Boer commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared with European forces. In 1903 the British Indian Army maintained forty regiments of cavalry, numbering about 25,000 Indian sowars (cavalrymen), with British and Indian officers. Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies are: Governor General's Bodyguard (now President's Bodyguard) Skinner's Horse (now India's 1st Horse (Skinner's Horse)) Gardner's Lancers (now India's 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse)) Hodson's Horse (now India's 3rd Horse (Hodson's)) of the Bengal Lancers fame 6th Bengal Cavalry (later amalgamated with 7th Hariana Lancers to form 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry) now 18th Cavalry of the Indian Army Probyn's Horse (now 5th Horse, Pakistan) Royal Deccan Horse (now India's The Deccan Horse) Poona Horse (now India's The Poona Horse) Scinde Horse (now India's The Scinde Horse) Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now Pakistan). 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (now 11th Cavalry (Frontier Force), Pakistan) Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example the Guides Cavalry of Pakistan. The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the end of World War II. Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants. The French forces included Spahis, Chasseurs d' Afrique, Foreign Legion cavalry and mounted Goumiers. Both Spain and Italy raised cavalry regiments from amongst the indigenous horsemen of their North African territories (see regulares, Italian Spahis and savari respectively). Imperial Germany employed mounted formations in South West Africa as part of the Schutztruppen (colonial army) garrisoning the territory. ===United States=== In the early American Civil War the regular United States Army mounted rifle, dragoon, and two existing cavalry regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six. Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers, lower cost per rifle fielded, and much easier recruitment. However, cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as scouts, raiders, and, with repeating rifles, as mounted infantry. The distinguished 1st Virginia Cavalry ranks as one of the most effectual and successful cavalry units on the Confederate side. Noted cavalry commanders included Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest, and John Singleton Mosby (a.k.a. "The Grey Ghost") and on the Union side, Philip Sheridan and George Armstrong Custer. Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. According to Robert M. Utley: the frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West. These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the American Indian Wars through the close of the frontier in the 1890s. Volunteer cavalry regiments like the Rough Riders consisted of horsemen such as cowboys, ranchers and other outdoorsmen, that served as a cavalry in the United States Military. ==Developments 1900–1914== At the beginning of the 20th century, all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces, although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). With motorised vehicles and aircraft still under development, horse mounted troops remained the only fully mobile forces available for manoeuvre warfare until 1914. ===United Kingdom=== Following the experience of the South African War of 1899–1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved more effective than regular cavalry), the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action in 1903. Lances were however readopted for active service in 1912. ===Russia=== In 1882, the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar and lancer regiments to dragoons, with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 these regiments reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms. ===Germany=== By 1909, official regulations dictating the role of the Imperial German cavalry had been revised to indicate an increasing realization of the realities of modern warfare. The massive cavalry charge in three waves which had previously marked the end of annual maneuvers was discontinued and a new emphasis was placed in training on scouting, raiding and pursuit; rather than main battle involvement. The perceived importance of cavalry was however still evident, with thirteen new regiments of mounted rifles (Jäger zu Pferde) being raised shortly before the outbreak of war in 1914. ===France=== In spite of significant experience in mounted warfare in Morocco during 1908–14, the French cavalry remained a highly conservative institution. The traditional tactical distinctions between heavy, medium, and light cavalry branches were retained. French cuirassiers wore breastplates and plumed helmets unchanged from the Napoleonic period, during the early months of World War I. Dragoons were similarly equipped, though they did not wear cuirasses and did carry lances. Light cavalry were described as being "a blaze of colour". French cavalry of all branches were well mounted and were trained to change position and charge at full gallop. One weakness in training was that French cavalrymen seldom dismounted on the march and their horses suffered heavily from raw backs in August 1914. ==First World War== ===Opening stages=== ===Europe 1914=== In August 1914, all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both Eastern and Western Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars. The 110 regiments of Imperial German cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance, had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered. These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare. A single attempt by the German army, on 12 August 1914, to use six regiments of massed cavalry to cut off the Belgian field army from Antwerp floundered when they were driven back in disorder by rifle fire. The two German cavalry brigades involved lost 492 men and 843 horses in repeated charges against dismounted Belgian lancers and infantry. One of the last recorded charges by French cavalry took place on the night of 9/10 September 1914 when a squadron of the 16th Dragoons overran a German airfield at Soissons, while suffering heavy losses. Once the front lines stabilised on the Western Front with the start of Trench Warfare, a combination of barbed wire, uneven muddy terrain, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops and by early 1915 most cavalry units were no longer seeing front line action. On the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare arose from flat open terrain favorable to mounted warfare. On the outbreak of war in 1914 the bulk of the Russian cavalry was deployed at full strength in frontier garrisons and, during the period that the main armies were mobilizing, scouting and raiding into East Prussia and Austrian Galicia was undertaken by mounted troops trained to fight with sabre and lance in the traditional style. On 21 August 1914 the 4th Austro-Hungarian under clashed with the Russian 10th Cavalry Division under general Fyodor Arturovich Keller in the Battle of Jaroslawice, in what was arguably the final historic battle to involve thousands of horsemen on both sides. While this was the last massed cavalry encounter on the Eastern Front, the absence of good roads limited the use of mechanized transport and even the technologically advanced Imperial German Army continued to deploy up to twenty-four horse-mounted divisions in the East, as late as 1917. ===Europe 1915–1918=== For the remainder of the War on the Western Front, cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the Life Guards for example spent the last months of the War as a machine gun corps; and the Australian Light Horse served as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign. In September 1914 cavalry comprised 9.28% of the total manpower of the British Expeditionary Force in France—by July 1918 this proportion had fallen to 1.65%. As early as the first winter of the war most French cavalry regiments had dismounted a squadron each, for service in the trenches. The French cavalry numbered 102,000 in May 1915 but had been reduced to 63,000 by October 1918. The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West, maintaining only one mounted division on that front by January 1917. Italy entered the war in 1915 with thirty regiments of line cavalry, lancers and light horse. While employed effectively against their Austro-Hungarian counterparts during the initial offensives across the Isonzo River, the Italian mounted forces ceased to have a significant role as the front shifted into mountainous terrain. By 1916 most cavalry machine-gun sections and two complete cavalry divisions had been dismounted and seconded to the infantry. Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops in reserve behind the lines, in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come. Tanks, introduced on the Western Front by the British in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. In their first major use at the Battle of Cambrai (1917), the plan was for a cavalry division to follow behind the tanks, however they were not able to cross a canal because a tank had broken the only bridge. On a few other occasions, throughout the war, cavalry were readied in significant numbers for involvement in major offensives; such as in the Battle of Caporetto and the Battle of Moreuil Wood. However it was not until the German Army had been forced to retreat in the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918, that limited numbers of cavalry were again able to operate with any effectiveness in their intended role. There was a successful charge by the British 7th Dragoon Guards on the last day of the war. In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops. Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war. However, even here the value of cavalry was overrated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage. In February 1917, the Russian regular cavalry (exclusive of Cossacks) was reduced by nearly a third from its peak number of 200,000, as two squadrons of each regiment were dismounted and incorporated into additional infantry battalions. Their Austro-Hungarian opponents, plagued by a shortage of trained infantry, had been obliged to progressively convert most horse cavalry regiments to dismounted rifle units starting in late 1914. ===Middle East=== In the Middle East, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign mounted forces (British, Indian, Ottoman, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important strategic role both as mounted infantry and cavalry. In Egypt, the mounted infantry formations like the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and Australian Light Horse of ANZAC Mounted Division, operating as mounted infantry, drove German and Ottoman forces back from Romani to Magdhaba and Rafa and out of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula in 1916. After a stalemate on the Gaza–Beersheba line between March and October 1917, Beersheba was captured by the Australian Mounted Division's 4th Light Horse Brigade. Their mounted charge succeeded after a coordinated attack by the British Infantry and Yeomanry cavalry and the Australian and New Zealand Light Horse and Mounted Rifles brigades. A series of coordinated attacks by these Egyptian Expeditionary Force infantry and mounted troops were also successful at the Battle of Mughar Ridge, during which the British infantry divisions and the Desert Mounted Corps drove two Ottoman armies back to the Jaffa—Jerusalem line. The infantry with mainly dismounted cavalry and mounted infantry fought in the Judean Hills to eventually almost encircle Jerusalem which was occupied shortly after. During a pause in operations necessitated by the German spring offensive in 1918 on the Western Front, joint infantry and mounted infantry attacks towards Amman and Es Salt resulted in retreats back to the Jordan Valley which continued to be occupied by mounted divisions during the summer of 1918. The Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords and in September, after the successful breaching of the Ottoman line on the Mediterranean coast by the British Empire infantry XXI Corps was followed by cavalry attacks by the 4th Cavalry Division, 5th Cavalry Division and Australian Mounted Divisions which almost encircled two Ottoman armies in the Judean Hills forcing their retreat. Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force of infantry and mounted infantry in ANZAC Mounted Division held the Jordan Valley, covering the right flank to later advance eastwards to capture Es Salt and Amman and half of a third Ottoman army. A subsequent pursuit by the 4th Cavalry Division and the Australian Mounted Division followed by the 5th Cavalry Division to Damascus. Armoured cars and 5th Cavalry Division lancers were continuing the pursuit of Ottoman units north of Aleppo when the Armistice of Mudros was signed by the Ottoman Empire. ==Post–World War I== A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914–1918 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare. The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914. Cavalry was extensively used in the Russian Civil War and the Soviet-Polish War. The last major cavalry battle was the Battle of Komarów in 1920, between Poland and the Russian Bolsheviks. Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and the North West Frontier of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry. The post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. The British Army mechanised all cavalry regiments between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the Royal Armoured Corps together with the Royal Tank Regiment. The U.S. Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934 and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanized cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish cavalry under General Fahrettin Altay was instrumental in the Kemalist victory over the invading Greek Army in 1922 during the Battle of Dumlupınar. The 5th Cavalry Corps was able to slip behind the main Greek army, cutting off all communication and supply lines as well as retreat options. This forced the surrender of the remaining Greek forces and may have been the last time in history that cavalry played a definitive role in the outcome of a battle. During the 1930s, the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations. Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (chasseurs a' cheval, hussars and spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons. The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance. The 39 cavalry regiments of the British Indian Army were reduced to 21 as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I. The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them. In 1938, the process of mechanization began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units. By the end of 1940, all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanized, initially and in the majority of cases, to motorized infantry transported in 15cwt trucks. The last horsed regiment of the British Indian Army (other than the Viceroy's Bodyguard and some Indian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its final mounted parade at Rawalpindi on 28 October 1939. This unit still exists in the Pakistan Army as an armored regiment. ==World War II== While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish, Balkan, and Soviet campaigns. Rather than charge their mounts into battle, cavalry units were either used as mounted infantry (using horses to move into position and then dismounting for combat) or as reconnaissance units (especially in areas not suited to tracked or wheeled vehicles). ===Polish=== A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars. Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position. Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free. However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry. Later, on the Eastern Front, the Red Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans. A more correct term would be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, and in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, the Polish cavalry brigade order of battle in 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), the Anti-tank rifle, model 35, anti-aircraft weapons, anti tank artillery such as the Bofors 37 mm, also light and scout tanks, etc. The last cavalry vs. cavalry mutual charge in Europe took place in Poland during the Battle of Krasnobród, when Polish and German cavalry units clashed with each other. The last classical cavalry charge of the war took place on March 1, 1945, during the Battle of Schoenfeld by the 1st "Warsaw" Independent Cavalry Brigade. Infantry and tanks had been employed to little effect against the German position, both of which floundered in the open wetlands only to be dominated by infantry and antitank fire from the German fortifications on the forward slope of Hill 157, overlooking the wetlands. The Germans had not taken cavalry into consideration when fortifying their position which, combined with the "Warsaw"s swift assault, overran the German anti-tank guns and consolidated into an attack into the village itself, now supported by infantry and tanks. ===Greek=== The Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940 saw mounted cavalry used effectively by the Greek defenders along the mountainous frontier with Albania. Three Greek cavalry regiments (two mounted and one partially mechanized) played an important role in the Italian defeat in this difficult terrain. ===Soviet=== The contribution of Soviet cavalry to the development of modern military operational doctrine and its importance in defeating Nazi Germany has been eclipsed by the higher profile of tanks and airplanes. Soviet cavalry contributed significantly to the defeat of the Axis armies. … We were again in a tough fight with the desperately defensive enemy who dug himself along a high railway embankment. We've been attacked four times already, and we've been kicked back all four times. The battalion commander swore, but the company commanders were helpless. Then, instead of the artillery support we asked for countless times, a Hungarian hussar regiment appeared on the scene. We laughed. What the hell do they want here with their graceful, elegant horses? We froze at once: these Hungarians went crazy. Cavalry Squadron approached after a cavalry squadron. The command word rang. The bronze-brown, slender riders almost grew to their saddle. Their shining colonel of golden parolis jerked his sword. Four or five armored cars cut out of the wings, and the regiment slashed across the wide plain with flashing swords in the afternoon sun. Seydlitz attacked like this once before. Forgetting all caution, we climbed out of our covers. It was all like a great equestrian movie. The first shots rumbled, then became less frequent. With astonished eyes, in disbelief, we watched as the Soviet regiment, which had so far repulsed our attacks with desperate determination, now turned around and left its positions in panic. And the triumphant Hungarians chased the Russian in front of them and shredded them with their glittering sabers. The hussar sword, it seems, was a bit much for the nerves of Russians. Now, for once, the ancient weapon has triumphed over modern equipment .... ===Italian=== The last mounted sabre charge by Italian cavalry occurred on August 24, 1942, at Isbuscenski (Russia), when a squadron of the Savoia Cavalry Regiment charged the 812th Siberian Infantry Regiment. The remainder of the regiment, together with the Novara Lancers made a dismounted attack in an action that ended with the retreat of the Russians after heavy losses on both sides. The final Italian cavalry action occurred on October 17, 1942, in Poloj (now Croatia) by a squadron of the Alexandria Cavalry Regiment against a large group of Yugoslav partisans. ===Other Axis Powers=== Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry were dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia. Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War. ===Finnish=== Finland used mounted troops against Russian forces effectively in forested terrain during the Continuation War. The last Finnish cavalry unit was not disbanded until 1947. ===American=== The U.S. Army's last horse cavalry actions were fought during World War II: a) by the 26th Cavalry Regiment—a small mounted regiment of Philippine Scouts which fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942; and b) on captured German horses by the mounted reconnaissance section of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division in a spearhead pursuit of the German Army across the Po Valley in Italy in April 1945. The last horsed U.S. Cavalry (the Second Cavalry Division) were dismounted in March 1944. ===British=== All British Army cavalry regiments had been mechanised since 1 March 1942 when the Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons (Yeomanry) was converted to a motorised role, following mounted service against the Vichy French in Syria the previous year. The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry near Toungoo airfield in central Myanmar. The Sikh sowars of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman of The Central India Horse (21st King George V's Own Horse), charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed. ===Mongolian=== In the early stages of World War II, mounted units of the Mongolian People's Army were involved in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against invading Japanese forces. Soviet forces under the command of Georgy Zhukov, together with Mongolian forces, defeated the Japanese Sixth army and effectively ended the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars. After the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of 1941, Mongolia remained neutral throughout most of the war, but its geographical situation meant that the country served as a buffer between Japanese forces and the Soviet Union. In addition to keeping around 10% of the population under arms, Mongolia provided half a million trained horses for use by the Soviet Army. In 1945 a partially mounted Soviet-Mongolian Cavalry Mechanized Group played a supporting role on the western flank of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The last active service seen by cavalry units of the Mongolian Army occurred in 1946–1948, during border clashes between Mongolia and the Republic of China. ==Post–World War II to the present day== While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern Irish Defence Forces (DF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with armoured cars and Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles. The DF has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort of Blue Hussars drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force. Some engagements in late 20th and early 21st century guerrilla wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure. Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Examples occurred in Afghanistan, Portuguese Africa and Rhodesia. The French Army used existing mounted squadrons of Spahis to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954–1962). The last mounted charge by French cavalry was carried out on 14 May 1957 by a detachment of Spahis at Magoura during the Algerian War. The Swiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973. The Portuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in the wars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1964–1979 Rhodesian Bush War the Rhodesian Army created an elite mounted infantry unit called Grey's Scouts to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces of Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo. The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were effective and reportedly feared by their opponents in the rebel African forces. In the 1978 to present Afghan Civil War period there have been several instances of horse mounted combat. Central and South American armies maintained mounted cavalry for longer than those of Asia, Europe, or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid-1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops. After the end of World War II, the remaining 26 Soviet cavalry divisions were mostly converted into mechanized and tank units or disbanded. Meanwhile the overall Red Army became the Soviet Ground Forces in 1945. The last cavalry divisions were not disbanded until the early 1950s, with the last cavalry division, the 4th Guards Cavalry Division (II Formation, previously reduced in status from 4th Guards Cavalry Corps), being disbanded in April 1955. ===Operational horse cavalry=== Today the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry is reported to be the largest existing horse-mounted cavalry unit still having operational potential. It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamated state cavalry squadrons of Gwalior, Jodhpur, and Mysore. While primarily utilised for ceremonial purposes, the regiment can be deployed for internal security or police roles if required. The 61st Cavalry and the President's Body Guard parade in full dress uniform in New Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world. Both the Indian and the Pakistani armies maintain armoured regiments with the titles of Lancers or Horse, dating back to the 19th century. As of 2007, the Chinese People's Liberation Army employed two battalions of horse-mounted border guards in Xinjiang for border patrol purposes. PLA mounted units last saw action during border clashes with Vietnam in the 1970s and 1980s, after which most cavalry units were disbanded as part of major military downsizing in the 1980s. In the wake of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, there were calls to rebuild the army horse inventory for disaster relief in difficult terrain. Subsequent Chinese media reports confirm that the PLA maintains operational horse cavalry at squadron strength in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia for scouting, logistical, and border security purposes, and one at company strength in Qinghai. The Chilean Army still maintains a mixed armoured cavalry regiment, with elements of it acting as mounted mountain exploration troops, based in the city of Angol, being part of the and another independent exploration cavalry detachment in the town of Chaitén. The rugged mountain terrain calls for the use of special horses suited for that use. The Argentine Army has two mounted cavalry units: the Regiment of Horse Grenadiers, which performs mostly ceremonial duties but at the same time is responsible for the president's security (in this case, acting as infantry), and the 4th Mountain Cavalry Regiment (which comprises both horse and light armoured squadrons), stationed in San Martín de los Andes, where it has an exploration role as part the 6th Mountain Brigade. Most armoured cavalry units of the Army are considered successors to the old cavalry regiments from the Independence Wars, and keep their traditional names, such as Hussars, Cuirassiers, Lancers, etc., and uniforms. Equestrian training remains an important part of their tradition, especially among officers. ===Ceremonial horse cavalry and armored cavalry retaining traditional titles === Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the Algerian, Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Canadian, Chilean, Colombian, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Indian, Italian, Jordanian, Malaysian, Mongolian Moroccan, Nepalese, Nigerian, North Korean, Omani, Pakistani, Panamanian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Senegalese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Tunisian, Turkmenistan, United States, Uruguayan and Venezuelan armed forces. A number of armoured regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Dragoon Guards, Lancers and Yeomanry. Only the Household Cavalry (consisting of the Life Guards' mounted squadron, The Blues and Royals' mounted squadron, the State Trumpeters of The Household Cavalry and the Household Cavalry Mounted Band) are maintained for mounted (and dismounted) ceremonial duties in London. The French Army still has regiments with the historic designations of Cuirassiers, Hussars, Chasseurs, Dragoons and Spahis. Only the cavalry of the Republican Guard and a ceremonial fanfare detachment of trumpeters for the cavalry/armoured branch as a whole are now mounted. In the Canadian Army, a number of regular and reserve units have cavalry roots, including The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal), the Governor General's Horse Guards, Lord Strathcona's Horse, The British Columbia Dragoons , The Royal Canadian Dragoons, and the South Alberta Light Horse. Of these, only Lord Strathcona's Horse and the Governor General's Horse Guards maintain an official ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry troop or squadron. The modern Pakistan army maintains about 40 armoured regiments with the historic titles of Lancers, Cavalry or Horse. Six of these date back to the 19th century, although only the President's Body Guard remains horse-mounted. In 2002, the Army of the Russian Federation reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms. Both the Australian and New Zealand armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse-mounted unit. Several armored units of the modern United States Army retain the designation of "armored cavalry". The United States also has "air cavalry" units equipped with helicopters. The Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s. The Turkish Armed Forces retain a ceremonial cavalry regiment, which also participates in equestrianism, following the disbandment of the operational mounted brigades during the 1960s. ===Non-combat support roles=== The First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry is a volunteer unit within the Pennsylvania Army National Guard which serves as a combat force when in federal service but acts in a mounted disaster relief role when in state service. In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the Corps of Cadets at Texas A&M University. Valley Forge Military Academy and College also has a Mounted Company, known as D-Troop . Some individual U.S. states maintain cavalry units as a part of their respective state defense forces. The Maryland Defense Force includes a cavalry unit, Cavalry Troop A, which serves primarily as a ceremonial unit. The unit training includes a saber qualification course based upon the 1926 U.S. Army course. Cavalry Troop A also assists other Maryland agencies as a rural search and rescue asset. The National Lancers maintain three units, Troops A, B, and C, which serve in a ceremonial role and assist in search and rescue missions. ==Social status== From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high social status. This was most clearly seen in the feudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of lightly armed peasants on foot. If landlords and peasant levies came into conflict, the poorly trained footmen would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights. In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian Cossacks or the French Chasseurs d'Afrique. During the 19th and early 20th centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their royal or imperial guards. These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards, through to large formations intended for active service. The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of the Prussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter. In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies. ==On film== Some sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film Waterloo, which featured some 2,000 cavalrymen, some of them Cossacks. It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the real battle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses). The Gary Cooper movie They Came to Cordura contains a scene of a cavalry regiment deploying from march to battle line formation. A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003); although the finished scene has substantial computer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices. Other films that show cavalry actions include: The Charge of the Light Brigade, about the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War 40,000 Horsemen, about the Australian Light Horse during the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I The Lighthorsemen, about the Battle of Beersheba, 1917 War Horse, about the British cavalry in Europe during World War I Hubal, about the last months (September 1939 – April 1940) of Poland's first World War II guerrilla, Major Henryk Dobrzański, "Hubal" The Patriot includes light cavalry usage. And Quiet Flows the Don depicts Don Cossacks during World War I Kingdom of Heaven includes a cavalry charge during the Siege of Kerak The Last Samurai – a US army veteran, is hired by the Japanese emperor to train his army in the modern warfare techniques Napoleon, cavalry units play a role in several battles. The scene of the Battle of Waterloo includes the British use of infantry squares to defend against cavalry attacks. ==Units== 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States) 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States) Australian Light Horse Bayreuth Dragoons The Blues and Royals (British Army)(who with the Life Guards form the Household Cavalry) British Columbia Dragoons (Canadian Army) 1st Cavalry Division (United States) 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards (British Army) Cavalry Corps (Irish Army) Chasseurs d'Afrique (French Army) Chinacos (Mexican irregular cavalry of the 19th century) Garde Républicaine (French Gendarmerie) Governor General's Horse Guards (Canada) Guarda Nacional Republicana (Portuguese National Guard) Governor's Guards (United States) Guides Cavalry (Pakistan Army) Hakkapeliitta (Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War) Hamidiye (Ottoman) Ironside King's Royal Hussars (British Army) Light Dragoons (British Army) Panserbataljonen (Norwegian Army) Queen's Own Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) Queen's Royal Hussars (British Army) Regulares (Spanish Morocco) Royal Dragoon Guards (British Army) Royal Lancers (British Army) Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers & Greys) (British Army) Royal Wessex Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Armoured Regiment) Royal Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) Savage Division (North Caucasus) Savari (Italian North African) Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) Sipahi (Ottoman) South Alberta Light Horse (Canadian Army) Spahi (French North African) Tagmata (Byzantine) ==Notable horse cavalrymen== Georgios Stanotas, commander of the Hellenic Army's Cavalry Division during World War II Didier Courrèges, major in the French Army, member of École Nationale d'Équitation's Cadre Noir, Olympian at 2004 Summer Olympics Edwin Ramsey, lieutenant colonel in the 26th Cavalry Regiment during World War II, recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, led the last cavalry charge in American military history General Fahrettin Altay, commander of the 5th Cavalry Corps of the Turkish 1st Army during the Turkish War of Independence, which was instrumental in victory over the invading Greek Army. His name is given to the new Turkish battle tank Altay.	[ "Imperial Service Troops", "Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Al-Is)", "Bayreuth Dragoons", "Soviet invasion of Manchuria", "Battle of Yarmouk", "heavy cavalry", "Italian invasion of Greece", "Shang dynasty", "horse tack", "Royal Armoured Corps", "tercio", "Cataphract", "Ottoman Empire", "Romania in World War II", "Sarmatians", "Sa'dabad Palace", "First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry", "Duryodhana", "landed class", "Wagenburg (wagon fort)", "Gary Cooper", "Pāṇini", "Drabant Corps of Charles XII", "firepower", "Isonzo River", "Minamoto no Yoritomo", "skirmishing", "Lieutenant colonel (United States)", "Samori", "Russian Civil War", "firearm", "caracole", "German 9th Army", "26th Cavalry Regiment (United States)", "Kambojas", "Uhlan", "steppes", "Afghanistan", "Caucasus", "prodromoi", "Gauls", "Battle of Sharon", "Paroli (uniform)", "Armed Forces of Paraguay", "French Army", "saddle", "Forty Thousand Horsemen", "Guards Corps (German Empire)", "Kunar Valley", "Han Chinese", "Cadre Noir", "Yemaek", "Third Transjordan attack", "First Transjordan attack on Amman", "Adalbert von Bredow", "U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment", "Lieutenant Colonel", "Military history of China (pre-1911)", "artillery", "Khitan people", "Tank", "R. 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"Parthian Empire", "Galba", "Ashtadhyayi", "reiter", "Household Cavalry", "History of Korea", "Battle of Rafa", "Yeomanry", "19th Lancers", "Hussite Wars", "18th King Edward's Own Cavalry", "battle of Waterloo", "Battle of Marengo", "savari", "equites", "President's Bodyguard (India)", "Dragoon", "Afghan Northern Alliance", "Tusharas", "Byzantine Empire", "Canadian Army", "Classical antiquity", "tribe", "Military logistics", "Parishishtaparvan", "Companion cavalry", "Nathan Bedford Forrest", "Battle of Bannockburn", "Roman triumph", "military", "The Poona Horse", "Armored reconnaissance", "Himalaya", "Imperial Japanese Army", "Blue Hussars", "John Singleton Mosby", "Roman–Persian Wars", "Sinai and Palestine campaign", "The Lighthorsemen (film)", "Philip II of Macedon", "8th Guards Cavalry Regiment", "Battle of the Dyle", "Battle of Eylau", "Henryk Dobrzański", "uhlans", "Royal Canadian Dragoons", "Chasseur", "Armoured cavalry", "halter", "Kingdom of Heaven (film)", "Battle of Kliszów", "Battle of Bremule", "Spahi", "light tank", "Battle of Schoenfeld", "Switzerland", "Jean-Antoine-Siméon Fort", "pastoral farming", "Battle of Gisors", "4th Guards Cavalry Corps", "Darius III", "Second Punic War", "Hubal (film)", "Military animal", "horse collar", "Napoleonic Wars", "Tujue", "Raghuvaṃśa", "Avars (Carpathians)", "Life Guards (United Kingdom)", "1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards", "sowar", "Battle of the Little Bighorn", "Polish cavalry brigade order of battle in 1939", "Later Yan", "Heinz Guderian", "Saka", "Jurchen people", "cuirassier", "Australian Light Horse", "Akinji", "bridle", "Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)", "Arab", "Eso Ikoyi", "Feudalism", "Battle of Cambrai (1917)", "pommel (saddle)", "pistol", "Don Cossack", "Kemalist", "Antwerp", "Rhodesian Army", "cuirassiers", "Battle of Blenheim", "Battle of Carrhae", "Battle of Romani", "Michel Ney", "Warring States period", "computer-generated imagery", "Defence Forces (Ireland)", "shock attack", "Kshatriya", "Myanmar", "11th 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Military Academy and College", "Sipahi", "Balkan", "knight", "Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo", "Georgios Stanotas", "Battle of Beersheba (1917)", "Cuirassier", "Battle of Omdurman", "horse", "King Wuling of Zhao", "Pavel Belov", "Numidians", "Mongolian People's Army", "The British Columbia Dragoons", "U.S. state", "Cavalry tactics", "hussar", "sword", "Savage Division", "Furusiyya", "carabiniers", "J.E.B. 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6,818	Citric acid cycle	The citric acid cycle—also known as the Krebs cycle, Szent–Györgyi–Krebs cycle, or TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)—is a series of biochemical reactions to release the energy stored in nutrients through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol. The chemical energy released is available in the form of ATP. The Krebs cycle is used by organisms that respire (as opposed to organisms that ferment) to generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration. In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism. Even though it is branded as a "cycle", it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three alternative segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized. The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH == Discovery == Several of the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established in the 1930s by the research of Albert Szent-Györgyi, who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 specifically for his discoveries pertaining to fumaric acid, a component of the cycle. He made this discovery by studying pigeon breast muscle. Because this tissue maintains its oxidative capacity well after breaking down in the Latapie mincer and releasing in aqueous solutions, breast muscle of the pigeon was very well qualified for the study of oxidative reactions. The citric acid cycle itself was finally identified in 1937 by Hans Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson while at the University of Sheffield, for which the former received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1953, and for whom the cycle is sometimes named the "Krebs cycle". == Overview == The citric acid cycle is a metabolic pathway that connects carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The reactions of the cycle are carried out by eight enzymes that completely oxidize acetate (a two carbon molecule), in the form of acetyl-CoA, into two molecules each of carbon dioxide and water. Through catabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins, the two-carbon organic product acetyl-CoA is produced which enters the citric acid cycle. The reactions of the cycle also convert three equivalents of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into three equivalents of reduced NAD (NADH), one equivalent of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) into one equivalent of FADH2, and one equivalent each of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into one equivalent of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). The NADH and FADH2 generated by the citric acid cycle are, in turn, used by the oxidative phosphorylation pathway to generate energy-rich ATP. One of the primary sources of acetyl-CoA is from the breakdown of sugars by glycolysis which yield pyruvate that in turn is decarboxylated by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex generating acetyl-CoA according to the following reaction scheme: The product of this reaction, acetyl-CoA, is the starting point for the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids. Below is a schematic outline of the cycle: The citric acid cycle begins with the transfer of a two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate). The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing two carboxyl groups as CO2. The carbons lost as CO2 originate from what was oxaloacetate, not directly from acetyl-CoA. The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle. Loss of the acetyl-CoA-donated carbons as CO2 requires several turns of the citric acid cycle. However, because of the role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism, they might not be lost, since many citric acid cycle intermediates are also used as precursors for the biosynthesis of other molecules. Most of the electrons made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle are transferred to NAD+, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced. The citric acid cycle includes a series of redox reactions in mitochondria. In addition, electrons from the succinate oxidation step are transferred first to the FAD cofactor of succinate dehydrogenase, reducing it to FADH2, and eventually to ubiquinone (Q) in the mitochondrial membrane, reducing it to ubiquinol (QH2) which is a substrate of the electron transfer chain at the level of Complex III. For every NADH and FADH2 that are produced in the citric acid cycle, 2.5 and 1.5 ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation, respectively. At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues. == Steps == There are ten basic steps in the citric acid cycle, as outlined below. The cycle is continuously supplied with new carbon in the form of acetyl-CoA, entering at step 0 in the table. Mitochondria in animals, including humans, possess two succinyl-CoA synthetases: one that produces GTP from GDP, and another that produces ATP from ADP. Plants have the type that produces ATP (ADP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase). Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix. The GTP that is formed by GDP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside-diphosphate kinase to form ATP (the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP). The above reactions are balanced if Pi represents the H2PO4− ion, ADP and GDP the ADP2− and GDP2− ions, respectively, and ATP and GTP the ATP3− and GTP3− ions, respectively. The total number of ATP molecules obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38. The observed yields are, therefore, closer to ~2.5 ATP per NADH and ~1.5 ATP per FADH2, further reducing the total net production of ATP to approximately 30. An assessment of the total ATP yield with newly revised proton-to-ATP ratios provides an estimate of 29.85 ATP per glucose molecule. == Variation == While the citric acid cycle is in general highly conserved, there is significant variability in the enzymes found in different taxa (note that the diagrams on this page are specific to the mammalian pathway variant). Some differences exist between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The conversion of D-threo-isocitrate to 2-oxoglutarate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD+-dependent EC 1.1.1.41, while prokaryotes employ the NADP+-dependent EC 1.1.1.42. Similarly, the conversion of (S)-malate to oxaloacetate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD+-dependent EC 1.1.1.37, while most prokaryotes utilize a quinone-dependent enzyme, EC 1.1.5.4. A step with significant variability is the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate. Most organisms utilize EC 6.2.1.5, succinate–CoA ligase (ADP-forming) (despite its name, the enzyme operates in the pathway in the direction of ATP formation). In mammals a GTP-forming enzyme, succinate–CoA ligase (GDP-forming) (EC 6.2.1.4) also operates. The level of utilization of each isoform is tissue dependent. In some acetate-producing bacteria, such as Acetobacter aceti, an entirely different enzyme catalyzes this conversion – EC 2.8.3.18, succinyl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase. This specialized enzyme links the TCA cycle with acetate metabolism in these organisms. Some bacteria, such as Helicobacter pylori, employ yet another enzyme for this conversion – succinyl-CoA:acetoacetate CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.5). Some variability also exists at the previous step – the conversion of 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA. While most organisms utilize the ubiquitous NAD+-dependent 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, some bacteria utilize a ferredoxin-dependent 2-oxoglutarate synthase (EC 1.2.7.3). Other organisms, including obligately autotrophic and methanotrophic bacteria and archaea, bypass succinyl-CoA entirely, and convert 2-oxoglutarate to succinate via succinate semialdehyde, using EC 4.1.1.71, 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase, and EC 1.2.1.79, succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase. === In cancer === In cancer, there are substantial metabolic derangements that occur to ensure the proliferation of tumor cells, and consequently metabolites can accumulate which serve to facilitate tumorigenesis, dubbed oncometabolites. Among the best characterized oncometabolites is 2-hydroxyglutarate which is produced through a heterozygous gain-of-function mutation (specifically a neomorphic one) in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) (which under normal circumstances catalyzes the oxidation of isocitrate to oxalosuccinate, which then spontaneously decarboxylates to alpha-ketoglutarate, as discussed above; in this case an additional reduction step occurs after the formation of alpha-ketoglutarate via NADPH to yield 2-hydroxyglutarate), and hence IDH is considered an oncogene. Under physiological conditions, 2-hydroxyglutarate is a minor product of several metabolic pathways as an error but readily converted to alpha-ketoglutarate via hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase enzymes (L2HGDH and D2HGDH) but does not have a known physiologic role in mammalian cells; of note, in cancer, 2-hydroxyglutarate is likely a terminal metabolite as isotope labelling experiments of colorectal cancer cell lines show that its conversion back to alpha-ketoglutarate is too low to measure. In cancer, 2-hydroxyglutarate serves as a competitive inhibitor for a number of enzymes that facilitate reactions via alpha-ketoglutarate in alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. This mutation results in several important changes to the metabolism of the cell. For one thing, because there is an extra NADPH-catalyzed reduction, this can contribute to depletion of cellular stores of NADPH and also reduce levels of alpha-ketoglutarate available to the cell. In particular, the depletion of NADPH is problematic because NADPH is highly compartmentalized and cannot freely diffuse between the organelles in the cell. It is produced largely via the pentose phosphate pathway in the cytoplasm. The depletion of NADPH results in increased oxidative stress within the cell as it is a required cofactor in the production of GSH, and this oxidative stress can result in DNA damage. There are also changes on the genetic and epigenetic level through the function of histone lysine demethylases (KDMs) and ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes; ordinarily TETs hydroxylate 5-methylcytosines to prime them for demethylation. However, in the absence of alpha-ketoglutarate this cannot be done and there is hence hypermethylation of the cell's DNA, serving to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and inhibit cellular differentiation. A similar phenomenon is observed for the Jumonji C family of KDMs which require a hydroxylation to perform demethylation at the epsilon-amino methyl group. Additionally, the inability of prolyl hydroxylases to catalyze reactions results in stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor alpha, which is necessary to promote degradation of the latter (as under conditions of low oxygen there will not be adequate substrate for hydroxylation). This results in a pseudohypoxic phenotype in the cancer cell that promotes angiogenesis, metabolic reprogramming, cell growth, and migration. == Regulation == Allosteric regulation by metabolites. The regulation of the citric acid cycle is largely determined by product inhibition and substrate availability. If the cycle were permitted to run unchecked, large amounts of metabolic energy could be wasted in overproduction of reduced coenzyme such as NADH and ATP. The major eventual substrate of the cycle is ADP which gets converted to ATP. A reduced amount of ADP causes accumulation of precursor NADH which in turn can inhibit a number of enzymes. NADH, a product of all dehydrogenases in the citric acid cycle with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and also citrate synthase. Acetyl-coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, while succinyl-CoA inhibits alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase. When tested in vitro with TCA enzymes, ATP inhibits citrate synthase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; however, ATP levels do not change more than 10% in vivo between rest and vigorous exercise. There is no known allosteric mechanism that can account for large changes in reaction rate from an allosteric effector whose concentration changes less than 10%. Citrate is used for feedback inhibition, as it inhibits phosphofructokinase, an enzyme involved in glycolysis that catalyses formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, a precursor of pyruvate. This prevents a constant high rate of flux when there is an accumulation of citrate and a decrease in substrate for the enzyme. Regulation by calcium. Calcium is also used as a regulator in the citric acid cycle. Calcium levels in the mitochondrial matrix can reach up to the tens of micromolar levels during cellular activation. It activates pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase which in turn activates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Calcium also activates isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle, and therefore increases flux throughout the pathway. Transcriptional regulation. There is a link between intermediates of the citric acid cycle and the regulation of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF). HIF plays a role in the regulation of oxygen homeostasis, and is a transcription factor that targets angiogenesis, vascular remodeling, glucose utilization, iron transport and apoptosis. HIF is synthesized constitutively, and hydroxylation of at least one of two critical proline residues mediates their interaction with the von Hippel Lindau E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, which targets them for rapid degradation. This reaction is catalysed by prolyl 4-hydroxylases. Fumarate and succinate have been identified as potent inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases, thus leading to the stabilisation of HIF. == Major metabolic pathways converging on the citric acid cycle == Several catabolic pathways converge on the citric acid cycle. Most of these reactions add intermediates to the citric acid cycle, and are therefore known as anaplerotic reactions, from the Greek meaning to "fill up". These increase the amount of acetyl CoA that the cycle is able to carry, increasing the mitochondrion's capability to carry out respiration if this is otherwise a limiting factor. Processes that remove intermediates from the cycle are termed "cataplerotic" reactions. In this section and in the next, the citric acid cycle intermediates are indicated in italics to distinguish them from other substrates and end-products. Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix. Here they can be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2, acetyl-CoA, and NADH, as in the normal cycle. However, it is also possible for pyruvate to be carboxylated by pyruvate carboxylase to form oxaloacetate. This latter reaction "fills up" the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle, and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction, increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl-CoA when the tissue's energy needs (e.g. in muscle) are suddenly increased by activity. In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates (e.g. citrate, iso-citrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate, and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle. Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other. Hence the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect, and its removal has a cataplerotic effect. These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will, during the course of the cycle, increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl-CoA to form citric acid. This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion, and thus the availability of ATP to the cell. In the liver, the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose, In many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation, which results in the production of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA, which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene bridges produces propionyl-CoA, which is then converted into succinyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle as an anaplerotic intermediate. The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one (six-carbon) molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the formation of 2 acetyl-CoA molecules, their catabolism in the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The number of ATP molecules derived from the beta oxidation of a 6 carbon segment of a fatty acid chain, and the subsequent oxidation of the resulting 3 molecules of acetyl-CoA is 40. == Citric acid cycle intermediates serve as substrates for biosynthetic processes == In this subheading, as in the previous one, the TCA intermediates are identified by italics. Several of the citric acid cycle intermediates are used for the synthesis of important compounds, which will have significant cataplerotic effects on the cycle. The cytosolic acetyl-CoA is used for fatty acid synthesis and the production of cholesterol. Cholesterol can, in turn, be used to synthesize the steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D. == Evolution == It is believed that components of the citric acid cycle were derived from anaerobic bacteria, and that the TCA cycle itself may have evolved more than once. It may even predate biosis: the substrates appear to undergo most of the reactions spontaneously in the presence of persulfate radicals. Theoretically, several alternatives to the TCA cycle exist; however, the TCA cycle appears to be the most efficient. If several TCA alternatives had evolved independently, they all appear to have converged to the TCA cycle.	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Nicholas Ornston", "oxidative stress", "Chemiosmosis", "guanosine triphosphate", "mitochondrion", "Coenzyme A", "Citric acid", "molecules", "carboxyl", "Vascular remodelling in the embryo", "KEGG", "Alpha ketoglutarate", "Gluconeogenesis", "Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase", "pyruvic acid", "cancer", "Pyruvate", "carbon dioxide", "active transport", "Pyridoxine", "William Arthur Johnson (biochemist)", "hydroxylation", "pentose phosphate pathway", "DNA", "Keto acid", "glycolysis", "beta-oxidation", "Thiamine pyrophosphate", "substrate-level phosphorylation", "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide", "prosthetic group", "Trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (NADPH)", "Condensation reaction", "organism", "triglyceride", "asparagine", "fat", "decarboxylation", "protein", "Chemical reaction", "Succinate dehydrogenase", "muscle tissue", "cytosine", "hemoglobin", "Malic acid", "protein complex", "pyruvate dehydrogenase", "Acetyl-CoA carboxylase", "glucagon", "amphibolic", "Guanosine triphosphate", "propionyl-CoA", "NADH", "beta oxidation", "apoptosis", "Isomerization", "2-hydroxyglutarate", "methylene bridge", "Aconitase", "Uridine triphosphate", "chemical reaction", "Neomorphic mutation", "protease", "acetyl", "dioxygenase", "nucleoside-diphosphate kinase", "vitamin D", "succinyl-CoA", "catabolism", "metabolic pathway", "adenosine triphosphate", "Oxaloacetate", "glycerol phosphate shuttle", "coenzyme A", "Adenosine monophosphate", "HIF1A", "Hydration reaction", "Calvin cycle", "citric acid", "glutamine", "arginine", "MetaCyc", "heterozygous", "L2HGDH", "Fumarate", "glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate", "cytochrome", "fatty acid", "Dehydration reaction", "mitochondrial disease", "Oxalosuccinate", "pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase", "Metabolic pathway", "Isocitrate", "Decarboxylation", "nutrient", "oxidation", "Cell migration", "Warburg effect (oncology)", "cytosol", "isoleucine", "Neoplasm", "uracil", "Aconitic acid", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "pyruvate decarboxylation", "proline", "Mitochondrion", "E3 ubiquitin ligase", "Acetyl CoA", "glycerol", "amino acid", "Carbon dioxide", "Bile acids", "Oxalosuccinic acid", "Cellular respiration", "Citrate synthase", "Cholesterol", "Alpha-Ketoglutaric acid", "tricarboxylic acid", "Mevalonate pathway", "thymine", "myoglobin", "Lactic acid", "Reverse Krebs cycle", "pyruvate", "w:simple:Krebs cycle", "homeostasis", "prolyl hydroxylase", "fructose 1,6-bisphosphate", "inner membrane of the mitochondrion", "Uridine diphosphate", "anaerobic respiration", "Cytidine triphosphate", "transamination", "anabolic", "glutamate", "fatty acid synthesis", "isocitrate", "Glutathione", "phosphorylation", "aerobic respiration", "gain-of-function mutation", "Isocitric acid", "malate–aspartate shuttle", "pyruvate carboxylase", "oncogene", "eukaryotic", "Electron transport chain", "Hans Krebs (biochemist)", "anaerobic bacteria", "succinate dehydrogenase", "biosynthesis", "persulfate", "Succinyl coenzyme A synthetase", "Competitive inhibition", "enzymes", "pyrimidines", "guanosine diphosphate", "fatty acids", "liver", "acetyl-CoA", "Flavin adenine dinucleotide", "lysine", "phosphoenolpyruvate", "striated muscle tissue", "water", "synthase", "tyrosine", "precursor (chemistry)", "Pseudohypoxia", "protein catabolism", "alanine", "Fermentation", "metabolite", "cell growth", "Oxaloacetic acid", "Aconitate", "oncology", "glucose", "allosteric", "5-Methylcytosine", "Succinate", "Malate dehydrogenase", "hydrolysis", "Essential amino acid", "leucine", "hypoxia-inducible factors", "citrate synthase", "Adenosine triphosphate", "epinephrine", "alpha-Ketoglutaric acid", "eukaryote", "Steroid", "Smith College", "Cori cycle", "adenosine diphosphate", "ubiquinol", "Guanosine diphosphate", "ATP synthase", "NADPH", "dihydroxyacetone phosphate", "ATP citrate lyase", "Glycerol 3-phosphate", "oxalosuccinate", "Uridine monophosphate", "Acetyl-coA", "Fumarase", "isocitrate dehydrogenase", "reducing agent", "Oxidation", "carbohydrate", "phosphofructokinase" ]
6,821	Military engineering vehicle	A military engineering vehicle is a vehicle built for construction work or for the transportation of combat engineers on the battlefield. These vehicles may be modified civilian equipment (such as the armoured bulldozers that many nations field) or purpose-built military vehicles (such as the AVRE). The first appearance of such vehicles coincided with the appearance of the first tanks, these vehicles were modified Mark V tanks for bridging and mine clearance. Modern military engineering vehicles are expected to fulfill numerous roles such as; bulldozer, crane, grader, excavator, dump truck, breaching vehicle, bridging vehicle, military ferry, amphibious crossing vehicle, and combat engineer section carrier. ==History== ===World War One=== A Heavy RE tank was developed shortly after World War I by Major Giffard LeQuesne Martel RE. This vehicle was a modified Mark V tank. Two support functions for these Engineer Tanks were developed: bridging and mine clearance. The bridging component involved an assault bridge, designed by Major Charles Inglis RE, called the Canal Lock Bridge, which had sufficient length to span a canal lock. Major Martel mated the bridge with the tank and used hydraulic power generated by the tank's engine to maneuver the bridge into place. For mine clearance the tanks were equipped with 2 ton rollers. ===1918-1939=== Between the wars various experimental bridging tanks were used to test a series of methods for bridging obstacles and developed by the Experimental Bridging Establishment (EBE). Captain SG Galpin RE conceived a prototype Light Tank Mk V to test the Scissors Assault Bridge. This concept was realised by Captain SA Stewart RE with significant input from a Mr DM Delany, a scientific civil servant in the employ of the EBE. MB Wild & Co, Birmingham, also developed a bridge that could span gaps of 26 feet using a complex system of steel wire ropes and a traveling jib, where the front section was projected and then attached to the rear section prior to launching the bridge. This system had to be abandoned due to lack of success in getting it to work, however the idea was later used successfully on the Beaver Bridge Laying Tank. ===Early World War II=== Once World War II had begun, the development of armoured vehicles for use by engineers in the field was accelerated under Delaney's direction. The EBE rapidly developed an assault bridge carried on a modified Covenanter tank capable of deploying a 24-ton tracked load capacity bridge (Class 24) that could span gaps of 30 feet. However, it did not see service in the British armed forces, and all vehicles were passed onto Allied forces such as Australia and Czechoslovakia. A Class 30 design superseded the Class 24 with no real re-design, simply the substitution of the Covenanter tank with a suitably modified Valentine. are used, while in Canada and other commonwealth nations the term "armoured engineer vehicle (AEV)" is used. There is no set template for what such a vehicle will look like, yet likely features include a large dozer blade or mine ploughs, a large caliber demolition cannon, augers, winches, excavator arms and cranes or lifting booms. These vehicles are designed to directly conduct obstacle breaching operations and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield. Good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle. Although the term "armoured engineer vehicle" is used specifically to describe these multi-purpose tank based engineering vehicles, that term is also used more generically in British and Commonwealth militaries to describe all heavy tank based engineering vehicles used in the support of mechanized forces. Thus, "armoured engineer vehicle" used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers, and so on. === Armoured earth mover === Lighter and less multi-functional than the CEVs or AEVs described above, these vehicles are designed to conduct earth-moving work on the battlefield and generally be anti-tank explosive proof. These vehicles have greater high speed mobility than traditional heavy equipment and are protected against the effects of blast and fragmentation. Good examples are the American M9 ACE and the UK FV180 Combat Engineer Tractor. === Breaching vehicle === These vehicles are equipped with mechanical or other means for the breaching of man-made obstacles. Common types of breaching vehicles include mechanical flails, mine plough vehicles, and mine roller vehicles. In some cases, these vehicles will also mount mine-clearing line charges. Breaching vehicles may be either converted armoured fighting vehicles or purpose built vehicles. In larger militaries, converted AFV are likely to be used as assault breachers while the breached obstacle is still covered by enemy observation and fire, and then purpose built breaching vehicles will create additional lanes for following forces. Good examples of breaching vehicles include the US M1150 assault breacher vehicle, the UK Aardvark JSFU, and the Singaporean Trailblazer. === Bridging vehicles === Several types of military bridging vehicles have been developed. An armoured vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) is typically a modified tank hull converted to carry a bridge into battle in order to support crossing ditches, small waterways, or other gap obstacles. Another type of bridging vehicle is the truck launched bridge. The Soviet TMM bridging truck could carry and launch a 10-meter bridge that could be daisy-chained with other TMM bridges to cross larger obstacles. More recent developments have seen the conversion of AVLB and truck launched bridge with launching systems that can be mounted on either tank or truck for bridges that are capable of supporting heavy main battle tanks. Earlier examples of bridging vehicles include a type in which a converted tank hull is the bridge. On these vehicles, the hull deck comprises the main portion of the tread way while ramps extend from the front and rear of the vehicle to allow other vehicles to climb over the bridging vehicle and cross obstacles. An example of this type of armoured bridging vehicle was the Churchill Ark used in the Second World War. === Combat engineer section carriers === Another type of CELLs are armoured fighting vehicles which are used to transport sappers (combat engineers) and can be fitted with a bulldozer's blade and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection. They are usually armed with machine guns and grenade launchers and usually tracked to provide enough tractive force to push blades and rakes. Some examples are the U.S. M113 APC, IDF Puma, Nagmachon, Husky, and U.S. M1132 ESV (a Stryker variant). === Military ferries and amphibious crossing vehicles === One of the major tasks of military engineering is crossing major rivers. Several military engineering vehicles have been developed in various nations to achieve this task. One of the more common types is the amphibious ferry such as the M3 Amphibious Rig. These vehicles are self-propelled on land, they can transform into raft type ferries when in the water, and often multiple vehicles can connect to form larger rafts or floating bridges. Other types of military ferries, such as the Soviet Plavayushij Transportyor - Srednyj, are able to load while still on land and transport other vehicles cross country and over water. In addition to amphibious crossing vehicles, military engineers may also employ several types of boats. Military assault boats are small boats propelled by oars or an outboard motor and used to ferry dismounted infantry across water. == Tank-based combat engineering vehicles == Most CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles that may be based on a tank chassis and have special attachments in order to breach obstacles. Such attachments may include dozer blades, mine rollers, cranes etc. An example of an engineering vehicle of this kind is a bridgelaying tank, which replaces the turret with a segmented hydraulic bridge. The Hobart's Funnies of the Second World War were a wide variety of armoured vehicles for combat engineering tasks. They were allocated to the initial beachhead assaults by the British and Commonwealth forces in the D-Day landings. ===Churchill tank=== The British Churchill tank because of its good cross-country performance and capacious interior with side hatches became the most adapted with modifications, the base unit being the AVRE carrying a large demolition gun. ===M4 Sherman=== Dozer: The bulldozer blade was a valuable battlefield tool on the WWII M4 Sherman tank. A 1943 field modification added the hydraulic dozer blade from a Caterpillar D8 to a Sherman. The later M1 dozer blade was standardized to fit any Sherman with VVSS suspension and the M1A1 would fit the wider HVSS. Some M4s made for the Engineer Corps had the blades fitted permanently and the turrets removed. In the early stages of the 1944 Battle of Normandy before the Culin Cutter, breaking through the Bocage hedgerows relied heavily on Sherman dozers. M4 Doozit: Engineer Corps' Sherman dozer with demolition charge on wooden platform and T40 Whizbang rocket launcher (the Doozit did not see combat but the Whizbang did). Bridgelayer: The US field-converted a few M4 in Italy with A-frame-supported bridge and heavy rear counter-weight to make the Mobile Assault Bridge. British developments for Shermans included the fascine (used by 79th Armoured Division), Crib, Twaby Ark, Octopus, Plymouth (Bailey bridge), and AVRE (SBG bridge). Mine-clearing: British conversions included the Sherman Crab. The US developed an extensive array of experimental types: T15/E1/E2: Series of mine resistant Shermans based on the T14 kit. Cancelled at war's end. Mine exploder T1E1 roller (Earthworm): Three sets of 6 discs made from armor plate. Mine exploder T1E2 roller: Two forward units with 7 discs only. Experimental. Mine exploder T1E3/M1 roller (Aunt Jemima): Two forward units with five 10' discs. Most widely used T1 variant, adopted as the M1. (picture) Mine exploder T1E4 roller: 16 discs. Mine exploder T1E5 roller: T1E3/M1 w/ smaller wheels. Experimental. Mine exploder T1E6 roller: T1E3/M1 w/ serrated edged discs. Experimental Mine exploder T2 flail: British Crab I mine flail. Mine exploder T3 flail: Based on British Scorpion flail. Development stopped in 1943. Mine exploder T3E1 flail: T3 w/ longer arms and sand filled rotor. Cancelled. Mine exploder T3E2 flail: E1 variant, rotor replaced with steel drum of larger diameter. Development terminated at war's end. Mine exploder T4: British Crab II mine flail. Mine exploder T7: Frame with small rollers with two discs each. Abandoned. Mine exploder T8 (Johnny Walker): Steel plungers on a pivot frame designed to pound on the ground. Vehicle steering was adversely affected. Mine exploder T9: 6' roller. Difficult to maneuver. Mine exploder T9E1: Lightened version, but proved unsatisfactory because it failed to explode all mines. Mine exploder T10: Remote control unit designed to be controlled by the following tank. Cancelled. Mine exploder T11: Six forward firing mortars to set off mines. Experimental. Mine exploder T12: 23 forward firing mortars. Apparently effective, but cancelled. Mine exploder T14: Direct modification to a Sherman tank, upgraded belly armor and reinforced tracks. Cancelled. Mine excavator T4: Plough device. Developed during 1942, but abandoned. Mine excavator T5/E1/E2: T4 variant w/ v-shaped plough. E1/E2 was a further improvement. Mine excavator T5E3: T5E1/E2 rigged to the hydraulic lift mechanism from the M1 dozer kit to control depth. Mine excavator T6: Based on the v-shape/T5, unable to control depth. Mine excavator T2/E1/E2: Based on the T4/T5's, but rigged to the hydraulic lift mechanism from the M1 dozer kit to control depth. ===M60=== M60A1 AVLB – Armored vehicle launched bridge, scissors bridge on M60A1 chassis. M60 AVLM – armored vehicle launched MICLIC (mine-clearing line charge), modified M60 AVLB with up to 2 MICLIC mounted over the rear of the vehicle. M60 Panther – M60 modified into a remotely controlled mine clearing tank. The turret is removed with the turret ring sealed, and the front of the vehicle is fitted with mine rollers. M728 CEV – M60A1-based combat engineer vehicle fitted with a folding A-frame crane and winch attached to the front of the turret, and an M135 165 mm demolition gun. Commonly fitted with the D7 bulldozer blade, or a mine-clearing equipment. M728A1 – Upgraded version of the M728 CEV. ===M1=== M1 Grizzly combat mobility vehicle (CMV) Grizzly breacher M1 Panther II remote controlled mine clearing vehicle Panther M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge Wolverine (heavy assault bridge) M1074 Joint Assault Bridge System M1150 assault breacher vehicle ===Leopard 1=== Biber (Beaver) armoured vehicle-launched bridge Pionierpanzer 1 Pionierpanzer 2 Dachs (Badger) armoured engineer vehicle ===Leopard 2=== Panzerschnellbrücke 2 (Bridge layer) Pionierpanzer 3 Kodiak ===T-55/54=== T-54 dozer - T-54 fitted with bulldozer blades for clearing soil, obstacles and snow. ALT-55 - Bulldozer version of the T-55 with large flat-plate superstructure, angular concave dozer blade on front and prominent hydraulic rams for dozer blade. T-55 hull fitted with an excavator body and armoured cab.- Bridge-layer tank with 12 m single-span bridge that can carry 50 tonnes. The system entered service in 1955; today only a very small number remains in service. Combat weight: 34 tonnes. MTU-20 (Ob'yekt 602) (Tankoviy Mostoukladchik) BTS-1M - improved or remanufactured BTS-1. BTS-4B - Dozer blade equipped armoured recovery vehicle converted from the early -odd-shaped turret versions of the T-54.	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6,822	Catalonia	Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy. Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situated on the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to the south of the Pyrenees mountain range. Catalonia is administratively divided into four provinces or eight vegueries (regions), which are in turn divided into 43 comarques. The capital and largest city, Barcelona, is the second-most populous municipality in Spain and the fifth-most populous urban area in the European Union. Modern-day Catalonia comprises most of the medieval and early modern Principality of Catalonia, with the remainder of the northern area now part of France's Pyrénées-Orientales. It is bordered by France (Occitanie) and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, and the Spanish autonomous communities of Aragon to the west and Valencia to the south. In addition to its approximately 580 km of coastline, Catalonia also has major high landforms such as the Pyrenees and the Pre-Pyrenees, the Transversal Range (Serralada Transversal) or the Central Depression. The official languages are Catalan, Spanish, and the Aranese dialect of Occitan. In the 10th century, the County of Barcelona and the other neighboring counties became independent from West Francia. In 1137, Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon were united by marriage, resulting in a composite monarchy, the Crown of Aragon. Within the Crown, the Catalan counties merged in to a state, the Principality of Catalonia, with its own distinct institutional system, such as Courts, Generalitat and constitutions, being the base and promoter for the Crown's Mediterranean trade and expansionism. In the later Middle Ages, Catalan literature flourished. In 1516, Charles V became monarch of both the crowns of Aragon and Castile, retaining their previous distinct institutions and legislation. Growing tensions led to the revolt of the Principality of Catalonia (1640–1652), briefly becoming a republic under French protection. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the northern parts of Catalonia were ceded to France. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the states of the Crown of Aragon sided against the Bourbon Philip V of Spain, but following Catalan capitulation on 11 September 1714 he imposed a unifying administration across Spain, enacting the Nueva Planta decrees which ended Catalonia's separate status, supressing its institutions and legal system. Catalan as a language of government and literature was eclipsed by Spanish. In the 19th century, Napoleonic and Carlist Wars affected Catalonia. In the second third of the century, it experienced industrialisation, as well as a cultural renaissance coupled with incipient nationalism and several workers' movements. The Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) granted self-governance to Catalonia, restoring the Generalitat as its government. After the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), the Francoist dictatorship enacted repressive measures, abolishing self-government and banning again the official use of the Catalan language. After a harsh autarky, from the late 1950s Catalonia saw rapid economic growth, drawing many workers from across Spain and making it one of Europe's largest industrial and touristic areas. During the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), the Generalitat and Catalonia's self-government were reestablished, remaining one of the most economically dynamic communities in Spain. In the 2010s, there was growing support for Catalan independence. On 27 October 2017, the Catalan Parliament unilaterally declared independence following a referendum that was deemed unconstitutional by the Spanish state. The Spanish Senate voted in favour of enforcing direct rule by removing the Catalan government and calling a snap regional election. The Spanish Supreme Court imprisoned seven former ministers of the Catalan government on charges of rebellion and misuse of public funds, while several others—including then-President Carles Puigdemont—fled to other European countries. Those in prison were pardoned by the Spanish government in 2021. == Etymology and pronunciation == The name "Catalonia" (), spelled Cathalonia, began to be used for the homeland of the Catalans (Cathalanenses) in the late 11th century and was probably used before as a territorial reference to the group of counties that comprised part of the March of Gothia and the March of Hispania under the control of the Count of Barcelona and his relatives. The origin of the name Catalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence. One theory suggests that Catalunya derives from the name Gothia (or Gauthia) Launia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, known as Gothia, whence Gothland > > > > Catalonia theoretically derived. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine chroniclers claimed that Catalania derives from the local medley of Goths with Alans, initially constituting a Goth-Alania. Other theories suggest: Catalunya derives from the term "land of castles", having evolved from the term castlà or castlan, the medieval term for a castellan (a ruler of a castle). This theory therefore suggests that the names Catalunya and Castile have a common root. The source is the Celtic catalauni, meaning "chiefs of battle", similar to the Celtic given name *Katuwalos; although the area is not known to have been occupied by the Celtiberians, a Celtic culture was present within the interior of the Iberian Peninsula in pre-Roman times. The Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved by metathesis to Katelans and then Catalans. Miguel Vidal, finding serious shortcomings with earlier proposals (such as that an original -t- would have, by normal sound laws in the local Romance languages, developed into -d-), suggested an Arabic etymology: ' (, ' ) – meaning "killer" – could have been applied by Muslims to groups of raiders and bandits on the southern border of the Marca Hispanica. The name, originally derogatory, could have been reappropriated by Christians as an autonym. This is comparable to attested development of the term Almogavar in nearby areas. In this model, the name Catalunya derives from the plural qattālūn while the adjective and language name català derives from the singular qattāl, both with the addition of common Romance suffixes. In English, Catalonia is pronounced . The native name, Catalunya, is pronounced in Central Catalan, the most widely spoken variety, and in North-Western Catalan. The Spanish name is Cataluña (), and the Aranese name is Catalonha (). == History == === Prehistory === The first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic. The oldest known trace of human occupation is a mandible found in Banyoles, described as pre-Neanderthal, that is, some 200,000 years old; other sources suggest it to be only about one third that old. From the Epipalaeolithic or Mesolithic, important remains dated between 8000 and 5000BC, such as those of Sant Gregori (Falset) and el Filador (Margalef de Montsant). The most important sites from these eras, all excavated in the region of Moianès, are the Balma del Gai (Epipaleolithic) and the Balma de l'Espluga. The Neolithic era began in Catalonia around 5000BC, although the population was slower to develop fixed settlements thanks to the abundance of woods, which allowed the continuation of a fundamentally hunter-gatherer culture. An example of such settlements would be La Draga at Banyoles, an "early Neolithic village which dates from the end of the 6th millenniumBC." The Bronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700BC. There were some known settlements in the low Segre zone. The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of the Indo-Europeans through the Urnfield Culture, whose successive waves of migration began around 1200BC, and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto-urban settlements. Around the middle of the 7th centuryBC, the Iron Age arrived in Catalonia. === Pre-Roman and Roman period === In pre-Roman times, the area that is now Catalonia was populated by the Iberians. The Iberians tribes – the Ilergetes, Indigetes and Lacetani (Cerretains) – also maintained relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean. Some urban agglomerations became relevant, including Ilerda (Lleida) inland, Hibera (perhaps Amposta or Tortosa) or Indika (Ullastret). Coastal trading colonies were established by the ancient Greeks, who settled around the Gulf of Roses, in Emporion (Empúries) and Roses in the 8th century BC. After the Carthaginian defeat by the Roman Republic, the north-east of Iberia became the first to come under Roman rule and became part of Hispania, the westernmost part of the Roman Empire. Tarraco (modern Tarragona) was one of the most important Roman cities in Hispania and the capital of the province of Tarraconensis. Other important cities of the Roman period are Ilerda (Lleida), Dertosa (Tortosa), Gerunda (Girona) as well as the ports of Empuriæ (former Emporion) and Barcino (Barcelona). As for the rest of Hispania, Latin law was granted to all cities under the reign of Vespasian (69–79AD), while Roman citizenship was granted to all free men of the empire by the Edict of Caracalla in 212AD (Tarraco, the capital, was already a colony of Roman law since 45BC). It was a rich agricultural province (olive oil, wine, wheat), and the first centuries of the Empire saw the construction of roads (the most important being the Via Augusta, parallel to Mediterranean coastline) and infrastructure like aqueducts. Conversion to Christianity, attested in the 3rdcentury, was completed in urban areas in the 4thcentury. Although Hispania remained under Roman rule and did not fall under the rule of Vandals, Suebi and Alans in the 5thcentury, the main cities suffered frequent sacking and some deurbanization. === Middle Ages === After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area was conquered by the Visigoths and was ruled as part of the Visigothic Kingdom for almost two and a half centuries. In 718, it came under Muslim control and became part of Al-Andalus, a province of the Umayyad Caliphate. From the conquest of Roussillon in 760, to the conquest of Barcelona in 801, the Frankish empire took control of the area between Septimania and the Llobregat river from the Muslims and created heavily militarised, self-governing counties. These counties formed part of the historiographically known as the Gothic and Hispanic Marches, a buffer zone in the south of the Frankish Empire in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to act as a defensive barrier against further invasions from Al-Andalus. These counties came under the rule of the counts of Barcelona, who were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor of the Franks, to whom they were feudatories (801–988). At the end of the 9thcentury, the Count of Barcelona Wilfred the Hairy (878–897) made his titles hereditaries and thus founded the dynasty of the House of Barcelona, which reigned in Catalonia until 1410. In 988 Borrell II, Count of Barcelona, did not recognise the new French king Hugh Capet as his king, evidencing the loss of dependency from Frankish rule and confirming his successors (from Ramon Borrell I onwards) as independent of the Capetian crown. At the beginning of eleventh century the Catalan counties experienced an important process of feudalisation, however, the efforts of church's sponsored Peace and Truce Assemblies and the intervention of Ramon Berenguer I, count of Barcelona (1035–1076) in the negotiations with the rebel nobility resulted in the partial restoration of the comital authority under the new feudal order. To fulfill that purpose, Ramon Berenguer began the modification of the legislation in the written Usages of Barcelona, being one of the first European compilations of feudal law. The earliest known use of the name "Catalonia" for these counties dates to 1117. In 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona decided to accept King Ramiro II of Aragon's proposal to receive the Kingdom of Aragon and to marry his daughter Petronila, establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with Aragon, creating a composite monarchy later known as the Crown of Aragon and making the Catalan counties that were vassalized or merged with the County of Barcelona into a principality of the Aragonese Crown. During the reign of his son Alphons, in 1173, Catalonia was regarded as a legal entity for the first time, while the Usages of Barcelona were compiled in the process to turn them into the law and custom of Catalonia (Consuetudinem Cathalonie), being considered one of the "milestones of Catalan political identity". In 1258, by means of the Treaty of Corbeil James I of Aragon renounced his family rights and dominions in Occitania, while the king of France, Louis IX, formally relinquished to any historical claim of feudal lordship he might have over the Catalan counties. This treaty confirmed, from French point of view, the independence of the Catalan counties already established the previous three centuries. As a coastal land, Catalonia became the base of the Aragonese Crown's maritime forces, which spread the power of the Crown in the Mediterranean, turning Barcelona into a powerful and wealthy city. In the period of 1164–1410, new territories, the Kingdom of Valencia, the Kingdom of Majorca, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Sicily, and, briefly, the Duchies of Athens and Neopatras, were incorporated into the dynastic domains of the House of Aragon. The expansion was accompanied by a great development of the Catalan trade, creating an extensive trade network across the Mediterranean which competed with those of the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice. At the same time, the Principality of Catalonia developed a complex institutional and political system based in the concept of a pact between the estates of the realm and the king. The legislation had to be passed by the Catalan Courts (Corts Catalanes), one of the first parliamentary bodies of Europe that, after 1283, officially obtained the power to pass legislation with the monarch. The Courts were composed of the three estates organized into "arms" (braços), were presided over by the monarch, and approved the Catalan constitutions, which established a compilation of rights for the inhabitants of the Principality. In order to collect general taxes, the Catalan Courts of 1359 established a permanent representative body, known as the Generalitat, which gained considerable political power over the next centuries. The domains of the Aragonese Crown were severely affected by the Black Death pandemic and by later outbreaks of the plague. Between 1347 and 1497 Catalonia lost 37percent of its population. In 1410, the last reigning monarch of the House of Barcelona, King Martin I died without surviving descendants. Under the Compromise of Caspe (1412), the representatives of the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia and the Principality of Catalonia appointed Ferdinand from the Castilian House of Trastámara as King of the Crown of Aragon. During the reign of his son, John II, the persistent economic crisis and social and political tensions in the Principality led to the Catalan Civil War (1462–1472) and the War of the Remences (1462–1486) that left Catalonia exhausted. The Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe (1486) liberated the remença peasants from the feudal evil customs. In the later Middle Ages, Catalan literature flourished in Catalonia proper and in the kingdoms of Majorca and Valencia, with such remarkable authors as the philosopher Ramon Llull, the Valencian poet Ausiàs March, and Joanot Martorell, author of the novel Tirant lo Blanch, published in 1490. === Modern era === Ferdinand II of Aragon, the grandson of Ferdinand I, and Queen Isabella I of Castile were married in 1469, later taking the title the Catholic Monarchs; subsequently, this event was seen by historiographers as the dawn of a unified Spain. At this time, though united by marriage, the Crowns of Castile and Aragon maintained distinct territories, each keeping its own traditional institutions, parliaments, laws and currency. Castile commissioned expeditions to the Americas and benefited from the riches acquired in the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, but, in time, also carried the main burden of military expenses of the united Spanish kingdoms. After Isabella's death, Ferdinand II personally ruled both crowns. By virtue of descent from his maternal grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1516 Charles I of Spain became the first king to rule the Crowns of Castile and Aragon simultaneously by his own right. Following the death of his paternal (House of Habsburg) grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, he was also elected Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1519. Over the next few centuries, the Principality of Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to an increased centralization of power in Spain. However, between the 16th and 18th centuries, the participation of the political community in the local and the general Catalan government grew (thus consolidating its constitutional system), while the kings remained absent, represented by a viceroy. Tensions between Catalan institutions and the monarchy began to arise. The large and burdensome presence of the Spanish royal army in the Principality due to the Franco-Spanish War led to an uprising of peasants, provoking the Reapers' War (1640–1652), which saw Catalonia rebel (briefly as a republic led by the president of the Generalitat, Pau Claris) with French help against the Spanish Crown for overstepping Catalonia's rights during the Thirty Years' War. Within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia. Most of Catalonia was reconquered by the Spanish monarchy but Catalan rights were mostly recognised. Roussillon and half of Cerdanya was lost to France by the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). The most significant conflict concerning the governing monarchy was the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1715), which began when the childless Charles II of Spain, the last Spanish Habsburg, died without an heir in 1700. Charles II had chosen Philip V of Spain from the French House of Bourbon. Catalonia, like other territories that formed the Crown of Aragon, rose up in support of the Austrian Habsburg pretender Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, in his claim for the Spanish throne as Charles III of Spain. The fight between the houses of Bourbon and Habsburg for the Spanish Crown split Spain and Europe. The fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714 to the Bourbon king Philip V militarily ended the Habsburg claim to the Spanish Crown, which became legal fact in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Philip felt that he had been betrayed by the Catalan Courts, as it had initially sworn its loyalty to him when he had presided over it in 1701. In retaliation for the betrayal, and inspired by the French model, the first Bourbon king enacted the Nueva Planta decrees (1707, 1715 and 1716), incorporating the realms of the Crown of Aragon, including the Principality of Catalonia in 1716, as provinces of the Crown of Castile, terminating their status as separate states along with their parliaments, institutions and public laws, as well as their politics, within a French-style centralized and absolutist kingdom of Spain. After the War of the Spanish Succession, the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon in the Castilian Crown through the Nueva Planta Decrees was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation state. These nationalist policies, sometimes aggressive, and still in force, have been and are the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the state. In the second half of the 17th century and the 18th century (excluding the parentesis of the Succession War and the post-war inestability) Catalonia carried out a successful process of economic growth and proto-industrialization, reinforced in the late quarter of the century when Castile's trade monopoly with American colonies ended. === Late modern history === At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic Wars. In 1808, it was occupied by French troops; the resistance against the occupation eventually developed into the Peninsular War. The rejection of French dominion was institutionalized with the creation of "juntas" (councils) who, remaining loyal to the Bourbons, exercised the sovereignty and representation of the territory due to the disappearance of the old institutions. In 1810, Napoleon took direct control of Catalonia, creating the Government of Catalonia under the rule of Marshall Augereau, and making Catalan briefly an official language again. Between 1812 and 1814, Catalonia was annexed to France. The French troops evacuated Catalan territory at the end of 1814. After the Bourbon restoration in Spain and the death of the absolutist king Ferdinand VII (1833), Carlist Wars erupted against the newly established liberal state of Isabella II. Catalonia was divided, with the coastal and most industrialized areas supporting liberalism, while most of the countryside were in the hands of the Carlist faction; the latter proposed to reestablish the institutional systems suppressed by the Nueva Planta decrees in the ancient realms of the Crown of Aragon. The consolidation of the liberal state saw a new provincial division of Spain, including Catalonia, which was divided into four provinces (Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona). In the second third of the 19thcentury, Catalonia became an important industrial center, particularly focused on textiles. This process was a consequence of the conditions of proto-industrialisation of textile production in the prior two centuries, growing capital from wine and brandy export, and was later boosted by the government support for domestic manufacturing. In 1832, the Bonaplata Factory in Barcelona became the first factory in the country to make use of the steam engine. The first railway on the Iberian Peninsula was built between Barcelona and Mataró in 1848. A policy to encourage company towns also saw the textile industry flourish in the countryside in the 1860s and 1870s. Although the policy of Spanish governments oscillated between free trade and protectionism, become more common. To this day Catalonia remains one of the most industrialised areas of Spain. In the same period, Barcelona was the focus of industrial conflict and revolutionary uprisings known as "bullangues". In Catalonia, a republican current began to develop among the progressives, attrackting many Catalans who favored the federalisation of Spain. Meanwhile, the Catalan language saw a Romantic cultural renaissance from the second third of the century onwards, the Renaixença, among both the working class and the bourgeoisie. Right after the fall of the First Spanish Republic (1873–1874) and the subsequent restoration of the Bourbon dynasty (1874), Catalan nationalism began to be organized politically under the leadership of the republican federalist Valentí Almirall. The anarchist movement had been active throughout the last quarter of the 19th century and the early 20th century, founding the CNT trade union in 1910 and achieving one of the first eight-hour workdays in Europe in 1919. Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week (Catalan: Setmana Tràgica) in Barcelona in 1909. Under the hegemony of the Regionalist League, Catalonia gained a degree of administrative unity for the first time in the Modern era. In 1914, the four Catalan provinces were authorized to create a commonwealth (Catalan: Mancomunitat), lacking legislative power or political autonomy, which carried out an ambitious program of modernization, but it was disbanded in 1925 by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923–1930). During the final stage of the Dictatorship, with Spain beginning to suffer an economic crisis, Barcelona hosted the 1929 International Exposition. After the fall of the dictatorship and a brief proclamation of the Catalan Republic, during the events of the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (14–17April1931), Catalonia received, in 1932, its first Statute of Autonomy from the Spanish Republic's Parliament, granting it a considerable degree of self-governance, establishing an autonomous body, the Generalitat of Catalonia, which included a parliament. The left-wing pro-independence leader Francesc Macià was appointed its first president. Under the Statute, Catalan became an official language. The governments of the Republican Generalitat, led by the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) leaders Francesc Macià (1931–1933) and Lluís Companys (1933–1940), sought to implement a modernizing and progressive social agenda, despite the internal difficulties. This period was marked by political unrest, the effects of the economic crisis and their social repercussions. The Statute of Autonomy was suspended in 1934, due to the Events of 6 October in Barcelona, after the accession of right-wing Spanish nationalist party CEDA to the government of the Republic, considered close to fascism. After the electoral victory of the left wing Popular Front in February 1936, the Government of Catalonia was pardoned and the self-government was restored. === Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and Franco's rule (1939–1975) === The defeat of the military rebellion against the Republican government in Barcelona placed Catalonia firmly in the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War. During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias. Violent confrontations between the workers' parties (CNT-FAI and POUM against the PSUC) culminated in the defeat of the first ones in 1937. The situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat lost most of its autonomous powers within Republican Spain. In 1938 Franco's troops broke the Republican territory in two, isolating Catalonia from the rest of the Republican territory. The defeat of the Republican army in the Battle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to the occupation of Catalonia by Franco's forces. The defeat of the Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War brought to power the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, whose first ten-year rule was particularly violent, autocratic, and repressive both in a political, cultural, social, and economical sense. In Catalonia, any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, republicanism, anarchism, socialism, liberalism, democracy or communism, including the publication of books on those subjects or simply discussion of them in open meetings, was banned. Franco's regime banned the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and during public events, and the Catalan institutions of self-government were abolished. The president of Catalonia, Lluís Companys, was taken to Spain from his exile in the German-occupied France and was tortured and executed in the Montjuïc Castle of Barcelona for the crime of 'military rebellion'. During later stages of Francoist Spain, certain folkloric and religious celebrations in Catalan resumed and were tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media had been forbidden but was permitted from the early 1950s in the theatre. Despite the ban during the first years and the difficulties of the next period, publishing in Catalan continued throughout his rule. The years after the war were extremely hard. Catalonia, like many other parts of Spain, had been devastated by the war. Recovery from the war damage was slow and made more difficult by the international trade embargo and the autarkic politics of Franco's regime. By the late 1950s, the region had recovered its pre-war economic levels and in the 1960s was the second-fastest growing economy in the world in what became known as the Spanish miracle. During this period there was a spectacular growth of industry and tourism in Catalonia that drew large numbers of workers to the region from across Spain and made the area around Barcelona one of Europe's largest industrial metropolitan areas. === Transition and democratic period (1975–present) === After Franco's death in 1975, Catalonia voted for the adoption of a democratic Spanish Constitution in 1978, in which Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy, restoring the Generalitat (exiled since the end of the Civil War in 1939) in 1977 and adopting a new Statute of Autonomy in 1979, which defined Catalonia as a "nationality". The first elections to the Parliament of Catalonia under this Statute gave the Catalan presidency to Jordi Pujol, leader of Convergència i Unió (CiU), a center-right Catalan nationalist electoral coalition, with Pujol re-elected until 2003. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the institutions of Catalan autonomy were deployed, among them an autonomous police force, the Mossos d'Esquadra, in 1983, and the broadcasting network Televisió de Catalunya and its first channel TV3, created in 1983. An extensive program of normalization of Catalan language was carried out. Today, Catalonia remains one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourist destination. In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympic Games. ==== Independence movement ==== In November 2003, elections to the Parliament of Catalonia gave the government to a left-wing Catalanist coalition formed by the Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSC-PSOE), Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Initiative for Catalonia Greens (ICV), and the socialist Pasqual Maragall was appointed president. The new government prepared a bill for a new Statute of Autonomy, with the aim of consolidate and expand self-government. The new Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, approved after a referendum in 2006, was contested by important sectors of the Spanish society, especially by the conservative People's Party, which sent the law to the Constitutional Court of Spain. In 2010, the Court declared non-valid some of the articles that established an autonomous Catalan system of Justice, improved financing, a new territorial division, the status of Catalan language or the symbolical declaration of Catalonia as a nation. This decision was severely contested by large sectors of Catalan society, which increased the demands of independence. A controversial independence referendum was held in Catalonia on 1 October 2017, using a disputed voting process. It was declared illegal and suspended by the Constitutional Court of Spain, because it breached the 1978 Constitution. Subsequent developments saw, on 27 October 2017, a symbolic declaration of independence by the Parliament of Catalonia, the enforcement of direct rule by the Spanish government through the use of Article 155 of the Constitution, the dismissal of the Executive Council and the dissolution of the Parliament, with a snap regional election called for 21 December 2017, which ended with a victory of pro-independence parties. Former President Carles Puigdemont and five former cabinet ministers fled Spain and took refuge in other European countries (such as Belgium, in Puigdemont's case), whereas nine other cabinet members, including vice-president Oriol Junqueras, were sentenced to prison under various charges of rebellion, sedition, and misuse of public funds. Quim Torra became the 131st President of the Government of Catalonia on 17 May 2018, after the Spanish courts blocked three other candidates. In 2018, the Assemblea Nacional Catalana joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) on behalf of Catalonia. On 14 October 2019, the Spanish Supreme court sentenced several Catalan political leaders, involved in organizing a referendum on Catalonia's independence from Spain, and convicted them on charges ranging from sedition to misuse of public funds, with sentences ranging from 9 to 13 years in prison. This decision sparked demonstrations around Catalonia. They were later pardoned by the Spanish government and left prison in June 2021. In the early-to-mid 2020s support for independence declined. == Geography == === Climate === The climate of Catalonia is diverse. The populated areas lying by the coast in Tarragona, Barcelona and Girona provinces feature a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The inland part (including the Lleida province and the inner part of Barcelona province) show a mostly Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The Pyrenean peaks have a continental (Köppen D) or even Alpine climate (Köppen ET) at the highest summits, while the valleys have a maritime or oceanic climate sub-type (Köppen Cfb). In the Mediterranean area, summers are dry and hot with sea breezes, and the maximum temperature is around . Winter is cool or slightly cold depending on the location. It snows frequently in the Pyrenees, and it occasionally snows at lower altitudes, even by the coastline. Spring and autumn are typically the rainiest seasons, except for the Pyrenean valleys, where summer is typically stormy. The inland part of Catalonia is hotter and drier in summer. Temperature may reach , some days even . Nights are cooler there than at the coast, with the temperature of around . Fog is not uncommon in valleys and plains; it can be especially persistent, with freezing drizzle episodes and subzero temperatures during winter, mainly along the Ebro and Segre valleys and in Plain of Vic. === Topography === Catalonia has a marked geographical diversity, considering the relatively small size of its territory. The geography is conditioned by the Mediterranean coast, with of coastline, and the towering Pyrenees along the long northern border. Catalonia is divided into three main geomorphological units: The Pyrenees: mountainous formation that connects the Iberian Peninsula with the European continental territory (see passage above); The Catalan Coastal mountain ranges or the Catalan Mediterranean System: an alternating delevacions and planes parallel to the Mediterranean coast; The Catalan Central Depression: structural unit which forms the eastern sector of the Valley of the Ebro. The Catalan Pyrenees represent almost half in length of the Pyrenees, as it extends more than . Traditionally differentiated the Axial Pyrenees (the main part) and the Pre-Pyrenees (southern from the Axial) which are mountainous formations parallel to the main mountain ranges but with lower altitudes, less steep and a different geological formation. The highest mountain of Catalonia, located north of the comarca of Pallars Sobirà is the Pica d'Estats (3,143m), followed by the Puigpedrós (2,914m). The Serra del Cadí comprises the highest peaks in the Pre-Pyrenees and forms the southern boundary of the Cerdanya valley. The Central Catalan Depression is a plain located between the Pyrenees and Pre-Coastal Mountains. Elevation ranges from . The plains and the water that descend from the Pyrenees have made it fertile territory for agriculture and numerous irrigation canals have been built. Another major plain is the Empordà, located in the northeast. The Catalan Mediterranean system is based on two ranges running roughly parallel to the coast (southwest–northeast), called the Coastal and the Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Range is both the shorter and the lower of the two, while the Pre-Coastal is greater in both length and elevation. Areas within the Pre-Coastal Range include Montserrat, Montseny and the Ports de Tortosa-Beseit. Lowlands alternate with the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges. The Coastal Lowland is located to the East of the Coastal Range between it and the coast, while the Pre-Coastal Lowlands are located inland, between the Coastal and Pre-Coastal Ranges, and includes the Vallès and Penedès plains. === Flora and fauna === Catalonia is a showcase of European landscapes on a small scale. Just over hosting a variety of substrates, soils, climates, directions, altitudes and distances to the sea. The area is of great ecological diversity and a remarkable wealth of landscapes, habitats and species. The fauna of Catalonia comprises a minority of animals endemic to the region and a majority of non-endemic animals. Much of Catalonia enjoys a Mediterranean climate (except mountain areas), which makes many of the animals that live there adapted to Mediterranean ecosystems. Of mammals, there are plentiful wild boar, red foxes, as well as roe deer and in the Pyrenees, the Pyrenean chamois. Other large species such as the bear have been recently reintroduced. The waters of the Balearic Sea are rich in biodiversity, and even the megafaunas of the oceans; various types of whales (such as fin, sperm, and pilot) and dolphins can be found in the area. === Hydrography === Most of Catalonia belongs to the Mediterranean Basin. The Catalan hydrographic network consists of two important basins, the one of the Ebro and the one that comprises the internal basins of Catalonia (respectively covering 46.84% and 51.43% of the territory), all of them flow to the Mediterranean. Furthermore, there is the Garona river basin that flows to the Atlantic Ocean, but it only covers 1.73% of the Catalan territory. The hydrographic network can be divided in two sectors, an occidental slope or Ebro river slope and one oriental slope constituted by minor rivers that flow to the Mediterranean along the Catalan coast. The first slope provides an average of per year, while the second only provides an average of /year. The difference is due to the big contribution of the Ebro river, from which the Segre is an important tributary. Moreover, in Catalonia there is a relative wealth of groundwaters, although there is inequality between comarques, given the complex geological structure of the territory. In the Pyrenees there are many small lakes, remnants of the ice age. The biggest are the lake of Banyoles and the recently recovered lake of Ivars. The Catalan coast is almost rectilinear, with a length of and few landforms—the most relevant are the Cap de Creus and the Gulf of Roses to the north and the Ebro Delta to the south. The Catalan Coastal Range hugs the coastline, and it is split into two segments, one between L'Estartit and the town of Blanes (the Costa Brava), and the other at the south, at the Costes del Garraf. The principal rivers in Catalonia are the Ter, Llobregat, and the Ebro (Catalan: ), all of which run into the Mediterranean. === Anthropic pressure and protection of nature === The majority of Catalan population is concentrated in 30% of the territory, mainly in the coastal plains. Intensive agriculture, livestock farming and industrial activities have been accompanied by a massive tourist influx (more than 20million annual visitors), a rate of urbanization and even of major metropolisation which has led to a strong urban sprawl: two thirds of Catalans live in the urban area of Barcelona, while the proportion of urban land increased from 4.2% in 1993 to 6.2% in 2009, a growth of 48.6% in sixteen years, complemented with a dense network of transport infrastructure. This is accompanied by a certain agricultural abandonment (decrease of 15% of all areas cultivated in Catalonia between 1993 and 2009) and a global threat to natural environment. Human activities have also put some animal species at risk, or even led to their disappearance from the territory, like the gray wolf and probably the brown bear of the Pyrenees. The pressure created by this model of life means that the country's ecological footprint exceeds its administrative area. Faced with these problems, Catalan authorities initiated several measures whose purpose is to protect natural ecosystems. Thus, in 1990, the Catalan government created the Nature Conservation Council (Catalan: ), an advisory body with the aim to study, protect and manage the natural environments and landscapes of Catalonia. In addition, the Generalitat has carried out the Plan of Spaces of Natural Interest ( or PEIN) in 1992 while eighteen Natural Spaces of Special Protection ( or ENPE) have been instituted. There is a National Park, Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici; fourteen Natural Parks, Alt Pirineu, Aiguamolls de l'Empordà, Cadí-Moixeró, Cap de Creus, Sources of Ter and Freser, Collserola, Ebro Delta, Ports, Montgrí, Medes Islands and Baix Ter, Montseny, Montserrat, Sant Llorenç del Munt and l'Obac, Serra de Montsant, and the Garrotxa Volcanic Zone; as well as three Natural Places of National Interest ( or PNIN), the Pedraforca, the Poblet Forest and the Albères. == Politics == After Franco's death in 1975 and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain in 1978, Catalonia recovered and extended the powers that it had gained in the Statute of Autonomy of 1932 but lost with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939. This autonomous community has gradually achieved more autonomy since the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in education, health, culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local government, and only shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government in justice. In all, some analysts argue that formally the current system grants Catalonia with "more self-government than almost any other corner in Europe". The support for Catalan nationalism ranges from a demand for further autonomy and the federalisation of Spain to the desire for independence from the rest of Spain, expressed by Catalan independentists. The first survey following the Constitutional Court ruling that cut back elements of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy, published by La Vanguardia on 18July2010, found that 46% of the voters would support independence in a referendum. In February of the same year, a poll by the Open University of Catalonia gave more or less the same results. Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%. Although it is established in the whole of the territory, support for independence is significantly higher in the hinterland and the northeast, away from the more populous coastal areas such as Barcelona. Since 2011 when the question started to be regularly surveyed by the governmental Center for Public Opinion Studies (CEO), support for Catalan independence has been on the rise. According to the CEO opinion poll from July2016, 47.7% of Catalans would vote for independence and 42.4% against it while, about the question of preferences, according to the CEO opinion poll from March 2016, a 57.2 claim to be "absolutely" or "fairly" in favour of independence. Other polls have shown lower support for independence, ranging from 40 to 49%. In hundreds of non-binding local referendums on independence, organised across Catalonia from 13September2009, a large majority voted for independence, although critics argued that the polls were mostly held in pro-independence areas. In December2009, 94% of those voting backed independence from Spain, on a turn-out of 25%. The final local referendum was held in Barcelona, in April2011. On 11September2012, a pro-independence march pulled in a crowd of between 600,000 (according to the Spanish Government), 1.5million (according to the Guàrdia Urbana de Barcelona), and 2million (according to its promoters); whereas poll results revealed that half the population of Catalonia supported secession from Spain. Two major factors were Spain's Constitutional Court's 2010 decision to declare part of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia unconstitutional, as well as the fact that Catalonia contributes 19.49% of the central government's tax revenue, but only receives 14.03% of central government's spending. Parties that consider themselves either Catalan nationalist or independentist have been present in all Catalan governments since 1980. The largest Catalan nationalist party, Convergence and Union, ruled Catalonia from 1980 to 2003, and returned to power in the 2010 election. Between 2003 and 2010, a leftist coalition, composed by the Catalan Socialists' Party, the pro-independence Republican Left of Catalonia and the leftist-environmentalist Initiative for Catalonia-Greens, implemented policies that widened Catalan autonomy. In the 25 November 2012 Catalan parliamentary election, sovereigntist parties supporting a secession referendum gathered 59.01% of the votes and held 87 of the 135seats in the Catalan Parliament. Parties supporting independence from the rest of Spain obtained 49.12% of the votes and a majority of 74seats. Artur Mas, then the president of Catalonia, organised early elections that took place on 27September2015. In these elections, Convergència and Esquerra Republicana decided to join, and they presented themselves under the coalition named Junts pel Sí (in Catalan, Together for Yes). Junts pel Sí won 62seats and was the most voted party, and CUP (Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a far-left and independentist party) won another 10, so the sum of all the independentist forces/parties was 72seats, reaching an absolute majority, but not in number of individual votes, comprising 47,74% of the total. === Statute of Autonomy === The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia is the fundamental organic law, second only to the Spanish Constitution from which the Statute originates. In the Spanish Constitution of 1978 Catalonia, along with the Basque Country and Galicia, was defined as a "nationality". The same constitution gave Catalonia the automatic right to autonomy, which resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1979. Both the 1979 Statute of Autonomy and the current one, approved in 2006, state that "Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an Autonomous Community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law, always under the law in Spain". The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states that the Parliament of Catalonia has defined Catalonia as a nation, but that "the Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality". While the Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been subject to a legal challenge by the surrounding autonomous communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and Valencia, as well as by the conservative People's Party. The objections are based on various issues such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the principle of "solidarity between regions" in fiscal and educational matters enshrined by the Constitution. Spain's Constitutional Court assessed the disputed articles and on 28 June 2010, issued its judgment on the principal allegation of unconstitutionality presented by the People's Party in 2006. The judgment granted clear passage to 182 articles of the 223 that make up the fundamental text. The court approved 73 of the 114 articles that the People's Party had contested, while declaring 14 articles unconstitutional in whole or in part and imposing a restrictive interpretation on 27 others. The court accepted the specific provision that described Catalonia as a "nation", however ruled that it was a historical and cultural term with no legal weight, and that Spain remained the only nation recognised by the constitution. === Government and law === The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes that Catalonia, as an autonomous community, is organised politically through the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: ), confirmed by the Parliament, the Presidency of the Generalitat, the Government or Executive Council and the other institutions established by the Parliament, among them the Ombudsman (), the Office of Auditors () the Council for Statutory Guarantees () or the Audiovisual Council of Catalonia (). The Parliament of Catalonia (Catalan: ) is the unicameral legislative body of the Generalitat and represents the people of Catalonia. Its 135members (diputats) are elected by universal suffrage to serve for a four-year period. According to the Statute of Autonomy, it has powers to legislate over devolved matters such as education, health, culture, internal institutional and territorial organization, nomination of the President of the Generalitat and control the Government, budget and other affairs. The last Catalan election was held on 12 May 2024, and its current speaker (president) is Josep Rull, incumbent since 10June2024. The President of the Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: ) is the highest representative of Catalonia, and is also responsible of leading the government's action, presiding the Executive Council. Since the restoration of the Generalitat on the return of democracy in Spain, the Presidents of Catalonia have been Josep Tarradellas (1977–1980, president in exile since 1954), Jordi Pujol (1980–2003), Pasqual Maragall (2003–2006), José Montilla (2006–2010), Artur Mas (2010–2016), Carles Puigdemont (2016–2017) and, after the imposition of direct rule from Madrid, Quim Torra (2018–2020), Pere Aragonès (2021–2024) and Salvador Illa (2024–). The Executive Council (Catalan: ) or Government (), is the body responsible of the government of the Generalitat, it holds executive and regulatory power, being accountable to the Catalan Parliament. It comprises the President of the Generalitat, the First Minister () or the Vice President, and the ministers () appointed by the president. Its seat is the Palau de la Generalitat, Barcelona. In 2021 the government was a coalition of two parties, the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) and Together for Catalonia (Junts) and is made up of 14 ministers, including the vice President, alongside to the president and a secretary of government, but in October2022 Together for Catalonia (Junts) left the coalition and the government. === Security forces and Justice === Catalonia has its own police force, the (officially called ), whose origins date back to the 18thcentury. Since 1980 they have been under the command of the Generalitat, and since 1994 they have expanded in number in order to replace the national Civil Guard and National Police Corps, which report directly to the Homeland Department of Spain. The national bodies retain personnel within Catalonia to exercise functions of national scope such as overseeing ports, airports, coasts, international borders, custom offices, the identification of documents and arms control, immigration control, terrorism prevention, arms trafficking prevention, amongst others. Most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions, the highest body and last judicial instance in the Catalan jurisdiction, integrating the Spanish judiciary, is the High Court of Justice of Catalonia. The criminal justice system is uniform throughout Spain, while civil law is administered separately within Catalonia. The civil laws that are subject to autonomous legislation have been codified in the Civil Code of Catalonia () since 2002. Catalonia, together with Navarre and the Basque Country, are the Spanish communities with the highest degree of autonomy in terms of law enforcement. === Administrative divisions === Catalonia is organised territorially into provinces or regions, further subdivided into comarques and municipalities. The 2006Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia establishes the administrative organisation of the later three. ==== Provinces ==== Much like the rest of Spain, Catalonia is divided administratively into four provinces, the governing body of which is the Provincial Deputation (, , ). As of 2010, the four provinces and their populations were: Province of Barcelona: 5,701,708 population Province of Girona: 777,258 population Province of Lleida: 437,939 population Province of Tarragona: 830,804 population Unlike vegueries, provinces do not follow the limitations of the subdivisional counties, notably Baixa Cerdanya, which is split in half between the demarcations of Lleida and Girona. This situation has led some isolated municipalities to request province changes from the Spanish government. ==== Vegueries ==== Besides provinces, Catalonia is internally divided into eight regions or vegueries, based on the feudal administrative territorial jurisdiction of the Principality of Catalonia. Established in 2006, vegueries are used by the Generalitat de Catalunya with the aim to more effectively divide Catalonia administratively. In addition, vegueries are intended to become Catalonia's first-level administrative division and a full replacement for the four deputations of the Catalan provinces, creating a council for each vegueria, but this has not been realised as changes to the statewide provinces system are unconstitutional without a constitutional amendment. The territorial plan of Catalonia () provided six general functional areas, but was amended by Law24/2001, of 31December, recognizing Alt Pirineu and Aran as a new functional area differentiated of Ponent. After some opposition from some territories, it was made possible for the Aran Valley to retain its government (the vegueria is renamed to Alt Pirineu, although the name Alt Pirineu and Aran is still used by the regional plan) and in 2016, the Catalan Parliament approved the eighth vegueria, Penedès, split from the Barcelona region.) are entities composed of municipalities to internally manage their responsibilities and services. The current regional division has its roots in a decree of the Generalitat de Catalunya of 1936, in effect until 1939, when it was suppressed by Franco. In 1987 the Catalan Government reestablished the comarcal division and in 1988 three new comarques were added (Alta Ribagorça, Pla d'Urgell and Pla de l'Estany). Some further revisions have been realised since then, such as the additions of Moianès and Lluçanès counties, in 2015 and 2023 respectively. Except for Barcelonès, every comarca is administered by a comarcal council (). As of 2024, Catalonia is divided in 42 counties plus the Aran Valley. The latter, although previously (and still informally) considered a comarca, obtained in 1990 a particular status within Catalonia due to its differences in culture and language, being administered by a body known as the (General Council of Aran), and in 2015 it was defined as a "unique territorial entity" instead of a county. ==== Municipalities ==== There are at present 947municipalities () in Catalonia. Each municipality is run by a council () elected every four years by the residents in local elections. The council consists of a number of members () depending on population, who elect the mayor ( or ). Its seat is the town hall (, or ). Eixample aire cropped.jpg\|An aerial view of Barcelona La Seu d'Urgell (Torre Solsona).JPG\|La Seu d'Urgell from the Solsona tower E5320-Vista-de-Tarragona.jpg\|The city of Tarragona Manresa des del mirador de la Balconada.jpg\|The city of Manresa from the Balconada viewpoint Girona des de l aire.jpg\|The city of Girona Lleida (40262867523).jpg\|The city of Lleida by the Segre river Vilanova i la Geltru.jpg\|Vilanova i la Geltrú from the city's port Tortosa - La Suda.jpg\|The city of Tortosa VIELHA - VAL D'ARAN - IB-399.JPG\|Vielha e Mijaran from the Vielha viewpoint == Economy == A highly industrialized region, the nominal GDP of Catalonia in 2018 was €228billion (second after the community of Madrid, €230billion) and the per capitaGDP was €30,426 ($32,888), behind Madrid (€35,041), the Basque Country (€33,223), and Navarre (€31,389). That year, the GDP growth was 2.3%. Catalonia's long-term credit rating is BB(Non-Investment Grade) according to Standard & Poor's, Ba2(Non-Investment Grade) according to Moody's, and BBB-(Low Investment Grade) according to Fitch Ratings. Catalonia's rating is tied for worst with between 1 and 5 other autonomous communities of Spain, depending on the rating agency. In the context of the 2008 financial crisis, Catalonia was expected to suffer a recession amounting to almost a 2% contraction of its regional GDP in 2009. Catalonia's debt in 2012 was the highest of all Spain's autonomous communities, reaching €13,476million, i.e. 38% of the total debt of the 17autonomous communities, but in recent years its economy recovered a positive evolution and the GDP grew a 3.3% in 2015. Catalonia is amongst the List of country subdivisions by GDP over 100 billion US dollars and is a member of the Four Motors for Europe organisation. The distribution of sectors is as follows: Primary sector: 3%. The amount of land devoted to agricultural use is 33%. Secondary sector: 37% (compared to Spain's 29%) Tertiary sector: 60% (compared to Spain's 67%) The main tourist destinations in Catalonia are the city of Barcelona, the beaches of the Costa Brava in Girona, the beaches of the Costa del Maresme and Costa del Garraf from Malgrat de Mar to Vilanova i la Geltrú and the Costa Daurada in Tarragona. In the High Pyrenees there are several ski resorts, near Lleida. On 1November2012, Catalonia started charging a tourist tax. The revenue is used to promote tourism, and to maintain and upgrade tourism-related infrastructure. Many of Spain's leading savings banks were based in Catalonia before the independence referendum of 2017. However, in the aftermath of the referendum, many of them moved their registered office to other parts of Spain. That includes the two biggest Catalan banks at that moment, La Caixa, which moved its office to Palma de Mallorca, and Banc Sabadell, ranked fourth among all Spanish private banks and which moved its office to Alicante. That happened after the Spanish government passed a law allowing companies to move their registered office without requiring the approval of the company's general meeting of shareholders. Overall, there was a negative net relocation rate of companies based in Catalonia moving to other autonomous communities of Spain. From the 2017 independence referendum until the end of 2018, for example, Catalonia lost 5454companies to other parts of Spain (mainly Madrid), 2359 only in 2018, gaining 467 new ones from the rest of the country during 2018. It has been reported that the Spanish government and the Spanish King Felipe VI pressured some of the big Catalan companies to move their headquarters outside of the region. The stock market of Barcelona, which in 2016 had a volume of around €152billion, is the second largest of Spain after Madrid, and Fira de Barcelona organizes international exhibitions and congresses to do with different sectors of the economy. The main economic cost for Catalan families is the purchase of a home. According to data from the Society of Appraisal on 31December2005 Catalonia is, after Madrid, the second most expensive region in Spain for housing: 3,397€/m2 on average (see Spanish property bubble). === Unemployment === The unemployment rate stood at 10.5% in 2019 and was lower than the national average. === Transport === ==== Airports ==== Airports in Catalonia are owned and operated by Aena (a Spanish Government entity) except two airports in Lleida which are operated by Aeroports de Catalunya (an entity belonging to the Government of Catalonia). Barcelona El Prat Airport (Aena) Girona-Costa Brava Airport (Aena) Reus Airport (Aena) Lleida-Alguaire Airport (Aeroports de Catalunya) Sabadell Airport (Aena) La Seu d'Urgell Airport (Aeroports de Catalunya) ==== Ports ==== Since the Middle Ages, Catalonia has been well integrated into international maritime networks. The port of Barcelona (owned and operated by , a Spanish Government entity) is an industrial, commercial and tourist port of worldwide importance. With 1,950,000TEUs in 2015, it is the first container port in Catalonia, the third in Spain after Valencia and Algeciras in Andalusia, the 9thin the Mediterranean Sea, the 14thin Europe and the 68thin the world. It is sixth largest cruise port in the world, the first in Europe and the Mediterranean with 2,364,292passengers in 2014. The ports of Tarragona (owned and operated by Puertos del Estado) in the southwest and Palamós near Girona at northeast are much more modest. The port of Palamós and the other ports in Catalonia(26) are operated and administered by , a Catalan Government entity. The development of these infrastructures, resulting from the topography and history of the Catalan territory, responds strongly to the administrative and political organization of this autonomous community. ==== Roads ==== There are of roads throughout Catalonia. The principal highways are AP-7 () and A-7 (). They follow the coast from the French border to Valencia, Murcia and Andalusia. The main roads generally radiate from Barcelona. The AP-2 () and A-2 () connect inland and onward to Madrid. Other major roads are: Public-own roads in Catalonia are either managed by the autonomous government of Catalonia (e.g., C- roads) or the Spanish government (e.g., AP-, A-, N- roads). ==== Railways ==== Catalonia saw the first railway construction in the Iberian Peninsula in 1848, linking Barcelona with Mataró. Given the topography, most lines radiate from Barcelona. The city has both suburban and inter-city services. The main east coast line runs through the province connecting with the SNCF (French Railways) at Portbou on the coast. There are two publicly owned railway companies operating in Catalonia: the Catalan FGC that operates commuter and regional services, and the Spanish national Renfe that operates long-distance and high-speed rail services (AVE and Avant) and the main commuter and regional service , administered by the Catalan government since 2010. High-speed rail (AVE) services from Madrid currently reach Barcelona, via Lleida and Tarragona. The official opening between Barcelona and Madrid took place 20February2008. The journey between Barcelona and Madrid now takes about two-and-a-half hours. A connection to the French high-speed TGV network has been completed (called the Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) and the Spanish AVE service began commercial services on the line 9January2013, later offering services to Marseille on their high speed network. This was shortly followed by the commencement of commercial service by the French TGV on 17January2013, leading to an average travel time on the Paris-Barcelona TGV route of 7h42m. This new line passes through Girona and Figueres with a tunnel through the Pyrenees. == Demographics == As of 2024, the official population of Catalonia was 8,067,454. 1,194,947residents did not have Spanish citizenship, accounting for about 16% of the population. The Urban Region of Barcelona includes 5,217,864people and covers an area of . The metropolitan area of the Urban Region includes cities such as L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Sabadell, Terrassa, Badalona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Cornellà de Llobregat. In 1900, the population of Catalonia was 1,966,382people and in 1970 it was 5,122,567. as well as in consequence of large-scale internal migration from the rural economically weak regions to its more prospering industrial cities. In Catalonia, that wave of internal migration arrived from several regions of Spain, especially from Andalusia, Murcia and Extremadura. As of 1999, it was estimated that over 60% of Catalans descended from 20thcentury migrations from other parts of Spain. Immigrants from other countries settled in Catalonia since the 1990s; a large percentage comes from Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe, and smaller numbers from Asia and Southern Europe, often settling in urban centers such as Barcelona and industrial areas. In 2017, Catalonia had 940,497foreign residents (11.9%of the total population) with non-Spanish ID cards, without including those who acquired Spanish citizenship. === Religion === {{Pie chart \|thumb = right \|caption = Religion in Catalonia (2020): and 56.5% in 2014) of whom 53.0%Catholics, 7.0%Protestants and Evangelicals, 1.3%Orthodox Christians and 1.0%Jehovah's Witnesses. At the same time, 18.6% of the population identify as atheists, 8.8%as agnostics, 4.3%as Muslims, and a further 3.4% as being of other religions. === Languages === According to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013, Spanish is the most spoken language in Catalonia (46.53%claim Spanish as "their own language"), followed by Catalan (37.26%claim Catalan as "their own language"). In everyday use, 11.95%of the population claim to use both languages equally, whereas 45.92%mainly use Spanish and 35.54%mainly use Catalan. There is a significant difference between the Barcelona metropolitan area (and, to a lesser extent, the Tarragona area), where Spanish is more spoken than Catalan, and the more rural and small town areas, where Catalan clearly prevails over Spanish. Originating in the historic territory of Catalonia, Catalan has enjoyed special status since the approval of the Statute of Autonomy of 1979 which declares it to be "Catalonia's own language", a term which signifies a language given special legal status within a Spanish territory, or which is historically spoken within a given region. The other languages with official status in Catalonia are Spanish, which has official status throughout Spain, and Aranese Occitan, which is spoken in Val d'Aran. Since the Statute of Autonomy of 1979, Aranese (a Gascon dialect of Occitan) has also been official and subject to special protection in Val d'Aran. This small area of 7,000inhabitants was the only place where a dialect of Occitan had received full official status. Then, on 9August2006, when the new Statute came into force, Occitan became official throughout Catalonia. Occitan is the mother tongue of 22.4% of the population of Val d'Aran, which has attracted heavy immigration from other Spanish regions to work in the service industry. Catalan Sign Language is also officially recognised. is granted official recognition and support: "The public authorities shall guarantee the use of Catalan sign language and conditions of equality for deaf people who choose to use this language, which shall be the subject of education, protection and respect." Although never completely banned, Catalan language publishing was severely restricted during the early 1940s, with only religious texts and small-run self-published texts being released. Some books were published clandestinely or circumvented the restrictions by showing publishing dates prior to 1936. This policy was changed in 1946, when restricted publishing in Catalan resumed. Rural–urban migration originating in other parts of Spain also reduced the social use of Catalan in urban areas and increased the use of Spanish. Lately, a similar sociolinguistic phenomenon has occurred with foreign immigration. Catalan cultural activity increased in the 1960s and the teaching of Catalan began thanks to the initiative of associations such as Òmnium Cultural. After the end of Francoist Spain, the newly established self-governing democratic institutions in Catalonia embarked on a long-term language policy to recover the use of Catalan and has, since 1983, enforced laws which attempt to protect and extend the use of Catalan. This policy, known as the "linguistic normalisation" ( in Catalan, in Spanish) has been supported by the vast majority of Catalan political parties through the last thirty years. Some groups consider these efforts a way to discourage the use of Spanish, whereas some others, including the Catalan government and the European Union consider the policies respectful, or even as an example which "should be disseminated throughout the Union". Today, Catalan is the main language of the Catalan autonomous government and the other public institutions that fall under its jurisdiction. Basic public education is given mainly in Catalan, but also there are some hours per week of Spanish medium instruction. Although businesses are required by law to display all information (e.g. menus, posters) at least in Catalan, this not systematically enforced. There is no obligation to display this information in either Occitan or Spanish, although there is no restriction on doing so in these or other languages. The use of fines was introduced in a 1997 linguistic law that aims to increase the public use of Catalan and defend the rights of Catalan speakers. On the other hand, the Spanish Constitution does not recognize equal language rights for national minorities since it enshrined Spanish as the only official language of the state, the knowledge of which being compulsory. Numerous laws regarding for instance the labelling of pharmaceutical products, make in effect Spanish the only language of compulsory use. The law ensures that both Catalan and Spanish – being official languages – can be used by the citizens without prejudice in all public and private activities. The Generalitat uses Catalan in its communications and notifications addressed to the general population, but citizens can also receive information from the Generalitat in Spanish if they so wish. Debates in the Catalan Parliament take place almost exclusively in Catalan and the Catalan public television broadcasts programs mainly in Catalan. Due to the intense immigration which Spain in general and Catalonia in particular experienced in the first decade of the 21st century, many foreign languages are spoken in various cultural communities in Catalonia, of which Rif-Berber, Moroccan Arabic, Romanian and Urdu are the most common ones. In Catalonia, there is a high social and political consensus on the language policies favoring Catalan, also among Spanish speakers and speakers of other languages. However, some of these policies have been criticised for trying to promote Catalan by imposing fines on businesses. For example, following the passage of the law on Catalan cinema in March 2010, which established that half of the movies shown in Catalan cinemas had to be in Catalan, a general strike of 75% of the cinemas took place. The Catalan government gave in and dropped the clause that forced 50% of the movies to be dubbed or subtitled in Catalan before the law came to effect. On the other hand, organisations such as Plataforma per la Llengua reported different violations of the linguistic rights of the Catalan speakers in Catalonia and the other Catalan-speaking territories in Spain, most of them caused by the institutions of the Spanish government in these territories. The Catalan language policy has been challenged by some political parties in the Catalan Parliament. Citizens, currently the main opposition party, has been one of the most consistent critics of the Catalan language policy within Catalonia. The Catalan branch of the People's Party has a more ambiguous position on the issue: on one hand, it demands a bilingual Catalan–Spanish education and a more balanced language policy that would defend Catalan without favoring it over Spanish, whereas on the other hand, a few local PP politicians have supported in their municipalities measures privileging Catalan over Spanish and it has defended some aspects of the official language policies, sometimes against the positions of its colleagues from other parts of Spain. == Culture == === Art and architecture === Catalonia has given to the world many important figures in the area of the art. Catalan painters internationally known are, among others, Salvador Dalí, Joan Miró and Antoni Tàpies. Closely linked with the Catalan pictorial atmosphere, Pablo Picasso lived in Barcelona during his youth, training them as an artist and creating the movement of cubism. Other important artists are Claudi Lorenzale for the medieval Romanticism that marked the artistic Renaixença, Marià Fortuny for the Romanticism and Catalan Orientalism of the nineteenth century, Ramon Casas or Santiago Rusiñol, main representatives of the pictorial current of Catalan modernism from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century, Josep Maria Sert for early 20th-century Noucentisme, or Josep Maria Subirachs for expressionist or abstract sculpture and painting of the late twentieth century. The most important painting museums of Catalonia are the Teatre-Museu Dalí in Figueres, the National Art Museum of Catalonia (MNAC), Picasso Museum, Fundació Antoni Tàpies, Joan Miró Foundation, the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art (MACBA), the Centre of Contemporary Culture of Barcelona (CCCB), and the CaixaForum. In the field of architecture were developed and adapted to Catalonia different artistic styles prevalent in Europe, leaving footprints in many churches, monasteries and cathedrals, of Romanesque (the best examples of which are located in the northern half of the territory) and Gothic styles. The Gothic developed in Barcelona and its area of influence is known as Catalan Gothic, with some particular characteristics. The church of Santa Maria del Mar is an example of this kind of style. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. There are some examples of Renaissance (such as the Palau de la Generalitat), Baroque and Neoclassical architectures. In the late nineteenth century Modernism (Art Nouveau) appeared as the national art. The world-renowned Catalan architects of this style are Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Thanks to the urban expansion of Barcelona during the last decades of the century and the first ones of the next, many buildings of the Eixample are modernists. In the field of architectural rationalism, which turned especially relevant in Catalonia during the Republican era (1931–1939) highlighting Josep Lluís Sert and Josep Torres i Clavé, members of the GATCPAC and, in contemporany architecture, Ricardo Bofill and Enric Miralles. ==== Monuments and World Heritage Sites ==== There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia: Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, Tarragona Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí, Lleida province Poblet Monastery, Poblet, Tarragona province Works of Lluís Domènech i Montaner: Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona Works of Antoni Gaudí: Sagrada Família, Barcelona Parc Güell, Barcelona Palau Güell, Barcelona Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Barcelona Casa Vicens, Barcelona Casa Batlló, Barcelona The Church of Colònia Güell, Santa Coloma de Cervelló, Barcelona province === Literature === The oldest surviving literary use of the Catalan language is considered to be the religious text known as Homilies d'Organyà, written either in late 11th or early 12thcentury. There are two historical moments of splendor of Catalan literature. The first begins with the historiographic chronicles of the 13thcentury (chronicles written between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries narrating the deeds of the monarchs and leading figures of the Crown of Aragon) and the subsequent Golden Age of the 14th and 15thcenturies. After that period, between the 16th and 19thcenturies the Romantic historiography defined this era as the , considered as the "decadent" period in Catalan literature because of a general falling into disuse of the vernacular language in cultural contexts and lack of patronage among the nobility. The second moment of splendor began in the 19thcentury with the cultural and political (Renaissance) represented by writers and poets such as Jacint Verdaguer, Víctor Català (pseudonym of Caterina Albert i Paradís), Narcís Oller, Joan Maragall and Àngel Guimerà. During the 20thcentury, avant-garde movements developed, initiated by the Generation of '14 (called Noucentisme in Catalonia), represented by Eugenio d'Ors, Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Josep Carner, Carles Riba, J.V. Foix and others. During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Civil War (Generation of '36) and the Francoist period, Catalan literature was maintained despite the repression against the Catalan language, being often produced in exile. The most outstanding authors of this period are Salvador Espriu, Josep Pla, Josep Maria de Sagarra (who are considered mainly responsible for the renewal of Catalan prose), Mercè Rodoreda, Joan Oliver Sallarès or "Pere Quart", Pere Calders, Gabriel Ferrater, Manuel de Pedrolo, Agustí Bartra or Miquel Martí i Pol. In addition, several foreign writers who fought in the International Brigades, or other military units, have since recounted their experiences of fighting in their works, historical or fictional, with for example, George Orwell, in Homage to Catalonia (1938) or Claude Simon's Le Palace (1962) and Les Géorgiques (1981). After the transition to democracy (1975–1978) and the restoration of the Generalitat (1977), literary life and the editorial market have returned to normality and literary production in Catalan is being bolstered with a number of language policies intended to protect Catalan culture. Besides the aforementioned authors, other relevant 20th-century writers of the Francoist and democracy periods include Joan Brossa, Agustí Bartra, Manuel de Pedrolo, Pere Calders or Quim Monzó. Ana María Matute, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán and Juan Goytisolo are among the most prominent Catalan writers in the Spanish language since the democratic restoration in Spain. === Festivals and public holidays === Castells are one of the main manifestations of Catalan popular culture. The activity consists in constructing human towers by competing (teams). This practice originated in Valls, on the region of the Camp de Tarragona, during the 18th century, and later it was extended to the rest of the territory, especially in the late 20th century. The tradition of els Castells i els Castellers was declared Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010. In main celebrations, other elements of the Catalan popular culture are also usually present: parades with (giants), bigheads, stick-dancers and musicians, and the , where devils and monsters dance and spray showers of sparks using firecrackers. Another traditional celebration in Catalonia is , declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the UNESCO on 25 November 2005. Christmas in Catalonia lasts two days, plus Christmas Eve. On the 25th, Christmas is celebrated, followed by a similar feast on the 26, called Sant Esteve (Saint Steve's Day). This allows families to visit and dine with different sectors of the extended family or get together with friends on the second day. One of the most deeply rooted Christmas traditions is the popular figure of the , consisting of an (often hollow) log with a face painted on it and often two little front legs appended, usually wearing a Catalan hat and scarf. The word has nothing to do with the Spanish word tío, meaning uncle. Tió means log in Catalan. The log is sometimes "found in the woods" (in an event staged for children) and then adopted and taken home, where it is fed and cared for during a month or so. On Christmas Day or on Christmas Eve, a game is played where children march around the house singing a song requesting the log to poop, then they hit the log with a stick, to make it poop, and lo and behold, as if through magic, it poops candy, and sometimes other small gifts. Usually, the larger or main gifts are brought by the Three Kings on 6 January, and the tió only brings small things. In addition to traditional local Catalan culture, traditions from other parts of Spain can be found as a result of migration from other regions, for instance the celebration of the Andalusian in Catalonia. On 28 July 2010, second only after the Canary Islands, Catalonia became another Spanish territory to forbid bullfighting. The ban, which went into effect on 1 January 2012, had originated in a popular petition supported by over 180,000 signatures. === Music and dance === The sardana is considered to be the most characteristic Catalan folk dance, interpreted to the rhythm of tamborí, tible and tenora (from the oboe family), trumpet, trombó (trombone), fiscorn (family of bugles) and contrabaix with three strings played by a cobla, and are danced in a circle dance. Other tunes and dances of the traditional music are the contrapàs (obsolete today), ball de bastons (the "dance of sticks"), the moixiganga, the goigs (popular songs), the galops or the jota in the southern part. The are characteristic in some marine localities of the Costa Brava, especially during the summer months when these songs are sung outdoors accompanied by a of burned rum. Art music was first developed, up to the nineteenth century and, as in much of Europe, in a liturgical setting, particularly marked by the Escolania de Montserrat. The main Western musical trends have marked these productions, medieval monodies or polyphonies, with the work of Abbot Oliba in the eleventh century or the compilation Llibre Vermell de Montserrat ("Red Book of Montserrat") from the fourteenth century. Through the Renaissance there were authors such as Pere Albert Vila, Joan Brudieu or the two Mateu Fletxa ("The Old" and "The Young"). Baroque had composers like Joan Cererols. The Romantic music was represented by composers such as Fernando Sor, Josep Anselm Clavé (father of choir movement in Catalonia and responsible of the music folk reviving) or Felip Pedrell. Modernisme also expressed in musical terms from the end of the 19th century onwards, mixing folkloric and post-romantic influences, through the works of Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados. The avant-garde spirit initiated by the modernists is prolonged throughout the twentieth century, thanks to the activities of the Orfeó Català, a choral society founded in 1891, with its monumental concert hall, the Palau de la Música Catalana in Catalan, built by Lluís Domènech i Montaner from 1905 to 1908, the Barcelona Symphony Orchestra created in 1944 and composers, conductors and musicians engaged against the Francoism like Robert Gerhard, Eduard Toldrà and Pau Casals. Performances of opera, mostly imported from Italy, began in the 18th century, but some native operas were written as well, including the ones by Domènec Terradellas, Carles Baguer, Ramon Carles, Isaac Albéniz and Enric Granados. The Barcelona main opera house, Gran Teatre del Liceu (opened in 1847), remains one of the most important in Spain, hosting one of the most prestigious music schools in Barcelona, the Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu. Several lyrical artists trained by this institution gained international renown during the 20th century, such as Victoria de los Ángeles, Montserrat Caballé, Giacomo Aragall and Josep Carreras. Cellist Pau Casals is admired as an outstanding player. Other popular musical styles were born in the second half of the 20th century such as Nova Cançó from the 1960s with Lluís Llach and the group Els Setze Jutges, the Catalan rumba in the 1960s with Peret, Catalan Rock from the late 1970s with La Banda Trapera del Río and Decibelios for Punk Rock, Sau, Els Pets, Sopa de Cabra or Lax'n'Busto for pop rock or Sangtraït for hard rock, electropop since the 1990s with OBK and indie pop from the 1990s. === Media and cinema === Catalonia is the autonomous community, along with Madrid, that has the most media (TV, magazines, newspapers etc.). In Catalonia there is a wide variety of local and comarcal media. With the restoration of democracy, many newspapers and magazines, until then in the hands of the Franco government, were recovered in order to convert them into free and democratic media, while local radio and television began broadcasting. Televisió de Catalunya, which broadcasts entirely in the Catalan language, is the main Catalan public network. It has five channels: TV3, El 33, Super3, 3/24, Esport3 and TV3CAT. In 2018, TV3 became the first television channel to be the most viewed for nine consecutive years in Catalonia. State television that broadcasts in Catalonia in the Spanish language include (with few emissions in Catalan), Antena 3, Cuatro, Telecinco, and La Sexta. Other smaller Catalan television channels include local television channels, notably betevé, owned by the City Council of Barcelona, and broadcast in Catalan. The two main Catalan newspapers of general information are El Periódico de Catalunya and La Vanguardia, both with editions in Catalan and Spanish. Catalan only published newspapers include Ara and El Punt Avui (from the fusion of El Punt and Avui in 2011), as well as most part of the local press. The Spanish newspapers, such as El País, El Mundo or La Razón, can be also acquired. Catalonia has a long tradition of use of radio, the first regular radio broadcast in the country was from Ràdio Barcelona in 1924. Today, the public Catalunya Ràdio (owned by Catalan Media Corporation) and the private RAC 1 (belonging to Grup Godó) are the two main radio stations of Catalonia, both in Catalan. Regarding the cinema, after the democratic transition, three styles have dominated since then. First, auteur cinema, in the continuity of the Barcelona School, emphasizes experimentation and form, while focusing on developing social and political themes. Worn first by Josep Maria Forn or Bigas Luna, then by Marc Recha, Jaime Rosales and Albert Serra, this genre has achieved some international recognition. Then, the documentary became another genre particularly representative of contemporary Catalan cinema, boosted by Joaquim Jordà i Català and José Luis Guerín. Later, horror films and thrillers have also emerged as a specialty of the Catalan film industry, thanks in particular to the vitality of the Sitges Film Festival, created in 1968. Several directors have gained worldwide renown thanks to this genre, starting with Jaume Balagueró and his series REC (co-directed with Valencian Paco Plaza), Juan Antonio Bayona and El Orfanato or Jaume Collet-Serra with Orphan, Unknown and Non-Stop. Catalan actors have shot for Spanish and international productions, such as Sergi López. The Museum of Cinema - Tomàs Mallol Collection (Museu del Cinema – Col.lecció Tomàs Mallol in Catalan) of Girona is home of important permanent exhibitions of cinema and pre-cinema objects. Other important institutions for the promotion of cinema are the Gaudí Awards (Premis Gaudí in Catalan, which replaced from 2009 Barcelona Film Awards themselves created in 2002), serving as equivalent for Catalonia to the Spanish Goya or French César. === Philosophy === is a form of ancestral Catalan wisdom or sensibleness. It involves well-pondered perception of situations, level-headedness, awareness, integrity, and right action. Many Catalans consider seny something unique to their culture, is based on a set of ancestral local customs stemming from the scale of values and social norms of their society. === Sport === Sport has had a distinct importance in Catalan life and culture since the beginning of the 20th century; consequently, the region has a well-developed sports infrastructure. The main sports are football, basketball, handball, rink hockey, tennis and motorsport. While the most popular sports are represented at international level by the Spanish national teams, Catalonia plays as itself in some minor ones, such as korfball, futsal or rugby league. Various Catalan Sports Federations have a long tradition and some of them participated in the foundation of international sports federations, as the Catalan Federation of Rugby, that was one of the founder members of the Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA) in 1934. The majority of Catalan sport federations are part of the Sports Federation Union of Catalonia (Catalan: ), founded in 1933. The presence of separate Catalan teams has caused disputes with Spanish sports institutions, as happened to roller hockey in the controversial Fresno Case (2004). The Catalan Football Federation also periodically fields a national team against international opposition, organizing friendly matches. In the recent years they have played with Bulgaria, Argentina, Brazil, Basque Country, Colombia, Nigeria, Cape Verde and Tunisia. The biggest football clubs are Barcelona (also known as Barça), who have won five European Cups (UEFA Champions League), and Espanyol, who have twice been runner-up of the UEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League). As of December 2024, Barça, Espanyol and Girona FC play in the top Spanish League (La Liga). The Catalan waterpolo is one of the main powers of the Iberian Peninsula. The Catalans won triumphs in waterpolo competitions at European and world level by club (the Barcelona was champion of Europe in 1981/82 and the Catalonia in 1994/95) and national team (one gold and one silver in Olympic Games and World Championships). It also has many international synchronized swimming champions. Motorsport has a long tradition in Catalonia, which involving many people, with some world champions and several competitions organized since the beginning of the 20th century. The Circuit de Catalunya, built in 1991, is one of the main motorsport venues, holding the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish F1 Grand Prix, a DTM race, and several other races. Catalonia hosted many relevant international sport events, such as the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, as well as the 1955 Mediterranean Games, the 2013 World Aquatics Championships or the 2018 Mediterranean Games. It held annually the fourth-oldest still-existing cycling stage race in the world, the Volta a Catalunya (Tour of Catalonia). BCN-EstadiOlimpic-4860.jpg\|Olympic Park of Montjuïc, Barcelona. At the centre, the Olympic Stadium Lluís Companys Camp Nou - Interior (2005).jpg\|Camp Nou, home of FC Barcelona F1 Circuit de Catalunya - Tribuna.jpg\|Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya Pep Guardiola 2.1.jpg\|Pep Guardiola, one of the most successful football managers of all time, pictured while managing Barcelona === Symbols === Catalonia has its own representative and distinctive national symbols such as: The flag of Catalonia, called the , is a vexillological symbol based on the heraldic emblem of Counts of Barcelona and the coat of arms of the Crown of Aragon, which consists of four red stripes on a golden background. It has been an official symbol since the Statute of Catalonia of 1932. The National Day of Catalonia is on 11 September, and it is commonly called . It commemorates the 1714 siege of Barcelona defeat during the War of the Spanish Succession. The national anthem of Catalonia is and was written in its present form by Emili Guanyavents in 1899. The song is official by law from 25 February 1993. It is based on the events of 1639 and 1640 during the Catalan Revolt. St. George's Day () is widely celebrated in all the towns of Catalonia on 23 April, and includes an exchange of books and roses between couples or family members. === Cuisine === Catalan gastronomy has a long culinary tradition. Various local food recipes have been described in documents dating from the fifteenth century. As with all the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Catatonian dishes make abundant use of fish, seafood, olive oil, bread and vegetables. Regional specialties include the (bread with tomato), which consists of bread (sometimes toasted), and tomato seasoned with olive oil and salt. Often the dish is accompanied with any number of sausages (cured botifarres, fuet, iberic ham, etc.), ham or cheeses. Others dishes include the , , (fish stew), and a dessert, Catalan cream. Catalan vineyards also have several wines, such as: Priorat, Montsant, Penedès and Empordà. There is also a sparkling wine, the cava. Catalonia is internationally recognized for its fine dining. Three of the World's 50 Best Restaurants are in Catalonia, and four restaurants have three Michelin stars, including restaurants like El Bulli or El Celler de Can Roca, both of which regularly dominate international rankings of restaurants. The region has been awarded the European Region of Gastronomy title for the year 2016. == Twinning and covenants == Nuevo León California Quebec	[ "Alta Ribagorça", "Church of Colònia Güell", "Josep Rull", "Canary Islands", "Primary sector of industry", "La Seu d'Urgell", "La Vanguardia", "Pasqual Maragall", "Standard & Poor's", "Statute of Autonomy", "Catalan Courts", "Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu", "Madrid", "Sopa de Cabra", "Ferdinand I of Aragon", "Occitania", "Index of Catalonia-related articles", "Jaume Collet-Serra", "historiography", "Catalunya Central", "Continental Europe", "Roses, Girona", "pop rock", "Margalef", "Ebro", "President of the Generalitat of Catalonia", "Government of Catalonia", "cubism", "Montserrat", "2018 Mediterranean Games", "Evangelicalism", "Camp Nou", "Moroccan Arabic", "Catalan Countries", "Paul Preston", "Municipalities in Spain", "long-finned pilot whale", "federalisation", "estates of the realm", "Africa", "Montgrí, Medes Islands and 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"Goths", "Catalan independence", "autonomous community of Spain", "Charles I of Spain", "Catalan cream", "Moianès", "Gothic style", "Patum de Berga", "betevé", "nationalities and regions of Spain", "PBS NewsHour", "Usages of Barcelona", "UEFA Champions League", "Ullastret", "Assemblea Nacional Catalana", "anarchism", "Abbot Oliba", "Spanish property bubble", "Joan Brudieu", "Josep Lluís Sert", "Occitan language", "Estanislao Figueras", "Urnfield Culture", "sociolinguistic", "Josep Maria de Sagarra", "constitutional monarchy", "2008 financial crisis", "Felipe VI", "El Punt", "Castell", "mandible", "Initiative for Catalonia Greens", "Indigetes", "Petronilla of Aragon", "University of North Carolina Press", "language policy", "Ban on bullfighting in Catalonia", "Victoria de los Ángeles", "El Mundo (Spain)", "UEFA Cup", "Antena 3 (Spain)", "synchronized swimming", "Juan Antonio Bayona", "RCD Espanyol", "Barcelona metropolitan area", "Costa Daurada", "Generation of '36", "Glossary of 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sign", "coat of arms", "castle", "pa amb tomàquet", "1929 Barcelona International Exposition", "Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya", "Santa Coloma de Gramenet", "Muslim", "Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona", "Pau Casals", "Septimania", "Artur Mas", "Civil Code of Catalonia", "Via Augusta", "Byzantine Empire", "Robert Gerhard", "La Sexta", "Montjuïc", "Catalonia national rugby union team", "Summer Olympic Games", "cultural heritage", "Christianity", "Aragon", "Jaime Gil de Biedma", "Roman citizenship", "Confederación Nacional del Trabajo", "Catherine Wihtol de Wenden", "handball", "hunter-gatherer", "Jota (music)", "Junts pel Sí", "rink hockey", "The Economic Times", "Second Spanish Republic", "dessert", "Habanera (music)", "West Francia", "Roussillon", "Almogavars", "Christmas traditions", "Gross domestic product", "Salvador Illa", "Generalitat de Catalunya", "Mediterranean climate", "Museum of Cinema - Tomàs Mallol Collection", "Vegueries of Catalonia", "The Guardian", "Romanticism", "roe deer", "Citizens - Party of the Citizenry", "bread", "Christmas", "Galicia (Spain)", "workers' movement", "Spanish Supreme Court", "Plataforma per la Llengua", "law enforcement agency", "Orfeó Català", "landform", "Barcelona School of Film", "Penedès (DO)", "Francisco Franco", "Palamós", "Popular Front (Spain)", "port of Barcelona", "Tragic Week (Spain)", "Penedès", "Generalitat of Catalonia", "Aqueduct (water supply)", "Carles Baguer", "socialism", "Napoleonic Wars", "National Park", "Montseny Massif", "gray wolf", "Catalan Civil War", "Jordi Pujol", "Albères", "brown bear", "Josep Maria Subirachs", "Solsona Cathedral", "L'Hospitalet de Llobregat", "ball de bastons", "Val d'Aran", "Ramiro II of Aragon", "Ferdinand II of Aragon", "Cap de Creus", "Sau (band)", "Secondary sector of industry", "Empordà (DO)", "Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya", "Charles II of Spain", "architectural rationalism", "Joanot Martorell", "tennis", "Pla de l'Estany", "Joan Miró", "Els 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"Pere Albert Vila", "Picasso Museum, Barcelona", "Tortosa", "Immigration to Spain", "Catalan Coastal Depression", "Middle Paleolithic", "tible", "Bombing of Barcelona", "Albert Serra", "European Region of Gastronomy", "Marià Fortuny", "Eixample", "Provincial deputation (Spain)", "Guàrdia Urbana de Barcelona", "Catalan rumba", "Compromise of Caspe", "natural environment", "Víctor Català", "The Revolutionary Left in Spain, 1914–1923", "municipality", "Cornellà de Llobregat", "1955 Mediterranean Games", "Aranese", "Oriol Junqueras", "County of Barcelona", "Comarques Gironines", "Central European Time", "Roman law", "Girona FC", "Ramon Berenguer I", "Cambridge University Press", "L'Estartit", "Mass tourism", "legal system", "lake of Ivars", "Atlantic Ocean", "1980 Catalan regional election", "Tió de Nadal", "Louis IX of France", "Remensa", "continental climate", "Roman province", "Nueva Planta decrees", "Socialists' Party of Catalonia", "House of Barcelona", "Duchy", "Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys", "Treaty of the Pyrenees", "Company town", "Josep Vicenç Foix i Mas", "Els Pets", "Decibelios", "Quaternary glaciation", "Olot", "George Orwell", "Time (magazine)", "Renaissance architecture", "Neolithic", "Pere Quart", "1992 Summer Olympics", "Quim Monzó", "Catalan people", "sedition", "House of Bourbon", "Thirty Years' War", "Alans", "Catalonia men's national roller hockey team", "Malgrat de Mar", "Salvador Espriu", "Baroque", "First Spanish Republic", "Catalan Coastal Range", "euronews", "Cadí-Moixeró Natural Park", "Denominación de origen", "Barcelona", "Spanish Government", "Atheism", "Ter (river)", "Catalan constitutions", "Roman aqueduct", "Natural park (Spain)", "Super3", "Romanesque architecture", "Dalí", "Alicante", "Fira de Barcelona", "Ciutadella park", "republicanism", "calçotada", "the World's 50 Best Restaurants", "José Montilla", "Tarraco (Tarragona)", "Felip Pedrell", "Crown of Aragon", "Lluís Domènech i Montaner", "Government of Spain", "Corporació Catalana de Mitjans Audiovisuals", "Umayyad Caliphate", "universal suffrage", "Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line", "Siege of Barcelona (1713–14)", "Riff language", "Catholic Church in Spain", "Andalusia", "Aranese dialect", "Islam", "Tourism in Spain", "National Art Museum of Catalonia", "Renfe", "Aeroports de Catalunya", "opera", "Jaime Rosales", "vassal", "Epipalaeolithic", "House of Trastámara", "comarcal council", "Francesc Macià", "Spanish transition to democracy", "Mataró", "La Liga", "Garona", "Devolution", "Tarraconensis", "Together for Catalonia (2020)", "2013 World Aquatics Championships", "Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)", "Lluís Companys", "Gegants i capgrossos", "Vandals", "Banyoles", "recession", "deurbanization", "Direct rule over Catalonia", "Basque Country (autonomous community)", "Blanes", "Ramon Carles", "Events of 6 October", "Americas", "Catalan Republic (1931)", "correfoc", "Hugh Capet", "Ausiàs March", "TV3CAT", "Joaquim Jordà i Català", "List of people from Catalonia", "Belgium", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Òmnium Cultural", "Christmas Eve", "Botifarra", "Sangtraït", "Genoa Republic", "2017 Catalan independence referendum", "Josep Maria Sert", "Televisió de Catalunya", "proto-Indo-Europeans", "Alt Pirineu i Aran", "Sitges Film Festival", "List of Presidents of the Government of Catalonia", "International Brigades", "Tirant lo Blanch", "Valentí Almirall i Llozer", "Pep Guardiola", "Sabadell", "Nova Cançó", "oceanic climate", "CNT-FAI", "Catalan Sign language", "trombone", "Convergence and Union", "community of Madrid", "Costa del Garraf", "AVE", "Catalunya Ràdio", "Statistical Institute of Catalonia", "Jacint Verdaguer", "Quim Torra", "Pau Claris", "Latin America", "European Union", "Palace of the Parliament of Catalonia", "Gascon dialect", "Ebro Delta", "Treaty of Corbeil (1258)", "Francesc Pi i Margall", "Decadència", "Autonomous Region of Catalonia (1931-1939)", "Catalan Football Federation", "List of country subdivisions by GDP over 100 billion US dollars", "Latin law", "Public law", "La Seu d'Urgell Airport", "Juan Prim, 1st Marquis of los Castillejos", "House of Habsburg", "Catalan Republic (1640–1641)", "Pre-Pyrenees", "Llibre Vermell de Montserrat", "History of the cotton industry in Catalonia", "dolphin", "Tarraco", "Roman Catholicism", "waterpolo", "Catalan language", "Renaixença", "Siege of Barcelona (801)", "Cava (Spanish wine)", "sardana", "California", "Spanish language", "Montsant DO", "Euro", "communism", "Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya", "autarky", "Poblet", "Pere Calders", "Anella Olímpica", "Asia", "Alfonso II of Aragon", "Zona Volcànica de la Garrotxa Natural Park", "Southern Europe", "Cerdanya (comarca)", "List of TGV services", "Joan Salvat-Papasseit", "Spanish Constitution", "Four Motors for Europe", "rugby league", "Catalan independence movement", "Catalan Central Depression", "ecological footprint", "Crown of Castile", "Suebi", "fin whale", "La Roca del Vallès", "Gabriel Ferrater", "Eduard Toldrà", "vegetables", "2017 Catalan regional election", "Miguel Primo de Rivera", "Self-governance", "fuet", "Spanish government", "2024 Catalan regional election", "La Jonquera", "savings bank", "Antoni Tàpies", "Nuevo León", "Province of Barcelona", "Empordà", "Francisco Serrano, 1st Duke of la Torre", "Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds", "Figueres", "Romanian language", "Seville Fair", "Barcelona Symphony Orchestra", "Els Setze Jutges", "Telephone numbers in Spain", "Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization", "Claudi Lorenzale", "Tordera", "War of the Spanish Succession", "Catalonia national football team", "Eugenio d'Ors", "Carles Riba", "CaixaForum Barcelona", "megafauna", "Constitutional Court of Spain", "EUobserver", "Christmas Day", "La Razón (Madrid)", "Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe", "El Punt Avui", "Fresno Case", "Castile (historical region)", "Central Catalan", "La Banda Trapera del Río", "tomato", "National Police Corps", "Enric Granados", "civil law (legal system)", "Central European Summer Time", "mass media", "Catalan nationalism", "Spanish Revolution of 1936", "Kingdom of Sicily", "Ramon Borrell, Count of Barcelona", "Narcís Oller", "Homage to Catalonia", "Philip V of Spain", "Mercè Rodoreda", "Marca Hispanica", "Siege of Barcelona (1713–1714)", "Josep Carreras", "Spanish Constitution of 1978", "Saint George's Day in Catalonia", "World Heritage Sites", "Banc Sabadell", "Josep Pla", "Autonomous community of Spain", "John Elliott (historian)", "Carlism", "Pyrénées-Orientales" ]
6,823	Konstantinos Kanaris	Konstantinos Kanaris (, ; c. 17902 September 1877), also anglicised as Constantine Kanaris or Canaris, was a Greek statesman, admiral, and a hero of the Greek War of Independence. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Konstantinos Kanaris was born and grew up on the island of Psara, close to the island of Chios, in the Aegean. The exact year of his birth is unknown. Official records of the Hellenic Navy indicate 1795, however, modern Greek historians consider 1790 or 1793 to be more probable. At Chios, on the moonless night of 6–7 June 1822, forces under his command destroyed the flagship of Nasuhzade Ali Pasha, Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral) of the Ottoman fleet, in revenge for the Chios massacre. The admiral was holding a Bayram celebration, allowing Kanaris and his men to position their fire ship without being noticed. When the flagship's powder store caught fire, all men aboard were instantly killed. The Turkish casualties comprised 2300 men, both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Nasuhzade Ali Pasha himself. The Ottoman fleet captured Psara on 21 June 1824. A part of the population, including Kanaris, managed to flee the island, but those who didn't were either sold into slavery or slaughtered. After the destruction of his home island, he continued to lead attacks against Turkish forces. In August 1824, he engaged in naval combats in the Dodecanese. After the end of the War and the independence of Greece, Kanaris became an officer of the new Hellenic Navy, reaching the rank of admiral, and a prominent politician. ===Political career=== Konstantinos Kanaris was one of the few with the personal confidence of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first Head of State of independent Greece. After the assassination of Kapodistrias on 9 October 1831, he retired to the island of Syros. During the reign of King Otto I, Kanaris served as Minister in various governments and then as Prime Minister in the provisional government (16 February30 March 1844). He served a second term (15 October 184812 December 1849), and as Navy Minister in the 1854 cabinet of Alexandros Mavrokordatos. In 1862, he was among the rare War of Independence veterans who took part in the bloodless insurrection that deposed the increasingly unpopular King Otto I and led to the election of Prince William of Denmark as King George I of Greece. During his reign, Kanaris served as a Prime Minister for a third term (6 March16 April 1864), fourth term (26 July 186426 February 1865), and fifth and last term (7 June2 September 1877). Kanaris, a gunboat commissioned in 1835 Kanaris, a torpedo boat tender commissioned in 1880 , a Hunt-class destroyer commissioned in 1942 , a commissioned in 1972 , an commissioned in 2002 Te Korowhakaunu / Kanáris Sound, a section of Taiari / Chalky Inlet in New Zealand's Fiordland National Park, was named after Konstantinos Kanaris by French navigator and explorer Jules de Blosseville (1802–1833). ==Family== In 1817, Konstantinos Kanaris married Despoina Maniatis, from a historical family of Psara. They had seven children: Nikolaos Kanaris (1818–1848), killed during a military expedition in Beirut Themistoklis Kanaris (1819–1851), killed during a military expedition in Egypt Thrasyvoulos Kanaris (1820–1898), admiral Miltiadis Kanaris (1822–1901), admiral, member of the Greek Parliament for many years, Naval Minister three times in 1864, 1871, and 1878 Lykourgos Kanaris (1826–1865), naval officer and lawyer Maria Kanaris (1828–1847), married A. Balabano Aristeidis Kanaris (1831–1863), officer killed in the uprising of 1863 Wilhelm Canaris, a German Admiral, speculated that he might be a descendant of Konstantinos Kanaris. An official genealogical family history that was researched in 1938 showed however, that he was of Italian descent and not related to the Kanaris family from Greece. ==Honours== ===Greek honours=== Order of the Redeemer (Kingdom of Greece): Grand Cross, 1864 ===Foreign honours=== Royal Guelphic Order (Kingdom of Hanover): Grand Cross Order of the Dannebrog (Kingdom of Denmark): Grand Cross	[ "Athens", "Bayram (Turkey)", "Eyalet of the Archipelago", "Burning of the Ottoman flagship off Chios", "Destruction of Psara", "Greek raid on Alexandria (1825)", "Minister (government)", "coin", "Ottoman Empire", "Denmark", "Kypseli, Athens", "fire ship", "Kanaris family", "Anglicisation (linguistics)", "Kapudan Pasha", "orphan", "David d'Angers", "Nasuhzade Ali Pasha", "Piracy", "Aristeidis Kanaris", "Aegean Sea", "Order of the Dannebrog", "Ioannis Kapodistrias", "Greece", "Georgios Kountouriotis", "Antonios Kriezis", "Lazaros Fytalis", "Kanaris at Chios (sculpture)", "destroyer", "Admiral", "Expulsion of Otto of Greece", "Sailor", "Dodecanese", "Dimitrios Voulgaris", "Romanization of Greek", "Andreas Metaxas", "torpedo boat tender", "naval warfare", "Modern drachma", "slavery", "Hellenic Navy", "Hunt-class destroyer", "Bank of Greece", "Ottoman Navy", "Royal Guelphic Order", "banknote", "Greek ship Kanaris", "First Hellenic Republic", "Tenedos", "Ottoman Egypt", "Miltiadis Kanaris", "Russian Party (Greece)", "Alexandria Port", "brig", "Jules de Blosseville", "History of Greece", "Fiordland National Park", "George I of Greece", "Navy", "Italy", "Prime Minister of Greece", "Greek War of Independence", "Filiki Eteria", "Egyptian Navy", "Alexandros Mavrokordatos", "Chios massacre", "Chios", "bust (sculpture)", "Order of the Redeemer", "Hellenic Parliament", "Alexandros Koumoundouros", "Taiari / Chalky Inlet", "gunboat", "Old Style", "statue", "Battle of Samos", "admiral", "First Cemetery of Athens", "List of prime ministers of Greece", "Giardino Inglese (Palermo)", "Kingdom of Greece", "Odessa", "Syros", "politician", "Wilhelm Canaris", "Greeks", "Kingdom of Hanover", "urn", "Benedetto Civiletti", "Beirut", "Psara", "Otto of Greece", "Zinovios Valvis" ]
6,824	Carl Sagan	{{Infobox scientist \| image = Carl Sagan Planetary Society cropped.png \| caption = Sagan in 1980 \| birth_name = Carl Edward Sagan \| birth_date = \| birth_place = New York City, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Seattle, Washington, U.S. \| resting_place = Lake View Cemetery \| education = University of Chicago (BA, BS, MS, PhD) \| field = \| work_institutions = \| doctoral_advisor = Gerard Kuiper \| doctoral_students = Long before the ill-fated tenure process, Cornell University astronomer Thomas Gold had courted Sagan to move to Ithaca, New York, and join the recently hired astronomer Frank Drake among the faculty at Cornell. Following the denial of tenure from Harvard, Sagan accepted Gold's offer and remained a faculty member at Cornell for nearly 30 years until his death in 1996. Unlike Harvard, the smaller and more laid-back astronomy department at Cornell welcomed Sagan's growing celebrity status. Following two years as an associate professor, Sagan became a full professor at Cornell in 1970 and directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies there. From 1972 to 1981, he was associate director of the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research (CRSR) at Cornell. In 1976, he became the David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Sagan was associated with the U.S. space program from its inception. From the 1950s onward, he worked as an advisor to NASA, where one of his duties included briefing the Apollo astronauts before their flights to the Moon. Sagan contributed to many of the robotic spacecraft missions that explored the Solar System, arranging experiments on many of the expeditions. Sagan assembled the first physical message that was sent into space: a gold-plated plaque, attached to the space probe Pioneer 10, launched in 1972. Pioneer 11, also carrying another copy of the plaque, was launched the following year. He continued to refine his designs; the most elaborate message he helped to develop and assemble was the Voyager Golden Record, which was sent out with the Voyager space probes in 1977. Sagan often challenged the decisions to fund the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station at the expense of further robotic missions. === Scientific achievements === Former student David Morrison described Sagan as "an 'idea person' and a master of intuitive physical arguments and 'back of the envelope' calculations", In the early 1960s no one knew for certain the basic conditions of Venus' surface, and Sagan listed the possibilities in a report later depicted for popularization in a Time Life book Planets. His own view was that Venus was dry and very hot as opposed to the balmy paradise others had imagined. He had investigated radio waves from Venus and concluded that there was a surface temperature of . As a visiting scientist to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he contributed to the first Mariner missions to Venus, working on the design and management of the project. Mariner 2 confirmed his conclusions on the surface conditions of Venus in 1962. Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn's moon Titan might possess oceans of liquid compounds on its surface and that Jupiter's moon Europa might possess subsurface oceans of water. This would make Europa potentially habitable. Europa's subsurface ocean of water was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft Galileo. The mystery of Titan's reddish haze was also solved with Sagan's help. The reddish haze was revealed to be due to complex organic molecules constantly raining down onto Titan's surface. Sagan further contributed insights regarding the atmospheres of Venus and Jupiter, as well as seasonal changes on Mars. He also perceived global warming as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot, life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect. He testified to the US Congress in 1985 that the greenhouse effect would change the Earth's climate system. Sagan and his Cornell colleague Edwin Ernest Salpeter speculated about life in Jupiter's clouds, given the planet's dense atmospheric composition rich in organic molecules. He studied the observed color variations on Mars' surface and concluded that they were not seasonal or vegetational changes as most believed, but shifts in surface dust caused by windstorms. Sagan is also known for his research on the possibilities of extraterrestrial life, including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation. He is also the 1994 recipient of the Public Welfare Medal, the highest award of the National Academy of Sciences for "distinguished contributions in the application of science to the public welfare." He was denied membership in the academy, reportedly because his media activities made him unpopular with many other scientists. , Sagan is the most cited SETI scientist and one of the most cited planetary scientists. ===Cosmos: popularizing science on TV=== In 1980, Sagan co-wrote and narrated the award-winning 13-part PBS television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, which became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television until 1990. The show has been seen by at least 500 million people across 60 countries. The book, Cosmos, written by Sagan, was published to accompany the series. Because of his earlier popularity as a science writer from his best-selling books, including The Dragons of Eden, which won him a Pulitzer Prize in 1977, he was asked to write and narrate the show. It was targeted to a general audience of viewers, who Sagan felt had lost interest in science, partly due to a stifled educational system. Each of the 13 episodes was created to focus on a particular subject or person, thereby demonstrating the synergy of the universe. along with a Peabody Award, and transformed Sagan from an obscure astronomer into a pop-culture icon. Time magazine ran a cover story about Sagan soon after the show broadcast, referring to him as "creator, chief writer and host-narrator of the show." In 2000, "Cosmos" was released on a remastered set of DVDs. === "Billions and billions" === After Cosmos aired, Sagan became associated with the catchphrase "billions and billions", although he never actually used the phrase in the Cosmos series. He rather used the term "billions upon billions." Richard Feynman, a precursor to Sagan, used the phrase "billions and billions" many times in his "red books." However, Sagan's frequent use of the word billions and distinctive delivery emphasizing the "b" (which he did intentionally, in place of more cumbersome alternatives such as "billions with a 'b, in order to distinguish the word from "millions") Gary Kroeger, Mike Myers, Bronson Pinchot, Penn Jillette, Harry Shearer, and others. Frank Zappa satirized the line in the song "Be in My Video", noting as well "atomic light." Sagan took this all in good humor, and his final book was titled Billions and Billions, which opened with a tongue-in-cheek discussion of this catchphrase, observing that Carson was an amateur astronomer and that Carson's comic caricature often included real science. ===Sagan's number=== Sagan's number is the number of stars in the observable universe. This number is reasonably well defined, because it is known what stars are and what the observable universe is, but its value is highly uncertain. In 1980, Sagan estimated it to be 10 sextillion in short scale (1022). In 2003, it was estimated to be 70 sextillion (7 × 1022). In 2010, it was estimated to be 300 sextillion (3 × 1023). === Scientific and critical thinking advocacy === Sagan's ability to convey his ideas allowed many people to understand the cosmos better—simultaneously emphasizing the value and worthiness of the human race, and the relative insignificance of the Earth in comparison to the Universe. He delivered the 1977 series of Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in London. Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life. He urged the scientific community to listen with radio telescopes for signals from potential intelligent extraterrestrial life-forms. Sagan was so persuasive that by 1982 he was able to get a petition advocating SETI published in the journal Science, signed by 70 scientists, including seven Nobel Prize winners. This signaled a tremendous increase in the respectability of a then-controversial field. Sagan also helped Frank Drake write the Arecibo message, a radio message beamed into space from the Arecibo radio telescope on November 16, 1974, aimed at informing potential extraterrestrials about Earth. Sagan was chief technology officer of the professional planetary research journal Icarus for 12 years. He co-founded The Planetary Society and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees. Sagan served as Chairman of the Division for Planetary Science of the American Astronomical Society, as President of the Planetology Section of the American Geophysical Union, and as Chairman of the Astronomy Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). At the height of the Cold War, Sagan became involved in nuclear disarmament efforts by promoting hypotheses on the effects of nuclear war, when Paul Crutzen's "Twilight at Noon" concept suggested that a substantial nuclear exchange could trigger a nuclear twilight and upset the delicate balance of life on Earth by cooling the surface. In 1983, he was one of five authors—the "S"—in the follow-up "TTAPS" model (as the research article came to be known), which contained the first use of the term "nuclear winter", which his colleague Richard P. Turco had coined. In 1984, he co-authored the book The Cold and the Dark: The World after Nuclear War and in 1990, the book A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race, which explains the nuclear-winter hypothesis and advocates nuclear disarmament. Sagan received a great deal of skepticism and disdain for the use of media to disseminate a very uncertain hypothesis. A personal correspondence with nuclear physicist Edward Teller around 1983 began amicably, with Teller expressing support for continued research to ascertain the credibility of the winter hypothesis. However, Sagan and Teller's correspondence would ultimately result in Teller writing: "A propagandist is one who uses incomplete information to produce maximum persuasion. I can compliment you on being, indeed, an excellent propagandist, remembering that a propagandist is the better the less he appears to be one." Biographers of Sagan would also comment that from a scientific viewpoint, nuclear winter was a low point for Sagan, although, politically speaking, it popularized his image among the public. The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence, which won a Pulitzer Prize; and Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science. Sagan also wrote the best-selling science fiction novel Contact in 1985, based on a film treatment he wrote with his wife, Ann Druyan, in 1979, but he did not live to see the book's 1997 motion-picture adaptation, which starred Jodie Foster and won the 1998 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Sagan wrote a sequel to Cosmos, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space, which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times. He appeared on PBS's Charlie Rose program in January 1995. these claims were also the subject of a televised debate between Sagan and physicist Fred Singer on January 22, aired on the ABC News program Nightline. In the televised debate, Sagan argued that the effects of the smoke would be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter, with Singer arguing to the contrary. After the debate, the fires burnt for many months before extinguishing efforts were complete. The results of the smoke did not produce continental-sized cooling. Sagan later conceded in The Demon-Haunted World that the prediction did not turn out to be correct: "it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6 °C over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared." In his later years, Sagan advocated the creation of an organized search for asteroids/near-Earth objects (NEOs) that might impact the Earth but to forestall or postpone developing the technological methods that would be needed to defend against them. He argued that all of the numerous methods proposed to alter the orbit of an asteroid, including the employment of nuclear detonations, created a deflection dilemma: if the ability to deflect an asteroid away from the Earth exists, then one would also have the ability to divert a non-threatening object towards Earth, creating an immensely destructive weapon. In a 1994 paper he co-authored, he ridiculed a three-day-long "Near-Earth Object Interception Workshop" held by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in 1993 that did not, "even in passing" state that such interception and deflection technologies could have these "ancillary dangers." Later acknowledging that, with sufficient international oversight, in the future a "work our way up" approach to implementing nuclear explosive deflection methods could be fielded, and when sufficient knowledge was gained, to use them to aid in mining asteroids. Sagan was a critic of Plato, having said of the ancient Greek philosopher: "Science and mathematics were to be removed from the hands of the merchants and the artisans. This tendency found its most effective advocate in a follower of Pythagoras named Plato" and In 1995 (as part of his book The Demon-Haunted World), Sagan popularized a set of tools for skeptical thinking called the "baloney detection kit", a phrase first coined by Arthur Felberbaum, a friend of his wife Ann Druyan. === Popularizing science === Speaking about his activities in popularizing science, Sagan said that there were at least two reasons for scientists to share the purposes of science and its contemporary state. Simple self-interest was one: much of the funding for science came from the public, and the public therefore had the right to know how the money was being spent. If scientists increased public admiration for science, there was a good chance of having more public supporters. The other reason was the excitement of communicating one's own excitement about science to others. Following the success of Cosmos, Sagan set up his own publishing firm, Cosmos Store, to publish science books for the general public. It was not successful. ===Criticisms=== While Sagan was widely adored by the general public, his reputation in the scientific community was more polarized. Critics sometimes characterized his work as fanciful, non-rigorous, and self-aggrandizing, and others complained in his later years that he neglected his role as a faculty member to foster his celebrity status. One of Sagan's harshest critics, Harold Urey, felt that Sagan was getting too much publicity for a scientist and was treating some scientific theories too casually. Urey and Sagan were said to have different philosophies of science, according to Davidson. While Urey was an "old-time empiricist" who avoided theorizing about the unknown, Sagan was by contrast willing to speculate openly about such matters. Fred Whipple wanted Harvard to keep Sagan there, but learned that because Urey was a Nobel laureate, his opinion was an important factor in Harvard denying Sagan tenure. Sagan's Harvard friend Lester Grinspoon also stated: "I know Harvard well enough to know there are people there who certainly do not like people who are outspoken." Grinspoon added: Some, like Urey, later believed that Sagan's popular brand of scientific advocacy was beneficial to the science as a whole. Urey especially liked Sagan's 1977 book The Dragons of Eden and wrote Sagan with his opinion: "I like it very much and am amazed that someone like you has such an intimate knowledge of the various features of the problem... I congratulate you... You are a man of many talents." Sagan was accused of borrowing some ideas of others for his own benefit and countered these claims by explaining that the misappropriation was an unfortunate side effect of his role as a science communicator and explainer, and that he attempted to give proper credit whenever possible. === Social concerns === Sagan believed that the Drake equation, on substitution of reasonable estimates, suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations highlighted by the Fermi paradox suggests technological civilizations tend to self-destruct. This stimulated his interest in identifying and publicizing ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such a cataclysm and eventually becoming a spacefaring species. Sagan's deep concern regarding the potential destruction of human civilization in a nuclear holocaust was conveyed in a memorable cinematic sequence in the final episode of Cosmos, called "Who Speaks for Earth?" Sagan had already resigned from the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board's UFO-investigating Condon Committee and voluntarily surrendered his top-secret clearance in protest over the Vietnam War. Following his marriage to his third wife (novelist Ann Druyan) in June 1981, Sagan became more politically active—particularly in opposing escalation of the nuclear arms race under President Ronald Reagan. In March 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative—a multibillion-dollar project to develop a comprehensive defense against attack by nuclear missiles, which was quickly dubbed the "Star Wars" program. Sagan spoke out against the project, arguing that it was technically impossible to develop a system with the level of perfection required, and far more expensive to build such a system than it would be for an enemy to defeat it through decoys and other means—and that its construction would seriously destabilize the "nuclear balance" between the United States and the Soviet Union, making further progress toward nuclear disarmament impossible. When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev declared a unilateral moratorium on the testing of nuclear weapons, which would begin on August 6, 1985—the 40th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima—the Reagan administration dismissed the dramatic move as nothing more than propaganda and refused to follow suit. In response, US anti-nuclear and peace activists staged a series of protest actions at the Nevada Test Site, beginning on Easter Sunday in 1986 and continuing through 1987. Hundreds of people in the "Nevada Desert Experience" group were arrested, including Sagan, who was arrested on two separate occasions as he climbed over a chain-link fence at the test site during the underground Operation Charioteer and United States's Musketeer nuclear test series of detonations. Sagan was also a vocal advocate of the controversial notion of testosterone poisoning, arguing in 1992 that human males could become gripped by an "unusually severe [case of] testosterone poisoning" and this could compel them to become genocidal. In his review of Moondance magazine writer Daniela Gioseffi's 1990 book Women on War, he argues that females are the only half of humanity "untainted by testosterone poisoning." One chapter of his 1993 book Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors is dedicated to testosterone and its alleged poisonous effects. In 1989, Carl Sagan was interviewed by Ted Turner whether he believed in socialism and responded that: "I'm not sure what a socialist is. But I believe the government has a responsibility to care for the people... I'm talking about making the people self-reliant." == Personal life and beliefs == Sagan was married three times. In 1957, he married biologist Lynn Margulis. The couple had two children, Jeremy and Dorion Sagan. Their marriage ended in 1964. Sagan married artist Linda Salzman in 1968 and they had a child together, Nick Sagan, and divorced in 1981. During these marriages, Carl Sagan focused heavily on his career, a factor which may have contributed to Sagan's first divorce. While there he drove a red Porsche 911 Targa and an orange 1970 Porsche 914 with the license plate PHOBOS. In 1994, engineers at Apple Computer code-named the Power Macintosh 7100 "Carl Sagan" in the hope that Apple would make "billions and billions" with the sale of the PowerMac 7100. In November 1995, after further legal battle, an out-of-court settlement was reached and Apple's office of trademarks and patents released a conciliatory statement that "Apple has always had great respect for Dr. Sagan. It was never Apple's intention to cause Dr. Sagan or his family any embarrassment or concern." In 2019, Carl Sagan's daughter Sasha Sagan released For Small Creatures Such as We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World, which depicts life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen. Building on a theme in her father's work, Sasha Sagan argues in For Small Creatures Such as We that skepticism does not imply pessimism. Sagan was acquainted with science fiction fandom through his friendship with Isaac Asimov, and he spoke at the Nebula Awards ceremony in 1969. Asimov described Sagan as one of only two people he ever met whose intellect surpassed his own, the other being computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert Marvin Minsky. ===Naturalism=== Sagan wrote frequently about religion and the relationship between religion and science, expressing his skepticism about the conventional conceptualization of God as a sapient being. For example: In another description of his view on the concept of God, Sagan wrote: On atheism, Sagan said in 1981: Sagan also commented on Christianity and the Jefferson Bible, stating "My long-time view about Christianity is that it represents an amalgam of two seemingly immiscible parts, the religion of Jesus and the religion of Paul. Thomas Jefferson attempted to excise the Pauline parts of the New Testament. There wasn't much left when he was done, but it was an inspiring document." Sagan thought that spirituality should be scientifically informed and that traditional religions should be abandoned and replaced with belief systems that revolve around the scientific method, but also the mystery and incompleteness of scientific fields. Regarding spirituality and its relationship with science, Sagan stated: An environmental appeal, "Preserving and Cherishing the Earth", primarily written by Sagan and signed by him and other noted scientists as well as religious leaders, and published in January 1990, stated that "The historical record makes clear that religious teaching, example, and leadership are powerfully able to influence personal conduct and commitment... Thus, there is a vital role for religion and science." In reply to a question in 1996 about his religious beliefs, Sagan said he was agnostic. Sagan maintained that the idea of a creator God of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could challenge it would be an infinitely old universe. His son, Dorion Sagan said, "My father believed in the God of Spinoza and Einstein, God not behind nature but as nature, equivalent to it." His last wife, Ann Druyan, said: In 2006, Druyan edited Sagan's 1985 Glasgow Gifford Lectures in Natural Theology into a book, The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God, in which he elaborates on his views of divinity in the natural world. Sagan is also widely regarded as a freethinker or skeptic. One of his most famous quotations, "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", from Cosmos, is called the "Sagan standard" by some. It was based on a nearly identical statement by fellow founder of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, Marcello Truzzi, "An extraordinary claim requires extraordinary proof." This idea had been earlier aphorized in Théodore Flournoy's work From India to the Planet Mars (1899) from a longer quote by Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), a French mathematician and astronomer, as the Principle of Laplace: "The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts." Late in his life, Sagan's books elaborated on his naturalistic view of the world. In The Demon-Haunted World, he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating the wide use of critical thinking and of the scientific method. The compilation Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium, published in 1997 after Sagan's death, contains essays written by him, on topics such as his views on abortion, and also an essay by his widow, Ann Druyan, about the relationship between his agnostic and freethinking beliefs and his death. Sagan warned against humans' tendency towards anthropocentrism. He was the faculty adviser for the Cornell Students for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In the Cosmos chapter "Blues For a Red Planet", Sagan wrote, "If there is life on Mars, I believe we should do nothing with Mars. Mars then belongs to the Martians, even if the Martians are only microbes." ===Marijuana advocacy=== Sagan was a user and advocate of marijuana. Under the pseudonym "Mr. X", he contributed an essay about smoking cannabis to the 1971 book Marihuana Reconsidered. The essay explained that marijuana use had helped to inspire some of Sagan's works and enhance sensual and intellectual experiences. After Sagan's death, his friend Lester Grinspoon disclosed this information to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson. The publishing of the biography Carl Sagan: A Life, in 1999 brought media attention to this aspect of Sagan's life. Not long after his death, his widow Ann Druyan went on to preside over the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML), a non-profit organization dedicated to reforming cannabis laws. === UFOs === In 1947, the year that inaugurated the "flying saucer" craze, the young Sagan suspected the "discs" might be alien spaceships. Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought scientists should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports. Stuart Appelle notes that Sagan "wrote frequently on what he perceived as the logical and empirical fallacies regarding UFOs and the abduction experience. Sagan rejected an extraterrestrial explanation for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and pedagogical benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study." In 1966, Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review Project Blue Book, the U.S. Air Force's UFO investigation project. The committee concluded Blue Book had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny. The result was the Condon Committee (1966–68), led by physicist Edward Condon, and in their final report they formally concluded that UFOs, regardless of what any of them actually were, did not behave in a manner consistent with a threat to national security. Sociologist Ron Westrum writes that "The high point of Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the AAAS' symposium in 1969. A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents such as James McDonald and J. Allen Hynek but also skeptics like astronomers William Hartmann and Donald Menzel. The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from Edward Condon." Sagan briefly served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Sagan proposed that the film suggest, rather than depict, extraterrestrial superintelligence. == Death == After suffering from myelodysplasia for two years and receiving three bone marrow transplants from his sister, Sagan died from pneumonia at the age of 62 at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle on December 20, 1996. He was buried at Lake View Cemetery in Ithaca, New York. == Awards and honors == Annual Award for Television Excellence—1981—Ohio State University—PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage Apollo Achievement Award—National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal—National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1977) Emmy—Outstanding Individual Achievement—1981—PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal—National Aeronautics and Space Administration Helen Caldicott Leadership Award – Awarded by Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament Hugo Award—1981—Best Dramatic Presentation—Cosmos: A Personal Voyage Hugo Award—1981—Best Related Non-Fiction Book—Cosmos Hugo Award—1998—Best Dramatic Presentation—Contact Humanist of the Year—1981—Awarded by the American Humanist Association American Philosophical Society—1995—Elected to membership. In Praise of Reason Award—1987—Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Isaac Asimov Award—1994—Committee for Skeptical Inquiry John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award—1982—American Astronautical Society Special non-fiction Campbell Memorial Award—1974—The Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective Joseph Priestley Award—"For distinguished contributions to the welfare of mankind" Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific—1974 Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement—1975 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal—Awarded by the Soviet Cosmonauts Federation Locus Award 1986—Contact Los Angeles Times Book Prize's 1996 Science and Technology category for The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Lowell Thomas Award—The Explorers Club—75th Anniversary Masursky Award—American Astronomical Society Miller Research Fellowship—Miller Institute (1960–1962) Oersted Medal—1990—American Association of Physics Teachers Peabody Award—1980—PBS series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage Le Prix Galabert d'astronautique—International Astronautical Federation (IAF) Public Welfare Medal—1994—National Academy of Sciences Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction—1978—The Dragons of Eden Science Fiction Chronicle Award—1998—Dramatic Presentation—Contact UCLA Medal–1991 Inductee to International Space Hall of Fame in 2004 Named the "99th Greatest American" on June 5, 2005, Greatest American television series on the Discovery Channel Named an honorary member of the Demosthenian Literary Society on November 10, 2011 New Jersey Hall of Fame—2009—Inductee. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) Pantheon of Skeptics—April 2011—Inductee Grand-Cross of the Order of Saint James of the Sword, Portugal (November 23, 1998) Honorary Doctor of Science (Sc.D.) degree from Whittier College in 1978. Was given the 2012 Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association's Kate Wilhelm Solstice Award === Posthumous recognition === The 1997 film Contact was based on the only novel Sagan wrote and finished after his death. It ends with the dedication "For Carl." His photo can also be seen in the film. In 1997, the Sagan Planet Walk was opened in Ithaca, New York. It is a walking-scale model of the Solar System, extending 1.2 km from the center of The Commons in downtown Ithaca to the Sciencenter, a hands-on museum. The exhibition was created in memory of Carl Sagan, who was an Ithaca resident and Cornell Professor. Professor Sagan had been a founding member of the museum's advisory board. The landing site of the uncrewed Mars Pathfinder spacecraft was renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station on July 5, 1997. Asteroid 2709 Sagan is named in his honor, August 2007 the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) awarded Sagan posthumously a Lifetime Achievement Award. This honor has also been awarded to Harry Houdini and James Randi. In September 2008, a musical compositor Benn Jordan released his album Pale Blue Dot as a tribute to Carl Sagan's life. Beginning in 2009, a musical project known as Symphony of Science sampled several excerpts of Sagan from his series Cosmos and remixed them to electronic music. To date, the videos have received over 21 million views worldwide on YouTube. The 2014 Swedish science fiction short film Wanderers uses excerpts of Sagan's narration in 1994 of his book Pale Blue Dot, played over digitally-created visuals of humanity's possible future expansion into outer space. In February 2015, the Finnish-based symphonic metal band Nightwish released the song "Sagan" as a non-album bonus track for their single "Élan." The song, written by the band's songwriter/composer/keyboardist Tuomas Holopainen, is an homage to the life and work of the late Carl Sagan. In August 2015, it was announced that a biopic of Sagan's life was being planned by Warner Bros. On October 21, 2019, the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Theater was opened at the Center for Inquiry West in Los Angeles. In 2022, Sagan was posthumously awarded the Future of Life Award "for reducing the risk of nuclear war by developing and popularizing the science of nuclear winter." The honor, shared by seven other recipients involved in nuclear winter research, was accepted by his widow, Ann Druyan. In 2022, the audiobook recording of Sagan's 1994 book Pale Blue Dot was selected by the U.S. Library of Congress for inclusion in the National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." In 2023, a movie Voyagers by Sebastián Lelio was announced with Sagan played by Andrew Garfield and with Daisy Edgar-Jones playing Sagan's third wife, Ann Druyan. == Books == (Note: errata slip inserted.)	[ "Nevada Desert Experience", "Great Depression", "American Philosophical Society", "circumference of the earth", "MIT Press", "American Museum of Natural History", "United States Air Force", "European colonization of the Americas", "Gary Kroeger", "Locus Award", "observable universe", "Accounts of Chemical Research", "Lowell Thomas", "Sasha Sagan", "ABC News (United States)", "W. W. Norton & Company", "symphonic metal", "Futurama (New York World's Fair)", "Steven Soter", "The Demon-Haunted World", "Television program", "Scientific American", "Cloverleaf interchange", "Andrew Garfield", "Decoy", "Albert Einstein", "Los Angeles Times Book Prize", "Astrobiology", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "Pierre-Simon Laplace", "Rover (space exploration)", "Miller Research Fellows", "Stuart Appelle", "The Explorers Club", "Harvard University", "Titan (moon)", "Saturn", "Élan (song)", "Nuclear winter", "Peabody Award", "Nightline", "Life Science Library", "Ian Ridpath", "Edgar Rice Burroughs", "PhD", "Nauka (publisher)", "Opportunity (rover)", "2001: A Space Odyssey (film)", "Cannabis Culture (magazine)", "Broca's Brain", "Benn Jordan", "The Holocaust", "Harper (publisher)", "Annals of Botany", "University Press of Mississippi", "Atmosphere of Jupiter", "Kuwaiti oil fires", "grizzly bear", "runaway greenhouse effect", "Solar cell", "Frank Drake", "Emmy Award", "Gold plating", "hard science fiction", "Newspapers.com", "Neil deGrasse Tyson", "Adolf Hitler", "Asteroid impact avoidance", "George Gamow", "Thomas Gold", "Jefferson Bible", "Voyager Golden Record", "The Greatest American", "Dorion Sagan", "Melvin Calvin", "Lynn Margulis", "Pioneer 11", "Jacques Vallée", "Lester Grinspoon", "Star Trek: Enterprise", "Henry Holt and Company", "Doctoral advisor", "wikt:Sagan", "Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction", "planetary science", "agnostic", "skepticism", "Kamianets-Podilskyi", "Paul Crutzen", "Operation Charioteer", "c:File:Who's Out There (1975).webm", "International Space Hall of Fame", "1939 New York World's Fair", "Penguin Group", "RAND Corporation", "Astronomy", "Academy of Television Arts & Sciences", "film treatment", "Doubleday (publisher)", "Emmy", "International Astronautical Federation", "robotic spacecraft", "electronic music", "Arecibo Observatory", "Astronomical Society of the Pacific", "PBS", "Alien abduction", "Bantam Books", "Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science", "The New York Times", "Risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth", "Skeptical Inquirer", "Ithaca, New York", "Ames Research Center", "Tuomas Holopainen", "Random House", "tuning fork", "International Astronomical Union", "Back-of-the-envelope calculation", "New Jersey Hall of Fame", "missile defense", "Joseph Epstein (writer)", "H. G. Wells", "Avon (publisher)", "Clark Chapman", "CINE", "Helen Caldicott", "exobiology", "Life on Mars", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "logic", "Pythagoras", "David J. Darling", "Royal Institution", "Sebastián Lelio", "asteroid impact avoidance", "BBC Radio", "dust storm", "Russian Empire", "sextillion", "college early entrance program", "Isaac Asimov Awards", "Robert Maynard Hutchins", "nuclear disarmament", "Daniel Goldin", "University of Chicago", "University of California, Berkeley", "Ann Druyan", "Bensonhurst, Brooklyn", "cosmology", "Isaac Asimov", "Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation", "The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark", "Soviet Union", "Marcello Truzzi", "Rahway High School", "Nightwish", "Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory", "The Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective", "Sagan (number)", "Extraterrestrial life", "David Morrison (astrophysicist)", "Konstantin Tsiolkovsky", "Mariner 2", "search for extraterrestrial intelligence", "World War I", "Cornell University Press", "Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation", "The Baltimore Sun", "American Academy of Achievement", "Voyager 1", "Simon & Schuster", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association", "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "American Association of Physics Teachers", "Joseph Priestley", "Penn Jillette", "Cosmos (Sagan book)", "Wanderers (short film)", "Sagan Planet Walk", "James Randi", "American Scientist", "Rowman & Littlefield", "nuclear holocaust", "American Astronautical Society", "Life (magazine)", "List of humorous units of measurement", "Theory of Forms", "Skeptic (U.S. magazine)", "Terra Prime", "The Cold and the Dark: The World after Nuclear War", "pneumonia", "spacefaring", "Ron Westrum", "Pioneer 10", "Harry Shearer", "Time Inc.", "Bronson Pinchot", "Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "Notable litigation of Apple Computer", "Brooklyn", "computer scientist", "William Kenneth Hartmann", "YouTube", "Contact (novel)", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "global warming", "Hugo Award for Best Related Work", "Academic ranks in the United States", "naturalism (philosophy)", "Kosher foods", "Pulitzer Prize", "Linda Hall Library", "Gramophone record", "Minnesota State University, Mankato", "Edward Condon", "Donald Menzel", "Grandville, Michigan", "Venus", "Nick Sagan", "Abiogenesis", "fad", "Science (journal)", "cannabis (drug)", "Nuclear weapons testing", "astronaut", "University of Glasgow", "Mike Myers", "Project A119", "nature", "Technology", "James E. McDonald", "Christopher Chyba", "Hayden Planetarium", "Owen Toon", "NASA", "Jodie Foster", "Porsche 911 (classic)", "Harry Houdini", "astrobiology", "900 Stewart Avenue (Ithaca, New York)", "Symphony of Science", "Stanley Kubrick", "Ronald Reagan", "Frank Zappa", "Star Trek", "mining asteroids", "catchphrase", "United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board", "Baruch Spinoza", "Space Shuttle", "John Wiley & Sons", "Broca's Brain (book)", "Icarus (journal)", "Vietnam War", "Oersted Medal", "Fred Singer", "Hermann Joseph Muller", "Galileo (spacecraft)", "Masursky Award", "Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country", "Independent Investigations Group", "extraterrestrial life", "astronomer", "public television", "Fellow of the American Physical Society", "Harvard University Press", "Debunker", "James B. Pollack", "Voyager program", "Richard Feynman", "Nebula Award", "planetary scientist", "El Paso, Texas", "Cold War", "SETI Institute", "American Humanist Association", "Issues in Science and Technology", "Warner Bros.", "Classified information", "Jupiter", "star", "John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel", "Steve Squyres", "Emmy Awards", "Great Books", "Columbia University Press", "Time Life", "Council of Scientific Society presidents", "abiogenesis", "comprehensive examination", "General Motors", "scientific skepticism", "Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (book)", "Lake View Cemetery (Ithaca, New York)", "Paul the Apostle", "2709 Sagan", "The Star-Ledger", "Committee for Skeptical Inquiry", "College of the University of Chicago", "Ted Turner", "Miller Institute", "Rahway, New Jersey", "Oxford University Press", "Reform Judaism", "Arecibo message", "Pale Blue Dot (book)", "artificial intelligence", "Drake equation", "Spirit (rover)", "Saddam Hussein", "Center for Inquiry", "Primetime Emmy Award", "Hugo Award", "Contact (1997 American film)", "Nuclear weapons delivery", "astrophysics", "Flushing Meadows–Corona Park", "Royal Institution Christmas Lectures", "Edward Teller", "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", "United States security clearance", "nuclear weapon design", "Linda Salzman Sagan", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Armour Research Foundation", "Dean Acheson", "Europa (moon)", "Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center", "greenhouse effect", "amino acid", "Daniela Gioseffi", "Sagan effect", "short scale", "Cambridge University Press", "Pioneer plaque", "The Planetary Society", "Gerard Kuiper", "Porsche 914", "mass hysteria", "Apollo program", "Anti-nuclear movement", "Cornell University", "J. Allen Hynek", "UCLA", "inverse-square law", "Gifford Lectures", "Harold Urey", "Lewis Thomas", "Time (magazine)", "nuclear arms race", "University Press of Kansas", "extraterrestrial hypothesis", "Democritus", "Freeman Dyson", "radio telescope", "scientific method", "Eratosthenes", "Thomas Jefferson", "Nuclear weapon", "Top Secret", "Mariner program", "freethought", "American Geophysical Union", "myelodysplastic syndrome", "Unidentified flying object", "academic tenure", "Universe", "Demosthenian Literary Society", "pedagogy", "Third Man Records", "nuclear warfare", "Undergraduate education", "Kuwait", "Division for Planetary Sciences", "Donald Howard Menzel", "Fermi paradox", "atheism", "Charlie Rose (TV series)", "Columbia Encyclopedia", "The San Francisco Examiner", "Discovery Communications", "genocidal", "The Dragons of Eden", "Discovery Channel", "chronology of the universe", "Master of Science", "Myelodysplastic syndrome", "Public Welfare Medal", "anthropocentrism", "NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal", "National Geographic Society", "American Astronomical Society", "Project Blue Book", "Mars", "Ionian School (philosophy)", "space science", "Yale University Press", "Whittier College", "Sciencenter", "Plato", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Condon Committee", "World War II", "Astounding Science Fiction", "meteorite", "William Poundstone", "El Paso Times", "Théodore Flournoy", "bar mitzvah", "National Academy of Sciences", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Operation Musketeer (Nuclear test)", "Order of Saint James of the Sword", "oscilloscope", "Science (TV network)", "International Space Station", "flying saucer", "National Recording Registry", "New Scientist", "Nature (journal)", "Portugal", "Planetary science", "Moon", "Le Prix Galabert d'astronautique", "Women's Action for New Directions", "Carl Sagan Memorial Award", "Manhattan", "Bachelor of Science", "Bachelor of Arts", "testosterone poisoning", "Cosmos: A Personal Voyage", "Mars Pathfinder", "A Brief History of Time", "Solar System", "Jewish ethnicity", "National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws", "Google Books", "Wilmington Morning Star", "List of peace activists", "Strategic Defense Initiative", "popular science", "Seattle", "The Feynman Lectures on Physics", "Age of the universe", "Klumpke-Roberts Award", "Ohio State University", "near-Earth object", "Edwin Ernest Salpeter", "SETI", "empiricism", "Marihuana Reconsidered", "Postgraduate education", "Power Macintosh 7100", "Synagogue", "Library of Congress", "Carl Sagan Institute", "HuffPost", "Professor", "Apple Inc.", "science communicator", "Organic compound", "Betty and Barney Hill abduction", "time capsule", "Richard P. Turco", "science fiction fandom", "The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God", "valedictorian", "radiation", "Persian Gulf", "fallacy", "Carl Sagan Medal", "molecule", "Billions and Billions", "nuclear winter", "Fred Whipple", "pseudoscience", "Academy of Achievement", "Marvin Minsky", "C-SPAN", "Stephen Hawking", "Daisy Edgar-Jones", "Nevada National Security Site", "Socratic dialogue", "Johnny Carson", "radio wave", "Robert Drew", "Moondance magazine", "Scientific skepticism", "NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal" ]
6,827	Cuban Missile Crisis	The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis () in Cuba, or the Caribbean Crisis (), was a 13-day confrontation between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet deployments of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis lasted from 16to28 October 1962. The confrontation is widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war. In 1961 the US government put Jupiter nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey. It had trained a paramilitary force of expatriate Cubans, which the CIA led in an attempt to invade Cuba and overthrow its government. Starting in November of that year, the US government engaged in a violent campaign of terrorism and sabotage in Cuba, referred to as the Cuban Project, which continued throughout the first half of the 1960s. The Soviet administration was concerned about a Cuban drift towards China, with which the Soviets had an increasingly fractious relationship. In response to these factors the Soviet and Cuban governments agreed, at a meeting between leaders Nikita Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962, to place nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter a future US invasion. Construction of launch facilities started shortly thereafter. A U-2 spy plane captured photographic evidence of medium- and long-range launch facilities in October. US President John F. Kennedy convened a meeting of the National Security Council and other key advisers, forming the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM). Kennedy was advised to carry out an air strike on Cuban soil in order to compromise Soviet missile supplies, followed by an invasion of the Cuban mainland. He chose a less aggressive course in order to avoid a declaration of war. On 22 October Kennedy ordered a naval blockade to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba. He referred to the blockade as a "quarantine", not as a blockade, so the US could avoid the formal implications of a state of war. An agreement was eventually reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. The Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement not to invade Cuba again. The United States secretly agreed to dismantle all of the offensive weapons it had deployed to Turkey. There has been debate on whether Italy was also included in the agreement. While the Soviets dismantled their missiles, some Soviet bombers remained in Cuba, and the United States kept the naval quarantine in place until 20 November 1962. The blockade was formally ended on 20 November after all offensive missiles and bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba. The evident necessity of a quick and direct communication line between the two powers resulted in the Moscow–Washington hotline. A series of agreements later reduced US–Soviet tensions for several years. The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from a situation that they had started. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis. According to the Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation". ==Background== ===Cuba–Soviet relations=== In late 1961, Fidel Castro asked for more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles from the Soviet Union. The request was not acted upon by the Soviet leadership. In the interval, Castro began criticizing the Soviets for lack of "revolutionary boldness", and began talking to China about agreements for economic assistance. In March 1962, Castro ordered the ousting of Anibal Escalante and his pro-Moscow comrades from Cuba's Integrated Revolutionary Organizations. This affair alarmed the Soviet leadership and raised fears of a possible US invasion. As a result, the Soviet Union sent more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles in April, as well as a regiment of regular Soviet troops. Historian Timothy Naftali writes that Escalante's dismissal was a motivating factor behind the Soviet decision to place nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962. According to Naftali, Soviet foreign policy planners were concerned that Castro's break with Escalante foreshadowed a Cuban drift toward China, and they sought to solidify the Soviet-Cuban relationship through the missile basing program. ===Cuba–US relations=== The Cuban government regarded US imperialism as the primary explanation for the island's structural weaknesses. The US government had provided weapons, money, and its authority to the military dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista that ruled Cuba until 1958. The majority of the Cuban population had tired of the severe socioeconomic problems associated with the US domination of the country. The Cuban government was thus aware of the necessity of ending the turmoil and incongruities of US-dominated prerevolution Cuban society. It determined that the US government's demands, part of their hostile reaction to Cuban government policy, were unacceptable. With the ending of World War II and the start of the Cold War, the US government had grown concerned about the expansion of communism and sought to promote private enterprise as an instrument for advancing US strategic interests in the developing world. In December 1959, under the Eisenhower administration and less than twelve months after the Cuban Revolution, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed a plan for paramilitary action against Cuba. The CIA recruited operatives on the island to carry out terrorism and sabotage, kill civilians, and cause economic damage. The US government was aware at the time, as reported to the president in a National Intelligence Estimate, that the invasion threat was a key reason for the increased Soviet military presence. ===US–Soviet relations=== When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was an alleged "missile gap" with the Soviets. In fact the US at that time was ahead of the Soviets and by an increasingly wide margin. In 1961 the Soviets had four R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs); by October 1962, some intelligence estimates indicated a figure of 75. The half-hearted nature of the Bay of Pigs invasion reinforced his impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet aide wrote, "too young, intellectual, not prepared well for decision making in crisis situations... too intelligent and too weak". ==Prelude== === Conception === In May 1962, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev decided to counter the growing lead of the US in developing and deploying strategic missiles by placing Soviet intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Cuba, despite the misgivings of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Alexandr Ivanovich Alexeyev, who argued that Castro would not accept them. Khrushchev faced a strategic situation in which the US was perceived to have a "splendid first strike" capability that put the Soviet Union at a disadvantage. In 1962, the Soviets had only 20 ICBMs capable of delivering nuclear warheads to the US from inside the Soviet Union. Their poor accuracy and reliability raised serious doubts about their effectiveness. A newer, more reliable generation of Soviet ICBMs only became operational after 1965. A second reason that Soviet missiles were deployed to Cuba was that Khrushchev wanted to bring West Berlin, which was controlled by the American, British and French within Communist East Germany, into the Soviet orbit. The East Germans and Soviets considered western control over a portion of Berlin to be a threat to East Germany. Khrushchev made West Berlin the central battlefield of the Cold War. He believed that if the US did nothing over the deployments of missiles in Cuba, he could force the West out of Berlin by using the missiles as a deterrent to western countermeasures in Berlin. If the US tried to bargain with the Soviets after it became aware of them, Khrushchev could demand a trade of the missiles for West Berlin. Since Berlin was strategically more important than Cuba, the trade would be a win for Khrushchev, as Kennedy recognized: "The advantage is, from Khrushchev's point of view, he takes a great chance but there are quite some rewards to it." Thirdly, it seemed from the perspective both of the Soviet Union and of Cuba that the United States wanted to invade Cuba or increase its presence there. In view of actions which included an attempt to expel Cuba from the Organization of American States, a campaign of violent terrorist attacks on civilians which the US was carrying out on Cuba, economic sanctions against the country and an earlier attempt to invade the island, Cuban officials understood that America was trying to overrun their country. The USSR would respond by placing missiles on Cuba, which would secure the country against attack and keep it in the Socialist Bloc. Placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was also a way for the USSR to show support for Cuba and the Cuban people who viewed the United States as a threat. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., a historian and adviser to Kennedy, told National Public Radio in an interview on 16 October 2002 that Castro did not want the missiles, but Khrushchev pressured him to accept them. Castro was not completely happy with the idea, but the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them, both to protect Cuba against US attack and to aid the Soviet Union. The deployment would include short-range tactical weapons with a range of 40km, usable only against naval vessels, that would provide a "nuclear umbrella" for attacks upon the island. By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a US invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans "with more than words.... the logical answer was missiles". The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans in longhand, which were approved by Marshal of the Soviet Union Rodion Malinovsky on 4 July and Khrushchev on 7 July. The Soviets' operation entailed elaborate denial and deception, known as "maskirovka". All the planning and preparation for transporting and deploying the missiles was carried out in the utmost secrecy, with only a very few knowing the exact nature of the mission. Even the troops detailed for the mission were given misdirection by being told that they were headed for a cold region and were outfitted with ski boots, fleece-lined parkas, and other winter equipment. The Soviet code-name was Operation Anadyr. The Anadyr River flows into the Bering Sea, and Anadyr is also the capital of Chukotsky District and a bomber base in the far eastern region. All these measures were intended to conceal the program. Specialists in missile construction, under the guise of machine operators and agricultural specialists, arrived in July. Chief Marshal of Artillery Sergey Biryuzov, Head of the Soviet Rocket Forces, led a survey team that visited Cuba. He told Khrushchev that the missiles would be concealed and camouflaged by palm trees. As early as August 1962, the US suspected that the Soviets were building missile facilities in Cuba. During that month, its intelligence services gathered information of sightings by ground observers of Soviet-built MiG-21 fighters and Il-28 light bombers. U-2 spy planes found S-75 Dvina (NATO designation SA-2) surface-to-air missile sites at eight different locations. CIA director John A. McCone was suspicious. Sending antiaircraft missiles into Cuba, he reasoned, "made sense only if Moscow intended to use them to shield a base for ballistic missiles aimed at the United States". On 10 August, he wrote a memo to Kennedy in which he guessed that the Soviets were preparing to introduce ballistic missiles into Cuba. Che Guevara himself traveled to the Soviet Union on 30 August 1962, to sign the final agreement regarding the deployment of missiles in Cuba. The visit was heavily monitored by the CIA as Guevara was being watched closely by American intelligence. While in the Soviet Union, Guevara argued with Khrushchev that the missile deal should be made public but Khrushchev insisted on total secrecy, and promised the Soviet Union's support if the Americans discovered the missiles. By the time Guevara arrived in Cuba, U-2 spy planes had already discovered the Soviet troops in Cuba. With important Congressional elections scheduled for November, the crisis became enmeshed in American politics. On 31 August, Senator Kenneth Keating (R-New York) warned on the Senate floor that the Soviet Union was "in all probability" constructing a missile base in Cuba. He charged the Kennedy administration with covering up a major threat to the US, thereby starting the crisis. He may have received this initial "remarkably accurate" information from his friend, former congresswoman and ambassador Clare Boothe Luce, who in turn received it from Cuban exiles. A later confirming source for Keating's information may have been the West German ambassador to Cuba, who had received information from dissidents inside Cuba that Soviet troops had arrived in Cuba in early August and were seen working "in all probability on or near a missile base". The ambassador passed this information to Keating on a trip to Washington in early October. Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented a pre-invasion bombing plan to Kennedy in September, and spy flights and minor military harassment from US forces at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the US government. It was a single-stage, road-transportable, surface-launched, storable liquid propellant-fuelled missile that could deliver a megaton-class nuclear weapon. The Soviets were building nine sites, six for R-12 medium-range missiles (NATO designation SS-4 Sandal) with an effective range of and three for R-14 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (NATO designation SS-5 Skean) with a maximum range of . On 7 October, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado spoke at the UN General Assembly: "If... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves. I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ." On 11 October in another Senate speech, Sen Keating reaffirmed his earlier warning of 31 August and stated that, "Construction has begun on at least a half dozen launching sites for intermediate range tactical missiles." The Cuban leadership was further upset when on 20 September, the US Senate approved Joint Resolution 230, which stated that the US was determined "to prevent in Cuba the creation or use of an externally-supported military capability endangering the security of the United States". The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and would accept the missiles as a . On 17 October, Soviet embassy official Georgi Bolshakov brought President Kennedy a personal message from Khrushchev reassuring him that "under no circumstances would surface-to-surface missiles be sent to Cuba." Only five reports bothered the analysts. They described large trucks passing through towns at night that were carrying very long canvas-covered cylindrical objects and could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering. Defensive missile transporters, it was believed, could make such turns without undue difficulty. The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed. ===Aerial confirmation=== The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance flights over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. A pause in reconnaissance flights occurred on 30 August 1962 when a U-2 operated by the US Air Force's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake. The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized. Nine days later, a Taiwanese-operated U-2 was lost over western China to an SA-2 surface-to-air missile (SAM). US officials were worried that one of the Cuban or Soviet SAMs in Cuba might shoot down a CIA U-2, causing another international incident. In a meeting with members of the Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance (COMOR) on 10 September 1962, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy restricted further U-2 flights over Cuban airspace. The resulting lack of coverage over the island for the next five weeks became known to historians as the "Photo Gap". No significant U-2 coverage was achieved over the interior of the island during this time. US officials attempted to use a Corona photo-reconnaissance satellite to photograph reported Soviet military deployments, but the imagery acquired over western Cuba by a Corona KH-4 mission on October 1 1962 was obscured by clouds and haze and did not provide usable intelligence. At the end of September, Navy reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet ship Kasimov with large crates on its deck the size and shape of Il-28 jet bomber fuselages. In the past the flights had been conducted by the CIA, but pressure from the Defense Department led to that authority being transferred to the Air Force. ===President notified=== On 15 October 1962, the CIA's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) reviewed the U-2 photographs and identified objects that appeared to be medium range ballistic missiles. This identification was made partly on the strength of reporting provided by Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the GRU working for the CIA and MI6. Although he provided no direct reports of Soviet missile deployments to Cuba, technical and doctrinal details of Soviet missile regiments that had been provided by Penkovsky in the months and years prior to the crisis helped NPIC analysts to identify the missiles in U-2 imagery. That evening, the CIA notified the Department of State and at 8:30pm EDT, Bundy chose to wait until the next morning to tell the President. McNamara was briefed at midnight. The next morning, Bundy showed Kennedy the U-2 photographs and briefed him on the CIA's analysis of the images. At 6:30 pm EDT, Kennedy convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisers, in a group he named the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM) after the fact on 22 October by National Security Action Memorandum 196. Without informing the members of EXCOMM, President Kennedy tape-recorded all of their proceedings, and Sheldon M. Stern, head of the Kennedy library transcribed some of them. On 16 October, President Kennedy notified Attorney General Robert Kennedy that he was convinced the Soviets were placing missiles on Cuba, that it was a legitimate threat and that the possibility of nuclear destruction by two world superpowers had become a reality. Robert Kennedy responded by contacting the Soviet Ambassador, Anatoly Dobrynin. Robert Kennedy expressed his "concern about what was happening" and Dobrynin "was instructed by Soviet Chairman Nikita S. Khrushchev to assure President Kennedy that there would be no ground-to-ground missiles or offensive weapons placed in Cuba". Khrushchev further assured Kennedy that the Soviet Union had no intention of "disrupting the relationship of our two countries" despite the photo evidence presented before President Kennedy. ===Responses considered=== The US had no plan for a response in place because it had never expected that the Soviets would install nuclear missiles on Cuba. EXCOMM discussed several possible courses of action: Do nothing: American vulnerability to Soviet missiles was not new. Diplomacy: Use diplomatic pressure to induce the Soviet Union to remove the missiles. Secret approach: Offer Castro the choice of parting from the Soviets or being invaded. Invasion: Full-force invasion of Cuba and overthrow of Castro. Air strike: Use the US Air Force to attack all known missile sites. Blockade: Use the US Navy to block any missiles from arriving in Cuba. The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full-scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba. Kennedy was skeptical: Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line" to conquer Berlin. Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country as "trigger-happy cowboys" who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation. EXCOMM considered the effect on the strategic balance of power, both political and military. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the military balance, but McNamara disagreed. An extra 40, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance. The US already had approximately 5,000 strategic warheads, but the Soviet Union had only 300. McNamara concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance. In 1990, he reiterated that "it made no difference.... The military balance wasn't changed. I didn't believe it then, and I don't believe it now." It was agreed that the missiles would affect the political balance. Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that "if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States... the United States would act." Further, US credibility among its allies and people would be damaged if the Soviet Union appeared to redress the strategic imbalance by placing missiles in Cuba. Kennedy explained after the crisis that "it would have politically changed the balance of power. It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality." On 18 October 1962, Kennedy met Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei Gromyko, who claimed that the weapons were for defensive purposes only. Not wanting to expose what he already knew and to avoid panicking the American public, Kennedy did not reveal that he was already aware of the missile buildup. ==Operational plans== Two Operational Plans (OPLAN) were considered. OPLAN 316 envisioned a full invasion of Cuba by Army and Marine units, supported by the Navy, following Air Force and naval airstrikes. Army units in the US would have had difficulty fielding mechanised and logistical assets, and the US Navy could not supply enough amphibious shipping to transport even a modest armoured contingent from the Army. OPLAN 312, primarily an Air Force and Navy carrier operation, was designed with enough flexibility to do anything from engaging individual missile sites to providing air support for OPLAN 316's ground forces. ==Blockade== Kennedy conferred with members of EXCOMM and other top advisers throughout 21 October and considered the two remaining options: an air strike primarily against the Cuban missile bases or a naval blockade of Cuba. Legal experts at the State Department and Justice Department concluded that a declaration of war could be avoided if another legal justification, based on the Rio Treaty for defence of the Western Hemisphere, was obtained from a resolution by a two-thirds vote from the members of the Organization of American States (OAS). Admiral George Anderson, Chief of Naval Operations wrote a position paper that helped Kennedy to differentiate between what they termed a "quarantine" of offensive weapons and a blockade of all materials, claiming that a classic blockade was not the original intention. Since it would take place in international waters, Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defence provisions of the Rio Treaty: During the speech, a directive went out to all US forces worldwide, placing them on DEFCON 3. The heavy cruiser was the designated flagship for the blockade, Kennedy's speech writer Ted Sorensen stated in 2007 that the address to the nation was "Kennedy's most important speech historically, in terms of its impact on our planet." ===Crisis deepens=== At 11:24 am EDT on 24 October, a cable from US Under Secretary of State George Ball to the US Ambassadors in Turkey and NATO notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw missiles from Italy and Turkey in exchange for Soviet withdrawal from Cuba. Turkish officials replied that they would "deeply resent" any trade involving the US missile presence in their country. One day later, on the morning of 25 October, American journalist Walter Lippmann proposed the same thing in his syndicated column. Castro reaffirmed Cuba's right to self-defense and said that all of its weapons were defensive and Cuba would not allow an inspection. Three days after Kennedy's speech, the Chinese People's Daily announced that "650,000,000 Chinese men and women were standing by the Cuban people." In the 29 October issue of Le Figaro, Raymond Aron wrote in support of the American response. ===Soviet broadcast and communications=== The crisis continued unabated, and on the evening of 24 October 1962, the Soviet TASS news agency broadcast a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy in which Khrushchev warned that the United States' "outright piracy" would lead to war. Khrushchev then sent at 9:24 pm a telegram to Kennedy, which was received at 10:52 pm EDT. Khrushchev stated, "if you weigh the present situation with a cool head without giving way to passion, you will understand that the Soviet Union cannot afford not to decline the despotic demands of the USA". The Soviet Union viewed the blockade as "an act of aggression" and their ships would be instructed to ignore it. ===US alert level raised=== The US requested an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on 25 October and Ambassador to the United Nations, Adlai Stevenson, confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin and challenged him to admit the existence of the missiles. Ambassador Zorin refused to answer. At 10:00 pm EDT the next day, the US raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command (SAC) forces to DEFCON 2. For the only confirmed time in US history, B-52 bombers were put on continuous airborne alert. B-47 medium bombers were dispersed to military and civilian airfields and made ready to take off, fully equipped, at 15 minutes' notice. One-eighth of SAC's 1,436 bombers were on airborne alert. Some 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles, some of which targeted Cuba, were placed on alert. Air Defense Command (ADC) redeployed 161 nuclear-armed interceptors to 16 dispersal fields within nine hours, with one third on 15-minute alert status. Jack J. Catton later estimated that about 80 per cent of SAC's planes were ready for launch during the crisis. David A. Burchinal recalled that, by contrast: By 22 October, Tactical Air Command (TAC) had 511 fighters plus supporting tankers and reconnaissance aircraft deployed to face Cuba on one-hour alert status. TAC and the Military Air Transport Service had problems: the concentration of aircraft in Florida strained command and support echelons, which were facing critical undermanning in security, armaments, and communications. Absence of permission to use war-reserve stocks of conventional munitions forced TAC to scrounge supplies, and the lack of airlift assets to support a major airborne drop necessitated the call-up of 24 reserve squadrons. At 5:00 pm EDT on 25 October, William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still being worked on. This was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slowdown. In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR, which had the duty of carrying out first air strikes on the Soviet Union. Kennedy claimed that the blockade had succeeded when the USSR turned back fourteen ships presumed to be carrying offensive weapons. The first indication of this was in a report from British GCHQ sent to the White House Situation Room which contained intercepted communications from Soviet ships reporting their positions. On 24 October, Kislovodsk, a Soviet cargo ship, reported a position north-east of where it had been 24 hours earlier, indicating it had "discontinued" its voyage and turned back towards the Baltic. The next day, further reports showed that more ships originally bound for Cuba had altered their course. ===Raising the stakes=== The next morning, 26 October, Kennedy informed EXCOMM that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba. He was persuaded to wait and continue with military and diplomatic pressure. He agreed and ordered low-level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to every two hours. He also ordered a crash program to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead. At this point the crisis appeared to be at a stalemate. The Soviets had shown no indication that they would back down and had made public media and private inter-government statements to that effect. The US had no reason to disbelieve them and was in the early stages of preparing an invasion of Cuba and a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union if it responded militarily, which the US assumed it would. Kennedy had no intention of keeping these plans secret, and with an array of Cuban and Soviet spies present Khrushchev was made aware of them. The implicit threat of air strikes on Cuba followed by an invasion allowed the United States to exert pressure in future talks, and the prospect of military action helped to accelerate Khrushchev's proposal for a compromise. The escalating situation also caused Khrushchev to abandon plans for a possible Warsaw Pact invasion of Albania, which was being discussed in the Eastern Bloc following the Vlora incident the previous year. ==Secret negotiations== At 1:00 pm EDT on 26 October, John A. Scali of ABC News met Aleksandr Fomin, the cover name of Alexander Feklisov, the KGB station chief in Washington, at Fomin's request. Following the instructions of the Politburo of the CPSU, Fomin noted, "War seems about to break out." He asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his "high-level friends" at the State Department to see if the US would be interested in a diplomatic solution. He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons again, in exchange for a public statement by the US that it would not invade Cuba. The US responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the US would be "unlikely to invade" if the missiles were removed. \| width = 40% }} At 6:00 pm EDT on 26 October, the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev. It was Saturday 2:00 am in Moscow. The long letter took several minutes to arrive, and it took translators additional time to translate and transcribe it.}} Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion of Cuba was imminent, and on 26 October he sent a telegram to Khrushchev that appeared to call for a pre-emptive nuclear strike on the US in case of attack. In a 2010 interview, Castro expressed regret about his 1962 stance on first use: "After I've seen what I've seen, and knowing what I know now, it wasn't worth it at all." Castro also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any US aircraft. Previous orders had been to fire only on groups of two or more. At 6:00 am EDT on 27 October, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and both sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational. It also noted that the Cuban military continued to organise for action but was under order not to act unless attacked. At 9:00 am EDT on 27 October, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev. Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade: the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey. At 10:00 am EDT, the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in the message was because of internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin. Kennedy realised that he would be in an "insupportable position if this becomes Khrushchev's proposal" because the missiles in Turkey were not militarily useful and were being removed anyway, and "It's gonna – to any man at the United Nations or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade." Bundy explained why Khrushchev's public acquiescence could not be considered: "The current threat to peace is not in Turkey, it is in Cuba." McNamara noted that another tanker, the Grozny, was about out and should be intercepted. He also noted that they had not made the Soviets aware of the blockade line and suggested relaying that information to them via U Thant at the United Nations. While the meeting progressed, at 11:03 am EDT a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev. The message stated, in part: "You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety-nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us.... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive.... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made." The executive committee continued to meet through the day. Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed. Italy's Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani, who was also Foreign Minister ad interim, offered to allow withdrawal of the missiles deployed in Apulia as a bargaining chip. He gave the message to one of his most trusted friends, Ettore Bernabei, general manager of RAI-TV, to convey to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Bernabei was in New York to attend an international conference on satellite TV broadcasting. On the morning of 27 October, a U-2F (the third CIA U-2A, modified for air-to-air refuelling) piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson, departed its forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida. At approximately 12:00 pm EDT, the aircraft was struck by an SA-2 surface-to-air missile launched from Cuba. The aircraft crashed, and Anderson was killed. Stress in negotiations between the Soviets and the US intensified; only later was it assumed that the decision to fire the missile was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander, acting on his own authority. Later that day, at about 3:41 pm EDT, several US Navy RF-8A Crusader aircraft, on low-level photo-reconnaissance missions, were fired upon. At 4:00 pm EDT, Kennedy recalled members of EXCOMM to the White House and ordered that a message should immediately be sent to U Thant asking the Soviets to suspend work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out. During the meeting, General Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down. Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to not act unless another attack was made. On 28 October 1962, Khrushchev told his son Sergei that the shooting down of Anderson's U-2 was by the "Cuban military at the direction of Raúl Castro". On 27 October Bobby Kennedy relayed a message to the Soviet Ambassador that President Kennedy was under pressure from the military to use force against Cuba and that "an irreversible chain of events could occur against his will" as "the president is not sure that the military will not overthrow him and seize power". He therefore implored Khrushchev to accept Kennedy's proposed agreement. Forty years later, McNamara said: Daniel Ellsberg said that Robert Kennedy (RFK) told him in 1964 that after the U-2 was shot down and the pilot killed, he (RFK) told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin, "You have drawn first blood ... . [T]he president had decided against advice ... not to respond militarily to that attack, but he [Dobrynin] should know that if another plane was shot at, ... we would take out all the SAMs and anti-aircraft ... . And that would almost surely be followed by an invasion." ===Drafting response=== Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighbourhood of Washington, DC, on Saturday evening, 27 October. Kennedy suggested taking Khrushchev's offer to trade away the missiles. Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, but with the support of his brother the president, Robert Kennedy had been meeting the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in Washington to discover whether the intentions were genuine. The EXCOMM was against the proposal because it would undermine NATO's authority, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated that it was against any such trade. As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged, and Kennedy was slowly persuaded. The new plan called for him to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev's earlier one. Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that it was still possible. Within the US establishment, it was understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position. Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to their bases for possible action. Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood: "We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev's revising his course within the next few hours. It was a hope, not an expectation. The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday [30 October], and possibly tomorrow [29 October] ...." With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table. As Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted. At 9:00 pm EDT, the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day. Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage. McNamara stated that they had to "have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they're going to do something there". At 12:12 am EDT, on 27 October, the US informed its NATO allies that "the situation is growing shorter.... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary." To add to the concern, at 6:00 am, the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action. On 27 October, Khrushchev also received a letter from Castro, what is now known as the Armageddon Letter (dated the day before), which urged the use of nuclear force in the event of an attack on Cuba: "I believe the imperialists' aggressiveness is extremely dangerous and if they actually carry out the brutal act of invading Cuba in violation of international law and morality, that would be the moment to eliminate such danger forever through an act of clear legitimate defense, however harsh and terrible the solution would be," Castro wrote. ===Averted nuclear launch=== Later that same day, what the White House later called "Black Saturday", the US Navy dropped a series of "signalling" depth charges ("practice" depth charges the size of hand grenades) on a Soviet submarine () at the blockade line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear-tipped torpedo that could be launched if the submarine was damaged by depth charges or surface fire. The submarine was too deep to monitor radio traffic and the captain of the B-59, Valentin Grigoryevich Savitsky, assuming after live ammunition fire at his submarine that a war had started, proposed to launch the nuclear torpedo at the US ships. The decision to launch the "special weapon" normally only required the agreement of the ship's commanding officer and political officer, but the commander of the submarine flotilla, Vasily Arkhipov, was aboard B-59 and he also had to agree. Arkhipov did not give his consent and the nuclear torpedo was not launched. (These events only became publicly known in 2002. See Submarine close call.) On the same day a U-2 spy plane made an accidental and unauthorised 90-minute overflight of the Soviet Union's far eastern coast. The Soviets responded by scrambling MiG fighters from Wrangel Island; in turn, the Americans launched F-102 fighters armed with nuclear air-to-air missiles over the Bering Sea. ==Resolution== On Saturday, 27 October, after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles in Turkey, on the border of the Soviet Union, and possibly those in southern Italy, in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba. At this point, Khrushchev knew things the US did not. First, that the shooting down of the U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban anti-aircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro. Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not know were there. Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using them, even though Castro believed that everyone in Cuba would die as a result. Khrushchev also knew, but may not have considered, that he had submarines nearby armed with nuclear weapons of which the US Navy may not have been aware. Khrushchev knew he was losing control. President Kennedy had been told in early 1961 that a nuclear war would probably kill a third of humanity, with most or all of those deaths concentrated in the US, the USSR, Europe and China, and Khrushchev may have received a similar estimate. With this background, when Khrushchev heard of Kennedy's threats as relayed by Robert Kennedy to Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin, he immediately drafted his acceptance of Kennedy's latest terms from his dacha without involving the Politburo, as he had previously, and had them immediately broadcast over Radio Moscow, which he believed the US would hear. In that broadcast at 9:00 am EST, on 28 October 1962, Khrushchev stated that "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as 'offensive' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union." At 10:00 am on 28 October, Kennedy first learned of Khrushchev's solution to the crisis: the US would remove the 15 Jupiters in Turkey and the Soviets would remove the missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev had made the offer in a public statement for the world to hear. Despite almost solid opposition from his senior advisers, Kennedy accepted the Soviet offer. "This is a pretty good play of his," Kennedy said, according to a tape recording that he made secretly of the Cabinet Room meeting. Kennedy had deployed the Jupiters in March 1962, causing a stream of angry outbursts from Khrushchev. "Most people will think this is a rather even trade and we ought to take advantage of it," Kennedy said. Vice President Lyndon Johnson was the first to endorse the missile swap, but others continued to oppose it. Finally, Kennedy ended the debate. "We can't very well invade Cuba with all its toil and blood," Kennedy said, "when we could have gotten them out by making a deal on the same missiles on Turkey. If that's part of the record, then you don't have a very good war." Kennedy immediately responded to Khrushchev's letter, issuing a statement calling it "an important and constructive contribution to peace".}} Kennedy's planned statement would also contain suggestions he had received from his adviser Arthur Schlesinger Jr. in a "Memorandum for the President" describing the "Post Mortem on Cuba". On 28 October, Kennedy participated in telephone conversations with Eisenhower and fellow former US President Harry Truman. In these calls, Kennedy revealed that he thought the crisis would result in the two superpowers being "toe to toe" The ships left Cuba on November 5 to 9. The US made a final visual check as each of the ships passed the blockade line. Further diplomatic efforts were required to remove the Soviet Il-28 bombers, and they were loaded on three Soviet ships on 5 and 6 December. Concurrent with the Soviet commitment on the Il-28s, the US government announced the end of the blockade from 6:45 pm EST on 20 November 1962. At the time when the Kennedy administration believed that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets remained in Cuba which were not part of the Kennedy-Khrushchev understanding and the Americans did not know about them. The Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on 22 November 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well. "within a short time after this crisis was over". Under an operation code-named Operation Pot Pie, the removal of the Jupiters from Italy and Turkey began on 1 April, and was completed by 24 April 1963. The initial plans were to recycle the missiles for use in other programs, but NASA and the USAF were not interested in retaining the missile hardware. The missile bodies were destroyed on site, while warheads, guidance packages, and launching equipment worth $14 million were returned to the United States. The dismantling operations were named Pot Pie I for Italy and Pot Pie II for Turkey by the United States Air Force. and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out-gunned by the US. Because the withdrawal of the Jupiter missiles from NATO bases in Italy and Turkey was not made public at the time, ==Nuclear forces== By the time of the crisis in October 1962, the total number of nuclear weapons in the stockpiles of each country numbered approximately 26,400 for the United States and 3,300 for the Soviet Union. For the US, around 3,500 (with a combined yield of approximately 6,300 megatons) would have been used in attacking the Soviet Union. The Soviets had considerably less strategic firepower at their disposal: some 300–320 bombs and warheads, without submarine-based weapons in a position to threaten the US mainland and most of their intercontinental delivery systems based on bombers that would have difficulty penetrating North American air defence systems. They had already moved 158 warheads to Cuba and between 95 and 100 would have been ready for use if the US had invaded Cuba, most of them short-range. The US had approximately 4,375 nuclear weapons deployed in Europe, most of which were tactical weapons such as nuclear artillery, with around 450 of them for ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and aircraft; the Soviets had more than 550 similar weapons in Europe. ===United States=== SAC ICBM: 182 (at peak alert); 121 Atlas D/E/F, 53 Titan 1, 8 Minuteman 1A Bombers: 1,595; 880 B-47, 639 B-52, 76 B-58 (1,479 bombers and 1,003 refuelling tankers available at peak alert) Atlantic Command 112 UGM-27 Polaris in seven SSBNs (16 each); five submarines with Polaris A1 and two with A2 Pacific Command 4–8 Regulus cruise missiles 16 Mace cruise missiles Three aircraft carriers with some 40 bombs each Land-based aircraft with some 50 bombs European Command IRBM: 45 Jupiter (30 Italy, 15 Turkey) 48–90 Mace cruise missiles Two US Sixth Fleet aircraft carriers with some 40 bombs each Land-based aircraft with some 50 bombs ===Soviet Union=== Strategic (for use against North America): ICBM: 42; four SS-6/R-7A at Plesetsk with two in reserve at Baikonur, 36 SS-7/R-16 with 26 in silos and ten on open launch pads Bombers: 160 (readiness unknown); 100 Tu-95 Bear, 60 3M Bison B Regional (mostly targeting Europe, and others targeting US bases in east Asia): MRBM: 528 SS-4/R-12, 492 at soft launch sites and 36 at hard launch sites (approximately six to eight R-12s were operational in Cuba, capable of striking the US mainland at any moment until the crisis was resolved) IRBM: 28 SS-5/R-14 Unknown number of Tu-16 Badger, Tu-22 Blinder, and MiG-21 aircraft tasked with nuclear strike missions ===United Kingdom=== Bomber Command Bombers: 120; Vulcan B.1/B.1A/B.2, Victor B.1/B.1A/B2, Valiant B.1 IRBM: 59 Thor (missiles operated by the RAF with warheads under US supervision) == Aftermath == ===Cuban leadership=== Decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev and Cuba perceived the outcome as a betrayal by the Soviets. Castro was especially upset that certain questions of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed, and Cuban–Soviet relations deteriorated. Historian Arthur Schlesinger believed that when the missiles were withdrawn, Castro was more angry with Khrushchev than with Kennedy because Khrushchev had not consulted him before making the decision. Although Castro was infuriated by Khrushchev, he had still planned to strike the US with the remaining missiles if Cuba was invaded. Guevara said later that the cause of socialist liberation from global "imperialist aggression" would have been worth the possibility of "millions of atomic war victims". The missile crisis further convinced Guevara that the world's two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, were using Cuba as a pawn in their global strategies, and after this he denounced the Soviets almost as frequently as he denounced the Americans. ===Romanian leadership=== During the crisis, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, general secretary of Romania's communist party, sent a letter to President Kennedy dissociating Romania from Soviet actions. This convinced the American administration of Bucharest's intentions of detaching itself from Moscow. ===Soviet leadership=== The realisation that the world had come close to thermonuclear war caused Khrushchev to propose a far-reaching easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated 30 October 1962, Khrushchev suggested initiatives that were intended to prevent the possibility of another nuclear crisis. These included a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact, or even disbanding these military blocs; a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and possibly eliminate all nuclear weapons; resolution of the difficult question of Germany by both sides accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany; and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other questions through peaceful negotiations. Khrushchev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with Kennedy. Cousins met with Khrushchev for four hours in December 1962. Kennedy's response to Khrushchev's proposals was lukewarm, but he told Cousins that he felt obliged to consider them because he was under pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. The United States and the Soviet Union subsequently agreed to a treaty banning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, known as the "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty". The US and the USSR also created a communications link, the Moscow–Washington hotline, to enable the leaders of the two Cold War countries to speak directly to each other in any future crisis. These compromises embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey had remained a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Khrushchev went to Kennedy because he thought that the crisis was getting out of hand, but the Soviets were seen to be retreating from circumstances that they had started. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later was partly because of the Soviet Politburo's embarrassment at his eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation". Twenty-five years later, LeMay still believed that "We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time." By 1962, President Kennedy had faced four crisis situations: the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion; settlement negotiations between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement ("Kennedy sidestepped Laos, whose rugged terrain was no battleground for American soldiers."); the construction of the Berlin Wall; and the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy believed that another failure to gain control and stop communist expansion would irreparably damage US credibility. He was determined to "draw a line in the sand" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna summit meeting with Khrushchev, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place." At least four contingency strikes were armed and launched from Florida against Cuban airfields and suspected missile sites in 1963 and 1964, although all were diverted to the Pinecastle Range Complex after the planes had passed Andros island. Critics, including Seymour Melman and Seymour Hersh, suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis had encouraged the United States to use military means, as in the later Vietnam War. Similarly, Lorraine Bayard de Volo suggested that the masculine brinksmanship of the Cuban Missile Crisis had become a "touchstone of toughness by which presidents are measured". Actions in 1962 had a significant influence on the policy decisions of future occupants of the White House, and led to foreign policy decisions such as President Lyndon B. Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam three years later. ===Human casualties=== The body of U-2 pilot Anderson was returned to the US and was buried with full military honours in South Carolina. He was the first recipient of the newly created Air Force Cross, which was awarded posthumously. Although Anderson was the only combatant fatality during the crisis, 11 crew members of three reconnaissance Boeing RB-47 Stratojets of the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing were also killed in crashes during the period between 27 September and 11 November 1962. Seven crew died when a Military Air Transport Service Boeing C-135B Stratolifter delivering ammunition to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base stalled and crashed on landing approach on 23 October. ==Later revelations== ===Submarine close call=== What may have been the most dangerous moment in the crisis was not recognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference in October 2002, which marked its 40th anniversary. The three-day conference was sponsored by the private National Security Archive, Brown University and the Cuban government and attended by many of the veterans of the crisis. They learned that on 27 October 1962, a group of eleven United States Navy destroyers and the aircraft carrier USS Randolph had located a diesel-powered, nuclear-armed Soviet Project 641 (NATO designation ) submarine, the , near Cuba. Despite being in international waters, the Americans started dropping practice depth charges to attempt to force the submarine to surface. There had been no contact from Moscow for a number of days and the submarine was running too deep to monitor radio traffic, so those on board did not know whether war had broken out. The captain of the submarine, Valentin Savitsky, had no way of knowing that the depth charges were non-lethal "practice" rounds, intended as warning shots to force him to surface. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. While surfacing, the B-59 “came under machine-gun fire from [U.S. ASW S-2] Tracker aircraft. The fire rounds landed either to the sides of the submarine’s hull or near the bow. All these provocative actions carried out by surface ships in immediate proximity, and ASW aircraft flying some 10 to 15 meters above the boat had a detrimental impact on the commander, prompting him to take extreme measures… the use of special weapons.” As firing live ammunition at a submarine was strictly prohibited, Captain Savitsky assumed that his submarine was doomed and that World War III had started. The Americans, for their part, did not know, that the B-59 was armed with a 15-kiloton nuclear torpedo, of roughly the power of the bomb at Hiroshima. The was joined by other US destroyers who pummelled the submerged B-59 with more explosives. Savitsky ordered the nuclear torpedo to be prepared for firing; its target was to be the USS Randolph, the aircraft carrier leading the task force. An argument broke out in the sweltering control room of the B-59 submarine among three senior officers, B-59 captain Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semyonovich Maslennikov, and Deputy brigade commander Captain 2nd rank (US Navy Commander rank equivalent) Vasily Arkhipov. Accounts differ about whether Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface. The decision to launch the nuclear torpedo required the consent of all three senior officers, and of the three, Arkhipov alone refused to give his consent. Arkhipov's reputation was a key factor in the control room debate. The previous year he had exposed himself to severe radiation in order to save a submarine with an overheating nuclear reactor. Castro stated that he would have recommended their use if the US had invaded, even if Cuba was destroyed.}} BBC journalist Joe Matthews published the story, on 13 October 2012, after news of the 100 tactical nuclear warheads mentioned by Graham Allison in the excerpt above. Anastas Mikoyan had the task of negotiating with Castro over the missile transfer deal to prevent a breakdown in relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. While in Havana, Mikoyan witnessed the mood swings and paranoia of Castro, who was convinced that Moscow had made the agreement with the US at the expense of Cuba's defence. Mikoyan, on his own initiative, decided that Castro and his military should not under any circumstances be given control of weapons with an explosive force equal to 100 Hiroshima-sized bombs. He defused the seemingly intractable situation, which risked re-escalating the crisis, on 22 November 1962. During a tense, four-hour meeting, Mikoyan convinced Castro that despite Moscow's desire to help, it would be in breach of an unpublished Soviet law, which did not actually exist, to transfer the missiles permanently into Cuban hands and provide them with an independent nuclear deterrent. Castro was forced to give way and, much to the relief of Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet government, the tactical nuclear weapons were crated and returned by sea to the Soviet Union during December 1962. Jim Willis includes the Crisis as one of the 100 "media moments that changed America". Sheldon Stern found that a half century later there were still many "misconceptions, half-truths, and outright lies" that had shaped media versions of what happened in the White House during those two weeks. Historian William Cohn argued in a 1976 article that television programs were typically the main source used by the American public to know about and interpret the past. According to Cold War historian Andrei Kozovoi, the Soviet media proved somewhat disorganized as it was unable to generate a coherent popular history. Khrushchev lost power and was airbrushed out of the story and Cuba was no longer portrayed as a heroic David against the American Goliath. One contradiction that pervaded the Soviet media campaign was between the pacifistic rhetoric of the peace movement that emphasized the horrors of nuclear war and the militancy of the need to prepare Soviets for war against American aggression.	[ "Tu-22 Blinder", "medium-range ballistic missile", "Soviet Far East", "Martin J. Sherwin", "Suez Crisis", "Robert McNamara", "Le Monde", "Curtis LeMay", "Soviet Ambassador to the United States", "MIT Press", "Washington, D.C.", "United States Air Force", "Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.", "Marshal of the Soviet Union", "B-58", "John F. 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McCone", "John Diefenbaker", "Air Defense Command", "U Thant", "Corona (satellite)", "Vickers Valiant", "Cemal Gürsel", "Timothy Naftali", "MiG-21", "North Atlantic Treaty Organization", "Journal of Cold War Studies", "F8U Crusader", "List of nuclear close calls", "Cuban exile", "Black Cat Squadron", "San Cristóbal, Cuba", "Giulio Andreotti", "denial and deception", "Vienna", "Llewellyn Thompson" ]
6,828	Aquilegia	{{Automatic taxobox \|name = Columbine \|image = Wald-Akelei.JPG \|image_caption = Aquilegia vulgaris \|taxon = Aquilegia \|authority = L. \|subdivision_ranks = Species \|subdivision = 130, see text \|subdivision_ref = \|type_species = Aquilegia vulgaris \|type_species_authority = L. \|synonyms = Aquilina \|synonyms_ref = and columbine) is a genus of about 130 species of their flowers. ==Etymology== The genus name Aquilegia comes from the Latin "Aquila", or "eagle"; this is in reference to the spurred, "hook" shapes within the blooms, that many gardeners say resemble an eagle's talons. ==Description== Perennial herbs, with woody, erect stock, roots forming thick rhizomes. The basal leaves are compound, 1–3 ternate, blades 3-lobed -partite, and lobes lobulate and obtuse. The cauline leaves are similar to the basal ones, while the upper ones are bract like. The hermaphrodite (bisexual) flowers are terminal to stem and branches. They are usually pentamerous (with five spreading perianth petaloid sepal segments). Five tubular honey-leaves are semi erect with a flat limb and spurred or saccate at the base. The spur is directed backwards and secretes nectar. Stamens are numerous (often more than 50) in whorls of 5, the innermost being scarious staminodes. There are ten membranaceous intrastaminal scales. There are five pistils and the carpels are free. The fruit has several (five to 15) follicles which are semi erect and slightly connate downwards. These hold many seeds and are formed at the end of the pistils. The nectar is mainly consumed by long-beaked birds such as hummingbirds. Almost all Aquilegia species have a ring of staminodia around the base of the stigma, which may help protect against insects. Chromosome number is x=7. ==Relatives== Columbines are closely related to plants in the genera Actaea (baneberries) and Aconitum (wolfsbanes/monkshoods), which like Aquilegia produce toxic alkaloids. ==Insects== They are used as food plants by some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) caterpillars. These are mainly of noctuid moths – noted for feeding on many poisonous plants without harm – such as cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae), dot moth (Melanchra persicariae) and mouse moth (Amphipyra tragopoginis). The engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia), a geometer moth, also uses columbine as a larval food plant. The larvae of the Papaipema leucostigma also feed on columbine. Plants in the genus Aquilegia are a major food source for Bombus hortorum, a species of bumblebee. Specifically, they have been found to forage on species of Aquilegia vulgaris in Belgium and Aquilegia chrysantha in North America and Belgium. The bees do not show any preference in color of the flowers. ==Cultivation== Columbine is a hardy perennial, which propagates by seed. It will grow to a height of . It will grow in full sun; however, it prefers growing in partial shade and well drained soil, and is able to tolerate average soils and dry soil conditions. Columbine is rated at hardiness zone 3 in the United States so does not require mulching or protection in the winter. Large numbers of hybrids are available for the garden, since the European A. vulgaris was hybridized with other European and North American varieties. Aquilegia species are very interfertile, and will self-sow. Some varieties are short-lived so are better treated as biennials. Some time during or before 2014 the collection started to succumb to Aquilegia Downy Mildew Peronospora aquilegiicola which was at the time an emerging disease to which the plants had no resistance. By 2018 the entire collection had been lost. Aquilegia can be grown from seeds or rhizomes. ==Uses== The flowers of various species of columbine were consumed in moderation by Native Americans as a condiment with other fresh greens, and are reported to be very sweet, and safe if consumed in small quantities. The plant's seeds and roots, however, are highly poisonous and contain cardiogenic toxins which cause both severe gastroenteritis and heart palpitations if consumed as food. Native Americans used very small amounts of Aquilegia root as a treatment for ulcers. However, the medical use of this plant is better avoided due to its high toxicity; columbine poisonings may be fatal. ==Culture== The Colorado blue columbine (A. coerulea) is the official state flower of Colorado (see also Columbine, Colorado). It is also used as a symbol of the former city of Scarborough in the Canadian province of Ontario. ==Evolution== Columbines have been important in the study of evolution. It was found that the Sierra columbine (A. pubescens) and crimson columbine (A. formosa) each has adapted specifically to a pollinator. Bees and hummingbirds are the visitors to A. formosa, while hawkmoths would only visit A. pubescens when given a choice. Such a "pollination syndrome", being due to flower color and orientation controlled by their genetics, ensures reproductive isolation and can be a cause of speciation. Aquilegia petals show an enormous range of petal spur length diversity ranging from a centimeter to the 15 cm spurs of Aquilegia longissima. Selection from pollinator shifts is suggested to have driven these changes in nectar spur length. It was shown that this spur length diversity is achieved solely through changing cell shape, not cell number or cell size. This suggests that a simple microscopic change can result in a dramatic evolutionarily relevant morphological change. Aquilegia alpina L. – alpine columbine Aquilegia amaliae - Amalia's columbine Aquilegia apuana Aquilegia aradanica Aquilegia aragonensis Aquilegia atrata W.D.J.Koch – dark columbine Aquilegia atrovinosa Popov ex Gamajun. Aquilegia atwoodii Aquilegia aurea Janka Aquilegia ballii Aquilegia baluchistanica Aquilegia barbaricina Arrigoni & E.Nardi – Barbaricina columbine Aquilegia barnebyi – oil shale columbine Aquilegia barykinae Aquilegia bashahrica Aquilegia bernardii Gren. & Godr. – Bernard's columbine Aquilegia bertolonii Schott – Bertoloni columbine Aquilegia blecicii Podobnik - Blečić's columbine Aquilegia borodinii Aquilegia brevistyla – smallflower columbine Aquilegia buergeriana Siebold & Zucc. Aquilegia canadensis – Canadian columbine, wild columbine Aquilegia cazorlensis Aquilegia champagnatii Moraldo, E.Nardi & la Valva Aquilegia chaplinei Aquilegia chitralensis Aquilegia chrysantha – golden columbine Aquilegia coerulea – Colorado blue columbine Aquilegia colchica Aquilegia confusa Aquilegia cossoniana Aquilegia × cottia Aquilegia cremnophila Aquilegia cymosa Aquilegia daingolica Aquilegia desertorum (M.E.Jones) Cockerell ex A.Heller – desert columbine Aquilegia desolaticola S.L.Welsh & N.D.Atwood – desolation columbine, Desolation Canyon columbine Aquilegia dichroa Aquilegia dinarica Beck - Dinaric columbine Aquilegia discolor Aquilegia dumeticola Aquilegia ecalcarata – spurless columbine, false columbine Aquilegia einseleana F.W.Schultz – Einsele's columbine Aquilegia elegantula – western red columbine Aquilegia × emodi Aquilegia eximia – Van Houtte's columbine Aquilegia flabellata – fan columbine, Japanese wodamakinari (including A. akitensis) Aquilegia flavescens – yellow columbine Aquilegia formosa – crimson columbine, western columbine Aquilegia formosa var. truncata – red columbine, western columbine Aquilegia fosteri Aquilegia fragrans Benth. – fragrant columbine Aquilegia ganboldii Aquilegia gegica Aquilegia glandulosa Fisch. ex Link. – Siberian columbine, Altai columbine Aquilegia gracillima Aquilegia grata Aquilegia grubovii Aquilegia guarensis Aquilegia hebeica Aquilegia hinckleyana Aquilegia hirsutissima Aquilegia hispanica Aquilegia holmgrenii Aquilegia × hybrida Sims – hybrids of Aquilegia vulgaris and Aquilegia canadensis Aquilegia incurvata P.K.Hsiao - Qinling columbine Aquilegia iulia Aquilegia jonesii Parry – Jones' columbine Aquilegia kamelinii Aquilegia kanawarensis Aquilegia kansuensis Aquilegia karatavica Mikeschin Aquilegia karelinii (Baker) O.Fedtsch. & B.Fedtsch. - Afghan columbine Aquilegia kitaibelii Schott Aquilegia kozakii Aquilegia kubanica Aquilegia lactiflora Kar. & Kir. Aquilegia laramiensis – Laramie columbine Aquilegia litardierei Briq. Aquilegia longissima – Gray. – longspur columbine, long-spurred columbine Aquilegia lucensis Aquilegia magellensis F.Conti & Soldano – Magella columbine Aquilegia maimanica Aquilegia marcelliana Aquilegia × maruyamana Aquilegia meridionalis Aquilegia micrantha Eastw. – Mancos columbine, Bluff City columbine Aquilegia micrantha var. grahamii – Graham's columbine Aquilegia micrantha var. loriae – Lori's columbine Aquilegia micrantha var. mancosana Aquilegia microcentra Aquilegia × miniana Aquilegia montsicciana Aquilegia moorcroftiana Aquilegia nigricans Baumg. – Bulgarian columbine Aquilegia nikolicii Aquilegia nivalis Aquilegia nugorensis Arrigoni & E.Nardi Aquilegia nuragica – Nuragica columbine Aquilegia ochotensis Aquilegia × oenipontana Aquilegia olympica Boiss. Aquilegia ophiolithica Aquilegia ottonis Orph. ex Boiss. Aquilegia oxysepala Aquilegia pancicii Degen Aquilegia parviflora Aquilegia paui Aquilegia pubescens – Sierra columbine, Coville's columbine Aquilegia pubiflora Aquilegia pyrenaica DC. – Pyrenean columbine Aquilegia reuteri Aquilegia rockii Aquilegia saxifraga Aquilegia saximontana – Rocky Mountain columbine Aquilegia scopulorum – blue columbine, Utah columbine Aquilegia shockleyi – desert columbine Aquilegia sibirica – Siberian columbine Aquilegia sicula Aquilegia skinneri Aquilegia sternbergii Aquilegia subscaposa Aquilegia synakensis Aquilegia taygetea Aquilegia tianschanica Butkov Aquilegia transsilvanica Schur Aquilegia turczaninovii Aquilegia tuvinica Aquilegia ullepitschii Aquilegia vicaria Aquilegia viridiflora Pall. – green columbine, green-flowered columbine Aquilegia viscosa Gouan Aquilegia vitalii Aquilegia vulgaris – common columbine, European columbine, granny's nightcap Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. nevadensis Aquilegia wittmanniana Aquilegia xinjiangensis Aquilegia yabeana Aquilegia yangii Aquilegia zapateri	[ "pollinator", "Aquilegia pubiflora", "reproductive isolation", "Flora Europaea", "caterpillar", "John Isaac Briquet", "Aquilegia karelinii", "fruit", "Aquilegia laramiensis", "Aquilegia aragonensis", "dot moth", "flowers", "Aquilegia desolaticola", "Aquilegia champagnatii", "Aquilegia colchica", "Aquilegia sicula", "Carl Linnaeus", "Aquilegia reuteri", "Aquilegia bernardii", "Heinrich Wilhelm Schott", "Aquilegia rockii", "pistils", "perianth", "Scarborough, Toronto", "Aquilegia hispanica", "Aquilegia litardierei", "Aquilegia nugorensis", "Aquilegia vulgaris subsp. nevadensis", "woodland", "Stanley Larson Welsh", "Aquilegia bashahrica", "Engrailed (moth)", "Theodor von Heldreich", "Aquilegia hinckleyana", "Aquilegia micrantha var. mancosana", "Aquilegia shockleyi", "spur (botany)", "Aquilegia dumeticola", "pollination syndrome", "Aquilegia einseleana", "petaloid", "Alice Eastwood", "Aquilegia pyrenaica", "Aquilegia tianschanica", "Aquilegia yabeana", "Aquilegia vicaria", "Colorado blue columbine", "Aquilegia glandulosa", "acute toxicity", "Aquilegia micrantha", "alkaloids", "Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore", "L.", "follicle (fruit)", "Dominique Alexandre Godron", "Aquilegia cremnophila", "adaptation", "Aquilegia tuvinica", "Actaea (plant)", "Aquilegia fosteri", "Aquilegia taygetea", "Aquilegia alpina", "Boris Fedtschenko", "Aquilegia fragrans", "condiment", "Asa Gray", "Royal Horticultural Society", "Sierra columbine", "Aquilegia kubanica", "geometer moth", "Aquilegia blecicii", "Aquilegia guarensis", "Aquilegia incurvata", "Aquilegia oxysepala", "Aquilegia ballii", "Aquilegia pubescens", "crimson columbine", "bract", "Aquilegia saxifraga", "cabbage moth", "Aquilegia saximontana", "Aquilegia barykinae", "Aquilegia longissima", "Aquilegia dichroa", "Award of Garden Merit", "Aquilegia elegantula", "Aquilegia nikolicii", "Aquilegia pancicii", "Aquilegia buergeriana", "heart palpitation", "Jean Charles Marie Grenier", "Aquilegia dinarica", "Aquilegia gegica", "Aquilegia grubovii", "nectaries", "cardiogenic", "Charles Christopher Parry", "Aquilegia subscaposa", "Oxford University Press", "leaves", "Aquilegia aurea", "Stamens", "John Sims (taxonomist)", "mouse moth", "scarious", "Amalgamation of Toronto", "Aquilegia formosa var. truncata", "Aquilegia lucensis", "Friedrich Ernst Ludwig von Fischer", "Aquilegia magellensis", "pentamerous", "Aquilegia marcelliana", "Aquilegia × maruyamana", "Aquilegia maimanica", "hardiness (plants)", "Aquilegia sibirica", "Aquilegia ullepitschii", "carpels", "Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau", "Aquilegia micrantha var. grahamii", "Aquilegia × oenipontana", "Aquilegia borodinii", "Aquilegia microcentra", "flower", "Amos Arthur Heller", "Plant propagation", "Aquilegia kozakii", "Aquilegia jonesii", "isocytisoside", "Aquilegia nuragica", "Google Books", "Aquilegia brevistyla", "Aquilegia cymosa", "Columbine, Colorado", "Aquilegia × emodi", "Aquilegia meridionalis", "Perennial", "Aquilegia karatavica", "Flora of North America", "sepal", "root", "Aquilegia hirsutissima", "Aquilegia amaliae", "Aquilegia iulia", "Aquilegia micrantha var. loriae", "Peter H. Raven", "gastroenteritis", "species", "Pierre Edmond Boissier", "Aquilegia kitaibelii", "Aquilegia ochotensis", "Aquilegia desertorum", "Aquilegia scopulorum", "Aquilegia wittmanniana", "Aquilegia yangii", "Plant reproductive morphology", "state flower", "Lepidoptera", "perennial plant", "rhizomes", "Connation", "Aquilegia barnebyi", "Aquilegia viscosa", "peptic ulcer", "Chromosome number", "biennial plant", "nectar", "Aquilegia grata", "Papaipema leucostigma", "whorl (botany)", "Glossary of leaf morphology", "Aquilegia hebeica", "Aquilegia apuana", "Aquilegia turczaninovii", "evolution", "saccate", "Nora Barlow", "Aquilegia kansuensis", "Aquilegia ecalcarata", "noctuid moth", "Aquilegia paui", "Glen Arbor, Michigan", "Grigory Karelin", "Aconitum", "Aquilegia nivalis", "genetics", "Aquilegia viridiflora", "Aquilegia vulgaris", "Aquilegia ganboldii", "Swansea", "Aquilegia coerulea", "Cambridge University Press", "Colorado", "hardiness zone", "Aquilegia olympica", "Aquilegia atrata", "Aquilegia bertolonii", "Aquilegia chaplinei", "genus", "Aquilegia synakensis", "Philipp Franz von Siebold", "Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini", "John Gilbert Baker", "Aquilegia kanawarensis", "Aquilegia holmgrenii", "Aquilegia atrovinosa", "Olga Fedchenko", "Aquilegia moorcroftiana", "Latin", "hawkmoth", "Mikhail Grigorevich Popov", "cauline", "Theodore D. A. Cockerell", "Aquilegia barbaricina", "Aquilegia xinjiangensis", "Aquilegia flabellata", "Aquilegia confusa", "Aquilegia transsilvanica", "Aquilegia ottonis", "Aquilegia aradanica", "Peronospora aquilegiicola", "speciation", "Aleksandra Pavlovna Gamajunova", "Aquilegia atwoodii", "Aquilegia × cottia", "Aquilegia flavescens", "Aquilegia parviflora", "Aquilegia nigricans", "Aquilegia montsicciana", "Native Americans in the United States", "Aquilegia formosa", "Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link", "herbaceous plants", "Killay, Swansea", "Marcus E. Jones", "Ranunculaceae", "toxin", "Aquilegia chrysantha", "Aquilegia gracillima", "Aquilegia lactiflora", "Aquilegia vitalii", "Aquilegia × miniana", "Aquilegia baluchistanica", "staminodes", "Aquilegia chitralensis", "Aquilegia ophiolithica", "Aquilegia skinneri", "Aquilegia × hybrida", "Aquilegia zapateri", "Aquilegia cossoniana", "Aquilegia eximia", "Aquilegia cazorlensis", "Aquilegia canadensis", "Columbine cup", "Aquilegia kamelinii", "Aquilegia discolor", "Aquilegia sternbergii", "meadow", "Aquilegia daingolica", "Friedrich Wilhelm Schultz", "Bombus hortorum", "sepals" ]
6,829	Cache (computing)	In computing, a cache ( ) is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of an earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere. A cache hit occurs when the requested data can be found in a cache, while a cache miss occurs when it cannot. Cache hits are served by reading data from the cache, which is faster than recomputing a result or reading from a slower data store; thus, the more requests that can be served from the cache, the faster the system performs. To be cost-effective, caches must be relatively small. Nevertheless, caches are effective in many areas of computing because typical computer applications access data with a high degree of locality of reference. Such access patterns exhibit temporal locality, where data is requested that has been recently requested, and spatial locality, where data is requested that is stored near data that has already been requested. ==Motivation== In memory design, there is an inherent trade-off between capacity and speed because larger capacity implies larger size and thus greater physical distances for signals to travel causing propagation delays. There is also a tradeoff between high-performance technologies such as SRAM and cheaper, easily mass-produced commodities such as DRAM, flash, or hard disks. The buffering provided by a cache benefits one or both of latency and throughput (bandwidth). A larger resource incurs a significant latency for access – e.g. it can take hundreds of clock cycles for a modern 4 GHz processor to reach DRAM. This is mitigated by reading large chunks into the cache, in the hope that subsequent reads will be from nearby locations and can be read from the cache. Prediction or explicit prefetching can be used to guess where future reads will come from and make requests ahead of time; if done optimally, the latency is bypassed altogether. The use of a cache also allows for higher throughput from the underlying resource, by assembling multiple fine-grain transfers into larger, more efficient requests. In the case of DRAM circuits, the additional throughput may be gained by using a wider data bus. ==Operation== Hardware implements cache as a block of memory for temporary storage of data likely to be used again. Central processing units (CPUs), solid-state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs) frequently include hardware-based cache, while web browsers and web servers commonly rely on software caching. A cache is made up of a pool of entries. Each entry has associated data, which is a copy of the same data in some backing store. Each entry also has a tag, which specifies the identity of the data in the backing store of which the entry is a copy. When the cache client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) needs to access data presumed to exist in the backing store, it first checks the cache. If an entry can be found with a tag matching that of the desired data, the data in the entry is used instead. This situation is known as a cache hit. For example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL. In this example, the URL is the tag, and the content of the web page is the data. The percentage of accesses that result in cache hits is known as the hit rate or hit ratio of the cache. The alternative situation, when the cache is checked and found not to contain any entry with the desired tag, is known as a cache miss. This requires a more expensive access of data from the backing store. Once the requested data is retrieved, it is typically copied into the cache, ready for the next access. During a cache miss, some other previously existing cache entry is typically removed in order to make room for the newly retrieved data. The heuristic used to select the entry to replace is known as the replacement policy. One popular replacement policy, least recently used (LRU), replaces the oldest entry, the entry that was accessed less recently than any other entry. More sophisticated caching algorithms also take into account the frequency of use of entries. ===Write policies=== Cache writes must eventually be propagated to the backing store. The timing for this is governed by the write policy. The two primary write policies are: Write-through: Writes are performed synchronously to both the cache and the backing store. Write-back: Initially, writing is done only to the cache. The write to the backing store is postponed until the modified content is about to be replaced by another cache block. A write-back cache is more complex to implement since it needs to track which of its locations have been written over and mark them as dirty for later writing to the backing store. The data in these locations are written back to the backing store only when they are evicted from the cache, a process referred to as a lazy write. For this reason, a read miss in a write-back cache may require two memory accesses to the backing store: one to write back the dirty data, and one to retrieve the requested data. Other policies may also trigger data write-back. The client may make many changes to data in the cache, and then explicitly notify the cache to write back the data. Write operations do not return data. Consequently, a decision needs to be made for write misses: whether or not to load the data into the cache. This is determined by these write-miss policies: Write allocate (also called fetch on write): Data at the missed-write location is loaded to cache, followed by a write-hit operation. In this approach, write misses are similar to read misses. No-write allocate (also called write-no-allocate or write around): Data at the missed-write location is not loaded to cache, and is written directly to the backing store. In this approach, data is loaded into the cache on read misses only. While both write policies can Implement either write-miss policy, they are typically paired as follows: A write-back cache typically employs write allocate, anticipating that subsequent writes or reads to the same location will benefit from having the data already in the cache. A write-through cache uses no-write allocate. Here, subsequent writes have no advantage, since they still need to be written directly to the backing store. Entities other than the cache may change the data in the backing store, in which case the copy in the cache may become out-of-date or stale. Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of that data in other caches will become stale. Communication protocols between the cache managers that keep the data consistent are associated with cache coherence. ===Prefetch=== On a cache read miss, caches with a demand paging policy read the minimum amount from the backing store. A typical demand-paging virtual memory implementation reads one page of virtual memory (often 4 KB) from disk into the disk cache in RAM. A typical CPU reads a single L2 cache line of 128 bytes from DRAM into the L2 cache, and a single L1 cache line of 64 bytes from the L2 cache into the L1 cache. Caches with a prefetch input queue or more general anticipatory paging policy go further—they not only read the data requested, but guess that the next chunk or two of data will soon be required, and so prefetch that data into the cache ahead of time. Anticipatory paging is especially helpful when the backing store has a long latency to read the first chunk and much shorter times to sequentially read the next few chunks, such as disk storage and DRAM. A few operating systems go further with a loader that always pre-loads the entire executable into RAM. A few caches go even further, not only pre-loading an entire file, but also starting to load other related files that may soon be requested, such as the page cache associated with a prefetcher or the web cache associated with link prefetching. ==Examples of hardware caches== ===CPU cache=== Small memories on or close to the CPU can operate faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, sometimes in cascaded levels; modern high-end embedded, desktop and server microprocessors may have as many as six types of cache (between levels and functions). Some examples of caches with a specific function are the D-cache, I-cache and the translation lookaside buffer for the memory management unit (MMU). ===GPU cache=== Earlier graphics processing units (GPUs) often had limited read-only texture caches and used swizzling to improve 2D locality of reference. Cache misses would drastically affect performance, e.g. if mipmapping was not used. Caching was important to leverage 32-bit (and wider) transfers for texture data that was often as little as 4 bits per pixel. As GPUs advanced, supporting general-purpose computing on graphics processing units and compute kernels, they have developed progressively larger and increasingly general caches, including instruction caches for shaders, exhibiting functionality commonly found in CPU caches. These caches have grown to handle synchronization primitives between threads and atomic operations, and interface with a CPU-style MMU. ===DSPs=== Digital signal processors have similarly generalized over the years. Earlier designs used scratchpad memory fed by direct memory access, but modern DSPs such as Qualcomm Hexagon often include a very similar set of caches to a CPU (e.g. Modified Harvard architecture with shared L2, split L1 I-cache and D-cache). ===Translation lookaside buffer=== A memory management unit (MMU) that fetches page table entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for recording the results of virtual address to physical address translations. This specialized cache is called a translation lookaside buffer (TLB). ==In-network cache== ===Information-centric networking=== Information-centric networking (ICN) is an approach to evolve the Internet infrastructure away from a host-centric paradigm, based on perpetual connectivity and the end-to-end principle, to a network architecture in which the focal point is identified information. Due to the inherent caching capability of the nodes in an ICN, it can be viewed as a loosely connected network of caches, which has unique requirements for caching policies. However, ubiquitous content caching introduces the challenge to content protection against unauthorized access, which requires extra care and solutions. Unlike proxy servers, in ICN the cache is a network-level solution. Therefore, it has rapidly changing cache states and higher request arrival rates; moreover, smaller cache sizes impose different requirements on the content eviction policies. In particular, eviction policies for ICN should be fast and lightweight. Various cache replication and eviction schemes for different ICN architectures and applications have been proposed. ====Policies==== =====Time aware least recently used===== The time aware least recently used (TLRU) is a variant of LRU designed for the situation where the stored contents in cache have a valid lifetime. The algorithm is suitable in network cache applications, such as ICN, content delivery networks (CDNs) and distributed networks in general. TLRU introduces a new term: time to use (TTU). TTU is a time stamp on content which stipulates the usability time for the content based on the locality of the content and information from the content publisher. Owing to this locality-based time stamp, TTU provides more control to the local administrator to regulate in-network storage. In the TLRU algorithm, when a piece of content arrives, a cache node calculates the local TTU value based on the TTU value assigned by the content publisher. The local TTU value is calculated by using a locally-defined function. Once the local TTU value is calculated the replacement of content is performed on a subset of the total content stored in cache node. The TLRU ensures that less popular and short-lived content should be replaced with incoming content. =====Least frequent recently used===== The least frequent recently used (LFRU) cache replacement scheme combines the benefits of LFU and LRU schemes. LFRU is suitable for network cache applications, such as ICN, CDNs and distributed networks in general. In LFRU, the cache is divided into two partitions called privileged and unprivileged partitions. The privileged partition can be seen as a protected partition. If content is highly popular, it is pushed into the privileged partition. Replacement of the privileged partition is done by first evicting content from the unprivileged partition, then pushing content from the privileged partition to the unprivileged partition, and finally inserting new content into the privileged partition. In the above procedure, the LRU is used for the privileged partition and an approximated LFU (ALFU) scheme is used for the unprivileged partition. The basic idea is to cache the locally popular content with the ALFU scheme and push the popular content to the privileged partition. ====Weather forecast==== In 2011, the use of smartphones with weather forecasting options was overly taxing AccuWeather servers; two requests from the same area would generate separate requests. An optimization by edge-servers to truncate the GPS coordinates to fewer decimal places meant that the cached results from a nearby query would be used. The number of to-the-server lookups per day dropped by half. ==Software caches== ===Disk cache=== While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, a variety of software manages other caches. The page cache in main memory is managed by the operating system kernel. While the disk buffer, which is an integrated part of the hard disk drive or solid state drive, is sometimes misleadingly referred to as disk cache, its main functions are write sequencing and read prefetching. High-end disk controllers often have their own on-board cache for the hard disk drive's data blocks. Finally, a fast local hard disk drive can also cache information held on even slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (web cache) or local tape drives or optical jukeboxes; such a scheme is the main concept of hierarchical storage management. Also, fast flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs) can be used as caches for slower rotational-media hard disk drives, working together as hybrid drives. ===Web cache=== Web browsers and web proxy servers, either locally or at the Internet service provider (ISP), employ web caches to store previous responses from web servers, such as web pages and images. Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsiveness for users of the web. Another form of cache is P2P caching, where the files most sought for by peer-to-peer applications are stored in an ISP cache to accelerate P2P transfers. Similarly, decentralised equivalents exist, which allow communities to perform the same task for P2P traffic, for example, Corelli. ===Memoization=== A cache can store data that is computed on demand rather than retrieved from a backing store. Memoization is an optimization technique that stores the results of resource-consuming function calls within a lookup table, allowing subsequent calls to reuse the stored results and avoid repeated computation. It is related to the dynamic programming algorithm design methodology, which can also be thought of as a means of caching. ===Content delivery network=== A content delivery network (CDN) is a network of distributed servers that deliver pages and other web content to a user, based on the geographic locations of the user, the origin of the web page and the content delivery server. CDNs were introduced in the late 1990s as a way to speed up the delivery of static content, such as HTML pages, images and videos. By replicating content on multiple servers around the world and delivering it to users based on their location, CDNs can significantly improve the speed and availability of a website or application. When a user requests a piece of content, the CDN will check to see if it has a copy of the content in its cache. If it does, the CDN will deliver the content to the user from the cache. ===Cloud storage gateway=== A cloud storage gateway, also known as an edge filer, is a hybrid cloud storage device that connects a local network to one or more cloud storage services, typically object storage services such as Amazon S3. It provides a cache for frequently accessed data, providing high speed local access to frequently accessed data in the cloud storage service. Cloud storage gateways also provide additional benefits such as accessing cloud object storage through traditional file serving protocols as well as continued access to cached data during connectivity outages. ===Other caches=== The BIND DNS daemon caches a mapping of domain names to IP addresses, as does a resolver library. Write-through operation is common when operating over unreliable networks (like an Ethernet LAN), because of the enormous complexity of the coherency protocol required between multiple write-back caches when communication is unreliable. For instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in NFS or SMB) are typically read-only or write-through specifically to keep the network protocol simple and reliable. Search engines also frequently make web pages they have indexed available from their cache. For example, Google provides a "Cached" link next to each search result. This can prove useful when web pages from a web server are temporarily or permanently inaccessible. Database caching can substantially improve the throughput of database applications, for example in the processing of indexes, data dictionaries, and frequently used subsets of data. A distributed cache uses networked hosts to provide scalability, reliability and performance to the application. The hosts can be co-located or spread over different geographical regions. ==Buffer vs. cache== The semantics of a "buffer" and a "cache" are not totally different; even so, there are fundamental differences in intent between the process of caching and the process of buffering. Fundamentally, caching realizes a performance increase for transfers of data that is being repeatedly transferred. While a caching system may realize a performance increase upon the initial (typically write) transfer of a data item, this performance increase is due to buffering occurring within the caching system. With read caches, a data item must have been fetched from its residing location at least once in order for subsequent reads of the data item to realize a performance increase by virtue of being able to be fetched from the cache's (faster) intermediate storage rather than the data's residing location. With write caches, a performance increase of writing a data item may be realized upon the first write of the data item by virtue of the data item immediately being stored in the cache's intermediate storage, deferring the transfer of the data item to its residing storage at a later stage or else occurring as a background process. Contrary to strict buffering, a caching process must adhere to a (potentially distributed) cache coherency protocol in order to maintain consistency between the cache's intermediate storage and the location where the data resides. Buffering, on the other hand, reduces the number of transfers for otherwise novel data amongst communicating processes, which amortizes overhead involved for several small transfers over fewer, larger transfers, provides an intermediary for communicating processes which are incapable of direct transfers amongst each other, or ensures a minimum data size or representation required by at least one of the communicating processes involved in a transfer. With typical caching implementations, a data item that is read or written for the first time is effectively being buffered; and in the case of a write, mostly realizing a performance increase for the application from where the write originated. Additionally, the portion of a caching protocol where individual writes are deferred to a batch of writes is a form of buffering. The portion of a caching protocol where individual reads are deferred to a batch of reads is also a form of buffering, although this form may negatively impact the performance of at least the initial reads (even though it may positively impact the performance of the sum of the individual reads). In practice, caching almost always involves some form of buffering, while strict buffering does not involve caching. A buffer is a temporary memory location that is traditionally used because CPU instructions cannot directly address data stored in peripheral devices. Thus, addressable memory is used as an intermediate stage. Additionally, such a buffer may be feasible when a large block of data is assembled or disassembled (as required by a storage device), or when data may be delivered in a different order than that in which it is produced. Also, a whole buffer of data is usually transferred sequentially (for example to hard disk), so buffering itself sometimes increases transfer performance or reduces the variation or jitter of the transfer's latency as opposed to caching where the intent is to reduce the latency. These benefits are present even if the buffered data are written to the buffer once and read from the buffer once. A cache also increases transfer performance. A part of the increase similarly comes from the possibility that multiple small transfers will combine into one large block. But the main performance-gain occurs because there is a good chance that the same data will be read from cache multiple times, or that written data will soon be read. A cache's sole purpose is to reduce accesses to the underlying slower storage. Cache is also usually an abstraction layer that is designed to be invisible from the perspective of neighboring layers.	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6,830	Columbus, Indiana	Columbus () is a city in, and the county seat of, Bartholomew County, Indiana, United States. The population was 50,474 at the 2020 census. The city is known for its architectural significance, having commissioned noted works of modern architecture and public art since the mid-20th century; the annual program Exhibit Columbus celebrates this legacy. Located about south of Indianapolis, on the east fork of the White River, it is the state's 20th-largest city. It is the principal city of the Columbus, Indiana metropolitan statistical area, which encompasses all of Bartholomew County. Columbus is the birthplace of former Indiana Governor and former Vice President of the United States, Mike Pence. Columbus is the headquarters of the engine company Cummins. In 2004 the city was named as one of "The Ten Most Playful Towns" by Nick Jr. Family Magazine. In the July 2005 edition of GQ magazine, Columbus was named as one of the "62 Reasons to Love Your Country". Columbus won the national contest "America in Bloom" in 2006, and in late 2008, National Geographic Traveler ranked Columbus 11th on its historic destinations list, describing the city as "authentic, unique, and unspoiled." ==History== The land developed as Columbus was bought by General John Tipton and Luke Bonesteel in 1820. Tipton built a log cabin on Mount Tipton, a small hill overlooking White River and the surrounding flat, heavily forested and swampy valley. It held wetlands of the river. The town was first known as Tiptona, named in honor of Tipton. The town's name was changed to Columbus on March 20, 1821. Many people believe Tipton was upset by the name change, but no evidence exists to prove this. Nonetheless, he decided to leave the newly founded town and did not return. Tipton was later appointed as the highway commissioner for the State of Indiana and was assigned to building a highway from Indianapolis, Indiana to Louisville, Kentucky. When the road approached Columbus, Tipton constructed the first bypass road ever built; it detoured south around the west side of Columbus en route to Seymour. Joseph McKinney was the first to plot the town of Columbus, but no date was recorded. Local history books for years said that the land on which Columbus sits was donated by Tipton. But in 2003, Historic Columbus Indiana acquired a deed showing that Tipton had sold the land. A ferry was established below the confluence of the Flatrock and Driftwood rivers, which form the White River. A village of three or four log cabins developed around the ferry landing, and a store was added in 1821. Later that year, Bartholomew County was organized by an act of the State Legislature and named to honor the famous Hoosier militiaman, General Joseph Bartholomew. Columbus was incorporated as a town on June 28, 1864, and was incorporated as a city 1921. The first railroad in Indiana was constructed to Columbus from Madison, Indiana in 1844. This eventually became the Madison branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The railroad fostered the growth of the community into one of the largest in Indiana, and three more railroads reached the city by 1850. The Crump Theatre in Columbus, built in 1889 by John Crump, is the oldest theater in Indiana. Today the building is included within the Columbus Historic District. Before it closed permanently in 2010, it was an all-ages venue with occasional musical performances. The Cummins Bookstore began operations in the city in 1892. Until late 2007, when it closed, it was the oldest continually operated bookstore in Indiana. The Irwin Union Bank building was built in 1954. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service in 2001 in recognition of its unique architecture. The building consists of a one-story bank structure adjacent to a three-story office annex. A portion of the office annex was built along with the banking hall in 1954. The remaining larger portion, designed by Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo and Associates, was built in 1973. Eero Saarinen designed the bank building with its glazed hall to be set off against the blank background of its three-story brick annex. Two steel and glass vestibule connectors lead from the north side of this structure to the annex. The building was designed to distance the Irwin Union Bank from traditional banking architecture, which mostly echoed imposing, neoclassical style buildings of brick or stone. Tellers were behind iron bars and removed from their customers. Saarinen worked to develop a building that would welcome customers rather than intimidate them. ==Economy== Columbus has been home to many manufacturing companies, including Noblitt-Sparks Industries, which built radios under the Arvin brand in the 1930s, and Arvin Industries, now Meritor After merging with Meritor Automotive on July 10, 2000, the headquarters of the newly created ArvinMeritor Industries was established in Troy, Michigan, the home of parent company, Rockwell International. It was announced in February 2011 that the company name would revert to Meritor, Inc. Cummins is by far the region's largest employer, and the Infotech Park in Columbus accounts for a sizable number of research jobs in the city itself. Just south of Columbus are the North American headquarters of Toyota Material Handling, the world's largest material handling (forklift) manufacturer. Other notable industries include architecture, a discipline for which Columbus is famous worldwide. The late Joseph Irwin Miller (then president and chairman of Cummins) launched the Cummins Foundation, a charitable program that helps subsidize a large number of architectural projects throughout the city by up-and-coming engineers and architects. Early in the 20th century, Columbus also was home to a number of pioneering car manufacturers, including Reeves, which produced the unusual four-axle Octoauto and the twin rear-axle Sextoauto, both around 1911. ==Geography== The Driftwood and Flatrock Rivers converge at Columbus to form the East Fork of the White River. According to the 2010 census, Columbus has a total area of , of which (or 98.62%) is land and (or 1.38%) is water. ===Climate=== ==Demographics== ===2010 census=== As of the census of 2010, there were 44,061 people, 17,787 households, and 11,506 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 19,700 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 86.9% White, 2.7% African American, 0.2% Native American, 5.6% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.8% of the population. There were 17,787 households, of which 33.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.5% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.3% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.00. The median age in the city was 37.1 years. 25.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.3% were from 25 to 44; 24.9% were from 45 to 64; and 14.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female. ===2000 census=== As of the census Seven buildings, constructed between 1942 and 1965, are National Historic Landmarks, and approximately 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture. National Public Radio once devoted an article to the town's architecture. In 2015, Landmark Columbus was created as a program of Heritage Fund - The Community Foundation of Bartholomew county. In addition to the Columbus Historic District and Irwin Union Bank, the city has numerous buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including seven National Historic Landmarks of modernist architecture: Bartholomew County Courthouse, Columbus City Hall, First Baptist Church, First Christian Church, Haw Creek Leather Company, Mabel McDowell Elementary School, McEwen-Samuels-Marr House, McKinley School, Miller House, North Christian Church, and The Republic Newspaper Office. The city is the basis for the 2017 film Columbus by independent filmmaker Kogonada. The film was shot on location in Columbus over 18 days in the summer of 2016. ===National Historic Landmarks=== First Baptist Church was designed by Harry Weese without windows and was dedicated in 1965. Its architectural features include a high-pitched roof and skylight. First Christian Church Irwin Union Bank The Mabel McDowell School The Miller House and Garden North Christian Church The Republic Newspaper Office was designed by Myron Goldsmith at SOM. Zaharakos Ice Cream Parlor ====Other notable Modern buildings==== St. Bartholomew Catholic Church, by William Browne Jr. and Steven Risting Cleo Rogers Memorial Library, by I. M. Pei Columbus East High School, by Romaldo Giurgola Commons Centre and Mall, by César Pelli St. Peter's Lutheran Church, by Gunnar Birkerts Lincoln Elementary School, by Gunnar Birkerts Otter Creek Golf Course, by Harry Weese Fire Station Number 4, by Robert Venturi Columbus Regional Hospital, by Robert A.M. Stern ====Notable historic buildings==== Bartholomew County Courthouse by Isaac Hodgson Columbus Power House by Harrison Albright The Crump Theatre by Charles Franklin Sparrell ===Public art=== Chaos I by Jean Tinguely Friendship Way by William A. Johnson, containing an untitled neon sculpture by Cork Marcheschi Irwin Gardens at the Inn at Irwin Gardens Large Arch by Henry Moore 2 Arcs de 212.5˚ by Bernar Venet Horses by Costantino Nivola The Family by Harris Barron Yellow Neon Chandelier and Persians by Dale Chihuly C by Robert Indiana Sermon on the Mount by Loja Saarinen and Eliel Saarinen History and Mystery by William T. Wiley Exploded Engine by Rudolph de Harak Eos by Dessa Kirk ===Exhibit Columbus=== In May 2016, Landmark Columbus launched Exhibit Columbus as a way to continue the ambitious traditions of the past into the future. Exhibit Columbus features annual programming that alternates between symposium and exhibition years. ==Sports== Columbus High School was home to footwear pioneer Chuck Taylor, who played basketball in Columbus before setting out to promote his now famous shoes and the sport of basketball before being inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Two local high schools compete within the state in various sports. Columbus North and Columbus East both have competitive athletics and have many notable athletes that go on to compete in college and beyond. Columbus North High School houses one of the largest high school gyms in the United States. CNHS vs CEHS Indiana Diesels of the Premier Basketball League play their home games at the gymnasium at Ceraland Park, with plans to move to a proposed downtown sports complex in the near future. ==Parks and recreation== Columbus boasts over of parks and green space and over 20 miles of People Trails. These amenities, in addition to several athletic and community facilities, including Donner Aquatic Center, Lincoln Park Softball Complex, Hamilton Center Ice Arena, Clifty Park, Foundation for Youth/Columbus Gymnastics Center and The Commons, are managed and maintained by the Columbus Parks and Recreation Department. ==Transportation== ===Transit=== ColumBUS provides bus service in the city with five routes operating Monday through Saturday. ===Roads and highways=== The north–south U.S. Route 31 has been diverted to the northeastern part of the city. Interstate 65 bypasses Columbus to the west. Indiana Route 46 runs-east-west through the southern section of the city. ===Railroads=== Freight rail service is provided by the Louisville and Indiana Railroad (LIRC). The LIRC line runs in a north–south orientation along the western edge of Columbus. The Pennsylvania Railroad's Kentuckyian (Chicago-Louisville) made stops in the city until 1968. The PRR and its successor, the Penn Central, ran the Florida-bound South Wind up to 1971. The city has been earmarked as a location for a new Amtrak station along the Chicago-Indianapolis-Louisville rail corridor. ===Airport=== Columbus is served by the Columbus Municipal Airport (KBAK). It is located approximately north of Columbus. The airport handles approximately 40,500 operations per year, with roughly 87% general aviation, 4% air taxi, 8% military and less than 1% commercial service. The airport has two concrete runways; a 6,401-foot runway with approved ILS and GPS approaches (Runway 5-23) and a 5,001-foot crosswind runway, also with GPS approaches, (Runway 14-32). The nearest commercial airport which currently has scheduled airline service is Indianapolis International Airport (IND), located approximately northwest of Columbus. Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport and Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport are to the south and to the southeast, respectively. ==Notable people== This is a list of notable people who were born in, or who currently live, or have lived in Columbus. Ross Barbour and Don Barbour, singers in the Four Freshmen Michael Evans Behling, actor Kate Bruce, silent-film actress Clessie Cummins, inventor, mechanic, salesman, and founder of engine manufacturer Cummins, Inc. William H. Donner, businessman, industrialist and philanthropist Tyler Duncan, golfer Dutch Fehring, Major League Baseball player and Purdue coach Arthur W Graham III, creator of the first fully automatic electronic race timing & scoring system, long-time Indy 500 executive race official Lee H. Hamilton, member of U.S. Congress and co-chair of the 9/11 Commission Jordan Bryce Hutson, gospel musician Jamie Hyneman, former host of MythBusters Blair Kiel, Notre Dame and pro football quarterback Debbi Lawrence, race walker Scott McNealy, chairman and co-founder of Sun Microsystems J. Irwin Miller, industrialist, CEO of Cummins Mike Moore, Minor League Baseball president Jeff Osterhage, television and film actor Bob Paris, best-selling author, award-winning public speaker and social change agent, former Mr. Universe Greg Pence, U.S. representative since 2019, older brother of Mike Pence Mike Pence, 50th Governor of Indiana (2013–2017) and 48th Vice President of the United States (2017–2021) Mike Phipps, Purdue All-American and #3 draft pick, NFL quarterback (Browns and Bears) Frank Richman, Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court, judge at the Nuremberg trials Terry Schmidt, NFL cornerback Stephen Sprouse, fashion designer Tony Stewart, auto racing driver and team owner, USAC, 3-time NASCAR Cup Series Champion, owner of NASCAR team Stewart Haas Racing and NHRA team Tony Stewart Racing Jill Tasker, television and voice actor Chuck Taylor, shoe designer Bruce Tinsley, creator of Mallard Fillmore Herbert Wright, producer ==Education== The Bartholomew Consolidated School Corporation (BCSC) is the local school district. High schools include: Columbus East High School Columbus North High School Columbus has a public library, a branch of the Bartholomew County Public Library. Secondary education includes Indiana University Columbus (IU Columbus), an Ivy Tech campus, a Purdue Polytechnic campus, and an Indiana Wesleyan University education center.	[ "White River (Indiana)", "List of public art in Bartholomew County, Indiana", "Mayor", "Driftwood River", "Harris Barron", "The Republic (Columbus, Indiana)", "median income", "Michael Evans Behling", "Columbus North High School", "Jeff Osterhage", "modern architecture", "Otter Creek Golf Course", "Chuck Taylor (salesman)", "Haw Creek Leather Company", "Miller House (Columbus, Indiana)", "Scott McNealy", "Exhibit Columbus", "Mike Pence", "First Baptist Church (Columbus, Indiana)", "Clessie Cummins", "Arthur W Graham III", "Meritor", "Indiana Supreme Court", "county seat", "Roche-Dinkeloo", "Robert A. M. 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Pei", "Yellow Neon Chandelier and Persians", "Jill Tasker", "Richard Meier", "Holtkamp Organ Company", "Robert Venturi", "U.S. Route 31", "Indiana Wesleyan University", "List of counties in Indiana", "Vice President of the United States", "Fire Station Number 4 (Columbus, Indiana)", "Mabel McDowell School", "St. Bartholomew Catholic Church", "Mike Moore (baseball executive)", "Ceraland Park", "GQ", "Henry Moore", "U.S. state", "SOM (architectural firm)", "Chaos I", "The Family (Barron)", "Bob Paris", "public art", "McEwen-Samuels-Marr House", "Only in your state", "Costantino Nivola", "Bartholomew Consolidated School Corporation", "Miller House and Garden", "John Carl Warnecke", "MythBusters", "List of vice presidents of the United States", "metropolitan statistical area", "Octoauto", "Flatrock River", "William T. Wiley", "2020 United States census", "The Crump Theatre", "Harrison Township, Bartholomew County, Indiana", "Madison, Indiana", "Jamie Hyneman", "Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport", "Dutch Fehring", "Cleo Rogers Memorial Library", "Stephen Sprouse", "William H. Donner", "Romaldo Giurgola", "Nickelodeon Magazine", "African American (U.S. Census)", "List of sovereign states", "Commons Centre and Mall", "Indiana Diesels", "Eastern Daylight Time", "Joseph Irwin Miller", "Cummins (corporation)", "Columbus Power House", "John Tipton", "North Christian Church", "Clay Township, Bartholomew County, Indiana", "largest high school gyms in the United States", "Bruce Tinsley", "Horses (Nivola)", "Debbi Lawrence", "List of public art in Columbus, Indiana", "Terry Schmidt", "Indianapolis", "Herbert Wright (producer)", "Columbus Historic District (Columbus, Indiana)", "South Wind (train)", "Irwin Conference Center", "U.S. representative", "Landmark Columbus", "Columbus City Hall (Columbus, Indiana)", "Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana", "Eero Saarinen", "White (U.S. Census)", "the Four Freshmen", "ZIP Code", "Kate Bruce", "Penn Central", "Exploded Engine", "J. Irwin Miller", "Rudolph de Harak", "Tyler Duncan", "Sermon on the Mount (Saarinen)", "Interstate 65", "Governor of Indiana", "Hispanic (U.S. Census)", "Tony Stewart", "Asian (U.S. Census)", "Irwin Gardens", "Pennsylvania Railroad", "Robert Indiana", "Hispanics in the United States", "Jean Tinguely", "History and Mystery", "Columbus Municipal Airport (Indiana)", "Bryan Hutson", "Nuremberg trials", "Indianapolis International Airport", "Joseph Bartholomew (General)", "2 Arcs de 212.5˚", "Wayne Township, Bartholomew County, Indiana", "Mike Phipps", "Bartholomew County, Indiana", "List of governors of Indiana", "ColumBUS", "C (Indiana)", "First Christian Church (Columbus, Indiana)", "Kogonada", "National Park Service", "National Geographic Traveler", "Rockwell International", "9/11 Commission", "Greg Pence", "United States Auto Club", "Purdue Polytechnic", "Toyota Material Handling", "Indiana University Columbus", "Large Arch", "Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport", "Harry Weese", "McKinley School (Columbus, Indiana)", "Mallard Fillmore", "Bernar Venet", "State of Indiana", "Seymour, Indiana", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame", "Ross Barbour (singer)", "Blair Kiel", "Indiana State Road 46", "National Register of Historic Places", "Flat Rock Township, Bartholomew County, Indiana", "Indiana General Assembly", "Charles Franklin Sparrell", "NASCAR", "Dan Kiley", "Frank Richman", "Gunnar Birkerts", "National Historic Landmarks", "Premier Basketball League", "Eastern Time Zone", "The Republic Newspaper Office", "Courier & Press", "Area codes 812 and 930", "National Hot Rod Association", "NPR", "Milton Reeves", "Harrison Albright", "Bartholomew County Courthouse", "Zaharakos Ice Cream Parlor", "Trains magazine", "Latino (U.S. Census)", "Loja Saarinen", "Columbus (2017 film)", "Irwin Union Bank and Trust", "Forklift truck", "Isaac Hodgson (architect)", "Columbus Township, Bartholomew County, Indiana", "Cummins", "United States Census Bureau", "Dale Chihuly", "César Pelli", "Native American (U.S. Census)", "Columbus East High School", "Sun Microsystems", "Louisville, Kentucky", "Friendship Way", "Race (United States Census)" ]
6,834	List of computer scientists	This is a list of computer scientists, people who do work in computer science, in particular researchers and authors. Some persons notable as programmers are included here because they work in research as well as program. A few of these people pre-date the invention of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer. Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as complexity theory and algorithmic information theory. ==A== Wil van der Aalst – business process management, process mining, Petri nets Scott Aaronson – quantum computing and complexity theory Rediet Abebe – algorithms, artificial intelligence Hal Abelson – intersection of computing and teaching Serge Abiteboul – database theory Samson Abramsky – game semantics Leonard Adleman – RSA, DNA computing Manindra Agrawal – polynomial-time primality testing Luis von Ahn – human-based computation Alfred Aho – compilers book, the 'a' in AWK Frances E. Allen – compiler optimization Gene Amdahl – supercomputer developer, Amdahl Corporation founder David P. Anderson – volunteer computing Lisa Anthony – natural user interfaces Andrew Appel – compiler of text books Cecilia R. Aragon – invented treap, human-centered data science Bruce Arden – programming language compilers (GAT, Michigan Algorithm Decoder (MAD)), virtual memory architecture, Michigan Terminal System (MTS) Kevin Ashton – pioneered and named The Internet of Things at M.I.T. Sanjeev Arora – PCP theorem Winifred "Tim" Alice Asprey – established the computer science curriculum at Vassar College John Vincent Atanasoff – computer pioneer, creator of Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) Shakuntala Atre – database theory Lennart Augustsson – languages (Lazy ML, Cayenne), compilers (HBC Haskell, parallel Haskell front end, Bluespec SystemVerilog early), LPMud pioneer, NetBSD device drivers ==B== Charles Babbage (1791–1871) – invented first mechanical computer called the supreme mathematician Charles Bachman – American computer scientist, known for Integrated Data Store Roland Carl Backhouse – mathematics of computer program construction, algorithmic problem solving, ALGOL IFIP WG 2.1 member John Backus – Fortran, Backus–Naur form, first complete compiler David F. Bacon – programming languages, garbage collection David Bader Victor Bahl Fatmah Baothman – Saudi Arabian AI researcher Anthony James Barr – SAS, former Statistical Analysis System Jean Bartik (1924–2011) – one of the first computer programmers, on ENIAC (1946), one of the first vacuum tube computers, back when programming involved using cables, dials, and switches to physically rewire a machine; worked with John Mauchly toward BINAC (1949), EDVAC (1949), UNIVAC (1951) to develop early stored program computers Andrew Barto Friedrich L. Bauer – stack (data structure), Sequential Formula Translation, ALGOL, software engineering, Bauer–Fike theorem Rudolf Bayer – B-tree Gordon Bell (1934–2024) – computer designer DEC VAX, author: Computer Structures Steven M. Bellovin – network security Cecilia Berdichevsky (1925–2010) – pioneering Argentinian computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee – World Wide Web Daniel J. Bernstein – qmail, software as protected speech Peter Bernus Abhay Bhushan Dines Bjørner – Vienna Development Method (VDM), RAISE Gerrit Blaauw – one of main designers of IBM System/360 computer line Sue Black David Blei Dorothy Blum – National Security Agency Lenore Blum – complexity Manuel Blum – cryptography Barry Boehm – software engineering economics, spiral development Corrado Böhm – author of the structured program theorem Kurt Bollacker Jeff Bonwick – invented slab allocation and ZFS Grady Booch – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group George Boole – Boolean logic Andrew Booth – developed the first rotating drum storage device Kathleen Booth – developed the first assembly language Anita Borg (1949–2003) – American computer scientist, founder of Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology Alan H. Borning – human–computer interaction, object-oriented programming, constraint programming, programming languages, ThingLab Bert Bos – Cascading Style Sheets Mikhail Botvinnik – World Chess Champion, computer scientist, electrical engineer, pioneered early expert system AI and computer chess Jonathan Bowen – Z notation, formal methods Stephen R. Bourne – Bourne shell, portable ALGOL 68C compiler Harry Bouwman (born 1953) – Dutch Information systems researcher, professor at Åbo Akademi University Robert S. Boyer – string searching, ACL2 theorem prover Karlheinz Brandenburg – Main mp3 contributor Gilles Brassard – BB84 protocol and quantum cryptography pioneer Lawrence M. Breed – implementation of Iverson Notation (APL), co-developed APL\360, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation cofounder Jack E. Bresenham – early computer-graphics contributions, including Bresenham's algorithm Sergey Brin – co-founder of Google David J. Brown – unified memory architecture, binary compatibility Per Brinch Hansen (surname "Brinch Hansen") – RC 4000 multiprogramming system, operating system kernels, microkernels, monitors, concurrent programming, Concurrent Pascal, distributed computing & processes, parallel computing Sjaak Brinkkemper – methodology of product software development Fred Brooks – IBM System/360, OS/360, The Mythical Man-Month, No Silver Bullet Rod Brooks Margaret Burnett – visual programming languages, end-user software engineering, and gender-inclusive software Rod Burstall – languages COWSEL (renamed POP-1), POP-2, NPL, Hope; ACM SIGPLAN 2009 PL Achievement Award Michael Butler – Event-B ==C== Pino Caballero Gil – cryptography Tracy Camp – wireless computing Martin Campbell-Kelly – history of computing Rosemary Candlin Rod Canion – cofounder of Compaq Computer Corporation Bryan Cantrill – invented DTrace Luca Cardelli John Carmack – codeveloped Doom Michael Caspersen – programming methodology, education in OO programming, leadership in developing informatics education Edwin Catmull – computer graphics Vint Cerf – Internet, TCP/IP Gregory Chaitin Robert Cailliau – Belgian computer scientist Zhou Chaochen – duration calculus Peter Chen – entity-relationship model, data modeling, conceptual model Leonardo Chiariglione – founder of MPEG Tracy Chou – computer scientist and activist Alonzo Church – mathematics of combinators, lambda calculus Alberto Ciaramella – speech recognition, patent informatics Edmund M. Clarke – model checking John Cocke – reduced instruction set computer (RISC) Edgar F. Codd (1923–2003) – formulated the database relational model Jacques Cohen – computer science professor Ian Coldwater – computer security Simon Colton – computational creativity Alain Colmerauer – Prolog Douglas Comer – Xinu Paul Justin Compton – Ripple-down rules Richard W. Conway – CORC, CUPL, and PL/C languages and dialects; programming textbooks Stephen Cook – NP-completeness James Cooley – Fast Fourier transform (FFT) Steven Anson Coons – conic section analyses, Bézier surface patches (includes Coons patch), The Little Red Book (1967), computer graphics Danese Cooper – open-source software Fernando J. Corbató – Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), Multics Gordon Cormack – co-invented dynamic Markov compression Kit Cosper – open-source software Patrick Cousot – abstract interpretation Ingemar Cox – digital watermarking Damien Coyle – computational neuroscience, neuroimaging, neurotechnology, and brain-computer interface Seymour Cray – Cray Research, supercomputer Nello Cristianini – machine learning, pattern analysis, artificial intelligence Jon Crowcroft – networking W. Bruce Croft Glen Culler – interactive computing, computer graphics, high performance computing Haskell Curry ==D== Luigi Dadda – designer of the Dadda multiplier Ole-Johan Dahl – Simula, object-oriented programming Ryan Dahl – founder of node.js project Andries van Dam – computer graphics, hypertext Samir Das – Wireless Networks, Mobile Computing, Vehicular ad hoc network, Sensor Networks, Mesh networking, Wireless ad hoc network Neil Daswani – computer security, co-founder and co-director of Stanford Advanced Computer Security Program, co-founder of Dasient (acquired by Twitter), former chief information security of LifeLock and Symantec's Consumer Business Unit Christopher J. Date – proponent of database relational model Terry A. Davis – creator of TempleOS Jeff Dean – Bigtable, MapReduce, Spanner of Google Erik Demaine – computational origami Tom DeMarco Richard DeMillo – computer security, software engineering, educational technology Dorothy E. Denning – computer security Peter J. Denning – identified the use of an operating system's working set and balance set, President of ACM Michael Dertouzos – Director of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) from 1974 to 2001 Alexander Dewdney Robert Dewar – IFIP WG 2.1 member, ALGOL 68, chairperson; AdaCore cofounder, president, CEO Vinod Dham – P5 Pentium processor Jan Dietz (born 1945) (decay constant) – information systems theory and Design & Engineering Methodology for Organizations Whitfield Diffie (born 1944) (linear response function) – public key cryptography, Diffie–Hellman key exchange Edsger W. Dijkstra – algorithms, Dijkstra's algorithm, Go To Statement Considered Harmful, semaphore (programming), IFIP WG 2.1 member Matthew Dillon – DragonFly BSD with LWKT, vkernel OS-level virtualisation, file systems: HAMMER1, HAMMER2 Alan Dix – wrote important university level textbook on human–computer interaction Jack Dongarra – linear algebra high performance computing (HCI) Marco Dorigo – ant colony optimization Paul Dourish – human computer interaction Charles Stark Draper (1901–1987) – designer of Apollo Guidance Computer, "father of inertial navigation", MIT professor Susan Dumais – information retrieval Adam Dunkels – Contiki, lwIP, uIP, protothreads Jon Michael Dunn – founding dean of Indiana University School of Informatics, information based logics especially relevance logic Schahram Dustdar – Distributed Systems, TU Wien, Austria ==E== Peter Eades – graph drawing Annie Easley Wim Ebbinkhuijsen – COBOL John Presper Eckert – ENIAC Alan Edelman – Edelman's Law, stochastic operator, Interactive Supercomputing, Julia (programming language) cocreator, high performance computing, numerical computing Brendan Eich – JavaScript, Mozilla Philip Emeagwali – supercomputing E. Allen Emerson – model checking Douglas Engelbart – tiled windows, hypertext, computer mouse Barbara Engelhardt – latent variable models, genomics, quantitative trait locus (QTL) David Eppstein Andrey Ershov – languages ALPHA, Rapira; first Soviet time-sharing system AIST-0, electronic publishing system RUBIN, multiprocessing workstation MRAMOR, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Aesthetics and the Human Factor in Programming Don Estridge (1937–1985) – led development of original IBM Personal Computer (PC); known as "father of the IBM PC" Oren Etzioni – MetaCrawler, Netbot Christopher Riche Evans David C. Evans – computer graphics Shimon Even ==F== Scott Fahlman Edward Feigenbaum – intelligence Edward Felten – computer security Tim Finin Raphael Finkel Donald Firesmith Gary William Flake Tommy Flowers – Colossus computer Robert Floyd – NP-completeness Sally Floyd – Internet congestion control Lawrence J. Fogel – evolutionary programming James D. Foley Ken Forbus L. R. Ford, Jr. Lance Fortnow Mahmoud Samir Fayed – PWCT, Ring Martin Fowler Robert France Herbert W. Franke Edward Fredkin Yoav Freund Daniel P. Friedman Charlotte Froese Fischer – computational theoretical physics Ping Fu Xiaoming Fu Kunihiko Fukushima – neocognitron, artificial neural networks, convolutional neural network architecture, unsupervised learning, deep learning D. R. Fulkerson ==G== Richard P. Gabriel – Maclisp, Common Lisp, Worse is Better, League for Programming Freedom, Lucid Inc., XEmacs Zvi Galil Bernard Galler – MAD (programming language) Hector Garcia-Molina Michael Garey – NP-completeness Hugo de Garis Bill Gates – cofounder of Microsoft David Gelernter Lisa Gelobter – was the Chief Digital Service Officer for the U.S. Department of Education, founder of teQuitable Charles Geschke Zoubin Ghahramani Sanjay Ghemawat Jeremy Gibbons – generic programming, functional programming, formal methods, computational biology, bioinformatics Juan E. Gilbert – human-centered computing Lee Giles – CiteSeer Seymour Ginsburg – formal languages, automata theory, AFL theory, database theory Robert L. Glass Kurt Gödel – computability; not a computer scientist per se, but his work was invaluable in the field Ashok Goel Joseph Goguen E. Mark Gold – Language identification in the limit Adele Goldberg – Smalltalk Andrew V. Goldberg – algorithms, algorithm engineering Ian Goldberg – cryptographer, off-the-record messaging Judy Goldsmith – computational complexity theory, decision theory, and computer ethics Oded Goldreich – cryptography, computational complexity theory Shafi Goldwasser – cryptography, computational complexity theory Gene Golub – Matrix computation Martin Charles Golumbic – algorithmic graph theory Gastón Gonnet – cofounder of Waterloo Maple Inc. Ian Goodfellow – machine learning James Gosling – Network extensible Window System (NeWS), Java Paul Graham – Viaweb, On Lisp, Arc Robert M. Graham – programming language compilers (GAT, Michigan Algorithm Decoder (MAD)), virtual memory architecture, Multics Susan L. Graham – compilers, programming environments Jim Gray – database Sheila Greibach – Greibach normal form, Abstract family of languages (AFL) theory David Gries – The Science of Programming, Interference freedom, Member Emeritus, IFIP WG 2.3 on Programming Methodology Robert Griesemer – Go language Ralph Griswold – SNOBOL Bill Gropp – Message Passing Interface, Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific Computation (PETSc) Tom Gruber – ontology engineering Shelia Guberman – handwriting recognition Ramanathan V. Guha – Resource Description Framework (RDF), Netscape, RSS, Epinions Neil J. Gunther – computer performance analysis, capacity planning Jürg Gutknecht – with Niklaus Wirth: Lilith computer; Modula-2, Oberon, Zonnon programming languages; Oberon operating system Michael Guy – Phoenix, work on number theory, computer algebra, higher dimension polyhedra theory; with John Horton Conway Giri Topper - Topper of Anna University and Programmer ==H== Nico Habermann – operating systems, software engineering, inter-process communication, process synchronization, deadlock avoidance, software verification, programming languages: ALGOL 60, BLISS, Pascal, Ada Philipp Matthäus Hahn – mechanical calculator Eldon C. Hall – Apollo Guidance Computer Wendy Hall Joseph Halpern Margaret Hamilton – ultra-reliable software design, Apollo program space missions Richard Hamming – Hamming code, founder of the Association for Computing Machinery Jiawei Han – data mining Frank Harary – graph theory Brian Harris – machine translation research, Canada's first computer-assisted translation course, natural translation theory, community interpreting (Critical Link) Juris Hartmanis – computational complexity theory Johan Håstad – computational complexity theory Les Hatton – software failure and vulnerabilities Igor Hawryszkiewycz (born 1948) – American computer scientist and organizational theorist He Jifeng – provably correct systems Eric Hehner – predicative programming, formal methods, quote notation, ALGOL Martin Hellman – encryption Gernot Heiser – operating system teaching, research, commercialising, Open Kernel Labs, OKL4, Wombat James Hendler – Semantic Web John L. Hennessy – computer architecture Andrew Herbert Carl Hewitt Kelsey Hightower – open source, cloud computing Danny Hillis – Connection Machine Geoffrey Hinton Julia Hirschberg Tin Kam Ho – artificial intelligence, machine learning C. A. R. Hoare – logic, rigor, communicating sequential processes (CSP) Louis Hodes (1934–2008) – Lisp, pattern recognition, logic programming, cancer research Betty Holberton – ENIAC programmer, developed the first Sort Merge Generator John Henry Holland – genetic algorithms Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) – invented recording of data on a machine readable medium, using punched cards Gerard Holzmann – software verification, logic model checking (SPIN) John Hopcroft – compilers Admiral Grace Hopper (1906–1992) – developed early compilers: FLOW-Matic, COBOL; worked on UNIVAC; gave speeches on computer history, where she gave out nano-seconds Eric Horvitz – artificial intelligence Alston Householder Paul Hudak (1952–2015) – Haskell language design, textbooks on it and computer music David A. Huffman (1925–1999) – Huffman coding, used in data compression John Hughes – structuring computations with arrows; QuickCheck randomized program testing framework; Haskell language design Roger Hui – co-created J language Watts Humphrey (1927–2010) – Personal Software Process (PSP), Software quality, Team Software Process (TSP) Sandra Hutchins (born 1946) – speech recognition ==I== Jean Ichbiah – Ada Roberto Ierusalimschy – Lua (programming language) Dan Ingalls – Smalltalk, BitBlt, Lively Kernel Mary Jane Irwin Kenneth E. Iverson – APL, J ==J== Ivar Jacobson – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group Anil K. Jain (born 1948) Ramesh Jain Jonathan James Jordi Ustrell Aguilà David S. Johnson Stephen C. Johnson Angie Jones – software engineer and automation architect. Holds 26 patented inventions in the United States of America and Japan Cliff Jones – Vienna Development Method (VDM) Michael I. Jordan Mathai Joseph Aravind K. Joshi Bill Joy (born 1954) – Sun Microsystems, BSD UNIX, vi, csh Dan Jurafsky – natural language processing ==K== William Kahan – numerical analysis Robert E. Kahn – TCP/IP Avinash Kak – digital image processing Poul-Henning Kamp – invented GBDE, FreeBSD Jails, Varnish cache David Karger Richard Karp – NP-completeness Narendra Karmarkar – Karmarkar's algorithm Marek Karpinski – NP optimization problems Ted Kaehler – Smalltalk, Squeak, HyperCard Alan Kay – Dynabook, Smalltalk, overlapping windows Neeraj Kayal – AKS primality test Manolis Kellis – computational biology John George Kemeny – the language BASIC Ken Kennedy – compiling for parallel and vector machines Brian Kernighan (born 1942) – Unix, the 'k' in AWK Carl Kesselman – grid computing Gregor Kiczales – CLOS, reflective programming, aspect-oriented programming Peter T. Kirstein – Internet Stephen Cole Kleene – Kleene closure, recursion theory Dan Klein – Natural language processing, Machine translation Leonard Kleinrock – ARPANET, queueing theory, packet switching, hierarchical routing Donald Knuth – The Art of Computer Programming, MIX/MMIX, TeX, literate programming Andrew Koenig – C++ Daphne Koller – Artificial intelligence, bayesian network Michael Kölling – BlueJ Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov – algorithmic complexity theory Janet L. Kolodner – case-based reasoning David Korn – KornShell Kees Koster – ALGOL 68 Robert Kowalski – logic programming John Koza – genetic programming John Krogstie – SEQUAL framework Joseph Kruskal – Kruskal's algorithm Maarja Kruusmaa – underwater roboticist Thomas E. Kurtz (1928–2024) – BASIC programming language; Dartmouth College computer professor ==L== Richard E. Ladner Monica S. Lam Leslie Lamport – algorithms for distributed computing, LaTeX Butler Lampson – SDS 940, founding member Xerox PARC, Xerox Alto, Turing Award Peter Landin – ISWIM, J operator, SECD machine, off-side rule, syntactic sugar, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, advanced lambda calculus to model programming languages (aided functional programming), denotational semantics Tom Lane – Independent JPEG Group, PostgreSQL, Portable Network Graphics (PNG) Börje Langefors Hans Langmaack Chris Lattner – creator of Swift (programming language) and LLVM compiler infrastructure Steve Lawrence Edward D. Lazowska Joshua Lederberg Manny M Lehman Charles E. Leiserson – cache-oblivious algorithms, provably good work-stealing, coauthor of Introduction to Algorithms Douglas Lenat – artificial intelligence, Cyc Yann LeCun Rasmus Lerdorf – PHP Max Levchin – Gausebeck–Levchin test and PayPal Leonid Levin – computational complexity theory Kevin Leyton-Brown – artificial intelligence J.C.R. Licklider David Liddle Jochen Liedtke – microkernel operating systems Eumel, L3, L4 John Lions – Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code (Lions Book) Charles H. Lindsey – IFIP WG 2.1 member, Revised Report on ALGOL 68 Richard J. Lipton – computational complexity theory Barbara Liskov – programming languages Yanhong Annie Liu – programming languages, algorithms, program design, program optimization, software systems, optimizing, analysis, and transformations, intelligent systems, distributed computing, computer security, IFIP WG 2.1 member Darrell Long – computer data storage, computer security Patricia D. Lopez – broadening participation in computing Gillian Lovegrove Ada Lovelace – first programmer David Luckham – Lisp, Automated theorem proving, Stanford Pascal Verifier, Complex event processing, Rational Software cofounder (Ada compiler) Eugene Luks Nancy Lynch ==M== Nadia Magnenat Thalmann – computer graphics, virtual actor Tom Maibaum George Mallen – creative computing, computer arts Simon Marlow – Haskell developer, book author; co-developer: Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Haxl remote data access library Zohar Manna – fuzzy logic James Martin – information engineering Robert C. Martin (Uncle Bob) – software craftsmanship John Mashey Yuri Matiyasevich – solving Hilbert's tenth problem Yukihiro Matsumoto – Ruby (programming language) John Mauchly (1907–1980) – designed ENIAC, first general-purpose electronic digital computer, and EDVAC, BINAC and UNIVAC I, the first commercial computer; worked with Jean Bartik on ENIAC and Grace Murray Hopper on UNIVAC Ujjwal Maulik (born 1965) multi-objective clustering and Bioinformatics Derek McAuley – ubiquitous computing, computer architecture, networking Conor McBride – researches type theory, functional programming; cocreated Epigram (programming language) with James McKinna; member IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi John McCarthy – Lisp (programming language), ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member, artificial intelligence Andrew McCallum Douglas McIlroy – macros, pipes, Unix philosophy Chris McKinstry – artificial intelligence, Mindpixel Marshall Kirk McKusick – BSD, Berkeley Fast File System Lambert Meertens – ALGOL 68, IFIP WG 2.1 member, ABC (programming language) Kurt Mehlhorn – algorithms, data structures, LEDA Dora Metcalf – entrepreneur, engineer and mathematician Bertrand Meyer – Eiffel (programming language) Silvio Micali – cryptography Robin Milner – ML (programming language) Jack Minker – database logic Marvin Minsky – artificial intelligence, perceptrons, Society of Mind James G. Mitchell – WATFOR compiler, Mesa (programming language), Spring (operating system), ARM architecture Tom M. Mitchell Arvind Mithal – formal verification of large digital systems, developing dynamic dataflow architectures, parallel computing programming languages (Id, pH), compiling on parallel machines Paul Mockapetris – Domain Name System (DNS) Cleve Moler – numerical analysis, MATLAB Faron Moller – concurrency theory John P. Moon – inventor, Apple Inc. Charles H. Moore – Forth language Edward F. Moore – Moore machine Gordon Moore – Moore's law J Strother Moore – string searching, ACL2 theorem prover Roger Moore – co-developed APL\360, created IPSANET, co-founded I. P. Sharp Associates Hans Moravec – robotics Carroll Morgan – formal methods Robert Tappan Morris – Morris worm Joel Moses – Macsyma Rajeev Motwani – randomized algorithm Oleg A. Mukhanov – quantum computing developer, co-founder and CTO of SeeQC Stephen Muggleton – Inductive Logic Programming Klaus-Robert Müller – machine learning, artificial intelligence Alan Mycroft – programming languages Brad A. Myers – human-computer interaction ==N== Mihai Nadin – anticipation research Makoto Nagao – machine translation, natural language processing, digital library Frieder Nake – pioneered computer arts Bonnie Nardi – human–computer interaction Peter Naur (1928–2016) – Backus–Naur form (BNF), ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member Roger Needham – computer security James G. Nell – Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology (GERAM) Greg Nelson (1953–2015) – satisfiability modulo theories, extended static checking, program verification, Modula-3 committee, Simplify theorem prover in ESC/Java Bernard de Neumann – massively parallel autonomous cellular processor, software engineering research Klara Dan von Neumann (1911–1963) – early computers, ENIAC programmer and control designer John von Neumann (1903–1957) – early computers, von Neumann machine, set theory, functional analysis, mathematics pioneer, linear programming, quantum mechanics Allen Newell – artificial intelligence, Computer Structures Max Newman – Colossus computer, MADM Andrew Ng – artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics Nils John Nilsson (1933–2019) – artificial intelligence G.M. Nijssen – Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology (NIAM) object–role modeling Tobias Nipkow – proof assistance Maurice Nivat – theoretical computer science, Theoretical Computer Science journal, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Jerre Noe – computerized banking Peter Nordin – artificial intelligence, genetic programming, evolutionary robotics Donald Norman – user interfaces, usability Peter Norvig – artificial intelligence, Director of Research at Google George Novacky – University of Pittsburgh: assistant department chair, senior lecturer in computer science, assistant dean of CAS for undergraduate studies Kristen Nygaard – Simula, object-oriented programming ==O== Martin Odersky – Scala programming language Peter O'Hearn – separation logic, bunched logic, Infer Static Analyzer T. William Olle – Ferranti Mercury Steve Omohundro Severo Ornstein John O'Sullivan – Wi-Fi John Ousterhout – Tcl programming language Mark Overmars – video game programming Susan Owicki – interference freedom ==P== Larry Page – co-founder of Google Sankar Pal Paritosh Pandya Christos Papadimitriou Keshab K. Parhi David Park (1935–1990) – first Lisp implementation, expert in fairness, program schemas, bisimulation in concurrent computing David Parnas – information hiding, modular programming DJ Patil – former Chief Data Scientist of United States Yale Patt – Instruction-level parallelism, speculative architectures David Patterson – reduced instruction set computer (RISC), RISC-V, redundant arrays of inexpensive disks (RAID), Berkeley Network of Workstations (NOW) Mike Paterson – algorithms, analysis of algorithms (complexity) Mihai Pătraşcu – data structures Lawrence Paulson – ML Randy Pausch (1960–2008) – human–computer interaction, Carnegie professor, "Last Lecture" Juan Pavón – software agents Judea Pearl – artificial intelligence, search algorithms Alan Perlis – Programming Pearls Radia Perlman – spanning tree protocol Pier Giorgio Perotto – computer designer at Olivetti, designer of the Programma 101 programmable calculator Rózsa Péter – recursive function theory Simon Peyton Jones – functional programming, Glasgow Haskell Compiler, C-- Kathy Pham – data, artificial intelligence, civic technology, healthcare, ethics Roberto Pieraccini – speech technologist, engineering director at Google Keshav Pingali – IEEE Computer Society Charles Babbage Award, ACM Fellow (2012) Gordon Plotkin Amir Pnueli – temporal logic Willem van der Poel – computer graphics, robotics, geographic information systems, imaging, multimedia, virtual environments, games Robin Popplestone – COWSEL (renamed POP-1), POP-2, POP-11 languages, Poplog IDE; Freddy II robot Cicely Popplewell (1920–1995) – British software engineer in 1960s Emil Post – mathematics Jon Postel – Internet Franco Preparata – computer engineering, computational geometry, parallel algorithms, computational biology William H. Press – numerical algorithms ==R== Rapelang Rabana Grzegorz Rozenberg – natural computing, automata theory, graph transformations and concurrent systems Michael O. Rabin – nondeterministic machine Dragomir R. Radev – natural language processing, information retrieval T. V. Raman – accessibility, Emacspeak Brian Randell – ALGOL 60, software fault tolerance, dependability, pre-1950 history of computing hardware Anders P. Ravn – Duration Calculus Raj Reddy – artificial intelligence David P. Reed Trygve Reenskaug – model–view–controller (MVC) software architecture pattern John C. Reynolds – continuations, definitional interpreters, defunctionalization, Forsythe, Gedanken language, intersection types, polymorphic lambda calculus, relational parametricity, separation logic, ALGOL Joyce K. Reynolds – Internet Reinder van de Riet – Editor: Europe of Data and Knowledge Engineering, COLOR-X event modeling language Bernard Richards – medical informatics Martin Richards – Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL) Adam Ries – advocate for Arabic numerals to replace Roman numerals C. J. van Rijsbergen Dennis Ritchie – C (programming language), Unix Ron Rivest – RSA, MD5, RC4 Lawrence Roberts – ARPANET program manager, Internet cofounder Paul Robertson (researcher) - AI researcher Ken Robinson – formal methods Colette Rolland – REMORA methodology, meta modelling John Romero – codeveloped Doom Azriel Rosenfeld Douglas T. Ross – Automatically Programmed Tools (APT), Computer-aided design, structured analysis and design technique, ALGOL X Guido van Rossum – Python (programming language) M. A. Rothman – UEFI Winston W. Royce – waterfall model Rudy Rucker – mathematician, writer, educator Steven Rudich – complexity theory, cryptography Jeff Rulifson James Rumbaugh – Unified Modeling Language, Object Management Group Peter Ružička – Slovak computer scientist and mathematician ==S== George Sadowsky Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh – compositional models of meaning, machine learning Umar Saif Gerard Salton – information retrieval Jean E. Sammet – programming languages Claude Sammut – artificial intelligence researcher Carl Sassenrath – operating systems, programming languages, Amiga, REBOL Mahadev Satyanarayanan – file systems, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing Walter Savitch – discovery of complexity class NL, Savitch's theorem, natural language processing, mathematical linguistics Nitin Saxena – AKS Primality test for polynomial time primality testing, computational complexity theory Jonathan Schaeffer Heidi Schelhowe Wilhelm Schickard – one of the first calculating machines Jürgen Schmidhuber – artificial intelligence, deep learning, artificial neural networks, recurrent neural networks, Gödel machine, artificial curiosity, meta-learning Steve Schneider – formal methods, security Bruce Schneier – cryptography, security Fred B. Schneider – concurrent and distributed computing Sarita Schoenebeck – human–computer interaction Glenda Schroeder – command-line shell, e-mail Bernhard Schölkopf – machine learning, artificial intelligence Dana Scott – domain theory Michael L. Scott – programming languages, algorithms, distributed computing Robert Sedgewick – algorithms, data structures Ravi Sethi – compilers, 2nd Dragon Book Nigel Shadbolt Adi Shamir – RSA, cryptanalysis Claude Shannon – information theory David E. Shaw – computational finance, computational biochemistry, parallel architectures Cliff Shaw – systems programmer, artificial intelligence Scott Shenker – networking Shashi Shekhar – spatial computing Ben Shneiderman – human–computer interaction, information visualization Edward H. Shortliffe – MYCIN (medical diagnostic expert system) Daniel Siewiorek – electronic design automation, reliability computing, context aware mobile computing, wearable computing, computer-aided design, rapid prototyping, fault tolerance Joseph Sifakis – model checking Herbert A. Simon – artificial intelligence Munindar P. Singh – multiagent systems, software engineering, artificial intelligence, social networks Ramesh Sitaraman – helped build Akamai's high performance network Daniel Sleator – splay tree, amortized analysis Aaron Sloman – artificial intelligence and cognitive science Arne Sølvberg – information modelling Brian Cantwell Smith – reflective programming, 3lisp David Canfield Smith – invented interface icons, programming by demonstration, developed graphical user interface, Xerox Star; Xerox PARC researcher, cofounded Dest Systems, Cognition Steven Spewak – enterprise architecture planning Carol Spradling Robert Sproull Rohini Kesavan Srihari – information retrieval, text analytics, multilingual text mining Sargur Srihari – pattern recognition, machine learning, computational criminology, CEDAR-FOX Maciej Stachowiak – GNOME, Safari, WebKit Richard Stallman (born 1953) – GNU Project Ronald Stamper Thad Starner Richard E. Stearns – computational complexity theory Guy L. Steele, Jr. – Scheme, Common Lisp Thomas Sterling – creator of Beowulf clusters Alexander Stepanov – generic programming W. Richard Stevens (1951–1999) – author of books, including TCP/IP Illustrated and Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment Larry Stockmeyer – computational complexity, distributed computing Salvatore Stolfo – computer security, machine learning Michael Stonebraker – relational database practice and theory Olaf Storaasli – finite element machine, linear algebra, high performance computing Christopher Strachey – denotational semantics Volker Strassen – matrix multiplication, integer multiplication, Solovay–Strassen primality test Bjarne Stroustrup – C++ Madhu Sudan – computational complexity theory, coding theory Gerald Jay Sussman – Scheme Bert Sutherland – computer graphics, Internet Ivan Sutherland – computer graphics: Sketchpad, Evans & Sutherland Latanya Sweeney – data privacy and algorithmic fairness Mario Szegedy – complexity theory, quantum computing ==T== Parisa Tabriz – Google Director of Engineering, also known as the Security Princess Roberto Tamassia – computational geometry, computer security Andrew S. Tanenbaum – operating systems, MINIX Austin Tate – Artificial Intelligence Applications, AI Planning, Virtual Worlds Bernhard Thalheim – conceptual modelling foundation Éva Tardos Gábor Tardos Robert Tarjan – splay tree Valerie Taylor Mario Tchou – Italian engineer, of Chinese descent, leader of Olivetti Elea project Jaime Teevan Shang-Hua Teng – analysis of algorithms Larry Tesler – human–computer interaction, graphical user interface, Apple Macintosh Avie Tevanian – Mach kernel team, NeXT, Mac OS X Charles P. Thacker – Xerox Alto, Microsoft Research Daniel Thalmann – computer graphics, virtual actor Ken Thompson – mainly designed and authored Unix, Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems, B and Bon languages (precursors of C), created UTF-8 character encoding, introduced regular expressions in QED, co-authored Go language Simon Thompson – functional programming research, textbooks; Cardano domain-specific languages: Marlowe Sebastian Thrun – AI researcher, pioneered autonomous driving Walter F. Tichy – RCS Seinosuke Toda – computation complexity, recipient of 1998 Gödel Prize Chai Keong Toh – mobile ad hoc networks pioneer Linus Torvalds – Linux kernel, Git Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852–1936) – invented El Ajedrecista (the chess player) in 1912, a true automaton built to play chess without human guidance. In his work Essays on Automatics (1913), introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic. In 1920, built an early electromechanical device of the Analytical Engine. Godfried Toussaint – computational geometry, computational music theory Gloria Townsend Edwin E. Tozer – business information systems Joseph F Traub – computational complexity of scientific problems John V. Tucker – computability theory John Tukey – founder of FFT algorithm, box plot, exploratory data analysis and Coining the term 'bit' Alan Turing (1912–1954) – British computing pioneer, Turing machine, algorithms, cryptology, computer architecture David Turner – SASL, Kent Recursive Calculator, Miranda, IFIP WG 2.1 member Murray Turoff – computer-mediated communication ==U== Jeffrey D. Ullman – compilers, databases, complexity theory ==V== Leslie Valiant – computational complexity theory, computational learning theory Vladimir Vapnik – pattern recognition, computational learning theory Moshe Vardi – professor of computer science at Rice University Dorothy Vaughan Bernard Vauquois – pioneered computer science in France, machine translation (MT) theory and practice including Vauquois triangle, ALGOL 60 Umesh Vazirani Manuela M. Veloso François Vernadat – enterprise modeling Richard Veryard – enterprise modeling Sergiy Vilkomir – software testing, RC/DC Paul Vitanyi – Kolmogorov complexity, Information distance, Normalized compression distance, Normalized Google distance Andrew Viterbi – Viterbi algorithm Jeffrey Scott Vitter – external memory algorithms, compressed data structures, data compression, databases Paul Vixie – DNS, BIND, PAIX, Internet Software Consortium, MAPS, DNSBL ==W== Eiiti Wada – ALGOL N, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) X 0208, 0212, Happy Hacking Keyboard David Wagner – security, cryptography David Waltz James Z. Wang Steve Ward Manfred K. Warmuth – computational learning theory David H. D. Warren – AI, logic programming, Prolog, Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) Kevin Warwick – artificial intelligence Jan Weglarz Philip Wadler – functional programming, Haskell, Monad, Java, logic Peter Wegner – object-oriented programming, interaction (computer science) Joseph Henry Wegstein – ALGOL 58, ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member, data processing technical standards, fingerprint analysis Peter J. Weinberger – programming language design, the 'w' in AWK Mark Weiser – ubiquitous computing Joseph Weizenbaum – artificial intelligence, ELIZA David Wheeler – EDSAC, subroutines Franklin H. Westervelt – use of computers in engineering education, conversational use of computers, Michigan Terminal System (MTS), ARPANET, distance learning Steve Whittaker – human computer interaction, computer support for cooperative work, social media Jennifer Widom – nontraditional data management Gio Wiederhold – database management systems Norbert Wiener – Cybernetics Adriaan van Wijngaarden – Dutch pioneer; ARRA, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Mary Allen Wilkes – LINC developer, assembler-linker designer Maurice Vincent Wilkes – microprogramming, EDSAC Yorick Wilks – computational linguistics, artificial intelligence James H. Wilkinson – numerical analysis Sophie Wilson – ARM architecture Shmuel Winograd – Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm Terry Winograd – artificial intelligence, SHRDLU Patrick Winston – artificial intelligence Niklaus Wirth – ALGOL W, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Pascal, Modula, Oberon Neil Wiseman – computer graphics Dennis E. Wisnosky – Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing (ICAM), IDEF Stephen Wolfram – Mathematica Mike Woodger – Pilot ACE, ALGOL 60, Ada (programming language) Philip Woodward – ambiguity function, sinc function, comb operator, rep operator, ALGOL 68-R Beatrice Helen Worsley – wrote the first PhD dissertation involving modern computers; was one of the people who wrote Transcode Steve Wozniak – engineered first generation personal computers at Apple Computer Jie Wu – computer networks William Wulf – BLISS system programming language + optimizing compiler, Hydra operating system, Tartan Laboratories ==Y== Mihalis Yannakakis Andrew Chi-Chih Yao John Yen Nobuo Yoneda – Yoneda lemma, Yoneda product, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Edward Yourdon – Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method Moti Yung ==Z== Lotfi Zadeh – fuzzy logic Hans Zantema – termination analysis Arif Zaman – pseudo-random number generator Stanley Zdonik — database management systems Hussein Zedan – formal methods and real-time systems Shlomo Zilberstein – artificial intelligence, anytime algorithms, automated planning, and decentralized POMDPs Jill Zimmerman – James M. Beall Professor of Mathematics and Computer Science at Goucher College Mark Zuckerberg – cofounder of Facebook and Meta Platforms Konrad Zuse – German pioneer of hardware and software	[ "Igor Hawryszkiewycz", "Gene Amdahl", "Matthew Dillon", "GNOME", "RSA (cryptosystem)", "database theory", "Brian Kernighan", "Paritosh Pandya", "Latanya Sweeney", "Peter J. Weinberger", "distributed systems", "Jill Zimmerman", "Epigram (programming language)", "algorithmic complexity theory", "LINC", "SNOBOL", "Bernhard Thalheim", "T. William Olle", "List of Russian IT developers", "Cicely Popplewell", "Yorick Wilks", "Maarja Kruusmaa", "He Jifeng", "Leonard Adleman", "Vinod Dham", "Ada Lovelace", "Adriaan van Wijngaarden", "Michael Guy", "Dan Klein", "Steve Lawrence (computer scientist)", "handwriting recognition", "Bigtable", "Edwin E. Tozer", "deadlock (computer science)", "Ping Fu", "Evans & Sutherland", "Kurt Bollacker", "Xerox Star", "quote notation", "Sergey Brin", "machine learning", "Éva Tardos", "object-oriented programming", "Unified Modeling Language", "Parisa Tabriz", "Friedrich L. Bauer", "Beowulf (computing)", "Sarita Schoenebeck", "formal language", "Gerald Jay Sussman", "Eric Horvitz", "Charles Babbage", "C shell", "Library of Efficient Data types and Algorithms", "entity-relationship model", "David A. Huffman", "Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology", "Rational Software", "Amdahl Corporation", "SAS (software)", "neocognitron", "Dijkstra's algorithm", "David Luckham", "Inferno (operating system)", "Michael Stonebraker", "recursive function theory", "numerical analysis", "time-sharing", "Martin Odersky", "Rod Canion", "Lambert Meertens", "Richard P. Gabriel", "Yukihiro Matsumoto", "Leonardo Torres Quevedo", "Scott Aaronson", "Xinu", "Jack Minker", "Sebastian Thrun", "pattern recognition", "AKS primality test", "Annie Easley", "interference freedom", "ubiquitous computing", "Charles H. Lindsey", "Bernard Galler", "Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)", "file system", "Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm", "Steven Rudich", "qmail", "B-tree", "Schönhage–Strassen algorithm", "Leonid Levin", "Margaret Burnett", "LWKT", "James D. Foley", "linear response function", "Arvind (computer scientist)", "Nancy Lynch", "Robert M. Graham (computer scientist)", "Richard Hamming", "Niklaus Wirth", "Don Estridge", "drum memory", "Machine translation", "Andrew Donald Booth", "computer data storage", "Janet L. Kolodner", "Chai Keong Toh", "League for Programming Freedom", "John Horton Conway", "Seinosuke Toda", "Joseph Henry Wegstein", "programming language", "functional analysis", "Douglas Lenat", "MetaCrawler", "Gernot Heiser", "queueing theory", "ALGOL 68-R", "Erik Demaine", "Jeremy Gibbons", "Ian Goodfellow", "Mesa (programming language)", "Steve Whittaker", "exploratory data analysis", "EDVAC", "Julia (programming language)", "XEmacs", "Manuela M. Veloso", "HyperCard", "Artificial intelligence", "Colossus computer", "PostgreSQL", "ZFS", "RISC-V", "computer algebra", "National Security Agency", "Jennifer Widom", "Nils John Nilsson", "Rice University", "ARPANET", "J Strother Moore", "Klara Dan von Neumann", "Automated planning and scheduling", "computer network", "Donald Norman", "John Lions", "Martin Richards (computer scientist)", "TeX", "Larry Stockmeyer", "John George Kemeny", "David Liddle", "Paul Mockapetris", "Prolog", "computer scientist", "Eumel", "Franco Preparata", "Nigel Shadbolt", "List of Jewish American computer scientists", "Dragomir R. Radev", "Jan Dietz", "L. R. Ford, Jr.", "Seymour Cray", "number theory", "T. V. Raman", "Netscape", "Software quality", "Munindar P. Singh", "Ramesh Jain", "W. Bruce Croft", "Facebook", "On Lisp", "punched card", "Hans Zantema", "Wil van der Aalst", "computer graphics", "slab allocation", "John C. Reynolds", "Charles Geschke", "Robert Griesemer", "The Mythical Man-Month", "information visualization", "genomics", "Oren Etzioni", "decision theory", "evolutionary robotics", "Kolmogorov complexity", "Alonzo Church", "packet switching", "computational criminology", "assembly language", "unified memory architecture", "Richard DeMillo", "Swift (programming language)", "Kathleen Booth", "Macsyma", "Peter T. Kirstein", "Alberto Ciaramella", "Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools", "history of computing", "C. J. van Rijsbergen", "Manindra Agrawal", "List of pioneers in computer science", "David A. Wagner", "Louis Hodes", "Manny M Lehman", "John Henry Holland", "Daniel Siewiorek", "APL (programming language)", "Huffman coding", "Information distance", "optimizing compiler", "Glen Culler", "MMIX", "software craftsmanship", "Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code", "Olivetti", "Abstract family of languages", "Jeff Rulifson", "Jon Crowcroft", "Programmer", "Integrated Data Store", "David Karger", "Jean Bartik", "Jean Ichbiah", "Lisp (programming language)", "Rasmus Lerdorf", "computer science", "Jon Postel", "Primality test", "Bruce Schneier", "artificial intelligence", "James Gosling", "Joseph Goguen", "Andrew Herbert", "World Chess Championship", "Turing Award", "Jim Gray (computer scientist)", "Backus–Naur form", "Modula", "Object Management Group", "computer ethics", "Morris worm", "FFT algorithm", "MIX (abstract machine)", "Sophie Wilson", "pseudo-random number", "ALGOL", "Scientific Time Sharing Corporation", "Vi (text editor)", "Margaret Hamilton (software engineer)", "programming by demonstration", "Bluespec", "Lua (programming language)", "Stephen Cook", "Yale Patt", "ambiguity function", "Alain Colmerauer", "Ivar Jacobson", "Hans Moravec", "domain-specific language", "Forth (programming language)", "calculating machine", "Susan Owicki", "ALGOL 68", "Gödel Prize", "Joel Moses", "Salvatore Stolfo", "Gregor Kiczales", "Scheme (programming language)", "Samson Abramsky", "Sue Black (computer scientist)", "Shakuntala Atre", "Gordon Plotkin", "Alan Turing", "Neil Wiseman", "ALGOL 60", "recursion theory", "Max Newman", "Manolis Kellis", "Pascal (programming language)", "Pier Giorgio Perotto", "Steven M. Bellovin", "Sargur Srihari", "Arrow (computer science)", "computational creativity", "Artificial Intelligence", "Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing", "computational complexity theory", "SASL (programming language)", "Edsger W. Dijkstra", "John V. Tucker", "Charles E. Leiserson", "Michael L. Scott", "Austin Tate", "semaphore (programming)", "Peter Chen", "C++", "James G. Nell", "Tcl", "Plan 9 from Bell Labs", "Lawrence M. Breed", "Leonardo Chiariglione", "Nitin Saxena", "George Boole", "theoretical computer science", "lambda calculus", "Lotfi Zadeh", "Peter Naur", "Thad Starner", "Mahadev Satyanarayanan", "Fast Fourier transform", "W. Richard Stevens", "Andrew Appel", "Emil Post", "Cardano (blockchain platform)", "modular programming", "accessibility", "Lilith (computer)", "computability", "List of Indian computer scientists", "Paul Robertson (researcher)", "Adi Shamir", "Patricia D. Lopez", "Susan L. Graham", "bayesian network", "Danny Hillis", "Rosemary Candlin", "Rod Burstall", "Andrew Koenig (programmer)", "binary compatibility", "Ryan Dahl", "Jaime Teevan", "ELIZA", "Silvio Micali", "supercomputer", "mathematician", "ThingLab", "Arabic numerals", "PHP", "Dorothy Blum", "Walter Savitch", "Andrew Chi-Chih Yao", "Juan Pavón", "Tom Lane (computer scientist)", "Sketchpad", "Cilk", "enterprise modeling", "Kelsey Hightower", "Tim Finin", "Greibach normal form", "Michigan Algorithm Decoder", "BSD", "James H. Wilkinson", "Meta Platforms", "Kees Koster", "Geoffrey Hinton", "Ramesh Sitaraman", "Kristen Nygaard", "vacuum tube", "Graph rewriting", "Berkeley Fast File System", "Compatible Time-Sharing System", "Abhay Bhushan", "bisimulation", "reduced instruction set computer", "Dines Bjørner", "computer mouse", "TCP/IP Illustrated", "David Gelernter", "GBDE", "defunctionalization", "usability", "DTrace", "Tobias Nipkow", "type theory", "Guy L. Steele, Jr.", "Herbert A. Simon", "George Mallen", "End-user development", "perceptron", "Eugene Luks", "Luca Cardelli", "Jochen Liedtke", "Peter Nordin", "Fortran", "David P. Reed", "protothread", "Daniel Sleator", "Internet", "Mindpixel", "NP-complete", "Bert Bos", "Douglas Engelbart", "data modeling", "Bernhard Schölkopf", "Shlomo Zilberstein", "Martin Charles Golumbic", "Jeff Dean", "Rapira", "Fred B. Schneider", "communicating sequential processes", "Makoto Nagao", "Roberto Ierusalimschy", "relational model", "Ripple-down rules", "inventor", "computer engineering", "Steve Wozniak", "ant colony optimization", "No Silver Bullet", "Vienna Development Method", "machine translation", "Rudolf Bayer", "Tim Berners-Lee", "David Gries", "LPMud", "Maciej Stachowiak", "computer music", "CiteSeer", "Keshab K. Parhi", "Epinions", "Kurt Mehlhorn", "computer program", "latent variable model", "Savitch's theorem", "Akamai", "Paul Justin Compton", "Radia Perlman", "Jonathan Schaeffer", "Rózsa Péter", "Hamming code", "Dadda multiplier", "Giri Topper", "Steven Spewak", "Ken Forbus", "Christopher Strachey", "Robin Milner", "Edwin Catmull", "Wireless Networks", "Thomas E. Kurtz", "Doom (1993 video game)", "David Patterson (computer scientist)", "IBM Personal Computer", "Roger Needham", "Hilbert's tenth problem", "Yuri Matiyasevich", "computer performance", "Derek McAuley", "Peter Ružička", "Maurice Nivat", "UTF-8", "Portable Network Graphics", "Inductive Logic Programming", "Walter F. Tichy", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "information retrieval", "Go (programming language)", "Moshe Vardi", "Kruskal's algorithm", "LLVM", "Robert E. Kahn", "Danese Cooper", "Infer Static Analyzer", "Valerie Taylor (computer scientist)", "David Waltz", "dynamic Markov compression", "Daniel Thalmann", "Squeak", "Shang-Hua Teng", "Bill Gates", "Rapelang Rabana", "robotics", "BCPL", "logic", "Miranda (programming language)", "hierarchical routing", "informatics", "GNAT", "compiler optimization", "off-the-record messaging", "abstract interpretation", "Alfred Aho", "Mario Tchou", "BIND", "Oleg A. Mukhanov", "Angie Jones", "natural computing", "computer security", "graph drawing", "MAD (programming language)", "Ron Rivest", "Aaron Sloman", "Open Kernel Labs", "Patrick Winston", "Edward Fredkin", "Ingemar Cox", "E. Mark Gold", "Independent JPEG Group", "BLISS", "complexity", "Gillian Lovegrove", "Rohini Kesavan Srihari", "computational neuroscience", "Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov", "data structures", "Olivetti Elea", "Paul Graham (computer programmer)", "Association for Computing Machinery", "fingerprint", "graph theory", "Jonathan Bowen", "David Korn (computer scientist)", "Tartan Laboratories", "Computational complexity theory", "Strassen algorithm", "MD5", "finite element machine", "POP-2", "Robert S. Boyer", "Joshua Lederberg", "neuroimaging", "partially observable Markov decision process", "Roberto Pieraccini", "BINAC", "Safari (web browser)", "Philip Emeagwali", "Spring (operating system)", "ML (programming language)", "Peter O'Hearn", "J operator", "Unix philosophy", "Luigi Dadda", "John Mashey", "Moore machine", "GNU Project", "Butler Lampson", "International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium", "Gerard Holzmann", "provably correct", "computer arts", "SHRDLU", "Nadia Magnenat Thalmann", "Eldon C. Hall", "Carl Kesselman", "Gastón Gonnet", "Cybernetics", "Andrew S. Tanenbaum", "Personal Software Process", "Dynabook", "Yoneda lemma", "Carroll Morgan (computer scientist)", "genetic programming", "video game", "Mary Jane Irwin", "search algorithms", "Betty Holberton", "James G. Mitchell", "real-time system", "Moti Yung", "Roger Moore (computer scientist)", "waterfall model", "Bert Sutherland", "Zvi Galil", "Ravi Sethi", "Grace Hopper", "Adam Ries", "Diffie–Hellman key exchange", "Bioinformatics", "Bézier surface", "HAMMER (file system)", "Society of Mind", "David Park (computer scientist)", "Yoav Freund", "Winifred Asprey", "Barry Boehm", "POP-11", "Gene Golub", "Douglas McIlroy", "Auxiliary memory", "natural language processing", "Roger Hui", "Oded Goldreich", "Joseph Kruskal", "Robin Popplestone", "Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh", "concurrency theory", "Edmund M. Clarke", "C (programming language)", "IFIP Working Group 2.1", "Michigan Terminal System", "Lennart Augustsson", "Frank Harary", "Keshav K Pingali", "Joyce K. Reynolds", "generic programming", "inter-process communication", "Allen Newell", "Konrad Zuse", "Peter Landin", "Volker Strassen", "Tom DeMarco", "Dorothy Vaughan", "Gordon Moore", "ISWIM", "J.C.R. Licklider", "Paul Vixie", "hypertext", "denotational semantics", "Victor Bahl", "Kleene closure", "Amir Pnueli", "Theoretical Computer Science (journal)", "regular expression", "Ralph Griswold", "Yoneda product", "Oberon operating system", "APT (programming language)", "Simula", "Scott Shenker", "Sun Microsystems", "ENIAC", "medical informatics", "Juris Hartmanis", "Network of Workstations", "neurotechnology", "software failure", "computer architecture", "information engineering", "Java (programming language)", "Git", "Steve Schneider (computer scientist)", "Daniel J. Bernstein", "rapid prototyping", "Jack E. Bresenham", "Mario Szegedy", "device driver", "vkernel", "Resource Description Framework", "James Rumbaugh", "Judy Goldsmith (computer scientist)", "Ruby (programming language)", "Claude Sammut", "Raj Reddy", "Stephen Wolfram", "Neil Daswani", "Dan Jurafsky", "NPL (programming language)", "Zhou Chaochen", "decay constant", "Glasgow Haskell Compiler", "mobile computing", "Moore's law", "Barbara Engelhardt", "Warren Abstract Machine", "John Yen", "amortized analysis", "Anil K. Jain (computer scientist, born 1948)", "I. P. Sharp Associates", "Roman numerals", "List of programmers", "Corrado Böhm", "IPSANET", "Joseph Halpern", "DragonFly BSD", "Frances E. Allen", "Larry Roberts (computer scientist)", "Kent Recursive Calculator", "Randy Pausch", "Rediet Abebe", "NL (complexity)", "history of computing hardware", "NeWS", "Smalltalk", "data mining", "Alston Householder", "UNIVAC", "wearable computing", "WATFOR", "Robert Tappan Morris", "Apollo Guidance Computer", "AWK", "box plot", "John Vincent Atanasoff", "operating system kernels", "technical standard", "PAIX", "Neil J. Gunther", "invention", "Ken Kennedy (computer scientist)", "Arif Zaman", "treap", "Marco Dorigo", "Emacspeak", "Mozilla", "BlueJ", "John McCarthy (computer scientist)", "extended static checking", "Guido van Rossum", "Heidi Schelhowe", "Shelia Guberman", "C. A. R. Hoare", "Shashi Shekhar (scientist)", "program verification", "Tom Gruber", "Bernard de Neumann", "World Wide Web", "sinc function", "Vacuum tube", "REBOL", "James Z. Wang", "Hydra (operating system)", "social media", "David Turner (computer scientist)", "termination analysis", "Tracy Camp", "Marvin Minsky", "intelligence", "John Backus", "cryptography", "Yanhong Annie Liu", "M.I.T.", "Google", "algorithm engineering", "Alexander Dewdney", "John O'Sullivan (engineer)", "Richard E. Stearns", "Normalized Google distance", "Richard Veryard", "distributed computing", "quantum cryptography", "primality testing", "Mathematica", "CLOS", "concurrent computing", "graphical user interface", "Gilles Brassard", "Kevin Warwick", "Cyc", "John Tukey", "ALGOL 58", "Coons patch", "VAX", "Wilhelm Schickard", "TempleOS", "SEQUAL framework", "CORC", "game semantics", "microkernel", "ALGOL 68C", "John Ousterhout", "Charles Bachman", "Shafi Goldwasser", "automated planning", "Duration Calculus", "Gerard Salton", "Sergiy Vilkomir", "Steve Ward (computer scientist)", "Library (computing)", "Haskell Curry", "Norbert Wiener", "Michael Dertouzos", "The Art of Computer Programming", "BitBlt", "working set", "RSS", "community interpreting", "Vladimir Vapnik", "Damien Coyle", "Cecilia Berdichevsky", "Marek Karpinski", "Richard E. Ladner", "Wi-Fi", "Microsoft Research", "Jack Dongarra", "ontology engineering", "List of programming language researchers", "Phoenix (computer)", "J (programming language)", "Garbage collection (computer science)", "creative computing", "John Carmack", "AI", "Joseph Sifakis", "Analytical Engine", "data compression", "Börje Langefors", "Gödel machine", "Cecilia R. Aragon", "EDSAC", "QED (text editor)", "Marshall Kirk McKusick", "Bruce Arden", "ACL2 theorem prover", "UIP (micro IP)", "fault tolerance", "Mahmoud Samir Fayed", "satisfiability modulo theories", "Steven Anson Coons", "Stephen Cole Kleene", "Dorothy E. Denning", "RAID", "information systems", "Andrew V. Goldberg", "Herman Hollerith", "DNA computing", "object–role modeling", "parametricity", "Fred Brooks", "wireless computing", "Mark Overmars", "computer-mediated communication", "Alan Kay", "data processing", "Bernard Vauquois", "Shimon Even", "constraint programming", "Philipp Matthäus Hahn", "database", "Reliability (computer networking)", "Sally Floyd", "Robert Dewar", "high performance computing", "Turing machine", "Leonard Kleinrock", "Hope (programming language)", "Hugo de Garis", "C--", "David Bader (computer scientist)", "Nello Cristianini", "Kunihiko Fukushima", "Complex event processing", "Edward F. Moore", "Kenneth E. Iverson", "concurrent programming", "Seymour Ginsburg", "compiler", "computational biology", "Gloria Townsend", "spanning tree protocol", "workstation", "SystemVerilog", "Maurice Vincent Wilkes", "Leslie Valiant", "Andrew Viterbi", "Stanley Zdonik", "Grzegorz Rozenberg", "human–computer interaction", "Terry A. Davis", "computer-aided design", "COBOL", "Daniel P. Friedman", "Edward Felten", "Narendra Karmarkar", "Compaq Computer Corporation", "temporal logic", "programming methodology", "Ole-Johan Dahl", "Anders P. Ravn", "Fatmah Baothman", "Alan Perlis", "computational origami", "William Kahan", "open-source software", "Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)", "Faron Moller", "Python (programming language)", "functional programming", "Tracy Chou (software engineer)", "OS/360", "Jacques Cohen (computer scientist)", "Nico Habermann", "recurrent neural networks", "syntactic sugar", "quantitative trait locus", "Instruction-level parallelism", "Michael Kölling", "ALGOL X", "social network", "Andrew Barto", "Monica S. Lam", "software verification", "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams", "James Hendler", "quantum mechanics", "Murray Turoff", "enterprise architecture planning", "node.js", "expert system", "process mining", "John von Neumann", "Brendan Eich", "reflective programming", "Mathai Joseph", "Sjaak Brinkkemper", "calculator", "Poplog", "MapReduce", "brain-computer interface", "literate programming", "Lance Fortnow", "unsupervised learning", "Bresenham's algorithm", "computer chess", "Michael Garey", "abstract family of languages", "speech recognition", "Charles H. Moore", "Bill Gropp", "mp3", "Sanjay Ghemawat", "user interface", "Shmuel Winograd", "Mike Woodger", "Herbert W. Franke", "Sensor Networks", "Pino Caballero Gil", "Wireless ad hoc network", "George Novacky", "Vehicular ad hoc network", "Semantic Web", "virtual actor", "Robert W. Floyd", "Portable, Extensible Toolkit for Scientific Computation", "Adam Dunkels", "parallel algorithms", "mathematical linguistics", "Alan Dix", "Johan Håstad", "Common Lisp", "Netbot", "CEDAR-FOX", "Barbara Liskov", "Wendy Hall", "Susan Dumais", "computational geometry", "Introduction to Algorithms", "Vassar College", "Gio Wiederhold", "SECD machine", "NP-completeness", "Ian Goldberg", "John Hughes (computer scientist)", "Stephen R. Bourne", "Ken Robinson (computer scientist)", "D. R. Fulkerson", "Joseph F Traub", "Jon Michael Dunn", "Frieder Nake", "Christopher Riche Evans", "Avinash Kak", "Arne Sølvberg", "Cliff Jones (computer scientist)", "SDS 940", "Apollo program", "Severo Ornstein", "Go To Statement Considered Harmful", "Japanese Industrial Standards", "HAMMER2", "Peter Eades", "Tin Kam Ho", "Bill Joy", "Edward H. Shortliffe", "Lisa Anthony", "meta-learning", "Jiawei Han", "John Krogstie", "David Wheeler (computer scientist)", "David Blei", "Manfred K. Warmuth", "Whitfield Diffie", "Ring (programming language)", "Hector Garcia-Molina", "Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment", "P5 (microarchitecture)", "database management system", "Mark Zuckerberg", "computer-assisted translation", "Scala (programming language)", "Haskell", "Conor McBride", "Robert France", "programmer", "RC 4000 multiprogramming system", "John L. Hennessy", "Mihai Pătrașcu (computer scientist)", "SPIN model checker", "Bernard Richards", "Domain Name System", "Ramanathan V. Guha", "Icon (computing)", "lwIP", "natural user interface", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Stephen Muggleton", "Wim Ebbinkhuijsen", "Matrix (mathematics)", "Ivan Sutherland", "Transcode", "Happy Hacking Keyboard", "Rod Brooks", "Sankar Pal", "RC/DC", "Mihai Nadin", "Richard Karp", "Anthony James Barr", "Bourne shell", "Karmarkar's algorithm", "TCP/IP", "algorithm", "Lively Kernel", "Zohar Manna", "B (programming language)", "dataflow architecture", "Michael I. Jordan", "Beatrice Helen Worsley", "Grady Booch", "logic programming", "Samir Das", "software agents", "Unix", "case-based reasoning", "Raphael Finkel", "Computer programming", "Olaf Storaasli", "Robert L. Glass", "Normalized compression distance", "Tom Maibaum", "Rajeev Motwani", "Christopher J. Date", "Philip Woodward", "Umesh Vazirani", "Pilot ACE", "Richard Stallman", "Azriel Rosenfeld", "model checking", "Bryan Cantrill", "Multics", "Amiga", "structured analysis and design technique", "formal verification", "Godfried Toussaint", "David Eppstein", "Ian Coldwater", "Joseph Weizenbaum", "linear programming", "John Koza", "Michael Butler (computer scientist)", "Cascading Style Sheets", "Message Passing Interface", "Madhu Sudan", "Edgar F. Codd", "DJ Patil", "NetBSD", "splay tree", "fuzzy logic", "Robert Tarjan", "SeeQC", "Peter J. Denning", "Vint Cerf", "Winston W. Royce", "UEFI", "Douglas T. Ross", "Simon Marlow", "Cliff Shaw", "information theory", "M. A. Rothman", "Franklin H. Westervelt", "Bauer–Fike theorem", "Ujjwal Maulik", "David C. Evans (computer scientist)", "Paul Hudak", "Alan H. Borning", "John P. Moon", "Andries van Dam", "off-side rule", "Avie Tevanian", "List of computing people", "IBM System/360", "Juan E. Gilbert", "Jean E. Sammet", "analysis of algorithms", "Jürgen Schmidhuber", "information hiding", "Xerox Alto", "Reinder van de Riet", "Luis von Ahn", "Cornell University Programming Language", "Ben Shneiderman", "Jerre Noe", "Anita Borg", "programmable calculator", "Dana Scott", "Sandra Hutchins", "conceptual model", "Alan Mycroft", "Jeffrey D. Ullman", "Hans Langmaack", "Bonnie Nardi", "deep learning", "Jürg Gutknecht", "DNSBL", "G.M. Nijssen", "MPEG", "Poul-Henning Kamp", "Charles P. Thacker", "James Martin (author)", "Umar Saif", "Greg Nelson (computer scientist)", "system programming language", "Grace Murray Hopper", "Christos Papadimitriou", "pervasive computing", "model–view–controller", "Dennis E. Wisnosky", "Ken Thompson", "Dennis Ritchie", "Donald Firesmith", "Philip Wadler", "David S. Johnson", "Carol Spradling", "Kevin Ashton", "RC4", "Boolean logic", "Simon Thompson (professor)", "Douglas Comer", "Chris McKinstry", "MATLAB", "Roberto Tamassia", "database management systems", "Edward D. Lazowska", "David Canfield Smith", "quantum computing", "Daphne Koller", "Judea Pearl", "Carl Hewitt", "DNS", "Harry Bouwman", "Donald Knuth", "educational technology", "Natural language processing", "Mikhail Botvinnik", "Klaus-Robert Müller", "operating system", "Gregory Chaitin", "Concurrent Pascal", "Per Brinch Hansen", "Cleve Moler", "Lawrence J. Fogel", "Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology", "Brian Randell", "Mobile Computing", "Roland Carl Backhouse", "Tommy Flowers", "Zoubin Ghahramani", "Mihalis Yannakakis", "Richard W. Conway", "Linux", "Petri nets", "MYCIN", "set theory", "Cluster analysis", "Solovay–Strassen primality test", "Robert Sproull", "Waterloo Maple", "Brian Cantwell Smith", "separation logic", "cache-oblivious algorithm", "Connection Machine", "Mark Weiser", "Dora Metcalf", "Lawrence Paulson", "Steve Omohundro", "Spanner (database)", "software engineering", "multiprocessing", "Martin Hellman", "Team Software Process", "David F. Bacon", "Microsoft", "Macro (computer science)", "Ashok Goel", "David E. Shaw", "Colette Rolland", "List of Slovenian computer scientists", "PCP theorem", "ABC (programming language)", "Andrew Ng", "automata theory", "artificial neural network", "Lee Giles", "Jordi Ustrell Aguilà", "L4 microkernel family", "Andrey Ershov", "Neeraj Kayal", "KornShell", "ESC/Java", "window (computing)", "Jeff Bonwick", "LaTeX", "Paul Dourish", "Alexander Stepanov", "continuation", "QuickCheck", "Peter Wegner (computer scientist)", "intersection type", "Bjarne Stroustrup", "John Romero", "Internet Software Consortium", "Eiffel (programming language)", "Ted Kaehler", "Edward Feigenbaum", "compressed data structure", "Edward Yourdon", "Gausebeck–Levchin test", "Karlheinz Brandenburg", "formal methods", "John Presper Eckert", "Thomas Sterling (computing)", "Gordon Bell", "digital image processing", "software", "Context awareness", "Lucid Inc.", "IFIP WG 2.1", "France", "Maclisp", "PayPal", "Michael E. Caspersen", "William Wulf", "business process management", "Programma 101", "nondeterministic machine", "algorithmic information theory", "electronic design automation", "James Cooley", "coding theory", "Rigorous Approach to Industrial Software Engineering", "BASIC", "Language identification in the limit", "Alan Edelman", "network security", "George Sadowsky", "Z notation", "Aravind K. Joshi", "Brian Harris (translation researcher)", "human computer interaction", "stack (data structure)", "Willem van der Poel", "Automated theorem proving", "Monitor (synchronization)", "computational linguistics", "Sanjeev Arora", "Gary William Flake", "stored program", "anytime algorithm", "IDEF", "polymorphic lambda calculus", "John Hopcroft", "JavaScript", "List of members of the National Academy of Sciences (computer and information sciences)", "Trygve Reenskaug", "floating-point arithmetic", "Modula-2", "Ada (programming language)", "E. Allen Emerson", "linear algebra", "visual programming language", "Mesh networking", "human-centered computing", "software testing", "Andrew McCallum", "Terry Winograd", "Mike Paterson", "Anna University", "Xerox PARC", "David Parnas", "Martin Campbell-Kelly", "Arc (programming language)", "program optimization", "Serge Abiteboul", "relevance logic", "Charles Stark Draper", "Jie Wu", "Modula-3", "Tom M. Mitchell", "François Vernadat", "capacity planning", "Peter Bernus", "Robert C. Martin", "Darrell Long", "Michael O. Rabin", "ALGOL N", "The Internet of Things", "Pentium", "Ronald Stamper", "research", "List of fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery", "digital system", "Event-B", "cancer research", "Glenda Schroeder", "electrical engineer", "ARM architecture", "computational learning theory", "Gender HCI", "Jan Weglarz", "Fernando J. Corbató", "Larry Page", "predicative programming", "Kevin Leyton-Brown", "Paul Vitanyi", "Hal Abelson", "evolutionary programming", "Hussein Zedan", "L3 microkernel", "Gordon Cormack", "algorithmic graph theory", "Computer-aided design", "randomized algorithm", "David P. Anderson", "Scott Fahlman", "Peter Norvig", "bioinformatics", "Schahram Dustdar", "Charlotte Froese Fischer", "Lenore Blum", "BB84", "John Cocke (computer scientist)", "Mary Allen Wilkes", "Gerrit Blaauw", "Leslie Lamport", "ALGOL W", "polyhedra", "Martin Fowler (software engineer)", "Kit Cosper", "computability theory", "David J. Brown (computer scientist)", "Chris Lattner", "relational database", "Xiaoming Fu", "Sheila Greibach", "grid computing", "Jeffrey Scott Vitter", "Robert Cailliau", "Richard J. Lipton", "duration calculus", "WebKit", "Von Neumann architecture", "PL/C", "Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method", "Varnish cache", "Nobuo Yoneda", "Virtual Worlds", "Monad (functional programming)", "Carl Sassenrath", "Dan Ingalls", "Yann LeCun", "Les Hatton", "Zonnon", "Simon Peyton Jones", "Manuel Blum", "Contiki", "Eiiti Wada", "aspect-oriented programming", "Claude Shannon", "David H. D. Warren", "PWCT", "MINIX", "Max Levchin", "Goucher College", "human-based computation", "Sort Merge Generator", "Gábor Tardos", "Linus Torvalds", "Kathy Pham", "Cray Research", "Bertrand Meyer", "Viaweb", "Julia Hirschberg", "domain theory", "Interference freedom", "information security", "parallel computing", "Apple Inc.", "El Ajedrecista", "John Mauchly", "Larry Tesler", "Lisa Gelobter", "genetic algorithm", "Rudy Rucker", "Oberon (programming language)", "Robert Kowalski", "dependability", "Integrated development environment", "William H. Press", "Watts Humphrey", "COWSEL", "Freddy II", "Dirac comb", "multiagent systems", "Simon Colton", "Stephen C. Johnson", "Patrick Cousot", "inertial navigation", "Jonathan James", "digital watermarking", "convolutional neural network", "Worse is Better", "Kurt Gödel", "Eric Hehner", "Viterbi algorithm", "Brad A. Myers", "bunched logic" ]
6,839	Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow	Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow (, CRESU) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures. The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high-pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber. As it expands, the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam, which is essentially collision-free and has a temperature that, in the centre-of-mass frame, can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas. Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature. This way, any temperature between room temperature and about 10 K can be achieved. ==Apparatus== There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge, which makes them expensive to run. Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes (France) and the University of Birmingham (UK). A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU, which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps. ==Kinetics== Most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures, and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus. Essentially, the CRESU technique provides a "wall-less flow tube", which allows the kinetics of gas-phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible. Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a pump–probe fashion, using a laser to initiate the reaction (for example, by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor), followed by observation of that same species (for example, by laser-induced fluorescence) after a known time delay. The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle. The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance. By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a (usually stable) co-reagent species, the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined. Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier. In the case of neutral–neutral reactions (i.e., not involving any charged species, ions), these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species, such as molecular oxygen (O2), the cyanide radical (CN) or the hydroxyl radical (OH). The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long-range intermolecular potential. CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures: as the temperature is reduced, the rate constant actually increases. They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium, where many different polyatomic species have been detected (by radio astronomy).	[ "activation energy", "hydroxyl", "temperature", "cyanide", "University of Birmingham", "Cryochemistry", "molecular oxygen", "experiment", "reaction rate constant", "de Laval nozzle", "Arrhenius equation", "free radical", "Chemical kinetics", "University of Rennes", "photolysis", "interstellar medium", "supersonic", "laser-induced fluorescence", "rate constant", "ions", "radio astronomy", "photomultiplier" ]
6,840	Cygwin	Cygwin ( ) is a free and open-source Unix-like environment and command-line interface (CLI) for Microsoft Windows. The project also provides a software repository containing open-source packages. Cygwin allows source code for Unix-like operating systems to be compiled and run on Windows. Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications. The terminal emulator mintty is the default command-line interface provided to interact with the environment. The Cygwin installation directory layout mimics the root file system of Unix-like systems, with directories such as /bin, /home, /etc, /usr, and /var. Cygwin is released under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3. It was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions, which was later acquired by Red Hat (now part of IBM), to port the GNU toolchain to Win32, including the GNU Compiler Suite. Rather than rewrite the tools to use the Win32 runtime environment, Cygwin implemented a POSIX-compatible environment in the form of a DLL. The brand motto is "Get that Linux feeling – on Windows", although Cygwin doesn't have Linux in it. == History == Cygwin began in 1995 as a project of Steve Chamberlain, a Cygnus engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used COFF as their object file format, and that GNU already included support for x86 and COFF, and the C library newlib. He thought that it would be possible to retarget GCC and produce a cross compiler generating executables that could run on Windows. A prototype was later developed. Chamberlain bootstrapped the compiler on a Windows system, to emulate Unix to let the GNU configure shell script run. Initially, Cygwin was called Cygwin32. Subsequent versions have not been released, instead relying on continued open source releases. Geoffrey Noer was the project lead from 1996 to 1999. Christopher Faylor was lead from 1999 to 2004; he left Red Hat and became co-lead with Corinna Vinschen. Corinna Vinschen has been the project lead from mid-2014 to date (as of September, 2024). From June 23, 2016, the Cygwin library version 2.5.2 was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3. == Description == Cygwin is provided in two versions: the full 64-bit version and a stripped-down 32-bit version, whose final version was released in 2022. Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call API in terms of Windows system calls to enable the running of a large number of application programs equivalent to those on Unix systems, and a GNU development toolchain (including GCC and GDB). Programmers have ported the X Window System, K Desktop Environment 3, GNOME, Apache, and TeX. Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services. Cygwin programs have full access to the Windows API and other Windows libraries. Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwin's "setup" program, which downloads them from repositories on the Internet. The Cygwin API library is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3 (or later), with an exception to allow linking to any free and open-source software whose license conforms to the Open Source Definition. Cygwin consists of two parts: A dynamic-link library in the form of a C standard library that acts as a compatibility layer for the POSIX API and A collection of software tools and applications that provide a Unix-like look and feel. Cygwin supports POSIX symbolic links, representing them as plain-text files with the system attribute set. Cygwin 1.5 represented them as Windows Explorer shortcuts, but this was changed for reasons of performance and POSIX correctness. Cygwin also recognises NTFS junction points and symbolic links and treats them as POSIX symbolic links, but it does not create them. The POSIX API for handling access control lists (ACLs) is supported. === Technical details === A Cygwin-specific version of the Unix mount command allows mounting Windows paths as "filesystems" in the Unix file space. Initial mount points can be configured in /etc/fstab, which has a format very similar to Unix systems, except that Windows paths appear in place of devices. Filesystems can be mounted in binary mode (by default), or in text mode, which enables automatic conversion between LF and CRLF endings (which only affects programs that open files without explicitly specifying text or binary mode). Cygwin 1.7 introduced comprehensive support for POSIX locales, and the UTF-8 Unicode encoding became the default. The fork system call for duplicating a process is fully implemented, but the copy-on-write optimization strategy could not be used. Cygwin's default user interface is the bash shell running in the mintty terminal emulator. The DLL also implements pseudo terminal (pty) devices, and Cygwin ships with a number of terminal emulators that are based on them, including rxvt/urxvt and xterm. The version of GCC that comes with Cygwin has various extensions for creating Windows DLLs, such as specifying whether a program is a windowing or console-mode program. Support for compiling programs that do not require the POSIX compatibility layer provided by the Cygwin DLL used to be included in the default GCC, but , it is provided by cross-compilers contributed by the MinGW-w64 project. == Software packages == Cygwin's base package selection is approximately 100MB, containing the bash (interactive user) and dash (installation) shells and the core file and text manipulation utilities. Additional packages are available as optional installs from within the Cygwin "setup" program and package manager ("setup-x86_64.exe" – 64 bit). The Cygwin Ports project provided additional packages that were not available in the Cygwin distribution itself. Examples included GNOME, K Desktop Environment 3, MySQL database, and the PHP scripting language. Most ports have been adopted by volunteer maintainers as Cygwin packages, and Cygwin Ports are no longer maintained. Cygwin ships with GTK+ and Qt. The Cygwin/X project allows graphical Unix programs to display their user interfaces on the Windows desktop for both local and remote programs.	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6,845	Corinth	Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality of Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It is the capital of Corinthia. It was founded as Nea Korinthos (), or New Corinth, in 1858 after an earthquake destroyed the existing settlement of Corinth, which had developed in and around the site of the ancient city. == History == Corinth derives its name from Ancient Corinth, a city-state of antiquity. The site was occupied from before 3000 BC. === Ancient Greece === Historical references begin with the early 8th century BC, when ancient Corinth began to develop as a commercial center. Between the 8th and 7th centuries, the Bacchiad family ruled Corinth. Cypselus overthrew the Bacchiad family, and between 657 and 585 BC, he and his son Periander ruled Corinth as the Tyrants. In about 585 BC, an oligarchical government seized power. This government later allied with Sparta within the Peloponnesian League, and Corinth participated in the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War as an ally of Sparta. After Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian war, the two allies fell out with one another, and Corinth pursued an independent policy in the various wars of the early 4th century BC. After the Macedonian conquest of Greece, the Acrocorinth was the seat of a Macedonian garrison until 243 BC, when the city joined the Achaean League. === Ancient Rome === Nearly a century later, in 146 BC, Corinth was captured and was completely destroyed by the Roman army. As a newly rebuilt Roman colony in 44 BC, Corinth flourished and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea. === Medieval times === An important earthquake touched Corinth and its region in 856, causing around 45000 deaths. === Modern era === In 1858, the old city, now known as Ancient Corinth (Αρχαία Κόρινθος, Archaia Korinthos), located southwest of the modern city, was totally destroyed by a magnitude 6.5 earthquake. New Corinth (Nea Korinthos) was then built to the north-east of it, on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth. In 1928, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake devastated the new city, which was then rebuilt on the same site. In 1933, there was a great fire, and the new city was rebuilt again. During the German occupation in World War II, the Germans operated a Dulag transit camp for British, Australian, New Zealander and Serbian prisoners of war and a forced labour camp in the town. ==Geography== Located about west of Athens, Corinth is surrounded by the coastal townlets of (clockwise) Lechaio, Isthmia, Kechries, and the inland townlets of Examilia and the archaeological site and village of ancient Corinth. Natural features around the city include the narrow coastal plain of Vocha, the Corinthian Gulf, the Isthmus of Corinth cut by its canal, the Saronic Gulf, the Oneia Mountains, and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth, where the medieval acropolis was built. ===Climate=== According to the nearby weather station of Velo, operated by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, Corinth has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. The hottest month is July with an average temperature of while the coldest month is January with an average temperature of . Corinth receives about 463 mm of rainfall per year and has an average annual temperature of . == Demographics == {{Historical populations \|align = none \|2001\|38132 \|2021 ==Economy== === Industry === Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level. The Corinth Refinery is one of the largest oil refining industrial complexes in Europe. Ceramic tiles, copper cables, gums, gypsum, leather, marble, meat products, medical equipment, mineral water and beverages, petroleum products, and salt are produced nearby. , a period of Economic changes commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility diminished their operations. == Transport == === Roads === Corinth is a major road hub. The A7 toll motorway for Tripoli and Kalamata, (and Sparta via the A71 toll), branches off the A8/E94 toll motorway from Athens at Corinth. Corinth is the main entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece. === Bus === KTEL Korinthias provides intercity bus service in the peninsula and to Athens via the Isthmos station southeast of the city center. Local bus service is also available. === Railways === The metre gauge railway from Athens and Pireaeus reached Corinth in 1884. This station closed to regular public transport in 2007. In 2005, two years prior, the city was connected to the Athens Suburban Railway, following the completion of the new Corinth railway station. The journey time from Athens to Corinth is about 55 minutes. The train station is 5 minutes by car from the city centre and parking is available for free. === Port === The port of Corinth, located north of the city centre and close to the northwest entrance of the Corinth Canal, at 37 56.0’ N / 22 56.0’ E, serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility. It is an artificial harbour (depth approximately , protected by a concrete mole (length approximately 930 metres, width 100 metres, mole surface 93,000 m2). A new pier finished in the late 1980s doubled the capacity of the port. The reinforced mole protects anchored vessels from strong northern winds. Within the port operates a customs office facility and a Hellenic Coast Guard post. Sea traffic is limited to trade in the export of local produce, mainly citrus fruits, grapes, marble, aggregates and some domestic imports. The port operates as a contingency facility for general cargo ships, bulk carriers and ROROs, in case of strikes at Piraeus port. ==== Ferries ==== There was formerly a ferry link to Catania, Sicily and Genoa in Italy. === Canal === The Corinth Canal, carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, is about east of the city, cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth that connects the Peloponnesian peninsula to the Greek mainland, thus effectively making the former an island. The builders dug the canal through the Isthmus at sea level; no locks are employed. It is in length and only wide at its base, making it impassable for most modern ships. It now has little economic importance. The canal was mooted in ancient times and an abortive effort was made to dig it in around 600 BC by Periander which led him to pave the Diolkos highway instead. Julius Caesar and Caligula both considered digging the canal but died before starting the construction. The emperor Nero then directed the project, which consisted initially of a workforce of 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war, but it was interrupted because of his death. The project resumed only in 1882, after Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders. It was finally completed in 1893, but due to the canal's narrowness, navigational problems and periodic closures to repair landslips from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic anticipated by its operators. It is now used mainly for tourist traffic. == Sport == The city's association football team is Korinthos F.C. (Π.Α.E. Κόρινθος), established in 1999 after the merger of Pankorinthian Football Club (Παγκορινθιακός) and Corinth Football Club (Κόρινθος). During the 2006–2007 season, the team played in the Greek Fourth Division's Regional Group 7. The team went undefeated that season and it earned the top spot. This granted the team a promotion to the Gamma Ethnikí (Third Division) for the 2007–2008 season. For the 2008–2009 season, Korinthos F.C. competed in the Gamma Ethniki (Third Division) southern grouping. == Twin towns/sister cities == Corinth is twinned with: Syracuse, Sicily Jagodina, Serbia == Notable people == Anastasios Bakasetas (1993–), Greek footballer Evangelos Ikonomou (1987–), Greek footballer George Kollias (1977–), drummer for US technical death metal band Nile. Georgios Leonardopoulos, army officer Macarius (1731–1805), Metropolitan bishop of Corinth Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (1766–1826), revolutionary leader during the Greek War of Independence. Irene Papas (1929–2022), Greek actress Costas Soukoulis (1951–2024), Professor of Physics at Iowa State University Konstantinos Triantafyllopoulos (1993–) Greek footballer Panagis Tsaldaris (1868–1936), Greek politician and prime minister of Greece Panagiotis Tzanavaras (1964–), Greek footballer and football manager Nikolaos Zafeiriou (1871–1947), Greek artillery officer == Other locations named after Corinth == Due to its ancient history and the presence of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth some locations all over the world have been named Corinth. == Gallery == File:Pegasus Square in New Corinth.jpg\|Pegasus Square in New Corinth File:Squarecorinth.jpg\|View of the Central Square of the city File:Istmo de Corinto ESC large ISS011 ISS011-E-13188.JPG\|Aerial photograph of the Isthmus of Corinth	[ "Athens", "Piraeus", "Caligula", "KTEL (Greece)", "oil refining", "city-state", "Köppen climate classification", "Nile (band)", "Ottoman Empire", "Macedonia (region)", "Europe", "A7 motorway (Greece)", "Corinth (municipality)", "Syracuse, Sicily", "Peloponnese Region", "Loutraki-Perachora", "customs", "Kechries", "Aegean Sea", "Modern Greek", "ferry", "Corinth railway station", "George Kollias (drummer)", "Zante currant", "Greece", "Nero", "Vocha", "bulk carrier", "A71 motorway (Greece)", "association football", "RORO", "Evangelos Ikonomou", "Tenea", "Assos-Lechaio", "Diolkos", "Nikolaos Zafeiriou", "Indiana University Press", "Paul the Apostle", "mole (architecture)", "Forced labour under German rule during World War II", "Oneia Mountains", "Serbia", "Tripoli, Greece", "Georgios Leonardopoulos", "Jagodina", "Ancient Corinth", "Sparta", "Mediterranean Sea", "Corinth Refinery", "Government Gazette (Greece)", "Twin towns and sister cities", "ancient Corinth", "Macarius of Corinth", "Archaia Korinthos", "Gulf of Corinth", "Panagis Tsaldaris", "Peloponnesian War", "Panagiotis Tzanavaras", "Isthmus of Corinth", "Iowa State University", "Kalamata", "Corinth Excavations", "Corinth Canal", "Xylokeriza", "Bacchiad", "Sicily", "Acrocorinth", "strike action", "Italy", "municipality", "Mediterranean climate", "Greek War of Independence", "Korinthos F.C.", "European route E94", "Achaea (Roman province)", "acropolis", "toll road", "World War II", "Anastasios Bakasetas", "A8 motorway (Greece)", "HNMS", "Peloponnesian League", "Hellenic Coast Guard", "Catania", "Peloponnese (region)", "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum", "Isthmia, Corinthia", "Saronikos, Corinthia", "Corinthia", "Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (elder)", "Solomos, Corinthia", "List of traditional Greek place names", "Gamma Ethniki", "Examilia", "Greco-Persian Wars", "Hellenic National Meteorological Service", "Irene Papas", "Periander", "Costas Soukoulis", "Genoa", "Julius Caesar", "Athens Suburban Railway", "Lechaio", "prisoners of war", "Cypselus", "Konstantinos Triantafyllopoulos", "Achaean League", "Saronic Gulf" ]
6,846	Colossae	Colossae (; ) was an ancient city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, and one of the most celebrated cities of southern Anatolia (modern Turkey). The Epistle to the Colossians, an early Christian text which identifies its author as Paul the Apostle, is addressed to the church in Colossae. A significant city from the 5th century BC onwards, it had dwindled in importance by the time of Paul, but was notable for the existence of its local angel cult. It was part of the Roman and Byzantine province of Phrygia Pacatiana, before being destroyed in 1192/3 and its population relocating to nearby Chonae (Chonai, modern-day Honaz). ==Location and geography== Colossae was located in Phrygia, in Asia Minor. It was located southeast of Laodicea on the road through the Lycus Valley near the Lycus River at the foot of Mt. Cadmus, the highest mountain in Turkey's western Aegean Region, and between the cities Sardeis and Celaenae, and southeast of the ancient city of Hierapolis. At Colossae, Herodotus describes how, "the river Lycos falls into an opening of the earth and disappears from view, and then after an interval of about five furlongs it comes up to view again, and this river also flows into the Maiander." Despite a treacherously ambiguous cartography and history, Colossae has been clearly distinguished in modern research from nearby Chonai (), now called Honaz, with what remains of the buried ruins of Colossae ("the mound") lying to the north of Honaz. ==Origin and etymology of place name== The medieval poet Manuel Philes incorrectly imagined that the name Colossae was connected to the Colossus of Rhodes. More recently, in an interpretation that ties Colossae to an Indo-European root that happens to be shared with the word kolossos, Jean-Pierre Vernant has connected the name to the idea of setting up a sacred space or shrine. Another proposal relates the name to the Greek kolazo 'to punish'. ==History== ===Before the Pauline period=== The first mention of the city may be in a 17th-century BC Hittite inscription, which speaks of a city called Huwalušija, which some archeologists believe is a reference to early Colossae. The 5th-century geographer Herodotus first mentions Colossae by name and as a "great city in Phrygia", which accommodates the Persian king Xerxes I while en route to wage war against the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars– showing the city had already reached a certain level of wealth and size by this time. Writing in the 5th century BC, Xenophon refers to Colossae as "a populous city, wealthy and of considerable magnitude". It was famous for its wool trade. Strabo notes that the city drew great revenue from the flocks, and that the wool of Colossae gave its name to colour colossinus. In 396 BC, Colossae was the site of the execution of the rebellious Persian satrap Tissaphernes, who was lured there and slain by an agent of the party of Cyrus the Younger. ===Pauline period=== Although during the Hellenistic period, the town was of some mercantile importance, by the 1st century it had dwindled greatly in size and significance. Paul's letter to the Colossians points to the existence of an early Christian community. Colossae was home to the miracle near the Archangel church, where a sacristan named Archipos witnessed, how the Archangel Michael thwarted a plan by the heathens to destroy the church by flooding it with the waters of near-by mountain rivers. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates this feast on 6(19) September. The canonical biblical text Epistle to the Colossians is addressed to the Christian community in Colossae. The epistle has traditionally been attributed to Paul the Apostle due to its autobiographical salutation and style, but some modern critical scholars now believe it to be written by another author some time after Paul's death. It is believed that one aim of the letter was to address the challenges that the Colossian community faced in its context of the syncretistic Gnostic religions that were developing in Asia Minor. According to the Epistle to the Colossians, Epaphras seems to have been a person of some importance in the Christian community in Colossae, and tradition presents him as its first bishop. The epistle also seems to imply that Paul had never visited the city, because it only speaks of him having "heard" of the Colossians' faith, and in the Epistle to Philemon Paul tells Philemon of his hope to visit Colossae upon being freed from prison. Tradition also gives Philemon as the second bishop of the see. The city was decimated by an earthquake in the 60s AD, and was rebuilt independent of the support of Rome. The Apostolic Constitutions list Philemon as a bishop of Colossae. On the other hand, the Catholic Encyclopedia considers Philemon doubtful. The first historically documented bishop is Epiphanius, who was not personally at the Council of Chalcedon, but whose metropolitan bishop Nunechius of Laodicea, the capital of the Roman province of Phrygia Pacatiana, signed the acts on his behalf. ===Byzantine period and decline=== The city's fame and renowned status continued into the Byzantine period, and in 858, it was distinguished as a Metropolitan See. The Byzantines also built the church of St. Michael in the vicinity of Colossae, one of the largest church buildings in the Middle East. Nevertheless, sources suggest that the town may have decreased in size or may even been completely abandoned due to Arab invasions in the seventh and eighth centuries, forcing the population to flee to resettle in the nearby city of Chonai (modern day Honaz). Excavations of Colossae began in 2021 led by Bariş Yener of Pammukale University in Denizli. The first several years involve surface surveys to analyze pottery and survey the landscape. They hope to start digging in 2023-24. The site exhibits a biconical acropolis almost high, and encompasses an area of almost . On the eastern slope there sits a theater which probably seated around 5,000 people, suggesting a total population of 25,000–30,000 people. The theater was probably built during the Roman period, and may be near an agora that abuts the cardo maximus, or the city's main north–south road. Ceramic finds around the theater confirm the city's early occupation in the third and second millennia BC. Northeast of the tell, and most likely outside the city walls, a necropolis displays Hellenistic tombs with two main styles of burial: one with an antecedent room connected to an inner chamber, and tumuli, or underground chambers accessed by stairs leading to the entrance. Outside the tell, there are also remains of sections of columns that may have marked a processional way, or the cardo. Today, the remains of one column marks the location where locals believe a church once stood, possibly that of St. Michael. ===Modern legacy=== The holiness and healing properties associated with the waters of Colossae during the Byzantine era continue to this day, particularly at a pool fed by the Lycus River at the Göz picnic grounds west of Colossae at the foot of Mt. Cadmus. Locals consider the water to be therapeutic.	[ "tell (archaeology)", "Büyük Menderes River", "Laodicea on the Lycus", "cardo maximus", "Tissaphernes", "Honaz", "Manuel Philes", "Cyrus the Younger", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Philemon 1:22", "Paul the Apostle", "Aegean Region", "List of ancient Greek cities", "Epistle to the Colossians", "Asia Minor", "Mt. Cadmus", "Hierapolis", "Hittite language", "Biblical Archaeology Review", "necropolis", "Lycus (river of Phrygia)", "Xerxes I", "Xenophon", "Greco-Persian Wars", "Council of Chalcedon", "Philemon of Colossae", "Catholic Encyclopedia", "Colossus of Rhodes", "Turkey", "Phrygia Pacatiana", "tumulus", "Herodotus", "St. Catherine's Monastery", "acropolis", "Anatolia", "West Asia", "Phrygia", "Hellenistic", "Epistle to Philemon", "Roman province", "Epaphras", "Strabo" ]
6,848	Charge of the Goddess	The Charge of the Goddess (or Charge of the Star Goddess) is an inspirational text often used in the neopagan religion of Wicca. The Charge of the Goddess is recited during most rituals in which the Wiccan priest/priestess is expected to represent, and/or embody, the Goddess within the sacred circle, and is often spoken by the High Priest/Priestess after the ritual of Drawing Down the Moon. The Charge is the promise of the Goddess (who is embodied by the high priestess) to all witches that she will teach and guide them. It has been called "perhaps the most important single theological document in the neo-Pagan movement". It is used not only in Wicca, but as part of the foundational documents of the Reclaiming tradition of witchcraft co-founded by Starhawk. Several versions of the Charge exist, though they all have the same basic premise, that of a set of instructions given by the Great Goddess to her worshippers. The earliest version is that compiled by Gerald Gardner. This version, titled "Leviter Veslis" or "Lift Up the Veil", includes material paraphrased from works by Aleister Crowley, primarily from Liber AL (The Book of the Law, particularly from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess), and from Liber LXV (The Book of the Heart Girt with a Serpent) and from Crowley's essay "The Law of Liberty", thus linking modern Wicca to the cosmology and revelations of Thelema. It has been shown that Gerald Gardner's book collection included a copy of Crowley's The Blue Equinox (1919) which includes all of the Crowley quotations transferred by Gardner to the Charge of the Goddess.\|author=Doreen Valiente}} This theme echoes the ancient Roman belief that the Goddess Isis was known by ten thousand names and also that the Goddess still worshipped today by Wiccans and other neopagans is known under many guises but is in fact one universal divinity. The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the words that Aradia, the messianic daughter of Diana, speaks to her followers in Charles Godfrey Leland's 1899 book Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches (London: David Nutt; various reprints). The third paragraph is largely written by Doreen Valiente, This is rather different from the modern version known in Wicca, though they have the same premise, that of the rules given by a great Mother Goddess to her faithful. The Charge of the Goddess is also known under the title Leviter Veslis. This has been identified by the historian Ronald Hutton, cited in an article by Roger Dearnsley "The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical, as a piece of medieval ecclesiastical Latin used to mean "lifting the veil." However, Hutton's interpretation does not reflect the Latin grammar as it currently stands. It may represent Gardner's attempt to write Levetur Velis, which has the literal meaning of "Let the veil be lifted." This expression would, by coincidence or design, grammatically echo the famous fiat lux (Gen. 1:3) of the Latin Vulgate. ===Origins=== The earliest known Wiccan version is found in a document dating from the late 1940s, Gerald Gardner's ritual notebook titled Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical. The oldest identifiable source contained in this version is the final line, which is traceable to the 17th-century Centrum Naturae Concentratum of Alipili (or Ali Puli). Gardner intended his version to be a theological statement justifying the Gardnerian sequence of initiations. Like the Charge found in Freemasonry, where the charge is a set of instructions read to a candidate standing in a temple, the Charge of the Goddess was intended to be read immediately before an initiation. The initial verse version by Doreen Valiente consisted of eight verses, the second of which was: Valiente was unhappy with this version, saying that "people seemed to have some difficulty with this, because of the various goddess-names which they found hard to pronounce", and so she rewrote it as a prose version, much of which differs from her initial version, and is more akin to Gardner's version. This prose version has since been modified and reproduced widely by other authors.	[ "Aphrodite", "Doreen Valiente", "Gerald Gardner", "legend", "Starhawk", "Mother goddess", "Apuleius", "Melusine", "Liber AL", "Cerridwen", "Arianrhod", "Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches", "Aidan Kelly", "Isis", "Wicca", "Ronald Hutton", "The Blue Equinox", "Charles Godfrey Leland", "Reclaiming (Neopaganism)", "Ali Puli", "sistrum", "Book of Shadows", "Diana (goddess)", "Drawing down the Moon (ritual)", "Diana (mythology)", "The Golden Ass", "Celtic mythology", "Roman mythology", "Goddess", "Freemasonry", "Aleister Crowley", "Danu (Irish goddess)", "neopagan", "The Book of the Law", "Thelema", "Astarte", "Greek mythology", "Artemis", "Charge of the God", "New Forest coven", "Matter of Britain", "Gardnerian Wicca", "Aradia", "oinochoe", "Brigid" ]
6,849	Cy Young	Denton True "Cy" Young (March 29, 1867 – November 4, 1955) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher. Born in Gilmore, Ohio, he worked on his family's farm as a youth before starting his professional baseball career. Young entered the major leagues in 1890 with the National League's Cleveland Spiders and pitched for them until 1898. He was then transferred to the St. Louis Cardinals franchise. In 1901, Young jumped to the American League and played for the Boston Red Sox franchise until 1908, helping them win the 1903 World Series. He finished his career with the Cleveland Naps and Boston Rustlers, retiring in 1911. Young was one of the hardest-throwing pitchers in the game early in his career. After his speed diminished, he relied more on his control and remained effective into his forties. By the time Young retired, he had established numerous pitching records, some of which have stood for over a century. He holds MLB records for the most career wins, with 511, along with most career losses, earned runs, hits allowed, innings pitched, games started, batters faced, and complete games. He led his league in wins during five seasons and pitched three no-hitters, including a perfect game in 1904. In 1937, Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. He is often regarded as one of the greatest pitchers of all time, as well as a pioneer of modern pitching. In 1956, one year after his death, the Cy Young Award was created to annually honor the best pitcher in the Major Leagues (later each League) of the previous season, cementing his name as synonymous with excellence in pitching. ==Early life== Cy Young was the oldest child born to Nancy (Mottmiller) and McKinzie Young Jr., and was christened Denton True Young. He was of part German descent. The couple had four more children: Jesse Carlton, Alonzo, Ella, and Anthony. When the couple married, McKinzie's father gave him the of farm land he owned. Young was born in Gilmore, a tiny farming community located in Washington Township, Tuscarawas County, Ohio. He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years. Young was also known as "Farmer Young" and "Farmboy Young". Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade so he could help out on the family's farm. In 1885, Young moved with his father to Nebraska, and in the summer of 1887, they returned to Gilmore. Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth, including a semi-professional Carrollton team in 1888. Young pitched and played second base. The first box score known containing the name Young came from that season. In that game, Young played first base and had three hits in three at-bats. After the season, Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team, which started Young's professional career. Cy Young's nickname came from the fences that he had destroyed using his fastball. The fences looked like a cyclone had hit them. Reporters later shortened the name to "Cy", which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life. During his one year with Canton, he was 15-15. While Young was with the Spiders, Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player. Bill James, a baseball statistician, estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history. Early on, Young established himself as one of the harder-throwing pitchers in the game. Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young's fastball. Two years after Young's debut, the National League moved the pitcher's position back by . Since 1881, pitchers had pitched within a "box" whose front line was from home base, and since 1887 they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball. The back line was away from home. In 1893, was added to the back line, yielding the modern pitching distance of . In the book The Neyer/James Guide to Pitchers, sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young, Amos Rusie, and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move. The 1892 regular season was a success for Young, who led the National League in wins (36), ERA (1.93), and shutouts (9). Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today, the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season. The Boston Beaneaters won the first half and the Spiders won the second-half, with a best-of-nine series determining the league champion. Despite the Spiders' second-half run, the Beaneaters swept the series, five games to none. Young pitched three complete games: he lost two and one ended in a scoreless tie. The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup, a precursor to the World Series, in 1895. Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup, four games to one. It was around this time that Young added what he called a "slow ball" to his pitching repertoire to reduce stress on his arm. The pitch today is called a changeup. On September 18, 1897, Young pitched the first no-hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds. Although Young did not walk a batter, the Spiders committed four errors while on defense. One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit, but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning, saying he had made an error, and the ruling was changed. Young later said that, despite his teammate's gesture, he considered the game to be a one-hitter. ===St. Louis Perfectos / Cardinals (1899–1900)=== Prior to the 1899 season, Frank Robison, the Spiders owner, bought the St. Louis Browns, thus owning two clubs simultaneously. The Browns were renamed the "Perfectos", and restocked with Cleveland talent. Just weeks before the season opener, most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis, including three future Hall of Famers: Young, Jesse Burkett, and Bobby Wallace. The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team, as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and 1900. Meanwhile, the depleted Spiders lost 134 games, the most in MLB history, before folding. Young spent two years with St. Louis, which is where he found his favorite catcher, Lou Criger. The two men were teammates for a decade. ===Boston Americans / Red Sox (1901–1908)=== In 1901, the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters. Young left St. Louis and joined the American League's Boston Americans for a $3,500 contract ($ today). Young would remain with the Boston team until 1909. In his first year in the American League, Young was dominant. Pitching to Criger, who had also jumped to Boston, Young led the league in wins, strikeouts, and ERA, thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for pitchers. Young won almost 42% of his team's games in 1901, accounting for 33 of his team's 79 wins. In February 1902, before the start of the baseball season, Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University. The sixth-grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers. The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903. Young, who started Game One against the visiting Pirates, thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history. The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning, and Young lost the game. Young performed better in subsequent games, winning his next two starts. He also drove in three runs in Game Five. Young finished the series with a 2–1 record and a 1.85 ERA in four appearances, and Boston defeated Pittsburgh, five games to three. After one-hitting Boston on May 2, 1904, Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston's ace. Three days later, Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics. It was the first perfect game in American League history. Waddell was the 27th and last batter, and when he flied out, Young shouted, "How do you like that, you hayseed?" Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge. Young's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak. Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit; the latter record still stands at innings, or 76 hitless batters. Even after he allowed a hit, Young's scoreless streak reached a then-record 45 shutout innings. Before Young, only two pitchers had thrown perfect games. This occurred in 1880, when Lee Richmond and John Montgomery Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other, although under somewhat different rules: the front edge of the pitcher's box was only from home base (the modern release point is about farther away); walks required eight balls; and pitchers were obliged to throw side-armed. Young's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893. One year later, on July 4, 1905, Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans, 4–2, in a 20-inning matchup. Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning. Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted: "For my part, I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in." In 1907, Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13-inning tie. In 1908, Young pitched the third no-hitter of his career. Three months past his 41st birthday, he was the oldest pitcher to record a no-hitter, a record which would stand 82 years until 43-year-old Nolan Ryan broke it. Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game. After that runner was caught stealing, no other batter reached base. At the time, Young was the second-oldest player in either league. In another game one month before his no-hitter, he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters. When the season ended, he posted a 1.26 ERA, which gave him not only the lowest in his career, but also a major league record of being the oldest pitcher with 150+ innings and an ERA under 1.50. ===Cleveland Naps (1909–1911)=== Young was traded back to Cleveland, the place where he played over half his career, before the 1909 season, to the Cleveland Naps of the American League. The following season, 1910, he won his 500th career game on July 19 against Washington. ===Boston Rustlers (1911) and retirement=== He split 1911, his final year, between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers. On September 22, 1911, Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates, 1–0, for his last career victory. In his final start two weeks later, the last eight batters of Young's career combined to hit a triple, four singles, and three doubles. By the time of his retirement, Young's control had faltered. He had also gained weight. At the time of Young's retirement, Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364. In addition to wins, Young still holds the major league records for most career innings pitched (7,356), most career games started (815), and most complete games (749). He also retired with 316 losses, the most in MLB history. Young's career record for strikeouts was broken by Johnson in 1921. Young's 76 career shutouts are fourth all-time. Young led his league in wins five times (1892, 1895, and 1901–1903), finishing second twice. His career high was 36 in 1892. He won at least 30 games in a season five times. He had 15 seasons with 20 or more wins, two more than Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn. Young won two ERA titles during his career, in 1892 (1.93) and in 1901 (1.62), and was three times the runner-up. Young's earned run average was below 2.00 six times, but it was not uncommon during the dead-ball era. Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons, he did not lead his league until 1902. He had 40 or more complete games nine times. Young also led his league in strikeouts twice (140 in 1896 and 158 in 1901), and in shutouts seven times. In addition, Young pitched three no-hitters, including the third perfect game in baseball history, first in baseball's "modern era". Young also was an above average hitting pitcher. He posted a .210 batting average (623-for-2960) with 325 runs, 290 RBIs, 18 home runs, and 81 walks. From 1891 through 1905, he drove in 10 or more runs for 15 straight seasons, with a high of 28 in 1896. after baseball and working on his farm. In 1913, he served as manager of the Cleveland Green Sox of the Federal League, which was at the time an outlaw league. However, he never worked in baseball after that. Young was a Freemason. In 1916, he ran for county treasurer in Tuscarawas County, Ohio. Young's wife, Roba, whom he had known since childhood, died in 1933. He appeared on the television show I've Got a Secret on April 13, 1955. On November 4, 1955, Young died on the Benedums' farm at the age of 88. ==Legacy== Young's career is seen as a bridge from baseball's earliest days to its modern era; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson, already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876, as well as against Eddie Collins, who played until 1930. When Young's career began, pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes. The pitcher's mound was not moved back to its present position of until Young's fourth season; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season. In 1956, about one year after Young's death, the Cy Young Award was created to honor the best pitcher in Major League Baseball for each season. The first award was given to Brooklyn's Don Newcombe. Originally, it was a single award covering all of baseball. The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967, one for each league. On September 23, 1993, a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on the site of the Red Sox's original stadium, the Huntington Avenue Grounds. It was there that Young had pitched the first game of the 1903 World Series, as well as the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball. A home plate-shaped plaque next to the statue reads: On October 1, 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims (later known as the Red Sox) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site. General admission tickets were fifty cents. The Pilgrims, led by twenty-eight game winner Cy Young, trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three. In 1999, 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death, editors at The Sporting News ranked Young 14th on their list of "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". That same year, baseball fans named him to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.	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6,851	Coronation Street	Coronation Street (colloquially referred to as Corrie) is a British television soap opera created by Granada Television and shown on ITV since 9 December 1960. The programme centres on a cobbled, terraced street in the fictional town of Weatherfield in Greater Manchester. The location was itself based on Salford, the hometown of the show's first screenwriter and creator, Tony Warren. Originally broadcast twice weekly, Coronation Street increased its runtime in later years, currently airing three 60-minute episodes per week. Warren developed the concept for the series, which was initially rejected by Granada's founder Sidney Bernstein. Producer Harry Elton convinced Bernstein to commission 13 pilot episodes. The show has since become a significant part of British culture and underpinned the success of its producing Granada franchise. Currently produced by ITV Studios, the successor to Granada, the series is filmed at MediaCityUK and broadcast across all ITV regions, as well as internationally. In 2010, Coronation Street was recognised by Guinness World Records as the world's longest-running television soap opera upon its 50th anniversary. Coronation Street was originally influenced by kitchen-sink realism and is known for portraying a working-class community with a blend of humour and strong, relatable characters. As of 2025, it averages approximately four million viewers per episode. The series aired its 10,000th episode on 7 February 2020 and marked its 60th anniversary later that year. ==History== ===1960s=== The first episode of Coronation Street aired on 9 December 1960 at 7 pm. It initially received mixed reviews; Daily Mirror columnist Ken Irwin predicted the series would last only three weeks. The Daily Mirror also printed: "The programme is doomed from the outset ... For there is little reality in this new serial, which apparently, we have to suffer twice a week." Granada Television had commissioned 13 episodes, with some inside the company doubting the show would last beyond its planned production run. However, viewers quickly connected with the programme's portrayal of relatable, everyday characters. The programme also made use of Northern English language and dialect; affectionate local terms like "eh, chuck?", "nowt" (, from nought, meaning nothing), and "by 'eck!" became widely heard on British television for the first time. Early storylines included student Ken Barlow (William Roache), whose university education set him apart from his working-class family, including his brother David (Alan Rothwell) and parents Frank (Frank Pemberton) and Ida (Noel Dyson). Barlow's character offered commentary on broader social changes, including globalisation, as exemplified by his 1961 line: "You can't go on just thinking about your own street these days. We're living with people on the other side of the world." Roache remains the only original cast member and holds the record as the longest-serving actor in Coronation Street and global soap opera history. In March 1961, the show reached number one in the television ratings and remained there for the rest of the year. In 1964, Tim Aspinall became the series producer and implemented significant changes to the programme. Nine cast members were fired, the first being Lynne Carol, who had played Martha Longhurst since early in Coronation Street's run. Carol’s firing caused controversy, prompting her co-star Violet Carson (Ena Sharples) to threaten to quit, although she ultimately remained. The sacking was widely covered in the media, and Carol was mobbed by fans while out in public. Some, including Coronation Street writer H.V. Kershaw, criticised the decision as a bid to boost ratings. Granada considered modernising the show with issue-driven plots, including Lucille Hewitt (Jennifer Moss) becoming addicted to drugs, Jerry Booth (Graham Haberfield) being in a storyline about homosexuality, Emily Nugent (Eileen Derbyshire) having an out-of-wedlock child, and introducing a black family. However, these ideas were abandoned due to concerns about viewer reactions. The first episode filmed colour was broadcast on 3 November 1969. Since then, all episodes have been produced in colour, with the exception of those created during the Colour Strike. ===1970s=== Several main cast members departed Coronation Street in the early 1970s. In 1970, Arthur Leslie, who played Jack Walker, the landlord of the Rovers Return Inn, died suddenly, and his character was written out shortly thereafter. Anne Reid left the series in 1971, with her character, Valerie Barlow, dying due to accidental electrocution from a faulty hairdryer. The departure of these cast members in the early 1970s prompted the writing team to expand the roles of supporting characters and introduce new ones. Deirdre Hunt (Anne Kirkbride) was introduced in 1972 and became a regular character in 1973. Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear), who had become a regular character in 1970, became increasingly prominent as the decade progressed. Rita Littlewood (Barbara Knox), who had made a single appearance in 1964, returned and joined the regular cast in 1972. Mavis Riley (Thelma Barlow) became a regular character in 1973. Ivy Tyldesley (Lynne Perrie, later renamed "Tilsley") was introduced as a recurring character in 1971. Longtime characters Gail Potter (Helen Worth), Blanche Hunt (initially played by Patricia Cutts and later by Maggie Jones), and Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn) were introduced in 1974. Comic storylines, a hallmark of the series in the 1960s, had become less frequent in the early 1970s. They were revived under new producer Bill Podmore, who joined the programme in 1976 after previously working on Granada’s comedy productions. In September 1977, the News of the World quoted actor Stephen Hancock (Ernest Bishop) as saying "The Street kills an actor. I'm just doing a job, not acting. The scriptwriters have turned me into Ernie Bishop. I've tried to resist it but it is very hard not to play the part all the time, even at home." Hancock also expressed frustration with the payment system, which guaranteed some long-serving actors—including Pat Phoenix, Doris Speed, and Peter Adamson—payment for every episode regardless of their appearances, while others were compensated only for episodes in which they appeared. Hancock's complaints led to a dispute with Podmore, dubbed "The Godfather" by the media, who refused to alter the system. Hancock ultimately resigned. To write out Ernest Bishop while preserving the role of his wife, Emily (Eileen Derbyshire), the writers decided his character would be fatally shot during a payroll robbery at Mike Baldwin's (Johnny Briggs) factory. The episode, which aired on 11 January 1978, marked the first instance of such explicit violence on Coronation Street, leading to a significant viewer backlash. Granada's switchboard was overwhelmed with complaints, and the Lobby Against TV Violence criticised the decision to air the storyline. Granada defended the plot, emphasising its focus on the grief and loss experienced by Emily. Despite its enduring popularity, critics argued that Coronation Street had grown complacent during this period, with the show relying on nostalgic depictions of working-class life rather than addressing contemporary social issues. ===1980s=== Between 1980 and 1984, Coronation Street faced the loss of many original cast members. Violet Carson (Ena Sharples) retired in 1980 and Doris Speed (Annie Walker) retired in 1983, Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner) left the programme permanently in 1984. Jack Howarth died in 1984 and his character, Albert Tatlock, was written out off-screen. By May 1984, William Roache (Ken Barlow) was the sole remaining actor from the programme's original cast. Characters like Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers), Vera and Jack Duckworth (Liz Dawn and Bill Tarmey), and Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) took on roles reminiscent of earlier characters. The show introduced its first major black character, Shirley Armitage (Lisa Lewis), as a machinist at Baldwin’s Casuals in 1983. Established characters were assigned new roles, and new characters were introduced to fill the gaps left by those who departed. Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers) was hailed as the new Ena Sharples in 1982, the Duckworths moved into No.9 in 1983 and slipped into the role once held by the Ogdens, while Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) appeared in 1983 and took over the grumpy war veteran role from Albert Tatlock. The question of who would take over the Rovers Return after Annie Walker's 1983 exit was answered in 1985 when Bet Lynch (who also mirrored the vulnerability and strength of Elsie Tanner) was installed as landlady. In 1983, Shirley Armitage (Lisa Lewis) became the first major Black character in the programme. was dismissed for breaching his contract. Granada had previously warned Adamson for publishing unauthorised newspaper articles that criticised the show and its cast. Producer Bill Podmore terminated Adamson's contract after discovering he had sold his memoirs despite the prior warning. The sacking coincided with allegations of Adamson having indecently assaulted two eight-year-old girls in a swimming pool. Granada Television gave Adamson financial support through his legal problems, with a Crown Court jury finding him not guilty in July 1983. Adamson's dispute over his memoirs and newspaper articles was not known to the public and the media reported that Adamson had been dismissed because of the allegations. Len Fairclough was killed off-screen in a motorway crash while returning home from an affair in December 1983. Adamson celebrated the character's death by delivering an obituary on TV-am dressed as an undertaker. New soap operas began airing on British television in the 1980s, with Channel 4 launching Brookside in 1982 and the BBC debuting EastEnders in 1985. Both soaps presented a grittier, more contemporary view of British life, contrasting with Coronation Street's nostalgic tone. EastEnders regularly obtained higher viewing figures than Coronation Street due to its omnibus episodes shown at weekends. Despite this, Coronation Street maintained strong ratings. Between 1988 and 1989, many aspects of the show were modernised by new producer David Liddiment. A new exterior set had been built in 1982, and in 1989 it was redeveloped to include new houses and shops. Production techniques were also changed with a new studio being built, and the inclusion of more location filming, which had moved exterior scenes from being shot on film to videotape in 1988. Due to new pressures, an introduction of the third weekly episode aired on 20 October 1989, to broadcast each Friday at 7:30 pm. informed Granada of his intention to move to the United States to marry Leeza Gibbons and pursue an acting career in Los Angeles. Quinten sought assurances that his role would remain open for a potential return. However, producers decided that Tilsley would be killed off. Quinten was in Los Angeles when the decision was made and threatened to quit abruptly. The storyline attracted viewer complaints, with Mary Whitehouse condemning the portrayal of violence. Deirdre Barlow’s affair with Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs) in 1983, garnered significant media attention, and began an ongoing feud that followed between Ken Barlow and Mike Baldwin. Other notable marriages included Alf Roberts (Bryan Mosley) to Audrey Potter (Sue Nicholls) in 1985, Mike Baldwin to Ken Barlow's daughter Susan (Wendy Jane Walker) in 1986, Kevin Webster (Michael Le Vell) to Sally Seddon (Sally Whittaker) in 1986, Bet Lynch to Alec Gilroy (Roy Barraclough) in 1987, and Ivy Tilsley to Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff) in 1988. The long-awaited marriage of Mavis Riley and Derek Wilton (Peter Baldwin) occurred in 1988 after over a decade of on-and-off romance and a failed marriage attempt in 1984. The psychological abuse of Rita Fairclough by Alan Bradley culminated in his death under a Blackpool tram in December 1989, achieving a combined viewership of 26.93 million for the episodes where Alan went into hiding and later tried to kill Rita. Jean Alexander, who played Hilda Ogden on the programme starting in 1964, left Coronation Street in 1987. Her final aired on Christmas Day 1987 with a combined audience (original and omnibus) of 26.7 million. Between 1986 and 1989, the storyline of Rita Fairclough's (Barbara Knox) domestic abuse at the hands of her partner Alan Bradley (Mark Eden), followed by his death after being struck by a Blackpool tram in December 1989, unfolded. This plotline brought the show its highest-ever combined viewing figure, with nearly 27 million viewers watching a March 1989 episode where Bradley is on the run from the police after attempting to kill Rita. This record is sometimes mistakenly attributed to the tram death episode aired on 8 December 1989. ===1990s=== In 1992, William Rees-Mogg, Chairman of the Broadcasting Standards Council, criticised Coronation Street for its low representation of ethnic minorities and its nostalgic portrayal of a bygone era. This was seen as unreflective of Greater Manchester, where many neighbourhoods had significant Black and Asian populations. Headlines such as "Coronation Street shuts out blacks" (The Times) and "'Put colour in t'Street" (Daily Mirror) reflected the controversy. Patrick Stoddart of The Times defended the show, stating: "the millions who watch Coronation Street – and who will continue to do so despite Lord Rees-Mogg – know real life when they see it ... in the most confident and accomplished soap opera television has ever seen" While Black and Asian characters had appeared sporadically, the first regular non-white family, the Desai family, was introduced in 1999. In 1990, new characters Des Barnes (Philip Middlemiss) and Steph Barnes (Amelia Bullmore) moved to Coronation Street and were labeled yuppies from the media. Raquel Wolstenhulme (Sarah Lancashire) debuted in 1991 and became one of the era's most popular characters, departing in 1996 with a brief return in 2000. The McDonald family–Liz (Beverley Callard), Jim (Charles Lawson), Steve (Simon Gregson), and Andy (Nicholas Cochrane)–were introduced in 1989 and became major characters in the 1990s. Other notable arrivals included Maud Grimes (Elizabeth Bradley), a wheelchair user and pensioner, in 1993; Roy Cropper (David Neilson), a café owner, in 1995; young married couple Gary and Judy Mallett (Ian Mercer and Gaynor Faye) in 1995; and butcher Fred Elliott (John Savident) in 1994 and his son Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold) in 1995. The 1990s also saw an increase in slapstick and physical humour, exemplified by comedic characters including Reg Holdsworth (Ken Morley), a supermarket manager. In 1997, Brian Park became producer with a vision to modernise the show and focus on younger characters. On his first day, he axed several long-standing characters, including Derek Wilton (Peter Baldwin), Don Brennan (Geoffrey Hinsliff), Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington), Bill Webster (Peter Armitage), Billy Williams (Frank Mills) and Maureen Holdsworth (Sherrie Hewson). The decision prompted Thelma Barlow, who played Mavis Wilton, to resign in protest at her co-star's dismissal. Several longtime writers, including Barry Hill, Adele Rose, and Julian Roach, resigned during this period. Hayley Patterson (Julie Hesmondhalgh), introduced during this era, became the first transgender character in a British soap opera and soon married Roy Cropper. Park, who resigned in 1998, cited this storyline as one of his most significant achievements. Deirdre was released after three weeks, with Granada confirming that her release had always been planned despite the media frenzy. Earlier that year, 13-year-old Sarah-Louise Platt (Tina O'Brien) became pregnant, giving birth to a daughter, Bethany, on 4 June. The February episode where Gail was told of her daughter's pregnancy was watched by 15 million viewers. The programme continued to tackle issue-led storylines, including Toyah Battersby (Georgia Taylor) getting raped, Roy and Hayley Cropper (David Neilson and Julie Hesmondhalgh) abducting their foster child, Sarah Platt’s Internet chat room abduction, and Alma Halliwell's (Amanda Barrie) 2001 death from cervical cancer. These storylines proved unpopular with viewers and led to a decline in ratings. As a result, in October 2001, producer Jane Macnaught was reassigned, and Carolyn Reynolds took over. In 2002, Kieran Roberts became producer, aiming to reintroduce "gentle storylines and humour," steering the show away from competing with other soaps. Todd Grimshaw (Bruno Langley) became Corrie's first regular homosexual character. In 2003, another gay male character was introduced, Sean Tully (Antony Cotton). The bigamy of Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and his addiction to alcohol, later in the decade, Maya Sharma's (Sasha Behar) revenge on former lover Dev Alahan (Jimmi Harkishin), Charlie Stubbs's (Bill Ward) psychological abuse of Shelley Unwin (Sally Lindsay), and the deaths of Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs), Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn) and Fred Elliott (John Savident). In 2007, Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) murdered Charlie Stubbs and claiming it was self-defence; the audience during this storyline peaked at 13.3 million. At the 2007 British Soap Awards, it won Best Storyline, and Ford was voted Best Actress for her portrayal. In July 2007, after 34 years in the role of Vera Duckworth, Liz Dawn left the show due to ill health. After conversation between Dawn and producers Kieran Roberts and Steve Frost, the decision was made to kill Vera off. Tina O'Brien revealed in the British press on 4 April 2007 that she would be leaving Coronation Street later in the year. Sarah-Louise, who was involved in some of the decade's most controversial stories, left in December 2007 with her daughter, Bethany. In 2008, Michelle learning that Ryan (Ben Thompson) was not her biological son, having been accidentally swapped at birth with Alex Neeson (Dario Coates). Carla Connor (Alison King) turned to Liam for comfort and developed feelings for him. In spite of knowing about her feelings, Liam married Maria Sutherland (Samia Longchambon). Maria and Liam's baby son was stillborn in April, and during an estrangement from Maria upon the death of their baby, Liam had a one-night stand with Carla, a story which helped pave the way for his departure. In August 2008, Jed Stone (Kenneth Cope) returned after 42 years. Liam Connor and his ex-sister-in-law Carla gave into their feelings for each other and began an affair. Carla's fiancée Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien) discovered the affair and had Liam killed in a hit-and-run in October. Carla struggled to come to terms with Liam's death, but decided she still loved Tony and married him on 3 December, in an episode attracting 10.3 million viewers. In April 2009 it was revealed that Eileen Grimshaw's (Sue Cleaver) father, Colin (Edward de Souza) – the son of Elsie Tanner's (Pat Phoenix) cousin Arnley – had slept with Eileen's old classmate, Paula Carp (Sharon Duce) while she was still at school, and that Paula's daughter Julie (Katy Cavanagh) was in fact also Colin's daughter. Other stories in 2009 included Maria giving birth to Liam's son and her subsequent relationship with Liam's killer Tony, Steve McDonald's (Simon Gregson) marriage to Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly) and Kevin Webster's (Michael Le Vell) affair with Molly Dobbs (Vicky Binns). On Christmas Day 2009, Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) told husband Kevin that she had breast cancer, just as he was about to leave her for lover Molly. ===2010s=== The show began broadcasting in high-definition in May 2010, and on 17 September that year, Coronation Street entered Guinness World Records as the world's longest-running television soap opera after the American soap opera As the World Turns concluded. William Roache was listed as the world's longest-running soap actor. ===2020s=== On 7 February 2020, with its 60th anniversary ten months away, Coronation Street aired its landmark 10,000th episode, the runtime of which was extended to 60 minutes. Producers stated that the episode would contain "a nostalgic trip down memory lane" and "a nod to its own past". A month later, ITV announced that production on the soap would have to be suspended, as the United Kingdom was put into a national lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic (see impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television). After an 11-week intermission for all cast and crew members, filming resumed in June 2020. The episodes featured social distancing to adhere to the guidelines set by the British government, and it was confirmed that all actors over 70, as well as those with underlying health conditions, would not be allowed to be on set until it was safe to do so. This included Coronation Street veterans William Roache (Ken Barlow) at 88, Barbara Knox (Rita Tanner) at 87, Malcolm Hebden (Norris Cole) at 80 and Sue Nicholls (Audrey Roberts) at 76. It was deemed safe for Maureen Lipman (Evelyn Plummer) and David Neilson (Roy Cropper) to continue. By December, all cast members had returned to set, and on Wednesday 9 December 2020, the soap celebrated its 60th anniversary, with original plans for the episode forced to change due to COVID-19 guidelines. The anniversary week saw the conclusion of a long-running coercive control storyline that began in May 2019, with Geoff Metcalfe (Ian Bartholomew) abusing Yasmeen Nazir (Shelley King). The showdown, which resulted in the death of Geoff allowed social distancing rules to be relaxed on the condition that the crew members involved formed a social bubble prior to the filming. In late 2021, series producer Iain MacLeod announced that the original plans for the 60th anniversary would now take place in a special week of episodes in October 2021. On 12 October 2021, it was announced that Coronation Street would partake in a special crossover event involving 7 British soaps to promote the topic of climate change ahead of the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference. During the week, beginning from 1 November, social media clips featuring Liam Cavanagh (Jonny McPherson) and Amelia Spencer (Daisy Campbell) from Emmerdale, as well as Daniel Granger (Matthew Chambers) from Doctors were featured on the programme, while events from Holby City were also referenced. A similar clip featuring Maria Connor (Samia Longchambon) was also featured on EastEnders. In June 2024, ITV announced that Coronation Streets third longest-serving cast member, Helen Worth, had decided to leave the soap after fifty years of portraying Gail Platt. The character made her departure in December 2024. Following this, several other cast exits began to be confirmed, with a mixture of producers axing the characters and cast members deciding to quit. In what the Metro described as a "cast exodus", these have included Sue Cleaver leaving her long-term role as Eileen Grimshaw and Charlotte Jordan leaving her role as Daisy Midgeley, as well as Debbie Webster (Sue Devaney) and Craig Tinker (Colson Smith) being written out of the series. ==Characters== Since 1960, Coronation Street has featured many characters whose popularity with viewers and critics has differed greatly. The original cast was created by Tony Warren, with the characters of Ena Sharples (Violet Carson), Elsie Tanner (Pat Phoenix) and Annie Walker (Doris Speed) as central figures. These three women remained with the show for at least 20 years, and became archetypes of British soap opera, often being emulated by other serials. Ena was the street's busybody, battle-axe and self-proclaimed moral voice. Elsie was the tart with a heart, who was constantly hurt by men in the search for true love. Annie Walker, landlady of the Rovers Return Inn, had delusions of grandeur and saw herself as better than the other residents. Coronation Street became known for the portrayal of strong female characters, including original cast characters like Ena, Annie and Elsie, and later Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander), who first appeared in 1964; all four became household names during the 1960s. Warren's programme was largely matriarchal, which some commentators put down to the female-dominant environment in which he grew up. Consequently, the show has a long tradition of downtrodden husbands, most famously Stan Ogden (Bernard Youens) and Jack Duckworth (Bill Tarmey), husbands of Hilda and Vera Duckworth (Liz Dawn), respectively. Coronation Street's longest-serving character, Ken Barlow (William Roache) entered the storyline as a young radical, reflecting the youth of 1960s Britain, where figures like the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and the model Twiggy were to reshape the concept of youthful rebellion. Though the rest of the original Barlow family were killed off before the end of the 1970s, Ken, who for 27 years was the only character from the first episode remaining, has remained the constant link throughout the entire series. In 2011, Dennis Tanner (Philip Lowrie), another character from the first episode, returned to Coronation Street after a 43-year absence. Since 1984, Ken Barlow has been the show's only remaining original character. Emily Bishop (Eileen Derbyshire) had appeared in the series since January 1961, when the show was just weeks old, and was the show's longest-serving female character before she departed in January 2016 after 55 years. Rita Tanner (Barbara Knox) appeared on the show for one episode in December 1964, before returning as a full-time cast member in January 1972. She is currently the second longest-serving original cast member on the show. Roache and Knox are also the two oldest-working cast members on the soap at 92 and 91 years-old respectively. Stan and Hilda Ogden were introduced in 1964, with Hilda becoming one of the most famous British soap opera characters of all time. In a 1982 poll, she was voted fourth-most recognisable woman in Britain, after Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, Queen Elizabeth II and Diana, Princess of Wales. Hilda's best-known attributes were her pinny, hair curlers, and the "muriel" in her living room with three "flying" duck ornaments. Hilda Ogden's departure on Christmas Day 1987, remains the highest-rated episode of Coronation Street ever, with nearly 27,000,000 viewers. Stan Ogden had been killed off in 1984 following the death of actor Bernard Youens after a long illness which had restricted his appearances towards the end. Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear) first appeared in 1966, before becoming a regular in 1970, and went on to become one of the most famous Corrie characters. Bet stood as the central character of the show from 1985 until departing in 1995, often being dubbed as "Queen of the Street" by the media, and indeed herself. The character briefly returned in June 2002 and November 2003. Coronation Street and its characters often rely heavily on archetypes, with the characterisation of some of its current and recent cast based loosely on former characters. Phyllis Pearce (Jill Summers), Blanche Hunt (Maggie Jones) and Sylvia Goodwin (Stephanie Cole) embodied the role of the acid-tongued busybody originally held by Ena, Sally Webster (Sally Dynevor) has grown snobbish, like Annie, and a number of the programme's female characters, such as Carla Connor (Alison King), mirror the vulnerability of Elsie and Bet. Other recurring archetypes include the war veteran such as Albert Tatlock (Jack Howarth), Percy Sugden (Bill Waddington) and Gary Windass (Mikey North), the bumbling retail manager like Leonard Swindley (Arthur Lowe), Reg Holdsworth (Ken Morley) and Norris Cole (Malcolm Hebden), quick-tempered, tough tradesmen like Len Fairclough (Peter Adamson), Jim McDonald (Charles Lawson), Tommy Harris (Thomas Craig) and Owen Armstrong (Ian Puleston-Davies), and the perennial losers such as Stan and Hilda, Jack and Vera, Les Battersby (Bruce Jones), Beth Tinker (Lisa George) and Kirk Sutherland (Andrew Whyment). Villains are also common character types, such as Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford), Alan Bradley (Mark Eden), Jenny Bradley (Sally Ann Matthews), Rob Donovan (Marc Baylis), Frank Foster (Andrew Lancel), Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien), Caz Hammond (Rhea Bailey), Richard Hillman (Brian Capron), Greg Kelly (Stephen Billington), Will Chatterton (Leon Ockenden), Nathan Curtis (Christopher Harper), Callum Logan (Sean Ward), Karl Munro (John Michie), Pat Phelan (Connor McIntyre), David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd), Maya Sharma (Sasha Behar), Kirsty Soames (Natalie Gumede), John Stape (Graeme Hawley), Geoff Metcalfe (Ian Bartholomew) and Gary Windass (Mikey North). The show's former archivist and scriptwriter Daran Little disagreed with the characterisation of the show as a collection of stereotypes. "Rather, remember that Elsie, Ena and others were the first of their kind ever seen on British television. If later characters are stereotypes, it's because they are from the same original mould. It is the hundreds of programmes that have followed which have copied Coronation Street." ==Storylines== Many topical issues have been tackled on Coronation Street, such as rape, including male and marital, historic sexual abuse, underage pregnancy, transgender issues, the right to die, racism, coercive control, cancer, homosexuality, domestic abuse, child grooming, and suicide, among others. Key storylines have included: Mike and Deirdre's affair (1983), the death of Brian Tilsley (1989), Alan Bradley's abuse of Rita (1989), Kevin and Natalie's affair (1997), Deirdre’s wrongful imprisonment for fraud (1998), Sarah Platt's underage pregnancy (2000), Toyah's rape (2001), Alma's cancer (2001), Richard Hillman's serial killer storyline (2002–2003), Peter Barlow's bigamy (2003), Kevin and Molly's affair (2009), Kirsty's abuse of Tyrone (2012), Hayley's cancer (2013), Faye's underage pregnancy (2015), Bethany's grooming (2017), David's rape (2018), Aidan's suicide (2018), Sinead's diagnosis with cervical cancer (2019), Yasmeen's abuse (2020), Daisy's stalking hell (2023), Paul's MND (2023), Liam's bullying and suicidal thoughts (2023), Lauren's disappearance and possible murder (2024), Mason’s death from knife crime (2025) and Debbie's dementia (2025). ==Production== ===Broadcast format=== Between 9 December 1960 and 3 March 1961, Coronation Street was broadcast twice weekly, on Wednesday and Friday. When the programme went fully networked on 6 March 1961, broadcast days changed to Monday and Wednesday. The last regular episode to be shown live was broadcast on 3 February 1961. The series was transmitted in black and white for the majority of the 1960s. Preparations were made to film episode 923, to be transmitted Wednesday 29 October 1969, in colour. This installment featured the street's residents on a coach trip to the Lake District. In the end, suitable colour film stock for the cameras could not be found and the footage was shot in black and white. The following episode, transmitted Monday 3 November, was videotaped in colour but featured black and white film inserts and title sequence. Like BBC1, the ITV network was officially broadcast in black and white at this point (though programmes were actually broadcast in colour as early as July that year for colour transmission testing and adjustment) so the episode was seen by most in black and white. The ITV network, like BBC1, began full colour transmissions on 15 November 1969. Daran Little, for many years the official programme archivist, claims that the first episode to be transmitted in colour was episode 930 shown on 24 November 1969. In October 1970, a technicians' dispute turned into the Colour Strike when sound staff were denied a pay rise given to camera staff the year before for working with colour recording equipment. The terms of the work-to-rule were that staff refused to work with the new equipment (though the old black and white equipment had been disposed of by then) and therefore programmes were recorded and transmitted in black and white, including Coronation Street. The dispute was resolved in early 1971 and the last black and white episode was broadcast on 10 February 1971, although the episodes transmitted on 22 and 24 February 1971 had contained black and white location inserts. From 22 March 2010, Coronation Street was produced in 1080/50i for transmission on HDTV platforms on ITV HD. The first transmission in this format was episode 7351 on 31 May 2010 with a new set of titles and re-recorded theme tune. On 26 May 2010 ITV previewed the new HD titles on the Coronation Street website. Due to copyright reasons only viewers residing in the UK could see them on the ITV site. On 24 January 2022, ITV announced that as part of an overhaul of their evening programming, Coronation Street would permanently air as three 60-minute episodes per week from March 2022 onwards. This is set to change again in 2026. It was confirmed that half an hour of content would be dropped from the schedule. Another change was the timeslot, with the soap instead set to air every weekday at 8:30pm for 30 minutes. ITV's Managing Director of Media and Entertainment Kevin Lygo explained: "research insights show us that soap viewers are increasingly looking to the soaps for their pacey storytelling. Streaming-friendly, 30 minute episodes better provide the opportunity to meet viewer expectations for storyline pace, pay-off and resolution." ===Production staff=== Coronation Street's creator, Tony Warren, wrote the first 13 episodes of the programme in 1960, and continued to write for the programme intermittently until 1976. He later became a novelist, Harry Kershaw was the script editor for Coronation Street when the programme began in 1960, working alongside Tony Warren. Kershaw was also a script writer for the programme and the show's producer between 1962 and 1971. He remains the only person, along with John Finch, to have held the three posts of script editor, writer and producer. Adele Rose was Coronation Street's first female writer and the show's longest-serving writer, completing 455 scripts between 1961 and 1998. She also created Byker Grove. Rose also won a BAFTA award in 1993 for her work on the show. he was renowned for his tough, uncompromising style and was feared by both crew and cast alike. He is known for sacking Peter Adamson, the show's Len Fairclough, in 1983. Iain MacLeod is the current series producer. Michael Apted, known for the Up! series of documentaries, was a director on the programme in the early 1960s. This period of his career marked the first of his many collaborations with writer Jack Rosenthal. Rosenthal, noted for such television plays as Bar Mitzvah Boy, began his career on the show, writing over 150 episodes between 1961 and 1969. Paul Abbott was a story editor on the programme in the 1980s and began writing episodes in 1989, but left in 1993 to produce Cracker, for which he later wrote, before creating his own dramas such as Touching Evil and Shameless. Russell T Davies was briefly a storyliner on the programme in the mid-1990s, also writing the script for the direct-to-video special "Viva Las Vegas!" Jimmy McGovern also wrote some episodes. ===Theme music=== The show's theme music, a cornet piece, accompanied by a brass band plus clarinet and double bass, reminiscent of northern band music, was written by Eric Spear. The original theme tune was called "Lancashire Blues" and Spear was paid a £6 commission in 1960 to write it. The identity of the trumpeter was not public knowledge until 1994, when jazz musician and journalist Ron Simmonds revealed that it was the Surrey musician Ronnie Hunt. He added, "an attempt was made in later years to re-record that solo, using Stan Roderick, but it sounded too good, and they reverted to the old one." In 2004, the Manchester Evening News published a contradictory story that a young musician from Wilmslow called David Browning had played the original version. However, after investigating further, his story was found to be false, Browning not knowing that the original trumpet player Ronnie Hunt was still alive, proving that he was the true and rightful player that performed the solo. With his union pay stubs and contract, Browning was proven false. A new, completely re-recorded version of the theme tune replaced the original when the series started broadcasting in HD on 31 May 2010. It accompanied a new montage-style credits sequence featuring images of Manchester and Weatherfield. A reggae version of the theme tune was recorded by The I-Royals and released by Media Marvels and WEA in 1983. ===Viewing figures=== Episodes in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, regularly attracted figures of between 18 and 21 million viewers, and during the 1990s and early 2000s, 14 to 16 million per episode would be typical. Like most terrestrial television in the UK, a decline in viewership has taken place and the show posts an average audience of just under 9 million per episode , remaining one of the highest rated programmes in the UK. EastEnders and Coronation Street have often competed for the highest rated show. The episode that aired on 2 January 1985, in which Bet Lynch (Julie Goodyear) finds out she has got the job as manager of the Rovers Return, is the highest-rated single episode in the show's history, attracting 21.40 million viewers. The 25 December 1987 episode, where Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) leaves the street to start a new life as a housekeeper for long-term employer Dr Lowther, attracted a combined audience of 26.65 million for its original airing and omnibus repeat on 27 December 1987. This is the second-highest combined rating in the show's history. The show attracted its highest-ever combined rating of 26.93 million for the episode that aired on 15 (and 19) March 1989, where Rita Fairclough (Barbara Knox) is in hospital and Alan Bradley (Mark Eden) is hiding from the police after trying to kill Rita in the previous episode. By the 2020s viewing figures dropped due to increased competition from streaming services and satellite channels, with the usually high-rated Christmas episode being viewed by only 2.6 million households in 2023, However, these figures are based on overnight ratings and do not include viewing via ITV's "catch-up" streaming service. Between 1960 and 1968, street scenes were transmitted/taped before a set constructed in a studio, with the house fronts reduced in scale to 3/4 and constructed from wood. In 1968 Granada built an outside set not all that different from the interior version previously used, with the wooden façades from the studio simply being erected on the new site. In 1982, a permanent full-street set was built in the Granada backlot, an area between Quay Street and Liverpool Road in Manchester. The set was constructed from reclaimed Salford brick. Between 1989 and 1999, the Granada Studios Tour allowed members of the public to visit the set. The exterior set was extended and updated in 1999. This update added to the Rosamund Street and Victoria Street façades, and added a viaduct on Rosamund Street. Most interior scenes are shot in the adjoining purpose-built studio. In 2014, production moved to a new site at Trafford Wharf, a former dock area about two miles to the east, part of the MediaCityUK complex. The Trafford Wharf backlot is built upon a former truck stop site next to the Imperial War Museum North. It took two years from start to finish to recreate the iconic Street. The houses were built to almost full scale after previously being three-quarter size. On 5 April 2014, the staff began to allow booked public visits to the old Quay Street set. An advert, with a voiceover from Victoria Wood, appeared on TV to advertise the tour. The tour was discontinued in December 2015. On 12 March 2018, the extension of the Victoria Street set was officially unveiled. The new set featured a garden, featuring a memorial bench paying tribute to the 22 victims of the Manchester Arena bombing, including Coronation Street "super fan" Martyn Hett. The precinct includes a Greater Manchester Police station called Weatherfield Police station. As part of a product placement deal between three companies and ITV Studios, new additions include a tram stop station which is named Weatherfield North with Transport for Greater Manchester Metrolink branding, while shop front facades of Costa Coffee and the Weatherfield branded Co-op Food store interior scenes have been screened. Exterior scenes at the new set first aired on 20 April 2018. On 20 April 2018, ITV announced that they had been granted official approval of planning permission to allow booked public visits to the MediaCityUK Trafford Wharf set. Tours commenced on weekends from 26 May 2018 onwards. The set was further expanded in March 2022, with the addition of the Weatherfield Precinct, which took six months to build, and was inspired by Salford. The new section of the set included a two-storey construction featuring maisonettes, a staircase and balcony leading to the properties, a piazza and an array of shops and units. ==Broadcast== ===United Kingdom=== For 60 years, Coronation Street has remained at the centre of ITV's prime time schedule. The programme is currently shown in the UK in three hour-long episodes, over three evenings a week on ITV in the 8 pm time slot - Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. Additional episodes have been broadcast at other times, such as between 22 and 26 November 2004, when eight episodes were shown including three 10pm outings. These late night episodes allowed for more graphic content when ‘Mad’ Maya (Maya Sharma) sought her revenge on Dev Alahan and Sunita Alahan. From Friday 9 December 1960 until Friday 3 March 1961, the programme was shown in two episodes broadcast on Wednesday and Friday at 7 pm. A second Monday episode was introduced in 2002 and was broadcast at 8:30 pm to usher in the return of Bet Lynch. The Monday 8:30 pm episode was used intermittently during the popular Richard Hillman storyline and became a regular feature from episode 5568 on Monday 25 August 2003. In January 2008, ITV axed the Sunday episode, and instead aired a second episode on Fridays, at 8:30 pm, with the final Sunday episode airing on 6 January 2008, though some episodes thereafter continued to air occasionally on Sundays, usually for when an episode was displaced from one of its regular slots by a live football match. From 23 July 2009 to September 2012 the Wednesday show was replaced with an episode at 8:30 pm on Thursdays. A sixth weekly episode was added on Wednesdays at 8:30 pm from 20 September 2017. Simultaneously, the announcement also mentioned that the elderly cast of the show would be "written off" due to health advice issued by Public Health England and the NHS. On 22 March, ITV released a statement confirming that filming of both Coronation Street and Emmerdale was suspended. In June 2020, ITV announced that filming would resume on 9 June. However, due to the new health and safety measures, cast members over the age of 70 or with underlying health conditions did not come back on set, until the production could determine it is safe for them to return. In July 2020, ITV announced that Coronation Street would return to the normal output of six episodes a week in September that year. In October 2020, Maureen Lipman and David Neilson made their first appearances since July that year, as all cast members over the age of 70 had temporarily left the series earlier in the year. William Roache, Barbara Knox and Sue Nicholls returned in December. On 22 January 2021, ITV announced that filming would be suspended from 25 January in order to rewrite "stories and scripts as a consequence of the coronavirus pandemic" and to "review all health and safety requirements". ITV also confirmed that this decision would not affect their ability to deliver six episodes a week. In January 2022, it was announced that after 60 years in the 7.30 pm slot, Coronation Streets transmission time would move to 8pm due to the ITV Evening News having a longer duration, pushing Emmerdale into the 7.30 pm slot on weeknights. The double-bill episodes on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays have merged into hour-long slots on these days. The new scheduling went live on Monday 7 March 2022. ====Repeats and classic episodes==== Repeat episodes, omnibus broadcasts and specials have been shown on various ITV channels. After several years on ITV2, in January 2008 the omnibus returned to the main ITV channel, where it was aired on Saturday mornings or afternoons, depending on the schedule and times. In May 2008, it moved to Sunday mornings, until August 2008, when it returned to Saturdays. In January 2009, it moved back to Sunday mornings, usually broadcasting at around 9.25am until December 2010. In January 2011, the omnibus moved to Saturday mornings on ITV at 9.25am. During the Rugby World Cup, which took place in New Zealand, matches had to be broadcast on a Saturday morning, so the omnibus moved to Saturday lunchtimes/afternoons during September and October 2011. On 22 October 2011, the omnibus moved back to Saturday mornings at 9.25am on ITV. In January 2012, the omnibus moved to ITV2, and then moved to ITV3 in January 2020. In January 2022, the omnibus moved back to ITV2. Older episodes were broadcast by satellite and cable channel Granada Plus from its launch in 1996. The first episodes shown were from episode 1588 (originally transmitted on Monday 5 April 1976) onwards. Originally listed and promoted as Classic Coronation Street, the "classic" was dropped in early 2002, at which stage the episodes were from late 1989. By the time of the channel's closure in 2004, the repeats had reached February 1994. In addition to this, "specials" were broadcast on Saturday afternoons in the early years of the channel, with several episodes based on a particular theme or character(s) shown. The last episode shown in these specials was from 1991. In addition, on 27 and 28 December 2003, several Christmas Day editions of the show were broadcast. ITV3 began airing afternoon timeslot sequential reruns of Classic Coronation Street from 2 October 2017. Two classic episodes were retransmitted from Mondays to Fridays at 2:40 pm until 3:45 pm, starting from episode 2587 (originally transmitted on Wednesday 15 January 1986) onwards. To mark the 60th anniversary of Coronation Street, between 7 and 11 December 2020 at 10:00 pm–11:05 pm, ITV3 aired special episodes of the soap including Episode 1, the tenth anniversary episode from December 1970, two episodes from the twentieth anniversary in December 1980, two episodes from the thirtieth anniversary in December 1990, the 2000 live episode from the fortieth anniversary in December 2000, and the fiftieth anniversary episode which aired after a repeat of The Road to Coronation Street. On Easter Monday 2022, to commemorate the upcoming 90th birthday of William Roache, eight special Coronation Street Ken Barlow episodes were aired on 18 April 2022, at 10:25 am–2:35 pm. The episodes shown were Episode 1 from December 1960, Ken and Deirdre Tie the Knot from July 1981, Ken's Affair from December 1989, Deirdre's Fling from January 2003, Steve and Karen's Wedding Shocker from February 2004, Ken and Deirdre's Second Wedding from April 2005, Ken and Deirdre's Holiday from August 2014, and Deirdre's Death from July 2015. ===International broadcast=== Coronation Street is shown in various countries worldwide. YouTube has the first episode and many others available as reruns. The programme was first aired in Australia in 1963 on TCN-9 Sydney, GTV-9 Melbourne and NWS-9 Adelaide, and by 1966 Coronation Street was more popular in Australia than in the UK. The show eventually left free-to-air television in Australia. It briefly returned to the Nine Network in a daytime slot during 1994–1995. In 2005, STW-9 Perth began to show episodes before the 6 pm news to improve the lead in to Nine News Perth, but this did not work and the show was cancelled a few months later. In 1996, pay-TV began and Arena began screening the series in one-hour instalments on Saturdays and Sundays at 6:30 pm EST. The series was later moved to pay-TV channel UKTV (now BBC UKTV), where it is still shown. Coronation Street is shown Mon-Thu at 7:20 pm EST and a double episode on Fridays, with episodes on the channel being one week behind UK broadcast. In Canada, Coronation Street is broadcast on CBC Television. Until 2011, episodes were shown in Canada approximately 10 months after they aired in Britain; however, beginning in the fall of 2011, the CBC began showing two episodes every weekday, in order to catch up with the ITV showings, at 6:30 pm and 7 pm local time Monday-Friday, with an omnibus on Sundays at 7.30am. By May 2014, the CBC was only two weeks behind Britain, so the show was reduced to a single showing weeknights at 6:30 pm local time. The show debuted on Toronto's CBLT in July 1966. The 2002 edition of the Guinness Book of Records recognises the 1,144 episodes sold to the now-defunct CBC-owned Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, TV station CBKST by Granada TV on 31 May 1971 to be the largest number of TV shows ever purchased in one transaction. The show traditionally aired on weekday afternoons in Canada, with a Sunday morning omnibus. In 2004, CBC moved the weekday airings from their daytime slot to prime time. In light of austerity measures imposed on the CBC in 2012, which includes further cutbacks on non-Canadian programming, one of the foreign shows to remain on the CBC schedule is Coronation Street, according to the CBC's director of content planning Christine Wilson, who commented: "Unofficially I can tell you Coronation Street is coming back. If it didn't come back, something would happen on Parliament Hill." Kirstine Stewart, the head of the CBC's English-language division, once remarked: "Coronation Street fans are the most loyal, except maybe for curling viewers, of all CBC viewers." and then on TV One, which broadcasts it in a 4-episode/2-hour block on Fridays from 7:30 pm. In September 2014, TV One added a 2-episode/1-hour block on Saturday from 8:30 pm. Because TV One did not upgrade to showing the equivalent of five or six episodes per week, New Zealand continued to fall further and further behind with episodes, and was 23 months behind Britain as of March 2014. During the weekday nights of the week ending 11 April 2014 and previous weeks, Coronation Street was the least watched programme on TV One in the 7:30 pm slot by a considerable margin in comparison to other weeknights, The serial aired on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 7:30 pm until October 2011, when the show moved to a 5:30 pm half-hour slot every weekday. The move proved unpopular with fans, and the series was quickly moved into its present prime-time slot within weeks. Episodes 7883, 7884, 7885 and 7886 were screened on 16 May 2014. These were originally aired in the UK between 4 and 11 June 2012. On 10 May 2018 it was announced that the current 2016 episodes would be moved to 1 p.m. Monday-Friday titled 'Catch-up Episodes' and for primetime Wednesday-Friday express episodes would be airing in New Zealand a week behind the United Kingdom titled '2018 Episodes' these changes would be taking place from 11 June 2018. In South Africa, Coronation Street episodes were broadcast three days after the UK air date on ITV Choice until the channel ceased broadcasting in June 2020, episodes temporarily went off the air until they moved to M-Net City, starting in October 2020. In the United States, Coronation Street is available by broadcast or cable only in northern markets where CBC coverage from Canada overlaps the border or is available on local cable systems. It was broadcast on CBC's US cable channel, Trio until the CBC sold its stake in the channel to Universal, before it was shut down in 2006. Beginning in 2009, episodes were available in the United States through Amazon.com's on-demand service, a month behind their original UK airdates. The final series of shows available from Amazon appears to be from November 2012, as no new episodes have been uploaded. On 15 January 2013, online distributor Hulu began airing episodes of the show, posting a new episode daily, two weeks after their original airdates. For a time, Hulu's website stated: "New episodes of Coronation Street will be unavailable as of April 7th, 2016", with the same being said for British soap Hollyoaks, but Hulu is once again showing new episodes of Coronation Street as of April 2017, two weeks behind the UK airdate. The BBC/ITV service Britbox shows new episodes on the same day as the UK airing. Coronation Street was also shown on USA Network for an unknown period starting in 1982. HM Forces and their families stationed overseas can watch Coronation Street on ITV, carried by the British Forces Broadcasting Service, which is also available to civilians in the Falkland Islands. It used to be shown on BFBS1. Satellite channel ITV Choice showed the programme in Asia, Middle East, Cyprus, and Malta, before the channel ceased broadcasting in 2019. ==Merchandise== The Street, a magazine dedicated to the show, was launched in 1989. Edited by Bill Hill, the magazine contained a summary of recent storylines, interviews, articles about classic episodes, and stories that occurred from before 1960. The format was initially A5 size, expanding to A4 from the seventh issue. The magazine folded after issue 23 in 1993 when the publisher's contract with Granada Studios Tour expired and Granada wanted to produce their own magazine. On 25 June 2010, a video game of the show was released on Nintendo DS. The game was developed by Mindscape, and allowed players to complete tasks in the fictitious town of Weatherfield. ===Discography=== In 1995, to commemorate the programme's 35th anniversary, a CD titled The Coronation Street Album was released, featuring cover versions of modern songs and standards by contemporary cast members. The album charted a Top 40 hit when "The Coronation Street Single" (a double a-side featuring a cover of Monty Python's "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" by Bill Waddington – with various cast members on backing vocals – on one side and "Something Stupid" by Johnny Briggs & Amanda Barrie on the other) reached number 35 in the Official UK charts. In 2010, an album featuring songs sung by cast members was released to celebrate 50 years of Coronation Street. The album is titled Rogues, Angels, Heroes & Fools, and was later developed into a musical. ==Spin-offs== ===Television=== Granada launched one spin-off in 1965, Pardon the Expression, following the story of clothing store manager Leonard Swindley (Arthur Lowe) after he left Weatherfield. Swindley's management experience was tested when he was appointed assistant manager at a fictional department store, Dobson and Hawks. Granada produced two series of the spin-off, which ended in 1966. In 1967, Arthur Lowe returned as Leonard Swindley in Turn Out the Lights, a short-lived sequel to Pardon the Expression. It ran for just one series of six episodes before it was cancelled. In 1972, Neville Buswell and Graham Haberfield starred as Ray Langton and Jerry Booth in a pilot for a potential spin-off series called Rest Assured. Written and produced by H.V. Kershaw the pilot had an episode title of Lift Off, and featured Fred Feast (later cast as Fred Gee in Coronation Street) as the lift engineer. No series was commissioned. From 1985 to 1988, Granada TV produced a sitcom called The Brothers McGregor featuring a pair of half-brothers (one black, one white) who had appeared in a single episode of Coronation Street as old friends of Eddie Yeats and guests at his wedding. The original actors were unavailable so the characters were recast with Paul Barber and Philip Whitchurch. The show ran for 26 episodes over four series. In 1985, a sister series, Albion Market, was launched. It ran for one year, with 100 episodes produced. ====Crossovers==== In 2010, several actors from the show appeared on The Jeremy Kyle Show as their soap characters: David Platt (Jack P. Shepherd), Nick Tilsley (Ben Price), Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan) and Graeme Proctor (Craig Gazey). In the fictional, semi-improvised scenario, David accused Nick (his brother) and Tina (his ex-girlfriend) of sleeping together. Coronation Street and rival soap opera EastEnders had a crossover for Children in Need in November 2010 called "East Street". EastEnders stars that visited Weatherfield include Laurie Brett as Jane Beale, Charlie G. Hawkins as Darren Miller, Kylie Babbington as Jodie Gold, Nina Wadia as Zainab Masood and John Partridge as Christian Clarke. On 21 December 2012, Coronation Street produced a Text Santa special entitled A Christmas Corrie which featured Norris Cole in the style of Scrooge, being visited by the ghosts of dead characters. The ghosts were Mike Baldwin, Maxine Peacock, Derek Wilton and Vera Duckworth. Other special guests include Torvill and Dean, Lorraine Kelly and Sheila Reid. The episode concluded with Norris learning the error of his ways and dancing on the cobbles. The original plan for this feature was to have included Jack Duckworth, along with Vera, but actor Bill Tarmey died before filming commenced. In the end a recording of his voice was played. ====Documentaries==== Coronation Street: Family Album was several documentaries about various families living on the street. "Farewell ..." was several documentaries featuring the best moments of a single character who had recently left the series—most notably, Farewell Mike (Baldwin), Farewell Vera (Duckworth), Farewell Blanche (Hunt), Farewell Jack (Duckworth), Farewell Janice (Battersby), Farewell Liz (McDonald), Farewell Becky (McDonald), and Farewell Tina (McIntyre). Most of these were broadcast on the same day as the character's final scenes in the series. Stars on the Street was aired around Christmas 2009. It featured actors from the soap talking about the famous guest stars who had appeared in the series including people who were in it before they were famous. In December 2010, ITV made a few special programmes to mark the 50th anniversary. Coronation Street Uncovered: Live, hosted by Stephen Mulhern was shown after the episode with the tram crash was aired on ITV2. On 7 and 9 December, a countdown on the greatest Corrie moments, Coronation Street: 50 Years, 50 Moments, the viewers voted "The Barlows at Alcoholics Anonymous" as the greatest moment. On 10 December Paul O'Grady hosted a quiz show, Coronation Street: The Big 50 with three teams from the soap and a celebrity team answering questions about Coronation Street and other soaps. Also, Come Dine with Me and Celebrity Juice aired Coronation Street specials in the anniversary week. ====International adaptation==== The German TV series Lindenstraße took Coronation Street as the model. Lindenstraße started in 1985 and broadcast its final episode on 29 March 2020, after airing for nearly 35 years. ===Films=== Over the years, Coronation Street has released several straight-to-video films. Unlike other soaps, which often used straight-to-video films to cover more contentious plot lines that may not be allowed by the broadcaster, Coronation Street has largely used these films to reset their characters in other locations. In 1995, Coronation Street: The Cruise also known as Coronation Street: The Feature Length Special was released on VHS to celebrate the 35th anniversary of the show, featuring Rita Sullivan, Mavis Wilton, Alec Gilroy, Curly Watts and Raquel Watts. ITV heavily promoted the programme as a direct-to-video exclusive, but broadcast a brief version of it on 24 March 1996. The Independent Television Commission investigated the broadcast, as viewers complained that ITV misled them. In 1997, following the controversial cruise spin-off, Coronation Street: Viva Las Vegas! was released on VHS, featuring Vera Duckworth, Jack Duckworth, Fiona Middleton and Maxine Peacock on a trip to Las Vegas, which included the temporary return of Ray Langton. In 1999, six special episodes of Coronation Street were produced, following the story of Steve McDonald and Vikram Desai in Brighton, which included the temporary returns of Bet Gilroy, Reg Holdsworth and Vicky McDonald. This video was titled Coronation Street: Open All Hours and released on VHS. In 2008, ITV announced filming was to get underway for a new special DVD episode, Coronation Street: Out of Africa, featuring Kirk Sutherland, Fiz Brown, Chesney Brown, which included the temporary return of Cilla Battersby-Brown. Sophie Webster, Becky Granger and Tina McIntyre also make brief appearances. In 2009, another DVD special, Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday, was released. The feature-length comedy drama followed Roy, Hayley and Becky as they travelled to Romania for the wedding of a face from their past. Eddie Windass also briefly appears. The BBC commissioned a one-off drama called The Road to Coronation Street, about how the series first came into being. Jessie Wallace plays Pat Phoenix (Elsie Tanner) with Lynda Baron as Violet Carson (Ena Sharples), Celia Imrie as Doris Speed (Annie Walker) and James Roache as his own father William Roache (Ken Barlow). It was broadcast on 16 September 2010 on BBC Four. On 1 November 2010, Coronation Street: A Knight's Tale was released. Reg Holdsworth and Curly Watts returned in the film. Mary tries to take Norris to an apparently haunted castle where she hoped to seduce him. Rosie gets a job there and she takes Jason with her. Brian Capron also guest starred as an assumed relative of Richard Hillman. He rises out of a lake with a comedic "wink to the audience" after Hillman drowned in 2003. Rita Sullivan also briefly appears. ===Online=== On 21 December 2008, a web-based miniseries ran on ITV.com; called Corrie Confidential; the first episode featured the characters Rosie and Sophie Webster in Underworld. ITV.com launched a small spin-off drama series called 'Gary's Army Diaries' which revolves around Gary Windass's experiences in Afghanistan and the loss of his best friend, Quinny. Due to their popularity, the three five-minute episodes were recut into a single 30-minute episode, which was broadcast on ITV2. William Roache and Anne Kirkbride starred as Ken and Deirdre in a series of ten three-minute internet 'webisodes'. The first episode of the series titled, Ken and Deirdre's Bedtime Stories was activated on Valentine's Day 2011. In 2011, an internet based spin-off starring Helen Flanagan as Rosie Webster followed her on her quest to be a supermodel called Just Rosie. On 3 February 2014, another web-based miniseries ran on ITV.com; called Streetcar Stories. It showed what Steve and Lloyd get up to during the late nights in their Streetcar cab office. The first episode shows Steve and Lloyd making a cup of tea with "The Stripper" playing in the background, referencing Morecambe and Wise's Breakfast Sketch. The second episode involves the pair having a biscuit dunking competition. During the 'Who Attacked Ken' storyline, a mini series of police files was run on the official Coronation Street YouTube channel. They outlined the suspects' details and possible motives. ===Stage=== In August 2010, many Coronation Street characters were brought to the stage in Jonathan Harvey's comedy play Corrie!. The play was commissioned to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the TV series and was presented at The Lowry in Salford, England by ITV Studios and Phil McIntyre Entertainments. Featuring a cast of six actors who alternate roles of favourite characters including Ena Sharples, Hilda Ogden, Hayley and Roy, Richard Hillman, Jack and Vera, Bet Lynch, Steve, Karen and Becky, the play weaves together some of the most memorable moments from the TV show. It toured UK theatres between February 2011 and July 2011 with guest star narrators including Roy Barraclough, Ken Morley and Gaynor Faye. ==In popular culture== The British rock band Queen produced a single "I Want to Break Free" in 1984 that reached number 3 in the UK Singles Chart. The song is memorable for its music video in which the band members dressed in women's clothing, which parodied characters in Coronation Street and is considered an homage to the show. The video depicts Freddie Mercury as a housewife, loosely based on Bet Lynch, who wants to "break free" from his life. Although Lynch was a blonde in the soap opera, Mercury thought he would look too silly as a blonde and chose a dark wig. Guitarist Brian May plays another, more relaxed housewife based on Hilda Ogden. In December 2022, the American singer Bob Dylan was offered a cameo on Coronation Street after revealing to The Wall Street Journal that he is a fan of the ITV soap. ==Sponsorship== Cadbury was the first sponsor of Coronation Street, beginning in July 1996. In the summer of 2006, Cadbury Trebor Bassetts had to recall over one million chocolate bars, due to suspected salmonella contamination, and Coronation Street stopped the sponsorship for several months. In 2006, Cadbury did not renew their contract, but agreed to sponsor the show until Coronation Street found a new sponsor. Harveys then sponsored Coronation Street from 30 September 2007 until December 2012. In the Coronation Street: Romanian Holiday film, Roy and Hayley Cropper are filmed in front of a Harveys store, and in Coronation Street: A Knights Tale, a Harveys truck can be seen driving past Mary Taylor's motorhome. Compare The Market took over as sponsor from 26 November 2012 until 30 November 2020. On 10 December 2020, it was announced that Argos would be the new sponsor of Coronation Street, starting on 1 January 2021. In November 2011, a Nationwide Building Society ATM in Dev Alahan's corner shop became the first use of paid-for product placement in a UK primetime show. In 2018, the shop fronts of Co-Op and Costa Coffee were added to the sets, along with characters using shopping bags with the respective logos on as props. aired on Virgin Media One. ==Awards and nominations== ==Footnotes== ==Print references== ==Video and DVD references== This Is Coronation Street, Dir: John Black (DVD) Acorn Media Publishing, 2003 Coronation Street: Secrets, Dir: John Black (DVD) Morningstar Entertainment, 2004 Coronation Street: Early Days, (Video) Granada Media Group, 2001 Coronation Street: The Jubilee Years, (Video) Granada Media Group, 1985 Coronation Street: The Magic of, (Video) Granada Media Group, 1985	[ "Cadbury's", "Ken Barlow (Coronation Street)", "Tyne Tees Television", "Kirk Sutherland", "ITV News", "Sheila Reid", "Roy Cropper", "Gary Mallett", "Hulu", "Leon Ockenden", "Mike Baldwin (Coronation Street)", "Children in Need 2010", "EastEnders", "Des Barnes", "Guinness World Records", "CBLT-DT", "Colour Strike", "Leeza Gibbons", "Anne Reid", "Rosamund Street", "Sally Dynevor", "Natalie Gumede", "Jack Howarth (actor)", "Zainab Masood", "Rovers Return Inn", "Craig Gazey", "BBC UKTV", "Blackpool Tramway", "NWS (TV station)", "Satellite television", "coercive control", "Michelle Keegan", "Katy Cavanagh", "Zoe Tattersall", "cervical cancer", "Maxine Peacock", "Toyah Battersby", "department store", "Compare the Market", "Sinead Tinker", "Caz Hammond", "Maria Sutherland", "TVGuide.co.uk", "Dot Branning", "Canada", "Phyllis Pearce", "Pat Phoenix", "Saskatoon, Saskatchewan", "ITV Studios", "Raquel Watts", "New Zealand", "Ofcom", "Valerie Barlow", "Sally Webster", "Kirsty Soames", "Lorraine Kelly", "Manchester Metrolink", "Frank Barlow (Coronation Street)", "List of Coronation Street producers", "Domestic violence", "Julie Hesmondhalgh", "Edward de Souza", "GTV (Australia)", "Liam Cavanagh", "Morecambe and Wise", "Steve Frost", "Chat room", "David Neilson", "Oxnard Press-Courier", "Graeme Proctor", "Charlie G. Hawkins", "Stephen Billington", "Maya Sharma", "Arena (television network)", "Greg Kelly (Coronation Street)", "Southern Television", "impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television", "Reach PLC", "Stephen Hancock", "Greater Manchester Police", "British culture", "Don Brennan (Coronation Street character)", "Sharon Duce", "Laurie Brett", "Doctors (2000 TV series)", "William Rees-Mogg", "transgender", "Jimmy McGovern", "David Platt (Coronation Street)", "Gaynor Faye", "Geoffrey Hinsliff", "The Stripper", "Reg Holdsworth", "Alma Halliwell", "Roy Barraclough", "Billy Williams (Coronation Street)", "Deirdre Langton", "Brian Tilsley", "Ernest Bishop", "Judy Mallett", "Hearst Magazines UK", "Chesney Brown", "Paul Foreman (Coronation Street)", "social distancing", "Rosie Webster", "Parliament Hill", "Granada Studios", "Richard Hillman", "Associated-Rediffusion", "Connor McIntyre", "Turn Out the Lights (TV series)", "Peter Adamson (actor)", "June Brown", "direct-to-video", "Celebrity Juice", "Greater Manchester", "ITV (TV network)", "List of former Coronation Street characters", "Rita Tanner", "foster care", "Daily Express", "Albert Tatlock", "Australia", "M-Net City", "Lake District", "Ida Barlow", "Republic of Ireland", "UTV Ireland", "Jack P. 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6,852	Caligula	Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina the Elder, members of the first ruling family of the Roman Empire. He was born two years before Tiberius became emperor. Gaius accompanied his father, mother and siblings on campaign in Germania, at little more than four or five years old. He had been named after Gaius Julius Caesar, but his father's soldiers affectionately nicknamed him "Caligula" ('little boot'). Germanicus died in Antioch in 19, and Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Emperor Tiberius, who was Germanicus' biological uncle and adoptive father. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. In 26, Tiberius withdrew from public life to the island of Capri, and in 31, Caligula joined him there. Tiberius died in 37, and Caligula succeeded him as emperor, at the age of 24. Of the few surviving sources about Caligula and his four-year reign, most were written by members of the nobility and senate, long after the events they purport to describe. For the early part of his reign, he is said to have been "good, generous, fair and community-spirited" but increasingly self-indulgent, cruel, sadistic, extravagant and sexually perverted thereafter. Described there as an insane, murderous tyrant who demanded and received worship as a living god, humiliated the Senate, and planned to make his horse a consul, most modern commentaries instead seek to explain Caligula's position, personality and historical context. Some historians dismiss many of the allegations against him as misunderstandings, exaggeration, mockery or malicious fantasy. During his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and public works to benefit Rome's ordinary citizens, including racetracks, theatres, amphitheatres, and improvements to roads and ports. He began the construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province. He had to abandon an attempted invasion of Britain, and the installation of his statue in the Temple in Jerusalem. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers. At least some of the conspirators might have planned this as an opportunity to restore the Roman Republic and aristocratic privileges. If so, their plan was thwarted by the Praetorians, who seem to have spontaneously chosen Caligula's uncle Claudius as the next emperor. Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line, though the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule until the demise of Caligula's nephew, the Emperor Nero. == Early life == Caligula was born in Antium on 31 August AD 12, the third of six surviving children of Germanicus and his wife and second cousin, Agrippina the Elder. Germanicus was a grandson of Mark Antony, and Agrippina was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, making her the granddaughter of Augustus. The future emperor Claudius was Caligula's paternal uncle. Caligula had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus, and three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. At the age of two or three, he accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania. He wore a miniature soldier's outfit devised by his mother to please the troops, including army boots (caligae) and armour. The soldiers nicknamed him Caligula ("little boot"). Winterling believes he would have enjoyed the attention of the soldiers, to whom he was something of a mascot, though he later grew to dislike the nickname. Germanicus was a respected, immensely popular figure among his troops and Roman civilians of every class, and was widely expected to eventually succeed his uncle Tiberius as emperor. For his successful northern campaigns, he was awarded the great honour of a triumph. During the triumphal procession through Rome, Caligula and his siblings shared their father's chariot, and the applause of the populace. A few months later, Germanicus was despatched to tour Rome's allies and provinces with his family. They were received with great honour; at Assos Caligula gave a public speech, aged only 6. Somewhere en route, Germanicus contracted what proved to be a fatal illness. He lingered awhile, and died at Antioch, Syria, in AD 19, aged 33, convinced that he had been poisoned by the provincial governor, Gnaius Calpurnius Piso. Many believed that he had been killed at the behest of Tiberius, as a potential rival. Germanicus was cremated, and his ashes were taken to Rome, escorted by his wife and children, Pretorian guards, civilian mourners and senators, then placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Caligula lived with his mother Agrippina in Rome, in a milieu very different from that of his earlier years. Agrippina made no secret of her imperial ambitions for herself and her sons, and in consequence, her relations with Tiberius rapidly deteriorated. Tiberius believed himself under constant threat from treason, conspiracy and political rivalry. He forbade Agrippina to remarry, for fear that a remarriage would serve her personal ambition, and introduce yet another threat to himself. The last years of his principate were dominated by treason trials, whose outcomes were determined by senatorial vote. Agrippina, and Caligula's brother Nero, were tried and banished in the year 29 on charges of treason. The adolescent Caligula was sent to live with his great-grandmother (Tiberius' mother), Livia. After her death two years later, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor. In the year 30, Tiberius had Caligula's brothers, Drusus and Nero, declared public enemies by the Senate, and exiled. Caligula and his three sisters remained in Italy as hostages of Tiberius, kept under close watch. == Capri == In 31, Caligula's brother Nero died in exile. Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius at Villa Jovis on Capri. He was befriended by Tiberius' Praetorian prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro. Macro had been active in the downfall of Sejanus, his ambitious and manipulative predecessor in office, and was a trusted communicant between the emperor, and his senate in Rome. Philo, Jewish diplomat and later witness to several events in Caligula's court, writes that Macro protected and supported Caligula, allaying any suspicions Tiberius might harbour concerning his young ward's ambitions. Macro represented Caligula to Tiberius as "friendly, obedient" and devoted to Tiberius' grandson, Tiberius Gemellus, who was seven years younger than himself. Caligula is described during this time as a first-rate orator, well-informed, cultured and intelligent, a natural actor who recognized the danger he was in, and hid his resentment of Tiberius' maltreatment of himself and his family behind such an obsequious manner that it was said of him that there had never been "a better slave or a worse master". Caligula's failure to protest the destruction of his family is taken by Tacitus as evidence that his "monstrous character was masked by a hypocritical modesty". Winterling observes that a forthright protest would "certainly have cost him his life". In 33, Caligula's mother and his brother Drusus died, while still in exile. In the same year, Tiberius arranged the marriage of Caligula and Junia Claudilla, daughter of one of Tiberius' most influential allies in the Senate, Marcus Junius Silanus. Caligula was given an honorary quaestorship in the , a series of political promotions that could lead to consulship. He would hold this very junior senatorial post until his sudden nomination as emperor. Junia died in childbirth the following year, along with her baby. In 35, Tiberius named Caligula as joint heir with Tiberius' grandson, Gemellus, who was Caligula's junior by seven years and not yet an adult. At the time, Tiberius seemed to be in good health, and likely to survive until Gemellus' majority. In Philo's account, Tiberius was genuinely fond of Gemellus, but doubted his personal capacity to rule and feared for his safety should Caligula come to power. Suetonius claims that Tiberius, ever mistrustful but still shrewd in his mid-70s, saw through Caligula's apparent self-possession to an underlying "erratic and unreliable" temperament, not one to be trusted in government; and he claims that Caligula took pleasure in cruelty, torture, and sexual vice of every kind. Tiberius is said to have indulged the young man's appetite for theatre, dance and singing, in the hope that this would help soften his otherwise savage nature; "he used to say now and then that to allow Gaius to live would prove the ruin of himself and of all men, and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world." Winterling points out that this judgment draws on later, not particularly accurate accounts of Caligula's rule; Suetonius credits Tiberius with a knowledge of human nature which in reality was not only foreign to him, but famously unsound. At Capri, Caligula learned to dissimulate. He probably owed his life to that and, as all the ancient sources agree, to Macro. Many believed, or claimed to believe, that given a little more time, Tiberius would have eliminated Caligula as a possible successor, but died before this could be done. == Emperor == === Early reign === Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, a day before the Liberalia festival. He was 77 years old. Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio repeat variously elaborated rumours which held that Caligula, perhaps with Macro, was directly responsible for his death. Philo and Josephus, the latter a Romano-Jewish writer who served Vespasian a generation later, describe Tiberius' death as natural. On the same day, Caligula was hailed as emperor by members of the Praetorian guard at Misenum. His leadership of the domus Caesaris ("Caesar's household") as its sole heir and pater familias was ratified by the senate, who acclaimed him imperator two days after the death of Tiberius. Caligula entered Rome on 28 or 29 March, and with the consensus of "the three orders" (senate, equestrians and common citizens) the Senate conferred on him the "right and power to decide on all affairs". ====Princeps==== In a single day, and with a single piece of legislation, the 25-year-old Caligula, previously a virtual unknown in Rome's political life, and with no military service, was thus granted the same trappings, authority and powers that Augustus had accumulated piecemeal, over a lifetime and sometimes reluctantly. Until his first formal meeting with the Senate, Caligula refrained from using the titles they had granted him. His studied deference must have gone some way to reassure the more astute that he should prove amenable to their guidance. Some must have resented the political manipulations that led to this extraordinary settlement. Caligula was now entitled to make, break or ignore any laws he chose. Augustus had shown, and Tiberius had failed to realise, that the roles of primus inter pares ("first among equals") and princeps legibus solutus ("a princeps not bound by the laws") required the exercise of personal responsibility, self-restraint, and above all, tact; as if the Senate still held the power they had voluntarily surrendered. In the words of scholar Anthony A. Barrett, "Caligula would be restrained only by his own sense of discretion, which became in lamentably short supply as his reign progressed". Caligula dutifully asked the Senate to approve divine honours for his predecessor but was turned down, in line with senatorial and popular opinion regarding the dead emperor's worth. Caligula did not push the issue; he had made the necessary gesture of filial respect. Tiberius' will named two heirs, Caligula and Gemellus, but the latter was still a minor, and could not hold any kind of office. The will was annulled with the standard justification that Tiberius must have been insane when he composed it, incapable of good judgment. Although Tiberius' will had been legally set aside, Caligula honoured many of its terms, and in some cases, improved on them. Tiberius had provided each praetorian guardsman with a generous gratitude payment of 500 sesterces. Caligula doubled this, and took credit for its payment as an act of personal generosity; he also paid bonuses to the city troops and the army outside Italy. Every citizen in Rome was given 150 sesterces, and heads of households twice that amount. Building projects on the Palatine hill and elsewhere were also announced, which would have been the largest of these expenditures. Thanks to Macro's preparations on his behalf, Caligula's accession was a "brilliantly stage-managed affair". The legions had already sworn loyalty to Caligula as their imperator. Now Caligula gave the miserly Tiberius a magnificent funeral at public expense, and a tearful eulogy, and met with an ecstatic popular reception along the funeral route and in Rome itself. Among Caligula's first acts as emperor was the provision of public games on a grand scale. Philo describes Caligula in these early days as universally admired. Suetonius writes that Caligula was loved by many, for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Three months of public rejoicing ushered in the new reign. Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as a "Golden Age" of happiness and prosperity. Josephus claims that in the first two years of his reign, Caligula's "high-minded... even-handed" rule earned him goodwill throughout the Empire. Caligula took up his first consulship on 1 July, two months after his succession. He accepted all titles and honours offered him except pater patriae ("father of the fatherland"), which had been conferred on Augustus. Caligula refused it, protesting his youth, until 21 September 37. He commemorated his own father, Germanicus, with portraits on coinage, adopted his name, and renamed the month of September after him. He granted his sisters and his grandmother Antonia Minor extraordinary privileges, normally reserved for the Vestals, and female priesthoods of the deified Augustus; their powers were entirely ceremonial, not executive, but their names were included in the standard formulas used in the senate house to invoke divine blessings on debates and proceedings, and the annual prayers for the safety of emperor and state. Caligula named his favourite sister, Drusilla, as heir to his imperium. Oaths were sworn in the name of Caligula, and his entire family. One of his sesterces not only identifies each sister by name, but associates her with a particular imperial virtue; "security", "concord" or "fortune". Caligula ordered that an image of his deceased mother, Agrippina, must accompany all festival processions. He made his uncle Claudius his consular colleague, tasked with siting statues of Caligula's two dead brothers, and occasionally standing in for Caligula at games, feasts and ceremonies. Claudius' own family found his limp and stammer "something of a public embarrassment"; he mismanaged the statue commission and his first consulship ended soon after, alongside Caligula's but his appointment elevated him from mere equestrian to senator, and eligible for consulship. Barrett and Yardley describe Claudius' consulship as an "astonishingly enlightened gesture" on Caligula's part, not one of Caligula's attempts to court popularity, as Suetonius would have it. Caligula made a public show of burning Tiberius' secret papers, which gave details of his infamous treason trials. They included accusations of villainy and betrayal against various senators, many of whom had willingly assisted in prosecutions of their own number to gain financial advantage, imperial favour, or to divert suspicion away from themselves; any expression of dissatisfaction with the emperor's rule or decisions could be taken as undermining the State, and lead to prosecution for maiestas (treason). Caligula claimed – falsely, as it later turned out – that he had read none of these documents before burning them. He used a coin issue to advertise his claim that he had restored the security of the laws, which had suffered during Tiberius' prolonged absence from Rome; he reduced a backlog of court cases in Rome by adding more jurors and suspending the requirement that sentences be confirmed by imperial office. Stressing his descent from Augustus, Caligula retrieved the remains of his mother and brothers from their places of exile for interment in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Caligula began work on a temple to Livia, widow of Augustus; she held the honorific title of Augusta while still living, and when she died was eventually made a diva (goddess) of the Roman state under Claudius. The temple had been vowed in her lifetime, but not constructed. ==== Illness and recovery ==== Between approximately mid-October and mid-November 37, Caligula fell seriously ill through unknown causes and hovered for a month or so between life and death. Rome's public places filled with citizens who implored the gods for his recovery, some even offering their own lives in exchange. By late October, their emperor had recovered, and embarked on what might have been a purge of suspected opponents or conspirators. Caligula's relations with his senate had been congenial but were now sullied by the forced suicide, for reasons unknown, of the eminent senator Silanus, formerly Caligula's father-in-law. Gemellus, Caligula's adopted son and heir, now 18 years old and legally adult, was also disposed of. Suetonius offers several versions of Gemellus' death. In one, Gemellus was given the adult toga virilis then charged with having taken an antidote, "implicitly accusing Caligula of wanting to poison him", and forced to kill himself. Several months later, in early 38, Caligula forced suicide on his Praetorian Prefect, Macro, without whose help and protection he would not have survived, let alone gained the throne as sole ruler. Any link between the deaths is speculative, but it is possible that Silanus had conspired to make Gemellus emperor, should Caligula fail to recover; and Caligula might simply have tired of Macro's control and influence. In 38, Caligula nominated Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as his heir, and married him to his beloved sister Drusilla, but on 19 June that year, Drusilla died. She was deified and renamed Panthea ("All Goddesses"); the first mortal woman in Roman history to be made a diva (goddess of state). Caligula, bereft, declared a period of compulsory, universal mourning. Drusilla's death is one of several events approximate to the time of Caligula's illness, besides the death of Antonia and any unreported effects of the illness itself, thought by some to contribute to a fundamental change in Caligula's attitudes. Purges so early in Caligula's reign suggest to Weidemann that "the new emperor had learnt a great deal from Tiberius" and "that attempts to divide his reign into a 'good' beginning followed by unremitting atrocities [...] are misplaced". ===Public profile=== Caligula shared many of the popular passions and enthusiasms of the lower classes and young aristocrats: public spectacles, particularly gladiator contests, chariot and horse racing, the theatre and gambling, but all on a scale which the nobility could not match. He trained with professional gladiators and staged exceptionally lavish gladiator games, being granted exemption by the senate from the sumptuary laws that limited the number of gladiators to be kept in Rome. He was openly and vocally partisan in his uninhibited support or disapproval of particular charioteers, racing teams, gladiators and actors, shouting encouragement or scorn, sometimes singing along with paid performers or declaiming the actors' lines, and generally behaving as "one of the crowd". In gladiator contests, he supported the parmularius type, who fought using small, round shields. In chariot races, he supported the Greens, and personally drove his favourite racehorse, Incitatus ("Speedy") as a member of the Green faction. Most of Rome's aristocracy would have found this an unprecedented, unacceptable indignity for any of their number, let alone their emperor. Caligula showed little respect for distinctions of rank, status or privilege among the senate, whose members Tiberius had once described as "men ready to be slaves". Among those whom Caligula recalled from exile were actors and other public performers who had somehow caused Tiberius offence. Caligula seems to have built a loyal following among his own loyal freedmen, citizen-commoners, disreputable public performers on whom he lavished money and other gifts; and the lower nobility (equestrians) rather than the senators and nobles whom he clearly and openly mistrusted, despised and humiliated for their insincere simulations of loyalty. Dio notes, with approval, that Caligula allowed some equestrians senatorial honours, anticipating their later promotion to senator based on their personal merits. To reverse declining membership of the equestrian order, Caligula recruited new, wealthy members empire-wide, and scrupulously vetted the order's membership lists for signs of dishonesty or scandal. He seems to have ignored trivial misdemeanours, and would have anticipated the creation of "new men" (novi homines), first of their families to serve as senators. They would owe him a debt of gratitude and loyalty for their advancement. Barrett describes some of the supposed equestrian offences punished by Caligula as "decidedly trivial", and their punishments as sensationalist. Dio claims that Caligula had more than 26 equestrians executed in a circus "fracas"; in Suetonius' biography "more than 20" lives were lost in what is almost certainly the same event, described as a violent but accidental crush. Some sources claim that Caligula forced equestrians and senators to fight in the arena as gladiators. Condemnation to the gladiator arena as a combatant was a standard punishment, doubling as public entertainment, for non-citizens found guilty of certain offences. Laws of AD 19 by Augustus and Tiberius banned voluntary participation of the elite in any public spectacles, but the ban was never particularly effective, and was broadly ignored in Caligula's reign. During Caligula's illness two citizens, one of whom was an equestrian, offered to fight as gladiators if only the gods would spare the emperor's life. The offers were insincere, intended to flatter and invite reward. When Caligula recovered, he insisted that they be taken at face value, to avoid accusations of perjury: "cynical, but not without wit of a kind". === Public reform and finance === In 38, Caligula lifted censorship, and published accounts of public funds and expenditure. Suetonius congratulates this as the first such act by any emperor. Very soon after his succession, he restored the right of the popular assembly (comitia) to elect magistrates on behalf of the common citizenry, a right that had been taken over by the Senate under Tiberius and Augustus. The aediles, elected officials who managed public games and festivals, and maintained the fabric of roads and shrines, would now have incentive to spend their own money on lavish, high-profile spectacles and other munera (gifts to the state or people), to win the popular vote. Dio writes that this, "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many... many disasters would result". When the Senate outright refused to accept this, Caligula restored control of elections to them. Either way, the emperor ultimately chose which candidates stood for election, and which were elected. Caligula was quite capable of recognising his own plans and decisions as flawed, and abandoning, revising or reversing them when faced with opposition. He was open to good advice, but could just as easily take its offering as an insult to his youth or understanding – Philo quotes his warning "Who dares teach me?" Caligula abandoned his plan to convert the Temple of Jerusalem to a temple of the Imperial cult, with a statue of himself as Zeus, when warned that the plan would arouse extreme protests, and injure the local economy. He gave funds where they were needed; he helped those who lost property in fires, and abolished a deeply unpopular tax on sales, but whether his extravagant gifts to favourites during his earliest reign – be they actors, charioteers or other public performers – drew on his personal wealth or state coffers is not known. Personal generosity and magnanimity, coupled with discretion and responsibility, were expected of the ruling elite, and the emperor in particular. At some time, Caligula ruled that bequests to office-holders remain property of the office, not of the office-holder. ==== Tax and treasury ==== Suetonius claims that Caligula squandered 2.7 billion sesterces in his first year and addressed the consequent treasury deficit by confiscating the estates of wealthy individuals, after false accusations, fines or outright seizure, even the death penalty, as a means of raising money. This seems to have started in earnest around the time of Caligula's confrontation with the senate (in early 39). Suetonius's retrospective balance sheet overlooks what would have been owed to Caligula, personally and in his capacity as emperor, on Tiberius' death, and the release of the former emperor's hoarded wealth into the economy at large. Caligula's inheritance included the deceased empress Livia's vast bequest, which Caligula distributed among its nominated public, private and religious beneficiaries. Barrett in Caligula: The Abuse of Power asserts that this "massive cash injection would have given the Roman economy a tremendous boost". Dio remarks the beginnings of a financial crisis in 39, and connects it to the cost of Caligula's extravagant bridge-building project at Baiae. Suetonius has presumably the same financial crisis starting in 38; he does not mention a bridge but lists a broad range of Caligula's extravagances, said to have exhausted the state treasury. To Wilkinson, Caligula's uninterrupted use of precious metals in coin issues does not suggest a bankrupt treasury, though there must have been a blurring of boundaries between Caligula's personal wealth, and his income as head of state. Caligula's immediate successor, Claudius, abolished taxes, embarked on various costly building projects and donated 15,000 sesterces to each Praetorian Guard in 41 as his own reign began, which suggests that Caligula had left him a solvent treasury. In the long term, the occasional windfall aside, Caligula's spending exceeded his income. Fund-raising through taxation became a major preoccupation. Provincial citizens were liable for direct payment of taxes used to fund the military, a payment from which Italians were exempt. Caligula abolished some taxes, including the deeply unpopular sales tax, but he introduced an unprecedented range of new ones, and rather than employ professional tax farmers (publicani) in their collection, he made this a duty of the notoriously forceful Praetorian Guard. Dio and Suetonius describe these taxes as "shameful": some were remarkably petty. Caligula taxed "taverns, artisans, slaves and the hiring of slaves", edibles sold in the city, litigation anywhere in the Empire, weddings or marriages, the wages of porters "or perhaps couriers", and most infamously, a tax on prostitutes (active, retired or married) or their pimps, liable for "a sum equivalent to a single transaction". Citizens of provincial Italy lost their previous tax exemptions. Most individual tax bills were fairly small but cumulative; over Caligula's brief reign, taxes were doubled overall. Even then, the revenue was nowhere near enough, and the imposition was deeply resented by Rome's commoners. Josephus claims that this led to riotous protests at the Circus. Barrett remarks that stories of consequent "mass executions" there by the military should "almost certainly" be dismissed as "standard exaggeration". Property or money left to Tiberius as emperor but not collected on his death would have passed to Caligula as office-holder. Roman inheritance law recognised a legator's obligation to provide for his family; Caligula seems to have considered his fatherly duties to the state entitled him to a share of every will from pious subjects. The army was not exempt; centurions who left nothing or too little to the emperor could be judged guilty of ingratitude, and have their wills set aside. Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over their spoils to the state. Stories of a brothel in the Imperial palace, staffed by Roman aristocrats, matrons and their children, are taken literally by Suetonius and Dio; McGinn believes they could be based on a single incident, extended to an institution in the telling. Similar allegations would be made in the future against Commodus and Elagabalus. Winterling, citing Dio 59.28.9, traces the outline of the story to Cassius Dio's account for AD 40, and his allegation that the noble tenants of newly built suites of rooms at the palace were compelled to pay exorbitant rents for the privilege of living so close to Caligula, and under the protection of the praetorians. No brothel is mentioned in this account. Suetonius appears to reverse the traditional aristocratic client-patron ceremonies of mutual obligation, and have Caligula accepting payments for maintenance from his loyal consular "friends" at morning salutations, evening banquets, and bequest announcements. The sheer numbers of "friends" involved meant that meticulous records were kept of who had paid, how much, and who still owed. His agents would then visit the very same consuls who had been involved in conspiracies against him, rail against the Senate's treachery en masse but ask for "gifts" from individuals to express their loyal friendship in return. A refusal was unthinkable. Winterling describes the families who occupied these rooms as hostage, under the supervision of the Praetorians; some paid up willingly, some reluctantly, but all paid. Caligula made loans available at high interest to those who lacked the necessary funds, to complete the humiliation of Rome's elite, especially the old Republican families. Despite his biographers' attempts to ridicule Caligula's taxes, many were continued after his death. The military remained responsible for all tax collection, and the tax on prostitution continued up to the reign of Severus Alexander. Caligula's ruling that bequests made to any reigning emperor became property of his office, not himself as a private individual, was made constitutional under Antoninus Pius. ==== Coinage ==== Caligula did not change the structure of the monetary system established by Augustus and continued by Tiberius, but the contents of his coinage differed from theirs. The location of the imperial mint for the coins of precious metals (gold and silver) is a matter of debate among ancient numismatists. It seems that Caligula initially produced his precious coins from Lugdunum (now Lyon, France), like his predecessors, then moved the mint to Rome in 37–38, although it is possible that this move occurred later, under Nero. His base metal coinage was struck in Rome. Unlike Tiberius, whose coins remained almost unchanged throughout his reign, Caligula used a variety of types, mostly featuring Divus Augustus, as well as his parents Germanicus and Agrippina, his dead brothers Nero and Drusus, and his three sisters Agrippina, Drusilla, and Livilla. The reason for the extensive emphasis on his relatives was to highlight Caligula's double claim to the Principate, from both the Julian and Claudian sides of the dynasty, and to call for the unity of the family. The sesterce with his three sisters was discontinued after 39, due to Caligula's suspicion regarding their loyalty. He also made a sesterce celebrating the Praetorian cohorts as a mean to give them the bequest of Tiberius at the beginning of his reign. Caligula minted a quadrans, a small bronze coin, to mark the abolition of the ducentesima, a 0.5% tax on sales. The output of the precious metal mints was small and his sesterces were mostly made in limited quantities, which make his coins now very rare. This rarity cannot be attributed to Caligula's alleged damnatio memoriae reported by Dio, as removing his coins from circulation would have been impossible; besides, Mark Antony's coins continued to circulate for two centuries after his death. Caligula's common coins are base metal types with Vesta, Germanicus, and Agrippina the Elder, and the most common is an as with his grandfather Agrippa. Finally, Caligula kept open the mint at Caesarea in Cappadocia, which had been created by Tiberius, in order to pay military expenses in the province with silver drachmae. Numismatists Harold Mattingly and Edward Sydenham consider that the artistic style of Caligula's coins is below those of Tiberius and Claudius; they especially criticize the portraits, which are too hard and lack details. === Construction === Caligula had a fondness for grandiose, costly building projects, many of which were intended to benefit or entertain the general population but are described in Roman sources as wasteful. In the city of Rome, he completed the temple of Augustus and the reconstruction of the theatre of Pompey. He is said to have built a bridge between the temple of Castor and Pollux and the Capitol. Barrett (2015) believes that this bridge existed only in Suetonius' account, and should perhaps be dismissed as a fantasy, with possible origins in some jocular remark by Caligula. Caligula began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta Julia; he cleared the latter space for use as an arena, and filled it with water for a single naumachia (a sham naval battle fought as entertainment). He supervised the extension and rebuilding of the imperial palace to include a gallery for his art collection. Philo and his party were given a tour of the gallery during their diplomatic visit. Barrett (2015) considers Philo's description of Caligula as a "would-be connoisseur and aesthete" as "probably not very wide of the mark." To help meet Rome's burgeoning demand for fresh water, he began the construction of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered to be engineering marvels. He built a large racetrack, now known as the Circus of Gaius and Nero. In its central spine he incorporated an Egyptian obelisk, now known as the Vatican obelisk, which he had brought by sea on a gigantic, purpose-built ship, which used 120,000 modi of lentils as ballast. At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and temples. He pushed to keep roads in good condition throughout the empire, and extended the existing network: to this end, Caligula investigated the financial affairs of current and past highway commissioners. Those guilty of negligence, embezzlement or misuse of funds were forced to repay what they had dishonestly used for other purposes, or fulfil their commissions at their own expense. Caligula planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus, and house his own cult and image there: and to found a city high up in the Alps. He intended to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the site. None of these plans came to fruition. === Treason trials === In the course of 39, Caligula's increasingly tense relationship with his Senate deteriorated into outright hostility and confrontation. This is one of Dio's more confusing accounts, involving conspiracies, denunciations and trials for treason (maiestas), following Caligula's launch of invective at the entire senate, reviewing and condemning their current and past behaviour. He accused them of servility, treachery and hypocrisy in voting honours to Tiberius and Sejanus while they lived, and rescinding those honours once their recipients were safely dead. He declared that it would be folly to seek the love or approval of such men: they hated him, and wanted him dead, so it would be better that they should fear him. Caligula's diatribes exposed the idealised princeps or First Senator as illusion and imposture. When the senate returned next day, they seemed to confirm his suspicions, and voted him a special guard of armed pretorians to protect him and guard his statues. Apparently seeking to please him and assure his safety, the Senate proposed that his senatorial chair be raised "on a high platform even in the very Senate house". They offered a thanksgiving to Caligula, as to a monarch, expressing gratitude for allowing them to live when others had died. Winterling suggests that Caligula's three subsequent consulships, sworn at the Rostra, were vain attempts to make amends, public statements of respect for the senators as his equals. Barrett perceives these later consulships as symbolic of Caligula's continued intention to dominate the senate and the state; Barrett describes the change in Caligula's rule as a gradual unravelling, a "descent into serious mismanagement and impenetrable mistrust" – and, latterly, into "arbitrary terror"; but Dio's claim that in fact, "there was nothing but slaughter" is undermined by evidence that most senators managed to survive Caligula's reign with their persons and fortunes intact. Caligula had not, after all, destroyed Tiberius' records of treason trials. He reviewed them and decided that numerous senators discharged from Tiberius' court hearings seemed to have been guilty of conspiracy all along, against emperor and state – the worst form of maiestas (treason). Tiberius' treason trials had encouraged professional delatores (informers), who were loathed by the populace, but many of the accused had testified against each other, and against Caligula's own family, even to the point of initiating the prosecutions themselves. If they had acted against Caligula's family, they might act against Caligula himself. New investigations were launched; Dio names five once-trusted, consular senators tried for maiestas, but his allegation that senators or others were put to death in "great numbers" is unsupported. Two of the five prospered under his rule, and beyond. Caligula preferred to publicly humiliate his enemies in the senate, especially those of ancient families, by stripping them of their inherited honours, dignities and titles. In early September, he dismissed the two suffect consuls, citing their inadequate, low-key celebration of his birthday (August 31) and excessive attention to the anniversary of Actium (September 2). This was the last battle in a damaging civil war between two of Caligula's close ancestors, which he found no cause for celebration. One of the dismissed consuls killed himself: Caligula may have suspected him of conspiracy. ==== Incitatus ==== Suetonius and Dio outline Caligula's supposed proposal to promote his favourite racehorse, Incitatus ("Swift"), to consul, and later, a priest of his own cult. This could have been an extended joke, created by Caligula himself in mockery of the senate. A persistent, popular belief that Caligula actually promoted his horse to consul has become "a byword for the promotion of incompetents", especially in political life. It may have been one of Caligula's many oblique, malicious or darkly humorous insults, mostly directed at the senatorial class, but also against himself and his family. Winterling sees it as an insult to the consulars themselves. An aristocrat's highest ambition, the consulship, could be laid open to ruinous competition and at the same time, to ridicule. David Woods believes it unlikely that Caligula meant to insult the post of consul, as he had held it himself. Suetonius, possibly failing to get the joke, presents it as further proof of Caligula's insanity, adding circumstantial details more usually expected of the senatorial nobility, including palaces, servants and golden goblets, and invitations to banquets. ==== Bridge at Baiae ==== In 39 or 40, by Suetonius' reckoning, Caligula ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using a double line of ships as pontoons, earth-paved and stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae, near Naples, to the neighbouring port of Puteoli, with resting places between. Some ships were built on site but grain ships were also requisitioned, brought to site, secured and temporarily resurfaced. Any practical purpose for the bridge is unclear; Winterling believes that it might have been intended to mark Caligula's attempted invasion of Britain. A two-day ceremonial was performed, with offerings to the sea-god Neptune and Invidia (Envy), and a satisfactory result, in that the sea remained completely calm. The bridge was said to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge across the Hellespont. For the opening ceremony, Caligula donned the supposed breastplate of Alexander the Great, and rode his favourite horse, Incitatus, across the bridge, perhaps defying a prediction, attributed by Suetonius to Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes, that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". On the second day, he rode the bridge from end to end several times "at full tilt", accompanied by the soldiery, famous nobles and hostages. Seneca and Dio claim that grain imports were dangerously depleted by Caligula's re-purposing of Rome's grain ships as pontoons. Barrett finds these accusations absurd; if the bridge was finished in 39, that was far too early to have had any effect on the annual grain supply, and "a genuine grain crisis was simply blamed on the most outlandish episode at hand." Dio places this episode soon after Caligula's furious denunciation of the Senate; Barrett speculates that Caligula may have intended the whole event as an object lesson on how completely he was in charge: it may also provide "the most striking example of his wasteful extravagance"; its pointlessness might have been the whole point. ===Provinces=== ==== Judaea and Egypt ==== Caligula's reign saw an increase of tensions between Jews native to their homeland of Judea, Jews of the diaspora, and ethnic Greeks. Greeks and Jews had settled throughout the Roman Empire and Judaea was ruled as a Roman client kingdom. Jews and Greeks had settled in Egypt following its conquest by Macedonian Greeks, and remained there after its conquest by Rome. While the Alexandrian Greeks held citizen status, Alexandrian Jews were classified as mere settlers, with no statutory or citizen rights other than those granted them by their Roman governors. The Greeks feared that official recognition of Jews as citizens would undermine their own status and privilege. Caligula had replaced the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus, with Herod Agrippa, who was governor of Batanaea and Trachonitis, and was a personal friend. Flaccus had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus. According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers and mockery from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as a gimcrack "king of the Jews.” In Philo's account, a mob of Greeks broke into synagogues to erect statues and shrines of Caligula, against Jewish religious law. Flaccus responded by declaring the Jews "foreigners and aliens", and expelled them from all but one of Alexandria's five districts, where they lived under dreadful conditions. Philo gives an account of various atrocities inflicted on Alexandria's Jews within and around this ghetto by the city's Greek population. Caligula held Flaccus responsible for the disturbances, exiled him, and eventually executed him. In 39, Agrippa accused his uncle Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed, Caligula exiled him, and Agrippa was rewarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks, when Jews who refused to venerate the emperor as a god were accused of dishonouring him. In the Judaean city of Jamnia, resident Greeks built a shoddy, sub-standard altar to the Imperial cult, intending to provoke a reaction from the Jews; they immediately tore it down. This was interpreted as an act of rebellion. In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem, a political, rather than a religious act for Rome, but a blasphemy for the Jews, and in conflict with Jewish monotheism. In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his". In May of 40, Philo accompanied a deputation of Alexandrian Jews and Greeks to Caligula, and a second deputation after 31 August that year, during the worst of the Alexandrian riots. Neither of these encounters proved decisive. Both gave Caligula ample opportunity for casual, friendly banter, which seems to have included humiliating levity, always at the Jewish delegation's expense; but he made no claims of divinity, either in his dress nor his speech, merely asking at the second encounter, more or less rhetorically, why Jews found his veneration so difficult. Philo and Josephus each saw Caligula's behaviour as driven by his claims to divinity, which for a Jew would have virtually defined him as fundamentally insane, despite appearances otherwise. The ethnically Greek population of Alexandria had already made their loyalty to the new emperor clear, with displays of his image as focus for his cult. The destruction of the altar at Jamlia and, presumably, removal of "idolatrous" images placed in synagogues by Greek citizens, might have been intended as an expression of Jewish religious fervour, rather than a response aimed at one tyrant's offensive claims of personal godhood. Philo seems to have loathed Caligula from the start, but his belief that Caligula hated the Jews and was preparing their destruction has no basis in evidence. To place Caligula's statue in Temple precincts, showing him dressed as Jupiter, would have been consistent with the Empire-wide religious phenomenon known as Imperial cult, from whose full expression Jews had so far been exempted; they could offer prayer for the emperor, rather than to him; far from a perfect compromise but the highest honour that Jewish tradition permitted in honour of a mortal. Caligula found this most unsatisfactory, and demanded that his statue be installed in the Temple of Jerusalem forthwith. The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, ordered a statue from Sidon, then postponed its installation for as long he could, rather than risk a serious Jewish rebellion. In some versions, Caligula proved amenable to rational discussion with Agrippa and Jewish authorities, and faced with threats of rebellion, destruction of property and loss of the grain-harvest if the plan went ahead, abandoned the project. In more hostile versions Caligula, being demonstrably insane, and incapable of rational discussion, impulsively changed his mind once again, and reissued the order to Petronius along with the threat of enforced suicide if he failed. An even larger statue of Caligula-Zeus was ordered from Rome; the ship carrying it was still under way when news of Caligula's death reached Petronius. Caligula's plan was abandoned, Petronius survived and the statue was never installed. Philo reports a rumour that in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to move to Alexandria, and rule the Empire from there as a divine monarch, a Roman pharaoh. Very similar rumours attended Julius Caesar's last days, up to his assassination and very much to his discredit. Caligula's ancestor Mark Antony took refuge in Egypt with Cleopatra, and Augustus had made it a so-called "Imperial province", under his direct control. It was the main source of Italy's grain supply, and was administered by members of the equestrian order, directly responsible to the ruling emperor. Egypt was, more or less, Caligula's property, to dispose of as he wished. Roman knowledge of pharaonic brother-sister marriages to maintain the royal bloodline would have shored up the many flimsy, scandalised allegations of adolescent incest between Caligula and Drusilla, supposedly discovered by Antonia but reported as rumour, and only by Suetonius. Barrett finds no further evidence for these allegations, and advises a skeptical attitude. ==== Germany and the Rhine frontier ==== In late 39 or early 40, Caligula ordered the concentration of military forces and supplies in upper Germany, and made his way there with a baggage train that supposedly included actors, gladiators, women, and a detachment of Praetorians. He might have meant to follow the paths of his father and grandfather, and attack the Germanic tribes along the upper Rhine; but according to ancient historians he was ill-prepared, and retreated in a panic. Modern historians, however, suppose that he had a valid political reason for his Germanic operation, and might even have been successful with that. But the exact locations and enemies of his campaign cannot be determined; possibilities include the Chatti in and around modern-day Hesse or the Suebi east of the Upper Rhine. The ancient sources report that Caligula used the opportunity of his operations in Germany to seize the wealth of rich allies whom he conveniently suspected of treason, "putting some to death on the grounds that they were 'plotting' or 'rebelling'". Caligula accused the Imperial legate, Gaetulicus, of "nefarious plots", and had him executed – according to Dio, he was killed for being popular with his troops. Lepidus, along with Caligula's two sisters, Agrippina and Livilla, was accused of being part of this conspiracy; he too was executed and Caligula's two sisters were exiled after being condemned pro forma for adultery. A senatorial embassy arrived from Rome, headed by Caligula's uncle Claudius, to congratulate the emperor for suppressing this latest conspiracy. It met with a hostile reception, in which Claudius was supposedly ducked in the Rhine (though this might have been the loser's award in a contest of Latin and Greek oratory held by Caligula in Gaul that winter). On Caligula's return from the north, he abandoned the theatre seating plans that Augustus had introduced so that rank alone would determine one's place. In the consequent free-for-all, seating was left to chance; doubtless to Caligula's pleasure, fights broke out as senators competed with common citizens for the best seats. Very late in his reign, possibly in its last few days, Caligula sent a communique in preparation for his imminent ovation in Rome, following his military activities in the North and his suppression of Lepidus. He announced that he would only be returning "to those who wanted him back"; to the "Equestrians and the People"; he did not mention the Senate or senators, of whom he had grown increasingly mistrustful. ====Auctions==== In late 39, Caligula wintered at Lugdunum (modern Lyon) in Gaul, where he auctioned off his sisters' portable property, including their jewellery, slaves and freedmen. Dio claims that wealthy bidders at these auctions were willing to offer far more than items were worth; some to show their loyalty, and others to rid themselves of some of the wealth that could render their execution worthwhile. Caligula is said to have used intimidation and various auctioneer's tricks and tactics to boost prices. In an event that Suetonius describes as "well known", a Praetorian gentleman, nodding off to sleep after a gladiator match, woke to find that he had bought 13 gladiators for the vastly over-inflated sum of 9 million sesterces. Caligula's first Lugdunum auction proved such a successful fundraiser that he had many of the furnishings of his palace in Rome carted to Lugdunum and auctioned off; they included many precious family heirlooms. Caligula recited their provenance during the auction, in an attempt to help ensure a fair return on objects intrinsically valuable, and seemingly much sought after by the wealthy for their Imperial associations. Income from this second auction was relatively moderate. Kleijwegt (1996) describes Caligula's performance as vendor and auctioneer at this second auction as "completely out of character with the image of a tyrant". Auctions of Imperial property were acceptable ways to "balance the books", practiced by Augustus and later, by Trajan; they were expected to benefit the bidders as well as the vendor; Roman auctioneers were held in very low esteem, but Kleijwegt claims that Caligula seems to have behaved more like a benevolent princeps in this second auction, without malice, greed or intimidation. ==== Britannia ==== In the spring of 40, Caligula tried to extend Roman rule into Britannia. Two legions had been raised for this purpose, both likely named Primigeniae in honour of Caligula's newborn daughter. Ancient sources depict Caligula as being too cowardly to have attacked or as mad, but stories of his threatening a decimation of his troops indicate mutinies. Broadly, "it is impossible to judge why the army never embarked" on the invasion. Beyond mutinies, it may have simply been that British chieftains acceded to Rome's demands, removing any justification for war. Alternatively, it could have been merely a training and scouting mission or a short expedition to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius. Suetonius reports that Caligula ordered his men to collect seashells as "spoils of the sea"; this may also be a mistranslation of , meaning siege engines. The conquest of Britannia was later achieved during the reign of Caligula's successor, Claudius. ==== Mauretania ==== In 40, Caligula annexed Mauretania, a wealthy, strategically significant client kingdom of Rome, inhabited by fiercely independent semi-nomads who resisted Romanisation. Its ruler, Ptolemy of Mauretania, was a noble descendant of Juba II, popular, extremely wealthy and with a reputation as "feckless and incompetent". Ptolemy failed to deal effectively with an uprising and was removed. The usual fate of incompetent client kings was retirement and a comfortable exile, but Caligula ordered Ptolemy to Rome and had him executed, some time after the spring of 40. His removal proved unpopular enough in Mauretania to provoke an uprising. Rome divided Mauretania into two provinces, Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, separated by the river Malua. Pliny claims that division was the work of Caligula, but Dio states that the uprising was subdued in 42 (after Caligula's death), by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, and the division only took place after this. This confusion might mean that Caligula decided to divide the province, but postponed the division because of the rebellion. The first known equestrian governor of the joint provinces was Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus, in office in 44. Details on the Mauretanian events of 39–44 are lost, including an entire chapter by Dio on the annexation. Dio and Tacitus suggest that Caligula may have been motivated by fear, envy, and consideration of his own ignominious military performance in the north, rather than pressing military or economic needs. The rebellion of Tacfarinas had shown how exposed Africa Proconsularis was to its west and how the Mauretanian client kings were unable to provide protection to the province, and it is thus possible that Caligula's expansion was a prudent and ultimately successful response to potential future threats. === Religion === According to Barrett, "[o]f all the manifestations of wild and extravagant behaviour exhibited by Caligula during his brief reign, nothing has better served to confirm the popular notion of his insanity than his apparent demand to be recognised as a god." Philo, Caligula's contemporary, claims that Caligula costumed himself as various heroes and deities, starting with demigods such as Dionysos, Herakles and the Dioscuri, and working up to major deities such as Mercury, Venus and Apollo. Philo describes these impersonations in a context of private pantomime or theatrical performances he may have witnessed or heard of during his diplomatic visit, as evidence that Caligula wanted to be venerated as a living god. Philo, as a Jew and a monotheist, took this as proof of the emperor's insanity. Caligula's impersonations had a precedent; Augustus had once thrown a party in which he and his guests dressed up as the Olympian gods; Augustus was made up and dressed as Apollo. No-one was thought insane in consequence, and none claimed to be the god they impersonated; but the event was not repeated. It showed near-blasphemous disrespect to the gods in question, and insensitivity to the population at large – the feast was staged during a famine. Coin issues of the official Roman mint, dated to the early 20s BC, show Octavian as Apollo, Jupiter and Neptune. This too may have been thought a transgression, and was not repeated. Caligula took his own impersonations less seriously than some, certainly less seriously than Philo did. According to Dio, when a Gallic shoemaker laughed to see Caligula dressed as Jupiter, pronouncing oracles at the crowd from a lofty place, Caligula asked "and who do you think I am?" The shoemaker answered "a complete idiot". Caligula seems to have appreciated his straightforward honesty. Dio claims that Caligula impersonated Jupiter to seduce various women; that he sometimes referred to himself as a divinity in public meetings; and that he was sometimes referred to as "Jupiter" in public documents. Caligula's special interest in Jupiter as Rome's chief deity is confirmed by all surviving sources. Simpson believes that Caligula may have considered Jupiter an equal, perhaps a rival. According to Ittai Gradel, Caligula's performances as various deities prove no more than a penchant for theatrical fancy-dress and a mischievous desire to shock; as emperor, Caligula was also pontifex maximus, one of Rome's most powerful and influential state priests. The promotion of mortal rulers to godlike status, to honour their superior standing and perceived merits, was a commonplace phenomenon among Rome's eastern allies and client states; during their eastern tour, Germanicus, Agrippina and their children, including Caligula, were officially received as living deities by several cities of the Greek East. In Roman culture a client could flatter their living patron as "Jupiter on Earth", without reprimand. The divi (deceased members of the Imperial family promoted to divine status) were creations of the Senate, who voted them into official existence, appointed their priesthood and granted them cult at state expense. Cicero could protest at the implications of Caesar's divine honours while living but address Publius Lentulus as parens ac deus (parent and god) to thank him for his help, as aedile, against the conspirator Catiline. Daily reverence was offered as a matter of course to patrons, heads of household and the powerful by their clients, families and social inferiors. In 30 BC, libation-offerings to the genius of Octavian (later Augustus) became a duty at public and private banquets, and from 12 BC, state oaths were sworn by the genius of Augustus as the living emperor. Notwithstanding Dio's claims that cult to living emperors was forbidden in Rome itself, there is abundant evidence of municipal cult to Augustus in his lifetime, in Italy and elsewhere, locally organised and financed. As Gradel observes, no Roman was ever prosecuted for sacrificing to his emperor. Caligula seems to have taken his religious duties very seriously. He found a replacement for the aged priest of Diana at Lake Nemi, reorganised the Salii (priests of Mars), and pedantically insisted that as it was nefas (religiously improper) for Jupiter's leading priest, the Flamen Dialis, to swear any oath, he could not swear the imperial oath of loyalty. Caligula wished to take over or share the half-finished but splendid Temple of Apollo in Greek Didyma for his own cult. Seemingly, his statue was prepared, but possibly not installed. When Pausanias visited the still-unfinished temple a century later, its cult statue was of Apollo. Suetonius and Dio mention a temple to Caligula in the city of Rome. Most modern scholarship agrees that if such a temple existed, it was probably on the Palatine. Augustus had already linked the Temple of Castor and Pollux directly to his imperial residence on the Palatine, and established an official priesthood of lesser magistrates, the seviri Augustales, usually drawn from his own freedmen to serve the genius Augusti (his "family spirit") and Lares (the twin ancestral spirits of his household). Dio claims that Caligula stationed himself to receive veneration, dressed as Jupiter Latiaris, between the images of Castor and Pollux, the twin Dioscuri, to whom he referred – humorously – as his doorkeepers. Dio's claim that two temples were built for Caligula in Rome, is unconfirmed. Simpson believes it likely that Caligula, voted a temple on the Palatine by the Senate, funded it himself. An embassy from Greek states to Rome greeted Caligula as the "new god Augustus". In the Greek city of Cyzicus, a public inscription from the beginning of Caligula's reign gives thanks to him as a "New Sun-god". Egyptian provincial coinage and some state dupondii show Caligula enthroned; the first reigning Roman princeps to be described as the "New Sun", () with the radiate crown of the Sun-god, or of Caligula's divine antecedent, the Augustus. Caligula's image on other state coinage carries no such "trappings of divinity". Compared to the full-blown cults to major deities of state, genius cults were quite modest in scope. Augustus, once deceased, was officially worshipped as a – immortal, but somewhat less than a full-blown deity; Tiberius, his successor, forbade his own personal cult outright in Rome itself, probably in consideration of Julius Caesar's assassination following his hubristic promotion as a living divinity. Augustus, and after him, Tiberius, insisted that if temples to honour them in the provinces were proposed by the local elite, they must be shared by the "genius of the Senate", or the personification of the Roman people, or the genius of Rome itself. Dio claims that Caligula sold priesthoods for his unofficial genius cult to the wealthiest nobles, for a per capita fee of 10 million sesterces, and made loans available to those who could not afford immediate full payment. His priests supposedly included his wife, Caesonia, and his uncle Claudius, whom Dio claims was bankrupted by the cost. The circumstances mark this out as private cult and personal humiliation among the wealthy elite, not subsidised by the Roman state. Throughout his reign, Caligula seems to have remained popular with the masses, in Rome and the empire. There is no sound evidence that he caused the removal, replacement or imposition of Roman or other deities, or even that he threatened to do so, outside the hostile anecdotes of his biographers. Barrett (2015) asserts that the "emphatic and unequivocal message of the material evidence is that Caligula had no desire for the world to identify him as a god, even if, like most people, he enjoyed being treated like one." He did not demand worship as a living god; but he permitted it when it was offered; Imperial etiquette, and the examples of Augustus and Tiberius, would have him refuse divine honours but thank those who offered them, inferring their status as equal to his. He seems to have taken his own genius cult very seriously but his fatal offense was to willfully "insult or offend everyone who mattered", including the military officers who assassinated him. == Assassination and aftermath == On 24 January 41, the day before his due departure for Alexandria, Caligula was assassinated by the Praetorian tribunes Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, and a number of centurions. Josephus names many of Caligula's inner circle as conspirators, and Dio seems to have had access to a senatorial version which purported to name many others. More likely, very few conspirators would have been involved, and not all need have been directly in touch with each other. The fewer who knew, the greater the chance of success. Previous attempts had foundered or faded out when faced with the rewards and risks of betrayal by colleagues, whether through torture, fear of torture or promised reward. The Senate was a disunited body of self-interested, wealthy and mistrustful aristocrats, unwilling to risk their own prospects, and determined to present a virtuous, united front. In Josephus' account of Caligula's assassination, Chaerea was a "noble idealist", deeply committed to "Republican liberties"; he was also motivated by resentment of Caligula's routine personal insults and mockery. Suetonius and all other sources confirm that Caligula had insulted Chaerea, giving him watchwords like the ribald "Priapus" or "Venus", the latter said to refer to Chaerea's weak, high voice, and either his soft-hearted attitude when collecting taxes, or his duty to collect the tax on prostitutes. He was also known to do Caligula's "dirty work" for him, including torture. Chaerea, Sabinus and others accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men beneath the palace during a series of games and dramatics being held for the Divus Augustus. The source details vary, but all agree that Chaerea was first to stab Caligula. The narrow space available offered little room for escape or rescue, and by the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard could come to his defence, their Emperor was already dead. They killed several of Caligula's party, including some innocent senators and bystanders. The killing only stopped when the Praetorians took control. Josephus reports that the Senate tried to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. This would have meant the abolition of the office of emperor, the end of dynastic rule, and restoration of the former social stature and privilege of nobles and senators. At least one senator, Lucius Annius Vinicianus, seems to have thought it an opportunity for a takeover. Some modern scholars believe he was the conspiracy's main instigator. Most ordinary citizens were taken aback by Caligula's murder, and found no cause to celebrate in losing the benefits of his rule. Almost all the named conspirators were from the elite. When Caligula's death was confirmed, the nobles and senators who had prospered through hypocrisy and sycophancy during his reign dared to claim prior knowledge of the plot, and share the credit for its success with their peers. Others sought to distance themselves from anything to do with it. The assassins, fearing continued support for Caligula's family and allies, sought out and murdered Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and their young daughter Julia Drusilla, but were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius. In the traditional account, a soldier, Gratus, found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain. A sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard smuggled him out to their nearby camp, and nominated him as emperor. The Senate, faced with what now seemed inevitable, confirmed their choice. Caligula's "most powerful and universally feared adviser", the freedman Callistus, may have engineered this succession, having discreetly shifted his loyalty from Caligula to Claudius while Caligula lived. The killing of Caligula had been extralegal, tantamount to regicide, and those who carried it out had broken their oaths of loyalty to him. Claudius, as a prospective replacement for Caligula, could acknowledge his predecessor's failings but could not be seen to condone his murder, or find fault with the principate as an institution. Caligula had been popular with a clear majority of Rome's lesser citizenry, and the Senate could not afford to ignore the fact. Claudius appointed a new Praetorian prefect, and executed Chaerea, a tribune named Lupus, and the centurions involved. He allowed Sabinus to commit suicide. Claudius refused the Senate's requests to formally declare Caligula hostis (a public enemy), or condemn his memory (see damnatio memoriae). He also turned down a proposal to officially condemn all the Caesars and destroy their temples. Caligula's name was removed from the official lists of oaths and dedications; some inscriptions were removed or obliterated; most of his statues had the heads recut, to resemble Augustus, or Claudius, or in one case, Nero, who would suffer a similar fate. According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters. == Personal life == Caligula's childhood health may have been delicate; Augustus appointed two physicians to accompany his journey north to join his parents, in AD 14; Suetonius connects this to possible childhood bouts of epilepsy. As an adult, he was subject to fainting fits. He was a habitually light sleeper, prone to nodding off during banquets, sleeping no more than 3 hours in any one night, and subject to vivid nightmares. Barrett describes him as "nervous and highly strung". When speaking in public, he would fidget and move about, overcome by the flood of his own words and ideas; despite that, he was an eloquent speaker. He grew stronger with age, but was probably never robust or athletic, despite his practise as a charioteer. Little is known of his illness in 38, nor what it changed, if anything, but it was a serious, possibly life-threatening event. Philo blames it on Caligula's habitual over-indulgence in rich foods and wine, general intemperance and a stress-induced nervous breakdown. Philo believed that the illness removed Caligula's pretence of decency, and revealed his inner cruelty and ruthlessness, evident in the murders of his own father-in-law, Silanus, and young cousin Gemellus. The sources are somewhat contradictory on the matter of Caligula's sex life. Seneca claims that during a public banquet he humiliated senator Decimus Valerius Asiaticus, his "especial friend", with a loud first-hand account of Valerius' wife's disappointing performance in bed. Caligula is said to have had "enormous" sexual appetites, several mistresses and male lovers, but in relation to the alleged "perversions" practised at Corfu by Tiberius and, in some sources, shared by Caligula, Barrett finds him remarkably prudish in expelling the so-called spintriae from the island on his accession. Caligula's first wife was Junia Claudia, daughter of ex-consul Marcus Junius Silanus. Like most marriages in Rome's upper echelons and, perhaps, all but one of Caligula's four marriages, this was a political alliance, intended to produce a legitimate heir and further Caligula's dynasty. Junia and her baby died in child-birth, less than a year later. Soon after, Macro seems to have persuaded his own wife, Ennia Thrasylla, to take up a sexual affair with Caligula, perhaps to help him through the loss. Suetonius and Dio claim that Caligula met Livia Orestilla at her marriage to Gaius Calpurnius Piso, and abducted her so that he could marry her instead and father a legitimate heir. When she proved faithful to her former husband, Caligula banished her. The Arval Brethren's records confirm her marriage to Piso, but under ordinary Roman custom. Susan Wood dismisses Caligula's "marriage" to her as a drunken party stunt. Caligula's marriage to the "beautiful... very wealthy" and extravagant Lollia Paulina was quickly followed by divorce, on the grounds of her infertility. His fourth and last marriage, to Caesonia, seems to have been a love-match, in which he was both "uxorious and monogamous", and fathered a daughter whom he named Julia Drusilla, in commemoration of his late sister. Caligula's contemporaries could not understand his attraction to Caesonia; she had proved herself fertile in previous marriages but also had a reputation for "high living and low morals", very far from the model of an aristocratic Roman wife. Tales reported by Josephus, Suetonius and the satirist Juvenal regarding Caligula's sexual dynamism are inconsistent with rumours that Caesonia had to arouse his interest with a love potion, which turned his mind and brought on his "madness". Barrett suggests that this rumour might have had no foundation other than Caligula's quip that "he felt like torturing Caesonia to discover why he loved her so passionately. Allegations of incest between Caligula and his sisters, or just he and his favourite, Drusilla, go back no further than Suetonius, who admits that in his own time, they were hearsay. Seneca and Philo, moralising contemporaries of Caligula, do not mention these stories even after Caligula's death, when it would have been safe to do so. Caligula's devotion to his youngest sister was evident but then as now, allegations of incest fit the amoral, "mad Emperor" stereotype, promiscuous with money, sex and the lives of his subjects. Dio repeats, as fact, the rumour that Caligula also had "improper relations" with his two older sisters, Agrippina and Livilla. == Mental condition == There is no reliable evidence of Caligula's mental state at any time in his life. Had he been thought truly insane, his misdeeds would not have been thought his fault: Winterling points out that in Roman law, the insane were not legally responsible for their actions, no matter how extreme. Responsibility for their control and restraint fell on those around them. In the course of their narratives, all the primary and contemporary sources give reasons to discredit and ultimately condemn Caligula, for offences against proprieties of class, religion or his role as emperor. "Thus, his acts should be seen from other angles, and the search for 'mad Caligula' abandoned" Barrett suggests that from a very early age, with the loss of his father, then of his mother and what remained of his family, Caligula was preoccupied with his own survival. Given near limitless powers to use as he saw fit, he used them to feed his sense of self-importance, "practically devoid of any sense of moral responsibility, a man for whom the tenure of the principate was little more than an opportunity to exercise power". Caligula "clearly had a highly developed sense of the absurd, resulting in a form of humour that was often cruel, sadistic and malicious, and which made its impact essentially by cleverly scoring points over those who were in no position to respond in kind." Philo saw Caligula's illness of 37 as a form of nervous collapse, a response to the extreme stresses and strains of Imperial rule, for which Caligula was temperamentally ill-equipped. Philo, Josephus and Seneca see Caligula's apparent "insanity" as an underlying personality trait accentuated through self-indulgence and the unlimited exercise of power. Seneca acknowledges that Caligula's promotion to emperor seemed to make him more arrogant, angry and insulting. Several modern sources suggest underlying medical conditions as explanations for some aspects of his behaviour and appearance. They include mania, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, encephalitis, meningitis, and epilepsy, the so-called "falling sickness". Benediktson refines Suetonius' statement that Caligula could not swim to a diagnosis of interictal temporal lobe epilepsy, and a consequent fear of seizures that prevented his learning to swim. In Romano-Greek medical theory, severe epilepsy attacks were associated with the full moon and the moon goddess Selene, with whom Caligula was claimed to converse and enjoy sexual congress. Suetonius' descriptions of Caligula as physically repulsive are neither reliable nor likely, considering his ecstatic and enthusiastic reception as a youthful princeps by the populace. In the ancient world, a person's physique was believed to be a reliable guide to their character and behaviour. == Contemporary historiography == Most facts and circumstances of Caligula's reign are lost to history. The two most important literary sources on Caligula and his reign are Suetonius, a government official of equestrian rank, born around 70 AD; and Cassius Dio, a Bithynian senator who held consulships in AD 205 and 229. Suetonius tends to arrange his material thematically, with little or no chronological framework, more biographer than historian. Dio provides a somewhat inconsistent chronology of Caligula's reign. He dedicates 13–21 chapters to positive features of Caligula's reign but nearly 40 to Caligula as "monster". Philo's works On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus give some details on Caligula's early reign, but more on events involving Jews in Judea and Egypt, whose political and religious interests conflicted with those of the ethnically Greek, pro-Roman population. Philo saw Caligula as responsible for the suffering of the Jews, whom he invariably portrays in a morally positive light. Seneca's various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula's personality, probably written in the reign of Claudius, who had a vested interest in the portrayal of his predecessor as "cruel and despotic, even mad". Seneca was prone to "grovelling flattery" of whoever reigned at the time. His experience under Caligula "could have clouded his judgment". He narrowly avoided a death sentence in AD 39, probably imposed for his association with known conspirators. Caligula had a low opinion of his literary style. Further contemporaneous histories of Caligula's reign are attested by Tacitus, who describes them as biased for or against Caligula; of Tacitus' own work, little of relevance to Caligula survives but Tacitus' works testify to his general hostility to the imperial system. Among the known losses of his works is a substantial portion of the Annals. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus wrote histories, now lost, condemning Caligula. Tacitus describes Fabius Rusticus as a friend of Seneca, prone to embellishments and misrepresentations. Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in Caligula's assassination; his original works are lost, but he was a competent historian, used as a primary source by Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius and Plutarch. Caligula's sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that included a detailed account of Caligula's reign, but it too is lost. Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against him. Caligula also seized the inheritance of Agrippina's son, the future emperor Nero. Gaetulicus flattered Caligula in writings now lost. Suetonius wrote his biography of Caligula 80 years after his assassination, and Cassius Dio over 180 years after; the latter offers a loose chronology. Josephus gives a detailed account of Caligula's assassination and its aftermath, published around 93 AD, but it is thought to draw upon a "richly embroidered and historically imaginative" anonymous biography of Herod Agrippa, presented as a Jewish "national hero". Pliny the Elder's Natural History has a few brief references to Caligula, possibly based these on the accounts by his friend Suetonius, or an unnamed, shared source. Of the few surviving sources on Caligula, none paints Caligula in a favourable light. Little has survived on the first two years of his reign, and only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula's military actions in Britannia, and the basis of his feud with the Senate. == Modern depictions == === In film and series === Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film I, Claudius. He was played by Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV historical drama series, The Caesars. American actor Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene-stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950s, The Robe (1953) and its sequel Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954). He was played by John Hurt in the 1976 BBC mini-series I, Claudius. A feature-length historical film, Caligula, was completed in 1979 with Malcolm McDowell in the lead role. His reign is depicted across the second and third episodes of the miniseries A.D.: Anno Domini, which adapted the Acts of the Apostles in parallel with the history of the Caesars from Tiberus through Nero. He was portrayed by John McEnery. Many of Caligula's connections to the other plotlines are via the fictional brother and sister Caleb and Sarah. However, it is also notable that Cornelius the Centurion is depicted as the man in charge of overseeing the installation of the Emperor's statue in the Temple. He was portrayed by David Brandon in the 1982 historical exploitation film Caligula... The Untold Story. He was played by Alexis Arquette in two episodes of Xena: Warrior Princess. Caligula is a character in the 2015 NBC series A.D. The Bible Continues, and is played by British actor Andrew Gower. His portrayal emphasises Caligula's "debauched and dangerous" persona as well as his sexual appetite, quick temper, and violent nature. The third season of the Roman Empire series (released on Netflix in 2019) is named Caligula: The Mad Emperor, with South African actor Ido Drent in the leading role. In the award-winning BBC show Horrible Histories he is portrayed by Simon Farnaby. === In literature and theatre === Kajus Cezar Caligula, by Polish author Karol Hubert Rostworowski, is a play premiered in Juliusz Słowacki City Theater, Kraków, 31 March 1917. The title character is presented as a weak and unhappy man who became a victim of circumstances that brought him to power that surpassed him. Caligula, by French author Albert Camus, is a play in which Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister, Drusilla. The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to "bring the impossible into the realm of the likely". In the 1934 novel I, Claudius by English writer Robert Graves, Caligula is presented as a murderous sociopath who became clinically insane early in his reign. In the novel, at the age of only ten, Caligula drove his father Germanicus to a state of despair and death by secretly terrorizing him. Graves' Caligula commits incest with all three of his sisters and is implied to have murdered Drusilla. The novel was adapted for television in the 1976 BBC mini-series of the same name. Incitatus, Caesar's favourite horse, is the subject of Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert's poem Kaligula (in Pan Cogito, 1974). === In opera === A young Caligula appears as one of the characters in Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber's opera Arminio. Caligula is the main character in Detlev Glanert's opera Caligula, based on the Albert Camus play. Different composers from the Baroque era appear to have composed operatic works about Caligula, but most of these have been lost.	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Sydenham", "Pontoon (boat)", "pontifex maximus", "The Twelve Caesars", "Roman aqueduct", "regicide", "Lucius Cassius Dio", "Gnaeus Acerronius Proculus", "Lugdunum", "damnatio memoriae", "quadrans", "s:Natural History (Rackham, Jones, & Eichholz)/Book 16", "Tacitus", "David Brandon (actor)", "Chatti", "Cassius Chaerea", "replica", "List of Roman consuls", "Numerus Batavorum", "John Xiphilinus (historian)", "s:On the shortness of life", "Arminio (Biber)", "spintria", "Glossary of ancient Roman religion", "Gratus", "Sejanus", "Netflix", "Antoninus Pius", "Julia Drusilla (daughter of Caligula)", "Pontoon bridge", "Palatine Hill", "base metal", "Cappadocia (Roman province)", "Zbigniew Herbert", "Tacfarinas", "Seneca the Younger", "Aulus Didius Gallus", "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus", "Agricola (book)", "Lucius Apronius Caesianus", "Invidia", "Emlyn Williams", "Juba II", "Acts of the Apostles", "Apollo", "consul", "Gaius Julius Callistus", "Priapus", "quaestor", "Antiquities of the Jews", "Milonia Caesonia", "William Whiston", "Germanicus", "Gaius Julius Caesar", "Roman Mauretania", "Antioch", "hostis", "Aqua Claudia", "Commodus", "Isthmus of Corinth", "Decimus Valerius Asiaticus", "Suebi", "Quintus Sanquinius Maximus", "naumachia", "Albert Camus", "Praetorian Guard", "Imperial cult", "Julii Caesares", "Selene", "s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII", "Cornelius the Centurion", "Parthia", "South Africa", "Temple in Jerusalem", "polychrome", "Adminius", "imperator", "Pileus (hat)", "Gaius Suetonius Paulinus", "Herod Antipas", "Aulus Avilius Flaccus", "Tetrarchy (Judea)", "The Robe (film)", "Parmularius (gladiator)", "Malcolm McDowell", "Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus (consul 41)", "Polycrates", "Germania", "Trachonitis" ]
6,854	Church–Turing thesis	In computability theory, the Church–Turing thesis (also known as computability thesis, the Turing–Church thesis, the Church–Turing conjecture, Church's thesis, Church's conjecture, and Turing's thesis) is a thesis about the nature of computable functions. It states that a function on the natural numbers can be calculated by an effective method if and only if it is computable by a Turing machine. The thesis is named after American mathematician Alonzo Church and the British mathematician Alan Turing. Before the precise definition of computable function, mathematicians often used the informal term effectively calculable to describe functions that are computable by paper-and-pencil methods. In the 1930s, several independent attempts were made to formalize the notion of computability: In 1933, Kurt Gödel, with Jacques Herbrand, formalized the definition of the class of general recursive functions: the smallest class of functions (with arbitrarily many arguments) that is closed under composition, recursion, and minimization, and includes zero, successor, and all projections. In 1936, Alonzo Church created a method for defining functions called the λ-calculus. Within λ-calculus, he defined an encoding of the natural numbers called the Church numerals. A function on the natural numbers is called λ-computable if the corresponding function on the Church numerals can be represented by a term of the λ-calculus. Also in 1936, before learning of Church's work, Alan Turing created a theoretical model for machines, now called Turing machines, that could carry out calculations from inputs by manipulating symbols on a tape. Given a suitable encoding of the natural numbers as sequences of symbols, a function on the natural numbers is called Turing computable if some Turing machine computes the corresponding function on encoded natural numbers. Church, Kleene, and Turing proved that these three formally defined classes of computable functions coincide: a function is λ-computable if and only if it is Turing computable, and if and only if it is general recursive. This has led mathematicians and computer scientists to believe that the concept of computability is accurately characterized by these three equivalent processes. Other formal attempts to characterize computability have subsequently strengthened this belief (see below). On the other hand, the Church–Turing thesis states that the above three formally-defined classes of computable functions coincide with the informal notion of an effectively calculable function. Although the thesis has near-universal acceptance, it cannot be formally proven, as the concept of effective calculability is only informally defined. Since its inception, variations on the original thesis have arisen, including statements about what can physically be realized by a computer in our universe (physical Church-Turing thesis) and what can be efficiently computed (Church–Turing thesis (complexity theory)). These variations are not due to Church or Turing, but arise from later work in complexity theory and digital physics. The thesis also has implications for the philosophy of mind (see below). ==Statement in Church's and Turing's words== addresses the notion of "effective computability" as follows: "Clearly the existence of CC and RC (Church's and Rosser's proofs) presupposes a precise definition of 'effective'. 'Effective method' is here used in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps". Thus the adverb-adjective "effective" is used in a sense of "1a: producing a decided, decisive, or desired effect", and "capable of producing a result". In the following, the words "effectively calculable" will mean "produced by any intuitively 'effective' means whatsoever" and "effectively computable" will mean "produced by a Turing-machine or equivalent mechanical device". Turing's "definitions" given in a footnote in his 1938 Ph.D. thesis Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals, supervised by Church, are virtually the same: The thesis can be stated as: Every effectively calculable function is a computable function. Church also stated that "No computational procedure will be considered as an algorithm unless it can be represented as a Turing Machine". Turing stated it this way: {{quote\|It was stated ... that "a function is effectively calculable if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process". We may take this literally, understanding that by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. The development ... leads to ... an identification of computability with effective calculability. [ is the footnote quoted above.] which asked whether there was a mechanical procedure for separating mathematical truths from mathematical falsehoods. This quest required that the notion of "algorithm" or "effective calculability" be pinned down, at least well enough for the quest to begin. But from the very outset Alonzo Church's attempts began with a debate that continues to this day. the notion of "effective calculability" to be (i) an "axiom or axioms" in an axiomatic system, (ii) merely a definition that "identified" two or more propositions, (iii) an empirical hypothesis to be verified by observation of natural events, or (iv) just a proposal for the sake of argument (i.e. a "thesis")? === Circa 1930–1952 === In the course of studying the problem, Church and his student Stephen Kleene introduced the notion of λ-definable functions, and they were able to prove that several large classes of functions frequently encountered in number theory were λ-definable. The debate began when Church proposed to Gödel that one should define the "effectively computable" functions as the λ-definable functions. Gödel, however, was not convinced and called the proposal "thoroughly unsatisfactory". Rather, in correspondence with Church (c. 1934–1935), Gödel proposed axiomatizing the notion of "effective calculability"; indeed, in a 1935 letter to Kleene, Church reported that: {{Blockquote\|His [Gödel's] only idea at the time was that it might be possible, in terms of effective calculability as an undefined notion, to state a set of axioms which would embody the generally accepted properties of this notion, and to do something on that basis. Next, it was necessary to identify and prove the equivalence of two notions of effective calculability. Equipped with the λ-calculus and "general" recursion, Kleene with help of Church and J. Barkley Rosser produced proofs (1933, 1935) to show that the two calculi are equivalent. Church subsequently modified his methods to include use of Herbrand–Gödel recursion and then proved (1936) that the is unsolvable: there is no algorithm that can determine whether a well formed formula has a beta normal form. Many years later in a letter to Davis (c. 1965), Gödel said that "he was, at the time of these [1934] lectures, not at all convinced that his concept of recursion comprised all possible recursions". By 1963–1964 Gödel would disavow Herbrand–Gödel recursion and the λ-calculus in favor of the Turing machine as the definition of "algorithm" or "mechanical procedure" or "formal system". A hypothesis leading to a natural law?: In late 1936 Alan Turing's paper (also proving that the is unsolvable) was delivered orally, but had not yet appeared in print. On the other hand, Emil Post's 1936 paper had appeared and was certified independent of Turing's work. Post strongly disagreed with Church's "identification" of effective computability with the λ-calculus and recursion, stating: Rather, he regarded the notion of "effective calculability" as merely a "working hypothesis" that might lead by inductive reasoning to a "natural law" rather than by "a definition or an axiom". This idea was "sharply" criticized by Church. Thus Post in his 1936 paper was also discounting Gödel's suggestion to Church in 1934–1935 that the thesis might be expressed as an axiom or set of axioms. Turing adds another definition, Rosser equates all three: Within just a short time, Turing's 1936–1937 paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the " Church was quick to recognise how compelling Turing's analysis was. In his review of Turing's paper he made clear that Turing's notion made "the identification with effectiveness in the ordinary (not explicitly defined) sense evident immediately". In a few years (1939) Turing would propose, like Church and Kleene before him, that his formal definition of mechanical computing agent was the correct one. Thus, by 1939, both Church (1934) and Turing (1939) had individually proposed that their "formal systems" should be definitions of "effective calculability"; neither framed their statements as theses. Rosser (1939) formally identified the three notions-as-definitions: Kleene proposes Thesis I: This left the overt expression of a "thesis" to Kleene. In 1943 Kleene proposed his "Thesis I": The Church–Turing Thesis: Stephen Kleene, in Introduction to Metamathematics, finally goes on to formally name "Church's Thesis" and "Turing's Thesis", using his theory of recursive realizability, having switched from presenting his work in the terminology of Church–Kleene lambda definability to that of Gödel–Kleene recursiveness (partial recursive functions). In this transition, Kleene modified Gödel's general recursive functions to allow for proofs of the unsolvability of problems in the intuitionism of E. J. Brouwer. In his graduate textbook on logic, "Church's thesis" is introduced and basic mathematical results are demonstrated to be unrealizable. Next, Kleene proceeds to present "Turing's thesis", where results are shown to be uncomputable, using his simplified derivation of a Turing machine based on the work of Emil Post. Both theses are proven equivalent by use of "Theorem XXX". {{quote\|style=font-size:inherit;quotes:none\|Turing's thesis: Turing's thesis that every function which would naturally be regarded as computable is computable under his definition, i.e. by one of his machines, is equivalent to Church's thesis by Theorem XXX. === Later developments === An attempt to better understand the notion of "effective computability" led Robin Gandy (Turing's student and friend) in 1980 to analyze machine computation (as opposed to human-computation acted out by a Turing machine). Gandy's curiosity about, and analysis of, cellular automata (including Conway's game of life), parallelism, and crystalline automata, led him to propose four "principles (or constraints) ... which it is argued, any machine must satisfy". His most-important fourth, "the principle of causality" is based on the "finite velocity of propagation of effects and signals; contemporary physics rejects the possibility of instantaneous action at a distance". From these principles and some additional constraints—(1a) a lower bound on the linear dimensions of any of the parts, (1b) an upper bound on speed of propagation (the velocity of light), (2) discrete progress of the machine, and (3) deterministic behavior—he produces a theorem that "What can be calculated by a device satisfying principles I–IV is computable." In the late 1990s Wilfried Sieg analyzed Turing's and Gandy's notions of "effective calculability" with the intent of "sharpening the informal notion, formulating its general features axiomatically, and investigating the axiomatic framework". In his 1997 and 2002 work Sieg presents a series of constraints on the behavior of a computor—"a human computing agent who proceeds mechanically". These constraints reduce to: "(B.1) (Boundedness) There is a fixed bound on the number of symbolic configurations a computor can immediately recognize. "(B.2) (Boundedness) There is a fixed bound on the number of internal states a computor can be in. "(L.1) (Locality) A computor can change only elements of an observed symbolic configuration. "(L.2) (Locality) A computor can shift attention from one symbolic configuration to another one, but the new observed configurations must be within a bounded distance of the immediately previously observed configuration. "(D) (Determinacy) The immediately recognizable (sub-)configuration determines uniquely the next computation step (and id [instantaneous description])"; stated another way: "A computor's internal state together with the observed configuration fixes uniquely the next computation step and the next internal state." The matter remains in active discussion within the academic community. === The thesis as a definition === The thesis can be viewed as nothing but an ordinary mathematical definition. Comments by Gödel on the subject suggest this view, e.g. "the correct definition of mechanical computability was established beyond any doubt by Turing". The case for viewing the thesis as nothing more than a definition is made explicitly by Robert I. Soare, where it is also argued that Turing's definition of computability is no less likely to be correct than the epsilon-delta definition of a continuous function. ==Success of the thesis== Other formalisms (besides recursion, the λ-calculus, and the Turing machine) have been proposed for describing effective calculability/computability. Kleene (1952) adds to the list the functions "reckonable in the system S1" of Kurt Gödel 1936, and Emil Post's (1943, 1946) "canonical [also called normal] systems". In the 1950s Hao Wang and Martin Davis greatly simplified the one-tape Turing-machine model (see Post–Turing machine). Marvin Minsky expanded the model to two or more tapes and greatly simplified the tapes into "up-down counters", which Melzak and Lambek further evolved into what is now known as the counter machine model. In the late 1960s and early 1970s researchers expanded the counter machine model into the register machine, a close cousin to the modern notion of the computer. Other models include combinatory logic and Markov algorithms. Gurevich adds the pointer machine model of Kolmogorov and Uspensky (1953, 1958): "... they just wanted to ... convince themselves that there is no way to extend the notion of computable function." All these contributions involve proofs that the models are computationally equivalent to the Turing machine; such models are said to be Turing complete. Because all these different attempts at formalizing the concept of "effective calculability/computability" have yielded equivalent results, it is now generally assumed that the Church–Turing thesis is correct. In fact, Gödel (1936) proposed something stronger than this; he observed that there was something "absolute" about the concept of "reckonable in S1": == Informal usage in proofs == Proofs in computability theory often invoke the Church–Turing thesis in an informal way to establish the computability of functions while avoiding the (often very long) details which would be involved in a rigorous, formal proof. To establish that a function is computable by Turing machine, it is usually considered sufficient to give an informal English description of how the function can be effectively computed, and then conclude "by the Church–Turing thesis" that the function is Turing computable (equivalently, partial recursive). Dirk van Dalen gives the following example for the sake of illustrating this informal use of the Church–Turing thesis: In order to make the above example completely rigorous, one would have to carefully construct a Turing machine, or λ-function, or carefully invoke recursion axioms, or at best, cleverly invoke various theorems of computability theory. But because the computability theorist believes that Turing computability correctly captures what can be computed effectively, and because an effective procedure is spelled out in English for deciding the set B, the computability theorist accepts this as proof that the set is indeed recursive. == Variations == The success of the Church–Turing thesis prompted variations of the thesis to be proposed. For example, the physical Church–Turing thesis states: "All physically computable functions are Turing-computable." The Church–Turing thesis says nothing about the efficiency with which one model of computation can simulate another. It has been proved for instance that a (multi-tape) universal Turing machine only suffers a logarithmic slowdown factor in simulating any Turing machine. A variation of the Church–Turing thesis addresses whether an arbitrary but "reasonable" model of computation can be efficiently simulated. This is called the feasibility thesis, also known as the (classical) complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis or the extended Church–Turing thesis, which is not due to Church or Turing, but rather was realized gradually in the development of complexity theory. It states: "A probabilistic Turing machine can efficiently simulate any realistic model of computation." The word 'efficiently' here means up to polynomial-time reductions. This thesis was originally called computational complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis by Ethan Bernstein and Umesh Vazirani (1997). The complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis, then, posits that all 'reasonable' models of computation yield the same class of problems that can be computed in polynomial time. Assuming the conjecture that probabilistic polynomial time (BPP) equals deterministic polynomial time (P), the word 'probabilistic' is optional in the complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis. A similar thesis, called the invariance thesis, was introduced by Cees F. Slot and Peter van Emde Boas. It states: Reasonable' machines can simulate each other within a polynomially bounded overhead in time and a constant-factor overhead in space." The thesis originally appeared in a paper at STOC'84, which was the first paper to show that polynomial-time overhead and constant-space overhead could be simultaneously achieved for a simulation of a Random Access Machine on a Turing machine. If BQP is shown to be a strict superset of BPP, it would invalidate the complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis. In other words, there would be efficient quantum algorithms that perform tasks that do not have efficient probabilistic algorithms. This would not however invalidate the original Church–Turing thesis, since a quantum computer can always be simulated by a Turing machine, but it would invalidate the classical complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis for efficiency reasons. Consequently, the quantum complexity-theoretic Church–Turing thesis states: They claim that forms of computation not captured by the thesis are relevant today, terms which they call super-Turing computation. ==Philosophical implications== Philosophers have interpreted the Church–Turing thesis as having implications for the philosophy of mind. B. Jack Copeland states that it is an open empirical question whether there are actual deterministic physical processes that, in the long run, elude simulation by a Turing machine; furthermore, he states that it is an open empirical question whether any such processes are involved in the working of the human brain. There are also some important open questions which cover the relationship between the Church–Turing thesis and physics, and the possibility of hypercomputation. When applied to physics, the thesis has several possible meanings: The universe is equivalent to a Turing machine; thus, computing non-recursive functions is physically impossible. This has been termed the strong Church–Turing thesis, or Church–Turing–Deutsch principle, and is a foundation of digital physics. The universe is not equivalent to a Turing machine (i.e., the laws of physics are not Turing-computable), but incomputable physical events are not "harnessable" for the construction of a hypercomputer. For example, a universe in which physics involves random real numbers, as opposed to computable reals, would fall into this category. The universe is a hypercomputer, and it is possible to build physical devices to harness this property and calculate non-recursive functions. For example, it is an open question whether all quantum mechanical events are Turing-computable, although it is known that rigorous models such as quantum Turing machines are equivalent to deterministic Turing machines. (They are not necessarily efficiently equivalent; see above.) John Lucas and Roger Penrose have suggested that the human mind might be the result of some kind of quantum-mechanically enhanced, "non-algorithmic" computation. There are many other technical possibilities which fall outside or between these three categories, but these serve to illustrate the range of the concept. Philosophical aspects of the thesis, regarding both physical and biological computers, are also discussed in Odifreddi's 1989 textbook on recursion theory. == Non-computable functions == One can formally define functions that are not computable. A well-known example of such a function is the Busy Beaver function. This function takes an input n and returns the largest number of symbols that a Turing machine with n states can print before halting, when run with no input. Finding an upper bound on the busy beaver function is equivalent to solving the halting problem, a problem known to be unsolvable by Turing machines. Since the busy beaver function cannot be computed by Turing machines, the Church–Turing thesis states that this function cannot be effectively computed by any method. Several computational models allow for the computation of (Church-Turing) non-computable functions. These are known as hypercomputers. Mark Burgin argues that super-recursive algorithms such as inductive Turing machines disprove the Church–Turing thesis. His argument relies on a definition of algorithm broader than the ordinary one, so that non-computable functions obtained from some inductive Turing machines are called computable. This interpretation of the Church–Turing thesis differs from the interpretation commonly accepted in computability theory, discussed above. The argument that super-recursive algorithms are indeed algorithms in the sense of the Church–Turing thesis has not found broad acceptance within the computability research community.	[ "halting problem", "Turing completeness", "Decidability (logic)", "successor function", "quantum Turing machine", "computable number", "Gandy machine", "polynomial-time reduction", "general recursive function", "Martin Davis (mathematician)", "recursion", "beta normal form", "Entscheidungsproblem", "recursive set", "J. B. Rosser", "Robert Soare", "Church numerals", "Busy Beaver", "real numbers", "Super-recursive algorithm", "natural law", "Turing machine", "Post–Turing machine", "effectively calculable", "Elsevier", "natural numbers", "zero function", "probabilistic algorithms", "Hypercomputation", "probabilistic Turing machine", "Oracle (computer science)", "Emil Post", "Computability logic", "Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic", "projection function", "pointer machine", "continuous function", "Robert I. Soare", "Oxford University Press", "computability", "Bounded-error probabilistic polynomial", "BQP", "Duke Mathematical Journal", "Roger Penrose", "David Hilbert", "Jacques Herbrand", "P (complexity)", "Markov algorithm", "Conway's game of life", "super-recursive algorithm", "Joachim Lambek", "recursively enumerable", "physical process", "hypercomputation", "formal system", "John Lucas (philosopher)", "philosophy of mind", "J. Barkley Rosser", "inductive reasoning", "Computational complexity theory", "Wilhelm Ackermann", "Model of computation", "effective method", "SIAM Journal on Computing", "Cambridge University Press", "Lambda calculus", "Computability theory (computation)", "Lambda-recursive function", "function composition", "Umesh Vazirani", "Basic Books", "Wilfried Sieg", "computable function", "Springer Verlag", "Church thesis", "Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals", "Church's thesis (constructive mathematics)", "register machine", "quantum mechanics", "Hao Wang (academic)", "computer", "cellular automata", "Computable function", "combinatory logic", "Turing complete", "Peter Smith (computer scientist)", "Symposium on Theory of Computing", "A. K. Peters, Ltd.", "Alan Turing", "Robin Gandy", "quantum algorithms", "Jack Copeland", "Marvin Minsky", "Max Newman", "μ operator", "Random Access Machine", "physical Church-Turing thesis", "Alonzo Church", "SIGACT News", "A. K. Peters", "Gualtiero Piccinini", "counter machine", "digital physics", "Kurt Gödel", "universal Turing machine", "function (mathematics)", "Stephen Cole Kleene", "well formed formula", "Abstract machine", "Church–Turing–Deutsch principle" ]
6,856	Chomsky (surname)	Chomsky (, , , , , "from (Vyoska) / (nearby Brest, now Belarus)") is a surname of Slavic origin. Notable people with the surname include: Alejandro Chomski (born 1968), Argentine film director and screenwriter Aviva Chomsky (born 1957), American historian Carol (Schatz) Chomsky (1930–2008), American linguist and wife of Noam Chomsky Judith Chomsky (born 1942), American human rights lawyer and co-founder of the Juvenile Law Center Marvin J. Chomsky (1929–2022), American television and film director Noam Chomsky (born 1928), American linguist and political activist, professor emeritus at MIT (born 1957), Polish speedway rider and coach William Chomsky (1896–1977), American scholar of Hebrew (1925–2016), Soviet and Russian theater director	[ "Marvin J. Chomsky", "William Chomsky", "Khomskaya", "Noam Chomsky", "Odrowąż coat of arms", "Carol Chomsky", "Chomska", "Judith Chomsky", "Khomsky", "Khomska", "Homski", "Gryf coat of arms", "Aviva Chomsky", "Alejandro Chomski" ]
6,857	Computer multitasking	In computing, multitasking is the concurrent execution of multiple tasks (also known as processes) over a certain period of time. New tasks can interrupt already started ones before they finish, instead of waiting for them to end. As a result, a computer executes segments of multiple tasks in an interleaved manner, while the tasks share common processing resources such as central processing units (CPUs) and main memory. Multitasking automatically interrupts the running program, saving its state (partial results, memory contents and computer register contents) and loading the saved state of another program and transferring control to it. This "context switch" may be initiated at fixed time intervals (pre-emptive multitasking), or the running program may be coded to signal to the supervisory software when it can be interrupted (cooperative multitasking). Multitasking does not require parallel execution of multiple tasks at exactly the same time; instead, it allows more than one task to advance over a given period of time. Even on multiprocessor computers, multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs. Multitasking is a common feature of computer operating systems since at least the 1960s. It allows more efficient use of the computer hardware; when a program is waiting for some external event such as a user input or an input/output transfer with a peripheral to complete, the central processor can still be used with another program. In a time-sharing system, multiple human operators use the same processor as if it was dedicated to their use, while behind the scenes the computer is serving many users by multitasking their individual programs. In multiprogramming systems, a task runs until it must wait for an external event or until the operating system's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Real-time systems such as those designed to control industrial robots, require timely processing; a single processor might be shared between calculations of machine movement, communications, and user interface. Often multitasking operating systems include measures to change the priority of individual tasks, so that important jobs receive more processor time than those considered less significant. Depending on the operating system, a task might be as large as an entire application program, or might be made up of smaller threads that carry out portions of the overall program. A processor intended for use with multitasking operating systems may include special hardware to securely support multiple tasks, such as memory protection, and protection rings that ensure the supervisory software cannot be damaged or subverted by user-mode program errors. The term "multitasking" has become an international term, as the same word is used in many other languages such as German, Italian, Dutch, Romanian, Czech, Danish and Norwegian. == Multiprogramming == In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and peripherals were very slow. When the computer ran a program that needed access to a peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the data. This was usually very inefficient. Multiprogramming is a computing technique that enables multiple programs to be concurrently loaded and executed into a computer's memory, allowing the CPU to switch between them swiftly. This optimizes CPU utilization by keeping it engaged with the execution of tasks, particularly useful when one program is waiting for I/O operations to complete. The Bull Gamma 60, initially designed in 1957 and first released in 1960, was the first computer designed with multiprogramming in mind. Its architecture featured a central memory and a Program Distributor feeding up to twenty-five autonomous processing units with code and data, and allowing concurrent operation of multiple clusters. Another such computer was the LEO III, first released in 1961. During batch processing, several different programs were loaded in the computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral, the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued until all programs finished running. Multiprogramming gives no guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the first program may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive terminal, this was no problem: users handed in a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced wait times when multiple batches were being processed. == Cooperative multitasking == Early multitasking systems used applications that voluntarily ceded time to one another. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer operating systems, is known today as cooperative multitasking. Although it is now rarely used in larger systems except for specific applications such as CICS or the JES2 subsystem, cooperative multitasking was once the only scheduling scheme employed by Microsoft Windows and classic Mac OS to enable multiple applications to run simultaneously. Cooperative multitasking is still used today on RISC OS systems. As a cooperatively multitasked system relies on each process regularly giving up time to other processes on the system, one poorly designed program can consume all of the CPU time for itself, either by performing extensive calculations or by busy waiting; both would cause the whole system to hang. In a server environment, this is a hazard that makes the entire environment unacceptably fragile. == Preemptive multitasking == Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee to each process a regular "slice" of operating time. It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process. Operating systems were developed to take advantage of these hardware capabilities and run multiple processes preemptively. Preemptive multitasking was implemented in the PDP-6 Monitor and Multics in 1964, in OS/360 MFT in 1967, and in Unix in 1969, and was available in some operating systems for computers as small as DEC's PDP-8; it is a core feature of all Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, Solaris and BSD with its derivatives, as well as modern versions of Windows. Possibly the earliest preemptive multitasking OS available to home users was Microware's OS-9, available for computers based on the Motorola 6809 such as the TRS-80 Color Computer 2, with the operating system supplied by Tandy as an upgrade for disk-equipped systems. Sinclair QDOS on the Sinclair QL followed in 1984, but it was not a big success. Commodore's Amiga was released the following year, offering a combination of multitasking and multimedia capabilities. Microsoft made preemptive multitasking a core feature of their flagship operating system in the early 1990s when developing Windows NT 3.1 and then Windows 95. In 1988 Apple offered A/UX as a UNIX System V-based alternative to the Classic Mac OS. In 2001 Apple switched to the NeXTSTEP-influenced Mac OS X. A similar model is used in Windows 9x and the Windows NT family, where native 32-bit applications are multitasked preemptively. 64-bit editions of Windows, both for the x86-64 and Itanium architectures, no longer support legacy 16-bit applications, and thus provide preemptive multitasking for all supported applications. == Real time == Another reason for multitasking was in the design of real-time computing systems, where there are a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system is coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time. == Multithreading == Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as lightweight processes because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context. While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named fibers, that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on machines with multiple processors. Some systems directly support multithreading in hardware. == Memory protection == Essential to any multitasking system is to safely and effectively share access to system resources. Access to memory must be strictly managed to ensure that no process can inadvertently or deliberately read or write to memory locations outside the process's address space. This is done for the purpose of general system stability and data integrity, as well as data security. In general, memory access management is a responsibility of the operating system kernel, in combination with hardware mechanisms that provide supporting functionalities, such as a memory management unit (MMU). If a process attempts to access a memory location outside its memory space, the MMU denies the request and signals the kernel to take appropriate actions; this usually results in forcibly terminating the offending process. Depending on the software and kernel design and the specific error in question, the user may receive an access violation error message such as "segmentation fault". In a well designed and correctly implemented multitasking system, a given process can never directly access memory that belongs to another process. An exception to this rule is in the case of shared memory; for example, in the System V inter-process communication mechanism the kernel allocates memory to be mutually shared by multiple processes. Such features are often used by database management software such as PostgreSQL. Inadequate memory protection mechanisms, either due to flaws in their design or poor implementations, allow for security vulnerabilities that may be potentially exploited by malicious software. == Memory swapping == Use of a swap file or swap partition is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of the primary memory in secondary storage. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time. Typically, a multitasking system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from secondary storage. == Programming == Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric multiprocessing has introduced new complexities and capabilities.	[ "Windows 9x", "PDP-8", "Unix-like", "Berkeley Software Distribution", "Smart Computing", "Windows 95", "Linux", "IBM", "multiprogramming", "classic Mac OS", "LEO (computer)", "OS-9", "Microsoft Windows", "Mac OS X", "Real-time computing", "CPU time", "concurrent computing", "RISC OS", "busy wait", "batch processing", "Bull Gamma 60", "Virtual memory", "Comparison of BSD operating systems", "GIMP", "Process (computing)", "main memory", "Fiber (computer science)", "pre-emptive multitasking", "input/output", "memory management unit", "cooperative multitasking", "multiprocessing", "CICS", "OS/360 and successors", "Multithreading (computer architecture)", "parent process", "Sinclair QDOS", "Vim (text editor)", "Windows NT 3.1", "Process state", "JES2", "symmetric multiprocessing", "TOPS-10", "NeXTSTEP", "x86-64", "multiprocessor", "real-time computing", "Windows NT", "peripheral", "process time", "Parallel computing", "thread (computing)", "Context switch", "Unix", "Microware", "Motorola 6809", "VLC media player", "A/UX", "Thread (computing)", "Xfce", "secondary storage", "Sinclair QL", "Multics", "time-sharing", "context switch", "Amiga", "computing", "Firefox", "operating system", "Scheduling (computing)", "Itanium", "Classic Mac OS", "central processing unit", "protection ring", "hang (computing)", "UNIX System V", "memory protection", "Solaris (operating system)", "TRS-80 Color Computer 2" ]
6,859	Chiang Kai-shek	Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 18875 April 1975) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and general who led the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 until his death in 1975. His government was based in mainland China until it was defeated in the Chinese Civil War by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1949, after which he continued to lead the Republic of China on the island of Taiwan. Chiang served as leader of the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party and the commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) from 1926 until his death, during which he was known as Generalissimo. Born in Zhejiang, Chiang received a military education in China and Japan and joined Sun Yat-sen's Tongmenghui organization in 1908. After the 1911 Revolution, he was a founding member of the KMT and head of the Whampoa Military Academy from 1924. After Sun's death in 1925, Chiang became leader of the party and commander-in-chief of the NRA, and from 1926 to 1928 led the Northern Expedition, which nominally reunified China under a Nationalist government based in Nanjing. The KMT–CCP alliance broke down in 1927 following the KMT's Shanghai Massacre, starting the Chinese Civil War. Chiang sought to modernise and unify the ROC during the Nanjing decade, although hostilities with the CCP continued. After Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, his government tried to avoid a war while pursuing economic and social reconstruction. In 1936, Chiang was kidnapped by his generals in the Xi'an Incident and forced to form an anti-Japanese Second United Front with the CCP, and between 1937 and 1945 led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, mostly from the wartime capital of Chongqing. As the leader of a major Allied power, he attended the 1943 Cairo Conference to discuss the terms for Japan's surrender in 1945, including the return of Taiwan, where he suppressed the February 28 uprising in 1947. When World War II ended, the civil war with the CCP (led by Mao Zedong) resumed. In 1949, Chiang's government was defeated and retreated to Taiwan, where he imposed martial law and the White Terror, a campaign of mass political repression; they lasted until 1987 and 1992, respectively. Beginning in 1948, he was re-elected five times by the same Eternal Parliament with six-year terms as President of the ROC, the head of a de facto one-party state, for 25 years till his death. Chiang presided over land reform, economic growth, and crises in the Taiwan Strait in 1954–1955 and again in 1958. He was considered the legitimate leader of China by the United Nations until 1971, when the ROC's seat was transferred to the People's Republic of China. After Chiang's death in 1975, he was succeeded as leader of the KMT by his son Chiang Ching-kuo, who was elected president in following terms by the same parliament since 1978. Chiang is a controversial figure. Supporters credit him with unifying the nation and ending the century of humiliation, leading the resistance against Japan, fostering economic development and promoting Chinese culture in contrast to Mao's Cultural Revolution. He is also credited with safeguarding Forbidden City treasures during the wars with Japan and the CCP, eventually relocating some of the best to Taiwan, where he founded the National Palace Museum. Critics fault him for his early pacifism toward Japan's occupation of Manchuria, flooding of the Yellow River, cronyism and corruption with the four big families, and his right-wing dictatorship on both mainland China and Taiwan. ==Names== Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang used several names throughout his life. The name inscribed in the genealogical records of his family is Chiang Chou-t‘ai (). This so-called "register name" () is the one by which his extended relatives knew him, and the one he used in formal occasions, such as when he was married. In deference to tradition, family members did not use the register name in conversation with people outside of the family. The concept of a "real" or original name is/was not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world. In honor of tradition, Chinese families waited a number of years before officially naming their children. In the meantime, they used a "milk name" (), given to the infant shortly after his birth and known only to the close family. So the name that Chiang received at birth was Chiang Jui-yüan (). In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang went to Ningbo as a student, and chose a "school name" (). This was the formal name of a person, used by older people to address him, and the one he would use the most in the first decades of his life (as a person grew older, younger generations would use one of the courtesy names instead). Colloquially, the school name is called "big name" (), whereas the "milk name" is known as the "small name" (). The school name that Chiang chose for himself was Chih-ch‘ing (, which means "purity of aspirations"). For the next fifteen years or so, Chiang was known as Chiang Chih-ch‘ing . This is the name by which Sun Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in Kwangtung in the 1910s. In 1912, when Chiang was in Japan, he started to use the name Chiang Kai-shek () as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded: Voice of the Army (). Jieshi is the pinyin romanization of this name, based on Standard Chinese, but the most recognized romanized rendering is Kai-shek which is in Cantonese romanization. Because the Republic of China was based in Canton (a Cantonese-speaking area), Chiang (who never spoke Cantonese but was a native Wu speaker) became known by Westerners under the Cantonese romanisation of his courtesy name, while the family name as known in English seems to be the Mandarin pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated in Wade–Giles. "Kai-shek" soon became Chiang's courtesy name (). Some think the name was chosen from the classic Chinese book the I Ching; , is the beginning of line 2 of Hexagram 16, "". Others note that the first character of his courtesy name is also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother and other male relatives on the same generational line, while the second character of his courtesy name shih (—meaning "stone") suggests the second character of his "register name" tai (—the famous Mount Tai). Courtesy names in China often bore a connection with the personal name of the person. As the courtesy name is the name used by people of the same generation to address the person, Chiang soon became known under this new name. Sometime in 1917 or 1918, as Chiang became close to Sun Yat-sen, he changed his name from Chiang Chih-ch‘ing to Chiang Chung-cheng (). By adopting the name Chung-cheng, he was choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen, who is known among Chinese as Chung-shan (—meaning "central mountain"), thus establishing a link between the two. The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas. It was readily accepted by members of the Kuomintang, and is the name under which Chiang is still commonly known in Taiwan. Often the name is shortened to "Chung-cheng" only. Many public places in Taiwan are named Chungcheng after Chiang. For many years passengers arriving at the Chiang Kai-shek International Airport were greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the "Chung Cheng International Airport". Similarly, the monument erected to Chiang's memory in Taipei, known in English as Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, was named "Chung Cheng Memorial Hall" in Chinese. In Singapore, Chung Cheng High School was named after him. His name is also written in the free area of the Republic of China as "The Late President Honorable Chiang" (), where the one-character-wide space in front of his name known as Nuo tai shows respect. He is often called Honorable Chiang. The "Chiang Kai-shek" in this article is spelled using a Cantonese transliteration he adopted as opposed to Hanyu Pinyin, though pinyin was adopted by the Republic of China government in 2009 as its official romanization. == Early life == Chiang was born on 31 October 1887, in Hsikow, a town in Fenghua, Zhejiang, China, about west of central Ningbo. He was born into a family of Wu Chinese-speaking people with their ancestral home—a concept important in Chinese society—in Heqiao, a town in Yixing, Jiangsu, about southwest of central Wuxi and from the shores of Lake Tai. He was the third child and second son of his father (also Chiang Su-an; 1842–1895; ) and the first child of his father's third wife (1863–1921; ) who were members of a prosperous family of salt merchants. Chiang's father died when he was eight, and he wrote of his mother as the "embodiment of Confucian virtues". The young Chiang was inspired throughout his youth by the realization that the reputation of an honored family rested upon his shoulders. He was a naughty child. At a young age he was interested in the military. As he grew older, Chiang became more aware of the issues that surrounded him and in his speech to the Kuomintang in 1945 said: In early 1906, Chiang cut off his queue, the required hairstyle of men during the Ch‘ing dynasty, and had it sent home from school, shocking the people in his hometown. ==Education in Japan== Chiang grew up at a time in which military defeats, natural disasters, famines, revolts, unequal treaties and civil wars had left the Manchu-dominated Ch‘ing dynasty unstable and in debt. Successive demands of the Western powers and Japan since the Opium War had left China owing millions of taels of silver. During his first visit to Japan to pursue a military career from April 1906 to later that year, he describes himself as having strong nationalistic feelings with a desire, among other things, to 'expel the Manchu Ch‘ing and to restore China'. In a 1969 speech, Chiang related a story about his boat trip to Japan at nineteen years old. Another passenger on the ship, a Chinese fellow student who was in the habit of spitting on the floor, was chided by a Chinese sailor who said that Japanese people did not spit on the floor, but instead would spit into a handkerchief. Chiang used the story as an example of how the common man in 1969 Taiwan had not developed the spirit of public sanitation that Japan had. Chiang decided to pursue a military career. He began his military training at the Baoding Military Academy in 1906, the same year Japan left its bimetallic currency standard, devaluing the Japanese yen. He left for Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, a preparatory school for the Imperial Japanese Army Academy intended for Chinese students, in 1907. There, he came under the influence of compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to overthrow the Manchu-dominated Qing dynasty and to set up a Han-dominated Chinese republic. He befriended Chen Qimei, and in 1908 Chen brought Chiang into the Tungmenghui, an important revolutionary brotherhood of the era. Finishing his military schooling at Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, Chiang served in the Imperial Japanese Army from 1909 to 1911. ==Returning to China== After learning of the Wuchang uprising, Chiang returned to China in 1911, intending to fight as an artillery officer. He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment in Shanghai under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei, as one of Chen's chief lieutenants. In early 1912 a dispute arose between Chen and Tao Chengzhang, an influential member of the Revolutionary Alliance who opposed both Sun Yat-sen and Chen. Tao sought to avoid escalating the quarrel by hiding in a hospital, but Chiang discovered him there. Chen dispatched assassins. Chiang may not have taken part in the assassination, but would later assume responsibility to help Chen avoid trouble. Chen valued Chiang despite Chiang's already legendary temper, regarding such bellicosity as useful in a military leader. Chiang's friendship with Chen Qimei signaled an association with Shanghai's criminal syndicate (the Green Gang headed by Du Yuesheng and Huang Jinrong). During Chiang's time in Shanghai, the Shanghai International Settlement police observed him and eventually charged him with various felonies. These charges never resulted in a trial, and Chiang was never jailed. Chiang became a founding member of the Nationalist Party (a forerunner of the KMT) after the success (February 1912) of the 1911 Revolution. After the takeover of the Republican government by Yuan Shikai and the failed Second Revolution in 1913, Chiang, like his KMT comrades, divided his time between exile in Japan and the havens of the Shanghai International Settlement. In Shanghai, Chiang cultivated ties with the city's underworld gangs, which were dominated by the notorious Green Gang and its leader Du Yuesheng. On 18 May 1916 agents of Yuan Shikai assassinated Chen Qimei. Chiang then succeeded Chen as leader of the Chinese Revolutionary Party in Shanghai. Sun Yat-sen's political career reached its lowest point during this time—most of his old Revolutionary Alliance comrades refused to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party. == Establishing the Kuomintang's position == In 1917, Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to Canton, where Chiang joined him in 1918. At this time Sun remained largely sidelined; without arms or money, he was soon expelled from the city and exiled again to Shanghai, only to return to Canton with mercenary help in 1920. After his return, a rift developed between Sun, who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Canton Governor Chen Chiung-ming, who wanted to implement a federalist system with Canton as a model province. On 16 June 1922 Ye Ju, a general of Chen's whom Sun had attempted to exile, led an assault on Canton's Presidential Palace. Sun had already fled to the naval yard and boarded the SS Haichi, but his wife narrowly evaded shelling and rifle-fire as she fled. They met on the SS Yungfeng, where Chiang joined them as soon as he could return from Shanghai, where he was ritually mourning his mother's death. For about 50 days, Chiang stayed with Sun, protecting and caring for him and earning his lasting trust. They abandoned their attacks on Chen on 9 August, taking a British ship to Hong Kong and traveling to Shanghai by steamer. ==Rising power== Sun Yat-sen died on 12 March 1925, creating a power vacuum in the Kuomintang. A contest ensued among Wang Ching-wei, Liao Chung-k‘ai, and Hu Han-min. In August, Liao was assassinated and Hu was arrested for his connections to the murderers. Wang Ching-wei, who had succeeded Sun as chairman of the Canton regime, seemed ascendant but was forced into exile by Chiang following the Canton Coup. The , renamed the Chung-shan in Sun's honour, had appeared off Changzhou, the location of the Whampoa Academy, on apparently-falsified orders and amid a series of unusual phone calls trying to ascertain Chiang's location. He initially considered fleeing Guangdong and even booked passage on a Japanese steamer but then decided to use his military connections to declare martial law on 20 March 1926 and to crack down on Communist and Soviet influence over the National Revolutionary Army, the military academy, and the party. The right wing of the party supported him, and Joseph Stalin, anxious to maintain Soviet influence in the area, had his lieutenants agree to Chiang's demands on a reduced Communist presence in the KMT leadership in exchange for certain other concessions. The rapid replacement of leadership enabled Chiang to effectively end civilian oversight of the military after 15 May, though his authority was somewhat limited by the army's own regional composition and divided loyalties. On 5 June 1926, he was named commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) and, on 27 July, he finally launched Sun's long-delayed Northern Expedition, aimed at conquering the northern warlords and bringing China together under the KMT. The NRA branched into three divisions: to the west was the returned Wang Jingwei, who led a column to take Wuhan; Bai Chongxi's column went east to take Shanghai; Chiang himself led in the middle route, planning to take Nanjing before pressing ahead to capture Beijing. However, in January 1927, Wang Jingwei and his KMT leftist allies took the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare. Allied with a number of Chinese Communists and advised by Soviet agent Mikhail Borodin, Wang declared the national government as having moved to Wuhan. In 1927, when Chiang was setting up the Nationalist government in Nanjing, he was preoccupied with "the elevation of our leader Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the rank of 'Father of our Chinese Republic'. Dr. Sun worked for 40 years to lead our people in the Nationalist cause, and we cannot allow any other personality to usurp this honored position". He asked Chen Guofu to purchase a photograph that had been taken in Japan or 1898. It showed members of the Revive China Society with Yeung Ku-wan as president, in the place of honor, and Sun, as secretary, on the back row, along with members of the Japanese Chapter of the Revive China Society. When told that it was not for sale, Chiang offered a million dollars to recover the photo and its negative, "The party must have this picture and the negative at any price. They must be destroyed as soon as possible. It would be embarrassing to have our Father of the Chinese Republic shown in a subordinate position". On 12 April 1927, Chiang carried out a purge of thousands of suspected Communists and dissidents in Shanghai, and began large-scale massacres across the country collectively known as the "White Terror". During April, more than 12000 people were killed in Shanghai. The killings drove most Communists from urban cities and into the rural countryside, where the KMT was less powerful. In the year after April 1927, over 300,000 people died across China in the anti-communist suppression campaigns, executed by the KMT. One of the most famous quotes from Chiang (during that time) was, that he would rather mistakenly kill 1,000 innocent people, than allow one Communist to escape. Some estimates claim the White Terror in China took millions of lives, most of them in rural areas. No concrete number can be verified. Chiang allowed Soviet agent and advisor Mikhail Borodin and Soviet general Vasily Blücher (Galens) to "escape" to safety after the purge. The NRA formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928. Now with an established national government in Nanjing, and supported by conservative allies including Hu Hanmin, Chiang's expulsion of the Communists and their Soviet advisers led to the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. Wang Jingwei's National Government was weak militarily, and was soon ended by Chiang with the support of a local warlord (Li Zongren of Guangxi). Eventually, Wang and his leftist party surrendered to Chiang and joined him in Nanjing. However, the cracks between Chiang and Hu's traditionally Right-Wing KMT faction, the Western Hills Group, began to show soon after the cleansing against the communists, and Chiang later imprisoned Hu. Though Chiang had consolidated the power of the KMT in Nanjing, it was still necessary to capture Beijing to claim the legitimacy needed for international recognition. Beijing was taken in June 1928, from an alliance of the warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan. Yan Xishan moved in and captured Beiping on behalf of his new allegiance after the death of Zhang Zuolin in 1928. His successor, Zhang Xueliang, accepted the authority of the KMT leadership, and the Northern Expedition officially concluded, completing Chiang's nominal unification of China and ending the Warlord Era. After the Northern Expedition ended in 1928, Yan, Feng, Li Zongren and Zhang Fakui broke off relations with Chiang shortly after a demilitarization conference in 1929, and together they formed an anti-Chiang coalition to openly challenge the legitimacy of the Nanjing government. In the Central Plains War, they were defeated. Chiang made great efforts to gain recognition as the official successor of Sun Yat-sen. In a pairing of great political significance, Chiang was Sun's brother-in-law. He had married Soong Mei-ling, the younger sister of Soong Ching-ling, Sun's widow, on 1 December 1927. Originally rebuffed in the early 1920s, Chiang managed to ingratiate himself to some degree with Soong Mei-ling's mother by first divorcing his wife and concubines and promising to sincerely study the precepts of Christianity. He read the copy of the Bible that May-ling had given him twice before making up his mind to become a Christian, and three years after his marriage he was baptized in the Soong's Methodist church. Although some observers felt that he adopted Christianity as a political move, studies of his recently opened diaries suggest that his faith was strong and sincere and that he felt that Christianity reinforced Confucian moral teachings. Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the new capital of Nanjing to be enshrined in a mausoleum, the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum. In the West and in the Soviet Union, Chiang Kai-shek was known as the "Red General". Movie theaters in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang. At Moscow, Sun Yat-sen University portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls; and, in the Soviet May Day parades that year, Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and other Communist leaders. The United States consulate and other Westerners in Shanghai were concerned about the approach of "Red General" Chiang as his army was seizing control of large areas of the country in the Northern Expedition. ==Rule== Having gained control of China, Chiang's party remained surrounded by defeated warlords who remained relatively autonomous within their own regions. On 10 October 1928, Chiang was named director of the State Council, the equivalent to President of the country, in addition to his other titles. As with his predecessor Sun Yat-sen, the Western media dubbed him "generalissimo". According to Sun Yat-sen's plans, the KMT was to rebuild China in three steps: military rule, political tutelage, and constitutional rule. The ultimate goal of the KMT revolution was democracy, which was not considered to be feasible in China's fragmented state. Since the KMT had completed the first step of revolution through seizure of power in 1928, Chiang's rule thus began a period of what his party considered to be "political tutelage" in Sun Yat-sen's name. During this so-called Republican Era, many features of a modern, functional Chinese state emerged and developed. From 1928 to 1937, known as the Nanjing decade, various aspects of foreign imperialism, concessions and privileges in China were moderated by diplomacy. The government acted to modernize the legal and penal systems and attempted to stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics, and augment industrial and agricultural production. Efforts were made to improve education standards, and the national academy of sciences, Academia Sinica, was founded. In an effort to unify Chinese society, the New Life Movement was launched to encourage Confucian moral values and personal discipline. Guoyu ("national language") was promoted as the official language, and the establishment of communications facilities (including radio) was used to encourage a sense of Chinese nationalism in a way that had not been possible when the nation lacked an effective central government. Under that context, the Chinese Rural Reconstruction Movement was implemented by some social activists who graduated as professors of the United States with tangible but limited progress in modernizing the tax, infrastructural, economic, cultural, and educational equipment and the mechanisms of rural regions. The social activists actively co-ordinated with the local governments in the towns and villages since the early 1930s. However, the policy was subsequently neglected and canceled by Chiang's government because of rampant wars and the lack of resources after the Japanese War and the civil war. Despite being a conservative, Chiang supported modernization policies such as scientific advancement, universal education, and women's rights. The Kuomintang supported women's suffrage and education and the abolition of polygamy and foot binding. Under Chiang's leadership, the Republic of China government also enacted a women's quota in the parliament, with reserved seats for women. During the Nanjing Decade, average Chinese citizens received education that they had been denied by the dynasties. That increased the literacy rate across China and also promoted the ideals of Tridemism of democracy, republicanism, science, constitutionalism, and Chinese nationalism based on the Dang Guo of the KMT. Any successes that the Nationalists achieved, however, were met with constant political and military upheavals. Many of the urban areas were now under the control of the KMT, but much of the countryside remained under the influence of weakened-but -undefeated warlords, landlords, and Communists. Chiang often resolved issues of warlord obstinacy through military action, but such action was costly in terms of men and material. The Central Plains War alone nearly bankrupted the Nationalist government and caused almost 250000 casualties on both sides. In 1931, Hu Hanmin, an old supporter of Chiang, publicly voiced a popular concern that Chiang's position as both premier and president flew in the face of the democratic ideals of the Nationalist government. Chiang had Hu put under house arrest, but Hu was released after national condemnation. Hu then left Nanjing and supported a rival government in Canton. The split resulted in a military conflict between Hu's Guangdong government and Chiang's Nationalist government. Throughout his rule, complete eradication of the Communists remained Chiang's dream. After he had assembled his forces in Jiangxi, Chiang led his armies against the newly established Chinese Soviet Republic. With help from foreign military advisers such as Max Bauer and Alexander von Falkenhausen, Chiang's Fifth Campaign finally surrounded the Chinese Red Army in 1934. The Communists, tipped off that a Nationalist offensive was imminent, retreated in the Long March during which Mao rose from a mere military official to the most influential leader of the Chinese Communist Party. Some academics and historians have classified Chiang's rule as fascist. The New Life Movement, initiated by Chiang, was based upon Confucianism mixed with Christianity, nationalism, and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. Frederic Wakeman argued that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism". Chiang also sponsored the creation of the Blue Shirts Society, in conscious imitation of the Blackshirts in the Italian Fascist Party and the Sturmabteilung of the Nazi Party. Its ideology was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China and to crush communism. Close ties with Nazi Germany also gave the Nationalist government access to German military and economic assistance during the mid-1930s. In a 1935 speech, Chiang stated that "fascism is what China now most needs" and described fascism as the stimulant for a declining society. Sino-German relations rapidly deteriorated as Germany grew closer to Japan and almost completely broke down when Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937, which Germany failed to mediate. However, China did not declare war on Germany, Italy, or even Japan until after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Chinese Communists and many conservative anti-communist writers have argued that Chiang was pro-capitalist based on the alliance thesis (the alliance between Chiang and the capitalists to purge the communist and the leftist elements in Shanghai, as well as in the resulting civil war). However, Chiang also antagonized the capitalists of Shanghai by often attacking them and confiscating their capital and assets for government use even while he denounced and fought against communists. Critics have called that "bureaucratic capitalism". Historian Parks M. Coble argues that the phrase "bureaucratic capitalism" is too simplistic to adequately characterize this phenomenon. Instead, he says, the regime weakened all social forces so that the government could pursue policies without being responsible nor responsive to any outside political groups. By defeating any potential challenge to its power, government officials could amass sizable fortunes. With that motive, Chiang cracked down pro-communist worker and peasant organizations, as well as rich Shanghai capitalists. Chiang also continued the anti-capitalist rhetoric of Sun Yat-sen and directed the Kuomintang media to attack the capitalists and capitalism openly. He supported government-controlled industries instead. Coble says that the rhetoric had no impact on governmental policy and that its use was to prevent the capitalists from claiming legitimacy within the party or society and to control them and their wealth. Authority within the Nationalist government ultimately lay with Chiang. All major policy changes on military, diplomatic, or economic issues required his approval. The Soong family embezzled $20 million in the course of the 1930s and the 1940s when the Nationalist government's revenues were less than $30 million per year. Soong Mei-ling and Soong Ai-ling lived luxurious lifestyles and held millions in property, clothes, art, and jewelry. Soong Ai-ling and Soong Mei-ling were also the two richest women in China. Despite living a luxurious life for almost her entire life, Soong Mei-ling left only a $120,000 inheritance, and the reason is that according to her niece, that she donated most of her wealth when she was still alive. Chiang, requiring support, tolerated corruption with people in his inner circles, as well as high-ranking nationalist officials, but not of lower-ranking officers. In 1934, he ordered seven military officers who embezzled state property to be shot. In another case, several division commanders pleaded with Chiang to pardon a criminal officer, but as soon as the division commanders had left, Chiang ordered him shot. The deputy editor and chief reporter at the Central Daily News, Lu Keng, made headline international news by exposing the corruption of two senior officials, Kong Xiangxi (H. H. Kung) and T. V. Soong. Chiang then ordered a thorough investigation of the Central Daily News to find the source. However, Lu risked execution by refusing to comply and protecting his journalists. Chiang wanting to avoid an international response and so jailed Lu instead. Chiang realized the widespread problems that corruption was creating, so he undertook several anti-corruption campaigns before and after World War II with varying success. Before the war, both campaigns, the Nanjing Decade Cleanup of 1927–1930 and the Wartime Reform Movement of 1944–1947, failed. After the World War II and the Civil War, both campaigns, the Kuomintang Reconstruction of 1950–1952 and the Governmental Rejuvenation of 1969–1973, succeeded. Chiang, who viewed all of the foreign great powers with suspicion, wrote in a letter that they "all have it in their minds to promote the interests of their own respective countries at the cost of other nations" and saw it as hypocritical for any of them to condemn one another's foreign policy. He used diplomatic persuasion on the United States, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union to regain lost Chinese territories, as he viewed all foreign powers as imperialists that were attempting to exploit China. ===First phase of Chinese Civil War=== During April 1931, Chiang Kai-shek attended a national leadership conference in Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang and General Ma Fuxiang during which Chiang and Zhang dauntlessly upheld that Manchuria was part of China in the face of the Japanese invasion. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Chiang resigned as Chairman of the National Government. He returned shortly afterward and adopted the slogan "first internal pacification, then external resistance." However, his policy of avoiding a frontal war against Japan and prioritizing anti-communist suppression was widely unpopular and provoked nationwide protests. In 1932, while Chiang was seeking first to defeat the Communists, Japan launched an advance on Shanghai and bombarded Nanjing. That disrupted Chiang's offensives against the Communists for a time, but it was the northern factions of Hu Hanmin's Guangdong government (notably the 19th Route Army) that primarily led the offensive against the Japanese during the skirmish. Brought into the NRA immediately after the battle, the 19th Route Army's career under Chiang would be cut short by being disbanded for demonstrating socialist tendencies. In December 1936, Chiang flew to Xi'an to co-ordinate a major assault on the Red Army and the CPC, which had retreated into Yan'an. However, Chiang's allied commander Zhang Xueliang, whose forces were used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been recently invaded by the Japanese, did not support the attack on the Communists. On 12 December, Zhang and several other Nationalist generals, headed by Yang Hucheng of Shaanxi kidnapped Chiang for two weeks in what is known as the Xi'an Incident. They forced Chiang into making a "Second United Front" with the Communists against Japan. After releasing Chiang and returning to Nanjing with him, Zhang was placed under house arrest, and the generals who had assisted him were executed. The Second United Front had a commitment by Chiang that was nominal at best and was all but dissolved in 1941. ===Second Sino-Japanese War=== The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in July 1937, and in August, Chiang sent 600000 of his best-trained and equipped soldiers to defend Shanghai. With over 200,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost the political cream of his Whampoa-trained officers. Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled Japan's claims that it could conquer China in three months and also demonstrated to the Western powers that the Chinese would continue the fight. By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the Japanese resulting in the Nanjing Massacre. Chiang moved the government inland first to Wuhan and later to Chongqing. Having lost most of China's economic and industrial centers, Chiang withdrew into the hinterlands, stretched the Japanese supply lines, and bogged down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior. As part of a policy of protracted resistance, Chiang authorized the use of scorched-earth tactics, which resulted in many civilian deaths. During the Nationalists' retreat from Zhengzhou, the dams around the city were deliberately destroyed by the National Revolutionary Army to delay the Japanese advance, and the subsequent 1938 Yellow River flood killed 800,000 to one million people. Four million Chinese were left homeless. In 1939, the Muslim leaders Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent by Chiang to several Middle Eastern countries, including Egypt, Turkey, and Syria, to gain support for the war against Japan and to express his support for Muslims. The Japanese, controlling the puppet state of Manchukuo and much of China's eastern seaboard, appointed Wang Jingwei as a puppet ruler of the occupied Chinese territories around Nanjing. Wang named himself President of the Executive Yuan and chairman, and he led a surprisingly large minority of anti-Chiang and anti-Communist Chinese against his old comrades. He died in 1944, a year before the end of World War II. The Hui Xidaotang sect pledged allegiance to the Kuomintang after the party's rise to power, and Hui general Bai Chongxi acquainted Chiang with the Xidaotang Juaozhu Ma Mingren in 1941 in Chongqing. In 1942 Chiang went on tour in northwestern China in Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, and Qinghai, where he met the Muslim Generals Ma Buqing and Ma Bufang. He also met the Muslim Generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Hongkui separately. A border crisis erupted with Tibet in 1942. Under orders from Chiang, Ma Bufang repaired Yushu Airport to prevent Tibetan separatists from seeking independence. Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942. Ma Bufang complied and moved several thousand troops to the Tibetan border. Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment if they worked with the Japanese. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941. He also constantly attacked the Labrang Monastery. After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the opening of the Pacific War, China became one of the Allies. During and after World War II, Chiang and his American-educated wife, Soong Mei-ling, known in the United States as "Madame Chiang", held the support of the American China Lobby, which saw in them the hope of a Christian and democratic China. Chiang was even named the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the China war zone. He was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1942. General Joseph Stilwell, an American military advisor to Chiang during World War II, strongly criticized Chiang and his generals for what Stilwell saw as their incompetence and corruption. In 1944, the United States Army Air Corps commenced Operation Matterhorn to bomb Japan's steel industry from bases to be constructed in mainland China. That was meant to fulfill US President Franklin D. Roosevelt's promise to Chiang to begin bombing operations against Japan by November 1944. However, Chiang's subordinates refused to take air base construction seriously until enough capital had been delivered to permit embezzlement on a massive scale. Stilwell estimated that at least half of the $100 million spent on construction of air bases was embezzled by Nationalist party officials. The poor performance of Nationalist forces during the Japanese Ichigo campaign contributed to the view that Chiang was incompetent. === French Indochina === President Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that he preferred for the French not to reacquire French Indochina (now Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang replied in English, "Under no circumstances!" After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and the Chinese forces remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned. The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents. Chiang threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other and forced them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. After France's agreement to those demands, 20,000 French soldiers landed in Haiphong, North Vietnam, on 6 March 1946, under the leadership of general Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, followed by the withdrawal of Chinese troops which began in March 1946. ===Ryukyus=== According to Republic of China's notes of a dinner meeting during the Cairo Conference in 1943, Roosevelt asked Chiang whether China desired the Ryukyu Islands as territories restored from Japan. Chiang said he would be agreeable to joint occupation and administration by China and the United States. ===Second phase of Chinese Civil War=== ====Treatment and use of Japanese soldiers==== Because of Chiang's focus on his communist opponents, he allowed some Japanese forces and forces from the Japanese puppet regimes to remain on duty in occupied areas in an effort to prevent the communists from accepting their surrender. In 1949, a Nationalist court acquitted General Okamura Yasuji, the chief commander of Japanese forces in China, of alleged war crimes, Nationalist China repeatedly intervened to protect Okamura from repeated American requests to testify at the Tokyo war crimes trial. The war had severely weakened the Nationalists, and the Communists were strengthened by their popular land reform policies and by a rural population that supported and trusted them. The Nationalists initially had superiority in arms and men, but their lack of popularity, infiltration by Communist agents, low morale, and disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand in the civil war. After World War II, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and the Communist leader, Mao Zedong, in Chongqing. Concerns about widespread and well-documented corruption in Chiang's government throughout his rule made the US government limit aid to Chiang for much of the period of 1946 to 1948 despite the fighting against Mao's Red Army. Alleged infiltration of the US government by CCP agents may have also played a role in the suspension of American aid. Chiang's right-hand man, the secret police chief Dai Li, was anti-American and anti-Communist and a self-declared fascist. Dai ordered Kuomintang agents to spy on American officers. Earlier, Dai had been involved with the Blue Shirts Society, a fascist-inspired paramilitary group within the Kuomintang that wanted to expel Western and Japanese imperialists, crush the Communists, and eliminate feudalism. Dai Li died in a plane crash, which some suspect to be an assassination orchestrated by Chiang; however, the assassination was also rumoured to have been arranged by the American Office of Strategic Services because of Dai's anti-Americanism and since it happened on an American plane. ==== Conflict with Li Zongren ==== A new constitution was promulgated in 1947, and Chiang was elected by the National Assembly as the first President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1948. That marked the beginning of what was termed the "democratic constitutional government" period by the KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists refused to recognize the new Constitution, and its government as legitimate. Chiang resigned as president on 21 January 1949, as Nationalist forces suffered terrible losses and defections to the Communists. After Chiang's resignation, vice-president Li Zongren became China's acting president. Shortly after Chiang's resignation, the Communists halted their advances and attempted to negotiate the Nationalists' virtual surrender. Li tried to negotiate milder terms to end the civil war but had no success. When it became clear that Li was unlikely to accept Mao's terms, the Communists issued an ultimatum in April 1949 that warned that they would resume their attacks if Li did not agree within five days. Li refused. Li's attempts to carry out his policies faced varying degrees of opposition from Chiang's supporters and were generally unsuccessful. Taylor has noted that Chiang had a superstitious belief in holding Manchuria. After the Nationalist military defeat in the province, Chiang lost faith in winning the war and started to prepare for the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang especially antagonized Li by taking possession of and moving to Taiwan US$200 million of gold and US dollars that belonged to the central government. Li desperately needed them to cover the government's soaring expenses. When the Communists captured the Nationalist capital of Nanjing in April 1949, Li refused to accompany the central government as it fled to Guangdong and instead expressed his dissatisfaction with Chiang by retiring to Guangxi. The former warlord Yan Xishan, who had fled to Nanjing only one month earlier, quickly insinuated himself within the Li-Chiang rivalry and attempted to have Li and Chiang reconcile their differences in the effort to resist the Communists. At Chiang's request, Yan visited Li to convince Li not to withdraw from public life. Yan broke down in tears while he talked of the loss of his home province of Shanxi to the Communists, and he warned Li that the Nationalist cause was doomed unless Li went to Guangdong. Li agreed to return if Chiang surrendered most of the gold and US dollars in his possession that belonged to the central government, and Chiang stopped overriding Li's authority. After Yan communicated those demands and Chiang agreed to comply with them, Li departed for Guangdong. In Guangdong, Li attempted to create a new government composed of both supporters and opponents of Chiang. Li's first choice of premier was Chu Cheng, a veteran member of the Kuomintang who had been virtually driven into exile for his strong opposition to Chiang. After the Legislative Yuan jas rejected Chu, Li was obliged to choose Yan Xishan instead. By then, Yan was well known for his adaptability, and Chiang welcomed his appointment. The conflict between Chiang and Li persisted. Although he had agreed to do so as a prerequisite of Li's return, Chiang refused to surrender more than a fraction of the wealth that he had sent to Taiwan. Without being backed by gold or foreign currency, the money that was issued by Li and Yan quickly declined in value until it became virtually worthless. Although he did not hold a formal executive position in the government, Chiang continued to issue orders to the army, and many officers continued to obey Chiang, rather than Li. The inability of Li to co-ordinate KMT military forces led him to put into effect a plan of defense that he had contemplated in 1948. Instead of attempting to defend all of southern China, Li ordered what remained of the Nationalist armies to withdraw to Guangxi and Guangdong. He hoped that he could concentrate all available defenses on the smaller area, which would be more easily defensible. The object of Li's strategy was to maintain a foothold on the Chinese mainland in the hope that the United States would eventually be compelled to enter the war in China on the Nationalist side. ==== Final Communist advance ==== Chiang opposed Li's plan of defense because it would have placed most of the troops who were still loyal to Chiang under the control of Li and Chiang's other opponents in the central government. To overcome Chiang's intransigence, Li began ousting Chiang's supporters within the central government. Yan Xishan continued in his attempts to work with both sides, which created the impression among Li's supporters that he was a stooge of Chiang, and those who supported Chiang began to bitterly resent Yan for his willingness to work with Li. Because of the rivalry between Chiang and Li, Chiang refused to allow Nationalist troops loyal to him to aid in the defense of Guangxi and Canton. That let Communist forces occupy Canton in October 1949. After Canton fell to the Communists, Chiang relocated the government to Chongqing, and Li effectively surrendered his powers and flew to New York for treatment of his chronic duodenum illness at the Hospital of Columbia University. Li visited President Truman, and denounced Chiang as a dictator and an usurper. Li vowed that he would "return to crush" Chiang once he returned to China. Li remained in exile and did not return to Taiwan. In the early morning of 10 December 1949, Communist troops laid siege to Chengdu, the last KMT-controlled city in mainland China, where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defense at the Chengtu Central Military Academy. Flying out of Chengdu Fenghuangshan Airport, father and son were evacuated to Taiwan via Guangdong on the aircraft May-ling and arrived the same day. Chiang Kai-shek would never return to the mainland. Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang had. Also, his search for a powerful centralized government made Chiang antagonize too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened by the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese nationalism. Chiang did not reassume the presidency until 1 March 1950. In January 1952, Chiang commanded the Control Yuan, now in Taiwan, to impeach Li in the "Case of Li Zongren's Failure to carry out Duties due to Illegal Conduct" (李宗仁違法失職案). Chiang relieved Li of the position as vice-president of the National Assembly in March 1954. ===In Taiwan=== ==== Preparations to retake the mainland ==== Chiang moved the government to Taipei, Taiwan, where he resumed his duties as president on 1 March 1950. Chiang was re-elected by the National Assembly to be the President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1954, and again in 1960, 1966, and 1972. He continued to claim sovereignty over all of China, including the territories held by his government and the People's Republic, as well as territory the latter ceded to foreign governments, such as Tuva and Outer Mongolia. In the context of the Cold War, most of the Western world recognized that position, and the ROC represented China in the United Nations and other international organizations until the 1970s. During his presidency on Taiwan, Chiang continued making preparations to take back mainland China. He developed the JROTC army to prepare for an invasion of the mainland and to defend Taiwan in case of an attack by the Communist forces. He also financed armed groups in mainland China, such as Muslim soldiers of the ROC Army who had been left in Yunnan under Li Mi and continued to fight. It was not until the 1980s that those troops were finally airlifted to Taiwan. He promoted the Uyghur Yulbars Khan to governor during the Islamic insurgency on the mainland for resisting the Communists even though the government had already evacuated to Taiwan. He planned an invasion of the mainland in 1962. In the 1950s, Chiang's airplanes dropped supplies to Kuomintang Muslim insurgents in Qinghai, in the traditional Tibetan area of Amdo. ==== Regime in Taiwan ==== Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a de facto one-party state, consisting almost completely of mainlanders; the "Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion" greatly enhanced the executive's powers, and the goal of retaking mainland China allowed the KMT to maintain a monopoly on power and to prohibit real parliamentary opposition. The government's official line for the martial law provisions stemmed from the claim that emergency provisions were necessary since the Communists and the Nationalists were still in a state of war. Seeking to promote Chinese nationalism, Chiang's government actively ignored and suppressed local cultural expression and even forbade the use of local languages in mass media broadcasts or during class sessions. As a result of Taiwan's anti-government uprising in 1947, known as the February 28 incident, the KMT-led political repression resulted in the death or the disappearance of up to 30,000 Taiwanese intellectuals, activists, and people suspected of opposition to the KMT. In the aftermath of the retreat to Taiwan, Chiang became increasingly disillusioned with the Kuomintang (KMT), believing that rampant corruption, power-brokering, and factional struggles—particularly the CC Clique, which challenged Chiang's authority—had severely undermined the party’s ability to govern effectively. At one point, he considered dissolving the KMT altogether and replacing it with a new party. However, in 1950, he ultimately chose to initiate a major reform effort within the KMT, launching the Party Reform Program (國民黨改造方案) and establishing the Central Reform Committee (中央改造委員會). The committee aimed to emulate aspects of the Chinese Communist Party’s organizational structure, seeking to create a highly disciplined, centralized, and people-supporting party apparatus that could exert top-down authoritarian control while incorporating grassroots feedback. The reform plan called for rapid party expansion, increasing membership from 80,000 to 500,000 within five years, and implementing KMT branches within public institutions such as schools. Additionally, Chiang sought to root out corrupt officials and establish a meritocratic system, mandating that government positions be filled primarily by technocrats selected from top universities. The first decades after the Nationalists had moved the seat of government to the province of Taiwan are associated with the organized effort to resist Communism, which was known as the "White Terror"; about 140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned for their real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang. Most of those prosecuted were labeled by the Kuomintang as "bandit spies" (匪諜), meaning spies for Chinese Communists, and punished as such or "Taiwanese Separatists" (台獨分子). Under the pretext that new elections could not be held in Communist-occupied constituencies, the National Assembly, Legislative Yuan, and Control Yuan members held their posts indefinitely. The Temporary Provisions also allowed Chiang to remain as president beyond the two-term limit in the Constitution. He was re-elected by the National Assembly as president four times: in 1954, 1960, 1966, and 1972. Believing that corruption and the lack of morals were key reasons that the KMT had lost mainland China to the Communists, Chiang attempted to purge corruption by dismissing members of the KMT who were accused of graft. Some major figures in the previous mainland Chinese government, such as Chiang's brothers-in-law H. H. Kung, T. V. Soong and nephew Chen Lifu, exiled themselves to the United States. Although politically authoritarian and, to some extent, dominated by government-owned industries, Chiang's new Taiwanese state also encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector. A popular sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American foreign aid during the 1950s, laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. After retreating to Taiwan, Chiang learned from his mistakes and failures in the mainland and blamed them for failing to pursue Sun Yat-sen's ideals of Tridemism and welfarism. Chiang's land reform more than doubled the land ownership of Taiwanese farmers. It removed the rent burdens on them, with former landowners using the government compensation to become the new capitalist class. He promoted a mixed economy of state and private ownership with economic planning. Chiang also promoted a nine-year free education and the importance of science in Taiwanese education and values. Those measures generated great success, with consistent and strong growth and the stabilization of inflation. After the government of the Republic of China had moved to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek's economic policy turned towards to economic liberalism and used Sho-Chieh Tsiang and other liberal economists to promote economic liberalization reforms in Taiwan. However, Taylor has noted that the developmental model of Chiangism in Taiwan still had elements of socialism, and the Gini index of Taiwan was around 0.28 by the 1970s, which was lower than the relatively-egalitarian West Germany. ROC (Taiwan) was one of the most equal countries in the pro-western bloc. Those in the lower 40% of income doubled their share to 22% of the total income, with the upper 20% shrinking their share from 61% to 39%, from the time of Japanese rule. The Chiangist economic model can be seen as a form of dirigisme, with the state playing a crucial role in directing the market economy. Small businesses and state-owned enterprises in Taiwan flourished under the economic model, but the economy did not see the emergence of corporate monopolies, unlike in most other major capitalist countries. After the democratization of Taiwan, it began to slowly drift away from the Chiangist economic policy to embrace a more free market system, as part of the economic globalization process under the context of neoliberalism. Chiang had the personal power to review the rulings of all military tribunals, which during the martial law period tried civilians as well. In 1950, Lin Pang-chun and two other men were arrested on charges of financial crimes and sentenced to 3–10 years in prison. Chiang reviewed the sentences of all three and ordered them executed instead. In 1954, the Changhua monk Kao Chih-te and two others were sentenced to 12 years in prison for providing aid to accused communists. Chiang sentenced them to death after he had reviewed the case. That control over the decision of military tribunals violated the ROC constitution. After Chiang's death, the next president, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor, Lee Teng-hui, a native Taiwanese, would in the 1980s and 1990s increase native Taiwanese representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the early era of ROC control in Taiwan, paving way for the democratization process. ====Relations with Japan==== In 1971, the former Australian opposition leader Gough Whitlam became Prime Minister in 1972, and swiftly relocated the Australian mission from Taipei to Beijing, visited Japan. After meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato Whitlam observed that the reason that Japan was hesitant to withdraw recognition from the Nationalist government was "the presence of a treaty between the Japanese government and that of Chiang Kai-shek." Sato explained that the continued recognition of Japan towards the Nationalist government was largely because of the personal relationship that various members of the Japanese government felt towards Chiang. This relationship was rooted largely in the generous and lenient treatment of Japanese prisoners-of-war by the Nationalist government in the years immediately after the Japanese surrender in 1945, and was felt especially strongly as a bond of personal obligation by the most senior members who were in power. Although Japan recognized the People's Republic in 1972, shortly after Kakuei Tanaka had succeeded Sato as Prime Minister of Japan, the memory of the relationship was strong enough to be reported by The New York Times (15 April 1978) as a significant factor inhibiting trade between Japan and the mainland. There is speculation that a clash between Communist forces and a Japanese warship in 1978 was caused by Chinese anger over Japanese Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda attending Chiang's funeral. Historically, Japan's attempts to normalize its relationship with the People's Republic were met with accusations of ingratitude in Taiwan. ====Relations with United States==== Chiang was suspicious that covert operatives of the United States were plotting a coup against him. In 1950, Chiang Ching-kuo became director of the secret police (Bureau of Investigation and Statistics), which he remained until 1965. Chiang Kai-shek was also suspicious of politicians who were overly friendly to the United States and considered them his enemies. In 1953, seven days after surviving an assassination attempt, Wu Kuo-chen lost his position as governor of Taiwan Province to Chiang Ching-kuo. After fleeing to United States the same year, Wu became a vocal critic of Chiang's family and government. Chiang Ching-kuo, who had been educated in the Soviet Union, initiated Soviet-style military organization in the Republic of China Armed Forces. He reorganized and Sovietized the political officer corps and propagated Kuomintang ideology throughout the military. Sun Li-jen, who had been educated at the American Virginia Military Institute, opposed those practices. Chiang Ching-kuo orchestrated the controversial court-martial and arrest of General Sun Li-jen in August 1955 for plotting a coup d'état with the CIA against his father, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Kuomintang. The CIA allegedly wanted to help Sun take control of Taiwan and declare its independence. ==Death== In 1975, 26 years after Chiang had come to Taiwan, he died in Taipei at the age of 87. He had suffered a heart attack and pneumonia in the foregoing months, and died from kidney failure aggravated by advanced heart failure on 5 April. Chiang's funeral was held on 16 April. A month of mourning was declared. The Chinese music composer Hwang Yau-tai wrote the "Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song". In mainland China, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent mourning, and Communist state-run newspapers gave the brief headline "Chiang Kai-shek Has Died". Chiang's body was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in Cihu, Daxi, Taoyuan. His funeral was attended by dignitaries from many nations, including US Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, South Korean Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil, and two former Japanese prime ministers: Nobusuke Kishi and Eisaku Sato. was established on 5 April. The memorial day was disestablished in 2007. The response by Japanese media was swift and shaped by a cult of personality around Chiang Kai-shek. Japanese conservatives had long promoted to counter the China policy and the historical narratives of their leftist pro-PRC opponents. The nationalist leader of Taiwan had been trained in Japanese military schools and shared a particular fondness for the Japanese Empire. When his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, died in 1988, he was entombed in a separate mausoleum in nearby Touliao. The hope was to have both of them buried at their birthplace in Fenghua when that would be possible. In 2004, Chiang Fang-liang, the widow of Chiang Ching-kuo, asked for both father and son to be buried at Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery in Xizhi, Taipei County (now New Taipei City). Chiang's ultimate funeral ceremony became a political battle between the wishes of the state and those of his family. Chiang was succeeded as president by Vice President Yen Chia-kan and as Kuomintang party ruler by his son Chiang Ching-kuo, who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the position of chairman. Yen's presidency was interim; Chiang Ching-kuo, who was the Premier, became president after the end of Yen's term three years later. == Cult of personality == Chiang's portrait hung over Tiananmen Square until 1949, when it was replaced with Mao's portrait. Portraits of Chiang were common in private homes and in public on the streets. After his death, the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song was written in 1988 to commemorate Chiang Kai-shek. In Cihu, there are several statues of Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang was popular among many people and dressed in plain, simple clothes, unlike contemporary Chinese warlords who dressed extravagantly. Quotes from the Quran and hadith were used by Muslims in the Kuomintang-controlled Muslim publication, the Yuehua, to justify Chiang Kai-shek's rule over China. When the Muslim general and warlord Ma Lin was interviewed, he was described as having "high admiration for and unwavering loyalty to Chiang Kai-shek". == Philosophy == The Kuomintang used traditional Chinese religious ceremonies, and promulgated martyrdom. Kuomintang ideology subserved and promulgated the view that the souls of Party martyrs who died fighting for the Kuomintang, the revolution, and the party founder Sun Yat-sen were sent to heaven. Chiang Kai-shek believed that these martyrs witnessed events on Earth from heaven after their deaths. Unlike Sun's original Tridemist ideology that was heavily influenced by Western enlightenment theorists such as Henry George, Abraham Lincoln, Bertrand Russell, and John Stuart Mill, the traditional Chinese Confucian influence on Chiang's ideology is much stronger. Chiang rejected the Western progressive ideologies of individualism, liberalism, and the cultural aspects of Marxism. Therefore, Chiang is generally more culturally and socially conservative than Sun Yat-sen. Jay Taylor has described Chiang Kai-shek as a revolutionary nationalist and a "left-leaning Confucian-Jacobinist". When the Northern Expedition was complete, Kuomintang Generals led by Chiang Kai-shek paid tribute to Sun's soul in heaven with a sacrificial ceremony at the Xiangshan Temple in Beijing in July 1928. Among the Kuomintang Generals present were the Muslim Generals Bai Chongxi and Ma Fuxiang. Chiang Kai-shek considered both Han Chinese and all ethnic minorities of China, the Five Races Under One Union, as descendants of the Yellow Emperor, the mythical founder of the Chinese nation, and belonging to the Chinese Nation Zhonghua Minzu. He introduced this into Kuomintang ideology which was propagated into the educational system of the Republic of China. Chiang, as a Chinese nationalist and a Confucian, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. Motivated by his sense of nationalism, he viewed some Western ideas as foreign and believed that the great introduction of Western ideas and literature, which the May Fourth Movement promoted, was not beneficial to China. He and Sun criticized the May Fourth intellectuals as corrupting the morals of China's youth. Chiang Kai-shek once said: == Contemporary perception == Chiang's legacy has been subjected to heated debates. For some, Chiang was a national hero who led the victorious Northern Expedition against the Beiyang warlords in 1927 and helped achieve Chinese unification. His initial image as the leader of China against Japan's invasion, both before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor, led him to be featured on the cover of Time magazine ten times. Even though China received little American aid compared to Britain and the Soviet Union, it did not fold, as Chiang called on his countrymen to fight to the "bitter end" until their ultimate victory against Japan in 1945. Some also see him as a champion of anti-communism, being a key figure during the formative years of the World Anti-Communist League. During the subsequent Cold War, he was seen as the leader who led Free China and the bulwark against a possible communist invasion. However, historian Rudolph Rummel documented that the Nationalist government under Chiang led to millions of excess deaths from calamities such as its persecution against actual or perceived communists and its conscription of soldiers, confiscation of food, and flooding of downstream regions of the Yellow River during the Second Sino-Japanese War. His government was also accused of being corrupt and allying with known criminals such as Du Yuesheng for political and financial gains, and his critics often accuse him of fascism. His popularity in Taiwan is divided along political lines, enjoying better support in the Kuomintang (KMT) while being widely unpopular among Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) voters and those who blame him for the thousands killed during the February 28 Incident and criticise his dictatorial rule. In contrast, his image has partially improved in mainland China. He had been portrayed as a villain and a "bourgeoisie reactionary lackey" who fought against the "liberation" of China by the communists, but since the 2000s, the media and popular culture have depicted him in a less negative manner. In the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, aspects of Chiang's trip to India, or meeting with Roosevelt and Churchill in Cairo can be viewed positively. Chiang's ancestral home in Fenghua, Zhejiang, has become a museum and tourist attraction. Historian Rana Mitter notes that the displays inside were very positive about Chiang's role during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Mitter further observed that, ironically, today's China is closer to Chiang's vision than to Mao's and wrote, "One can imagine Chiang Kai-shek's ghost wandering round China today nodding in approval, while Mao's ghost follows behind him, moaning at the destruction of his vision". Liang Shuming opined that Chiang Kai-shek's "greatest contribution was to make the CCP successful. If he had been a bit more trustworthy, if his character was somewhat better, the CCP would have been unable to beat him". Some Chinese historians argue that the main determinants for Chiang's defeat were not corruption or the lack of US support, but his decision to start the civil war with 70% of government expenditures in the military, his overestimation of the Nationalist forces equipped with US arms, and the loss of popularity and morales of his soldiers. Other historians argue that his failure was largely caused by external factors outside of Chiang's control. They include the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang by withdrawing aid, the foisting of an arms embargo by George C. Marshall, the failed pursuit of a détente between the nationalists and the communists, the American push for a coalition government with the CCP, and the USSR's consistent aid and support for the CCP during the civil war. In the United States and Europe, Chiang was often perceived negatively as the one who lost China to the communists. His persistent demands for United States support and funding also prompted jokes from American officials that Chiang's name was actually General "Cash-My-Check". In recent years, Chiang's image has been somewhat rehabilitated, and he has been increasingly perceived as a man overwhelmed by the events in China, having to fight the communists, Japanese, and provincial warlords simultaneously while trying to reconstruct and unify the country. His sincere, albeit often unsuccessful attempts to build a more powerful and modern nation have been noted by scholars such as Jonathan Fenby, Rana Mitter, and biographer Jay Taylor. ==Family== === Wives === File:Mao Fumei.jpg\|Mao Fumei (1882–1939), who died in the Second Sino-Japanese War during a bombardment, is the mother of his son and successor Chiang Ching-kuo File:Yao Zhicheng.jpg\|Yao Yecheng (1889–1972), who came to Taiwan and died in Taipei File:Chen Jieru.jpg\|Chen Jieru ("Jennie", 1906–1971), who lived in Shanghai, but moved to Hong Kong later and died there File:Soong May-ling wearing China Air Force pin.jpg\|Soong Mei-ling (1898–2003), who moved to the United States after Chiang Kai-shek's death, is arguably his most famous wife even though they had no children together In 1901, in an arranged marriage at age 14, Chiang was married to Mao Fumei, an illiterate villager five years his senior. While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two concubines (concubinage was still a common practice for well-to-do, non-Christian males in China): he took Yao Yecheng (, 1887–1966) as concubine in late 1912 and married Chen Jieru (1906–1971) in December 1921. While he was still living in Shanghai, Chiang and Yao adopted a son, Wei-kuo. Chen adopted a daughter in 1924, named Yaoguang, who later adopted her mother's surname. Chen's autobiography refuted the idea that she was a concubine. Chen claiming that, by the time she married Chiang, he had already divorced Yao, and that Chen was therefore his wife. Chiang and Mao had a son, Ching-kuo. According to the memoirs of Chen Jieru, Chiang's second wife, she contracted gonorrhea from Chiang soon after their marriage. He told her that he acquired this disease after separating from his first wife and living with his concubine Yao Yecheng, as well as with many other women he consorted with. His doctor explained to her that Chiang had sex with her before completing his treatment for the disease. As a result, both Chiang and Chen Jieru believed that they had become sterile; however, a purported miscarriage by Soong Mei-ling in August 1928 would, if it actually occurred, cast serious doubt on whether this was true. === Family tree === The Xikou Chiangs were descended from Chiang Shih-chieh, who during the 1600s moved there from Fenghua district, and whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang (Chekiang) province after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century CE. The 12th century BCE Duke of Zhou's (Duke of Chou) third son was the ancestors of the Chiangs. His great-grandfather was Chiang Qi-zeng, his grandfather was Chiang Si-qian, his uncle was Chiang Zhao-hai, and his father was Chiang Zhao-cong. == Religion and relationships with religious communities == Chiang personally dealt extensively with religions, power figures, and factions in China during his regime. === Religious views === Chiang Kai-shek was born and raised as a Buddhist, but became a Methodist upon his marriage to his fourth wife, Soong Mei-ling. It was previously believed that this was a political move, but further studies of his personal diaries suggest that his faith was sincere. === Relationship with Muslims === Chiang developed relationships with other generals. Chiang became a sworn brother of the Chinese Muslim general Ma Fuxiang and appointed him to high ranking positions. Chiang addressed Ma Fuxiang's son Ma Hongkui as Shao Yun Shixiong Ma Fuxiang attended national leadership conferences with Chiang during battles against Japan. Ma Hongkui was eventually scapegoated for the failure of the Ningxia Campaign against the Communists, so he moved to the US instead of remaining in Taiwan with Chiang. When Chiang became President of China after the Northern Expedition, he carved out Ningxia and Qinghai out of Gansu province, and appointed Muslim generals as military governors of all three provinces: Ma Hongkui, Ma Hongbin, and Ma Qi. The three Muslim governors, known as Xibei San Ma (), controlled armies composed entirely of Muslims. Chiang called on the three and their subordinates to wage war against the Soviet peoples, Tibetans, Communists, and the Japanese. Chiang continued to appoint Muslims as governors of the three provinces, including Ma Lin and Ma Fushou. Chiang's appointments, the first time that Muslims had been appointed as governors of Gansu, increased the prestige of Muslim officials in northwestern China. The armies raised by this "Ma Clique", most notably their Muslim cavalry, were incorporated into the KMT army. Chiang appointed Hui general Bai Chongxi as the Minister of National Defence of the Republic of China, which controlled the ROC military. Chiang also supported the Muslim General Ma Zhongying, whom he had trained at Whampoa Military Academy during the Kumul Rebellion, in a jihad against Jin Shuren, Sheng Shicai, and the Soviet Union during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Chiang designated Ma's Muslim army as the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) and gave his troops KMT flags and uniforms. Chiang then supported Muslim General Ma Hushan against Sheng and the Soviet Union in the Xinjiang War (1937). All Muslim generals commissioned by Chiang in the National Revolutionary Army swore allegiance to him. Several, like Ma Shaowu and Ma Hushan were loyal to Chiang and Kuomintang hardliners. The Ili Rebellion and Pei-ta-shan Incident plagued relations with the Soviet Union during Chiang's rule and caused trouble with the Uyghurs. During the Ili Rebellion and Peitashan incident, Chiang deployed Hui troops against Uyghur mobs in Turfan, and against Soviet Russian and Mongols at Peitashan. During Chiang's rule, attacks on foreigners and ethnic minorities by the allied warlords of the Nationalist government such as the Ma Clique flared up in several incidents. One of these was the Battle of Kashgar where a Muslim army loyal to the Kuomintang massacred 4,500 Uyghurs, and killed several Britons at the British consulate in Kashgar. Hu Songshan, a Muslim Imam, backed Chiang Kai-shek's regime and gave prayers for his government. ROC flags were saluted by Muslims in Ningxia during prayer along with exhortations to nationalism during Chiang's rule. Chiang sent Muslim students abroad to study at places like Al-Azhar University and Muslim schools throughout China that taught loyalty to his regime. The Yuehua, a Chinese Muslim publication, quoted the Quran and hadith to justify submitting to Chiang Kai-shek as the leader of China, and as justification for Jihad in the war against Japan. The Yihewani (Ikhwan al Muslimun a.k.a. Muslim brotherhood) was the predominant Muslim sect backed by the Chiang government during Chiang's regime. Other Muslim sects, like the Xidaotang and Sufi brotherhoods like Jahriyya and Khuffiya were also supported by his regime. The Chinese Muslim Association, a pro-Kuomintang and anti-Communist organization, was set up by Muslims working in his regime. Salafists attempted to gain a foothold in China during his regime, but the Yihewani and Hanafi Sunni Gedimu denounced the Salafis as radicals, engaged in fights against them, and declared them heretics, forcing the Salafis to form a separate sect. Ma Ching-chiang, a Muslim General, served as an advisor to Chiang Kai-shek. Ma Buqing was another Muslim General who fled to Taiwan along with Chiang. His government donated money to build the Taipei Grand Mosque on Taiwan. === Relationship with Buddhists and Christians === Chiang had uneasy relations with the Tibetans. He fought against them in the Sino-Tibetan War, and he supported the Muslim General Ma Bufang in his war against Tibetan rebels in Qinghai. Chiang ordered Ma Bufang to prepare his Islamic army to invade Tibet several times, to deter Tibetan independence, and threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941. == Honours == Republic of China national honours Order of National Glory Order of Blue Sky and White Sun Order of the Sacred Tripod Order of Brilliant Jade Order of Propitious Clouds Order of the Cloud and Banner Order of Brilliant Star Honour Sabre of the Awakened Lion Foreign honours Dominican Republic: Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella (January 1940) Order of Christopher Columbus (July 1948) Grand Cross of the Order of Christopher Columbus (October 1971) Philippines: Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (1949) Grand Collar of the Ancient Order of Sikatuna (2 May 1960) United States: Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (9 July 1943) Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army) (March 1946) South Korea: Order of Merit for National Foundation (27 November 1953) Grand Order of Mugunghwa (15 February 1966) Thailand: Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (5 June 1963) Colombia: Order of Boyaca (October 1963) United Kingdom: Order of the Bath (1941) Peru: Order of the Sun of Peru (October 1944) Czechoslovakia: Order of the White Lion (30 May 1945) France: Legion of Honour (9 January 1945) Chile: Order of Merit (Chile) (29 January 1944) Mexico: Order of the Aztec Eagle (April 1945) Greece: Order of the Redeemer (22 March 1957) Jordan: Supreme Order of the Renaissance (9 March 1959) Brazil: Order of the Southern Cross (1944) Italy: Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (April 1948) Sweden: Royal Order of the Seraphim (4 June 1948) Spain: Order of Isabella the Catholic (May 1936) Order of Civil Merit (1965) Venezuela: Order of the Liberator (July 1954) Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam): Order of Kim Khánh (January 1960) Belgium: Order of Leopold (Belgium) (4 June 1946) Malawi: Order of the Lion (Malawi) (5 August 1967) Bolivia: Order of the Condor of the Andes (March 1966) Gambia: Order of the Republic of The Gambia (November 1972) Argentina: Order of the Liberator General San Martín (October 1960) Guatemala: Order of the Quetzal (7 December 1956) Nicaragua: National Order of Miguel Larreynaga (November 1974) Order of Ruben Dario (October 1958) Panama: Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa (February 1960) Paraguay: Collar of Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez Grade of National Order of Merit (May 1962) == Selected writings == Includes foreword, by J. Leighton Stuart.--What China has faced, by Mme. Chiang Kai-shek.--Sian: a coup d'e´tat, by Mme. Chiang Kai-shek.--A fortnight in Sian: extracts from a diary, by Chiang Kai-shek.--The Generalissimo's admonition to Chiang Hsueh-liang (sic: i.e. Zhang Xueliang) and Yang Hu-chen (sic: i.e. Yang Hucheng) prior to his departure from Sian.--Names of Chinese persons and places mentioned in the story and diary. Authorized translation of 中国之命运 (Zhongguo zhi mingyun) (1943). . Introduction by Lin Yutang. . Unauthorized translation of 中国之命运 (Zhongguo zhi mingyun) (1943) by Philip Jaffe, with his notes and extensive critical commentary. The Collected Wartime Messages Of Generalissimo Chiang Kai Shek at Netarchive —, Works at Internet Archive HERE	[ "Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum", "Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Operations", "Shanghai massacre of 1927", "John Leighton Stuart", "Three Principles of the People", "Daxi District", "Li Zongren", "Northern Expedition", "Lu Keng", "Du Yuesheng", "George C. Marshall", "Huang Jinrong", "Cultural Revolution", "Concubinage", "The Founding of a Republic", "Pacific War", "Shilin Official Residence", "Milk name", "National Palace Museum", "National Revolutionary Army", "Order of the Rajamitrabhorn", "February 28 incident", "Ma Bufang", "Bai Chongxi", "Chiang Kai-shek statues", "Zhengzhou", "Western Hills Group", "Royal Order of the Seraphim", "Kakuei Tanaka", "Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella", "Han Chinese", "Chen Jiongming", "Leon Trotsky", "Kuomintang", "Xi'an Incident", "Yu Hung-Chun", "constitutionalism", "Ningxia", "Outer Mongolia", "List of leaders of the Kuomintang", "T. V. Soong", "Register name", "Order of Isabella the Catholic", "White Terror (Taiwan)", "Whampoa Military Academy", "Columbia University", "Ma Hongbin", "Sturmabteilung", "Chiang Ching-kuo", "Republic of China", "Military Affairs Commission", "Western powers", "I Ching", "Ma Qi", "Fifth Encirclement Campaign against Jiangxi Soviet", "economic interventionism", "Order of the White Lion", "Li Mi (ROC general)", "Tibetan independence movement", "Salafists", "The Search for Modern China", "Changzhou Island", "Taiwan independence movement", "Chiang Wei-kuo", "Order of Brilliant Star", "Order of the Condor of the Andes", "Scorched earth", "Haiphong", "Nobusuke Kishi", "Order of the Bath", "Japanese yen", "Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)", "abortion in China", "Burma campaign", "United Nations", "TheGuardian.com", "Japanese prisoners of war in World War II", "The Economist", "Second Revolution (China)", "Canton Coup", "Bertrand Russell", "Wuchang uprising", "Feng Yuxiang", "Ma Ching-chiang", "Ma Fushou", "Order of Blue Sky and White Sun", "Xinhai Revolution", "Shanghai Massacre", "Zhang Renjie", "History of the Republic of China", "Cihu Mausoleum", "Odd Arne Westad", "Chinese Revolutionary Party", "Weng Wenhao", "First United Front", "Duke of Zhou", "John Stuart Mill", "Gini index", "Long March", "Five Races Under One Union", "Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque", "Xinjiang", "The New York Times", "Imperial Japanese Army Academy", "register name", "Soong Ai-ling", "Takeo Fukuda", "Soviet invasion of Xinjiang", "Yan'an", "commander-in-chief", "Ma Lin (warlord)", "Parks M. Coble", "Jinan incident", "Free area of the Republic of China", "Yulbars Khan", "United States Army Air Corps", "Legion of Honour", "century of humiliation", "Xi'an", "W.W. Norton and Company", "Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa", "economic globalization", "Sterling Publishing", "Second Sino-Japanese War", "Guesthouses of Chiang Kai-shek", "Tao Chengzhang", "Operation Matterhorn", "Shandong", "Yuan Shikai", "Chiang Fang-liang", "Shanghai massacre", "end of World War II in Asia", "Generalissimo", "right-wing dictatorship", "duodenum", "government-owned corporation", "36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)", "Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus", "February 28 Incident", "Ryukyu Islands", "Nanjing decade", "Martial law in Taiwan", "concessions in China", "Order of Boyaca", "Nanjing Massacre", "state capitalism", "China-Nazi Germany relations", "French Indochina", "Ministry of National Defense (Republic of China)", "19th Route Army", "foot binding", "Zhang Qun", "Wu Chinese", "Supreme Order of the Renaissance", "Pei-ta-shan Incident", "Zhejiang", "sanitation", "Fenghua", "Labrang Monastery", "Chang Ch'ün", "Gedimu", "Project National Glory", "Fenghua District", "tael", "women's suffrage", "People's Republic of China", "Taipei County", "martial law in Taiwan", "Guangxi", "Ho Chi Minh", "Yellow Emperor", "Order of the Liberator General San Martín", "Hu Songshan", "Constitution of the Republic of China", "Whitlam Government", "Battle of Shanghai", "Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady", "Comintern", "Imperial Japanese Army", "Alexander von Falkenhausen", "Sun Yat-sen", "Taiwan Strait", "Xibei San Ma", "National Military Council", "Qing dynasty", "Xidaotang", "Taoyuan City", "Taixu", "jihad", "Jiang (surname)", "White Terror (mainland China)", "Chiang Zhongzheng's Diary", "Warlord Era", "Kung Hsiang-hsi", "Ma Buqing", "Yan Xishan", "Chengdu", "Wu Chinese-speaking people", "Nationalist government", "courtesy name", "Amdo", "Order of Merit (Chile)", "Guan Linzheng", "Chinese culture", "Rural Reconstruction Movement", "Dai Li", "Chen Qimei", "Wu Kuo-chen", "Central Plains War", "Xinjiang War (1937)", "waishengren", "MOS:ZH", "school name", "List of kidnappings", "Chinese nationalism", "Empire of Japan", "Liang Shuming", "Forbidden City", "School name", "Standard Chinese", "Eisaku Sato", "Yao Yecheng", "Guangdong", "VNQDD", "President of the Republic of China", "Max Bauer", "Ma Hongkui", "Zhonghua Minzu", "Ningbo", "Order of the Southern Cross", "Republic of China Army", "Harvard University Press", "Sheng Shicai", "Mikhail Borodin", "Order of Sikatuna", "military regime", "Ningxia Campaign (1949)", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Cold War", "Order of the Sacred Tripod", "Honour Sabre of the Awakened Lion", "milk name", "Order of Leopold (Belgium)", "Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "New Life Movement", "Uyghur people", "Order of the Lion (Malawi)", "Beijing", "Internet Archive", "Columbia University Press", "Taiwan", "Joseph Stilwell", "Surrender of Japan", "Vasily Blücher", "Yunnan", "Tuva", "Academia Sinica", "Order of the Liberator", "Lee Teng-hui", "Rudolph Rummel", "Ichigo campaign", "1938 Changsha Fire", "Democratic Progressive Party", "Philippine Legion of Honor", "Ye Ju", "History of China–United States relations to 1948", "Lake Tai", "Jacobin (politics)", "Land Reform in Taiwan", "Bureau of Investigation and Statistics", "Confucianism", "Kim Khánh", "Chairman of the National Government of China", "Zhang Fakui", "National Assembly of the Republic of China", "Chengdu Fenghuangshan Airport", "warlord", "free area of the Republic of China", "neoliberalism", "Zhang Xueliang", "Chongqing", "Napoleon", "Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall", "Kumul Rebellion", "Ma Hushan", "Chen Guofu", "Chung Cheng High School (Main)", "World Anti-Communist League", "Yang Hucheng", "Hu Hanmin", "Chungcheng", "Sun Fo", "Chen Jieru", "1938 Yellow River flood", "First Taiwan Strait Crisis", "Legion of Merit", "Order of Civil Merit", "Tan Yankai", "one-party state", "Bloomsbury Academic", "Al-Azhar University", "Blue Shirts Society", "Control Yuan", "Jin Shuren", "Executive Yuan", "Second United Front", "Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang", "Order of Brilliant Jade", "Methodist", "Taipei Grand Mosque", "T.V. Soong", "Cambridge University Press", "Order of Propitious Clouds", "Grand Order of Mugunghwa", "Green Gang", "Chinese Soviet Republic", "Lu Han (general)", "Order of the Redeemer", "Chinese kin", "Chen Cheng", "Second Taiwan Strait Crisis", "Simplified Chinese", "Tokyo Shinbu Gakko", "Xikou", "Gough Whitlam", "Battle of Kashgar (1934)", "Time (magazine)", "Ili Rebellion", "Taiwanese indigenous peoples", "Hwang Yau-tai", "Order of Merit for National Foundation", "Taipei", "Office of Strategic Services", "MOS:GEOLINK", "First Opium War", "Chen Lifu", "Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China (1950–1958)", "Mao Zedong", "Chen Mingshu", "Baoding Military Academy", "Liao Zhongkai", "Chinese reunification (1928)", "Qinghai", "Buddhism", "Timeline of Chiang Kai-shek", "Tokyo war crimes trial", "political officer (military)", "Nuo tai", "Jonathan Spence", "Manchu people", "SS Zhongshan", "H. H. Kung", "Lin Sen", "Wang Jingwei", "Sho-Chieh Tsiang", "Wuxi", "Sun Li-jen", "Ma Zhongying", "Joseph Stalin", "Republic of China Armed Forces", "Order of the Cloud and Banner", "Zhou Enlai", "Discovery Channel", "Cairo Conference", "Revive China Society", "Shaanxi", "Jonathan Fenby", "Federalism in China", "National Fascist Party", "Tsang monastery", "Eternal Parliament", "Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan", "I Ching hexagram 16", "Mount Tai", "Order of National Glory", "Yale University Press", "May Fourth Movement", "Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion", "China–Japan relations", "Ancestral home (China)", "Tibet", "Ma Fuxiang", "Taipei Times", "Saudi Arabia", "Four Asian Tigers", "Premier of the Republic of China", "Order of the Sun of Peru", "Soong Mei-ling", "Henry George", "Salt in Chinese history", "Cantonese", "gonorrhea", "Dang Guo", "Li Shizeng", "Kim Jong-pil", "Manchukuo", "Lonely Planet", "Woo Tsin-hang", "Chinese Communist Party", "Order of Christopher Columbus", "Isa Yusuf Alptekin", "Xizhi", "South Vietnam", "Yeung Ku-wan", "coup d'état", "attack on Pearl Harbor", "Li Tsung-jen", "Order of the Quetzal", "1911 Revolution", "dirigisme", "Lin Yutang", "Yixing", "Chiang Kai-shek International Airport", "Order of the Aztec Eagle", "Philip Jaffe", "Jiangxi", "Yen Hsi-shan", "The Watchtower", "Chiang Si-qian", "polygamy", "Soviet military academies", "Taiwan Miracle", "Guangzhou's Presidential Palace", "socialist ideology of the Kuomintang", "Yihewani", "Tsou Tang", "Ma Shaowu", "Geography of Taiwan", "Allies of World War II", "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 (XXVI)", "Wuhan", "Japanese invasion of Manchuria", "World War II", "Unequal treaty", "Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery", "Yasuji Okamura", "Sino-Tibetan War", "pinyin", "Huanggutun incident", "Touliao Mausoleum", "Tongmenghui", "Tiandihui", "Rana Mitter", "Kuomintang Islamic insurgency", "Politics of the Republic of China", "Chinese unification", "Party Reform Program", "Chinese Civil War", "CC Clique", "People's Liberation Army", "Second World War", "northwestern China", "Nanjing", "Tiananmen Square", "Soong Ching-ling", "China Lobby", "Yen Chia-kan", "Virginia Military Institute", "Nelson Rockefeller", "Shanghai International Settlement", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "Frederic Wakeman", "Mao Fumei", "Four big families of the Republic of China", "Queue (hairstyle)", "The Young Companion", "January 28 Incident" ]
6,863	Compression ratio	The compression ratio is the ratio between the maximum and minimum volume during the compression stage of the power cycle in a piston or Wankel engine. A fundamental specification for such engines, it can be measured in two different ways. The simpler way is the static compression ratio: in a reciprocating engine, this is the ratio of the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke to that volume when the piston is at the top of its stroke. The dynamic compression ratio is a more advanced calculation which also takes into account gases entering and exiting the cylinder during the compression phase. ==Effect and typical ratios== A high compression ratio is desirable because it allows an engine to extract more mechanical energy from a given mass of air–fuel mixture due to its higher thermal efficiency. This occurs because internal combustion engines are heat engines, and higher compression ratios permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel, while giving a longer expansion cycle, creating more mechanical power output and lowering the exhaust temperature. ===Petrol engines=== In petrol (gasoline) engines used in passenger cars for the past 20 years, compression ratios have typically been between 8:1 and 12:1. Several production engines have used higher compression ratios, including: Cars built from 1955 to 1972 which were designed for high-octane leaded gasoline, which allowed compression ratios up to 13:1. Some Mazda SkyActiv engines released since 2012 have compression ratios up to 16:1. The SkyActiv engine achieves this compression ratio with ordinary unleaded gasoline (95 RON in the United Kingdom) through improved scavenging of exhaust gases (which ensures cylinder temperature is as low as possible before the intake stroke), in addition to direct injection. Toyota Dynamic Force engine has a compression ratio up to 14:1. The 2014 Ferrari 458 Speciale also has a compression ratio of 14:1. When forced induction (e.g. a turbocharger or supercharger) is used, the compression ratio is often lower than naturally aspirated engines. This is due to the turbocharger or supercharger already having compressed the air before it enters the cylinders. Engines using port fuel-injection typically run lower boost pressures and/or compression ratios than direct injected engines because port fuel injection causes the air–fuel mixture to be heated together, leading to detonation. Conversely, directly injected engines can run higher boost because heated air will not detonate without a fuel being present. Higher compression ratios can make gasoline (petrol) engines subject to engine knocking (also known as "detonation", "pre-ignition", or "pinging") if lower octane-rated fuel is used. This can reduce efficiency or damage the engine if knock sensors are not present to modify the ignition timing. ===Diesel engines=== Diesel engines use higher compression ratios than petrol engines, because the lack of a spark plug means that the compression ratio must increase the temperature of the air in the cylinder sufficiently to ignite the diesel using compression ignition. Compression ratios are often between 14:1 and 23:1 for direct injection diesel engines, and between 18:1 and 23:1 for indirect injection diesel engines. At the lower end of 14:1, NOx emissions are reduced at a cost of more difficult cold-start. Mazda's Skyactiv-D, the first such commercial engine from 2013, used adaptive fuel injectors among other techniques to ease cold start. ===Other fuels=== The compression ratio may be higher in engines running exclusively on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or "propane autogas") or compressed natural gas, due to the higher octane rating of these fuels. Kerosene engines typically use a compression ratio of 6.5 or lower. The petrol-paraffin engine version of the Ferguson TE20 tractor had a compression ratio of 4.5:1 for operation on tractor vaporising oil with an octane rating between 55 and 70. ===Motorsport engines=== Motorsport engines often run on high-octane petrol and can therefore use higher compression ratios. For example, motorcycle racing engines can use compression ratios as high as 14.7:1, and it is common to find motorcycles with compression ratios above 12.0:1 designed for 95 or higher octane fuel. Ethanol and methanol can take significantly higher compression ratios than gasoline. Racing engines burning methanol and ethanol fuel often have a compression ratio of 14:1 to 16:1. ==Mathematical formula== In a reciprocating engine, the static compression ratio (\mathrm{CR}) is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at the top of its stroke. It is therefore calculated by the formula \mathrm{CR} = \frac { V_d + V_c} {V_c} where V_d is the displacement volume. This is the volume inside the cylinder displaced by the piston from the beginning of the compression stroke to the end of the stroke. V_c is the clearance volume. This is the volume of the space in the cylinder left at the end of the compression stroke. V_d can be estimated by the cylinder volume formula: V_d = \tfrac{\pi} {4} b^2 s where b is the cylinder bore (diameter) s is the piston stroke length Because of the complex shape of V_c it is usually measured directly. This is often done by filling the cylinder with liquid and then measuring the volume of the used liquid. ==Variable compression ratio engines== Most engines use a fixed compression ratio, however a variable compression ratio engine is able to adjust the compression ratio while the engine is in operation. The first production engine with a variable compression ratio was introduced in 2019. Variable compression ratio is a technology to adjust the compression ratio of an internal combustion engine while the engine is in operation. This is done to increase fuel efficiency while under varying loads. Variable compression engines allow the volume above the piston at top dead centre to be changed. Higher loads require lower ratios to increase power, while lower loads need higher ratios to increase efficiency, i.e. to lower fuel consumption. For automotive use this needs to be done as the engine is running in response to the load and driving demands. The 2019 Infiniti QX50 is the first commercially available car that uses a variable compression ratio engine. ==Dynamic compression ratio== The static compression ratio discussed above — calculated solely based on the cylinder and combustion chamber volumes — does not take into account any gases entering or exiting the cylinder during the compression phase. In most automotive engines, the intake valve closure (which seals the cylinder) takes place during the compression phase (i.e. after bottom dead centre, BDC), which can cause some of the gases to be pushed back out through the intake valve. On the other hand, intake port tuning and scavenging can cause a greater amount of gas to be trapped in the cylinder than the static volume would suggest. The dynamic compression ratio accounts for these factors. The dynamic compression ratio is higher with more conservative intake camshaft timing (i.e. soon after BDC), and lower with more radical intake camshaft timing (i.e. later after BDC). Regardless, the dynamic compression ratio is always lower than the static compression ratio. Absolute cylinder pressure is used to calculate the dynamic compression ratio, using the following formula: P_\text{cylinder} = P_\text{atmospheric} \times \text{CR}^\gamma where \gamma is a polytropic value for the ratio of specific heats for the combustion gases at the temperatures present (this compensates for the temperature rise caused by compression, as well as heat lost to the cylinder) Under ideal (adiabatic) conditions, the ratio of specific heats would be 1.4, but a lower value, generally between 1.2 and 1.3 is used, since the amount of heat lost will vary among engines based on design, size and materials used. For example, if the static compression ratio is 10:1, and the dynamic compression ratio is 7.5:1, a useful value for cylinder pressure would be 7.51.3 × atmospheric pressure, or 13.7 bar (relative to atmospheric pressure). The two corrections for dynamic compression ratio affect cylinder pressure in opposite directions, but not in equal strength. An engine with high static compression ratio and late intake valve closure will have a dynamic compression ratio similar to an engine with lower compression but earlier intake valve closure.	[ "heat engine", "overall compression ratio", "piston", "ethanol fuel", "naturally aspirated engine", "scavenging (automotive)", "reciprocating engine", "tractor vaporising oil", "Ferguson TE20", "Toyota Dynamic Force engine", "thermal efficiency", "supercharger", "compressed natural gas", "variable compression ratio", "octane rating", "fuel efficiency", "Motorsport", "tetraethyllead", "petrol", "polytropic process", "Ferrari 458 Speciale", "liquefied petroleum gas", "bar (unit)", "Data compression ratio", "top dead center", "methanol", "indirect injection", "ratio of specific heats", "Kerosene", "compression ignition", "forced induction", "camshaft", "bottom dead center", "Diesel engine", "stroke (engine)", "Mean effective pressure", "cylinder", "cylinder (engine)", "Skyactiv", "Wankel engine", "Infiniti QX50", "bottom dead centre", "petrol-paraffin engine", "turbocharger", "Bore (engine)", "fuel injection", "engine knocking" ]
6,865	Concordat of Worms	The Concordat of Worms (; ), also referred to as the Pactum Callixtinum or Pactum Calixtinum, was an agreement between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire which regulated the procedure for the appointment of bishops and abbots in the Empire. Signed on 23 September 1122 in the German city of Worms by Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V, the agreement set an end to the Investiture Controversy, a conflict between state and church over the right to appoint religious office holders that had begun in the middle of the 11th century. By signing the concordat, Henry renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections. Callixtus, in turn, agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to intervene in the case of disputed outcomes. The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with a sceptre, representing the lands that constituted the temporalities associated with their episcopal see. == Background == During the middle of the 11th century, a reformist movement within the Christian Church sought to reassert the rights of the Holy See at the expense of the European monarchs. Having been elected in 1073, the reformist Pope Gregory VII proclaimed several edicts aimed at strengthening the authority of the papacy, some of which were formulated in the Dictatus papae of 1075. Gregory's edicts postulated that secular rulers were answerable to the pope and forbade them to make appointments to clerical offices (a process known as investiture). The pope's doctrines were vehemently rejected by Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, who habitually invested the bishops and abbots of his realm. The ensuing conflict between the Empire and the papacy is known as the Investiture Controversy. The dispute continued after the death of Gregory VII in 1084 and the abdication of Henry IV in 1105. Even though Henry's son and successor, the Emperor Henry V, looked towards reconciliation with the reformist movement, no lasting compromise was achieved in the first 16 years of his reign. In 1111, Henry V brokered an agreement with Pope Paschal II at Sutri, whereby he would abstain from investing clergy in his realm in exchange for the restoration of church property that had originally belonged to the Empire. The Sutri agreement, Henry hoped, would convince Paschal to assent to Henry's official coronation as emperor. The agreement failed to be implemented, leading Henry to imprison the pope. After two months of captivity, Paschal vowed to grant the coronation and to accept the emperor's role in investiture ceremonies. He also agreed never to excommunicate Henry. Given that these concessions had been won by force, ecclesiastical opposition to the Empire continued. The following year, Paschal reneged on his promises. == Mouzon summit == In January 1118, Pope Paschal died. He was succeeded by Gelasius II, who died in January 1119. His successor, the Burgundian Callixtus II, resumed negotiations with the Emperor with the aim of settling the dispute between the church and the Empire. In the autumn of 1119, two papal emissaries, William of Champeaux and Pons of Cluny, met Henry at Strasbourg, where the emperor agreed in principle to abandon the secular investiture ceremony that involved giving new bishops and abbots a ring and a crosier. The two parties scheduled a final summit between Henry and Callixtus at Mouzon, but the meeting ended abruptly after the emperor refused to accept a short-notice change in Callixtus's demands. The church leaders, who were deliberating their position at a council in Reims, reacted by excommunicating Henry. However, they did not endorse the pope's insistence upon the complete abandonment of secular investiture. The negotiations ended in failure. Historians disagree as to whether Calixtus actually wanted peace or fundamentally mistrusted Henry. Due to his uncompromising position in 1111, Calixtus has been termed an "ultra", and his election to the papacy may indicate that the College of Cardinals saw no reason to show weakness to the emperor. This optimism about victory was founded on the very visible, and very vocal opposition to Henry from within his own nobility, and the cardinals may have seen the emperor's internal weaknesses as an opportunity for outright victory. == Further negotiations == After the failure of the Mouzon negotiations, and the disappearance into the horizon of the chances of Henry's unconditional surrender, the majority of the clergy became willing to compromise in order to settle the dispute. The polemic writings and pronouncements that had figured so highly during the Investiture Dispute had died down by this point. Historian Gerd Tellenbach argues that, despite appearances, these years were "no longer marked by an atmosphere of bitter conflict". This was in part the result of the papacy's realization that it could not win two different disputes on two separate fronts, as it had been trying to do. Calixtus had been personally involved in negotiations with the Emperor over the last decade, and his intimate knowledge of the delicate situation made him the perfect candidate for the attempt. The difference between 1119 and 1122, argues Stroll, was not Henry, who had been willing to make concessions in 1119, but Calixtus, who had then been intransigent, but who now was intent upon reaching an agreement". The same sentiment prevailed in much of the German nobility. In 1121, pressured by a faction of nobles from the Lower Rhine and Duchy of Saxony under the leadership of the archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, Henry agreed to submit to make peace with the pope. In response in February 1122, Calixtus wrote to Henry in a conciliatory tone via the Bishop of Acqui. His letter has been described as "a carefully crafted overture". In his letter, Calixtus drew attention to their blood relationship, suggesting that while their shared ancestry compelled them to love each other as brothers, it was fundamental that the German kings draw their authority from God, but via his servants, not directly. However, Calixtus also emphasised for the first time that he blamed not Henry personally for the dispute but his bad advisors who had dictated unsound policy to him. In a major shift in policy since the Council of Reims of 1119, the pope stated that the church gifts what it possesses to all its children, without making claims upon them. This was intended to reassure Henry that in the event of peace between them, his position and Empire were secure. Shifting from the practical to the spiritual, Calixtus next asked Henry to bear in mind that he was a king, but like all men limited on his earthly capability; he had armies, and kings below him, but the church had Christ and the Apostles. Continuing his theme, he referred, indirectly, to Henry's excommunication by himself (twice), he begged Henry to allow the conditions for peace to be created, as a result of which the church's, and God's glory would be increased, as concomitantly would the Emperor's. Conversely, he made sure to include a threat: if Henry did not change his ways, Calixtus threatened to place "the protection of the church in the hands of wise men". Historian Mary Stroll argues that, in taking this approach, Calixtus was taking advantage of the fact that, while he himself "was hardly in a position to sabre rattle" due to his military defeat in the south and his difficulty with his own Cardinals, Henry was also under pressure in Germany in both the military and spiritual spheres. The Emperor replied through the Bishop of Speyer and the Abbot of Fulda, who travelled to Rome and collected the pope's emissaries under the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. Speyer was a representative of Henry's political opponents in Germany, whereas Fulda was a negotiator rather than politically partisan. Complicating matters was a disputed election to the bishopric of Wurzburg in February 1122 of the kind that was at the heart of the Investiture Dispute. Although this almost led to an outbreak of civil war, a truce was arranged in August, allowing the parties to return to the papal negotiations. In the summer of 1122, a synod was convened in Mainz, at which imperial emissaries concluded the terms of their agreement with representatives of the church. In a sign that the Pope intended the impending negotiations to be successful, a Lateran council was announced for the following year. == Worms == The Emperor received the papal legates in Worms with due ceremony, where he awaited the outcome of the negotiations which appear to have actually taken place in nearby Mainz, which was hostile territory to Henry. As such, he had to communicate via messenger to keep up with events. Abbot Ekkehard of Aura chronicles that discussions took over a week to conclude. On 8 September, he met the papal legates and their final agreements were codified for publication. Although a possible compromise solution had already been received from England, this does not seem to have ever been considered in depth, probably on account of it containing an oath of Homage between Emperor and Pope, which had been a historical sticking point in earlier negotiations. The papal delegation was led by Cardinal bishop Lamberto Scannabecchi of Ostia, the future Pope Honorius II. Both sides studied previous negotiations between them, including those from 1111, which were considered to have created precedent. On 23 September 1122, papal and imperial delegates signed a series of documents outside the walls of Worms. There was insufficient room in the city for the number of attendees and watchers. Adalbert, Archbishop of Mainz wrote to Calixtus of how complex the negotiations had been, given that, as he said, Henry regarded the powers he was being asked to renounce as being hereditary in the Imperial throne. It is probable that what was eventually promulgated was the result of almost every word being carefully considered. The main difference between what was to be agreed at Worms and previous negotiations were the concessions from the pope. == Concordat == The agreements come to at Worms were in the nature of both concessions and assurances to the other party. Henry, on oath before God, the apostles and the church renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections, regno vel imperio. He also recognised the traditional extent and boundaries of the papal patrimony as a legal entity rather than one malleable to the emperor. Henry promised to return to the church those lands rightfully belonging to the church seized by himself or his father to the church; furthermore, he would assist the pope in regaining those that were taken by others, and "he will do the same thing for all other churches and princes, both ecclesiastical and lay". If the pope requested Imperial assistance, he would receive it, and if the church came to the empire for justice, it would be treated fairly. He also swore to abstain from "all investiture by ring and staff", marking the end of an ancient imperial tradition. Callixtus made similar reciprocal promises regarding the empire in Italy. He agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to ajudge in the case of disputed outcomes on episcopal advice—as long as they had been held peacefully and without simony—which had officially been the case ever since precedent had been set by the London Accord of 1107. This right to judge was constrained by an assurance that he would support the majority vote among electors, and further that he would take the advice of his other bishops before doing so. The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with their regalia, a sceptre representing the imperial lands associated with their episcopal see. This clause also contained a "cryptic" condition that once the elect had been so endowed, the new bishop "should do what he ought to do according to imperial rights". In the German imperial lands this was to take place prior to the bishop-elect's consecration; elsewhere in the empire—Burgundy and Italy, exempting the Papal States—within six months of the ceremony. The differentiating between the German portion of the Empire and the rest was of particular importance to Calixtus as the papacy had traditionally felt threatened more from it in the peninsular than the broader Empire. Finally, the pope granted "true peace" on the emperor and all those who had supported him. Calixtus had effectively overturned wholesale the strategy he had pursued during the Mouzon negotiation; episcopal investitures in Germany were to take place with very little substantive change in ceremony, while temporal involvement remained, only replacing investiture with homage, although the word itself—hominium—was studiously avoided. Adalbert, from whom Calixtus first received news of the final concordat, emphasized that it still had to be approved in Rome; this suggests, argues Stroll, that the Archbishop—and probably the papal legation as a whole—were against making concessions to the emperor, and probably wanted Calixtus to disown the agreement. Adalbert believed the agreement would make it easier for the Emperor to legalise intimidation of episcopal electors, writing that "through the opportunity of [the emperor's] presence, the Church of God must undergo the same slavery as before, or an even more oppressive one". However, argues Stroll, the concessions Calixtus made were an "excellent bargain" in return for eradicating the danger on the papacy's northern border and therefore allowing him to focus, without threat or distraction, on the Normans to the south. It had achieved its peace, argues Norman Cantor, by allowing local national custom and practice to determine future relations between crown and pope; in most cases, he notes, this "favored the continuance of royal control over the church". The concordat was published as two distinct charters, each laying out the concessions the one party was making to the other. They are known respectively as the Papal (or the Calixtinum) and the Imperial (Henricianum) charters. Calixtus's is addressed to the emperor—in quite personal terms—while Henry's is made out to God. The bishop of Ostia gave the emperor the kiss of peace on behalf of the pope and said Mass. By these rites was Henry returned to the church, the negotiators were lauded for succeeding in their delicate mission and the concordat was called "peace at the will of the pope". Neither charter was signed; both contained probably intentional vagaries and unanswered questions—such as the position of the papacy's churches that lay outside both the patrimony and Germany—which were subsequently addressed on a case-by-case basis. Indeed, Robert Benson has suggested that the brevity of the charters was deliberate and that the agreement as a whole is as important for what it omits as for what it includes. The term regalia, for example, was not only undefined but literally meant two different things to each party. In the Henricianum it referred to the feudal duty owed to a monarch; in the Calixtinium, it was the episcopal temporalities. Broader question, such as the nature of the church and Empire relationship, were also not addressed, although some ambiguity was removed by an 1133 Papal privilege. The Concordat was widely, and deliberately, publicised around Europe. Calixtus was not in Rome when the concordat was delivered. He had left the city by late August and was not to return until mid- to late October, making a progress to Anagni, taking the bishopric of Anagni and Casamari Abbey under his protection. === Agreements === === Preservation === The concordat was ratified at the First Council of the Lateran and the original Henricianum charter is preserved at the Vatican Apostolic Archive; the Calixtinum has not survived except in subsequent copies. A copy of the former is also held in the Codex Udalrici, but this is an abridged version for political circulation, as it reduces the number of imperial concessions made. Indicating the extent that he saw the agreement as a papal victory, Calixtus had a copy of the Henricianum painted on a Lateran Palace chamber wall; while nominally portraying the concordat as a victory for the papacy, it also ignored the numerous concessions made to the emperor. This was part of what Hartmut Hoffmann has called "a conspiracy of silence" regarding papal concessions. Indeed, while the Pope is pictured enthroned, and Henry only standing, the suggestion is still that they were jointly wielding their respective authority to come to this agreement. An English copy of the Calixtinum made by William of Malmsbury is reasonably accurate but omits the clause mentioning the use of a sceptre in the granting of the regalia. He then, having condemned Henry's "Teuton fury", proceeds to praise him, comparing him favourably to Charlemagne for his devotion to God and the peace of Christendom. == Aftermath == The first invocation of the concordat was not in the empire, as it turned out, but by Henry I of England the following year. Following a long-running dispute between Canterbury–York which ended up in the Papal court, Joseph Huffman argues that it would have been controversial for the Pope "to justify one set of concessions in Germany and another in England". The concordat ended once and for all the "Imperial church system of the Ottonians and Salians". The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms. The council was most representative with nearly 300 bishops and 600 abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present. It convened on March 18, 1123. One of its primary concerns was to emphasise the independence of diocesan clergy, and to do so it forbade monks to leave their monasteries to provide pastoral care, which would in future be the sole preserve of the diocese. In ratifying the Concordat, the Council confirmed that in future bishops would be elected by their clergy, although, also per the Concordat, the Emperor could refuse the homage of German bishops. Decrees were passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, and forgers of Church documents; the council also reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders. These, argues C. Colt Anderson "established important precedents in canon law restricting the influence of the laity and the monks". While this led to a busy period of reform, it was important for those advocating reform not to allow themselves to be confused with the myriad heretical sects and schismatics who were making similar criticisms. The Concordat was the last major achievement for Emperor Henry, as he died in 1125; an attempted invasion of France came to nothing in 1124 in the face of "determined opposition". Fuhrmann comments that, as Henry had shown in his life "even less interest in new currents of thought and feeling than his father", he probably did not understand the significance of the events he had lived through. The peace only lasted until his death; when Imperial Electors met to choose his successor, reformists took the opportunity to attack the imperial gains of Worms on the grounds that they had been granted to him personally rather than Emperors generally. However, later emperors, such as Frederick I and Henry VI, continued to wield as much, if intangible, power as their predecessors in episcopal elections, and to a greater degree to that allowed them by Calixtus' charter. Successive emperors found the Concordat sufficiently favourable that it remained, almost unaltered until the empire was dissolved by Francis II in 1806 on account of Napoleon. Popes, likewise, were able to use the powers codified to them in the Concordatto their advantage in future internal disputes with their Cardinals. == Reception == The most detailed contemporary description of the Concordat comes to historians through a brief chronicle known as the 1125 continuation chronicle. This pro-papal document lays the blame for the schism squarely upon Henry—by his recognition of Gregory VIII—and the praise for ending it on Calixtus, through his making only temporary compromises. I. S. Robinson, writing in The New Cambridge Medieval History, suggests that this was a deliberate ploy to leave further negotiations open with a more politically malleable Emperor in future. To others it was not so clear cut; Honorius of Autun, for example, writing later in the century discussed lay investiture as an aspect of papal-Imperial relations and, even a century later the Sachsenspiegel still stated that Emperors nominated bishops in Germany. Robinson suggests that, by the end of the 12th century, "it was the imperial, rather than the papal version of the Concordat of Worms that was generally accepted by German churchmen". The contemporary English historian William of Malmesbury praised the Concordat for curtailing what he perceived as the emperor's overreach, or as he put it, "severing the sprouting necks of Teuton fury with the axe of Apostolic power". However, he regarded the final settlement not as a defeat of the Empire at the hands of the church, but rather as a reconciliatory effort by the two powers. Although polemicism had died down in the years preceding the Concordat, it did not finish them completely, and factionalism within the church especially continued. Gerhoh of Reichersberg believed that the emperor now had the right to request German bishops pay homage to him, something that would never have been allowed under Paschal, due to the vague clause instructing newly-elects to the things the emperor wished. Gerhoh argued that now imperial intervention in episcopal elections had been curtailed, Henry would use this clause to extend his influence in the church by means of homage. Gerhoh was torn between viewing the concordat as the end of a long struggle between pope and empire, or whether it marked the beginning of a new one within the church itself. Likewise Adelbert of Mainz—who had casually criticised the agreement in his report to Calixtus—continued to lobby against it, and continued to bring complaints against Henry, whom, for example, he alleged had illegally removed the Bishop of Strassburg who was suspected of complicity in the death of Duke Berthold of Zaehringen. The reformist party within the church took a similar view, criticising the Concordat for failing to remove all secular influence on the church. For this reason, a group of followers of Paschal II unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the agreement's ratification at the Lateran Council, crying non placet! when asked to do so: "it was only when it was pointed out that much had to be accepted for the sake of peace that the atmosphere quietened". Calixtus told them that they had "not to approve but tolerate" it. At a council in Bamberg in 1122 Henry gathered those nobles who had not attended the Concordat to seek their approval of the agreement, which they did. The following month he sent cordial letters to Calixtus agreeing with the pope's position that as brothers in Christ they were bound by God to work together, etc., and that he would soon visit personally to discuss the repatriation of papal land. These letters were, in turn, responded to positively by Calixtus, who instructed his delegates to make good the promises they had made at Worms. === Historiography === Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz called the agreements made at Worms "the oldest concordat in German history, an international treaty", while Augustin Fliche argued that the Concordat effectively instituted the statutes of Ivo of Chartres, a prominent reformer in the early years of the Investiture Contest, a view, it has been suggested, that most historians agree with. The historian Uta-Renate Blumenthal writes that, despite its shortcomings, the Concordat freed "[the church and the Empire] from antiquated concepts with their increasingly anachronistic restrictions". According to the historian William Chester Jordan, the Concordat was "of enormous significance" because it demonstrated that the emperor, in spite of his great secular power, did not have any religious authority. On the other hand, argues Karl F. Morrison, any victory the papacy felt it had won was pyrrhic, as "the king was left in possession of the field". The new peace also now allowed the papacy to expand its territories in Italy, such as the Sabina, which were unobtainable while the dispute with Henry was ongoing, while in Germany, a new class of ecclesiastics was created, what Horst Fuhrmann calls the "ecclesiastical princes of the Empire". While most historians agree that the Concordat marks a clear close to the fifty-year-old struggle between church and empire, disagreement continues on just how decisive a termination that was. Historians are also unclear as to the commitment of the pope to the concordat. Stroll, for example, notes that, while Henry's oaths were made to the church corporate, so in perpetuity, while Calixtus's may have been in a personal capacity. This, Stroll argues, would mean that it could be argued that while Henry's commitments to the church applied forever, Calixtus's applied only for the duration of Henry's reign, and at least one contemporary, Otto of Freising, wrote later in the century that he believed this to be the church's position. Stroll considers it "implausible" that Henry and his counsel would ever have entered into such a one-sided agreement. Indeed, John O'Malley has argued that the emperor had effectively been granted a veto from Calixtus; while in the strictest interpretation of the Gregorian reformers the only two important things in the making of a bishop were his election and consecration, Calixtus had effectively codified a role—however small—for the emperor in this process. Conversely, Benson reckons that while Henry's agreement was with the church in perpetuity, Calixtus'—based on the personal mode of address—was with him personally, and as such not binding on his successors. However, this was also an acknowledgement, he suggests, that much of what the pope did not address was already considered customary, and so did not need addressing. There has also been disagreement in why the Investiture contest ended with the Concordat as it did. Benson notes that, as a truce, it was primarily intended to stop the fighting rather than to address its original causes. It was "a straightforward, political engagement...a pragmatic agreement" between two political bodies. Indeed, controversy over investiture continued for at least another decade; in that light, suggests Benson, it could be argued that the Concordat did not end the dispute at all. There were "many problems unsolved, and [it] left much room for the free play of power". Political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita has argued that, in the long term, the Concordat was an essential component to the later—gradual—creation of the European nation state.	[ "Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor", "Mouzon, Ardennes", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "Catholic Church", "Gerhoh of Reichersberg", "Holy See", "Holy Roman Empire", "Bishop of Speyer", "University of Pennsylvania Press", "Adalbert of Mainz", "Bishop of Acqui", "Lobbying", "coronation", "Papal States", "canon law", "Sutri", "Pope Callixtus II", "Holy Roman Emperor", "fresco", "kiss of peace", "First Council of the Lateran", "Anselm of Canterbury", "Ekkehard of Aura", "precedent", "William of Champeaux", "Papal privilege", "Pope Gregory VII", "Brill Publishers", "Petrus of Ebulo", "Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire", "monarchs", "Uta-Renate Blumenthal", "temporalities", "Servant of the servants of God", "Investiture Controversy", "Canterbury–York dispute", "wikt:scabellum", "Casamari Abbey", "Bishops in the Catholic Church", "Vatican Apostolic Archive", "John W. O'Malley", "London Accord (1107)", "Otto of Freising", "nation state", "Mainz", "abdication", "veto", "Bruce Bueno de Mesquita", "Bishop of Anagni", "excommunication", "Stadtbibliothek Schaffhausen", "Bishop of Strassburg", "Homage (feudal)", "Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor", "Polemic", "The New Cambridge Medieval History", "Antipope Gregory VIII", "simony", "Christendom", "synod", "Gerd Tellenbach", "Imperial Electors", "Honorius of Autun", "Heretical", "Reims", "Lateran council", "Berthold II of Zaehringen", "Sachsenspiegel", "Abbot of Fulda", "Calixtus II", "sceptre", "Lower Rhine", "episcopal see", "Hartmut Hoffmann", "Gelasius II", "Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor", "chronicle", "Ivo of Chartres", "Regensburg-Prüfening", "Anagni", "folio", "German king", "Council of Reims", "Schismatics (religion)", "Callixtus II", "Augustin Fliche", "Gregorian Reform", "investiture", "Manuscript", "abbot", "Temporalities", "Pope Paschal II", "Sabina (region)", "Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg", "Patrimony of Saint Peter", "Charlemagne", "secular state", "College of Cardinals", "abbots", "antipope", "Viking Press", "Christian Church", "Pyrrhic victory", "unconditional surrender", "Mass in the Catholic Church", "Worms, Germany", "bishops", "Bishop of Ostia", "William Chester Jordan", "William of Malmesbury", "Diet of Worms", "Gottfried von Calw", "Pons of Cluny", "pastoral care", "Edict of Worms", "Dictatus papae", "House of Salian", "Karl F. Morrison", "Pope Honorius II", "excommunicate", "Kingdom of Sicily", "crosier", "Synod of Worms (disambiguation)", "verso", "Strasbourg", "Apostles", "Vellum", "Ecclesiastical ring", "Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Saxony", "Codex Udalrici", "Norman Cantor", "Royal progress", "Duchy of Burgundy", "Bamberg" ]
6,867	Context-free language	In formal language theory, a context-free language (CFL), also called a Chomsky type-2 language, is a language generated by a context-free grammar (CFG). Context-free languages have many applications in programming languages, in particular, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars. ==Background== ===Context-free grammar=== Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language. Intrinsic properties of the language can be distinguished from extrinsic properties of a particular grammar by comparing multiple grammars that describe the language. ===Automata=== The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata, which makes these languages amenable to parsing. Further, for a given CFG, there is a direct way to produce a pushdown automaton for the grammar (and thereby the corresponding language), though going the other way (producing a grammar given an automaton) is not as direct. ==Examples== An example context-free language is L = \{a^nb^n:n\geq1\}, the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are 's, and the entire second halves of which are 's. is generated by the grammar S\to aSb ~\|~ ab. This language is not regular. It is accepted by the pushdown automaton M=(\{q_0,q_1,q_f\}, \{a,b\}, \{a,z\}, \delta, q_0, z, \{q_f\}) where \delta is defined as follows: \begin{align} \delta(q_0, a, z) &= (q_0, az) \\ \delta(q_0, a, a) &= (q_0, aa) \\ \delta(q_0, b, a) &= (q_1, \varepsilon) \\ \delta(q_1, b, a) &= (q_1, \varepsilon) \\ \delta(q_1, \varepsilon, z) &= (q_f, \varepsilon) \end{align} Unambiguous CFLs are a proper subset of all CFLs: there are inherently ambiguous CFLs. An example of an inherently ambiguous CFL is the union of \{a^n b^m c^m d^n \| n, m > 0\} with \{a^n b^n c^m d^m \| n, m > 0\}. This set is context-free, since the union of two context-free languages is always context-free. But there is no way to unambiguously parse strings in the (non-context-free) subset \{a^n b^n c^n d^n \| n > 0\} which is the intersection of these two languages. ===Dyck language=== The language of all properly matched parentheses is generated by the grammar S\to SS ~\|~ (S) ~\|~ \varepsilon. ==Properties== ===Context-free parsing=== The context-free nature of the language makes it simple to parse with a pushdown automaton. Determining an instance of the membership problem; i.e. given a string w, determine whether w \in L(G) where L is the language generated by a given grammar G; is also known as recognition. Context-free recognition for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to Boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of O(n2.3728596). Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown O(n3−ε) Boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to O(n3−3ε) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter. Practical uses of context-free languages require also to produce a derivation tree that exhibits the structure that the grammar associates with the given string. The process of producing this tree is called parsing. Known parsers have a time complexity that is cubic in the size of the string that is parsed. Formally, the set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata (PDA). Parser algorithms for context-free languages include the CYK algorithm and Earley's Algorithm. A special subclass of context-free languages are the deterministic context-free languages which are defined as the set of languages accepted by a deterministic pushdown automaton and can be parsed by a LR(k) parser. See also parsing expression grammar as an alternative approach to grammar and parser. ===Closure properties=== The class of context-free languages is closed under the following operations. That is, if L and P are context-free languages, the following languages are context-free as well: the union L \cup P of L and P the reversal of L the concatenation L \cdot P of L and P the Kleene star L^* of L the image \varphi(L) of L under a homomorphism \varphi the image \varphi^{-1}(L) of L under an inverse homomorphism \varphi^{-1} the circular shift of L (the language \{vu : uv \in L \}) the prefix closure of L (the set of all prefixes of strings from L) the quotient L/R of L by a regular language R ====Nonclosure under intersection, complement, and difference==== The context-free languages are not closed under intersection. This can be seen by taking the languages A = \{a^n b^n c^m \mid m, n \geq 0 \} and B = \{a^m b^n c^n \mid m,n \geq 0\}, which are both context-free. Their intersection is A \cap B = \{ a^n b^n c^n \mid n \geq 0\}, which can be shown to be non-context-free by the pumping lemma for context-free languages. As a consequence, context-free languages cannot be closed under complementation, as for any languages A and B, their intersection can be expressed by union and complement: A \cap B = \overline{\overline{A} \cup \overline{B}} . In particular, context-free language cannot be closed under difference, since complement can be expressed by difference: \overline{L} = \Sigma^* \setminus L. However, if L is a context-free language and D is a regular language then both their intersection L\cap D and their difference L\setminus D are context-free languages. ===Decidability=== In formal language theory, questions about regular languages are usually decidable, but ones about context-free languages are often not. It is decidable whether such a language is finite, but not whether it contains every possible string, is regular, is unambiguous, or is equivalent to a language with a different grammar. The following problems are undecidable for arbitrarily given context-free grammars A and B: Equivalence: is L(A)=L(B)? Disjointness: is L(A) \cap L(B) = \emptyset ? However, the intersection of a context-free language and a regular language is context-free, hence the variant of the problem where B is a regular grammar is decidable (see "Emptiness" below). Containment: is L(A) \subseteq L(B) ? Again, the variant of the problem where B is a regular grammar is decidable, while that where A is regular is generally not. Universality: is L(A)=\Sigma^*? Regularity: is L(A) a regular language? Ambiguity: is every grammar for L(A) ambiguous? The following problems are decidable for arbitrary context-free languages: Emptiness: Given a context-free grammar A, is L(A) = \emptyset ? Finiteness: Given a context-free grammar A, is L(A) finite? Membership: Given a context-free grammar G, and a word w, does w \in L(G) ? Efficient polynomial-time algorithms for the membership problem are the CYK algorithm and Earley's Algorithm. According to Hopcroft, Motwani, Ullman (2003), many of the fundamental closure and (un)decidability properties of context-free languages were shown in the 1961 paper of Bar-Hillel, Perles, and Shamir ===Languages that are not context-free=== The set \{a^n b^n c^n d^n \| n > 0\} is a context-sensitive language, but there does not exist a context-free grammar generating this language. So there exist context-sensitive languages which are not context-free. To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the pumping lemma for context-free languages	[ "Parikh's theorem", "matrix multiplication", "pumping lemma for context-free languages", "Lillian Lee (computer scientist)", "String operations", "Matrix multiplication", "membership problem", "Chomsky hierarchy", "circular shift", "CYK algorithm", "Earley parser", "formal language", "closure (mathematics)", "Inherently ambiguous language", "deterministic context-free language", "context-free grammar", "parsing", "Yehoshua Bar-Hillel", "Dyck language", "Chomsky normal form", "formal language theory", "pushdown automaton", "deterministic pushdown automaton", "Undecidable problem", "union (set theory)", "pushdown automata", "Kleene star", "context-sensitive language", "programming languages", "LR parser", "regular language", "Quotient of a formal language", "parsing expression grammar", "Ogden's lemma", "Leslie Valiant", "concatenation", "Prefix (computer science)", "Big O notation" ]
6,868	Caffeine	Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class and is the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance globally. It is mainly used for its eugeroic (wakefulness promoting), ergogenic (physical performance-enhancing), or nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) properties. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine at a number of adenosine receptor types, inhibiting the centrally depressant effects of adenosine and enhancing the release of acetylcholine. Caffeine has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of adenosine, which allows it to bind and block its receptors. Caffeine also increases cyclic AMP levels through nonselective inhibition of phosphodiesterase, increases calcium release from intracellular stores, and antagonizes GABA receptors, although these mechanisms typically occur at concentrations beyond usual human consumption. Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees. The best-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, the seed of the Coffea plant. People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are consumed globally in high volumes. In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world. Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures with it even being encouraged. Caffeine has both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity. Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Some people experience sleep disruption or anxiety if they consume caffeine, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit caffeine to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use). Caffeine is classified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as generally recognized as safe. Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than the typical dose of under 500 milligrams per day. The European Food Safety Authority reported that up to 400 mg of caffeine per day (around 5.7 mg/kg of body mass per day) does not raise safety concerns for non-pregnant adults, while intakes up to 200 mg per day for pregnant and lactating women do not raise safety concerns for the fetus or the breast-fed infants. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what "bean" (seed) is used, how it is roasted, and how it is prepared (e.g., drip, percolation, or espresso). Thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach the toxic dose. However, pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts. ==Uses== ===Medical=== Caffeine is used for both prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay. On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible. Caffeine is used as a primary treatment for apnea of prematurity, but not prevention. Some people use caffeine-containing beverages such as coffee or tea to try to treat their asthma. Evidence to support this practice is poor. The addition of caffeine (100–130 mg) to commonly prescribed pain relievers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen modestly improves the proportion of people who achieve pain relief. Consumption of caffeine after abdominal surgery shortens the time to recovery of normal bowel function and shortens length of hospital stay. Caffeine was formerly used as a second-line treatment for ADHD. It is considered less effective than methylphenidate or amphetamine but more so than placebo for children with ADHD. Children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD are more likely to consume caffeine, perhaps as a form of self-medication. ===Enhancing performance=== ====Cognitive performance==== Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that may reduce fatigue and drowsiness. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes that could result from drowsiness. Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2014 found that concurrent caffeine and -theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching; ====Physical performance==== Caffeine is a proven ergogenic aid in humans. Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5 mg/kg cycling and running time trial performance, and cycling power output. Caffeine ingestion prior to aerobic exercise increases fat oxidation, particularly in persons with low physical fitness. Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, and may enhance muscular endurance. Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests. Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue. Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise. ===Specific populations=== ====Adults==== For the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg. ====Children==== In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400 mg produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous". As early as six months old, infants can metabolize caffeine at the same rate as that of adults. Higher doses of caffeine (>400 mg) can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral harm, particularly for children with psychiatric or cardiac conditions. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that caffeine consumption, particularly in the case of energy and sports drinks, is not appropriate for children and adolescents and should be avoided. This recommendation is based on a clinical report released by American Academy of Pediatrics in 2011 with a review of 45 publications from 1994 to 2011 and includes inputs from various stakeholders (Pediatricians, Committee on nutrition, Canadian Pediatric Society, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, Sports Medicine & Fitness committee, National Federations of High School Associations). ====Adolescents==== Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data. However, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight. This is because the maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light-weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing. The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers. This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier-weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without experiencing adverse effects. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concluded in 2010 that caffeine consumption is safe up to 200 mg per day in pregnant women. A 2011 review found that caffeine during pregnancy does not appear to increase the risk of congenital malformations, miscarriage or growth retardation even when consumed in moderate to high amounts. Other reviews, however, concluded that there is some evidence that higher caffeine intake by pregnant women may be associated with a higher risk of giving birth to a low birth weight baby, and may be associated with a higher risk of pregnancy loss. A systematic review, analyzing the results of observational studies, suggests that women who consume large amounts of caffeine (greater than 300 mg/day) prior to becoming pregnant may have a higher risk of experiencing pregnancy loss. ==Adverse effects== ===Physiological=== Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss. Caffeine, alongside other factors such as stress and fatigue, can also increase the pressure in various muscles, including the eyelids. Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250–300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2–3 or 5–8 ) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output. ===Psychological=== Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders. According to a 2011 literature review, caffeine use may induce anxiety and panic disorders in people with Parkinson's disease. At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk. Two reviews indicate that increased consumption of coffee and caffeine may reduce the risk of depression. Some textbooks state that caffeine is a mild euphoriant, while others state that it is not a euphoriant. Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder. Some diagnostic sources, such as the and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects. Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system. "Caffeine addiction" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association's does not include the diagnosis of a caffeine addiction but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study. ====Dependence and withdrawal==== Caffeine withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence. and most cases of caffeine withdrawal were 13% in the moderate sense. Moderately physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day. Following 24 hours of a marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue. Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences. Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a "condition for further study". Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not. ===Risk of other diseases=== A neuroprotective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia is possible but the evidence is inconclusive. Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude. One meta analysis has found that caffeine consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Regular caffeine consumption may reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's disease and may slow the progression of Parkinson's disease. The DSM-5 also includes other caffeine-induced disorders consisting of caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder and unspecified caffeine-related disorders. The first two disorders are classified under "Anxiety Disorder" and "Sleep-Wake Disorder" because they share similar characteristics. Other disorders that present with significant distress and impairment of daily functioning that warrant clinical attention but do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed under any specific disorders are listed under "Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorders". ===Energy crash=== Caffeine is reputed to cause a fall in energy several hours after drinking, but this is not well researched. ==Overdose== Consumption of per day is associated with a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use. Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system overstimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine. This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time). According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia or cardiac arrhythmia, periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation. According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis. Intralipid infusion therapy is indicated in cases of imminent risk of cardiac arrest in order to scavenge the free serum caffeine. In 2016, 3702 caffeine-related exposures were reported to Poison Control Centers in the United States, of which 846 required treatment at a medical facility, and 16 had a major outcome; and several caffeine-related deaths are reported in case studies. There are cases where doses as low as 57 milligrams per kilogram have been fatal. A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in 2013 of a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints. == Interactions == Caffeine is a substrate for CYP1A2, and interacts with many substances through this and other mechanisms. ===Alcohol=== According to DSST, alcohol causes a decrease in performance on their standardized tests, and caffeine causes a significant improvement. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects of the caffeine are changed, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, consuming additional caffeine does not reduce the effect of alcohol. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as taking them together may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury. ===Smoking=== Smoking tobacco has been shown to increase caffeine clearance by 56% as a result of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons inducing the CYP1A2 enzyme. ===Birth control=== Birth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine by as much as 40%, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption. ===Medications=== Caffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches. Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%. The pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine. Some other examples of methylxanthines include the medications theophylline and aminophylline, which are prescribed to relieve symptoms of asthma or COPD. ==Pharmacology== ===Pharmacodynamics=== In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in CNS neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness. Antagonism of adenosine receptors by caffeine also stimulates the medullary vagal, vasomotor, and respiratory centers, which increases respiratory rate, reduces heart rate, and constricts blood vessels. adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses activity in the central nervous system. Heart palpitations are caused by blockade of the A1 receptor. In addition to its activity at adenosine receptors, caffeine is an inositol trisphosphate receptor 1 antagonist and a voltage-independent activator of the ryanodine receptors (RYR1, RYR2, and RYR3). It is also a competitive antagonist of the ionotropic glycine receptor. ====Effects on striatal dopamine==== While caffeine does not directly bind to any dopamine receptors, it influences the binding activity of dopamine at its receptors in the striatum by binding to adenosine receptors that have formed GPCR heteromers with dopamine receptors, specifically the A1–D1 receptor heterodimer (this is a receptor complex with one adenosine A1 receptor and one dopamine D1 receptor) and the A2A–D2 receptor heterotetramer (this is a receptor complex with two adenosine A2A receptors and two dopamine D2 receptors). Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A1 receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A1–A2A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of one adenosine A1 receptor and one adenosine A2A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons. ====Enzyme targets==== Caffeine, like other xanthines, also acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. As a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caffeine raises intracellular cyclic AMP, activates protein kinase A, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity. ===Pharmacokinetics=== Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1–2 hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and of chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (Cmax) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts. Caffeine's biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose – varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3 and 7 hours. Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system (particularly by the CYP1A2 isozyme) into three dimethylxanthines, each of which has its own effects on the body: Paraxanthine (84%): Increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma. Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in the cocoa bean (chocolate). Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism. Each of the above metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life. A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation. ==Chemistry== Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting, white, odorless powder with a melting point of 235–238 °C. It is weakly basic (pKa of conjugate acid = ~0.6) requiring strong acid to protonate it. Caffeine does not contain any stereogenic centers and hence is classified as an achiral molecule. The xanthine core of caffeine contains two fused rings, a pyrimidinedione and imidazole. The pyrimidinedione in turn contains two amide functional groups that exist predominantly in a zwitterionic resonance the location from which the nitrogen atoms are double bonded to their adjacent amide carbons atoms. Hence all six of the atoms within the pyrimidinedione ring system are sp2 hybridized and planar. The imidazole ring also has a resonance. Therefore, the fused 5,6 ring core of caffeine contains a total of ten pi electrons and hence according to Hückel's rule is aromatic. ===Synthesis=== class=skin-invert-image\|thumb\|upright=1.3\|One [[Chemical synthesis\|laboratory synthesis of caffeine Caffeine may be synthesized in the lab starting with 1,3-dimethylurea and malonic acid. Production of synthesized caffeine largely takes place in pharmaceutical plants in China. Synthetic and natural caffeine are chemically identical and nearly indistinguishable. The primary distinction is that synthetic caffeine is manufactured from urea and chloroacetic acid, while natural caffeine is extracted from plant sources, a process known as decaffeination. Despite the different production methods, the final product and its effects on the body are identical. Research on synthetic caffeine supports that it has the same stimulating effects on the body as natural caffeine. And although many claim that natural caffeine is absorbed slower and therefore leads to a gentler caffeine crash, there is little scientific evidence supporting the notion. Over half of the decaf coffee sold in the U.S. first travels from the tropics to Germany for caffeine removal before making its way to American consumers. Extraction of caffeine from coffee, to produce caffeine and decaffeinated coffee, can be performed using various solvents. Following are main methods: Water extraction: Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with its original flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction: Supercritical carbon dioxide is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine, and is safer than the organic solvents that are otherwise used. The extraction process is simple: is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1 °C and pressures above 73 atm. Under these conditions, is in a "supercritical" state: It has gaslike properties that allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties that dissolve 97–99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden is then sprayed with high-pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis. ===Detection in body fluids=== Caffeine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy in neonates, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Plasma caffeine levels are usually in the range of 2–10 mg/L in coffee drinkers, 12–36 mg/L in neonates receiving treatment for apnea, and 40–400 mg/L in victims of acute overdosage. Urinary caffeine concentration is frequently measured in competitive sports programs, for which a level in excess of 15 mg/L is usually considered to represent abuse. ===Analogs=== Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both. Of the latter group are the xanthines DMPX and 8-chlorotheophylline, which is an ingredient in dramamine. Members of a class of nitrogen substituted xanthines are often proposed as potential alternatives to caffeine. Many other xanthine analogues constituting the adenosine receptor antagonist class have also been elucidated. Some other caffeine analogs: Dipropylcyclopentylxanthine 8-Cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine 8-Phenyltheophylline === Precipitation of tannins === Caffeine, as do other alkaloids such as cinchonine, quinine or strychnine, precipitates polyphenols and tannins. This property can be used in a quantitation method. ==Natural occurrence== Around thirty plant species are known to contain caffeine. Common sources are the "beans" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); and of the cocoa plant, Theobroma cacao; the leaves of the tea plant; and kola nuts. Other sources include the leaves of yaupon holly, South American holly yerba mate, and Amazonian holly guayusa; and seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries. Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine-containing plants. Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant. High caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection. In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival. Caffeine is stored in tea leaves in two places. Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is complexed with polyphenols. This caffeine probably is released into the mouth parts of insects, to discourage herbivory. Secondly, around the vascular bundles, where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from entering and colonizing the vascular bundles. Caffeine in nectar may improve the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward memory of pollinators such as honey bees. ==Products== Products containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks ("colas"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate, caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation products. According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents. Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults. even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100–125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee. Arabica coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the robusta variety. Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has minimal caffeine content. By contrast, energy drinks, such as Red Bull, can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis. Guarana, a primary ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient. ====Other beverages==== Maté is a drink popular in many parts of South America. Its preparation consists of filling a gourd with the leaves of the South American holly yerba mate, pouring hot but not boiling water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the bombilla, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves. Guaraná is a soft drink originating in Brazil made from the seeds of the Guaraná fruit. The leaves of Ilex guayusa, the Ecuadorian holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a guayusa tea. The leaves of Ilex vomitoria, the yaupon holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a yaupon tea. Commercially prepared coffee-flavoured milk beverages are popular in Australia. Examples include Oak's Ice Coffee and Farmers Union Iced Coffee. The amount of caffeine in these beverages can vary widely. Caffeine concentrations can differ significantly from the manufacturer's claims. ===Cacao solids=== Cocoa solids (derived from cocoa bean) contain 230 mg caffeine per 100 g. ===Tablets=== Tablets offer several advantages over coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages, including convenience, known dosage, and avoidance of concomitant intake of sugar, acids, and fluids. The use of caffeine in this form is said to improve mental alertness. These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours. ===Other oral products=== One U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips. Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm. Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods. ===Inhalants=== Similar to an e-cigarette, a caffeine inhaler may be used to deliver caffeine or a stimulant like guarana by vaping. In 2012, the FDA sent a warning letter to one of the companies marketing an inhaler, expressing concerns for the lack of safety information available about inhaled caffeine. ===Combinations with other drugs=== Some beverages combine alcohol with caffeine to create a caffeinated alcoholic drink. The stimulant effects of caffeine may mask the depressant effects of alcohol, potentially reducing the user's awareness of their level of intoxication. Such beverages have been the subject of bans due to safety concerns. In particular, the United States Food and Drug Administration has classified caffeine added to malt liquor beverages as an "unsafe food additive". Ya ba contains a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine. Painkillers such as propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine combine caffeine with an analgesic. ==History== ===Discovery and spread of use=== According to Chinese legend, the Chinese emperor Shennong, reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BCE, inadvertently discovered tea when he noted that when certain leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant and restorative drink resulted. Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's Cha Jing, a famous early work on the subject of tea. The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From Mokha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Kola nut use appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs. The earliest evidence of cocoa bean use comes from residue found in an ancient Mayan pot dated to 600 BCE. Also, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocolatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote. Xocolatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief probably attributable to the theobromine and caffeine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Xocolatl was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by 1700. The Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. The leaves and stems of the yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) were used by Native Americans to brew a tea called asi or the "black drink". Archaeologists have found evidence of this use far into antiquity, possibly dating to Late Archaic times. In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet and by another pair of French chemists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, according to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in his yearly journal. Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's or each other's work. However, Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine, stating: "However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his Phytochemical Discoveries, 1820, pages 146–147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name Caffeebase a year earlier than Robiquet, to whom the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris." Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form from the French word for coffee: ). It corroborates Berzelius's account: Robiquet was one of the first to isolate and describe the properties of pure caffeine, whereas Pelletier was the first to perform an elemental analysis. In 1827, M. Oudry isolated "théine" from tea, but in 1838 it was proved by Mulder and by Carl Jobst that theine was actually the same as caffeine. In 1895, German chemist Hermann Emil Fischer (1852–1919) first synthesized caffeine from its chemical components (i.e. a "total synthesis"), and two years later, he also derived the structural formula of the compound. This was part of the work for which Fischer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902. ===Historic regulations=== Because it was recognized that coffee contained some compound that acted as a stimulant, first coffee and later also caffeine has sometimes been subject to regulation. For example, in the 16th century Islamists in Mecca and in the Ottoman Empire made coffee illegal for some classes. Charles II of England tried to ban it in 1676, Frederick II of Prussia banned it in 1777, and coffee was banned in Sweden at various times between 1756 and 1823. In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health". Although the Supreme Court later ruled in favor of Coca-Cola in United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances, which must be listed on a product's label. ==Society and culture== ===Regulations=== ====United States==== The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers safe beverages containing less than 0.02% caffeine; but caffeine powder, which is sold as a dietary supplement, is unregulated. It is a regulatory requirement that the label of most prepackaged foods must declare a list of ingredients, including food additives such as caffeine, in descending order of proportion. However, there is no regulatory provision for mandatory quantitative labeling of caffeine, (e.g., milligrams caffeine per stated serving size). There are a number of food ingredients that naturally contain caffeine. These ingredients must appear in food ingredient lists. However, as is the case for "food additive caffeine", there is no requirement to identify the quantitative amount of caffeine in composite foods containing ingredients that are natural sources of caffeine. While coffee or chocolate are broadly recognized as caffeine sources, some ingredients (e.g., guarana, yerba maté) are likely less recognized as caffeine sources. For these natural sources of caffeine, there is no regulatory provision requiring that a food label identify the presence of caffeine nor state the amount of caffeine present in the food. The FDA guidance was updated in 2018. ===Consumption=== Global consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per year, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance. The consumption of caffeine has remained stable between 1997 and 2015. Coffee, tea and soft drinks are the most common caffeine sources, with energy drinks contributing little to the total caffeine intake across all age groups. Some from these religions believe that one is not supposed to consume a non-medical, psychoactive substance, or believe that one is not supposed to consume a substance that is addictive. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: "... the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine. The Church's health guidelines prohibit alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and 'hot drinks' – taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee." Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and overstimulates the senses. To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year. Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims. In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden "intoxicating beverages" under Islamic dietary laws. ==Other organisms== The bacteria Pseudomonas putida CBB5 can live on pure caffeine and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia. Caffeine is toxic to birds and to dogs and cats, and has a pronounced adverse effect on mollusks, various insects, and spiders. This is at least partly due to a poor ability to metabolize the compound, causing higher levels for a given dose per unit weight.	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6,874	Cyc	Cyc (pronounced ) is a long-term artificial intelligence project that aims to assemble a comprehensive ontology and knowledge base that spans the basic concepts and rules about how the world works. Hoping to capture common sense knowledge, Cyc focuses on implicit knowledge. The project began in July 1984 at MCC and was developed later by the Cycorp company. The name "Cyc" (from "encyclopedia") is a registered trademark owned by Cycorp. CycL has a publicly released specification, and dozens of HL (Heuristic Level) modules were described in Lenat and Guha's textbook, but the Cyc inference engine code and the full list of HL modules are Cycorp-proprietary. ==History== The project began in July 1984 by Douglas Lenat as a project of the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), a research consortium started by two United States–based corporations "to counter a then ominous Japanese effort in AI, the so-called 'fifth-generation' project." The US passed the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984, which for the first time allowed US companies to "collude" on long-term research. Since January 1995, the project has been under active development by Cycorp, where Douglas Lenat was the CEO. The CycL representation language started as an extension of RLL (the Representation Language Language, developed in 1979–1980 by Lenat and his graduate student Russell Greiner while at Stanford University). In 1989, CycL had expanded in expressive power to higher-order logic (HOL). Cyc's ontology grew to about 100,000 terms in 1994, and as of 2017, it contained about 1,500,000 terms. The Cyc knowledge base involving ontological terms was largely created by hand axiom-writing; it was at about 1 million in 1994, and as of 2017, it is at about 24.5 million. In 2008, Cyc resources were mapped to many Wikipedia articles. Cyc is presently connected to Wikidata. ==Knowledge base== The knowledge base is divided into microtheories. Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory must be free from monotonic contradictions. Each microtheory is a first-class object in the Cyc ontology; it has a name that is a regular constant. The concept names in Cyc are CycL terms or constants. It also performs inductive reasoning, statistical machine learning and symbolic machine learning, and abductive reasoning. The Cyc inference engine separates the epistemological problem from the heuristic problem. For the latter, Cyc used a community-of-agents architecture in which specialized modules, each with its own algorithm, became prioritized if they could make progress on the sub-problem. ==Releases== ===OpenCyc=== The first version of OpenCyc was released in spring 2002 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts. The knowledge base was released under the Apache License. Cycorp stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users. The CycL and SubL interpreter (the program that allows users to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) was released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code. It was made available for Linux and Microsoft Windows. The open source Texai project released the RDF-compatible content extracted from OpenCyc. The user interface was in Java 6. Cycorp was a participant of a working group for the Semantic Web, Standard Upper Ontology Working Group, which was active from 2001 to 2003. A Semantic Web version of OpenCyc was available starting in 2008, but ending sometime after 2016. OpenCyc 4.0 was released in June 2012. OpenCyc 4.0 contained 239,000 concepts and 2,093,000 facts; however, these are mainly taxonomic assertions. 4.0 was the last released version, and around March 2017, OpenCyc was shutdown for the purported reason that "because such “fragmenting” led to divergence, and led to confusion amongst its users and the technical community generally that that OpenCyc fragment was Cyc.". ===ResearchCyc=== In July 2006, Cycorp released the executable of ResearchCyc 1.0, a version of Cyc aimed at the research community, at no charge. (ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004; a beta version was released in February 2005.) In addition to the taxonomic information, ResearchCyc includes more semantic knowledge; it also includes a large lexicon, English parsing and generation tools, and Java-based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying. It contains a system for ontology-based data integration. ==Applications== In 2001, GlaxoSmithKline was funding the Cyc, though for unknown applications. In 2007, the Cleveland Clinic has used Cyc to develop a natural-language query interface of biomedical information on cardiothoracic surgeries. A query is parsed into a set of CycL fragments with open variables. The Terrorism Knowledge Base was an application of Cyc that tried to contain knowledge about "terrorist"-related descriptions. The knowledge is stored as statements in mathematical logic. The project lasted from 2004 to 2008. Lycos used Cyc for search term disambiguation, but stopped in 2001. CycSecure was produced in 2002, a network vulnerability assessment tool based on Cyc, with trials at the US STRATCOM Computer Emergency Response Team. One Cyc application has the stated aim to help students doing math at a 6th grade level. The application, called MathCraft, was supposed to play the role of a fellow student who is slightly more confused than the user about the subject. As the user gives good advice, Cyc allows the avatar to make fewer mistakes. ==Criticisms== The Cyc project has been described as "one of the most controversial endeavors of the artificial intelligence history". Catherine Havasi, CEO of Luminoso, says that Cyc is the predecessor project to IBM's Watson. Machine-learning scientist Pedro Domingos refers to the project as a "catastrophic failure" for the unending amount of data required to produce any viable results and the inability for Cyc to evolve on its own. Gary Marcus, a cognitive scientist and the cofounder of an AI company called Geometric Intelligence, says "it represents an approach that is very different from all the deep-learning stuff that has been in the news." This is consistent with Doug Lenat's position that "Sometimes the veneer of intelligence is not enough". ==Notable employees== This is a list of some of the notable people who work or have worked on Cyc either while it was a project at MCC (where Cyc was first started) or Cycorp. Douglas Lenat Michael Witbrock Pat Hayes Ramanathan V. Guha Stuart J. Russell Srinija Srinivasan Jared Friedman John McCarthy	[ "Russell Greiner", "logical deduction", "Michael Witbrock", "natural language query", "Douglas Lenat", "Lycos", "Rome, New York", "Stanford University", "Pedro Domingos", "Expressive power (computer science)", "SubL", "Statistical learning theory", "Chief executive officer", "Cycorp, Inc.", "CycL", "heuristic", "Java (programming language)", "equivalence relation", "Linux", "knowledge base", "ontology-based data integration", "Wikidata", "higher-order logic", "Springer-Verlag", "Fifth Generation Computer Systems", "Catherine Havasi", "working group", "DBpedia", "implicit knowledge", "United States", "Lisp (programming language)", "Srinija Srinivasan", "inductive reasoning", "Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation", "Resource Description Framework", "GlaxoSmithKline", "Stuart J. Russell", "List of notable artificial intelligence projects", "Multi-agent system", "Taxonomy", "Pat Hayes", "ontology (information science)", "Epistemology", "Apache License", "source code", "BabelNet", "Microsoft Windows", "common sense knowledge", "artificial intelligence", "National Cooperative Research and Production Act", "abductive reasoning", "Symbolic artificial intelligence", "Wikipedia", "chordate", "Knowledge representation", "executable", "Watson (computer)", "Gary Marcus", "DARPA Agent Markup Language", "Cleveland Clinic", "Air Force Research Laboratory Information Directorate", "Cardiothoracic surgery", "Ramanathan V. Guha", "John McCarthy (computer scientist)", "MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base", "Standard Upper Ontology", "sibling", "English language", "Freebase (database)", "inference engine", "Jared Friedman", "AAAI", "Semantic Web", "United States Strategic Command", "Fifth generation computer" ]
6,876	CE	CE, Ce, ce, Će, or variants may refer to: ==Business== CE marking (stylized ), a mandatory administrative marking asserting conformity with relevant standards, applied to certain products offered for sale within the European Economic Area Customer equity, the total combined customer lifetime values of all of the company's customers Combustion Engineering, a former American manufacturer of power systems Nationwide Airlines (South Africa) (IATA airline designator CE) ==Calendar== Common Era (abbreviated CE), an alternative term to Anno Domini (AD) "Christian Era", also known as Anno Domini ==Education== College English, an official publication of the American National Council of Teachers of English Common Entrance Examination, tests used by independent schools in the UK Conductive education, an educational system developed for people with motor disorders Continuing education, a broad spectrum of post-secondary learning activities and programs Chartered engineer (UK), a professional engineer licensed by a professional body (modern abbreviation CEng) Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination, a standardized examination from 1974 to 2011 ==Entertainment== cê, a 2006 music album by Caetano Veloso Chaotic Evil, an alignment in the tabletop game Dungeons and Dragons Collector's edition, describing some special editions of software, movies, and books Cash Explosion, Ohio Lottery's scratch off game and weekly game show Halo: Combat Evolved, sometimes abbreviated as Halo: CE ==Job titles== Chief Executive, administrative head of some regions County executive, the head of the executive branch of county government, common in the U.S. Construction Electrician (US Navy), a Seabee occupational rating in the U.S. Navy ==Languages== Canadian English Chechen language (ISO 639-1 language code: ce) Commonwealth English Tshe, a letter of the Cyrillic script also transcribed as Će Tse (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script also transcribed as Ce ==Organizations== Church of England, the state church of the U.K. and mother church of the Anglican Communion, also referred to as the C of E Command element (United States Marine Corps), headquarters component of U.S. Marine Corps Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) European Community (, , , , ) ==Places== Cé (Pictish territory), an early medieval Pictish territory in modern-day Scotland Province of Caserta (ISO 3166-2:IT code CE), a province of Italy County Clare, Ireland (vehicle registration plate code CE) Ceará (ISO 3166-2:BR code CE), a state in Brazil Ceper railway station, a railway station in Indonesia (station code) Lough Key, known in Irish as Loch Cé Sri Lanka (FIPS Pub 10-4 and obsolete NATO country code CE) ==Science and technology== ===Computing=== Central European, an alternate name for Windows-1250 Cheat Engine, a system debugger and cheating tool Clear Entry, a button on a standard electronic calculator that clears the last number entered Computably enumerable, a property of some sets in computability theory, abbreviated c.e. Computer engineering, a branch of engineering specialized in computer hardware Congestion Experienced, a protocol element of the Explicit Congestion Notification data networking protocol Customer edge router, a router at the customer premises that is connected to a Multi-protocol Label Switching network Windows CE, "Consumer Edition", a version of the Windows operating system designed for mobile devices ===Other uses in science and technology=== Capillary electrophoresis, a technique used to separate ionic species by their charge and frictional forces CE phase, the phase between carrier and envelope of an electromagnetic wave Cerium, symbol Ce, a chemical element Cholesteryl ester Civil engineering Common envelope, gas containing a binary system. Conjugated estrogen Consumer electronics Customer engineer ==Other uses== Copy editing, improving the formatting, style, and accuracy of text	[ "Command element (United States Marine Corps)", "Continuing education", "College English", "Civil engineering", "Canadian English", "Anno Domini", "Nationwide Airlines (South Africa)", "Chechen language", "Sri Lanka", "Computer engineering", "Tse (Cyrillic)", "Windows-1250", "Chief Executive", "Construction Electrician (US Navy)", "Cash Explosion", "Customer edge router", "Conjugated estrogen", "Province of Caserta", "Cholesteryl ester", "Commonwealth English", "Common Entrance Examination", "Chaotic Evil", "CE marking", "Common Era", "Cé (Pictish territory)", "Combustion Engineering", "Explicit Congestion Notification", "European Community", "Windows CE", "County Clare", "cê", "Copy editing", "Lough Key", "County executive", "Ceará", "Ceper railway station", "Cheat Engine", "Customer engineer", "Conductive education", "Collector's edition", "Consumer electronics", "Capillary electrophoresis", "Common envelope", "Computably enumerable", "Halo: Combat Evolved", "CE phase", "Tshe", "₠", "Church of England", "Calculator", "Œ", "Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination", "Customer equity", "Cerium", "Chartered engineer (UK)" ]
6,878	Carlos Valderrama	Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio (Colombian Spanish: ; born 2 September 1961), also known as "El Pibe" ("The Kid"), is a Colombian former professional footballer and sports commentator for Fútbol de Primera, who played as an attacking midfielder. Valderrama is considered by many to be one of the greatest South American players in history and one of the best players of his era. In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players. A creative playmaker, he is regarded as one of the best Colombian footballers of all time, and by some, as Colombia's greatest player ever. His distinctive hairstyle, as well as his precise passing and technical skills made him one of South America's most recognisable footballers in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He won the South American Footballer of the Year award in 1987 and 1993, He is the fifth highest assister in the history of national teams and the twelfth overall, including clubs, and in 1999, he was also named one of the top 100 players of the 20th century by World Soccer. Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998. He represented Colombia in 111 full internationals and scored 11 times, making him the second-most capped player in the country's history, behind only David Ospina. He played a major role during the golden era of Colombian football in the 1990s, representing his national side in three FIFA World Cups and five Copa América tournaments. After spending most of his career playing club football in South America and Europe, towards the end of his career Valderrama played in Major League Soccer, joining the league in its first season. One of the most recognisable players in the league at the time of its inception, he helped popularise the league during the second half of the 1990s. To this day, he is an icon and is considered one of the most decorated players to ever play in MLS; in 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI. ==Club career== ===Colombia and Europe=== Born in Santa Marta, Colombia, Valderrama began his career at Unión Magdalena of the Colombian First Division in 1981. He also later played for Millonarios in 1984. He joined Deportivo Cali in 1985, where he played most of his Colombian football. In 1988, he moved to the French First Division side Montpellier. He struggled to adapt to the less technical and the faster, more physical, and tactical brand of football being played in Europe, losing his place in the squad. However, his passing ability later saw him become the club's main creative force, and he played a decisive role as his side won the Coupe de France in 1990. In 1991, he remained in Europe and joined Spanish side Real Valladolid for a season. He then returned to Colombia in 1992 and went on to play for Independiente Medellín, and subsequently Atlético Junior in 1993, with whom he won the Colombian championship in 1993 and 1995. ===MLS career=== Valderrama began his Major League Soccer career with the US side Tampa Bay Mutiny in the league's inaugural 1996 season. The team won the first ever Supporters' Shield, awarded for having the league's best regular season record, while Valderrama was the league's first Most Valuable Player, finishing the season with 4 goals and 17 assists. He remained with the club for the 1997 season, and also spent a spell on loan back at Deportivo Cali in Colombia, before moving to another MLS side, Miami Fusion, in 1998, where he also remained for two seasons. He returned to Tampa Bay in 2000, spending two more seasons with the club; while a member of the Mutiny, the team would sell Carlos Valderrama wigs at Tampa Stadium. In 2001, Valderrama joined the Colorado Rapids, and remained with the team until 2002, when he retired. He played his last career match in a 1–1 draw with the Kansas City Wizards on 20 September 2002, with Valderrama assisting Mark Chung's goal, and in doing so at the age of 41 years and 18 days, he became the oldest player in the league's history at the time, a record that has since been surpassed by four other players, including three goalkeepers. His American soccer league career spanned a total of eight years, during which he made 175 appearances. In the MLS, Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's fourth all-time leader in assists (114) after Brad Davis (123), Steve Ralston (135) – a former teammate, and Landon Donovan (145). In 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI. ==International career== Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998; he made 111 international appearances, scoring 11 goals, making him the most capped outfield player in the country's history. He represented and captained his national side in the 1990, 1994, and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and also took part in the 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, and 1995 Copa América tournaments. Valderrama made his international debut on 27 October 1985, in a 3–0 defeat to Paraguay in a 1986 World Cup qualifying match, at the age of 24. In his first major international tournament, he helped Colombia to a third-place finish at the 1987 Copa América in Argentina, as his team's captain, where he was named the tournament's best player; during the tournament, he scored the opening goal in Colombia's 2–0 over Bolivia on 1 July, their first match of the group stage. On 5 September 1993, Valderrama contributed to Colombia's historic 5–0 victory over South American rivals Argentina at the Monumental in Buenos Aires, which allowed them to qualify for the 1994 World Cup. Although much was expected of Valderrama at the World Cup, an injury during a pre-tournament warm-up game put his place in the squad in jeopardy; although he was able to regain match fitness in time for the tournament, Colombia disappointed and suffered a first-round elimination following defeats to Romania and the hosts USA. However, it is widely believed that internal problems and threats by drug cartel groups at the time contributed to the team's underwhelming results in the competition, in particular following the murder of Andrés Escobar after Colombia's 2–1 defeat to the host nation in the second group match; during the match, the Colombian defender had netted an own goal to open the scoring, which ultimately proved to be decisive, despite a 2–0 win over Switzerland in the final first round fixture. Four years later, Valderrama led his nation to qualify for the 1998 World Cup in France, scoring three goals during the qualifying stages. His impact in the final tournament at the advancing age of 37, however, was less decisive, and, despite defeating Tunisia, Colombia once again suffered a first round exit, following a 2–0 defeat against England, which was Valderrama's final international appearance. his tactical intelligence, positioning, reading of the game, efficient movement, and versatile range of passing enabled him to find space for himself to distribute and receive the ball, which allowed him both to set the tempo of his team in midfield with short, first time exchanges, or create chances with long lobbed passes or through balls. Valderrama's most instantly recognisable physical features were his big afro-blonde hairstyle, jewelry, and moustache, Former French defender Laurent Blanc, who played with Valderrama in Montpellier, described him thusly: "In the fast and furious European game he wasn't always at his ease. He was a natural exponent of 'toque', keeping the ball moving. But he was so gifted that we could give him the ball when we didn't know what else to do with it knowing he wouldn't lose it... and often he would do things that most of us only dream about." In 2006, a 22-foot bronze statue of Valderrama, created by Colombian artist Amilkar Ariza, was erected outside Estadio Eduardo Santos in Valderrama's birthplace of Santa Marta. Valderrama was the only Colombian to be featured by Pelé in FIFA's 125 Top Living Football Players list in March 2004. In the Nintendo 64 version of the game, he is referred to by his nickname, El Pibe. Valderrama has also appeared in EA Sports' FIFA football video game series; he was named one of the Ultimate Team Legend cards in FIFA 15. Besides his link to videogames, Valderrama has been present in sports media through his work with Fútbol de Primera, Andrés Cantor's radio station. He works as a color commentator during broadcasts of different matches, mostly participating during the FIFA World Cup, alongside play-by-play commentators like Sammy Sadovnik or Cantor himself. ==Coaching career== Since retiring from professional football, Valderrama has become assistant manager of Atlético Junior. On 1 November 2007, Valderrama accused a referee of corruption by waving cash in the face of Oscar Julian Ruiz when the official awarded a penalty to América de Cali. Junior lost the match 4–1, which ended the club's hopes of playoff qualification. He later also served as a coach for a football academy called Clearwater Galactics in Clearwater, Florida. ==Personal life== Valderrama is married and has six children. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== ===International=== Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Valderrama goal. ==Honours== Montpellier Coupe de France: 1990 Atletico Junior Colombian Championship: 1993, 1995 Tampa Bay Mutiny MLS Supporters' Shield: 1996 Individual Copa América MVP: 1987 MLS Best XI: 1996, 1997, 2000 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 Major League Soccer MVP: 1996 Colombian Player of the Century: 1999 Copa América Historical Dream Team: 2011 Golden Foot: 2013, as football legend	[ "1997 Major League Soccer season", "Assist (football)", "2000 MLS All-Star Game", "1990–91 French Division 1", "1990 Coupe de France final", "Andrés Escobar", "FIFA 100", "Colombia national football team", "attacking midfielder", "1984 Campeonato Profesional", "Atlético Junior", "World Soccer (magazine)", "1985 Campeonato Profesional", "Estadio Centenario (Armenia, Colombia)", "Waldstadion (Frankfurt)", "1996 MLS All-Star Game", "José Luis Chilavert", "Switzerland national football team", "Diego Maradona", "Millonarios F.C.", "Brad Davis (soccer)", "David Ospina", "1983 Campeonato Profesional", "Club Deportivo Los Millonarios", "La Liga", "Rosario", "Estadio Metropolitano Roberto Meléndez", "1987 Copa América", "Montpellier Hérault SC", "1994 FIFA World Cup", "Freddy Rincón", "Stadio Renato Dall'Ara", "Squad number (association football)", "Armenia, Colombia", "midfielder", "Gabriel Martínez (footballer)", "color commentator", "England national football team", "drug cartel", "Coupe de France", "Midfielder", "Association footballer", "Categoría Primera A", "Estadio Alberto J. Armando", "Unión Magdalena", "Golden Foot", "Cameroon national football team", "Nintendo 64", "1986 Campeonato Profesional", "Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti", "1981 Campeonato Profesional", "FIFA 15", "Landon Donovan", "Cross (football)", "Estadio Domingo Burgueño", "1991 Copa América", "Estadio Gigante de Arroyito", "Tunisia national football team", "1999 Major League Soccer season", "Paraguay national football team", "Jorge Bolaño", "Supporters' Shield", "Steve Ralston", "1995 Copa América", "Tampa Stadium", "Miami Fusion", "Miami Orange Bowl", "MLS Best XI", "2000 MLS season", "Deportivo Cali", "2000 Major League Soccer season", "Independiente Medellín", "Estadio Eduardo Santos", "deep-lying playmaker", "Argentina national football team", "1986 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)", "1996 Major League Soccer season", "1989 Copa América", "2001 Major League Soccer season", "Attacking midfielder", "Friendly (association football)", "Tampa Bay Mutiny", "1992 Categoría Primera A season", "Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation", "Miami", "Germany national football team", "United Arab Emirates national football team", "Major League Soccer", "1987 Campeonato Profesional", "MLS All-Time Best XI", "1998 MLS All-Star Game", "Bologna", "Sporting Kansas City", "Romania national football team", "List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps", "1998 Major League Soccer season", "United States men's national soccer team", "Bolivia national football team", "Pelé", "Direct free kick", "Central midfielder", "Bleacher Report", "playmaker", "South American Footballer of the Year", "FIFA (video game series)", "1994 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)", "Colombian Spanish", "sports commentator", "2002 Major League Soccer season", "Santa Marta", "Mark Chung", "Frankfurt", "1993 Categoría Primera A season", "Captain (association football)", "World Soccer Magazine", "1982 Campeonato Profesional", "Colorado Rapids", "Play-by-Play", "1995 Categoría Primera A season", "Golden Foot legends award", "Iván Zamorano", "East Rutherford, New Jersey", "Barranquilla", "Associated Press", "Amilkar Ariza", "EA Sports", "Ligue 1", "Buenos Aires", "Real Valladolid", "1998 FIFA World Cup", "Pierre Littbarski", "Millonarios", "MLS All-Star Game", "Clearwater, Florida", "1997 MLS All-Star Game", "FIFA World Cup", "Major League Soccer MVP Award", "Andrés Cantor", "Giants Stadium", "1990 FIFA World Cup", "Copa América", "1988–89 French Division 1", "International Superstar Soccer Pro 98", "radio station", "1999 Major League Soccer All-Star Game", "Maldonado, Uruguay", "Fútbol de Primera (radio network)", "1998 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)", "América de Cali", "Laurent Blanc", "1989–90 French Division 1", "Montpellier HSC", "1991–92 La Liga", "1993 Copa América", "Association football", "1996–97 Categoría Primera A season", "1994 Categoría Primera A season", "Futbol Profesional Colombiano", "MLS Supporters' Shield", "Yugoslavia national football team", "USA Today", "Enzo Francescoli", "Konami", "Major League Soccer MVP", "Dribbling", "own goal" ]
6,880	Caesar salad	A Caesar salad (also spelled Cesar, César and Cesare), also known as Caesar's salad, is a green salad of romaine lettuce and croutons dressed with lemon juice (or lime juice), olive oil, eggs, Worcestershire sauce, anchovies, garlic, Dijon mustard, Parmesan and black pepper. The salad was created on July 4, 1924, by Caesar Cardini at Caesar's in Tijuana, Mexico, when the kitchen was overwhelmed and short on ingredients. It was originally prepared tableside, and it is still prepared tableside at the original venue. == History == The salad's creation is generally attributed to the restaurateur Caesar Cardini, an Italian immigrant who operated restaurants in Mexico and the United States. Cardini lived in San Diego, but ran one of his restaurants, Caesar's, in Tijuana, Mexico, to attract American customers seeking to circumvent the restrictions of Prohibition. His daughter, Rosa, recounted that her father invented the salad at the Tijuana restaurant when a Fourth of July rush in 1924 depleted the kitchen's supplies. Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of table-side tossing by the chef. Some other accounts of the history state that Alex Cardini, Caesar Cardini's brother, made the salad, and that the salad was previously named the "Aviator Salad" because it was made for aviators who traveled over during Prohibition. A number of Cardini's staff have also said that they invented the dish. A popular myth attributes its invention to Julius Caesar. A 2024 book confirmed the claim that Caesar Cardini originated the recipe. Livio Santini's son, Aldo, countered that his father provided the recipe while working as a cook in Cardini's restaurant. The American chef and writer Julia Child said that she had eaten a Caesar salad at Cardini's restaurant in her youth during the 1920s, made with whole romaine lettuce leaves, which were meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers, tossed with olive oil, salt, pepper, lemon juice, Worcestershire sauce, coddled eggs, Parmesan, and croutons made with garlic-infused oil. In 1946, the newspaper columnist Dorothy Kilgallen wrote of a Caesar containing anchovies, differing from Cardini's version: The big food rage in Hollywood—the Caesar salad—will be introduced to New Yorkers by Gilmore's Steak House. It's an intricate concoction that takes ages to prepare and contains (zowie!) lots of garlic, raw or slightly coddled eggs, croutons, romaine, anchovies, parmeasan cheese, olive oil, vinegar and plenty of black pepper. In a 1952 interview, Cardini said the salad became well known in 1937, when Manny Wolf, story editor and Paramount Pictures writer's department head, provided the recipe to Hollywood restaurants. In the 1970s, Child published a recipe in her book From Julia Child's Kitchen, based on an interview with Cardini's daughter, in which the ingredients are tossed one-at-a-time with the lettuce leaves. == Dressing == Bottled Caesar dressings are produced and marketed by many companies, including Cardini's, Bolthouse Farms, Ken's Foods, Marzetti, Newman's Own, Panera Bread, Trader Joe's, and Whole Foods Market. The trademark brands, "Cardini's", "Caesar Cardini's" and "The Original Caesar Dressing" are all claimed to date to February 1950, although they were only registered decades later. == Ingredients == Common ingredients in many recipes: While the original Caesar's in Tijuana uses lime juice in their current recipe, most modern recipes use lemon juice or vinegar. Vegan versions can replace anchovies with capers and the eggs with tahini.	[ "tahini", "T. Marzetti Company", "lemon juice", "Tijuana", "Prohibition in the United States", "capers", "Parmesan", "Newman's Own", "Ken's Foods", "Gueridon service", "From Julia Child's Kitchen", "The New Zealand Herald", "romaine lettuce", "TCPalm", "Trader Joe's", "anchovy (food)", "Bolthouse Farms", "Julia Child", "Crouton", "Caesar's", "Whole Foods Market", "salt", "coddled egg", "Hors d'oeuvre", "Independence Day (United States)", "Caesar Cardini", "umami", "Paramount Pictures", "Julius Caesar", "Worcestershire sauce", "olive oil", "Dorothy Kilgallen", "fat", "Avenida Revolución", "San Diego", "Dijon mustard", "Salad", "Egg (food)", "Los Angeles Times", "Salad dressing", "mayonnaise", "Mexico", "Random House", "Manny Wolf", "List of salads", "The Conversation (website)", "crouton", "black pepper", "Panera Bread", "Coddled egg", "Veganism", "Romaine lettuce", "Multicourse meal", "poached egg", "Parmigiano-Reggiano" ]
6,881	Cecilia Beaux	Eliza Cecilia Beaux (May 1, 1855 – September 17, 1942) was an American artist and the first woman to teach art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Known for her elegant and sensitive portraits of friends, relatives, and Gilded Age patrons, Beaux painted many famous subjects including First Lady Edith Roosevelt, Admiral Sir David Beatty and Georges Clemenceau. Beaux was trained in Philadelphia and went on to study in Paris where she was influenced by academic artists Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau as well as the work of Édouard Manet and Edgar Degas. Her style was compared to that of John Singer Sargent; at one exhibition, Bernard Berenson joked that her paintings were the best Sargents in the room. Like her instructor William Sartain, she believed there was a connection between physical characteristics and behavioral traits. Beaux was awarded a gold medal for lifetime achievement by the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and honored by Eleanor Roosevelt as "the American woman who had made the greatest contribution to the culture of the world". ==Early life and education== Beaux was born on May 1, 1855, in Philadelphia, the younger daughter of French silk manufacturer Jean Adolphe Beaux and teacher Cecilia Kent Leavitt. Her mother was the daughter of prominent businessman John Wheeler Leavitt of New York City and his wife, Cecilia Kent of Suffield, Connecticut. Cecilia Kent Leavitt died from puerperal fever 12 days after giving birth at age 33. Cecilia and her sister Etta were subsequently raised by their maternal grandmother and aunts, primarily in Philadelphia. Her father, unable to bear the grief of his loss, and feeling adrift in a foreign country, returned to his native France for 16 years, with only one visit back to Philadelphia. He returned when Cecilia was two, but left four years later after his business failed. As she confessed later, "We didn't love Papa very much, he was so foreign. We thought him peculiar." Her father did have a natural aptitude for drawing and the sisters were charmed by his whimsical sketches of animals. Later, Beaux would discover that her French heritage would serve her well during her pilgrimage and training in France. In Philadelphia, Beaux's aunt Emily married mining engineer William Foster Biddle, whom Beaux would later describe as "after my grandmother, the strongest and most beneficent influence in my life." For fifty years, he cared for his nieces-in-law with consistent attention and occasional financial support. Her grandmother, on the other hand, provided day-to-day supervision and kindly discipline. Whether with housework, handiwork, or academics, Grandma Leavitt offered a pragmatic framework, stressing that "everything undertaken must be completed, conquered." The Civil War years were particularly challenging, but the extended family survived despite little emotional or financial support from Beaux's father. After the war, Beaux began to spend some time in the household of "Willie" and Emily, both proficient musicians. Beaux learned to play the piano but preferred singing. The musical atmosphere later proved an advantage for her artistic ambitions. Beaux recalled, "They understood perfectly the spirit and necessities of an artist's life." In her early teens, she had her first major exposure to art during visits with Willie to the nearby Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, one of America's foremost art schools and museums. Though fascinated by the narrative elements of some of the pictures, particularly the Biblical themes of the massive paintings of Benjamin West, at this point Beaux had no aspirations of becoming an artist. Her childhood was a sheltered though generally happy one. As a teen she already manifested the traits, as she described, of "both a realist and a perfectionist, pursued by an uncompromising passion for carrying through." She attended the Misses Lyman School and was just an average student, though she did well in French and Natural History. However, she was unable to afford the extra fee for art lessons. At age 16, Beaux began art lessons with a relative, Catherine Ann Drinker, an accomplished artist who had her own studio and a growing clientele. Drinker became Beaux's role model, and she continued lessons with Drinker for a year. She then studied for two years with the painter Francis Adolf Van der Wielen, who offered lessons in perspective and drawing from casts during the time that the new Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was under construction. Given the bias of the Victorian age, female students were denied direct study in anatomy and could not attend drawing classes with live models (who were often prostitutes) until a decade later. At 18, Beaux was appointed as a drawing teacher at Miss Sanford's School, taking over Drinker's post. She also gave private art lessons and produced decorative art and small portraits. Her own studies were mostly self-directed. Beaux received her first introduction to lithography doing copy work for Philadelphia printer Thomas Sinclair and she published her first work in St. Nicholas magazine in December 1873. Beaux demonstrated accuracy and patience as a scientific illustrator, creating drawings of fossils for Edward Drinker Cope, for a multi-volume report sponsored by the U.S. Geological Survey. However, she did not find technical illustration suitable for a career (the extreme exactitude required gave her pains in the "solar plexus"). At this stage, she did not yet consider herself an artist. Beaux began attending the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia in 1876, then under the dynamic influence of Thomas Eakins, whose work The Gross Clinic had "horrified Philadelphia Exhibition-goers as a gory spectacle" at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. She steered clear of the controversial Eakins, though she much admired his work. His progressive teaching philosophy, focused on anatomy and live study and allowed the female students to partake in segregated studios, eventually led to his firing as director of the academy. She did not ally herself with Eakins' ardent student supporters, and later wrote, "A curious instinct of self-preservation kept me outside the magic circle." Instead, she attended costume and portrait painting classes for three years taught by the ailing director Christian Schussele. Beaux won the Mary Smith Prize at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts exhibitions in 1885, 1887, 1891, and 1892. After leaving the academy, the 24-year-old Beaux decided to try her hand at porcelain painting and she enrolled in a course at the National Art Training School. She was well suited to the precise work but later wrote, "this was the lowest depth I ever reached in commercial art, and although it was a period when youth and romance were in their first attendance on me, I remember it with gloom and record it with shame." She studied privately with William Sartain, a friend of Eakins and a New York artist invited to Philadelphia to teach a group of art students, starting in 1881. Though Beaux admired Eakins more and thought his painting skill superior to Sartain's, she preferred the latter's gentle teaching style which promoted no particular aesthetic approach. Unlike Eakins, however, Sartain believed in phrenology and Beaux adopted a lifelong belief that physical characteristics correlated with behaviors and traits. It was awarded a prize for the best painting by a female artist at the academy, and further exhibited in Philadelphia and New York. Following that seminal painting, she painted over 50 portraits in the next three years with the zeal of a committed professional artist. Her invitation to serve as a juror on the hanging committee of the academy confirmed her acceptance amongst her peers. In the mid-1880s, she was receiving commissions from notable Philadelphians and earning $500 per portrait, comparable to what Eakins commanded. When her friend Margaret Bush-Brown insisted that Les Derniers was good enough to be exhibited at the famed Paris Salon, Beaux relented and sent the painting abroad in the care of her friend, who managed to get the painting into the exhibition. the largest art school in Paris, and at the Académie Colarossi, receiving weekly critiques from established masters like Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau. She wrote, "Fleury is much less benign than Bouguereau and don't temper his severities…he hinted of possibilities before me and as he rose said the nicest thing of all, 'we will do all we can to help you'…I want these men…to know me and recognize that I can do something." Though advised regularly of Beaux's progress abroad and to "not be worried about any indiscretions of ours", her Aunt Eliza repeatedly reminded her niece to avoid the temptations of Paris, "Remember you are first of all a Christian – then a woman and last of all an Artist." When Beaux arrived in Paris, the Impressionists, a group of artists who had begun their own series of independent exhibitions from the official Salon in 1874, were beginning to lose their solidarity. Also known as the "Independents" or "Intransigents", the group which at times included Degas, Monet, Sisley, Caillebotte, Pissarro, Renoir, and Berthe Morisot, had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years. Their art, though varying in style and technique, was the antithesis of the type of Academic art in which Beaux was trained and of which her teacher William-Adolphe Bouguereau was a leading master. In the summer of 1888, with classes in summer recess, Beaux worked in the fishing village of Concarneau with the American painters Alexander Harrison and Charles Lazar. She tried applying the plein-air painting techniques used by the Impressionists to her own landscapes and portraiture, with little success. Unlike her predecessor Mary Cassatt, who had arrived near the beginning of the Impressionist movement 15 years earlier and who had absorbed it, Beaux's artistic temperament, precise and true to observation, would not align with Impressionism and she remained a realist painter for the rest of her career, even as Cézanne, Matisse, Gauguin, and Picasso were beginning to take art into new directions. Beaux mostly admired classic artists like Titian and Rembrandt. Her European training did influence her palette, however, and she adopted more white and paler coloration in her oil painting, particularly in depicting female subjects, an approach favored by Sargent as well. ===Return to Philadelphia=== Back in the United States in 1889, Beaux proceeded to paint portraits in the grand manner, taking as her subjects members of her sister's family and of Philadelphia's elite. In making her decision to devote herself to art, she also thought it was best not to marry, and in choosing male company she selected men who would not threaten to sidetrack her career. She resumed life with her family, and they supported her fully, acknowledging her chosen path and demanding of her little in the way of household responsibilities, "I was never once asked to do an errand in town, some bit of shopping…so well did they understand." She developed a structured, professional routine, arriving promptly at her studio, and expected the same from her models. The five years that followed were highly productive, resulting in over forty portraits. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition, obtained in 1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy of Design. She exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts and The Woman's Building at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. Her portrait of The Reverend Matthew Blackburne Grier was particularly well-received, as was Sita and Sarita, a portrait of her cousin Charles W. Leavitt's wife Sarah (Allibone) Leavitt in white, with a small black cat perched on her shoulder, both gazing out mysteriously. The mesmerizing effect prompted one critic to point out "the witch-like weirdness of the black kitten" and for many years, the painting solicited questions by the press. But the result was not pre-planned, as Beaux's sister later explained, "Please make no mystery about it—it was only an idea to put the black kitten on her cousin's shoulder. Nothing deeper." Beaux donated Sita and Sarita to the Musée du Luxembourg, but only after making a copy for herself. Another highly regarded portrait from that period is New England Woman (1895), a nearly all-white oil painting which was purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In 1895, Beaux became the first woman to have a regular teaching position at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where she instructed in portrait drawing and painting for the next twenty years. That rare type of achievement by a woman prompted one local newspaper to state, "It is a legitimate source of pride to Philadelphia that one of its most cherished institutions has made this innovation." She was a popular instructor. In 1898, Beaux painted probably her finest portrait, Man with the Cat (Henry Sturgis Drinker), now in Smithsonian American Art Museum. Drinker was Beaux's very successful brother-in-law. Cecilia Beaux considered herself a "New Woman", a 19th-century woman who explored educational and career opportunities that had generally been denied to women. In the late 19th century Charles Dana Gibson depicted the "New Woman" in his painting, The Reason Dinner was Late, which is "a sympathetic portrayal of artistic aspiration on the part of young women" as she paints a visiting policeman. This "New Woman" was successful, highly trained, and often did not marry; other such women included Ellen Day Hale, Mary Cassatt, Elizabeth Nourse and Elizabeth Coffin. Beaux was a member of Philadelphia's The Plastic Club. Other members included Elenore Abbott, Jessie Willcox Smith, Violet Oakley, Emily Sartain, and Elizabeth Shippen Green. Many of the women who founded the organization had been students of Howard Pyle. It was founded to provide a means to encourage one another professionally and create opportunities to sell their works of art. ===New York City=== By 1900 the demand for Beaux's work brought clients from Washington, D.C., to Boston, prompting the artist to move to New York City, where she spent the winters, while summering at Green Alley, the home and studio she had built in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Beaux's friendship with Richard Gilder, editor-in-chief of the literary magazine The Century, helped promote her career and he introduced her to the elite of society. Among her portraits which followed from that association are those of Georges Clemenceau; First Lady Edith Roosevelt and her daughter; and Admiral Sir David Beatty. She also sketched President Teddy Roosevelt during her White House visits in 1902, during which "He sat for two hours, talking most of the time, reciting Kipling, and reading scraps of Browning." Beaux also became very close with Gilder's daughter Dorothea, and the two women exchanged affectionate letters for many years. Her portraits Fanny Travis Cochran, Dorothea and Francesca, and Ernesta and her Little Brother, are fine examples of her skill in painting children; Ernesta with Nurse, one of a series of essays in luminous white, was a highly original composition, seemingly without precedent. She became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1902. and won the Logan Medal of the arts at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1921. ===Green Alley=== By 1906, Beaux began to live year-round at Green Alley, in a comfortable colony of "cottages" belonging to her wealthy friends and neighbors. All three aunts had died and she needed an emotional break from Philadelphia and New York City. She managed to find new subjects for portraiture, working in the mornings and enjoying a leisurely life the rest of the time. She carefully regulated her energy and her activities to maintain a productive output, and considered that a key to her success. On why so few women succeeded in art as she did, she stated, "Strength is the stumbling block. They (women) are sometimes unable to stand the hard work of it day in and day out. They become tired and cannot reenergize themselves." While Beaux stuck to her portraits of the elite, American art was advancing into urban and social subject matter, led by artists such as Robert Henri who espoused a totally different aesthetic, "Work with great speed..Have your energies alert, up and active. Do it all in one sitting if you can. In one minute if you can. There is no use delaying…Stop studying water pitchers and bananas and paint everyday life." He advised his students, among them Edward Hopper and Rockwell Kent, to live with the common man and paint the common man, in total opposition to Cecilia Beaux's artistic methods and subjects. The clash of Henri and William Merritt Chase (representing Beaux and the traditional art establishment) resulted in 1907 in the independent exhibition by the urban realists known as "The Eight" or the Ashcan School. Beaux and her art friends defended the old order, and many thought (and hoped) the new movement to be a passing fad, but it turned out to be a revolutionary turn in American art. In 1910, her beloved Uncle Willie died. Though devastated by the loss, at 55 year old, Beaux remained highly productive. In the next five years she painted almost 25 percent of her lifetime output and received a steady stream of honors. She had a major exhibition of 35 paintings at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., in 1912. Despite her continuing production and accolades, however, Beaux was working against the current of tastes and trends in art. The famed "Armory Show" of 1913 in New York City was a landmark presentation of 1,200 paintings showcasing Modernism. Beaux believed that the public, initially of mixed opinion about the "new" art, would ultimately reject it and return its favor to the Pre-Impressionists. Beaux was crippled after breaking her hip while walking in Paris in 1924. With her health impaired, her work output dwindled for the remainder of her life. In 1930 she published an autobiography, Background with Figures. In 1942 The National Institute of Arts and Letters awarded her a gold medal for lifetime achievement. ==Death== Beaux died at the age of 87 on September 17, 1942, in Gloucester, Massachusetts. ==Legacy== Beaux was included in the 2018 exhibit Women in Paris 1850-1900 at the Clark Art Institute. Though Beaux was an individualist, comparisons to Sargent would prove inevitable, and often favorable. Her strong technique, her perceptive reading of her subjects, and her ability to flatter without falsifying, were traits similar to his. "The critics are very enthusiastic. (Bernard) Berenson, Mrs. Coates tells me, stood in front of the portraits – Miss Beaux's three – and wagged his head. 'Ah, yes, I see!' Some Sargents. The ordinary ones are signed John Sargent, the best are signed Cecilia Beaux, which is, of course, nonsense in more ways than one, but it is part of the generous chorus of praise." Though overshadowed by Mary Cassatt and relatively unknown to museum-goers today, Beaux's craftsmanship and extraordinary output were highly regarded in her time. While presenting the Carnegie Institute's Gold Medal to Beaux in 1899, William Merritt Chase stated "Miss Beaux is not only the greatest living woman painter, but the best that has ever lived. Miss Beaux has done away entirely with sex [gender] in art." During her long productive life as an artist, she maintained her personal aesthetic and high standards against all distractions and countervailing forces. She constantly struggled for perfection. "A perfect technique in anything," she stated in an interview, "means that there has been no break in continuity between the conception and the act of performance." She summed up her driving work ethic, "I can say this: When I attempt anything, I have a passionate determination to overcome every obstacle…And I do my own work with a refusal to accept defeat that might almost be called painful." ==Gallery== File:Landscape with Farm Building Cecilia Beaux.jpeg\|Landscape with Farm Building, 1888 File:Cecilia Beaux - Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge (Catherine Eddy, Lady Primrose Portrait) - 1999.44 - Indianapolis Museum of Art.jpg\|Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge, 1916 File:William Henry Howell (painting, 1911).jpg\|Painting of William Henry Howell (1919) File:Cecilia Beaux painting Cardinal Mercier.jpg\|Cecilia Beaux painting of Cardinal Mercier () File:Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker.jpg\|Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker, 1891 File:Lady George Darwin by Cecilia Beaux 1889.jpeg\|Lady George Darwin, Beaux's pastel portrait of the former Martha du Puy of Philadelphia, who married Sir George Darwin. 1889 File:Mother and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 PAFA.jpg\|Mother and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 File:Mrs. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux.jpg\|Mrs. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux, 1902 File:A Little Girl by Cecilia Beaux.png\|A Little Girl (1887) File:The Green Cloak by Cecilia Beaux.jpg\|The Green Cloak, a portrait of George Dudley Seymour, on display at the Wadsworth Atheneum (1925)	[ "The Gross Clinic", "Pennsylvania", "Berthe Morisot", "Monet", "Art Institute of Chicago", "George Darwin", "John Wheeler Leavitt", "Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)", "Ellen Day Hale", "Exposition Universelle (1900)", "Washington, D.C.", "Georges Clemenceau", "Violet Oakley", "Impressionism", "William-Adolphe Bouguereau", "Corcoran Gallery of Art", "grand manner", "Uffizi Gallery", "Columbus Museum of Art", "William Sartain", "Degas", "Gauguin", "John Singer Sargent", "William Henry Howell", "Emily Sartain", "Portrait painting", "Académie Julian", "Tony Robert-Fleury", "New York Art Resources Consortium", "Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania", "New York City", "Wadsworth Atheneum", "Martha du Puy", "National Academy of Design", "Robert Henri", "Philadelphia", "Victorian age", "Pissarro", "William Merritt Chase", "Centennial Exhibition", "Gilded Age", "Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts", "Harvard University", "Thomas Eakins", "Académie Colarossi", "Duncan Phyfe", "United States", "phrenology", "puerperal fever", "List of women artists exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition", "World's Columbian Exposition", "George Dudley Seymour", "Édouard Manet", "New Woman", "Mary Cassatt", "Titian", "Edith Roosevelt", "White House", "Bernard Berenson", "Mary Smith Prize", "Philadelphia Art Club", "Boston", "Modernism", "Christian Schussele", "Eleanor Roosevelt", "Elizabeth Nourse", "Cardinal Mercier", "Edward Drinker Cope", "Cézanne", "portrait", "Jessie Willcox Smith", "Matisse", "Edgar Degas", "lithography", "Charles Dana Gibson", "Picasso", "Musée du Luxembourg", "Teddy Roosevelt", "Cecil Kent Drinker", "Gustave Caillebotte", "American Academy of Arts and Letters", "T. Alexander Harrison", "Elizabeth Coffin", "James McNeill Whistler", "Benjamin West", "autobiography", "Concarneau", "pastel", "David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty", "Temple Gold Medal", "Elizabeth Shippen Green", "Paris Salon", "Catherine A. Janvier", "Suffield, Connecticut", "academic art", "The Woman's Building (Chicago)", "Sir David Beatty", "silk", "The Plastic Club", "Elenore Abbott", "Kipling", "Gloucester, Massachusetts", "Logan Medal of the arts", "Renoir", "West Laurel Hill Cemetery", "Rembrandt", "American Civil War", "Paris", "Harvard School of Public Health", "porcelain painting", "Edward Hopper", "National Institute of Arts and Letters", "Alfred Sisley", "Ashcan School", "Rockwell Kent" ]
6,882	Chrysler	FCA US, LLC, doing business as Stellantis North America and known historically as Chrysler ( ), is one of the "Big Three" automobile manufacturers in the United States, headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan. It is the American subsidiary of the multinational automotive company Stellantis. Stellantis North America sells vehicles worldwide under the Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, and Ram Trucks nameplates. It also includes Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The division also distributes Alfa Romeo, Fiat, and Maserati vehicles in North America. The original Chrysler Corporation was founded in 1925 by Walter Chrysler from the remains of the Maxwell Motor Company. In 1998, it merged with Daimler-Benz, which renamed itself DaimlerChrysler but in 2007 sold off its Chrysler stake. The company operated as Chrysler LLC through 2009, then as Chrysler Group LLC. In 2014, it was acquired by Fiat S.p.A.; it subsequently operated as a subsidiary of the new Fiat Chrysler Automobiles ("FCA"), then as a subsidiary of Stellantis, the company formed from the 2021 merger of FCA and PSA Group (Peugeot Société Anonyme). After founding the company, Walter Chrysler used the General Motors brand diversification and hierarchy strategy that he had become familiar with when he worked in the Buick division at General Motors. He then acquired Fargo Trucks and the Dodge Brothers Company, and created the Plymouth and DeSoto brands in 1928. Facing postwar declines in market share, productivity, and profitability, as GM and Ford were growing, Chrysler borrowed $250 million in 1954 from Prudential Insurance to pay for expansion and updated car designs. Chrysler expanded into Europe by taking control of French, British, and Spanish auto companies in the 1960s; Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for a nominal $1. The company struggled to adapt to changing markets, increased U.S. import competition, and safety and environmental regulation in the 1970s. It began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. On the verge of bankruptcy in the late 1970s, it was saved by $1.5 billion in loan guarantees from the U.S. government. New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship. In 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation (AMC), which brought the profitable Jeep, as well as the newly formed Eagle, brands under the Chrysler umbrella. In 1998, Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler-Benz to form DaimlerChrysler AG; the merger proved contentious with investors. As a result, Chrysler was sold to Cerberus Capital Management and renamed Chrysler LLC in 2007. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was impacted by the automotive industry crisis of 2008–2010. The company remained in business through a combination of negotiations with creditors, filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization on April 30, 2009, and participating in a bailout from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program. On June 10, 2009, Chrysler emerged from the bankruptcy proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S.p.A., and the U.S. and Canadian governments as principal owners. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts. In May 2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U.S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years, Fiat S.p.A. gradually acquired the other parties' shares. In January 2014, Fiat acquired the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A. In May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was established by merging Fiat S.p.A. into the company. Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15, 2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. As a result of the merger between FCA and PSA, on 17 January 2021 it became a subsidiary of the Stellantis Group. ==History== ===1925–1998: Chrysler Corporation=== The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6, 1925, when the Maxwell Motor Company (est. 1904) was re-organized into the Chrysler Corporation. The company was headquartered in the Detroit enclave of Highland Park, where it remained until completing the move to its present Auburn Hills location in 1996. Chrysler had arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s, hired to overhaul the company's troubled operations (after a similar rescue job at the Willys-Overland car company). In late 1923, production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. The original 1924 Chrysler included a carburetor air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication, and an oil filter, features absent from most autos at the time. Among the innovations in its early years were the first practical mass-produced four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a system nearly completely engineered by Chrysler with patents assigned to Lockheed, and rubber engine mounts, called "Floating Power" to reduce vibration. Chrysler also developed a wheel with a ridged rim, designed to keep a deflated tire from flying off the wheel. This wheel was eventually adopted by the auto industry worldwide. The Maxwell brand was dropped after the 1925 model year, with the new, lower-priced four-cylinder Chryslers introduced for the 1926 year being badge-engineered Maxwells. The advanced engineering and testing that went into Chrysler Corporation cars helped to push the company to the second-place position in U.S. sales by 1936, which it held until 1949. In 1928, the Chrysler Corporation began dividing its vehicle offerings by price class and function. The Plymouth brand was introduced at the low-priced end of the market (created essentially by once again reworking and rebadging the Chrysler Series 50 four-cylinder model). automobile and truck company and continued the successful Dodge line of automobiles and Fargo range of trucks. By the mid-1930s, the DeSoto and Dodge divisions would trade places in the corporate hierarchy. The Imperial name had been used since 1926 but was never a separate make, just the top-of-the-line Chrysler. However, in 1955, the company decided to offer it as its own make/brand and division to better compete with its rivals, Lincoln and Cadillac. This addition changed the company's traditional four-make lineup to five (in order of price from bottom to top): Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and the now-separate Imperial. On April 28, 1955, Chrysler and Philco announced the development and production of the World's First All-Transistor car radio. The all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, developed and produced by Chrysler and Philco, was a $150 option on the 1956 Imperial automobile models. Philco began manufacturing this radio in the fall of 1955 at its Sandusky Ohio plant. On September 28, 1957, Chrysler announced the first production electronic fuel injection (EFI), as an option on some of its new 1958 car models (Chrysler 300D, Dodge D500, DeSoto Adventurer, Plymouth Fury). The first attempt to use this system was by American Motors on the 1957 Rambler Rebel. Bendix Corporation's Electrojector used a transistor computer brain modulator box, but teething problems on pre-production cars meant very few cars were made. The EFI system in the Rambler ran fine in warm weather, but suffered hard starting in cooler temperatures and AMC decided not to use this EFI system on its 1957 Rambler Rebel production cars that were sold to the public. Owners of EFI Chryslers were so dissatisfied that all but one were retrofitted with carburetors (while that one has been completely restored, with original EFI electronic problems resolved). The Valiant was also introduced for the 1960 model year as a distinct brand. In the U.S. market, Valiant was made a model in the Plymouth line for 1961 and the DeSoto make was discontinued in 1961. With those exceptions per applicable year and market, Chrysler's range from lowest to highest price from the 1940s through the 1970s was Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and Imperial. In 1954, Chrysler was the exclusive provider of its Hemi V8 engine in the Facel Vega, a French coachbuilder that offered their own line of hand-built luxury performance cars, coupled with the PowerFlite and TorqueFlite automatic transmissions. The Facel Vega Excellence was a four-door hardtop with rear-hinged coach doors that listed for US$12,800 ($ in dollars ). In 1960 Facel Vega introduced the smaller Facellia sports car to capitalize on their sales success with Chrysler supplied engines. At the time, Chrysler didn't produce a four-cylinder engine, and the company had to find alternatives before production began. From 1963 through 1969, Chrysler increased its existing stakes to take complete control of the French Simca, British Rootes, and Spanish Barreiros companies, merging them into Chrysler Europe in 1967. In the 1970s, an engineering partnership was established with Mitsubishi Motors, and Chrysler began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. Chrysler struggled to adapt to the changing environment of the 1970s. When consumer tastes shifted to smaller cars in the early 1970s, particularly after the 1973 oil crisis, Chrysler could not meet the demand, although their compact models on the "A" body platform, the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant, had proven economy and reliability and sold very well. Additional burdens came from increased US import competition, and tougher government regulation of car safety, fuel economy, and emissions. As the smallest of the Big 3 US automakers, Chrysler lacked the financial resources to meet all of these challenges. In 1976, with the demise of the reliable Dart/Valiant, quality control declined. Their replacements, the Dodge Aspen and Plymouth Volare, were comfortable and had good roadability, but owners soon experienced major reliability problems which crept into other models as well. Engines failed and/or did not run well, and premature rust plagued bodies. In 1978, Lee Iacocca was brought in to turn the company around, and in 1979 Iacocca sought US government help. Congress later passed the Loan Guarantee Act providing $1.5 billion in loan guarantees. The Loan Guarantee Act required that Chrysler also obtain $2 billion in concessions or aid from sources outside the federal government, which included interest rate reductions for $650 million of the savings, asset sales of $300 million, local and state tax concessions of $250 million, and wage reductions of about $590 million along with a $50 million stock offering. $180 million was to come from concessions from dealers and suppliers. Also in 1978, Iacocca offloaded the ailing European operation to PSA Peugeot Citroën for a nominal $1, taking with it the group's substantial losses and debts which had been dragging the rest of the business down. After a period of plant closures and salary cuts agreed to by both management and the auto unions, the Plymouth Reliant and Dodge Aries compact was introduced in 1981 on the all-new Chrysler K platform, which was developed from the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni hatchbacks, which were introduced in 1978. Chrysler returned to profitability in 1980, repaying the loans with interest in 1983. The Omni/Horizon were first offered with four-cylinder engines provided by Chrysler Europe brand Simca, then Volkswagen, until the all-new Chrysler engineered Chrysler K engine arrived. Chrysler had not manufactured a four-cylinder engine since 1933 when the Chrysler flathead four-cylinder was canceled. In November 1983, the Dodge Caravan/Plymouth Voyager was introduced, built on a modified K platform, establishing the minivan as a major category, and initiating Chrysler's return to stability. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship. In 1985, Chrysler entered an agreement with American Motors Corporation to produce Chrysler M platform rear-drive, as well as Dodge Omnis front wheel drive cars, in AMC's Kenosha, Wisconsin, plant. In 1987, Chrysler acquired the 47% ownership of AMC that was held by Renault. The remaining outstanding shares of AMC were bought on the NYSE by August 5, 1987, making the deal valued somewhere between US$1.7 billion and US$2 billion, depending on how costs were counted. Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca wanted the Jeep brand, particularly the Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ) that was under development, the new world-class manufacturing plant in Bramalea, Ontario, and AMC's engineering and management talent that became critical for Chrysler's future success. Chrysler established the Jeep/Eagle division as a "specialty" arm to market products distinctly different from the K-car-based products with the Eagle cars targeting import buyers. Former AMC dealers sold Jeep vehicles and various new Eagle models, as well as Chrysler products, strengthening the automaker's retail distribution system. Eurostar, a joint venture between Chrysler and Steyr-Daimler-Puch, began producing the Chrysler Voyager in Austria for European markets in 1992. ===1998–2007: DaimlerChrysler=== In 1998, Chrysler and its subsidiaries entered into a partnership dubbed a "merger of equals" with German-based Daimler-Benz AG, creating the combined entity DaimlerChrysler AG. To the surprise of many stockholders, Daimler acquired Chrysler in a stock swap before Chrysler CEO Bob Eaton retired. Under DaimlerChrysler, the company was named DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC, with its U.S. operations generally called "DCX". The Eagle brand was retired soon after Chrysler's merger with Daimler-Benz in 1998 Jeep became a stand-alone division, and efforts were made to merge the Chrysler and Jeep brands as one sales unit. In 2001, the Plymouth brand was also discontinued. Eurostar also built the Chrysler PT Cruiser in 2001 and 2002. The Austrian venture was sold to Magna International in 2002 and became Magna Steyr. The Voyager continued in production until 2007, whereas the Chrysler 300C, Jeep Grand Cherokee, and Jeep Commander were also built at the plant from 2005 until 2010. On May 14, 2007, DaimlerChrysler announced the sale of 80.1% of Chrysler Group to American private equity firm Cerberus Capital Management, L.P., thereafter known as Chrysler LLC, although Daimler (renamed as Daimler AG) continued to hold a 19.9% stake. ===2007–2014: Effects of Great Recession=== The economic collapse during the 2008 financial crisis pushed the company to the brink. On April 30, 2009, the automaker filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection to be able to operate as a going concern, while renegotiating its debt structure and other obligations, which resulted in the corporation defaulting on over $4 billion in secured debts. The US Treasury, through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), invested $12.5 billion in Chrysler and recovered $11.2 billion when the company shares were sold in May 2011, resulting in a $1.3 billion loss. On July 21, 2011, Fiat bought the Chrysler shares held by the US Treasury. The purchase made Chrysler foreign-owned again, this time as the luxury division. The Chrysler 300 was badged Lancia Thema in some European markets (with additional engine options), giving Lancia a much-needed replacement for its flagship. ===2014–2021: Fiat Chrysler Automobiles=== On January 21, 2014, Fiat bought the remaining shares of Chrysler owned by the VEBA worth $3.65 billion. The most challenging launch for this new company came immediately in January 2014 with a completely redesigned Chrysler 200. The vehicle's creation is from the completely integrated company, FCA, executing from a global compact-wide platform. On December 16, 2014, Chrysler Group LLC announced a name change to FCA US LLC. On January 12, 2017, FCA shares traded at the New York Stock Exchange lost value after the EPA accused FCA US of using emissions cheating software to evade diesel-emissions tests, however the company countered the accusations, and the chairman and CEO Sergio Marchionne sternly rejected them. The following day, shares rose as investors played down the effect of the accusations. Analysts gave estimates of potential fines from several hundred million dollars to $4 billion, although the likelihood of a hefty fine was low. Senior United States Senator Bill Nelson urged the FTC to look into possible deceptive marketing of the company's diesel-powered SUVs. Shares dropped 2.2% after the announcement. FCA US would in 2022, plead guilty to a criminal charge of conspiring to defraud the US, to wire fraud, and to violate the Clean Air Act. On July 21, 2018, Sergio Marchionne stepped down as chairman and CEO for health reasons, and was replaced by John Elkann and Michael Manley, respectively. As a result of ending domestic production of more fuel-efficient passenger automobiles such as the Dodge Dart and Chrysler 200 sedans, FCA US elected to pay $77 million in fines for violating the anti-backsliding provision of fuel economy standards set under the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 for its model year 2016 fleet. It was again fined for the 2017 model year for not meeting the minimum domestic passenger car standard. FCA described the $79 million civil penalty as "not expected to have a material impact on its business." As part of a January 2019 settlement, Fiat Chrysler was to recall and repair approximately 100,000 automobiles equipped with a 3.0-liter V6 EcoDiesel engine having a prohibited defeat device, pay $311 million in total civil penalties to US regulators and CARB, pay $72.5 million for state civil penalties, implement corporate governance reforms, and pay $33.5 million to mitigate excess pollution. The company was also to pay affected consumers up to $280 million and offer extended warranties on such vehicles worth $105 million. The total value of the settlement was about $800 million, though FCA did not admit liability, and it did not resolve an ongoing criminal investigation. In February 2024, Chrysler unveiled a concept for its first electric vehicle, the Chrysler Halcyon, a battery-electric sedan. === Logo evolution === First chrysler logo 1925.png\|1925–1955 Chrysler_Corporation_Logo_(1955_-_1962).svg\|1955–1962 Chrysler_logo_1962.png\|1962–1998 DaimlerChrysler wordmark.svg\|1998–2007 Chrysler Group logo.svg\|2007–2014 Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles_logo.svg\|2014–2021 Stellantis.svg\|2021–present Notes ==Corporate governance== , management positions of Stellantis North America include: ===Board of directors=== Carlos Zarlenga, COO (since February 2024) Richard Palmer, CFO ===Management team=== Jeffrey Kommor: head of US sales Lottie Holland: head of diversity, inclusion, and engagement, FCA - North America Bruno Cattori: president and CEO, FCA Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Mark Champine: head of quality, FCA - North America Mark Chernoby: chief technical compliance officer, Stellantis N.V. Martin Horneck: head of purchasing and supply chain management, FCA - North America Mamatha Chamarthi: chief information officer, FCA - North America and Asia Pacific Marissa Hunter: head of marketing Philip Langley: head of network development, FCA - North America Ralph Gilles: head of design Michael Resha: head of manufacturing, FCA - North America Roger "Shane" Karr: head of external affairs, FCA - North America Michael J. Keegan: chief audit; sustainability and compliance officer Timothy Kuniskis: brand chief executive officer, Dodge and, Ram Trucks (left May 31, 2024) Christine Feuell: brand chief executive officer, Chrysler Jim Morisson: head of Jeep brand, FCA - North America João Laranjo: chief financial officer, FCA - North America Michael Bly: head of global propulsion systems, Stellantis N.V. Jeffrey P. Lux: head of transmission powertrain, FCA - North America Chris Pardi: general counsel and corporate secretary, FCA - North America Barbara J. Pilarski: head of business development, FCA - North America Carlos Zarlenga: chief operating officer Scott Thiele: head of portfolio planning, FCA - North America; head of global long-range plan coordination Joseph Veltri: head of investor relations Rob Wichman: ad interim head of product development, FCA - North America Larry Dominique: senior vice president, Alfa Romeo - North America Christopher G. Fields: vice president, U.S. employee relations ==Sales and marketing== ===United States sales=== Chrysler is the smallest of the "Big Three" U.S. automakers (Stellantis North America, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors). In 2020, FCA US sold just over 1.8 million vehicles. ===Global sales=== Chrysler was the world's 11th largest vehicle manufacturer as ranked by OICA in 2012. Total Chrysler vehicle production was about 2.37 million that year. The company has since become a wholly-owned subsidiary and no longer reports global sales. ===Marketing=== ====Lifetime powertrain warranty==== In 2007, Chrysler began to offer vehicle lifetime powertrain warranty for the first registered owner or retail lessee. The deal covered owner or lessee in U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, for 2009 model year vehicles, and 2006, 2007, and 2008 model year vehicles purchased on or after July 26, 2007. Covered vehicles excluded SRT models, Diesel vehicles, Sprinter models, Ram Chassis Cab, Hybrid System components (including transmission), and certain fleet vehicles. The warranty is non-transferable. After Chrysler's restructuring, the warranty program was replaced by five-year/100,000 mile transferable warranty for 2010 or later vehicles. ===="Let's Refuel America"==== In 2008, as a response to customer feedback citing the prospect of rising gas prices as a top concern, Chrysler launched the "Let's Refuel America" incentive campaign, which guaranteed new-car buyers a gasoline price of $2.99 for three years. With the U.S. purchase of eligible Chrysler, Jeep, and Dodge vehicles, customers could enroll in the program and receive a gas card that immediately lowers their gas price to $2.99 a gallon, and keeps it there for the three years. ====Lancia co-branding==== Chrysler plans for Lancia to codevelop products, with some vehicles being shared. Olivier Francois, Lancia's CEO, was appointed to the Chrysler division in October 2009. Francois plans to reestablish the Chrysler brand as an upscale brand. ====Ram trucks==== In October 2009, Dodge's car and truck lines were separated, with the name "Dodge" being used for cars, minivans, and crossovers and "Ram" for light- and medium-duty trucks and other commercial-use vehicles. ===="Imported From Detroit"==== In 2011, Chrysler unveiled their "Imported From Detroit" campaign with ads featuring Detroit rapper Eminem, one of which aired during the Super Bowl. The campaign highlighted the rejuvenation of the entire product lineup, which included the new, redesigned, and repackaged 2011 model year 200 sedans and 200 convertibles, the Chrysler 300 sedan, and the Chrysler Town & Country minivan. As part of the campaign, Chrysler sold a line of clothing items featuring the Monument to Joe Louis, with proceeds being funneled to Detroit-area charities, including the Boys and Girls Clubs of Southeast Michigan, Habitat for Humanity Detroit and the Marshall Mathers Foundation. In March 2011, Chrysler Group LLC filed a lawsuit against Moda Group LLC (owner of Pure Detroit clothing retailer) for copying and selling merchandise with the "Imported from Detroit" slogan. Chrysler claimed it had notified defendant of its pending trademark application February 14, but the defendant argued Chrysler had not secured a trademark for the "Imported From Detroit" phrase. On June 18, 2011, U.S. District Judge Arthur Tarnow ruled that Chrysler's request did not show that it would suffer irreparable harm or that it had a strong likelihood of winning its case. Therefore, Pure Detroit's owner, Detroit retailer Moda Group LLC, can continue selling its "Imported from Detroit" products. Tarnow also noted that Chrysler does not have a trademark on "Imported from Detroit" and rejected the automaker's argument that trademark law is not applicable to the case. In March 2012, Chrysler Group LLC and Pure Detroit agreed to a March 27 mediation to try to settle the lawsuit over the clothing company's use of "Imported from Detroit" slogan. Pure Detroit stated that Chrysler has made false claims about the origins of three vehicles - Chrysler 200, Chrysler 300 and Chrysler Town & Country - none of which are built in Detroit. Pure Detroit also said that Chrysler's Imported From Detroit merchandise is not being made in Detroit. In 2012 Chrysler and Pure Detroit came to an undisclosed settlement. Chrysler's Jefferson North Assembly, which makes the Jeep Grand Cherokee and Dodge Durango, is the only car manufacturing plant of any company remaining entirely in Detroit (General Motors operates a plant that is partly in Detroit and partly in Hamtramck). In 2011, Eminem settled a lawsuit against Audi alleging the defendant had ripped off the Chrysler 300 Super Bowl commercial in the Audi A6 Avant ad. ===="Halftime in America"==== Again in 2012, Chrysler advertised during the Super Bowl. Its two-minute February 5, 2012 Super Bowl XLVI advertisement was titled "Halftime in America". The ad drew criticism from several leading U.S. conservatives, who suggested that its messaging implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term and, as such, was political payback for Obama's support for the federal bailout of the company. Asked about the criticism in a 60 Minutes interview with Steve Kroft, Sergio Marchionne responded "just to rectify the record I paid back the loans at 19.7% Interest. I don't think I committed to do to a commercial on top of that" and characterized the Republican reaction as "unnecessary and out of place". ====America's Import==== In 2014, Chrysler started using a new slogan, "America's Import" in ads introducing their all-new 2015 Chrysler 200, targeting foreign automakers from Germany to Japan with such ads (German performance and Japanese quality), and at the ending of selected ads, the advertisement will say, "We Built This", indicating being built in America, instead of overseas. ====Slogans==== Engineered to be Great Cars (1998–2001) Drive = Love (2002–2004) Inspiration comes standard (2004–2007) Engineered Beautifully (2007–mid 2010) Imported From Detroit (2011–2014) America's Import (2014–2016) It connects to the Internet via the mobile network of AT&T, providing the car with its own IP address. In July 2015, IT security researchers announced a severe security flaw assumed to affect every Chrysler vehicle with Uconnect produced from late 2013 to early 2015. \|- \| \|\| Chrysler Amplex \|\| 1932 \|\| 1932–1988 \|\| Sold to ICM Industries \|- \| \|\| Graham Brothers\|\| 1916 \|\| 1928-1929 \|\| discontinued and trucks continued under Dodge and Fargo- Passenger car division continued independently as Graham-Paige \|- \| \|\| Chrysler Marine \|\| 1927 \|\|1927–1980 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| DeSoto \|\| 1928 \|\| 1928–1961 \|\| Models consolidated and replaced by Chrysler Newport. \|- \| \|\| Eagle \|\| 1988 \|\| 1988–1998 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Fargo \|\|1913 \|\| 1913–1972 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Global Electric Motorcars \|\| 1992 \|\| 1998–2011 \|\| Sold to Polaris Industries \|- \| \|\| Imperial \|\| 1955 \|\| 1955–1983 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Plymouth \|\| 1928 \|\| 1928–2001 \|\| Discontinued, all unique/incoming models integrated into Chrysler Line up. \|- \| \|\| Valiant \|\| 1959 \|\|1959–1976 \|\| Discontinued \|- \| \|\| Lamborghini \|\| 1963 \|\| 1987–1994 \|\| Sold to Mycom / V'Power Corp. \|- \| \|\| Barreiros \|\| 1954 \|\| 1969–1978 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Simca \|\| 1934 \|\| 1967–1970 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Matra \|\| 1964 \|\| 1970–1979 \|\| Joint venture; stake acquired by Peugeot \|- \| \|\| Humber \|\| 1887 \|\| 1967–1976 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Commer \|\| 1905 \|\| 1967–1979 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Karrier \|\| 1908 \|\| 1967–1979 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Hillman \|\| 1907 \|\| 1967–1976 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Sunbeam \|\| 1905 \|\| 1967–1976 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|- \| \|\| Singer \|\| 1875 \|\| 1967–1970 \|\| Discontinued, became part of Chrysler Europe \|} Notes === Brand predecessors === ==== Maxwell-Chalmers ==== Maxwell (1904–1926), US; new models renamed Chrysler and Plymouth Chalmers (1908–1923) US for luxury cars; merged with Maxwell in 1922 ====United States Motor Company ==== (1908–1913); reorganized and folded into Maxwell Brush (1907–1913) Dayton (1905–1913) Alden-Sampson (1910–1913) Columbia (1899–1910) Riker (1897–1907) Electric Vehicle Company (1899–1907) Argo Hackett Lorraine Detroit Thomas (1906–1908) Sampson (1903–1913) Stoddard Courier (1909–1913) Providence Gray Marine Motor Company ==== Chrysler Corporation ==== Graham Brothers (1916–1929) US; acquired by The Dodge Brothers Company in 1925 with the passenger car division split to form Graham-Paige and folded into Dodge after Chrysler's ownership Fargo (1913–1935) US, (1920–1972) Canada for trucks and vans; replaced by Plymouth Trucks in the US in 1937 and folded into the Dodge Division after 1972 in Canada ====Rootes Group==== (1913–1971), UK; minority interest purchased by Chrysler in 1964, progressively taking controlling interest in 1967, renamed Chrysler Europe in 1971 Sunbeam (1901–1976), UK Humber (1898–1976), UK Singer (1905–1970), UK Commer (1905–1979), UK Hillman (1907–1976), UK Karrier (1908–1977), UK Talbot (1903–1958; 1979–1994), UK Simca (1934–1977), France Barreiros (1959–1978), Spain ====American Motors Corporation==== (1954–1988), US; purchased by Chrysler and renamed Jeep-Eagle Division AMC (Brand), (1967–1987) US; rebranded Eagle Hudson (1909–1957), US Aerocar (1905–1908) US; Brand discontinued and Reorganized into Hudson Motors Essex (1918–1933), US; Folded into the main Hudson line Terraplane (1932–1938), US Nash (1917–1957), US Jeffery (1903–1917), US; line dissolved and renamed Nash in 1915 LaFayette (1919–1940) US; folded into Nash Ajax (1925–1926), US Mitchell (1903–1923), US; purchased and renamed Ajax Rambler (1900–1914; 1950–1969), US Metropolitan (1959–1962), US AM General US 1970–1983; the former contract division of AMC ====Kaiser Motors Corporation==== Kaiser (1946–1955) US for entry level; renamed Willys-Kaiser Motors, then to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation, purchased by AMC in 1970 Frazer (1946–1951) US for entry level luxury; discontinued models incorporated in Kaiser ====Graham-Paige==== (1927–1947), mid-priced cars; purchased by Henry Kaiser and reorganized into Kaiser-Frazer Motors Paige-Detroit (1908–1928) Jewett (1922–1926) ====Willys-Overland Motors==== (1912–1963) US; acquired by Kaiser Motors, later Kaiser Jeep, then by AMC in 1970 Willys (1908–1955) US; withdrawn from the US market in 1955, used as Jeep Wrangler trim Overland (1903–1926) US; acquired by Willys Motors in 1912, used as Jeep Wrangler trim Russell (1904–1916) Canada Curtiss (1917–1920) US; sold to Clement M. Keys and merged with Wright Aeronautical Stearns-Knight (1898–1929) US; purchased by Willys in 1925 ==Environmental initiatives== In 1979, Chrysler, in cooperation with the United States Department of Energy, produced an experimental battery electric vehicle, the Chrysler ETV-1. In 1992, Chrysler developed the Dodge EPIC concept minivan. In 1993, Chrysler sold a limited-production electric minivan called the TEVan; only 56 were produced, mostly for electric utilities. A second generation, the EPIC (unrelated to the concept), was released in 1997 and discontinued in 1999. Chrysler once owned the Global Electric Motorcars company, building low-speed neighborhood electric vehicles, but sold GEM to Polaris Industries in 2011. In September 2007, Chrysler established ENVI, an in-house organization focused on electric-drive vehicles and related technologies which was disbanded by late 2009. In August 2009, Chrysler took US$70 million in grants from the U.S. Department of Energy to develop a test fleet of 220 hybrid pickup trucks and minivans. The first hybrid models, the Chrysler Aspen hybrid and the Dodge Durango hybrid, were discontinued a few months after production in 2008, sharing their GM-designed hybrid technology with GM, Daimler and BMW. Chrysler was on the Advisory Council of the PHEV Research Center, and undertook a government sponsored demonstration project with Ram and minivan vehicles. In 2012, FCA CEO Sergio Marchionne stated that Chrysler and Fiat planned to focus primarily on alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas and Diesel, instead of hybrid and electric drivetrains for their consumer products. Fiat Chrysler bought a total of 8.2 million megagrams of U.S. greenhouse gas emission credits from competitors including Toyota, Honda, Tesla and Nissan for the 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2014 model years. It had the worst fleet average fuel economy among major manufacturers selling in the US from model years 2012–2022. ==Chrysler Defense== The dedicated tank building division of Chrysler, this division was founded as the Chrysler Tank division in 1940, originally with the intention of providing another production line for the M2 Medium Tank, so that the U.S. Army could more rapidly build up its inventory of the type. Its first plant was the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant. When the M2A1 was unexpectedly declared obsolete in August of the same year, plans were altered (though not without considerable difficulty) to produce the M3 Grant instead, primarily for the British as part of the United States under the counter support for the United Kingdom against Nazi Germany (the U.S. not yet being formally in the war), with the balance of the revised order going to the U.S. Army as the Lee. After December 1941 and the United States' entry into the war against the Axis powers, the Tank division rapidly expanded, with new facilities such as the Tank Arsenal Proving Ground at (then) Utica, Michigan. It also quickly widened the range of products it was developing and producing, including the M4 Sherman tank and the Chrysler A57 multibank tank engine. ==Special programs== During World War II, essentially all of Chrysler's facilities were devoted to building military vehicles (the Jeep brand came later, after Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation). They were also designing V12 and V16 hemi-engines producing for airplanes, but they did not make it into production as jets were developed and were seen as the future for air travel. During the 1950s Cold War period, Chrysler made air raid sirens powered by its Hemi V-8 engines. ===Radar antennas=== When the Radiation Laboratory at MIT was established in 1941 to develop microwave radars, one of the first projects resulted in the SCR-584, the most widely recognized radar system of the war era. This system included a parabolic antenna six feet in diameter that was mechanically aimed in a helical pattern (round and round as well as up and down). One of Chrysler's most significant contributions to the war effort was in radar technology. For the final production design of this antenna and its highly complex drive mechanism, the Army's Signal Corps Laboratories turned to Chrysler's Central Engineering Office. There, the parabola was changed from aluminum to steel, allowing production to form using standard automotive presses. To keep weight down, 6,000 equally spaced holes were drilled in the face (this had no effect on the radiation pattern). The drive mechanism was completely redesigned, using technology derived from Chrysler's research in automotive gears and differentials. The changes resulted in improved performance, reduced weight, and easier maintenance. A large portion of the Dodge plant was used in building 1,500 of the SCR-584 antennas as well as the vans used in the systems. ===Aircraft=== Chrysler VZ-6 ===Missiles=== In April 1950, the U.S. Army established the Ordnance Guided Missile Center (OGMC) at Redstone Arsenal, adjacent to Huntsville, Alabama. To form OGMC, over 1,000 civilian and military personnel were transferred from Fort Bliss, Texas. Included was a group of German scientists and engineers led by Wernher von Braun; this group had been brought to America under Project Paperclip. OGMC designed the Army's first short-range ballistic missile, the PGM-11 Redstone, based on the WWII German V-2 missile. Chrysler established the Missile Division to serve as the Redstone prime contractor, setting up an engineering operation in Huntsville and for production obtaining use from the U.S. Navy of a large plant in Sterling Heights, Michigan. The Redstone was in active service from 1958 until 1964; it was also the first missile to test-launch a live nuclear weapon, first detonated in a 1958 test in the South Pacific. Working together, the Missile Division and von Braun's team greatly increased the capability of the Redstone, resulting in the PGM-19 Jupiter, a medium-range ballistic missile. In May 1959, a Jupiter missile launched two small monkeys into space in a nose cone; this was America's first successful flight and recovery of live space payloads. Responsibility for deploying Jupiter missiles was transferred from the Army to the Air Force; armed with nuclear warheads, they were first deployed in Italy and Turkey during the early 1960s. ===Space boosters=== In July 1959, NASA chose the Redstone missile as the basis for the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle to be used for suborbital test flights of the Project Mercury spacecraft. Three uncrewed MRLV launch attempts were made between November 1960 and March 1961, two of which were successful. The MRLV successfully launched the chimpanzee Ham, and astronauts Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom on three suborbital flights in January, May, and July 1961, respectively. America's more ambitious crewed space travel plans included the design of the Saturn series of heavy-lift launch vehicles by a team headed by Wernher von Braun. Chrysler's Huntsville operation, then designated the Space Division, became Marshall Space Flight Center's prime contractor for the first stage of the Saturn I and Saturn IB versions. The design was based on a cluster of Redstone and Jupiter fuel tanks and Chrysler built it for the Apollo program in the Michoud Assembly Facility in East New Orleans, one of the largest manufacturing plants in the world. Between October 1961 and July 1975, NASA used ten Saturn Is and nine Saturn IBs for suborbital and orbital flights, all of which were successful; Chrysler missiles and boosters never suffered a launch failure. The division was also a subcontractor which modified one of the mobile launcher platforms for use with the Saturn IB rockets using Saturn V infrastructure.	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6,883	City of London	The City of London, also known as the City, is a ceremonial county and local government district with city status in England. It is the historic centre of London, however it forms only a small part of the larger Greater London metropolis. It forms part of the administrative area of Greater London, but not the ceremonial county. The City of London had a population of 8,583 at the 2021 census, however over 500,000 people were employed in the area as of 2019. It has an area of , the source of the nickname the Square Mile. The City is a unique local authority area governed by the City of London Corporation, which is led by the Lord Mayor of the City of London. Together with Canary Wharf and the West End, the City of London forms the primary central business district of London, which is one of the leading financial centres of the world. The Bank of England and the London Stock Exchange are both based in the City. The insurance industry also has a major presence in the area, and the presence of the Inns of Court on the City's western boundary has made it a centre for the legal profession. The present City of London constituted the majority of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages. It contains several historic sites, including St Paul's Cathedral, Royal Exchange, Mansion House, Old Bailey, and Smithfield Market. ==History== ===Origins=== The Roman legions established a settlement known as "Londinium" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significant pre-Roman presence, "arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium's Ludgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge. ===Decline=== By the time the London Wall was constructed, the city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period of instability and decline, including the Carausian Revolt in Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack from Picts, Scots, and Saxon raiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium to Lundenwic ("London market"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-day Strand/Aldwych/Covent Garden area. ===Anglo-Saxon restoration=== During the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms of Essex, Mercia, and later Wessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including the Vikings. Bede records that in AD 604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. Alfred the Great, King of Wessex occupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-law Earl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as Lundenburh ("London Fort", a borough). The historian Asser said that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan. Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and the Kingdom of England prevailed. In the 10th century, Athelstan permitted eight mints to be established, compared with six in his capital, Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms. As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name of Ealdwic (the "old settlement"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the "old market-place"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster between Westminster and the City of London. ===Medieval era=== Following the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far as Southwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames at Wallingford, pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war, Edgar the Ætheling, Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria surrendered at Berkhamsted. William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by the Domesday Book. William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued: Tower of London, which is still a major establishment. Baynard's Castle, which no longer exists but gave its name to a city ward. Montfichet's Tower or Castle on Ludgate Hill, which was dismantled and sold off in the 13th century. Around 1132 the City was given the right to appoint its own sheriffs rather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county of Middlesex. This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following the Local Government Act 1888. By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This 'commune' was the origin of the City of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215. From medieval times, the city has been composed of 25 ancient wards, each headed by an alderman, who chairs Wardmotes, which still take place at least annually. A Folkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross of St Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and its Corporation. In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth. In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City during Jack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge in Southwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward of Bridge Without. The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in the Great Fire of London in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as the Great Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into a renaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact. ===Early modern period=== In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the "great refusal", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present. By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. The Royal Exchange was founded in 1565 by Sir Thomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with the Bank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill, Lombard Street was the location from 1691 of Lloyd's Coffee House, which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly in Lime Street. In 1708, Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture. ===Growth of London=== The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire. The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards the West End and Westminster. Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To the East the Port of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and the Tube meant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis. ===19th and 20th centuries=== An attempt was made in 1894 with the Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London to end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The city as a distinct polity survived despite its position within the London conurbation and numerous local government reforms. Supporting this status, the city was a special parliamentary borough that elected four members to the unreformed House of Commons, who were retained after the Reform Act 1832; reduced to two under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885; and ceased to be a separate constituency under the Representation of the People Act 1948. Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of the Cities of London and Westminster. The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vast suburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing during World War II, especially in the Blitz. Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to a firestorm called the Second Great Fire of London. There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as at Paternoster Square. The City suffered terrorist attacks including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing (IRA) and the 7 July 2005 London bombings (Islamist). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the "ring of steel" has been maintained to control entry points to the city. The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storey NatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including 30 St. Mary Axe ("the Gherkin"'), Leadenhall Building ("the Cheesegrater"), 20 Fenchurch Street ("the Walkie-Talkie"), the Broadgate Tower, the Heron Tower and 22 Bishopsgate. The main residential section of the City today is the Barbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976. The Museum of London was based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026), whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate. ==Governance== The city has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with the Crown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen. It is administered by the City of London Corporation, headed by the Lord Mayor of London (not to be confused with the separate Mayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial) Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council. The Court of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of a Lord-Lieutenant and has two Sheriffs instead of a High Sheriff (see list of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by the livery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (guilds). Senior members of the livery companies are known as liverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers. ===Wards=== The city is made up of 25 wards. They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city. They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has an Alderman, who until the mid-1960s held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the only directly elected Aldermen in the United Kingdom. Wards continue to have a Beadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annual Wardmote of electors, representatives and officials. At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to a residents' association. The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times since time immemorial: in 1394 Farringdon was divided into Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without in 1550 the ward of Bridge Without, south of the river, was created, the ward of Bridge becoming Bridge Within; in 1978 these Bridge wards were merged as Bridge ward. Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of the Old Bailey; the wards are reviewed by this process to avoid malapportionment. The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by the Electoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which is the case for all other wards in Great Britain. Particular churches, livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral with Castle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections. Each ward elects an alderman to the Court of Aldermen, and commoners (the City equivalent of a councillor) to the Court of Common Council of the corporation. Only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards: Portsoken, Queenhithe, Aldersgate and Cripplegate together elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. 2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards. Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards: ===Elections=== The city has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote. The City of London Corporation was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become a freeman without being a liveryman. In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War. It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters. As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated. The business or "non-residential vote" was abolished in other UK local council elections by the Representation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is "primarily a place for doing business". About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia. The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 (c. vi), a local act of Parliament, reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the city, from 1957. ===The Temple=== Inner Temple and Middle Temple (which neighbour each other) in the western ward of Farringdon Without are within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independent enclaves. They are two of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They are extra-parochial areas, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes) and equally outside the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. ===Other functions=== Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs both Smithfield Market and Leadenhall Market. It owns land beyond its boundaries, including open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most of Epping Forest and Hampstead Heath. The Corporation owns Old Spitalfields Market and Billingsgate Fish Market, in the neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It owns and helps fund the Old Bailey, the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales, as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions. The Honourable The Irish Society, a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces in Northern Ireland. The city has its own independent police force, the City of London Police—the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is the police authority. The corporation also run the Hampstead Heath Constabulary, Epping Forest Keepers and the City of London market constabularies (whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by the Metropolitan Police Service, based at New Scotland Yard. The city has one hospital, St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it is located at Smithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s. The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees the Barbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies. The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on the tidal part of the Thames, including the Port of London and related seaports, and London City Airport. The Corporation oversees the Bridge House Estates, which maintains Blackfriars Bridge, Millennium Bridge, Southwark Bridge, London Bridge and Tower Bridge. The City's flag flies over Tower Bridge, although neither footing is in the city. ===The boundary of the City=== The size of the city was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city. However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time. During the medieval era, the city's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing the historic western border of the original settlement—the River Fleet—along Fleet Street to Temple Bar. The city also took in the other "City bars" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate, West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. These were the important entrances to the city and their control was vital in maintaining the city's special privileges over certain trades. Most of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible. A section near the Museum of London was revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of the Blitz. Other visible sections are at St Alphage, and there are two sections near the Tower of London. The River Fleet was canalised after the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's "lost rivers or streams", today underground as a storm drain. The boundary of the city was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from the London Boroughs of Westminster, Camden, Islington, Hackney and Tower Hamlets. The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape. In this process the city also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles). Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed) Broadgate estate entirely in the city. Southwark, to the south of the city on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward of Bridge Without, a situation connected with the Guildable Manor. The city's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorian period as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas. Today it is part of the London Borough of Southwark. The Tower of London has always been outside the city and comes under the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. ===Arms, motto and flag=== The Corporation of the City of London has a full achievement of armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, a crest displayed on a helm above the shield, supporters on either side and a motto displayed on a scroll beneath the arms. The Latin motto of the city is "Domine dirige nos", which translates as "Lord, direct us". It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633. A banner of the arms (the design on the shield) is flown as a flag. ==Geography== The City of London is the smallest ceremonial county of England by area and population, and the fourth most densely populated. Of the 326 English districts, it is the second smallest by population, after the Isles of Scilly, and the smallest by area. It is also the smallest English city by population (and in Britain, only two cities in Wales are smaller), and the smallest in the UK by area. The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane. Two small but notable hills are within the historic core, Ludgate Hill to the west and Cornhill to the east. Between them ran the Walbrook, one of the many "lost" rivers or streams of London (another is the Fleet). ===Boundary=== Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses the Victoria Embankment from the Thames, passes to the west of Middle Temple, then turns for a short distance along the Strand and near Temple Bar then north up Chancery Lane, where it borders Camden. It turns east along Holborn to Holborn Circus and then goes northeast to Charterhouse Street. As it crosses Farringdon Road it becomes the boundary with Islington. It continues to Aldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomes Goswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate. Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent. The boundary includes all of the Barbican Estate and continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side of Moorgate, becomes South Place. It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include the Broadgate estate. The boundary then turns south at Norton Folgate and becomes the border with Tower Hamlets. It continues south into Bishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south. It then turns south-west, crossing the Minories so as to exclude the Tower of London, and then reaches the Thames. The boundary then runs up the centre of the low-tide channel of the Thames, with the exception that Blackfriars Bridge (including the river beneath and land at its south end) is entirely part of the City, making the City and Borough of Richmond upon Thames the only London districts to span north and south of the river. The span and southern abutment of London Bridge is part of the city for some purposes (and as such is part of Bridge ward). The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and by dragon boundary marks at major entrances, such as Holborn and the south end of London Bridge. A more substantial monument marks the boundary at Temple Bar on Fleet Street. In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are regarded as being part of the "Square Mile". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city. ===Gardens and public art=== The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation. These range from formal gardens such as the one in Finsbury Circus, containing a bowling green and bandstand, to churchyards such as St Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes. Gardens include: Barber-Surgeon's Hall Garden, London Wall Cleary Garden, Queen Victoria Street Finsbury Circus, Blomfield Street/London Wall/Moorgate Jubilee Garden, Houndsditch Portsoken Street Garden, Portsoken Street/Goodman's Yard Postman's Park, Little Britain Seething Lane Garden, Seething Lane St Dunstan-in-the-East, St Dunstan's Hill St Mary Aldermanbury, Aldermanbury St Olave Hart Street churchyard, Seething Lane St Paul's churchyard, St Paul's Cathedral West Smithfield Garden, West Smithfield Whittington Gardens, College Street There are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments. Two of the largest are those of the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court, in the far southwest. The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river. ===Climate=== The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre at Kingsway/ Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010. Now St. James Park provides the nearest official readings. The city has an oceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb") modified by the urban heat island in the centre of London. This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas. For example, the August mean minimum of compares to a figure of for Greenwich and Heathrow whereas is at Wisley in the middle of several square miles of Metropolitan Green Belt. All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000. Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, , recorded on 4 August 1990. The maximum is , set on 10 August 2003. The absolute minimum for the weather station is a mere , compared to readings around towards the edges of London. Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night—cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area surrounding the city. The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature, (mean maximum , mean minimum during July 2006). However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIAB and Botanical Gardens with a mean maximum of , and Heathrow with all exceeded this. ==Public services== ===Police and security=== The city is a police area and has its own police force, the City of London Police, separate from the Metropolitan Police Service covering the majority of Greater London. The City Police previously had three police stations, at Snow Hill, Wood Street and Bishopsgate. They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East. The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives. It is the smallest territorial police force in England and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers. Where the majority of British police forces have silver-coloured badges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest. The force has rare red and white chequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crested custodian helmets whilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature either St Edward's Crown or the Brunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets in England and Wales. The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK's gross national product, has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence. The Provisional IRA exploded several bombs in the early 1990s, including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing. The area is also spoken of as a possible target for al-Qaeda. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC's Panorama programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the 11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion on Bishopsgate in the east of the city. The "Ring of Steel" was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats. ===Fire brigade=== The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, including St Paul's Cathedral, Old Bailey, Mansion House, Smithfield Market, the Guildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings. There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, at Dowgate, with one pumping appliance. The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents. The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes. ==Demography== The Office for National Statistics recorded the population in 2011 as 7,375; slightly higher than in the previous census, 2001, and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401. At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6% White, 6.8% South Asian, 2.6% Black, 2.3% Mixed, 2.0% Chinese and 1.7% were listed as "other". There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), and this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively. ! colspan="2" \|1991 ! colspan="2" \|2001 ! colspan="2" \|2011 ! colspan="2" \|2021 \|- !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% !Number !% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| White: Total !3,732 !95.5% !3,840 !92.7%!! 6,075 !! 84.6% !! 5,799 !! 78.5% !5,955 !69.4% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: British \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 4,909 \|\| 68.3% \|\| 4,243 \|\| 57.5% \|3,649 \|42.5% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Irish \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 241 \|\| % \|\| 180 \|\| 2.4% \|185 \|2.2% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| \|\| \|\| 3 \|\| 0.0% \|0 \|0.0% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Roma \|– \|– \| \| \| \| \| \| \|59 \|0.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| White: Other \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 925 \|\|12.8% \|\| 1,373 \|\| 18.6% \|2,062 \|24.0% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Total !– !– !217 !5.2%!! 638 !! 8.9% !! 940 !! 12.5% !1,445 !16.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Indian \|– \|– \|69 \|1.7%\|\| 159 \|\|2.2 % \|\| 216 \|\| 2.9% \|321 \|3.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Pakistani \|– \|– \|20 \|0.5%\|\| 23 \|\|0.3 % \|\| 16 \|\| 0.2% \|33 \|0.4% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi \|– \|– \|9 \|–\|\| 276 \|\|3.8 % \|\| 232 \|\| 3.1% \|287 \|3.3% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Chinese \|– \|– \|56 \|1.3%\|\| 147 \|\|2 % \|\| 263 \|\| 3.5% \|545 \|6.3% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Asian or Asian British: Other Asian \|– \|– \|63 \|1.5%\|\| 33 \|\| % \|\| 213 \|\| 2.8% \|259 \|3.0% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: Total !– !– !38 !0.9%!! 184 !! 2.6% !! 193 !! 2.5% !232 !2.7% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: African \|– \|– \|12 \|0.3%\|\| 117 \|\|1.6 % \|\| 98 \|\| 1.3% \|153 \|1.8% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: Caribbean \|– \|– \|12 \|0.3%\|\| 51 \|\| % \|\| 46 \|\| 0.6% \|54 \|0.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Black or Black British: Other Black \|– \|– \|14 \|0.3%\|\| 16 \|\| % \|\| 49 \|\| 0.6% \|25 \|0.3% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Mixed or British Mixed: Total !– !– !– !–!! 163 !! 2.3% !! 289 !! 3.8% !470 !5.5% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: White and Black Caribbean \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 33 \|\| % \|\| 38 \|\| 0.5% \|53 \|0.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: White and Black African \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 16 \|\| % \|\| 37 \|\| 0.5% \|49 \|0.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: White and Asian \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 57 \|\| % \|\| 111 \|\| 1.5% \|179 \|2.1% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Mixed: Other Mixed \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| 57 \|\| % \|\| 103 \|\| 1.3% \|189 \|2.2% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Other: Total !– !– !47 !1.1%!! 125 !! 1.7% !! 154 !! 2% !482 !5.6% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Other: Arab \|– \|– \|– \|–\|\| \|\| \|\| 69 \|\| 0.9% \|114 \|1.3% \|- \| style="text-align:left" \| Other: Any other ethnic group \|– \|– \|47 \|1.1%\|\| 125 \|\|1.7 % \|\| 85 \|\| 1.1% \|368 \|4.3% \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Ethnic minority: Total !177 !4.5% !302 !7.3%!! 1,110 !! 15.4% !! 1,576 !! 21.5% !2,629 !30.6% \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! style="text-align:left" \| Total !3,909 !100% !4,142 !100%!! 7,185 !! 100% !! 7,375 !! 100% !8584 !100% \|} ==Economy== The City of London vies with New York City's Lower Manhattan for the distinction of the world's pre-eminent financial centre. The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the city. Over 500 banks have offices in the city. The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2009, the City of London accounted for 2.4% of UK GDP. London's foreign exchange market has been described by Reuters as 'the crown jewel of London's financial sector'. Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total. and the fourth most held reserve currency. Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry. Although growth has continued in both locations, and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location. In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK. ===Headquarters=== Many major global companies have their headquarters in the city, including Aviva, BT Group, Lloyds Banking Group, Quilter, Prudential, Schroders, Standard Chartered, and Unilever. A number of the world's largest law firms are headquartered in the city, including four of the Magic Circle law firms (Allen & Overy, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Linklaters and Slaughter & May), as well as other firms such as Ashurst, DLA Piper, Eversheds Sutherland, Herbert Smith Freehills and Hogan Lovells. ===Other sectors=== Whilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector. The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards the Inns of Court). Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to the West End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example at Cheapside near St Paul's. The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as the Barbican Centre and adjacent Museum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character. The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the "night-time" economy does feature in the Bishopsgate area, towards Shoreditch. The meat market at Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largest meat market. In the east is Leadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction. ===Retail and residential=== The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on windfall sites. The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year. Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War II listed buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment. Recent residential developments include "the Heron", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and the Heron Plaza development on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts. Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways. For example, several hotels and the first department store opened in the 2000s. A shopping centre was more recently opened at One New Change, Cheapside (near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week. However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops, pubs and cafes closed on these days. ==Landmarks== ===Historic buildings=== Fire, bombing and post-World War II redevelopment have meant that the city, despite its history, has fewer intact historic structures than one might expect. Nonetheless, there remain many dozens of (mostly Victorian and Edwardian) fine buildings, typically in historicist and neoclassical style. They include the Monument to the Great Fire of London ("the Monument"), St Paul's Cathedral, the Guildhall, the Royal Exchange, Dr. Johnson's House, Mansion House and a great many churches, many designed by Sir Christopher Wren, who also designed St Paul's. Prince Henry's Room and 2 King's Bench Walk are notable historic survivors of heavy bombing of the Temple area, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form. Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored is Staple Inn on Holborn. A few small sections of the Roman London Wall exist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area. Among the twentieth-century listed buildings are Bracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of the Barbican and Golden Lane Estate. The Tower of London is not in the city, but is a notable visitor attraction which brings tourists to the southeast of the city. Other landmark buildings with historical significance include the Bank of England, the Old Bailey, the Custom House, Smithfield Market, Leadenhall Market and St Bartholomew's Hospital. Noteworthy contemporary buildings include a number of modern high-rise buildings (see section below) as well as the Lloyd's building. ===Skyscrapers and tall buildings=== Completed A growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector. Almost all are situated in the eastern side around Bishopsgate, Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city. In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising the Barbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercial CityPoint tower. In 2007, the tall Drapers' Gardens building was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower. The city's buildings of at least in height are: Timeline The timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows: ==Transport== ===Rail and Tube=== The city is well served by the London Underground ("tube") and National Rail networks. Seven London Underground lines serve the city; the underground stations include: Aldgate Bank and Monument Barbican Blackfriars Cannon Street Chancery Lane Liverpool Street Mansion House Moorgate St. Paul's In addition, Aldgate East ( ), Farringdon ( ), Temple ( ) and Tower Hill ( ) tube stations are all situated within metres of the City of London boundary. The Elizabeth line (constructed by the Crossrail project) runs east–west underneath the City of London. The line serves two stations in or very near the City – Farringdon and Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas. Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf, Heathrow Airport, and the M4 Corridor high-technology hub (serving Slough and Reading). The city is served by a frequent Thameslink rail service which runs north–south through London. Thameslink services call at Farringdon, City Thameslink, and London Blackfriars. This provides the city with a direct link to key destinations across London, including Elephant & Castle, London Bridge, and St Pancras International (for the Eurostar to mainland Europe). There are also regular, direct trains from these stations to major destinations across East Anglia and the South East, including Bedford, Brighton, Cambridge, Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport, and Peterborough. There are several "London Terminals" in the city: London Blackfriars – Thameslink services and some Southeastern services to South East London and Kent. London Cannon Street – Southeastern services to South East London and Kent. London Fenchurch Street – C2c services along the Thames Estuary towards East London, south Essex, and Southend. London Liverpool Street – Greater Anglia and some C2c services towards destinations in East London and East Anglia, including Stratford, Cambridge, Chelmsford, Ipswich, Norwich, Southend, and Southend Airport. Stansted Express to Stansted Airport. London Overground () to destinations in north and east London including Hackney Downs, Seven Sisters, Walthamstow, Chingford, Enfield, and Cheshunt. Moorgate – Great Northern towards Finsbury Park, Enfield, and other destinations in North London and Hertfordshire, including Hertford and Welwyn Garden City. All stations in the city are in London fare zone 1.\|292x292px]] The national A1, A10 A3, A4, and A40 road routes begin in the city. The city is in the London congestion charge zone, with the small exception on the eastern boundary of the sections of the A1210/A1211 that are part of the Inner Ring Road. The following bridges, listed west to east (downstream), cross the River Thames: Blackfriars Bridge, Blackfriars Railway Bridge, Millennium Bridge (footbridge), Southwark Bridge, Cannon Street Railway Bridge and London Bridge; Tower Bridge is not in the city. The city, like most of central London, is well served by buses, including night buses. Two bus stations are in the city, at Aldgate on the eastern boundary with Tower Hamlets, and at Liverpool Street by the railway station. However although the London Road Traffic Act 1924 removed from existing local authorities the powers to prevent the development of road passengers transport services within the London Metropolitan Area, the City of London retained most such powers. As a consequence, neither Trolleybus nor Green Line Coach services were permitted to enter the City to pick up or set down passengers. Hence the building of Aldgate (Minories) Trolleybus and Coach station as well as the complex terminal arrangements at Parliament Hill Fields. This restriction was removed by the Transport Act 1985. ===Cycling=== Cycling infrastructure in the city is maintained by the City of London Corporation and Transport for London (TfL). Cycle Superhighway 1 runs from Tottenham to the city. It is a signposted cycle route, passing through Stoke Newington and Hackney before entering the City south of Old Street. Cycle Superhighway 2 runs from Stratford to the city, via Bow, Mile End, and Whitechapel. The route enters the city near Aldgate. The route runs primarily on segregated cycle track. Cycleway 3 is an east–west bike freeway through the city. The route runs along the southern rim of the city, following the route of the Thames. Eastbound, Cycleway 3 provides cyclists with a direct, signposted cycle link to Shadwell, Poplar and Canary Wharf, and Barking. The route runs Westbound on traffic-free track to Lancaster Gate via Parliament Square, Buckingham Palace, and Hyde Park. Cycleway 6 runs north–south through the city on traffic-free cycle track. The track passes Farringdon Station, the Holborn Viaduct, Ludgate Circus, Blackfriars station, and Blackfriars Bridge. Northbound, the route passes through Clerkenwell, Bloomsbury, King's Cross, and Kentish Town. The route southbound carries cyclists to Elephant and Castle. Cycle Superhighway 7 begins in the City at an interchange with Cycleway 3. It leaves the City over Southwark Bridge and provides cyclists with an unbroken, signposted route to Colliers Wood via Elephant and Castle, Clapham, and Tooting, amongst other destinations. Quietway 11 is a northbound continuation of Cycleway 7. It is a signposted cycle route which runs from Southwark Bridge to Hoxton, via the Barbican and Moorgate. The Sandander Cycles and Beryl bike sharing systems operate in the City of London. ===River=== One London River Services pier is on the Thames in the city, Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though the Tower Millennium Pier lies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London. One of the Port of London's 25 safeguarded wharves, Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river. Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015. Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended. There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, part of the Thames Path, which opened in stages – the route within the city was completed by the opening of a stretch at Queenhithe in 2023. The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges. ===Travel to work (by residents)=== According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e. the Underground, DLR, etc.); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger. ==Education== The city is home to a number of higher education institutions including: the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the Cass Business School, The London Institute of Banking & Finance and parts of three of the universities in London: the Maughan Library of King's College London on Chancery Lane, the business school of London Metropolitan University, and a campus of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. The College of Law has its London campus in Moorgate. Part of Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry is on the Barts hospital site at West Smithfield. The city has only one directly maintained primary school, The Aldgate School (formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) at Aldgate (ages 4 to 11). It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA) Church of England school, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London. City residents send their children to schools in neighbouring Local Education Authorities, such as Islington, Tower Hamlets, Westminster and Southwark. The City controls three independent schools, City of London School (a boys' school) and City of London School for Girls in the city, and the City of London Freemen's School (co-educational day and boarding) in Ashtead, Surrey. The City of London School for Girls and City of London Freemen's School have their own preparatory departments for entrance at age seven. It is the principal sponsor of The City Academy, Hackney, City of London Academy Islington, and City of London Academy, Southwark. ===Public libraries=== Libraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre. Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join. Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources. ==Money laundering== The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such as money laundering has earned the financial hub sobriquets such as 'The Laundromat' and 'Londongrad'. London's role as the world's dirty money clearing house is well-documented but efforts are being made to clean up through legislation, e.g. authorising unexplained wealth orders. High-value properties are sought after by criminals and money launderers legitimising their gains by investing in the city's prestigious real estate. In May 2024, the UK's then deputy foreign secretary, Andrew Mitchell, said that 40% of the dirty money in the world goes through the City of London and other crown dependencies.	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"Hackney, London", "Districts of Wales", "Lundenburh", "British Summer Time", "University of Chicago Booth School of Business", "Staple Inn", "Old St Paul's Cathedral", "British Mixed-Race", "commoners", "Chamberlin, Powell and Bon", "custodian helmet", "Stratford, London", "Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom", "Billingsgate Fish Market", "St Paul's Cathedral", "Bridge Without", "London Borough of Hackney", "British monarchy", "Snow Hill, London", "Ring of steel (London)", "Cap badge", "A1 road (Great Britain)", "Barking, London", "Tooting", "Maritime Climate", "Aldersgate", "Tower 42", "pound sterling", "Census in the United Kingdom", "ISO 3166-2:GB", "London Borough of Tower Hamlets", "The Aldgate School", "BBC News", "malapportionment", "Great Fire of London", "St Edward's Crown", "Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners", "WC postcode area", "List of areas of London", "E postcode area", "Picts", "Thameslink", "Slaughter & May", "Street names of the City of London", "Thames Estuary", "Hackney Downs railway station", "Aviva", "Port of London", "Kingdom of England", "College of Arms", "Queen Victoria Street, London", "Reform Act 1832", "Aldgate", "Anglo-Saxon London", "Reading, Berkshire", "Second Great Fire of London", "Lloyd's Coffee House", "power station", "Old town", "Bishopsgate", "Barbican Estate", "livery company", "Aldwych", "Isles of Scilly", "Metropolitan Green Belt", "London Stock Exchange", "List of smallest cities in the United Kingdom", "Bank–Monument station", "Rachel Blake", "Golden Lane Estate", "Cass Business School", "Holborn Viaduct", "Hampstead Heath Constabulary", "Temple tube station", "Poplar, London", "Edgar the Ætheling", "Allies and Morrison", "NatWest Tower", "City of London market constabularies", "Barbican tube station", "Prince Henry's Room", "British national grid reference system", "London Assembly", "Broad Street (ward)", "Hertfordshire", "White Gypsy or Irish Traveller", "River Thames", "King of Wessex", "St Olave Hart Street", "Shoreditch", "City status in the United Kingdom", "England and Wales", "Westminster", "East Saxons", "Old Spitalfields Market", "Prehistoric Britain", "Brighton", "Berkhamsted", "Guildhall School of Music and Drama", "Candlewick (ward)", "Kingdom of Essex", "the Blitz", "A40 road", "Victorian era", "Kingsway, London", "Colliers Wood", "Wood Street, London", "The Blitz", "One New Change", "Langbourn", "Cannon Street Railway Bridge", "bowling green", "40 Leadenhall Street", "Rafael Viñoly", "banner of arms", "The Scalpel", "Smithfield, London", "Sir Christopher Wren", "World War II", "Mercia", "Whitechapel", "Christopher Wren", "Little Britain, London", "St. Helen's (skyscraper)", "Lloyd's building", "police authority", "Victoria Embankment", "22 Bishopsgate", "Baroque architecture", "Latin", "London Overground", "Subterranean rivers of London", "Petticoat Lane", "legal profession", "Blackfriars Bridge", "The Heron", "Wessex", "Millennium Bridge (London)", "flag of the City of London", "East Anglia", "Hyde Park, London", "Seven Sisters station", "Kingdom of Wessex", "Michael Stewart, Baron Stewart of Fulham", "enclave", "Broadgate", "Prudential plc", "Wallingford, Oxfordshire", "Bank for International Settlements", "Clerkenwell", "Wat Tyler", "30 St Mary Axe", "non-residential vote", "Inner Temple", "Crossrail", "Lancaster Gate", "money laundering", "Alfred the Great", "Kent", "time immemorial", "City Thameslink railway station" ]
6,884	Clitoris	In amniotes, the clitoris ( or ; : clitorises or clitorides) is a female sex organ. Sexological, medical, and psychological debate has focused on the clitoris, == Etymology and terminology == The Oxford English Dictionary states that the Neo-Latin word clītoris likely has its origin in the Ancient Greek (), which means "little hill", and perhaps derived from the verb (), meaning "to shut" or "to sheathe". The term is commonly used to refer to the glans alone. == Structure == Most of the clitoris is composed of internal parts. Regarding humans, it consists of the glans, the body (which is composed of two erectile structures known as the corpora cavernosa), the prepuce, and the root. The frenulum is beneath the glans. also known as the "head" or "tip", exists at the top of the clitoral body as a fibro-vascular cap The clitoral glans is estimated to have 8,000 and possibly 10,000 or more sensory nerve endings, making it the most sensitive erogenous zone. Research conflicts on whether the glans is composed of erectile or non-erectile tissue. Some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non-erectile tissue; this is especially the case for the glans. Other descriptions of the glans assert that it is composed of erectile tissue and that erectile tissue is present within the labia minora. is a medial band of tissue formed between the undersurface of the glans and the top ends of the labia minora. The frenulum's main function is to maintain the clitoris in its innate position. === Body === The clitoral body (also known as the shaft of the clitoris) is a portion behind the glans that contains the union of the corpora cavernosa, a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue that hold most of the blood in the clitoris during erection. It is homologous to the penile shaft in the male. The two corpora forming the clitoral body are surrounded by thick fibro-elastic tunica albuginea, a sheath of connective tissue. These corpora are separated incompletely from each other in the midline by a fibrous pectiniform septuma comblike band of connective tissue extending between the corpora cavernosa. The angle divides the body into the ascending part (internal) near the pubic symphysis and the descending part (external), which can be seen and felt through the clitoral hood. The crura ("legs") are the parts of the corpora cavernosa extending from the clitoral body and form an upside-down "V" shape. Each crus (singular form of crura) is attached to the corresponding ischial ramusextensions of the corpora beneath the descending pubic rami. that expands from the ventral shaft and terminates as the glans. The RSP is also connected to the shaft via the pars intermedia (venous plexus of Kobelt). When engorged with blood, the bulbs cuff the vaginal opening and cause the vulva to expand outward. People taking hormones or other medications as part of a gender transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth; individual desires and the difficulties of phalloplasty (construction of a penis) often result in the retention of the original genitalia with the enlarged clitoris as a penis analog (metoidioplasty). As it is part of the vulva, the clitoris is susceptible to pain (clitorodynia) from various conditions such as sexually transmitted infections and pudendal nerve entrapment. The clitoris may also be affected by vulvar cancer, although at a much lower rate. Clitoral phimosis (or clitoral adhesions) is when the prepuce cannot be retracted, limiting exposure of the glans. === Smegma === The secretion of smegma (smegma clitoridis) comes from the apocrine glands of the clitoris (sweat), the sebaceous glands of the clitoris (sebum) and desquamating epithelial cells. == Society and culture == === Ancient Greek–16th century knowledge and vernacular === Concerning historical and modern perceptions of the clitoris, the clitoris and the penis were considered equivalent by some scholars for more than 2,500 years in all respects except their arrangement. Jodie Medd argues regarding "The Cult of the Clitoris" that "the female non-reproductive but desiring body [...] simultaneously demands and refuses interpretative attention, inciting scandal through its very resistance to representation". From the 18th to the 20th century, especially during the 20th, details of the clitoris from various genital diagrams presented in earlier centuries were omitted from later texts. An analysis in 2022 reported that the clitoris is mentioned in only one out of 113 Greek secondary education textbooks used in biology classes from the 1870s to present. === Contemporary art === New York artist Sophia Wallace started work in 2012 on a multimedia project to challenge misconceptions about the clitoris. Based on O'Connell's 1998 research, Wallace's work emphasizes the sheer scope and size of the human clitoris. She says that ignorance of this still seems to be pervasive in modern society. "It is a curious dilemma to observe the paradox that on the one hand, the female body is the primary metaphor for sexuality, its use saturates advertising, art, and the mainstream erotic imaginary", she said. "Yet, the clitoris, the true female sexual organ, is virtually invisible". The project is called and it includes a "clit rodeo", which is interactive, climb-on model of a giant golden clitoris, including its inner parts, produced with the help of sculptor Kenneth Thomas. "It's been a showstopper wherever it's been shown. People are hungry to be able to talk about this", Wallace said. "I love seeing men standing up for the clit [...] Cliteracy is about not having one's body controlled or legislated [...] Not having access to the pleasure that is your birthright is a deeply political act". Alli Sebastian Wolf created a golden scale model of the clitoris in 2017, called the Glitoris and said, she hopes knowledge of the clitoris will soon become so uncontroversial that making art about them would be as irrelevant as making art about penises. Other projects listed by the BBC include Clito Clito, body-positive jewellery made in Berlin; Clitorissima, a documentary intended to normalize mother-daughter conversations about the clitoris; and a ClitArt festival in London, encompassing spoken word performances as well as visual art. exists in all mammal species, The clitoris is contained in fossa, which is a small pouch of tissue in horses and dogs. The clitoris is found in other amniotic creatures including reptiles such as turtles and crocodilians, and anatids (e.g., swans, ducks). The hemiclitoris is one-half of a paired structure in squamates (lizards and snakes). Some intersex female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris; these species are grizzly bears, brown bears, American black bears and polar bears. Although the bears have been described as having "a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina" (a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears' population), Some of these species also exhibit a membrane seal across the vagina that closes the vaginal opening during the non-mating seasons, most notably mouse and dwarf lemurs. Non-pregnant adult ring-tailed females do not show higher testosterone levels than males, but they do exhibit higher A4 and estrogen levels during seasonal aggression. During pregnancy, estrogen, A4, and testosterone levels are raised, but female fetuses are still "protected" from excess testosterone. These "masculinized" genitalia are often found alongside other traits, such as female-dominated social groups, reduced sexual dimorphism that makes females the same size as males, and even ratios of sexes in adult populations. This phenomenon that has been dubbed the "lemur syndrome". A 2014 study of Eulemur masculinization proposed that behavioral and morphological masculinization in female Lemuriformes is an ancestral trait that likely emerged after their split from Lorisiformes. ===Spotted hyenas=== While female spotted hyenas were sometimes referred to as pseudohermaphrodites and scientists of ancient and later historical times believed that they were hermaphrodites, modern scientists do not refer to them as such. That designation is typically reserved for those who simultaneously exhibit features of both sexes; the genetic makeup of female spotted hyenas "are clearly distinct" from male spotted hyenas. Female spotted hyenas have a clitoris 90 percent as long and the same diameter as a male penis (171 millimetres long and 22 millimetres in diameter), and this pseudo-penis' formation seems largely androgen-independent because it appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland. The spotted hyenas have a highly erectile clitoris, complete with a false scrotum; author John C. Wingfield stated that "the resemblance to male genitalia is so close that sex can be determined with confidence only by palpation of the scrotum". The pseudo-penis can also be distinguished from the males' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans. The female possesses no external vagina, as the labia are fused to form a pseudo-scrotum. In the females, this scrotum consists of soft adipose tissue. Like male spotted hyenas with regard to their penises, the female spotted hyenas have small spines on the head of their clitorises, which scholar said makes "the clitoris tip feel like soft sandpaper". She added that the clitoris "extends away from the body in a sleek and slender arc, measuring, on average, over 17 cm from root to tip. Just like a penis, [it] is fully erectile, raising its head in hyena greeting ceremonies, social displays, games of rough and tumble or when sniffing out peers". Due to their higher levels of androgen exposure during fetal development, the female hyenas are significantly more muscular and aggressive than their male counterparts; social-wise, they are of higher rank than the males, being dominant or dominant and alpha, and the females who have been exposed to higher levels of androgen than average become higher-ranking than their female peers. Subordinate females lick the clitorises of higher-ranked females as a sign of submission and obedience, but females also lick each other's clitorises as a greeting or to strengthen social bonds; in contrast, while all males lick the clitorises of dominant females, the females will not lick the penises of males because males are considered to be of lowest rank. The female spotted hyenas urinate, copulate and give birth through the clitoris since the urethra and vagina exit through the clitoral glans. This trait makes mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals, and also makes attempts to sexually coerce (physically force sexual activity on) females futile. Joan Roughgarden, an ecologist and evolutionary biologist, said that because the hyena's clitoris is higher on the belly than the vagina in most mammals, the male hyena "must slide his rear under the female when mating so that his penis lines up with [her clitoris]". In an action similar to pushing up a shirtsleeve, the "female retracts the [pseudo-penis] on itself, and creates an opening into which the male inserts his own penis". The male must practice this act, which can take a couple of months to successfully perform. Female spotted hyenas exposed to larger doses of androgen have significantly damaged ovaries, making it difficult to conceive. After giving birth, the pseudo-penis is stretched and loses much of its original aspects; it becomes a slack-walled and reduced prepuce with an enlarged orifice with split lips. Approximately 15% of the females die during their first time giving birth, and over 60% of their species' firstborn young die. A 2006 Baskin et al. study concluded, "The basic anatomical structures of the corporeal bodies in both sexes of humans and spotted hyenas were similar. As in humans, the dorsal nerve distribution was unique in being devoid of nerves at the 12 o'clock position in the penis and clitoris of the spotted hyena" and that "[d]orsal nerves of the penis/clitoris in humans and male spotted hyenas tracked along both sides of the corporeal body to the corpus spongiosum at the 5 and 7 o'clock positions. The dorsal nerves penetrated the corporeal body and distally the glans in the hyena", and in female hyenas, "the dorsal nerves fanned out laterally on the clitoral body. Glans morphology was different in appearance in both sexes, being wide and blunt in the female and tapered in the male".	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"erogenous zone", "Primordial phallus", "sexual activity", "Hippocrates", "penile spines", "vulvar cancer", "Anatidae", "Simon & Schuster", "phalloplasty", "Ancient Greek", "The Journal of Sexual Medicine", "Shere Hite", "CRC Press", "Allyn & Bacon", "sensory nerve", "ScholarlyEditions", "Rutgers University", "foreplay", "Boston University Medical Campus", "Sexual intercourse", "Margot Asquith", "Superficial dorsal veins of clitoris", "Meredith Small", "Functional magnetic resonance imaging", "Thieme Medical Publishers", "Caspar Bartholin the Younger", "McGraw Hill Professional", "clitoridectomy", "female genital mutilation", "Charles Estienne", "Marshall Cavendish", "fossa (animal)", "Maud Allan", "coital alignment technique", "The Guardian", "androgen", "millimetre", "feminist", "Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi", "Comfort Momoh", "Genital modification", "smegma", "surgical mesh", "Desquamation", "Drug Enforcement Administration", "brown bear", "Ontogeny", "sexual partner", "sex organ", "trans women", "Priapism", "The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm", "Venus (mythology)", "crocodilia", "Veterinary Record", "infibulation", "Taylor & Francis", "magnetic resonance imaging", "Bruce Bagemihl", "pubic symphysis", "Sexuality in ancient Rome", "Constantine the African", "genital piercing", "John Wiley & Sons", "True lemur", "Realdo Colombo", "McGraw-Hill", "Anal sex", "Woman on top (sex position)", "human rights", "Philip Hoare", "Humanitarianism", "Phallus", "Psychology Press", "Harvard University Press", "Broadview Press", "Female genital mutilation", "summum bonum", "Lumen (anatomy)", "ecologist", "genital corpuscle", "labia minora", "Paul of Aegina", "University of California Press", "adaptation", "Common squirrel monkey", "BBC", "urinary meatus", "horse", "pubic arch", "ischiocavernosus muscle", "Amnesty International", "Clitoraid", "vaginal contraction", "Chicago Women's Liberation Union", "Oxford University Press", "Homology (biology)", "MSNBC", "Stephen Jay Gould", "hermaphrodite", "Nerve", "Latin obscenity", "congenital adrenal hyperplasia", "Deep dorsal vein of clitoris", "Anne Koedt", "sheep", "fanzine", "Houghton Mifflin Harcourt", "LiveScience", "labiaplasty", "Adipose tissue", "pelvic floor", "masturbation", "ultrasound", "ring-tailed lemur", "Neo-Latin", "internal pudendal veins", "labia majora", "American black bear", "Natalie Angier", "Feminist health centers", "Alfred Kinsey", "vestigiality", "Vulvodynia", "mean", "Magnetic resonance imaging", "virginity", "os clitoridis", "Corpus cavernosum of clitoris", "Society for Women in Philosophy", "Clitoral index", "personal lubricant", "mare", "sexually stimulated", "Menopause", "Barry Komisaruk", "superficial perineal pouch", "ratite", "Clinical Psychology Review", "BJUI", "Cambridge University Press", "mouse lemur", "Spandrel (biology)", "Mechanical bull", "Mole (animal)", "Jones & Bartlett Learning", "vaginal opening", "Gabriele Falloppio", "vein of bulb of vestibule", "dense connective 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"Clitoria", "biopsy", "Amniote", "Donald Symons", "Continuum International Publishing Group", "scrotum", "PsycINFO", "Routledge", "clitoral erection", "The Evolution of Human Sexuality", "Rutgers University Press", "Sarah Blaffer Hrdy", "nefazodone", "ABC-CLIO", "trazodone", "blood vessel", "Dorsal artery of clitoris", "Virilization", "The Huffington Post", "vasocongestion", "Fiber", "World Health Organization", "sex toy", "Victorian era", "Suspensory ligament of clitoris", "University of Padua", "Sigmund Freud", "University of Michigan", "epithelium", "Preputial gland", "Scent marking", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Nymphotomy", "deep artery of clitoris", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Latin", "Pierre Foldès", "clitoromegaly", "Jacques Daléchamps", "Dominance (ethology)", "Seven Stories Press", "hormonal contraception", "street art", "vulvectomy", "intersex", "pudendal nerve", "Vulva activism", "sex position", "Mouse", "Erectile tissue", "adrenal gland", "WebMD", "Intersex (biology)", "3D printing", "Meredith Chivers", "clitoral vibrator", "clitoral hood", "Body of penis" ]
6,886	Chicago	Chicago is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 census, it is the third-most populous city in the United States after New York City and Los Angeles. As the seat of Cook County, the second-most populous county in the U.S., Chicago is the center of the Chicago metropolitan area, often colloquially called "Chicagoland" and home to 9.6 million residents. Located on the shore of Lake Michigan, Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837 near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed. It grew rapidly in the mid-19th century. In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed several square miles and left more than 100,000 homeless, but Chicago's population continued to grow. Chicago is an international hub for finance, culture, commerce, industry, education, technology, telecommunications, and transportation. It has the largest and most diverse finance derivatives market in the world, generating 20% of all volume in commodities and financial futures alone. O'Hare International Airport is routinely ranked among the world's top ten busiest airports by passenger traffic, and the region is also the nation's railroad hub. The Chicago area has one of the highest gross domestic products (GDP) of any urban region in the world, generating $689 billion in 2018. Chicago's economy is diverse, with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. and electronic dance music, including house music). Chicago is home to the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the Lyric Opera of Chicago, while the Art Institute of Chicago provides an influential visual arts museum and art school. The Chicago area also hosts the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Illinois Chicago, among other institutions of learning. Professional sports in Chicago include all major professional leagues, including two Major League Baseball teams. The city also hosts the Chicago Marathon, one of the World Marathon Majors. ==Etymology and nicknames== The name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the indigenous Miami–Illinois name , the locative form of the word which can mean both "skunk" and "ramps," a wild relative of onion and garlic known to botanists as Allium tricoccum. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as "" was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir. Henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the eponymous wild "garlic" grew profusely in the area. According to his diary of late September 1687: {{Blockquote\|... when we arrived at the said place called "Chicagou" which, according to what we were able to learn of it, has taken this name because of the quantity of garlic which grows in the forests in this region. == History == === Beginnings === In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by the Potawatomi, an indigenous tribe who had succeeded the Miami, Sauk and Meskwaki peoples in this region. The first known permanent settler in Chicago was a trader Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African descent, perhaps born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), and established the settlement in the 1780s. He is commonly known as the "Founder of Chicago." In 1795, following the victory of the new United States in the Northwest Indian War, an area that was to be part of Chicago was turned over to the U.S. for a military post by native tribes in accordance with the Treaty of Greenville. In 1803, the U.S. Army constructed Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed during the War of 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn by the Potawatomi before being later rebuilt. After the War of 1812, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the 1833 Treaty of Chicago and sent west of the Mississippi River as part of the federal policy of Indian removal. ===19th century=== On August 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. and for several decades was the world's fastest-growing city. As the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicago's first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1848. The canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first-ever standardized "exchange-traded" forward contracts, which were called futures contracts. In the 1850s, Chicago gained national political prominence as the home of Senator Stephen Douglas, the champion of the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the "popular sovereignty" approach to the issue of the spread of slavery. These issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage. Lincoln was nominated in Chicago for U.S. president at the 1860 Republican National Convention, which was held in a purpose-built auditorium called the Wigwam. He defeated Douglas in the general election, and this set the stage for the American Civil War. To accommodate rapid population growth and demand for better sanitation, the city improved its infrastructure. In February 1856, Chicago's Common Council approved Chesbrough's plan to build the United States' first comprehensive sewerage system. The project raised much of central Chicago to a new grade with the use of jackscrews for raising buildings. While elevating Chicago, and at first improving the city's health, the untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the Chicago River, and subsequently into Lake Michigan, polluting the city's primary freshwater source. The city responded by tunneling out into Lake Michigan to newly built water cribs. In 1900, the problem of sewage contamination was largely resolved when the city completed a major engineering feat. It reversed the flow of the Chicago River so that the water flowed away from Lake Michigan rather than into it. This project began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and was completed with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal that connects to the Illinois River, which flows into the Mississippi River. In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed an area about long and wide, a large section of the city at the time. Much of the city, including railroads and stockyards, survived intact, and from the ruins of the previous wooden structures arose more modern constructions of steel and stone. These set a precedent for worldwide construction. During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world's first skyscraper in 1885, using steel-skeleton construction. The city grew significantly in size and population by incorporating many neighboring townships between 1851 and 1920, with the largest annexation happening in 1889, with five townships joining the city, including the Hyde Park Township, which now comprises most of the South Side of Chicago and the far southeast of Chicago, and the Jefferson Township, which now makes up most of Chicago's Northwest Side. The desire to join the city was driven by municipal services that the city could provide its residents. Chicago's flourishing economy attracted huge numbers of new immigrants from Europe and migrants from the Eastern United States. Of the total population in 1900, more than 77% were either foreign-born or born in the United States of foreign parentage. Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes, and Czechs made up nearly two-thirds of the foreign-born population (by 1900, whites were 98.1% of the city's population). Labor conflicts followed the industrial boom and the rapid expansion of the labor pool, including the Haymarket affair on May 4, 1886, and in 1894 the Pullman Strike. Anarchist and socialist groups played prominent roles in creating very large and highly organized labor actions. Concern for social problems among Chicago's immigrant poor led Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr to found Hull House in 1889. Programs that were developed there became a model for the new field of social work. During the 1870s and 1880s, Chicago attained national stature as the leader in the movement to improve public health. City laws and later, state laws that upgraded standards for the medical profession and fought urban epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and yellow fever were both passed and enforced. These laws became templates for public health reform in other cities and states. The city established many large, well-landscaped municipal parks, which also included public sanitation facilities. The chief advocate for improving public health in Chicago was John H. Rauch, M.D. Rauch established a plan for Chicago's park system in 1866. He created Lincoln Park by closing a cemetery filled with shallow graves, and in 1867, in response to an outbreak of cholera he helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health. Ten years later, he became the secretary and then the president of the first Illinois State Board of Health, which carried out most of its activities in Chicago. In the 1800s, Chicago became the nation's railroad hub, and by 1910 over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals. In 1883, Chicago's railway managers needed a general time convention, so they developed the standardized system of North American time zones. This system for telling time spread throughout the continent. In 1893, Chicago hosted the World's Columbian Exposition on former marshland at the present location of Jackson Park. The Exposition drew 27.5 million visitors, and is considered the most influential world's fair in history. The University of Chicago, formerly at another location, moved to the same South Side location in 1892. The term "midway" for a fair or carnival referred originally to the Midway Plaisance, a strip of park land that still runs through the University of Chicago campus and connects the Washington and Jackson Parks. ===20th and 21st centuries=== ====1900 to 1939==== During World War I and the 1920s there was a major expansion in industry. The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the Southern United States. Between 1910 and 1930, the African American population of Chicago increased dramatically, from 44,103 to 233,903. This Great Migration had an immense cultural impact, called the Chicago Black Renaissance, part of the New Negro Movement, in art, literature, and music. Continuing racial tensions and violence, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919, also occurred. The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States. This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the gangster era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when Prohibition was repealed. The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era. Chicago was the location of the infamous St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of a rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran. From 1920 to 1921, the city was affected by a series of tenant rent strikes, which lead to the formation of the Chicago Tenants Protective association, passage of the Kessenger tenant laws, and of a heat ordinance that legally required flats to be kept above 68 °F during winter months by landlords. Chicago was the first American city to have a homosexual-rights organization. The organization, formed in 1924, was called the Society for Human Rights. It produced the first American publication for homosexuals, Friendship and Freedom. Police and political pressure caused the organization to disband. The Great Depression brought unprecedented suffering to Chicago, in no small part due to the city's heavy reliance on heavy industry. Notably, industrial areas on the south side and neighborhoods lining both branches of the Chicago River were devastated; by 1933 over 50% of industrial jobs in the city had been lost, and unemployment rates amongst blacks and Mexicans in the city were over 40%. The Republican political machine in Chicago was utterly destroyed by the economic crisis, and every mayor since 1931 has been a Democrat. Chicago was also a hotbed of labor activism, with Unemployed Councils contributing heavily in the early depression to create solidarity for the poor and demand relief; these organizations were created by socialist and communist groups. By 1935 the Workers Alliance of America began organizing the poor, workers, the unemployed. In the spring of 1937 Republic Steel Works witnessed the Memorial Day massacre of 1937 in the neighborhood of East Side. In 1933, Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak was fatally wounded in Miami, Florida, during a failed assassination attempt on President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1933 and 1934, the city celebrated its centennial by hosting the Century of Progress International Exposition World's Fair. The theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicago's founding. ====1940 to 1979==== During World War II, the city of Chicago alone produced more steel than the United Kingdom every year from 1939 – 1945, and more than Nazi Germany from 1943 – 1945. The Great Migration, which had been on pause due to the Depression, resumed at an even faster pace in the second wave, as hundreds of thousands of blacks from the South arrived in the city to work in the steel mills, railroads, and shipping yards. On December 2, 1942, physicist Enrico Fermi conducted the world's first controlled nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago as part of the top-secret Manhattan Project. This led to the creation of the atomic bomb by the United States, which it used in World War II in 1945. Mayor Richard J. Daley, a Democrat, was elected in 1955, in the era of machine politics. In 1956, the city conducted its last major expansion when it annexed the land under O'Hare airport, including a small portion of DuPage County. By the 1960s, white residents in several neighborhoods left the city for the suburban areas – in many American cities, a process known as white flight – as Blacks continued to move beyond the Black Belt. While home loan discriminatory redlining against blacks continued, the real estate industry practiced what became known as blockbusting, completely changing the racial composition of whole neighborhoods. Structural changes in industry, such as globalization and job outsourcing, caused heavy job losses for lower-skilled workers. At its peak during the 1960s, some 250,000 workers were employed in the steel industry in Chicago, but the steel crisis of the 1970s and 1980s reduced this number to just 28,000 in 2015. In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. and Albert Raby led the Chicago Freedom Movement, which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders. Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, with anti-war protesters, journalists and bystanders being beaten by police. Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower, which in 1974 became the world's tallest building), University of Illinois at Chicago, McCormick Place, and O'Hare International Airport, were undertaken during Richard J. Daley's tenure. In 1979, Jane Byrne, the city's first female mayor, was elected. She was notable for temporarily moving into the crime-ridden Cabrini-Green housing project and for leading Chicago's school system out of a financial crisis. ====1980 to present==== In 1983, Harold Washington became the first black mayor of Chicago. Washington's first term in office directed attention to poor and previously neglected minority neighborhoods. He was re‑elected in 1987 but died of a heart attack soon after. Washington was succeeded by 6th ward alderperson Eugene Sawyer, who was elected by the Chicago City Council and served until a special election. Richard M. Daley, son of Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989. His accomplishments included improvements to parks and creating incentives for sustainable development, as well as closing Meigs Field in the middle of the night and destroying the runways. After successfully running for re-election five times, and becoming Chicago's longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley declined to run for a seventh term. In 1992, a construction accident near the Kinzie Street Bridge produced a breach connecting the Chicago River to a tunnel below, which was part of an abandoned freight tunnel system extending throughout the downtown Loop district. The tunnels filled with of water, affecting buildings throughout the district and forcing a shutdown of electrical power. The area was shut down for three days and some buildings did not reopen for weeks; losses were estimated at $1.95 billion. Emanuel was sworn in as mayor on May 16, 2011, and won re-election in 2015. Lori Lightfoot, the city's first African American woman mayor and its first openly LGBTQ mayor, was elected to succeed Emanuel as mayor in 2019. All three city-wide elective offices were held by women (and women of color) for the first time in Chicago history: in addition to Lightfoot, the city clerk was Anna Valencia and the city treasurer was Melissa Conyears-Ervin. On May 15, 2023, Brandon Johnson assumed office as the 57th mayor of Chicago. ==Geography== ===Topography=== Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois on the southwestern shores of freshwater Lake Michigan. It is the principal city in the Chicago Metropolitan Area, situated in both the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region. The city rests on a continental divide at the site of the Chicago Portage, connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes watersheds. In addition to it lying beside Lake Michigan, two rivers—the Chicago River in downtown and the Calumet River in the industrial far South Side—flow either entirely or partially through the city. Chicago's history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to Lake Michigan. While the Chicago River historically handled much of the region's waterborne cargo, today's huge lake freighters use the city's Lake Calumet Harbor on the South Side. The lake also provides another positive effect: moderating Chicago's climate, making waterfront neighborhoods slightly warmer in winter and cooler in summer. When Chicago was founded in 1837, most of the early building was around the mouth of the Chicago River, as can be seen on a map of the city's original 58 blocks. The overall grade of the city's central, built-up areas is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise. The average land elevation is above sea level. While measurements vary somewhat, the lowest points are along the lake shore at , while the highest point, at , is the morainal ridge of Blue Island in the city's far south side. Lake Shore Drive runs adjacent to a large portion of Chicago's waterfront. Some of the parks along the waterfront include Lincoln Park, Grant Park, Burnham Park, and Jackson Park. There are 24 public beaches across of the waterfront. Landfill extends into portions of the lake providing space for Navy Pier, Northerly Island, the Museum Campus, and large portions of the McCormick Place Convention Center. Most of the city's high-rise commercial and residential buildings are close to the waterfront. An informal name for the entire Chicago metropolitan area is "Chicagoland", which generally means the city and all its suburbs, though different organizations have slightly different definitions. ===Communities=== Major sections of the city include the central business district, called the Loop, and the North, South, and West Sides. The three sides of the city are represented on the Flag of Chicago by three horizontal white stripes. The North Side is the most-densely-populated residential section of the city, and many high-rises are located on this side of the city along the lakefront. The South Side is the largest section of the city, encompassing roughly 60% of the city's land area. The South Side contains most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago. In the late-1920s, sociologists at the University of Chicago subdivided the city into 77 distinct community areas, which can further be subdivided into over 200 informally defined neighborhoods. ===Streetscape=== Chicago's streets were laid out in a street grid that grew from the city's original townsite plot, which was bounded by Lake Michigan on the east, North Avenue on the north, Wood Street on the west, and 22nd Street on the south. Streets following the Public Land Survey System section lines later became arterial streets in outlying sections. As new additions to the city were platted, city ordinance required them to be laid out with eight streets to the mile in one direction and sixteen in the other direction, about one street per 200 meters in one direction and one street per 100 meters in the other direction. The grid's regularity provided an efficient means of developing new real estate property. A scattering of diagonal streets, many of them originally Native American trails, also cross the city (Elston, Milwaukee, Ogden, Lincoln, etc.). Many additional diagonal streets were recommended in the Plan of Chicago, but only the extension of Ogden Avenue was ever constructed. In 2021, Chicago was ranked the fourth-most walkable large city in the United States. Many of the city's residential streets have a wide patch of grass or trees between the street and the sidewalk itself. This helps to keep pedestrians on the sidewalk further away from the street traffic. Chicago's Western Avenue is the longest continuous urban street in the world. Other notable streets include Michigan Avenue, State Street, 95th Street, Cicero Avenue, Clark Street, and Belmont Avenue. The City Beautiful movement inspired Chicago's boulevards and parkways. ===Architecture=== The destruction caused by the Great Chicago Fire led to the largest building boom in the history of the nation. In 1885, the first steel-framed high-rise building, the Home Insurance Building, rose in the city as Chicago ushered in the skyscraper era, which would then be followed by many other cities around the world. Today, Chicago's skyline is among the world's tallest and densest. Some of the United States' tallest towers are located in Chicago; Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) is the second tallest building in the Western Hemisphere after One World Trade Center, and Trump International Hotel and Tower is the third tallest in the country. The Loop's historic buildings include the Chicago Board of Trade Building, the Fine Arts Building, 35 East Wacker, and the Chicago Building, 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe. Many other architects have left their impression on the Chicago skyline such as Daniel Burnham, Louis Sullivan, Charles B. Atwood, John Root, and Helmut Jahn. The Merchandise Mart, once the largest building in the world, had its own zip code until 2008, and stands near the junction of the North and South branches of the Chicago River. Presently, the four tallest buildings in the city are Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower, also a building with its own zip code), Trump International Hotel and Tower, the Aon Center (previously the Standard Oil Building), and the John Hancock Center. Industrial districts, such as some areas on the South Side, the areas along the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, and the Northwest Indiana area are clustered. Chicago gave its name to the Chicago School and was home to the Prairie School, two movements in architecture. Multiple kinds and scales of houses, townhouses, condominiums, and apartment buildings can be found throughout Chicago. Large swaths of the city's residential areas away from the lake are characterized by brick bungalows built from the early 20th century through the end of World War II. Chicago is also a prominent center of the Polish Cathedral style of church architecture. The Chicago suburb of Oak Park was home to famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who had designed The Robie House located near the University of Chicago. A popular tourist activity is to take an architecture boat tour along the Chicago River. ===Monuments and public art=== Chicago is famous for its outdoor public art with donors establishing funding for such art as far back as Benjamin Ferguson's 1905 trust. A number of Chicago's public art works are by modern figurative artists. Among these are Chagall's Four Seasons; the Chicago Picasso; Miró's Chicago; Calder's Flamingo; Oldenburg's Batcolumn; Moore's Large Interior Form, 1953-54, Man Enters the Cosmos and Nuclear Energy; Dubuffet's Monument with Standing Beast, Abakanowicz's Agora; and Anish Kapoor's Cloud Gate which has become an icon of the city. Some events which shaped the city's history have also been memorialized by art works, including the Great Northern Migration (Saar) and the centennial of statehood for Illinois. Finally, two fountains near the Loop also function as monumental works of art: Plensa's Crown Fountain as well as Burnham and Bennett's Buckingham Fountain. ===Climate=== The city mostly lies within the typical hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa), and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are hot and humid, with frequent heat waves. The July daily average temperature is , with afternoon temperatures peaking at . In a normal summer, temperatures reach at least on 17 days, with lakefront locations staying cooler when winds blow off the lake. Winters are relatively cold and snowy. Blizzards do occur, such as in winter 2011. There are many sunny but cold days. The normal winter high from December through March is about . January and February are the coldest months. A polar vortex in January 2019 nearly broke the city's cold record of , which was set on January 20, 1985. Measurable snowfall can continue through the first or second week of April. Spring and autumn are mild, short seasons, typically with low humidity. Dew point temperatures in the summer range from an average of in June to in July. According to the National Weather Service, Chicago's highest official temperature reading of was recorded on July 24, 1934. Midway Airport reached one day prior and recorded a heat index of during the 1995 heatwave. Notably, the F4 Oak Lawn tornado moved through the South Side of the city on April 21, 1967, moving onto Lake Michigan as a waterspout. Downtown Chicago was struck by an F3 tornado on May 6, 1876, again moving out over Lake Michigan. Like other major cities, Chicago experiences an urban heat island, making the city and its suburbs milder than surrounding rural areas, especially at night and in winter. The proximity to Lake Michigan tends to keep the Chicago lakefront somewhat cooler in summer and less brutally cold in winter than inland parts of the city and suburbs away from the lake, which is sufficient to give lakefront areas such as Northerly Island a humid subtropical (Cfa) climate using Köppen's -3 °C (27 °F) winter isotherm (as opposed to the firmly continental climate of inland areas such as Midway and O'Hare International Airports), even though those areas are still continental (Dca) under Trewartha due to winters averaging below 0 °C (32 °F). Northeast winds from wintertime cyclones departing south of the region sometimes bring the city lake-effect snow. ===Time zone=== As in the rest of the state of Illinois, Chicago forms part of the Central Time Zone. The border with the Eastern Time Zone is located a short distance to the east, used in Michigan and certain parts of Indiana. ==Demographics== {{US Census population \| 1840 = 4470 \| 1850 = 29963 \| 1860 = 112172 \| 1870 = 298977 \| 1880 = 503185 \| 1890 = 1099850 \| 1900 = 1698575 \| 1910 = 2185283 \| 1920 = 2701705 \| 1930 = 3376438 \| 1940 = 3396808 \| 1950 = 3620962 \| 1960 = 3550404 \| 1970 = 3366957 \| 1980 = 3005072 \| 1990 = 2783726 \| 2000 = 2896016 \| 2010 = 2695598 \| 2020 = 2746388 \| estyear = 2023 \| estimate = 2664452 \| estref = \| align-fn = center \| footnote = United States Census Bureau2010–2020 and the largest of the cities that did not exist at the dawn of the century. Within sixty years of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the population went from about 300,000 to over 3 million, and reached its highest ever recorded population of 3.6 million for the 1950 census. From the last two decades of the 19th century, Chicago was the destination of waves of immigrants from Ireland, Southern, Central and Eastern Europe, including Italians, Jews, Russians, Poles, Greeks, Lithuanians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Romanians, Turks, Croatians, Serbs, Bosnians, Montenegrins and Czechs. To these ethnic groups, the basis of the city's industrial working class, were added an additional influx of African Americans from the American South—with Chicago's black population doubling between 1910 and 1920 and doubling again between 1920 and 1930. In the 1920s and 1930s, the great majority of African Americans moving to Chicago settled in a so‑called "Black Belt" on the city's South Side. Chicago's South Side emerged as United States second-largest urban black concentration, following New York's Harlem. In 1990, Chicago's South Side and the adjoining south suburbs constituted the largest black majority region in the entire United States. The above average crime and cost of living were leading reasons for the fast declining African American population in Chicago. Most of Chicago's foreign-born population were born in Mexico, Poland or India. A 2020 study estimated the total Jewish population of the Chicago metropolitan area, both religious and irreligious, at 319,500. Chicago's population declined in the latter half of the 20th century, from over 3.6 million in 1950 down to under 2.7 million by 2010. By the time of the official census count in 1990, it was overtaken by Los Angeles as the United States' second largest city. The city has seen a rise in population for the 2000 census and after a decrease in 2010, it rose again for the 2020 census. According to U.S. census estimates , Chicago's largest racial or ethnic group is non-Hispanic White at 32.8% of the population, Blacks at 30.1% and the Hispanic population at 29.0% of the population. Chicago has the third-largest LGBT population in the United States. In 2018, the Chicago Department of Health, estimated 7.5% of the adult population, approximately 146,000 Chicagoans, were LGBTQ. In 2015, roughly 4% of the population identified as LGBT. Since the 2013 legalization of same-sex marriage in Illinois, over 10,000 same-sex couples have wed in Cook County, a majority of them in Chicago. Chicago became a "de jure" sanctuary city in 2012 when Mayor Rahm Emanuel and the City Council passed the Welcoming City Ordinance. According to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey data estimates for 2022, the median income for a household in the city was $70,386,and the per capita income was $45,449. Male full-time workers had a median income of $68,870 versus $60,987 for females. About 17.2% of the population lived below the poverty line. In 2018, Chicago ranked seventh globally for the highest number of ultra-high-net-worth residents with roughly 3,300 residents worth more than $30 million. According to the 2022 American Community Survey, the specific ancestral groups having 10,000 or more persons in Chicago were: Mexican (586,906) German (200,726) Irish (184,983) Polish (129,468) Puerto Rican (101,625) Italian (100,915) English (87,282) Chinese (67,951) Indian (48,535) Filipino (39,048) French (25,629) Russian (24,707) Swedish (21,795) Arab (19,432) West Indian (18,636) Guatemalan (18,205) Scottish (17,121) Korean (16,224) Ecuadorian (15,935) Nigerian (15,064) Greek (14,946) Norwegian (13,391) Colombian (13,785) Ukrainian (12,956) Vietnamese (12,280) Cuban (11,765) Czech (11,313) Romanian (11,237) Lithuanian (11,235) Dutch (11,196) Persons who did not report or classify an ancestry were 548,790. ===Religion=== According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity is the most prevalently practiced religion in Chicago (71%), Since the 20th century Chicago has also been the headquarters of the Assyrian Church of the East. In 2014 the Catholic Church was the largest individual Christian denomination (34%), with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago being the largest Catholic jurisdiction. Evangelical Protestantism form the largest theological Protestant branch (16%), followed by Mainline Protestants (11%), and historically Black churches (8%). Among denominational Protestant branches, Baptists formed the largest group in Chicago (10%); followed by Nondenominational (5%); Lutherans (4%); and Pentecostals (3%). Many international religious leaders have visited Chicago, including Mother Teresa, the Dalai Lama and Pope John Paul II in 1979. ==Economy== Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $670.5 billion according to September 2017 estimates. The city has also been rated as having the most balanced economy in the United States, due to its high level of diversification. The Chicago metropolitan area has the third-largest science and engineering work force of any metropolitan area in the nation. Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald, and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry. Chicago is a major world financial center, with the second-largest central business district in the United States, following Midtown Manhattan. The city is the seat of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, the Bank's Seventh District. The city has major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the "Merc"), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), by Chicago's CME Group. In 2017, Chicago exchanges traded 4.7 billion in derivatives. Chase Bank has its commercial and retail banking headquarters in Chicago's Chase Tower. Academically, Chicago has been influential through the Chicago school of economics, which fielded 12 Nobel Prize winners. The city and its surrounding metropolitan area contain the third-largest labor pool in the United States with about 4.63 million workers. Illinois is home to 66 Fortune 1000 companies, including those in Chicago. The city of Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies. The city claims three Dow 30 companies: aerospace giant Boeing, which moved its headquarters from Seattle to the Chicago Loop in 2001; McDonald's; and Walgreens Boots Alliance. For six consecutive years from 2013 through 2018, Chicago was ranked the nation's top metropolitan area for corporate relocations. However, three Fortune 500 companies left Chicago in 2022, leaving the city with 35, still second to New York City. Manufacturing, printing, publishing, and food processing also play major roles in the city's economy. Several medical products and services companies are based in the Chicago area, including Baxter International, Boeing, Abbott Laboratories, and the Healthcare division of General Electric. Prominent food companies based in Chicago include the world headquarters of Conagra, Ferrara Candy Company, Kraft Heinz, McDonald's, Mondelez International, and Quaker Oats. Chicago has been a hub of the retail sector since its early development, with Montgomery Ward, Sears, and Marshall Field's. Today the Chicago metropolitan area is the headquarters of several retailers, including Walgreens, Sears, Ace Hardware, Claire's, ULTA Beauty, and Crate & Barrel. Late in the 19th century, Chicago was part of the bicycle craze, with the Western Wheel Company, which introduced stamping to the production process and significantly reduced costs, while early in the 20th century, the city was part of the automobile revolution, hosting the Brass Era car builder Bugmobile, which was founded there in 1907. Chicago was also the site of the Schwinn Bicycle Company. Chicago is a major world convention destination. The city's main convention center is McCormick Place. With its four interconnected buildings, it is the largest convention center in the nation and third-largest in the world. Chicago also ranks third in the U.S. (behind Las Vegas and Orlando) in number of conventions hosted annually. Chicago's minimum wage for non-tipped employees is one of the highest in the nation and reached $15 in 2021. ==Culture and contemporary life== The city's waterfront location and nightlife attracts residents and tourists alike. Over a third of the city population is concentrated in the lakefront neighborhoods from Rogers Park in the north to South Shore in the south. The city has many upscale dining establishments as well as many ethnic restaurant districts. These districts include the Mexican American neighborhoods, such as Pilsen along 18th street, and La Villita along 26th Street; the Puerto Rican enclave of Paseo Boricua in the Humboldt Park neighborhood; Greektown, along South Halsted Street, immediately west of downtown; Little Italy, along Taylor Street; Chinatown in Armour Square; Polish Patches in West Town; Little Seoul in Albany Park around Lawrence Avenue; Little Vietnam near Broadway in Uptown; and the Desi area, along Devon Avenue in West Ridge. Downtown is the center of Chicago's financial, cultural, governmental, and commercial institutions and the site of Grant Park and many of the city's skyscrapers. Many of the city's financial institutions, such as the CBOT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, are located within a section of downtown called "The Loop", which is an eight-block by five-block area of city streets that is encircled by elevated rail tracks. The term "The Loop" is largely used by locals to refer to the entire downtown area as well. The central area includes the Near North Side, the Near South Side, and the Near West Side, as well as the Loop. These areas contribute famous skyscrapers, abundant restaurants, shopping, museums, Soldier Field, convention facilities, parkland, and beaches. Lincoln Park contains Lincoln Park Zoo and Lincoln Park Conservatory. The River North Gallery District features the nation's largest concentration of contemporary art galleries outside of New York City. Lake View is home to Boystown, the city's large LGBT nightlife and culture center. The Chicago Pride Parade, held the last Sunday in June, is one of the world's largest with over a million people in attendance. North Halsted Street is the main thoroughfare of Boystown. The South Side neighborhood of Hyde Park is the home of former U.S. President Barack Obama. It also contains the University of Chicago, ranked one of the world's top ten universities, and the Museum of Science and Industry. The long Burnham Park stretches along the waterfront of the South Side. Two of the city's largest parks are also located on this side of the city: Jackson Park, bordering the waterfront, hosted the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, and is the site of the aforementioned museum; and slightly west sits Washington Park. The two parks themselves are connected by a wide strip of parkland called the Midway Plaisance, running adjacent to the University of Chicago. The South Side hosts one of the city's largest parades, the annual African American Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, which travels through Bronzeville to Washington Park. Ford Motor Company has an automobile assembly plant on the South Side in Hegewisch, and most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago are also on the South Side. The West Side holds the Garfield Park Conservatory, one of the largest collections of tropical plants in any U.S. city. Prominent Latino cultural attractions found here include Humboldt Park's Institute of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture and the annual Puerto Rican People's Parade, as well as the National Museum of Mexican Art and St. Adalbert's Church in Pilsen. The Near West Side holds the University of Illinois at Chicago and was once home to Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Studios, the site of which has been rebuilt as the global headquarters of McDonald's. The city's distinctive accent, made famous by its use in classic films like The Blues Brothers and television programs like the Saturday Night Live skit "Bill Swerski's Superfans", is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English. This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short 'a' sound as in "cat", which can sound more like "kyet" to outsiders. The accent remains well associated with the city. ===Entertainment and the arts === Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier. Broadway In Chicago offers Broadway-style entertainment at five theaters: the Nederlander Theatre, CIBC Theatre, Cadillac Palace Theatre, Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University, and Broadway Playhouse at Water Tower Place. Polish language productions for Chicago's large Polish speaking population can be seen at the historic Gateway Theatre in Jefferson Park. Since 1968, the Joseph Jefferson Awards are given annually to acknowledge excellence in theater in the Chicago area. Chicago's theater community spawned modern improvisational theater, and includes the prominent groups The Second City and I.O. (formerly ImprovOlympic). The Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) performs at Symphony Center, and is recognized as one of the best orchestras in the world. Also performing regularly at Symphony Center is the Chicago Sinfonietta, a more diverse and multicultural counterpart to the CSO. In the summer, many outdoor concerts are given in Grant Park and Millennium Park. Ravinia Festival, located north of Chicago, is the summer home of the CSO, and is a favorite destination for many Chicagoans. The Civic Opera House is home to the Lyric Opera of Chicago. The Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago was founded by Lithuanian Chicagoans in 1956, and presents operas in Lithuanian. The Joffrey Ballet and Chicago Festival Ballet perform in various venues, including the Harris Theater in Millennium Park. Chicago has several other contemporary and jazz dance troupes, such as the Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Dance Crash. Other live-music genre which are part of the city's cultural heritage include Chicago blues, Chicago soul, jazz, and gospel. The city is the birthplace of house music (a popular form of electronic dance music) and industrial music, and is the site of an influential hip hop scene. In the 1980s and 90s, the city was the global center for house and industrial music, two forms of music created in Chicago, as well as being popular for alternative rock, punk, and new wave. The city has been a center for rave culture, since the 1980s. A flourishing independent rock music culture brought forth Chicago indie. Annual festivals feature various acts, such as Lollapalooza and the Pitchfork Music Festival. Lollapalooza originated in Chicago in 1991 and at first travelled to many cities, but as of 2005 its home has been Chicago. A 2007 report on the Chicago music industry by the University of Chicago Cultural Policy Center ranked Chicago third among metropolitan U.S. areas in "size of music industry" and fourth among all U.S. cities in "number of concerts and performances". Chicago has a distinctive fine art tradition. For much of the twentieth century, it nurtured a strong style of figurative surrealism, as in the works of Ivan Albright and Ed Paschke. In 1968 and 1969, members of the Chicago Imagists, such as Roger Brown, Leon Golub, Robert Lostutter, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi produced bizarre representational paintings. Henry Darger is one of the most celebrated figures of outsider art. ===Tourism=== , Chicago attracted 50.17 million domestic leisure travelers, 11.09 million domestic business travelers and 1.308 million overseas visitors. These visitors contributed more than billion to Chicago's economy. Most conventions are held at McCormick Place, just south of Soldier Field. Navy Pier, located just east of Streeterville, is long and houses retail stores, restaurants, museums, exhibition halls and auditoriums. Chicago was the first city in the world to ever erect a Ferris wheel. The Willis Tower (formerly named Sears Tower) is a popular destination for tourists. === Museums === Among the city's museums are the Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium. The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park, which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago. Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The University of Chicago's Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the Chicago History Museum, the Driehaus Museum, the DuSable Museum of African American History, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, the Museum of Broadcast Communications, the Chicago Architecture Foundation, and the Museum of Science and Industry. ===Cuisine=== Chicago lays claim to a large number of regional specialties that reflect the city's ethnic and working-class roots. Included among these are its nationally renowned deep-dish pizza; this style is said to have originated at Pizzeria Uno. The Chicago-style thin crust is also popular in the city. Certain Chicago pizza favorites include Lou Malnati's and Giordano's. The Chicago-style hot dog, typically an all-beef hot dog, is loaded with an array of toppings that often includes pickle relish, yellow mustard, pickled sport peppers, tomato wedges, dill pickle spear and topped off with celery salt on a poppy seed bun. Enthusiasts of the Chicago-style hot dog frown upon the use of ketchup as a garnish, but may prefer to add giardiniera. A distinctly Chicago sandwich, the Italian beef sandwich is thinly sliced beef simmered in au jus and served on an Italian roll with sweet peppers or spicy giardiniera. A popular modification is the Combo—an Italian beef sandwich with the addition of an Italian sausage. The Maxwell Street Polish is a grilled or deep-fried kielbasa—on a hot dog roll, topped with grilled onions, yellow mustard, and hot sport peppers. Chicken Vesuvio is roasted bone-in chicken cooked in oil and garlic next to garlicky oven-roasted potato wedges and a sprinkling of green peas. The Puerto Rican-influenced jibarito is a sandwich made with flattened, fried green plantains instead of bread. The mother-in-law is a tamale topped with chili and served on a hot dog bun. The tradition of serving the Greek dish saganaki while aflame has its origins in Chicago's Greek community. The appetizer, which consists of a square of fried cheese, is doused with Metaxa and flambéed table-side. Chicago-style barbecue features hardwood smoked rib tips and hot links which were traditionally cooked in an aquarium smoker, a Chicago invention. Annual festivals feature various Chicago signature dishes, such as Taste of Chicago and the Chicago Food Truck Festival. One of the world's most decorated restaurants and a recipient of three Michelin stars, Alinea is located in Chicago. Well-known chefs who have had restaurants in Chicago include: Charlie Trotter, Rick Tramonto, Grant Achatz, and Rick Bayless. In 2003, Robb Report named Chicago the country's "most exceptional dining destination". ===Literature=== Chicago literature finds its roots in the city's tradition of lucid, direct journalism, lending to a strong tradition of social realism. In the Encyclopedia of Chicago, Northwestern University Professor Bill Savage describes Chicago fiction as prose which tries to "capture the essence of the city, its spaces and its people." The challenge for early writers was that Chicago was a frontier outpost that transformed into a global metropolis in the span of two generations. Narrative fiction of that time, much of it in the style of "high-flown romance" and "genteel realism", needed a new approach to describe the urban social, political, and economic conditions of Chicago. Nonetheless, Chicagoans worked hard to create a literary tradition that would stand the test of time, and create a "city of feeling" out of concrete, steel, vast lake, and open prairie. Much notable Chicago fiction focuses on the city itself, with social criticism keeping exultation in check. At least three short periods in the history of Chicago have had a lasting influence on American literature. These include from the time of the Great Chicago Fire to about 1900, what became known as the Chicago Literary Renaissance in the 1910s and early 1920s, and the period of the Great Depression through the 1940s. What would become the influential Poetry magazine was founded in 1912 by Harriet Monroe, who was working as an art critic for the Chicago Tribune. The magazine discovered such poets as Gwendolyn Brooks, James Merrill, and John Ashbery. T. S. Eliot's first professionally published poem, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", was first published by Poetry. Contributors have included Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, and Carl Sandburg, among others. The magazine was instrumental in launching the Imagist and Objectivist poetic movements. From the 1950s through 1970s, American poetry continued to evolve in Chicago. In the 1980s, a modern form of poetry performance began in Chicago, the poetry slam. ==Sports== The city has two Major League Baseball (MLB) teams: the Chicago Cubs of the National League play in Wrigley Field on the North Side; and the Chicago White Sox of the American League play in Rate Field on the South Side. The two teams have faced each other in a World Series only once, in 1906. The Cubs are the oldest Major League Baseball team to have never changed their city; they have played in Chicago since 1871. They had the dubious honor of having the longest championship drought in American professional sports, failing to win a World Series between 1908 and 2016. The White Sox have played on the South Side continuously since 1901. They have won three World Series titles (1906, 1917, 2005) and six American League pennants, including the first in 1901. The Chicago Bears, one of the last two remaining charter members of the National Football League (NFL), have won nine NFL Championships, including the 1985 Super Bowl XX. The Bears play their home games at Soldier Field. The Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA) is one of the most recognized basketball teams in the world. During the 1990s, with Michael Jordan leading them, the Bulls won six NBA championships in eight seasons. The Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL) began play in 1926, and are one of the "Original Six" teams of the NHL. The Blackhawks have won six Stanley Cups, including in 2010, 2013, and 2015. Both the Bulls and the Blackhawks play at the United Center. Chicago Fire FC is a member of Major League Soccer (MLS) and plays at Soldier Field. The Fire have won one league title and four U.S. Open Cups, since their founding in 1997. In 1994, the United States hosted a successful FIFA World Cup with games played at Soldier Field. The Chicago Stars FC are a team in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). They previously played in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), of which they were a founding member, before joining the NWSL in 2013. They play at SeatGeek Stadium in Bridgeview, Illinois. The Chicago Sky is a professional basketball team playing in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). They play home games at the Wintrust Arena. The team was founded before the 2006 WNBA season began. The Chicago Marathon has been held each year since 1977 except for 1987, when a half marathon was run in its place. The Chicago Marathon is one of six World Marathon Majors. Five area colleges play in Division I conferences: two from major conferences—the DePaul Blue Demons (Big East Conference) and the Northwestern Wildcats (Big Ten Conference)—and three from other D1 conferences—the Chicago State Cougars (Northeast Conference); the Loyola Ramblers (Atlantic 10 Conference); and the UIC Flames (Missouri Valley Conference). Chicago has also entered into esports with the creation of the OpTic Chicago, a professional Call of Duty team that participates within the CDL. ==Parks and greenspace== When Chicago was incorporated in 1837, it chose the motto Urbs in Horto, a Latin phrase which means "City in a Garden". Today, the Chicago Park District consists of more than 570 parks with over of municipal parkland. There are 31 sand beaches, a plethora of museums, two world-class conservatories, and 50 nature areas. Lincoln Park, the largest of the city's parks, covers and has over 20 million visitors each year, making it third in the number of visitors after Central Park in New York City, and the National Mall and Memorial Parks in Washington, D.C. There is a historic boulevard system, a network of wide, tree-lined boulevards which connect a number of Chicago parks. The boulevards and the parks were authorized by the Illinois legislature in 1869. A number of Chicago neighborhoods emerged along these roadways in the 19th century. The Chicago Park Boulevard System Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2018. With berths for more than 6,000 boats, the Chicago Park District operates the nation's largest municipal harbor system. In addition to ongoing beautification and renewal projects for the existing parks, a number of new parks have been added in recent years, such as the Ping Tom Memorial Park in Chinatown, DuSable Park on the Near North Side, and most notably, Millennium Park, which is in the northwestern corner of one of Chicago's oldest parks, Grant Park in the Chicago Loop. The wealth of greenspace afforded by Chicago's parks is further augmented by the Cook County Forest Preserves, a network of open spaces containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie along the city's outskirts, including both the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe and the Brookfield Zoo in Brookfield. Washington Park is also one of the city's biggest parks; covering nearly . The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in South Side Chicago. ==Law and government== ===Government=== The government of the City of Chicago is divided into executive and legislative branches. The mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits. The current mayor is Brandon Johnson. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. As well as the mayor, Chicago's clerk and treasurer are also elected citywide. The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 alderpersons, one elected from each ward in the city. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions and approves the city budget. The Chicago Police Department provides law enforcement and the Chicago Fire Department provides fire suppression and emergency medical services for the city and its residents. Civil and criminal law cases are heard in the Cook County Circuit Court of the State of Illinois court system, or in the Northern District of Illinois, in the federal system. In the state court, the public prosecutor is the Illinois state's attorney; in the Federal court it is the United States attorney. ===Politics=== During much of the last half of the 19th century, Chicago's politics were dominated by a growing Democratic Party organization. During the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago had a powerful radical tradition with large and highly organized socialist, anarchist and labor organizations. For much of the 20th century, Chicago has been among the largest and most reliable Democratic strongholds in the United States; with Chicago's Democratic vote the state of Illinois has been "solid blue" in presidential elections since 1992. Even before then, it was not unheard of for Republican presidential candidates to win handily in downstate Illinois, only to lose statewide due to large Democratic margins in Chicago. The citizens of Chicago have not elected a Republican mayor since 1927, when William Thompson was voted into office. The strength of the party in the city is partly a consequence of Illinois state politics, where the Republicans have come to represent rural and farm concerns while the Democrats support urban issues such as Chicago's public school funding. Chicago contains less than 25% of the state's population, but it is split between eight of Illinois' 17 districts in the United States House of Representatives. All eight of the city's representatives are Democrats; only two Republicans have represented a significant portion of the city since 1973, for one term each: Robert P. Hanrahan from 1973 to 1975, and Michael Patrick Flanagan from 1995 to 1997. Machine politics persisted in Chicago after the decline of similar machines in other large U.S. cities. During much of that time, the city administration found opposition mainly from a liberal "independent" faction of the Democratic Party. The independents finally gained control of city government in 1983 with the election of Harold Washington (in office 1983–1987). From 1989 until May 16, 2011, Chicago was under the leadership of its longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley, the son of Richard J. Daley. Because of the dominance of the Democratic Party in Chicago, the Democratic primary vote held in the spring is generally more significant than the general elections in November for U.S. House and Illinois State seats. The aldermanic, mayoral, and other city offices are filled through nonpartisan elections with runoffs as needed. The city is home of former United States President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama; Barack Obama was formerly a state legislator representing Chicago and later a U.S. senator. The Obamas' residence is located near the University of Chicago in Kenwood on the city's south side. ===Crime=== Chicago's crime rate in 2020 was 3,926 per 100,000 people. Chicago experienced major rises in violent crime in the 1920s, in the late 1960s, and in the 2020s. Chicago's biggest criminal justice challenges have changed little over the last 50 years, and statistically reside with homicide, armed robbery, gang violence, and aggravated battery. Chicago has a higher murder rate than the larger cities of New York and Los Angeles. However, while it has a large absolute number of crimes due to its size, Chicago is not among the top-25 most violent cities in the United States. Murder rates in Chicago vary greatly depending on the neighborhood in question. The neighborhoods of Englewood on the South Side, and Austin on the West side, for example, have homicide rates that are ten times higher than other parts of the city. Chicago has an estimated population of over 100,000 active gang members from nearly 60 factions. According to reports in 2013, "most of Chicago's violent crime comes from gangs trying to maintain control of drug-selling territories," and is specifically related to the activities of the Sinaloa Cartel, which is active in several American cities. Violent crime rates vary significantly by area of the city, with more economically developed areas having low rates, but other sections have much higher rates of crime. the murder rate was 10.4 per 100,000 – while high crime districts saw 38.9 murders, low crime districts saw 2.5 murders per 100,000. Chicago's long history of public corruption regularly draws the attention of federal law enforcement and federal prosecutors. From 2012 to 2019, 33 Chicago alderpersons were convicted on corruption charges, roughly one third of those elected in the time period. A report from the Office of the Legislative Inspector General noted that over half of Chicago's elected alderpersons took illegal campaign contributions in 2013. Most corruption cases in Chicago are prosecuted by the U.S. Attorney's office, as legal jurisdiction makes most offenses punishable as a federal crime. ==Education== ===Schools and libraries=== Chicago Public Schools (CPS) is the governing body of the school district that contains over 600 public elementary and high schools citywide, including several selective-admission magnet schools. There are eleven selective enrollment high schools in the Chicago Public Schools, designed to meet the needs of Chicago's most academically advanced students. These schools offer a rigorous curriculum with mainly honors and Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Walter Payton College Prep High School is ranked number one in the city of Chicago and the state of Illinois. Chicago high school rankings are determined by the average test scores on state achievement tests. The district, with an enrollment exceeding 400,545 students (2013–2014 20th Day Enrollment), is the third-largest in the U.S. On September 10, 2012, teachers for the Chicago Teachers Union went on strike for the first time since 1987 over pay, resources, and other issues. According to data compiled in 2014, Chicago's "choice system", where students who test or apply and may attend one of a number of public high schools (there are about 130), sorts students of different achievement levels into different schools (high performing, middle performing, and low performing schools). Chicago has a network of Lutheran schools, and several private schools are run by other denominations and faiths, such as the Ida Crown Jewish Academy in West Ridge. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic schools, including Jesuit preparatory schools and others. A number of private schools are completely secular. There is also the private Chicago Academy for the Arts, a high school focused on six different artistic disciplines, and the public Chicago High School for the Arts, a high school focused on five disciplines (visual arts, theatre, musical theatre, dance, and music). The Chicago Public Library system operates three regional libraries and 77 neighborhood branches, including the central library. ===Colleges and universities=== Since the 1850s, Chicago has been a world center of higher education and research with several universities. These institutions consistently rank among the top "National Universities" in the United States, as determined by U.S. News & World Report. Highly regarded universities in Chicago and the surrounding area are the University of Chicago; Northwestern University; Illinois Institute of Technology; Loyola University Chicago; DePaul University; Columbia College Chicago and the University of Illinois Chicago. Other notable schools include: Chicago State University; the School of the Art Institute of Chicago; East–West University; National Louis University; North Park University; Northeastern Illinois University; Robert Morris University Illinois; Roosevelt University; Saint Xavier University; Rush University; and Shimer College. William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago, was instrumental in the creation of the junior college concept, establishing nearby Joliet Junior College as the first in the nation in 1901. His legacy continues with the multiple community colleges in the Chicago proper, including the seven City Colleges of Chicago: Richard J. Daley College, Kennedy–King College, Malcolm X College, Olive–Harvey College, Truman College, Harold Washington College, and Wilbur Wright College, in addition to the privately held MacCormac College. Chicago also has a high concentration of post-baccalaureate institutions, graduate schools, seminaries, and theological schools, such as the Adler School of Professional Psychology, The Chicago School the Erikson Institute, Institute for Clinical Social Work, Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, Catholic Theological Union, Moody Bible Institute, and University of Chicago Divinity School. ==Media== ===Television=== The Chicago metropolitan area is a major media hub and the third-largest media market in the United States, after New York City and Los Angeles. Each of the big five U.S. television networks, NBC, ABC, CBS, Fox and The CW, directly owns and operates a high-definition television station in Chicago (WMAQ 5, WLS 7, WBBM 2, WFLD 32 and WGN-TV 9, respectively). WGN is owned by the CW through a majority stake held in the network by the Nexstar Media Group, which acquired it from its founding owner Tribune Broadcasting in 2019. WGN was once carried, with some programming differences, as "WGN America" on cable and satellite TV nationwide and in parts of the Caribbean. WGN America eventually became NewsNation in 2021. Chicago has also been the home of several prominent talk shows, including The Oprah Winfrey Show, Steve Harvey Show, The Rosie Show, The Jerry Springer Show, The Phil Donahue Show, The Jenny Jones Show, and more. The city also has one PBS member station (its second: WYCC 20, removed its affiliation with PBS in 2017): WTTW 11, producer of shows such as Sneak Previews, The Frugal Gourmet, Lamb Chop's Play-Along and The McLaughlin Group. , Windy City Live is Chicago's only daytime talk show, which is hosted by Val Warner and Ryan Chiaverini at ABC7 Studios with a live weekday audience. Since 1999, Judge Mathis also films his syndicated arbitration-based reality court show at the NBC Tower. Beginning in January 2019, Newsy began producing 12 of its 14 hours of live news programming per day from its new facility in Chicago. ====Television stations==== Most of Chicago's television stations are owned and operated by the big television network companies. They are: WBBM-TV (2), owned and operated by CBS. WMAQ-TV (5), owned and operated by NBC. WLS-TV (7), owned and operated by ABC. WGN-TV (9), a CW station owned and operated by network majority owner Nexstar Media Group. WTTW (11), a PBS member station owned by Window to the World Communications, Inc. WCIU-TV (26), an independent station (with a secondary MeTV affiliation) owned by Weigel Broadcasting. WFLD (32), owned and operated by Fox. WWTO-TV (35), owned and operated by TBN, licensed in Naperville. WCPX-TV (38), owned and operated by Ion Television. WSNS-TV (44), owned and operated by Telemundo. WPWR-TV (50), owned and operated by MyNetworkTV (Fox), licensed to Gary, Indiana. WYIN (56), a PBS member station owned by Northwest Indiana Public Broadcasting, Inc., licensed in Gary, Indiana. WTVK (59), an independent station owned by Venture Technologies Group, licensed in Oswego, Illinois. WXFT-DT (60), owned and operated by Unimas. WJYS (62), an independent station owned by Millennial Telecommunications, Inc., licensed to Hammond, Indiana. WGBO-DT (66), owned and operated by Univision. ===Newspapers=== Two major daily newspapers are published in Chicago: the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun-Times, with the Tribune having the larger circulation. There are also several regional and special-interest newspapers and magazines, such as Chicago, the Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News), Draugas (the Lithuanian daily newspaper), the Chicago Reader, the SouthtownStar, the Chicago Defender, the Daily Herald, Newcity, StreetWise and the Windy City Times. The entertainment and cultural magazine Time Out Chicago and GRAB magazine are also published in the city, as well as local music magazine Chicago Innerview. In addition, Chicago is the home of satirical national news outlet, The Onion, as well as its sister pop-culture publication, The A.V. Club. ===Movies and filming=== ===Radio=== Chicago has five 50,000 watt AM radio stations: the Audacy-owned WBBM and WSCR; the Tribune Broadcasting-owned WGN; the Cumulus Media-owned WLS; and the ESPN Radio-owned WMVP. Chicago is also home to a number of national radio shows, including Beyond the Beltway with Bruce DuMont on Sunday evenings. Chicago Public Radio produces nationally aired programs such as PRI's This American Life and NPR's Wait Wait...Don't Tell Me!. ==Infrastructure== ===Transportation=== Chicago is a major transportation hub in the United States. It is an important component in global distribution, as it is the third-largest inter-modal port in the world after Hong Kong and Singapore. The city of Chicago has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 26.5 percent of Chicago households were without a car, and increased slightly to 27.5 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Chicago averaged 1.12 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. ====Parking==== Due to Chicago's wheel tax, residents of Chicago who own a vehicle are required to purchase a Chicago City Vehicle Sticker. In established Residential Parking Zones, only local residents can purchase Zone-specific parking stickers for themselves and guests. Chicago since 2009 has relinquished rights to its public street parking. In 2008, as Chicago struggled to close a growing budget deficit, the city agreed to a 75-year, $1.16 billion deal to lease its parking meter system to an operating company created by Morgan Stanley, called Chicago Parking Meters LLC. Daley said the "agreement is very good news for the taxpayers of Chicago because it will provide more than $1 billion in net proceeds that can be used during this very difficult economy." The rights of the parking ticket lease end in 2081, and since 2022 have already recouped over $1.5 billion in revenue for Chicago Parking Meters LLC investors. ====Expressways==== Seven mainline and four auxiliary interstate highways (55, 57, 65 (only in Indiana), 80 (also in Indiana), 88, 90 (also in Indiana), 94 (also in Indiana), 190, 290, 294, and 355) run through Chicago and its suburbs. Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, with three of them named after former U.S. Presidents (Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Reagan) and one named after two-time Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson. The Kennedy and Dan Ryan Expressways are the busiest state maintained routes in the entire state of Illinois. ====Transit systems==== The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) coordinates the operation of the three service boards: CTA, Metra, and Pace. The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) handles public transportation in the City of Chicago and a few adjacent suburbs outside of the Chicago city limits. The CTA operates an extensive network of buses and a rapid transit elevated and subway system known as the Chicago "L" or just the "L" (short for "elevated"), with lines designated by colors. These rapid transit lines also serve both Midway and O'Hare Airports. The CTA's rail lines consist of the Red, Blue, Green, Orange, Brown, Purple, Pink, and Yellow lines. Both the Red and Blue lines offer 24‑hour service which makes Chicago one of a handful of cities around the world (and one of two in the United States, the other being New York City) to offer rail service 24 hours a day, every day of the year, within the city's limits. Metra, the nation's second-most used passenger regional rail network, operates an 11-line commuter rail service in Chicago and throughout the Chicago suburbs. The Metra Electric Line shares its trackage with Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District's South Shore Line, which provides commuter service between South Bend and Chicago. Pace provides bus and paratransit service in over 200 surrounding suburbs with some extensions into the city as well. A 2005 study found that one quarter of commuters used public transit. Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service to and from the city at the Chicago Bus Station, and Chicago is also the hub for the Midwest network of Megabus (North America). ====Passenger rail==== Amtrak long distance and commuter rail services originate from Union Station. Chicago is one of the largest hubs of passenger rail service in the nation. The services terminate in the San Francisco area, Washington, D.C., New York City, New Orleans, Portland, Seattle, Milwaukee, Quincy, St. Louis, Carbondale, Boston, Grand Rapids, Port Huron, Pontiac, Los Angeles, and San Antonio. Future service will terminate at Moline. An attempt was made in the early 20th century to link Chicago with New York City via the Chicago – New York Electric Air Line Railroad. Parts of this were built, but it was never completed. ====Bicycle and scooter sharing systems==== In July 2013, the bicycle-sharing system Divvy was launched with 750 bikes and 75 docking stations It is operated by Lyft for the Chicago Department of Transportation. As of July 2019, Divvy operated 5800 bicycles at 608 stations, covering almost all of the city, excluding Pullman, Rosedale, Beverly, Belmont Cragin and Edison Park. In May 2019, The City of Chicago announced its Chicago's Electric Shared Scooter Pilot Program, scheduled to run from June 15 to October 15. The program started on June 15 with 10 different scooter companies, including scooter sharing market leaders Bird, Jump, Lime and Lyft. Each company was allowed to bring 250 electric scooters, although both Bird and Lime claimed that they experienced a higher demand for their scooters. The program ended on October 15, with nearly 800,000 rides taken. ====Freight rail==== Chicago is the largest hub in the railroad industry. All five Class I railroads meet in Chicago. , severe freight train congestion caused trains to take as long to get through the Chicago region as it took to get there from the West Coast of the country (about 2 days). According to U.S. Department of Transportation, the volume of imported and exported goods transported via rail to, from, or through Chicago is forecast to increase nearly 150 percent between 2010 and 2040. CREATE, the Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program, comprises about 70 programs, including crossovers, overpasses and underpasses, that intend to significantly improve the speed of freight movements in the Chicago area. ====Airports==== Chicago is served by O'Hare International Airport, the world's busiest airport measured by airline operations, on the far Northwest Side, and Midway International Airport on the Southwest Side. In 2005, O'Hare was the world's busiest airport by aircraft movements and the second-busiest by total passenger traffic. Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the City of Chicago. Gary/Chicago International Airport and Chicago Rockford International Airport, located in Gary, Indiana and Rockford, Illinois, respectively, can serve as alternative Chicago area airports, however they do not offer as many commercial flights as O'Hare and Midway. In recent years the state of Illinois has been leaning towards building an entirely new airport in the Illinois suburbs of Chicago. The City of Chicago is the world headquarters for United Airlines, the world's third-largest airline. ====Port authority==== The Port of Chicago consists of several major port facilities within the city of Chicago operated by the Illinois International Port District (formerly known as the Chicago Regional Port District). The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Iroquois Landing Lakefront Terminal: at the mouth of the Calumet River, it includes of warehouses and facilities on Lake Michigan with over of storage. Lake Calumet terminal: located at the union of the Grand Calumet River and Little Calumet River inland from Lake Michigan. Includes three transit sheds totaling over adjacent to over 900 linear meters (3,000 linear feet) of ship and barge berthing. Grain (14 million bushels) and bulk liquid (800,000 barrels) storage facilities along Lake Calumet. The Illinois International Port district also operates Foreign trade zone No. 22, which extends from Chicago's city limits. ===Utilities=== Electricity for most of northern Illinois is provided by Commonwealth Edison, also known as ComEd. Their service territory borders Iroquois County to the south, the Wisconsin border to the north, the Iowa border to the west and the Indiana border to the east. In northern Illinois, ComEd (a division of Exelon) operates the greatest number of nuclear generating plants in any U.S. state. Because of this, ComEd reports indicate that Chicago receives about 75% of its electricity from nuclear power. Recently, the city began installing wind turbines on government buildings to promote renewable energy. Natural gas is provided by Peoples Gas, a subsidiary of Integrys Energy Group, which is headquartered in Chicago. Domestic and industrial waste was once incinerated but it is now landfilled, mainly in the Calumet area. From 1995 to 2008, the city had a blue bag program to divert recyclable refuse from landfills. Because of low participation in the blue bag programs, the city began a pilot program for blue bin recycling like other cities. This proved successful and blue bins were rolled out across the city. ===Health systems=== The Illinois Medical District is on the Near West Side. It includes Rush University Medical Center, ranked as the second best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2014–16, the University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Jesse Brown VA Hospital, and John H. Stroger Jr. Hospital of Cook County, one of the busiest trauma centers in the nation. Two of the country's premier academic medical centers reside in Chicago, including Northwestern Memorial Hospital and the University of Chicago Medical Center. The Chicago campus of Northwestern University includes the Feinberg School of Medicine; Northwestern Memorial Hospital, which is ranked as the best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2017–18; the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab (formerly named the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago), which is ranked the best U.S. rehabilitation hospital by U.S. News & World Report; the new Prentice Women's Hospital; and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago. The University of Illinois College of Medicine at UIC is the second-largest medical school in the United States (2,600 students, including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana–Champaign). In addition, the Chicago Medical School and Loyola University Chicago's Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively. The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is in Downers Grove. The American Medical Association, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education, American Osteopathic Association, American Dental Association, Academy of General Dentistry, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, American College of Surgeons, American Society for Clinical Pathology, American College of Healthcare Executives, the American Hospital Association, and Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association are all based in Chicago. ==Sister cities==	[ "Eastern United States", "John Farwell", "Chicago Academy for the Arts", "Chicago Imagists", "Harold Washington", "Robie House", "Great Depression", "Hong Kong", "world's fair", "Dallas", "National Register of Historic Places listings in South Side Chicago", "John H. Stroger Jr. Hospital of Cook County", "Jackson Park (Chicago)", "Washington, D.C.", "Above mean sea level", "Sauk people", "Polish language", "National Louis University", "Quincy, Illinois", "Singapore", "City Hall-County Building (Chicago)", "Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News)", "American Osteopathic Association", "Second Great Migration (African American)", "Enrico Fermi", "Poland", "Beyond the Beltway", "Midwestern United States", "Objectivist poets", "Gwendolyn Brooks", "Grand Calumet River", "Chicago Bears", "Robert Morris University Illinois", "Chicago Mercantile Exchange", "Guinness World Records", "School of the Art Institute of Chicago", "WTTW", "school district", "Jaume Plensa", "Pilsen, Chicago", "aggravated battery", "ESPN Radio", "Chicago Region Environmental and Transportation Efficiency Program", "St. Valentine's Day Massacre", "Armour Square, Chicago", "Curbed", "Saturday Night Live", "Midway Plaisance", "Chicago Transit Authority", "Italian beef", "Langston Hughes", "State Street (Chicago)", "bungalow", "financial futures", "cholera", "Metropolitan area", "White House Chief of Staff", "retail", "Near North Side, Chicago", "Friendship and Freedom", "Rochester, New York", "Osteopathic medicine in the United States", "Chicago blues", "Tony Accardo", "Nederlander Theatre (Chicago)", "social realism", "WTVK (TV)", "Great Lakes", "Alison Saar", "commuter rail", "University of Illinois Chicago", "Steve Harvey (talk show)", "95th Street (Chicago)", "National Weather Service", "Potawatomi", "List of Jesuit secondary schools in the United States", "political machine", "Harriet Monroe", "List of Northwestern University buildings", "Baptists", "Robert Lostutter", "Fortune 500", "List of neighborhoods in Chicago", "Chicago Department of Transportation", "National Hockey League", "US Army Corps of Engineers", "Boeing", "Streeterville", "List of tallest buildings in Chicago", "The Jerry Springer Show", "public art", "National Weather Service Chicago, Illinois", "World's Columbian Exposition", "Lyft", "Catholic Theological Union", "The Trust for Public Land", "Ida Crown Jewish Academy", "The Blues Brothers (film)", "Economic diversity", "Walk Score", "Wait Wait...Don't Tell Me!", "Rahm Emanuel", "rent strike", "Uptown, Chicago", "Ace Hardware", "gospel music", "Chicago Medical School", "Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic", "WGBO-DT", "Exelon", "The Frugal Gourmet", "Metaxa", "New Negro Movement", "Univision", "Cleveland", "Marshall Field", "Michelin Guide", "Galena and Chicago Union Railroad", "Four Seasons (Chagall)", "American Dental Association", "Time Out (magazine)", "Moody Bible Institute", "Museum of Broadcast Communications", "Interstate 65 in Indiana", "City Clerk of Chicago", "Ping Tom Memorial Park", "American Broadcasting Company", "Interstate Highway System", "Goodman Theatre", "World Series", "Chicago school of economics", "Chicago Cubs", "Community areas in Chicago", "Cuisine of Chicago", "Immigration to the United States", "Beverly, Chicago", "Interstate 294", "Monument with Standing Beast", "Red Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "West Side, Chicago", "Proposed Chicago south suburban airport", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Adlai Stevenson II", "Russian Americans", "Illinois and Michigan Canal", "Michael Jordan", "Inland Northern American English", "Women's National Basketball Association", "WPWR-TV", "Newspapers.com", "Paseo Boricua", "Uno Chicago Grill", "Chicago-style hot dog", "Chicago area water quality", "Prairie School", "North Park University", "John Crerar (industrialist)", "South Side of Chicago", "Chicago Festival Ballet", "Pew Research Center", "WYCC", "Phonological history of English short A", "Time Out Chicago", "Lithuanians in the Chicago area", "African-Americans", "Treaty of St. Louis (1816)", "Ferrara Candy Company", "ZIP Code", "Chicago Architecture Foundation", "Lake Michigan", "Shirley Ryan AbilityLab", "Catholic school", "Jewish United Fund", "Grab (magazine)", "Manhattan Project", "NOAA", "Port of Chicago", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "Lithuanian language", "history of Chicago", "Rick Tramonto", "South Bend, Indiana", "Raising of Chicago", "Austin, Chicago", "Moline, Illinois", "Humboldt Park, Chicago", "esports", "Ogden Avenue (Chicago)", "American literature", "St. Louis, Missouri", "Prairie Research Institute", "Harold Washington College", "Little Italy, Chicago", "Steppenwolf Theatre Company", "Associated Press", "Gospel music", "Fox News", "Green Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "ketchup", "Merchandise Mart", "Chicago Botanic Garden", "White Americans", "René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle", "Lollapalooza", "William Hale Thompson", "Robert P. Hanrahan", "Land grading", "Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa", "continental divide", "Brookfield Zoo", "San Antonio", "Chicago Public Radio", "List of Chicago parks", "Ion Television", "Native Americans in the United States", "Spring (season)", "The Washington Post", "Milwaukee", "Giordano's", "Mexican American", "Chicagoan", "Erikson Institute", "labor organization", "Downers Grove, Illinois", "Cadillac Palace Theatre", "Chicago Sky", "Interstate 355", "River North Gallery District, Near North Side, Chicago", "Adler School of Professional Psychology", "William Carlos Williams", "PBS", "Chicago Building", "Time in Indiana", "Northeastern Illinois University", "Taste of Chicago", "Telemundo", "skunk", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "National Register of Historic Places listings in North Side Chicago", "sanctuary city", "Lithuanian Americans", "Rush University", "Chicago Innerview", "Hip hop music", "hot links", "Brookfield, Illinois", "WBEZ", "Baseball", "Northwest Indiana", "Metra Electric Line", "Interstate 80 in Indiana", "Little Vietnam, Chicago", "Call of Duty", "Benjamin F. Ferguson", "Transportation in Chicago", "Desi", "Chicago Fire Department", "Bridgeview, Illinois", "Daily Herald (Arlington Heights)", "Hegewisch, Chicago", "Miami, Florida", "Atlanta", "The Second City", "Irreligion in the United States", "Large Interior Form, 1953-54", "Interstate 190 (Illinois)", "Lime (transportation company)", "Cumulus Media", "Dan Ryan Expressway", "Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics", "Machine politics", "Joffrey Ballet", "Presbyterian", "Harris Theater (Chicago, Illinois)", "flambéed", "Poles in Chicago", "Cook County", "Agora (sculpture)", "United Airlines", "Academy of General Dentistry", "list of largest buildings in the world", "Chicago boulevard system", "Oprah Winfrey", "DuPage County, Illinois", "List of United States cities by population", "Orlando, Florida", "heat index", "Derivative (finance)", "Saint-Domingue", "Regional Transportation Authority (Illinois)", "Leon Golub", "Union Station (Chicago)", "boulevard", "Dew point", "Grand Rapids, Michigan", "county seat", "sailing ship", "Chicago Tribune", "Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago", "Multiracial American", "Indian removal", "Meigs Field", "SouthtownStar", "U.S. News & World Report", "Index of Illinois-related articles", "Midway International Airport", "2020 United States presidential election in Illinois", "Feinberg School of Medicine", "Odawa people", "Chicago Marathon", "National Women's Soccer League", "Geographic Names Information System", "WMVP", "Mustard (condiment)", "University of Chicago", "Flamingo (sculpture)", "The Chicago School", "Eugene Sawyer", "Field Museum of Natural History", "Gentrification of Chicago", "William Rainey Harper", "poppy seed", "New York City", "National Public Radio", "wheel tax", "improvisational theater", "Battle of Fort Dearborn", "Chicago-style pizza", "Indigenous languages of the Americas", "Pullman, Chicago", "futures contract", "Kennedy–King College", "electronic dance music", "Judge Mathis", "Area code 312", "List of metropolitan statistical areas", "MacCormac College", "Northwestern University", "Illinois River", "Jim Nutt", "Los Angeles", "Millennium Park", "Julius Rosenwald", "Fortune 1000", "Mother-in-law (sandwich)", "futures exchange", "Northerly Island", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Museum Campus", "The McLaughlin Group", "IO Theater", "Mayor–council", "South Side, Chicago", "United Center", "St. Adalbert's in Chicago", "2015 Stanley Cup Finals", "dill pickle", "Museum Campus Chicago", "Cook County Democratic Party", "redlining", "jurisdiction", "World War I", "Chicago flood", "DePaul University", "Kansas–Nebraska Act", "West Ridge, Chicago", "Indiana", "Alinea (restaurant)", "Calumet River", "Walgreens Boots Alliance", "Olive–Harvey College", "Wintrust Arena", "Kraft Heinz", "Ivan Albright", "socialist", "Richard J. Daley", "CNN", "Chicago Wilderness", "Joliet Junior College", "SeatGeek Stadium", "Central Daylight Time", "Evangelical Protestantism", "Kenwood, Chicago", "Pullman Strike", "Allium tricoccum", "2020 United States census", "time zone", "Cook County, Illinois", "Willis Tower", "Protestantism", "Garfield Park Conservatory", "Aon Center (Chicago)", "criminal justice", "Chicago Pride Parade", "South Shore Line (NICTD)", "List of French possessions and colonies", "Boystown, Chicago", "tamale", "gross metropolitan product", "saganaki", "Chinatown, Chicago", "junior college", "Women's Professional Soccer", "Humboldt Park (Chicago park)", "social work", "List of colleges and universities in Chicago", "Naperville", "Henri Joutel", "American football", "Greyhound Lines", "lake freighter", "Driehaus Museum", "Newcity", "Crain's Chicago Business", "Chicago Police Department", "Quaker Oats", "List of sovereign states", "Sears", "Turkish Americans", "Interstate 80 in Illinois", "Midtown Manhattan", "Chicago Public Schools", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in America", "outsider art", "Detroit", "Midwestern University", "Christianity", "yellow fever", "MeTV", "WLS-TV", "Chicago Tunnel Company", "Richard Teller Crane", "legislature", "Theater in Chicago", "convention (meeting)", "US Attorney", "Richard J. Daley Center", "Chase Tower (Chicago)", "National Register of Historic Places listings in West Side Chicago", "Maywood, Illinois", "Dion O'Banion", "Newsy", "Multiracial Americans", "MLS Cup", "North American Numbering Plan", "wetland", "Blizzard", "Western Avenue (Chicago)", "January–February 2019 North American cold wave", "General Electric", "Las Vegas", "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock", "Ellen Gates Starr", "DuSable Park (Chicago)", "Lake Calumet", "parks in Chicago", "au jus", "Orange Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "Call of Duty League", "WGN (AM)", "Rogers Park, Chicago", "garlic", "Malcolm X College", "Loyola Ramblers", "Evangelical Covenant Church", "Bird Global", "Clark Street (Chicago)", "parking meter", "1968 Democratic National Convention", "Albert Raby", "Hyde Park Township, Cook County, Illinois", "rave", "U.S. Census Bureau", "CIBC Theatre", "The Phil Donahue Show", "blue bag", "Jean Dubuffet", "Pace (transit)", "WGN-TV", "WCIU-TV", "Assyrian Church of the East", "Brass Era car", "List of NFL champions", "Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association", "same-sex marriage in Illinois", "Chicago Blackhawks", "Devon Avenue (Chicago)", "Great Lakes region (North America)", "Chicago Fire FC", "Illinois Institute of Technology", "WMAQ-TV", "Bruce DuMont", "Alexander Calder", "Chicago Reader", "Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education", "Imagist", "jackscrews", "One World Trade Center", "Chicago Shakespeare Theater", "The Oprah Winfrey Show", "Chicago Loop", "Summer", "WYIN", "35 East Wacker", "Architecture of Chicago", "Pentecostal", "Ravinia Festival", "Interstate 55 in Illinois", "Public Land Survey System", "landfill", "Conagra", "Chili pepper", "Shedd Aquarium", "January 31 – February 2, 2011 North American blizzard", "1995 Chicago heat wave", "critic", "National Football League", "NBC", "Cook County Circuit Court", "USS Chicago", "Chicago Assembly", "National Basketball Association", "Hyde Park, Chicago", "Interstate 88 (west)", "paratransit", "Cable television", "American Association of Nurse Anesthetists", "Cuisine of Puerto Rico", "urban heat island", "Saint Xavier University", "Grant Park (Chicago)", "Institute of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture", "Interstate 90 in Illinois", "alternative rock", "Near East", "Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)", "WSNS-TV", "Montenegrin Americans", "Chicago Board of Trade", "University of Chicago Medical Center", "List of 50 kW AM radio stations in the United States", "WSCR", "Greektown, Chicago", "Glencoe, Illinois", "Original Six", "Koreatown", "City Treasurer of Chicago", "CBS", "List of tallest buildings and structures in the world", "Barack Obama", "Köppen climate classification", "Amtrak", "Chicago – New York Electric Air Line Railroad", "University of Chicago Press", "Rockford, Illinois", "anarchist", "Red states and blue states", "skyscraper", "American Heritage (magazine)", "Ice hockey", "Stritch School of Medicine", "2016 United States presidential election in Illinois", "WJYS", "Ford Motor Company", "Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal", "Europe", "Chicago Portage", "Chicago Public Library", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "drainage basin", "Mies van der Rohe", "Marshall Field's", "Electric motorcycles and scooters", "Northwest Side, Chicago", "Abbott Laboratories", "Roosevelt University", "Czech Americans", "Republican Party (United States)", "Schwinn Bicycle Company", "Oak Park, Illinois", "WCPX-TV", "Chicago Rockford International Airport", "SUV", "New wave music", "Chicago Union Station", "Crate & Barrel", "Commercial area", "Jean Baptiste Point du Sable", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "1860 Republican National Convention", "Mexico", "Nazi Germany", "National Register of Historic Places listings in Central Chicago", "Belmont Avenue (Chicago)", "Greek cuisine", "United States Army", "Chicago beaches", "giardiniera", "Forest Preserve District of Cook County", "Pontiac, Michigan", "Harlem", "World's Fair", "South Side (Chicago)", "Tourism in Chicago", "Rick Bayless", "association football", "Prohibition in the United States", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Chicago Pile-1", "Lincoln Park Zoo", "Cabrini-Green", "University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign", "Chicago Picasso", "Polish Museum of America", "Blue Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "Chicago soul", "Caribbean", "Michelle Obama", "Germans", "WBBM (AM)", "Bosnian Americans", "Albanian Americans", "U.S. state", "Polish people", "Hinduism", "Parliament of the World's Religions", "independent music", "The CW", "Buckingham Fountain", "Nicknames of Chicago", "Poetry (magazine)", "American gangsters during the 1920s", "Emporis", "jibarito", "steamboat", "United States presidential election", "West Loop", "Broadway Playhouse at Water Tower Place", "Industrial district", "WPSL Elite", "punk rock", "OpTic Chicago", "Illinois's congressional districts", "Oswego, Illinois", "Miami–Illinois language", "StreetWise", "court show", "town square", "Truman College", "Interstate 57", "William Butler Yeats", "Burnham Park (Chicago)", "Great Chicago Fire", "Civic Opera House (Chicago)", "WWTO-TV", "Soccer", "Puerto Ricans in Chicago", "Times Higher Education", "poetry slam", "Foreign trade zones of the United States", "American College of Healthcare Executives", "Chicago City Council", "stamping (metalworking)", "Public Radio International", "Encyclopedia of Chicago", "rib tips", "Batcolumn", "Irreligious", "Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum", "Lutheran", "Southern United States", "Roger Brown (artist)", "NFL Championships", "Bugs Moran", "South Shore, Chicago", "Chicago Dance Crash", "Lincoln Park Conservatory", "Chicago Metropolitan Area", "Houston", "Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)", "Henry Darger", "hot dog bun", "American Hospital Association", "McCormick Place", "Kennedy Expressway", "January 1985 Arctic outbreak", "Lou Malnati's", "onion", "Fine Arts Building (Chicago)", "Division I (NCAA)", "community college", "Brown Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "The New Yorker", "WLS (AM)", "Beaches in Chicago", "Daniel Burnham", "Claire's", "Chicago metropolitan area", "Lutheran school", "Windy City Times", "humid continental climate", "Ed Paschke", "East–West University", "Jean Baptiste Point du Sable", "Wisconsin", "Bulgarian Americans", "Draugas", "This American Life", "Halsted Street", "Rush University Medical Center", "American College of Surgeons", "Loyola University Chicago", "Music of Chicago", "church architecture", "WBBM-TV", "Economy of Chicago", "McDonald's", "Near South Side, Chicago", "Pink Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "Mississippi River", "The Jenny Jones Show", "Iroquois County, Illinois", "Chicago hip hop", "American economy", "working class", "University of Illinois College of Medicine", "fine art", "violent crime", "Rate Field", "Jane Addams", "Society for Human Rights", "Indiana Toll Road", "Neighborhoods in Chicago", "Little Calumet River", "urban planning", "Bosnians in Chicago", "National Mall and Memorial Parks", "Protestantism in the United States", "Super Bowl", "WNBA Finals", "List of museums and cultural institutions in Chicago", "Major League Baseball", "Czechs", "Pope John Paul II", "West Town, Chicago", "surrealism", "Jump (transportation company)", "Airports Council International", "List of United States urban areas", "Bronzeville, Chicago", "T. S. Eliot", "Burnham Plan", "zip code", "prairie", "Advanced Placement", "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada", "Time (magazine)", "Frank Lloyd Wright", "Supporters Shield", "Islam in the United States", "District Attorney", "Victory Gardens Theater", "Symphony Center", "Chicago Black Renaissance", "Jehovah's Witness", "Illinois Centennial Memorial Column", "Mayor of Chicago", "Greek Americans", "Magnificent Mile", "DuSable Museum of African American History", "Serbian Americans", "Big East Conference", "corruption", "Chicago Defender", "Morgan Stanley", "Michigan Avenue (Chicago)", "Romanian Americans", "Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum", "African Americans", "Labor history of the United States", "Buddhism", "Polish Patches", "humid subtropical climate", "Polish Americans", "Class I railroad", "USA Today", "American Civil War", "Navy Pier", "Diocese of Chicago (disambiguation)", "LGBT", "Northwestern Wildcats", "Hull House", "Flag of Chicago", "John Whitfield Bunn", "aerospace", "NBA Finals", "List of busiest airports by passenger traffic", "Lake Shore Drive", "African American", "Partisan primary", "Swedes", "Anish Kapoor", "Crown Fountain", "Gateway Theatre (Chicago)", "northern Illinois", "African people", "Northwest Indian War", "Croatian Americans", "Abraham Lincoln", "Art Institute of Chicago", "Catholic Church", "Frommers", "Chicago Freedom Movement", "Metra", "United States House of Representatives", "The Gazette (Chicago)", "Super Bowl XX", "The Rosie Show", "Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago", "Chicago Stock Exchange", "Empire Builder", "Chicago Sun-Times", "Carl Sandburg", "Water cribs in Chicago", "Helmut Jahn", "Islam", "Big Ten Conference", "Chicago school (architecture)", "Stephen Douglas", "Lincoln Park", "Chicago Board Options Exchange", "Northeast Conference", "Divvy", "thunderstorm", "NewsNation", "Irish people", "Cloud Gate", "WGN America", "John Hancock Center", "Ellis S. Chesbrough", "ULTA Beauty", "Joseph Jefferson Award", "sustainable development", "MyNetworkTV", "O'Hare International Airport", "Shimer College", "Great Migration (African American)", "Carbondale, Illinois", "Area code 872", "Chicago \"L\"", "Atlantic 10 Conference", "Barbara Rossi (artist)", "rapid transit", "John Henry Rauch", "Tribune Broadcasting", "Haymarket affair", "Ojibwe", "Western Hemisphere", "Chicago Board of Trade Building", "Bill Swerski's Superfans", "Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago", "industrial music", "1994 FIFA World Cup", "The Onion", "Bike boom", "Fourth Presbyterian Church (Chicago)", "armed robbery", "Chicago Stars FC", "North Chicago, Illinois", "Pitchfork Music Festival", "Central Time Zone", "jazz", "wards of the United States", "Chase (bank)", "Federal Information Processing Standard", "Chicago White Sox", "Northwestern Memorial Hospital", "Magdalena Abakanowicz", "Walter Payton College Prep High School", "Windy City (nickname)", "Gary/Chicago International Airport", "American Medical Association", "heat waves", "Charlie Trotter", "Auditorium Building", "War of 1812", "Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup", "List of cities by GDP", "Richard J. Daley College", "Chicago Bulls", "Nexstar Media Group", "municipal park", "1833 Treaty of Chicago", "Home Insurance Building", "celery salt", "Commonwealth Edison", "Lake View, Chicago", "Henry Moore", "Walgreens", "Robb Report", "Portland, Oregon", "14th Dalai Lama", "Chicken Vesuvio", "Area code 773", "Black Belt (region of Chicago)", "Grant Achatz", "severe thunderstorm", "Man Enters the Cosmos", "Workers Alliance of America", "Chicago Parking Meters LLC", "Unemployed Councils", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago", "Baxter International", "neighborhoods of Chicago", "Miami people", "List of counties in Illinois", "Edmund Dick Taylor", "Central Standard Time", "Gary, Indiana", "Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting", "The A.V. Club", "U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports", "NBC Tower", "Megabus (North America)", "Fort Dearborn", "Chicago Park District", "Italian Americans", "Illinois Medical District", "Sears Holdings Corporation", "Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago", "Century of Progress", "Madison Street (Chicago)", "Interstate 290 (Illinois)", "Louis Sullivan", "India", "low-pressure area", "Chicago O'Hare Airport", "Treaty of Greenville", "Cicero Avenue", "WFLD", "Brandon Johnson", "University of Chicago Divinity School", "Soldier Field", "Culture of Chicago", "List of North American cities by population", "National Museum of Mexican Art", "Seattle", "CME Group", "James Merrill", "Anna M. Valencia", "Purple Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "Roman Catholicism", "Major League Soccer", "steel frame", "Northern District of Illinois", "art", "Judaism in the United States", "Jefferson Park, Chicago", "Mainline Protestant", "Port Huron, Michigan", "Improvisational theatre", "Wigwam (Chicago)", "Interstate 94 in Illinois", "lake-effect snow", "American Society for Clinical Pathology", "Harris School of Public Policy Studies", "City Beautiful movement", "List of beaches in Chicago, Illinois", "List of municipalities in Illinois", "Sports in Chicago", "Lori Lightfoot", "860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments", "American Jews", "Winter", "Catholic Church in the United States", "Chicago literature", "white flight", "Washington Park (Chicago park)", "Memorial Day massacre of 1937", "Maxwell Street Polish", "house music", "List of the most populous counties in the United States", "Ezra Pound", "Basketball", "Unimas", "Commodity", "Dow Jones Industrial Average", "University of Illinois at Chicago", "Hammond, Indiana", "Lyric Opera of Chicago", "Grid plan", "Central Park", "Belmont Cragin, Chicago", "Chicago Sinfonietta", "Polish Cathedral style", "Montgomery Ward", "high-definition television", "hardiness zone", "World War II", "Kinzie Street Bridge", "Cook County Forest Preserves", "1967 Oak Lawn tornado outbreak", "Sinaloa Cartel", "Association for Preservation Technology International", "Hubbard Street Dance Chicago", "Edison Park, Chicago", "smallpox", "NCAA", "Wrigley Field", "Chicago Bus Station", "Missouri Valley Conference", "Melissa Conyears", "Buddhism in the United States", "Chicago High School for the Arts", "autumn", "Latin", "Windy City Live", "Illinois", "Meskwaki", "Chicago Symphony Orchestra", "Audacy, Inc.", "World Marathon Majors", "Integrys Energy Group", "Union Stock Yard", "Institute for Clinical Social Work", "Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education", "List of cities with the most skyscrapers", "local ordinance", "Chicago State University", "List of United States over-the-air television networks", "ancient Egypt", "state's attorney", "List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots", "WXFT-DT", "Jefferson Township, Cook County, Illinois", "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites", "American Community Survey", "Chicago History Museum", "Michael Patrick Flanagan", "Columbia College Chicago", "United States Department of Agriculture", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Richard M. Daley", "Judaism", "blockbusting", "National Register of Historic Places", "Nuclear Energy (sculpture)", "UIC Flames", "mayor of Chicago", "Stanley Cup", "Lamb Chop's Play-Along", "tomato", "Anton Cermak", "Mondelez International", "Englewood, Chicago", "List of festivals in Chicago", "Claes Oldenburg", "Asian Americans", "U.S. Army Corps of Engineers", "Eastern Time Zone", "Sneak Previews", "Harpo Studios", "Broadway In Chicago", "Chicago-style barbecue", "Statue of The Republic", "Ryan Chiaverini", "Weigel Broadcasting", "DePaul Blue Demons", "Chicago Midway International Airport", "Yellow Line (Chicago Transit Authority)", "Chicago State Cougars", "Chicago River", "kielbasa", "Asian American", "Albany Park, Chicago", "Broadway (Chicago)", "Al Capone", "Chicago (magazine)", "Interstate 94 in Indiana", "Black church", "Jane Byrne", "United States Census Bureau", "Mother Teresa", "City Colleges of Chicago", "Chicago race riot of 1919", "Miró's Chicago", "bicycle-sharing system", "Hinduism in the United States", "John Ashbery", "Wilbur Wright College", "Early skyscrapers", "Iowa", "Municipal corporation" ]
6,887	Cyrix 6x86	The Cyrix 6x86 is a line of sixth-generation, 32-bit x86 microprocessors designed and released by Cyrix in 1995. Cyrix, being a fabless company, had the chips manufactured by IBM and SGS-Thomson. The 6x86 was made as a direct competitor to Intel's Pentium microprocessor line, and was pin compatible. During the 6x86's development, the majority of applications (office software as well as games) performed almost entirely integer operations. The designers foresaw that future applications would most likely maintain this instruction focus. So, to optimize the chip's performance for what they believed to be the most likely application of the CPU, the integer execution resources received most of the transistor budget. This would later prove to be a strategic mistake, as the popularity of the P5 Pentium caused many software developers to hand-optimize code in assembly language, to take advantage of the P5 Pentium's tightly pipelined and lower latency FPU. For example, the highly anticipated first-person shooter Quake used highly optimized assembly code designed almost entirely around the P5 Pentium's FPU. As a result, the P5 Pentium significantly outperformed other CPUs in the game. After Cyrix was bought by National Semiconductor then later VIA, the 6x86 continued to be produced up until the early 2000s. == History == The 6x86, previously under the codename "M1" was announced by Cyrix in October 1995. On release only the 100 MHz (P120+) version was available, but a 120 MHz (P150+) version was planned for mid-1995 with a 133 MHz (P166+) model later. The 100 MHz (P120+) 6x86 was available to OEMs for a price of $450 per chip in bulk quantities. In mid February 1996 Cyrix announced the P166+, P150+, and P133+ to be added to the 6x86 model line. IBM, who produced the chips, also announced they will be selling their own versions of the chips. The 6x86 P200+ was planned for the end of 1996, The M2 (6x86MX) was first announced to be in development in mid 1996. It would have MMX and 32-bit optimization. The M2 would also have some of the same features as the Intel Pentium Pro such as register renaming, out-of-order completion, and speculative execution. Additionally it would have 64 KB of cache over the original 6x86 and Pentium Pro's 16 KB. In March 1997 when asked about when the M2 line of processors would begin shipping, Cyrix UK managing director Brendan Sherry stated, "I've read it's going to be May but we've said late Q2 all along and I'm pretty sure we'll make that." The 6x86L was first released in January 1997 to address the heat issues with the original 6x86 line. The 6x86L had a lower V-core voltage and required a split power plane voltage regulator. In April 1997 the first laptop to use the 6x86 processor was put on sale. They were sold by TigerDirect and had a 12.1in DSTN display, 16 MB of memory, 10x CD-ROM, 1.3 GB hard disk drive, and cost $1,899 for the base price. Later by the end of May 1997 on the 27th, Cyrix said they would announce details of the new chip line (6x86MX) the day before Computex in June 1997. For the low end of the series, the PR166 6x86MX was available for $190 with higher end PR200 and PR233 versions available for $240 and $320. IBM being the producer of Cyrix's chips, would also sell their own version. Cyrix hoped to ship tens of thousands within June 1997 with up to 1 million by the end of the year. Cyrix also expected to release a 266 MHz chip by the end of 1997 and a 300 MHz in the first quarter of 1998. They had slightly better floating point performance, which cut adding and multiply times by a third, but it was still slower than the Intel Pentium. The M2 also had full MMX instructions, 64 KB of cache over the original 16 KB, and had a lower core voltage of 2.5V over 3.3V of the original 6x86 line. National Semiconductor acquired Cyrix in July 1997. National Semiconductor was not interested in high performance processors but rather system on a chip devices, and wanted to shift the focus of Cyrix to the MediaGX line. In January 1998 National Semiconductors produced a 6x86MX processor on a 0.25 micron process technology. This reduced the chip size from 150 square millimeters to 88. National shifted their production of the MII and MediaGX to 0.25 by August. In September 1998 IBM's licensing partnership with Cyrix was said to be ended by National Semiconductors. This was due to National wanting to increase production of Cyrix chips in their own facilities, and because having IBM produce Cyrix's chips was causing issues such as profit losses due to IBM frequently pricing their versions of Cyrix's chips lower. National would be paying $50–55 million to IBM to end the partnership, which would end the following April. National would then be moving chip production to their own facility in South Portland, Maine. The Cyrix MII was released in May 1998. These chips were not exciting like people had hoped, as they were just a rebranding of the 6x86MX. In December these chips cost $80 for a MII-333, $59 for a MII-300, $55 for a MII-266, and $48 for a MII-233. In May 1999 National Semiconductor decided to leave the PC chip market due to significant losses, and put the Cyrix CPU division up for sale. Additionally after VIA's acquisition, the 6x86/L was discontinued, but the 6x86MX/MII line continued to be sold by VIA. VIA would continue to produce the MII throughout the early 2000s. It was expected to be discontinued when the VIA Cyrix MII was released. However, the MII was still available for sale until mid/late 2003, being shown on VIA's website as a product until October, and it still saw use in devices such as network computers. ==Architecture== The 6x86 is superscalar and superpipelined and performs register renaming, speculative execution, out-of-order execution, and data dependency removal. However, it continued to use native x86 execution and ordinary microcode only, like Centaur's Winchip, unlike competitors Intel and AMD which introduced the method of dynamic translation to micro-operations with Pentium Pro and K5. The 6x86 is socket-compatible with the Intel P54C Pentium, and was offered in six performance levels: PR 90+, PR 120+, PR 133+, PR 150+, PR 166+ and PR 200+. These performance levels do not map to the clock speed of the chip itself (for example, a PR 133+ ran at 110 MHz, a PR 166+ ran at 133 MHz, etc.). With regard to internal caches, it has a 16-KB primary cache and a fully associative 256-byte instruction line cache is included alongside the primary cache, which functions as the primary instruction cache. Support for the Pentium Pro's CMOVcc instructions were also added. While the 6x86's integer performance was significantly higher than P5 Pentium's, its floating point performance was more mediocre—between 2 and 4 times the performance of the 486 FPU per clock cycle (depending on the operation and precision). The FPU in the 6x86 was largely the same circuitry that was developed for Cyrix's earlier high performance 8087/80287/80387-compatible coprocessors, which was very fast for its time—the Cyrix FPU was much faster than the 80387, and even the 80486 FPU. However, it was still considerably slower than the new and completely redesigned P5 Pentium and P6 Pentium Pro-Pentium III FPUs. One of the main features of the P5/P6 FPUs is that they supported interleaving of FPU and integer instructions in their design, which Cyrix chips did not integrate. This caused very poor performance with Cyrix CPUs on games and software that took advantage of this. Therefore, despite being very fast clock by clock, the 6x86 and MII were forced to compete at the low-end of the market as AMD K6 and Intel P6 Pentium II were always ahead on clock speed. The 6x86's and MII's old generation "486 class" floating point unit combined with an integer section that was at best on-par with the newer P6 and K6 chips meant that Cyrix could no longer compete in performance. == Models and variants == ===6x86=== The 6x86 (codename M1) was released by Cyrix in 1996. The first generation of 6x86 had heat problems. This was primarily caused by their higher heat output than other x86 CPUs of the day and, as such, computer builders sometimes did not equip them with adequate cooling. The CPUs topped out at around 25 W heat output (like the AMD K6), whereas the P5 Pentium produced around 15 W of waste heat at its peak. However, both numbers would be a fraction of the heat generated by many high performance processors, some years later. Shortly after the original M1, the M1R was released. The M1R was a switch from SGS-Thomson 3M process to IBM 5M process, making the 6x86 chips 50% smaller. Image:Cyrix_6x86_early_die.jpg\|Early Cyrix 6x86 (M1) die shot ===6x86L=== The 6x86L (codename M1L) was later released by Cyrix to address heat issues; the L standing for low-power. Improved manufacturing technologies permitted usage of a lower Vcore. Just like the Pentium MMX, the 6x86L required a split power plane voltage regulator with separate voltages for I/O and CPU core. Image:Cyrix_6x86_die.JPG\|Cyrix 6x86L (M1L) die shot ===6x86MX / MII=== Another release of the 6x86, the 6x86MX, added MMX compatibility along with the EMMI instruction set, improved compatibility with the Pentium and Pentium Pro by adding a Time Stamp Counter and CMOVcc instructions respectively, and quadrupled the primary cache size to 64 KB. The 256-byte instruction line cache can be turned into a scratchpad cache to provide support for multimedia operations. Later revisions of this chip were renamed MII, to better compete with the Pentium II processor. 6x86MX / MII was late to market, and couldn't scale well in clock speed with the manufacturing processes used at the time. File:Cyrix 6x86MX die.JPG\|Cyrix 6x86MX (M2) die shot === Model table === ==Timeline==	[ "Time Stamp Counter", "AMD", "The Los Angeles Times", "IBM", "office software", "x86", "nanometers", "CNet", "P5 (microarchitecture)", "Pentium MMX", "CBS News", "microcode", "Centaur Technology", "Ziff Davis, Inc.", "Que Publishing", "Upgrading and Repairing PCs", "Maximum PC", "speculative execution", "MMX (instruction set)", "AMD K6", "Advanced Micro Devices", "Extended MMX", "first-person shooter", "Cnet", "VIA Technologies", "mP6", "Kibibyte", "Intel 80486", "ZDnet", "multi-processor", "80387", "News Record (Pennsylvania)", "register renaming", "x86-16", "TechSpot", "Wired (magazine)", "Medium (website)", "TigerDirect", "Cyrix", "Ceramic Pin Grid Array", "X86 assembly language", "ZDNet", "Micrometre", "data dependency", "TechMonitor", "IA-32", "out-of-order execution", "Wiley (publisher)", "PC Mag", "Cyrix III", "Winchip", "instruction set", "integer", "superpipelined", "Future US, Inc.", "Business Standard", "Computerworld", "80287", "voltage regulator", "Intel", "Pentium (original)", "The Register", "The Wall Street Journal", "Scratchpad memory", "AnandTech", "waste heat", "micron", "P55C (microprocessor)", "superscalar", "P6 (microarchitecture)", "Anandtech", "WinChip", "Computex", "condition code register", "Floating point unit", "Pentium III", "Maine", "PR rating", "Square millimeter", "Super Socket 7", "CPU socket", "Quake (video game)", "MediaGX", "Microprocessor Report", "floating point", "SPH Magazines", "China IT", "SGS-Thomson", "Watt", "Pentium (brand)", "CPUID", "Pentium II", "HWM (magazine)", "Cyrix 5x86", "DSTN", "Fabless manufacturing", "software developer", "micro-operation", "South Portland, Maine", "8087", "system on a chip", "Pentium Pro", "CPU cache", "EETimes", "instruction pipelining", "National Semiconductor", "IDG Enterprise", "Socket 7", "The New York Times", "microprocessor", "32-bit", "Out-of-order execution", "AMD K5", "OEM" ]
6,888	Colon classification	Colon classification (CC) is a library catalogue system developed by Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan. It was an early faceted (or analytico-synthetic) classification system. The first edition of colon classification was published in 1933, followed by six more editions. It is especially used in libraries in India. Its name originates from its use of colons to separate facets into classes. Many other classification schemes, some of which are unrelated, also use colons and other punctuation to perform various functions. Originally, CC used only the colon as a separator, but since the second edition, CC has used four other punctuation symbols to identify each facet type. In CC, facets describe "personality" (the most specific subject), matter, energy, space, and time (PMEST). These facets are generally associated with every item in a library, and thus form a reasonably universal sorting system. As an example, the subject "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950" would be categorized as: This is summarized in a specific call number: == Organization == The colon classification system uses 42 main classes that are combined with other letters, numbers, and marks in a manner resembling the Library of Congress Classification. === Facets === CC uses five primary categories, or facets, to specify the sorting of a publication. Collectively, they are called PMEST: Other symbols can be used to indicate components of facets called isolates, and to specify complex combinations or relationships between disciplines. === Classes === The following are the main classes of CC, with some subclasses, the main method used to sort the subclass using the PMEST scheme and examples showing application of PMEST. z Generalia 1 Universe of Knowledge 2 Library Science 3 Book science 4 Journalism A Natural science B Mathematics B2 Algebra C Physics D Engineering E Chemistry F Technology G Biology H Geology HX Mining I Botany J Agriculture J1 Horticulture J2 Feed J3 Food J4 Stimulant J5 Oil J6 Drug J7 Fabric J8 Dye K Zoology KZ Animal Husbandry L Medicine LZ3 Pharmacology LZ5 Pharmacopoeia M Useful arts M7 Textiles [material]:[work] Δ Spiritual experience and mysticism [religion],[entity]:[problem] N Fine arts ND Sculpture NN Engraving NQ Painting NR Music O Literature P Linguistics Q Religion R Philosophy S Psychology T Education U Geography V History W Political science X Economics Y Sociology YZ Social Work Z Law == Example == A common example of the colon classification is: "Research in the cure of the tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950s": The main classification is Medicine; (Medicine) Within Medicine, the Lungs are the main concern; () The property of the Lungs is that they are afflicted with Tuberculosis; () The Tuberculosis is being performed (:) on, that is the intent is to cure (Treatment); () The matter that we are treating the Tuberculosis with is X-Rays; () And this discussion of treatment is regarding the Research phase; () This Research is performed within a geographical space (.), namely India; () During the time (') of 1950; () And finally, translating into the codes listed for each subject and facet the classification becomes	[ "Engraving", "Sociology", "Law", "Botany", "Zoology", "Food", "Religion", "Library of Congress Classification", "Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan", "Physics", "Drug", "Journalism", "Geography", "Economics", "Universe of Knowledge", "Fine arts", "punctuation", "Technology", "Textile", "Geology", "Book science", "Algebra", "Dye", "Medicine", "Colon (punctuation)", "Pharmacology", "Music", "Agriculture", "Literature", "Natural science", "Psychology", "Useful arts", "Political science", "Sculpture", "Linguistics", "Biology", "Philosophy", "library catalogue", "Pharmacopoeia", "Education", "Fabric", "Animal Husbandry", "Library Science", "India", "library", "Engineering", "Animal feed", "Mining", "mysticism", "Horticulture", "Painting", "Social Work", "History", "Stimulant", "Faceted classification", "Mathematics", "Chemistry", "Oil" ]
6,889	Census	A census (from Latin censere, 'to assess') is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording, and calculating population information about the members of a given population, usually displayed in the form of statistics. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include censuses of agriculture, traditional culture, business, supplies, and traffic censuses. The United Nations (UN) defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every ten years. UN recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications, and other useful information to coordinate international practices. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in turn, defines the census of agriculture as "a statistical operation for collecting, processing and disseminating data on the structure of agriculture, covering the whole or a significant part of a country." "In a census of agriculture, data are collected at the holding level." The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list of all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international comparisons of any type of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a population, not just the number of individuals. Censuses typically began as the only method of collecting national demographic data and are now part of a larger system of different surveys. Although population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the geographic distribution of the population or the agricultural population, statistics can be produced about combinations of attributes, e.g., education by age and sex in different regions. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the same level of detail but raise concerns about privacy and the possibility of biasing estimates. A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population; typically, main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning, and as a baseline for designing sample surveys by providing a sampling frame such as an address register. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling. Similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata, which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official counts used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions (sometimes controversially – e.g., Utah v. Evans). In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide more accurate information than attempts to get a population census. ==History of censuses== === Iran === One of the earliest systematic censuses in world history was conducted during the early Achaemenid period, up until the reign of Darius The Great in Ancient Iran. This census, aimed at financial planning, military organization, and tax collection, spanned regions across three continents: Asia, Africa, and Europe. It included data on population numbers, the wealth of cities and provinces (Satrapies), precise assessments of agricultural lands, the resources of each region, and other factors critical to determining state finances and planning for governance and military operations. In modern Iran, the first nationwide population and housing census was conducted in 1956 (1335 in the Iranian calendar), with the most recent one completed in 2016 (1395). According to Article 4 of the Iranian Statistical Center Law, this nationwide census is to be carried out every five years by order of the president. ===Egypt=== The earliest Egyptian census was the cattle count, which counted not people but livestock (especially but not exclusively cows) for taxation purposes. During the early Old Kingdom it was taken every two years; the frequency increased over time. Human censuses in Egypt first appeared in the late Middle Kingdom and developed in the New Kingdom. Herodotus wrote that Ahmose I, first monarch of the New Kingdom, required every Egyptian to declare annually to the nomarch, "whence he gained his living". Under the Ptolemies and the Romans several censuses were conducted in Egypt by government officials. ===Ancient Greece=== There are several accounts of ancient Greek city states carrying out censuses. ===Israel=== Censuses are mentioned several times in the Biblical narrative. God commands a per capita tax to be paid with the census for the upkeep of the Tabernacle. The Book of Numbers is named after the counting of the Israelite population according to the house of the Fathers after the exodus from Egypt. A second census was taken while the Israelites were camped in the "plains of Moab". King David performed a census that produced disastrous results. His son, King Solomon, had all of the foreigners in Israel counted. ===China=== One of the world's earliest preserved censuses was held in China in AD2 during the Han dynasty, and is still considered by scholars to be quite accurate. The population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households but on this occasion only taxable families had been taken into account, indicating the income and the number of soldiers who could be mobilized. Another census was held in AD144. ===India=== The oldest recorded census in India is thought to have occurred around 330BC during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the leadership of Chanakya and Ashoka. ===Rome=== The English term is taken directly from the Latin census, from ("to estimate"). The census played a crucial role in the administration of the Roman government, as it was used to determine the class a citizen belonged to for both military and tax purposes. Beginning in the middle republic, it was usually carried out every five years. It provided a register of citizens and their property from which their duties and privileges could be listed. It is said to have been instituted by the Roman king Servius Tullius in the at which time the number of arms-bearing citizens was supposedly counted at around 80,000. When the Romans conquered Judea in AD6, the legate Publius Sulpicius Quirinius organized a census for tax purposes, which was partially responsible for the development of the Zealot movement and several failed rebellions against Rome ultimately ending in the Jewish Diaspora. The Gospel of Luke makes reference to Quirinius' census in relation to the birth of Jesus; based on variant readings of this passage, a minority of biblical scholars, including N. T. Wright, speculate that this passage refers to a separate registration conducted during the reign of Herod the Great, several years before Quirinius' census. The 15-year indiction cycle established by Diocletian in AD297 was based on quindecennial censuses and formed the basis for dating in late antiquity and under the Byzantine Empire. ===Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates=== In the Middle Ages, the Caliphate began conducting regular censuses soon after its formation, beginning with the one ordered by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar. ===Medieval Europe=== The Domesday Book was undertaken in AD1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. The first national census of France () was undertaken in 1328, mostly for fiscal purposes. It estimated the French population at 16 to 17 million. ===Inca Empire=== In the 15th century, the Inca Empire had a unique way to record census information. The Incas did not have any written language but recorded information collected during censuses and other numeric information as well as non-numeric data on quipus, strings from llama or alpaca hair or cotton cords with numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base-10 positional system. ===Spanish Empire=== On May 25, 1577, King Philip II of Spain ordered by royal cédula the preparation of a general description of Spain's holdings in the Indies. Instructions and a questionnaire, issued in 1577 by the Office of the Cronista Mayor, were distributed to local officials in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru to direct the gathering of information. The questionnaire, composed of fifty items, was designed to elicit basic information about the nature of the land and the life of its peoples. The replies, known as "", were written between 1579 and 1585 and were returned to the Cronista Mayor in Spain by the Council of the Indies. ==Sampling== A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as it intends to count everyone in a population, rather than a fraction. However, population censuses do rely on a sampling frame to count the population. This is the only way to be sure that everyone has been included, as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on and individuals could be missed. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known, and a new estimate is to be made by the analysis of primary data. The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation, not only to assess population size. This process of sampling marks the difference between a historical census, which was a house-to-house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project. The sampling frame used by a census is almost always an address register. Thus, it is not known if there are any residents or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, an enumerator calls, or administrative records for the dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check for any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may contain several independent households. A particular problem is what is termed "communal establishments", a category that includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons, etc. As these are not easily enumerated by a single householder, they are often treated differently and visited by special teams of census workers to ensure they are classified appropriately. ==Residence definitions== Individuals are normally counted within households, and information is typically collected about the household structure and the housing. For this reason, international documents refer to censuses of population and housing. Normally the census response is made by a household, indicating details of individuals resident there. An important aspect of census enumerations is determining which individuals can be counted and which cannot be counted. Broadly, three definitions can be used: de facto residence; de jure residence; and permanent residence. This is important in considering individuals who have multiple or temporary addresses. Every person should be identified uniquely as a resident in one place; but the place where they happen to be on census day, their de facto residence, may not be the best place to count them. Where an individual uses services may be more useful, and this is at their usual residence. An individual may be recorded at a "permanent" address, which might be a family home for students or long-term migrants. A precise definition of residence is needed, to decide whether visitors to a country should be included in the population count. This is becoming more important as students travel abroad for education for a period of several years. Other groups causing problems with enumeration are newborn babies, refugees, people away on holiday, people moving home around census day, and people without a fixed address. People with second homes, because they are working in another part of the country or have a holiday cottage, are difficult to fix at a particular address; this sometimes causes double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations, or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live, as there is no systematic alternative: any list used to find people is likely to be derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendations on enumerating such complex households. In the census of agriculture, data is collected at the agricultural holding unit. An agricultural holding is an economic unit of agricultural production under single management comprising all livestock kept and all land used wholly or partly for agricultural production purposes, without regard to title, legal form, or size. Single management may be exercised by an individual or household, jointly by two or more individuals or households, by a clan or tribe, or by a juridical person such as a corporation, cooperative, or government agency. The holding's land may consist of one or more parcels, located in one or more separate areas or one or more territorial or administrative divisions, providing the parcels share the same production means, such as labor, farm buildings, machinery or draught animals. This reflects a realist approach to measurement, acknowledging that under any definition of residence there is a true value of the population but this can never be measured with complete accuracy. An important aspect of the census process is to evaluate the quality of the data. Many countries use a post-enumeration survey to adjust the raw census counts. This works similarly to capture-recapture estimation for animal populations. Among census experts, this method is called dual system enumeration (DSE). A sample of households is visited by interviewers who record the details of the household as of census day. These data are then matched to census records, and the number of people missed can be estimated by considering the number of people who are included in one count but not the other. This allows adjustments to the count for non-response, varying between different demographic groups. An explanation using a fishing analogy can be found in "Trout, Catfish and Roach..." which won an award from the Royal Statistical Society for excellence in official statistics in 2011. Triple system enumeration has been proposed as an improvement as it would allow evaluation of the statistical dependence of pairs of sources. However, as the matching process is the most difficult aspect of census estimation this has never been implemented for a national enumeration. It would also be difficult to identify three different sources that were sufficiently different to make the triple system effort worthwhile. The DSE approach has another weakness in that it assumes there is no person counted twice (over count). In de facto residence definitions this would not be a problem but in de jure definitions individuals risk being recorded on more than one form leading to double counting. A particular problem here is students who often have a term time and family address. Several countries have used a system known as short form/long form. This is a sampling strategy that randomly chooses a proportion of people to send a more detailed questionnaire to (the long form). Everyone receives the short-form questions. This means more data are collected, but without imposing a burden on the whole population. This also reduces the burden on the statistical office. Indeed, in the UK until 2001 all residents were required to fill in the whole form but only a 10% sample was coded and analysed in detail. New technology means that all data are now scanned and processed. During the 2011 Canadian census there was controversy about the cessation of the mandatory long-form census; the head of Statistics Canada, Munir Sheikh, resigned upon the federal government's decision to do so. The use of alternative enumeration strategies is increasing but these are not as simple as many people assume and are only used in developed countries. The Netherlands has been most advanced in adopting a census using administrative data. This allows a simulated census to be conducted by linking several different administrative databases at an agreed time. Data can be matched, and an overall enumeration established allowing for discrepancies between different data sources. A validation survey is still conducted in a similar way to the post-enumeration survey employed in a traditional census. Other countries that have a population register use this as a basis for all the census statistics needed by users. This is most common among Nordic countries but requires many distinct registers to be combined, including population, housing, employment, and education. These registers are then combined and brought up to the standard of a statistical register by comparing the data from different sources and ensuring the quality is sufficient for official statistics to be produced. A recent innovation is the French instigation of a rolling census program with different regions enumerated each year so that the whole country is completely enumerated every 5 to 10 years. In Europe, in connection with the 2010 census round, many countries adopted alternative census methodol\\ogies, often based on the combination of data from registers, surveys and other sources. ==Technology== Censuses have evolved in their use of technology; censuses in 2010 used many types of computing. In Brazil, handheld devices were used by enumerators to locate residences on the ground. In many countries, census returns could be made via the Internet as well as in paper form. DSE is facilitated by computer matching techniques that can be automated, such as propensity score matching. In the UK, all census formats are scanned and stored electronically before being destroyed, replacing the need for physical archives. The record linking to perform an administrative census would not be possible without large databases being stored on computer systems. There are sometimes problems in introducing new technology. The US census had been intended to use handheld computers, but cost escalated, and this was abandoned, with the contract being sold to Brazil. The online response has some advantages, but one of the functions of the census is to make sure everyone is counted accurately. A system that allowed people to enter their address without verification would be open to abuse. Therefore, households have to be verified on the ground, typically by an enumerator visit or post out. Paper forms are still necessary for those without access to the internet. It is also possible that the hidden nature of an administrative census means that users are not engaged with the importance of contributing their data to official statistics. Alternatively, population estimations may be carried out remotely with geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing technologies. ==Development== According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), "The information generated by a population and housing census – numbers of people, their distribution, their living conditions and other key data – is critical for development." This is because this type of data is essential for policymakers so that they know where to invest. Many countries have outdated or inaccurate data about their populations and thus have difficulty in addressing the needs of the population. The UNFPA said: designing evidence-based poverty-reduction strategies; monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies; and tracking progress toward national and internationally agreed development goals." In addition to making policymakers aware of population issues, the census is also an important tool for identifying forms of social, demographic or economic exclusions, such as inequalities relating to race, ethics, and religion as well as disadvantaged groups such as those with disabilities and the poor. An accurate census can empower local communities by providing them with the necessary information to participate in local decision-making and ensuring they are represented. The importance of the census of agriculture for development is that it gives a snapshot of the structure of the agricultural sector in a country and, when compared with previous censuses, provides an opportunity to identify trends and structural transformations of the sector, and points towards areas for policy intervention. Census data are used as a benchmark for current statistics and their value is increased when they are employed together with other data sources. The results were used to measure changes in the population and apportion representation. Population estimates could be compared to those of other countries. By the beginning of the 20th century, censuses were recording households and some indications of their employment. In some countries, census archives are released for public examination after many decades, allowing genealogists to track the ancestry of interested people. Archives provide a substantial historical record which may challenge established views. Information such as job titles and arrangements for the destitute and sick may also shed light on the historical structure of society. Political considerations influence the census in many countries. In Canada in 2010 for example, the government under the leadership of Stephen Harper abolished the mandatory long-form census. This abolition was a response to protests from some Canadians who resented the personal questions. The long-form census was reinstated by the Justin Trudeau government in 2016. ===Census data and research=== As governments assumed responsibility for schooling and welfare, large government research departments made extensive use of census data. Population projections could be made, to help plan for provision in local government and regions. Central government could also use census data to allocate funding. Even in the mid 20th century, census data was only directly accessible to large government departments. However, computers meant that tabulations could be used directly by university researchers, large businesses and local government offices. They could use the detail of the data to answer new questions and add to local and specialist knowledge. Data can be represented visually or analysed in complex statistical models, to show the difference between certain areas, or to understand the association between different personal characteristics. Census data offer a unique insight into small areas and small demographic groups which sample data would be unable to capture with precision. In the census of agriculture, users need census data to: support and contribute to evidence-based agricultural planning and policy-making. The census information is essential, for example, to monitor the performance of a policy or programme designed for crop diversification or to address food security issues; provide data to facilitate research, investment and business decisions both in the public and private sector; contribute to monitoring environmental changes and evaluating the impact of agricultural practices on the environment such as tillage practices, crop rotation or sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; provide relevant data on work inputs and main work activities, as well as on the labour force in the agriculture sector; provide an important information base for monitoring some key indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular those goals related to food security in agricultural holdings, the role of women in agricultural activities and rural poverty; provide baseline data both at the national and small administrative and geographical levels for formulating, monitoring and evaluating programmes and projects interventions; provide essential information on subsistence agriculture and for the estimation of the non-observed economy, which plays an important role in the compilation of the national accounts and the economic accounts for agriculture. This is particularly important when individuals' census responses are made available in microdata form, but even aggregate-level data can result in privacy breaches when dealing with small areas and/or rare subpopulations. For instance, when reporting data from a large city, it might be appropriate to give the average income for black males aged between 50 and 60. However, doing this for a town that only has two black males in this age group would be a breach of privacy because either of those persons, knowing his own income and the reported average, could determine the other man's income. Typically, census data are processed to obscure such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control. Another possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the original database. As the final product does not contain any protected microdata, the model-based interactive software can be distributed without any confidentiality concerns. Another method is simply to release no data at all, except very large scale data directly to the central government. Differing release strategies of governments have led to an international project (IPUMS) to co-ordinate access to microdata and corresponding metadata. Such projects such as SDMX also promote standardising metadata, so that best use can be made of the minimal data available. == World population estimates == The earliest estimate of the world population was made by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1661; the next by Johann Peter Süssmilch in 1741, revised in 1762; the third by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici in 1859. In 1931, Walter Willcox published a table in his book, International Migrations: Volume II Interpretations, that estimated the 1929 world population to be roughly 1.8 billion. ==Impact of COVID-19 on censuses== ===Impact=== The UNFPA predicted that the COVID-19 pandemic will threaten the successful conduct of censuses of population and housing in many countries through delays, interruptions that compromise quality, or complete cancellation of census projects. Domestic and donor financing for census were diverted to address COVID-19 leaving census without crucial funds. Several countries have already taken decisions to postpone the census, with many others yet to announce the way forward. In some countries this is already happening. The pandemic has also affected the planning and implementation of censuses of agriculture in all world regions. The extent of the impact has varied according to the stages at which the censuses are, ranging from planning (i.e. staffing, procurement, preparation of frames, questionnaires), fieldwork (field training and enumeration) or data processing/analysis stages. The census of agriculture's reference period is the agricultural year. Thus, a delay in any census activity may be critical and can result in a full year postponement of the enumeration if the agricultural season is missed. Some publications have discussed the impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture. ===Adaptation=== The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has requested a global effort to assure that even where census is delayed, census planning and preparations are not cancelled, but continue in order to assure that implementation can proceed safely when the pandemic is under control. While new census methods, including online, register-based, and hybrid approaches are being used across the world, these demand extensive planning and preconditions that cannot be created at short notice. The continuing low supply of personal protective equipment to protect against COVID-19 has immediate implications for conducting census in communities at risk of transmission. The UNFPA Procurement Office is partnering with other agencies to explore new supply chains and resources. ==Modern implementation==	[ "Saint Joseph", "population size", "Ptolemies", "William I of England", "Conditional probability distribution", "COVID-19 pandemic", "remote sensing", "supply chain", "International Statistical Institute", "Rashidun Caliphate", "SDMX", "caliph", "household", "United Nations Population Fund", "Walter Scheidel", "Europe", "Philippines", "Virgin Mary", "Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici", "Book of Numbers", "Census of Quirinius", "Munir Sheikh", "birth of Jesus", "Netherlands", "opinion poll", "Africa", "Fabius Pictor", "New Kingdom of Egypt", "Stephen Harper", "Iranian calendars", "official statistics", "History of Iran", "Sustainable Development Goals", "personal protective equipment", "Ab urbe condita (book)", "histogram", "Demography", "Census of India", "crusade", "Giovanni Battista Riccioli", "subsistence agriculture", "Herod the Great", "Canada", "Johann Peter Süssmilch", "sampling (statistics)", "llama", "Bible", "Servius Tullius", "Microdata (statistics)", "plains of Moab", "Financial plan", "propensity score matching", "Darius the Great", "Home range", "Solomon", "Old Kingdom of Egypt", "Zimbabwe", "Byzantine calendar", "Chandragupta Maurya", "List of national and international statistical services", "Umar", "Egypt", "David", "alpaca", "Saladin", "Publius Sulpicius Quirinius", "Roman Republic", "Caliphate", "Statistics Canada", "Ahmose I", "Middle Kingdom of Egypt", "Inca Empire", "N. T. Wright", "IPUMS", "Royal Statistical Society", "Satrap", "Sampling (statistics)", "Achaemenid Empire", "agriculture", "Han dynasty", "Philip II of Spain", "capture-recapture", "Asia", "cattle count", "Census of agriculture", "GeoJournal", "Domesday Book", "administrative data", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "Gospel of Luke", "Herodotus", "geographic information system", "Livy", "Syria", "United Nations", "mobile home", "Kingdom of Jerusalem", "indiction", "nomarch", "Jewish Diaspora", "2011 Canadian census", "Machine", "Utah v. Evans", "Latin", "Diocletian", "Chanakya", "counterintuitive", "Revenue service", "demographic", "quipus", "Justin Trudeau", "Robert Hymes", "Ashoka", "base-10", "Statistics", "military organization", "Office for National Statistics", "sampling frame", "Iran", "research", "Mixture distribution", "Statistical population", "Population and housing censuses by country", "stratified sampling", "Roman Egypt", "marketing", "Tabernacle", "statistical disclosure control", "intercensal estimate", "New Spain", "Statistical Science", "communal establishments", "Zealot", "international comparisons", "Middle Ages", "Tax per head" ]
6,896	Outline of chemistry	The following outline acts as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. == Summary == Chemistry can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method. A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biochemistry. ==Branches== Physical chemistry – study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. Chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical physics – investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes. Electrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. Femtochemistry – area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond). Geochemistry – chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology. Photochemistry – study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. Quantum chemistry – branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. Spectroscopy – study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Stereochemistry – study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules Surface science – study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces. Thermochemistry – the branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated. Calorimetry – the study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes. Organic chemistry (outline) – study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Biochemistry – study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics. Neurochemistry – study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. Molecular biochemistry and genetic engineering – an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression. Bioorganic chemistry – combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology. Biophysical chemistry – is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. Medicinal chemistry – discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes. Organometallic chemistry – is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin. Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. Inorganic chemistry – study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Bioinorganic chemistry – is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. Cluster chemistry – focuses on crystalline materials most often existing on the 0–2 nanometer scale and characterizing their crystal structures and understanding their role in the nucleation and growth mechanisms of larger materials. Nuclear chemistry – study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. Analytical chemistry – analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Other Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. Computational chemistry – is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems. Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. Polymer chemistry – multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. Wet chemistry – is a form of analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze materials usually in liquid phase. Agrochemistry – study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation. Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets. Chemical biology – scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems. Chemo-informatics – use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. Flow chemistry – study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macro processing equipment. Immunohistochemistry – involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues. Immunochemistry – is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. Chemical oceanography – study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. Mathematical chemistry – area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mechanochemistry – coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale. Molecular biology – study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry. Petrochemistry – study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. Phytochemistry – study of phytochemicals which come from plants. Radiochemistry – chemistry of radioactive materials. Sonochemistry – study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. Synthetic chemistry – study of chemical synthesis. == History == History of chemistry Precursors to chemistry Alchemy (outline) History of alchemy History of the branches of chemistry History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examination of the role of metals in biology. History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components of the immune system. History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). History of natural product chemistry – history of the scientific study of chemical compounds or substances produced by living organisms—history of chemical compounds found in nature that usually have a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. History of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses of Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. History of flavor chemistry – history of the use of chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. History of flow chemistry – history of chemical reactions run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology History of ocean chemistry – history of the study the chemistry of marine environments, including the influences of different variables. History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes. History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. History of femtochemistry – history of the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. History of thermochemistry – history of the study of energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry: History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics and engineering. History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy History of surface science – history of the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. History of chemicals History of chemical elements History of carbon History of hydrogen Timeline of hydrogen technologies History of oxygen History of chemical products History of aspirin History of cosmetics History of gunpowder History of pharmaceutical drugs History of vitamins History of chemical processes History of manufactured gas History of the Haber process History of the chemical industry History of the petroleum industry History of the pharmaceutical industry History of the periodic table == Chemicals == Dictionary of chemical formulas List of biomolecules List of inorganic compounds Periodic table == Atomic theory == Atomic theory Atomic models Atomism – natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. Plum pudding model Rutherford model Bohr model == Thermochemistry == Thermochemistry === Terminology === Thermochemistry Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. Exothermic – a process or reaction in which the system releases energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow. Endothermic – a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow. Thermochemical equation Enthalpy change – internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure. Enthalpy of reaction Temperature – an objective comparative measure of heat. Calorimeter – an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Heat – A form of energy associated with the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation. Joule – a unit of energy. Calorie Specific heat Specific heat capacity Latent heat Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization Collision theory Activation energy Activated complex Reaction rate Catalyst === Thermochemical equations === Chemical equations that include the heat involved in a reaction, either on the reactant side or the product side. Examples: H2O(l) + 240kJ → H2O(g) N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 + 92kJ Joule (J) ==Chemists== For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists Amedeo Avogadro Elias James Corey Marie Curie John Dalton Humphry Davy George Eastman Michael Faraday Rosalind Franklin Eleuthère Irénée du Pont Dmitriy Mendeleyev Alfred Nobel Wilhelm Ostwald Louis Pasteur Linus Pauling Joseph Priestley Robert Burns Woodward Karl Ziegler Ahmed Zewail == Chemistry literature == Scientific literature Scientific journal Academic journal List of important publications in chemistry List of scientific journals in chemistry List of science magazines Scientific American == Lists == Chemical elements data references List of chemical elements – atomic mass, atomic number, symbol, name List of minerals – Minerals Electron configurations of the elements (data page) – electron configuration, electrons per shell Densities of the elements (data page) – density (solid, liquid, gas) Electron affinity (data page) – electron affinity Melting points of the elements (data page) – melting point Boiling points of the elements (data page) – boiling point Critical points of the elements (data page) – critical point Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) – heat of fusion Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) – heat of vaporization Heat capacities of the elements (data page) – heat capacity Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) – vapor pressure Electronegativities of the elements (data page) – electronegativity (Pauling scale) Ionization energies of the elements (data page) – ionization energies (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol) Atomic radii of the elements (data page) – atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) – electrical resistivity Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) – thermal conductivity Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) – thermal expansion Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) – speed of sound Elastic properties of the elements (data page) – Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus Hardnesses of the elements (data page) – Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness Abundances of the elements (data page) – Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and solar system List of oxidation states of the elements – oxidation states List of compounds List of CAS numbers by chemical compound List of Extremely Hazardous Substances List of inorganic compounds List of organic compounds List of alkanes List of alloys Other List of thermal conductivities List of purification methods in chemistry List of unsolved problems in chemistry	[ "Biophysical chemistry", "molecular biology", "Astrochemistry", "physics", "List of chemical elements", "Chemical biology", "Specific heat capacity", "History of natural product chemistry", "History of organic chemistry", "List of biomolecules", "Critical points of the elements (data page)", "Electron configurations of the elements (data page)", "Rutherford model", "List of organic compounds", "Green chemistry", "Calorimeter", "History of carbon", "History of bioorganic chemistry", "Linus Pauling", "Radiochemistry", "electrochemistry", "History of phytochemistry", "Medicinal chemistry", "George Eastman", "Ionization energies of the elements (data page)", "Physical organic chemistry", "Cluster chemistry", "table of nuclides", "Wet chemistry", "Petrochemistry", "History of stereochemistry", "History of thermochemistry", "History of the chemical industry", "History of manufactured gas", "Amedeo Avogadro", "List of alloys", "Heat of fusion", "Chemical elements data references", "History of geochemistry", "History of chemical biology", "chemical bond", "medicinal chemistry", "Empirical method", "History of radiochemistry", "Elastic properties of the elements (data page)", "Karl Ziegler", "Chemical kinetics", "Chemical physics", "Marie Curie", "Scientific American", "Molecular biology", "John Dalton", "History of agrochemistry", "Chemistry", "History of medicinal chemistry", "List of minerals", "Electronegativities of the elements (data page)", "History of immunochemistry", "Outline of organic chemistry", "History of quantum chemistry", "List of purification methods in chemistry", "History of molecular mechanics", "Elias James Corey", "History of bioinorganic chemistry", "List of unsolved problems in chemistry", "Periodic table", "History of the periodic table", "Bioorganic chemistry", "Immunochemistry", "History of chemical physics", "Nuclear chemistry", "History of the petroleum industry", "molecular physics", "History of chemical elements", "Reaction rate", "Inorganic chemistry", "Heats of fusion of the elements (data page)", "List of scientific journals in chemistry", "Femtochemistry", "Latent heat", "Bioinorganic chemistry", "History of neurochemistry", "List of alkanes", "History of oxygen", "History of ocean chemistry", "History of flow chemistry", "organometallic chemistry", "History of electrochemistry", "History of polymer chemistry", "Stereochemistry", "Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)", "Joule", "Enthalpy change", "Organometallic chemistry", "History of mechanochemistry", "Densities of the elements (data page)", "organism", "History of supramolecular chemistry", "List of CAS numbers by chemical compound", "Environmental chemistry", "History of sonochemistry", "Bohr model", "Agrochemistry", "List of inorganic compounds", "Alfred Nobel", "History of computational chemistry", "Melting points of the elements (data page)", "Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page)", "History of analytical chemistry", "Theoretical chemistry", "Joseph Priestley", "Robert Burns Woodward", "List of important publications in chemistry", "History of biochemistry", "History of gunpowder", "Scientific literature", "neurochemistry", "History of biophysical chemistry", "Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)", "History of hydrogen", "Speeds of sound of the elements (data page)", "Phytochemistry", "quantum chemistry", "science", "computer program", "Physical chemistry", "List of oxidation states of the elements", "List of chemists", "Rosalind Franklin", "Quantum chemistry", "History of organometallic chemistry", "chemical reaction", "Alchemy", "Abundances of the elements (data page)", "Michael Faraday", "Chemical structure", "Outline (list)", "History of cosmetics", "History of chemical thermodynamics", "History of spectroscopy", "Electrochemistry", "matter", "History of aqueous geochemistry", "viticulture", "Activation energy", "History of pharmaceutical drugs", "biological science", "Computational chemistry", "Mathematical chemistry", "History of cosmochemistry", "History of vitamins", "calculus", "Enthalpy of reaction", "Louis Pasteur", "chemical compound", "Eleuthère Irénée du Pont", "Outline of biochemistry", "Specific heat", "Chemo-informatics", "Spectroscopy", "Analytical chemistry", "Atomism", "Atmospheric chemistry", "Atomic radii of the elements (data page)", "Nuclear transmutation", "spectroscopy", "Biochemistry", "genetic engineering", "List of science magazines", "genetics", "Calorimetry", "chemical physics", "Boiling points of the elements (data page)", "History of organic geochemistry", "Dictionary of chemical formulas", "Photochemistry", "World War II", "Academic journal", "List of Extremely Hazardous Substances", "History of petrochemistry", "Outline of alchemy", "History of flavor chemistry", "statistical mechanics", "History of solid-state chemistry", "Surface science", "List of thermal conductivities", "Electron affinity (data page)", "Organic chemistry", "environmental monitoring", "History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry", "Humphry Davy", "Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)", "Sonochemistry", "natural science", "Activated complex", "History of environmental chemistry", "Hardnesses of the elements (data page)", "Catalyst", "Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page)", "Geochemistry", "Chemical oceanography", "History of isotope geochemistry", "molecular machine", "Immunohistochemistry", "History of astrochemistry", "ocean chemistry", "Supramolecular chemistry", "nature", "History of mathematical chemistry", "organic compound", "Heat capacities of the elements (data page)", "chemical element", "Plum pudding model", "transition state", "Outline of physics", "chemical thermodynamics", "quantum mechanics", "Heat of vaporization", "Solid-state chemistry", "Temperature", "History of femtochemistry", "Wilhelm Ostwald", "History of aspirin", "chemical kinetics", "Timeline of hydrogen technologies", "scientific method", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "Polymer chemistry", "computational chemistry", "History of nuclear chemistry", "Scientific journal", "History of chemistry", "Flow chemistry", "History of atmospheric chemistry", "History of oenology", "Synthetic chemistry", "Dmitriy Mendeleyev", "academic discipline", "History of alchemy", "History of surface science", "Mechanochemistry", "History of the Haber process", "Collision theory", "chemical composition", "History of chemical oceanography", "History of inorganic chemistry", "Calorie", "History of chemical kinetics", "Cosmochemistry", "astrochemistry", "physical science", "History of chemo-informatics", "History of physical chemistry", "femtosecond", "History of physical organic chemistry", "List of compounds", "Atomic theory", "Neurochemistry", "History of the pharmaceutical industry", "Thermochemistry", "Ahmed Zewail", "History of photochemistry", "condensed matter physics", "mathematics" ]
6,901	Outline of critical theory	The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to critical theory: Critical theory – the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two different meanings with different origins and histories: one originating in sociology and the other in literary criticism. This has led to the very literal use of 'critical theory' as an umbrella term to describe any theory founded upon critique. The term "Critical Theory" was first coined by Max Horkheimer in his 1937 essay "Traditional and Critical Theory". == Essence of critical theory == Cultural studies – Critical theorists – Works in critical theory – Truth theory – ===Concepts=== Aesthetics Cathexis Chora Condensation (psychology) Content (Freudian dream analysis) Death Drive Desire Displacement (psychology) Ego ideal Fetishism Fixation (psychology) Id, ego and super-ego Gaze Hysteria Identification (psychology) Instinct Introjection Jouissance Lack (psychoanalysis) Libido Mirror stage Name of the Father Narcissism Neurosis Objet petit a Oedipus complex Other (philosophy) Perversion Pleasure principle (psychology) Psychological projection Psychosexual development Psychological projection Reality principle Regression (psychology) Repression (psychoanalysis) Signs and symptoms Suture/Quilting Point Sublime (philosophy) The Imaginary (psychoanalysis) The Real The Symbolic Transference Uncanny Unconscious mind }} ==Schizoanalytic theory== Félix Guattari – Gilles Deleuze – Deleuze and Guattari – ===Commonly used terms=== Assemblage (philosophy) Body without organs Rhizome (philosophy) ==Queer theory== Judith Butler – Heteronormativity – Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick – Gloria E. Anzaldúa – New Queer Cinema – Queer pedagogy – ==Semiotics== Roland Barthes – Julia Kristeva – Charles Sanders Peirce – Ferdinand de Saussure – ===Commonly used terms=== Semiotic square ==Literary theory== Mikhail Bakhtin Mary Louise Pratt – René Girard – ===Commonly used terms=== Carnivalesque Chronotope Dialogic Narratology Heteroglossia ==Theories of identity== Private sphere – certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of authority, unhampered by interventions from governmental or other institutions. Examples of the private sphere are family and home. The complement or opposite of public sphere. Public sphere – area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment." Creolization == Major works == Bloch, Ernst (1938–47). The Principle of Hope Fromm, Erich (1941). The Fear of Freedom (UK)/Escape from Freedom (US) Horkheimer, Max; Adorno, Theodor W. (1944–47). Dialectic of Enlightenment Barthes, Roland (1957). Mythologies Habermas, Jürgen (1962). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere Marcuse, Herbert (1964). One-Dimensional Man Adorno, Theodor W. (1966). Negative Dialectics Derrida, Jacques (1967). Of Grammatology Derrida, Jacques (1967). Writing and Difference Habermas, Jürgen (1981). The Theory of Communicative Action ==Major theorists==	[ "Paulo Freire", "Chinua Achebe", "critical legal studies", "Sublime (philosophy)", "Jean-Luc Nancy", "Queer pedagogy", "Assemblage (philosophy)", "Sex–gender distinction", "Hysteria", "Objectivity and subjectivity", "Of Grammatology", "Commodity fetishism", "Claude Lévi-Strauss", "Raewyn Connell", "Psychosexual development", "Regression (psychology)", "Luce Irigaray", "Carnivalesque", "Semiotic square", "Bruno Latour", "The Fear of Freedom", "Abjection", "Transference", "Homi K. Bhabha", "Jean-François Lyotard", "Uncanny", "Human rights", "Heterotopia (space)", "Antonio Negri", "Paul de Man", "Avital Ronell", "Gaze", "Psychological projection", "Cathexis", "Herbert Marcuse", "Mode of production", "Author", "The Wretched of the Earth", "Civilization and Its Discontents", "Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak", "Proletariat", "René Girard", "Teresa de Lauretis", "Negative Dialectics", "Ego ideal", "Signs and symptoms", "An Image of Africa", "One-Dimensional Man", "John Dewey", "Critical apparatus", "Surplus value", "Theodor Adorno", "Narcissism", "A Cyborg Manifesto", "Frankfurt School", "Name of the Father", "Mikhail Bakhtin", "Mythologies (book)", "Hermeneutics", "Perversion", "humanities", "List of works in critical theory", "Posthegemony", "Walter Benjamin", "Lauren Berlant", "Dialectic of Enlightenment", "Repression (psychoanalysis)", "Heteroglossia", "Judith Butler", "Thing theory", "Other (philosophy)", "Cultural studies", "Money", "Andrew Feenberg", "Michael Hardt", "Capital (Marxism)", "Mary Louise Pratt", "Roland Barthes", "Fredric Jameson", "Event (philosophy)", "Moses and Monotheism", "Reality principle", "Jacques Lacan", "Ernst Bloch", "Khôra", "Truth theory", "Narratology", "Deleuze and Guattari", "Antonio Gramsci", "Werner Hamacher", "Lack (psychoanalysis)", "Julia Kristeva", "Instinct", "Georg Lukács", "Rhizome (philosophy)", "Identification (psychology)", "History", "The Principle of Hope", "Laura Mulvey", "Heteronormativity", "Mirror stage", "Use value", "Michel Foucault", "Labour power", "Blackboxing", "Agency (sociology)", "Writing and Difference", "The Interpretation of Dreams", "Division of labour", "Outline (list)", "The Imaginary (psychoanalysis)", "Totem and Taboo", "Louis Althusser", "Jacques Derrida", "Fixation (psychology)", "Marx's theory of alienation", "Fetishism", "Susan McClary", "Objet petit a", "Condensation (psychology)", "Félix Guattari", "Geoffrey Bennington", "Id, ego and super-ego", "Creolization", "Jean Baudrillard", "Hélène Cixous", "n+1", "Erich Fromm", "Chantal Mouffe", "Displacement (psychology)", "Articulation (sociology)", "Martin Heidegger", "Introjection", "Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe", "Sigmund Freud", "Chronotope", "On Narcissism", "Critical legal studies", "Charles Sanders Peirce", "Content (Freudian dream analysis)", "Double consciousness", "Jürgen Habermas", "Dialogic", "The Future of an Illusion", "Unconscious mind", "Geoffrey Hartman", "Symbolic capital", "Claude Lefort", "Law", "Étienne Balibar", "Death Drive", "Jouissance", "Friedrich Pollock", "Hegemony", "Gilles Deleuze", "Desire", "Exchange value", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Jonathan Culler", "List of critical theorists", "Body without organs", "Beyond the Pleasure Principle", "social science", "Historical materialism", "Neurosis", "Social theory", "The Ego and the Id", "Ideology", "Henry Louis Gates Jr.", "Genealogy (philosophy)", "Literary theory", "Pleasure principle (psychology)", "Praxis (process)", "Feudalism", "Christopher Norris (critic)", "Neo-Marxism", "Max Horkheimer", "Oedipus complex", "Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick", "Aesthetics", "Usury", "Relations of production", "The Theory of Communicative Action", "J. Hillis Miller", "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere", "Ferdinand de Saussure", "Critical theory", "Valentin Voloshinov", "Libido", "Private sphere", "The Symbolic", "Frantz Fanon", "New Queer Cinema", "Ernesto Laclau", "Gloria E. Anzaldúa", "Public sphere", "The Real", "Slavoj Žižek", "Bricolage" ]
6,902	Cotswolds	The Cotswolds ( ) is a region of central South West England, along a range of rolling hills that rise from the meadows of the upper River Thames to an escarpment above the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham. The area is defined by the bedrock of Jurassic limestone that creates a type of grassland habitat that is quarried for the golden-coloured Cotswold stone. It lies across the boundaries of several English counties: mainly Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, and parts of Wiltshire, Somerset, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. The highest point is Cleeve Hill at , just east of Cheltenham. The predominantly rural landscape contains stone-built villages, towns, stately homes and gardens featuring the local stone. A large area within the Cotswolds has been designated as a National Landscape (formerly known as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, or AONB) since 1966. The designation covers , with boundaries roughly across and long, stretching south-west from just south of Stratford-upon-Avon to just south of Bath, making it the largest National Landscape area and England's third-largest protected landscape. In 2021, the population of the district was 91,000. The much larger area referred to as the Cotswolds encompasses nearly . The population of the National Landscape area was 139,000 in 2016. ==History== The largest excavation of Jurassic period echinoderm fossils, including of rare and previously unknown species, occurred at a quarry in the Cotswolds in 2021. There is evidence of Neolithic settlement from burial chambers on Cotswold Edge, and there are remains of Bronze and Iron Age forts. Later the Romans built villas, such as at Chedworth, settlements such as Gloucester, and paved the Celtic path later known as Fosse Way. During the Middle Ages, thanks to the breed of sheep known as the Cotswold Lion, the Cotswolds became prosperous from the wool trade with the continent, with much of the money made from wool directed towards the building of churches. The most successful era for the wool trade was 1250–1350; much of the wool at that time was sold to Italian merchants. The area still preserves numerous large, handsome Cotswold Stone "wool churches". The affluent area in the 21st century has attracted wealthy Londoners and others who own second homes there or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds. incorporating the term wold, meaning hills. Compare also the Weald, from the Old English term meaning 'forest'. But for many years the English Place-Name Society has accepted that the term Cotswold is derived from Codesuualt of the 12th century or other variations on this form, the etymology of which is "Cod's-wold", meaning "Cod's high open land". Cod was interpreted as an Old English personal name, which may be recognised in further names: Cutsdean, Codeswellan, and Codesbyrig, some of which date to the 8th century. It has subsequently been noticed that Cod could derive philologically from a Brittonic female cognate Cuda, a hypothetical mother goddess in Celtic mythology postulated to have been worshipped in the Cotswold region. ==Geography== The Cotswolds' spine runs southwest to northeast through six counties, particularly Gloucestershire, west Oxfordshire, and southwestern Warwickshire. The Cotswolds' northern and western edges are marked by steep escarpments down to the Severn valley and the Warwickshire Avon. This feature, known as the Cotswold escarpment or the Cotswold Edge, is a result of the uplifting (tilting) of the limestone layer, exposing its broken edge. This is a cuesta, in geological terms. The dip slope is to the southeast. On the eastern boundary lies the city of Oxford and on the west is Stroud. To the southeast, the upper reaches of the Thames Valley and towns such as Lechlade, Tetbury, and Fairford are often considered to mark the limit of the region. To the south the Cotswolds, with the characteristic uplift of the Cotswold Edge, reach beyond Bath, and towns such as Chipping Sodbury and Marshfield share elements of Cotswold character. The area is characterised by attractive small towns and villages built of the underlying Cotswold stone (a yellow oolitic limestone). Morris lived occasionally in Broadway Tower, a folly, now part of a country park. Chipping Campden is also known for the annual Cotswold Olimpick Games, a celebration of sports and games dating to the early 17th century. Of the Cotswolds' nearly , roughly 80 per cent is farmland. There are over of footpaths and bridleways, and of historic stone walls. According to 2011 census data for the Cotswolds, the wholesale and retail trade was the largest employer (15.8% of the workforce), followed by education (9.7%) and health and social work (9.3%). The report also indicates that a relatively higher proportion of residents worked in agriculture, forestry and fishing, accommodation and food services, as well as in professional, scientific, and technical activities. Unemployment in the Cotswold District was among the lowest in the country. ===Tourism=== Tourism is a significant part of the economy. The Cotswold District area gained over £373 million from visitor spending on accommodation, £157 million on local attractions and entertainments, and about £100m on travel in 2016. In the larger Cotswolds Tourism area, including Stroud, Cheltenham, Gloucester and Tewkesbury, tourism generated about £1 billion in 2016, providing 200,000 jobs. Some 38 million day visits were made to the Cotswold Tourism area that year. Many travel guides direct tourists to Chipping Campden, Stow-on-the-Wold, Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Bibury, and Stanton. Some of these locations can be very crowded at times. Roughly 300,000 people visit Bourton per year, for example, with about half staying for a day or less. The area also has numerous public walking trails and footpaths that attract visitors, including the Cotswold Way (part of the National Trails system) from Bath to Chipping Campden. ===Housing development=== In August 2018, the final decision was made for a Local Plan that would lead to the building of nearly 7,000 additional homes by 2031, in addition to over 3,000 already built. Areas for development include Cirencester, Bourton-on-the-Water, Down Ampney, Fairford, Kemble, Lechlade, Northleach, South Cerney, Stow-on-the-Wold, Tetbury and Moreton-in-Marsh. Some of the money received from developers will be earmarked for new infrastructure to support the increasing population. ==Cotswold stone== Cotswold stone is a yellow oolitic Jurassic limestone. This limestone is rich in fossils, particularly of fossilised sea urchins. When weathered, the colour of buildings made or faced with this stone is often described as honey or golden. The stone varies in colour from north to south, being honey-coloured in the north and northeast, as in villages such as Stanton and Broadway; golden-coloured in the central and southern areas, as in Dursley and Cirencester; and pearly white in Bath. The rock outcrops at places on the Cotswold Edge; small quarries are common. The exposures are rarely sufficiently compact to be good for rock-climbing, but an exception is Castle Rock, on Cleeve Hill, near Cheltenham. In his 1934 book English Journey, J. B. Priestley wrote of Cotswold buildings made of the local stone. He said: "The truth is that it has no colour that can be described. Even when the sun is obscured and the light is cold, these walls are still faintly warm and luminous, as if they knew the trick of keeping the lost sunlight of centuries glimmering about them." ==Cotswolds National Landscape== The term "Cotswolds National Landscape" was adopted in September 2020, using a proposed name replacement for Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). All AONBs in England and Wales were re-branded as "National Landscapes" in November 2023, although (as of 2024) the legal name and designation remains "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty" under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, amending the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. The term AONB is still used in this section. The Cotswolds National Landscape area (formerly the Cotwolds AONB) was originally designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in 1966, with an expansion on 21 December 1990 to . In 1991, all AONBs were measured again using modern methods, and the official area of the Cotswolds AONB was increased to . In 2000, the government confirmed that AONBs have the same landscape quality and status as National Parks. It is England's third-largest protected landscape, after the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales national parks. The Cotswolds National Landscape, which is the largest in England and Wales, stretches from the border regions of South Warwickshire and Worcestershire, through West Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, and takes in parts of Wiltshire and of Bath and North East Somerset in the south. Gloucestershire County Council is responsible for sixty-three per cent of the AONB. The Cotswolds Conservation Board has the task of conserving and enhancing the AONB. Established under statute in 2004 as an independent public body, the Board carries out a range of work from securing funding for 'on the ground' conservation projects, to providing a strategic overview of the area for key decision makers, such as planning officials. The Board is funded by Natural England and the seventeen local authorities that are covered by the AONB. The Cotswolds AONB Management Plan 2018–2023 was adopted by the Board in September 2018. The landscape of the AONB is varied, including escarpment outliers, escarpments, rolling hills and valleys, enclosed limestone valleys, settled valleys, ironstone hills and valleys, high wolds and high wold valleys, high wold dip-slopes, dip-slope lowland and valleys, a Low limestone plateau, cornbrash lowlands, farmed slopes, a broad floodplain valley, a large pastoral lowland vale, a settled unwooded vale, and an unwooded vale. While the beauty of the Cotswolds AONB is intertwined with that of the villages that seem almost to grow out of the landscape, the Cotswolds were primarily designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty for the rare limestone grassland habitats as well as the old growth beech woodlands that typify the area. These habitat areas are also the last refuge for many other flora and fauna, with some so endangered that they are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Cleeve Hill, and its associated commons, is a fine example of a limestone grassland and it is one of the few locations where the Duke of Burgundy butterfly may still be found in abundance. A June 2018 report stated that the AONB receives "23 million visitors a year, the third largest of any protected landscape". Earlier that year, Environment secretary Michael Gove announced that a panel would be formed to consider making some of the AONBs into National Parks. The review will file its report in 2019. In April 2018, the Cotswolds Conservation Board had written to Natural England "requesting that consideration be given to making the Cotswolds a National Park", according to Liz Eyre, Chairman. This has led to some concern; one member of the Cotswold District Council said, "National Park designation is a significant step further and raises the prospect of key decision making powers being taken away from democratically elected councillors". In other words, Cotswold District Council would no longer have the authority to grant and refuse housing applications. Indicative of the Cotswolds' uniqueness and value is that five European Special Areas of Conservation, three national nature reserves and more than 80 Sites of Special Scientific Interest are within the Cotswolds AONB. The Cotswold Voluntary Wardens Service was established in 1968 to help conserve and enhance the area, and now has more than 300 wardens. The Cotswold Way is a long-distance footpath, just over long, running the length of the AONB, mainly on the edge of the Cotswold escarpment with views over the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham. ==Places of interest== Pictured is the Garden of Sudeley Castle at Winchcombe. The present structure was built in the 15th century and may be on the site of a 12th-century castle. It is north of the spa town of Cheltenham, which has much Georgian architecture. Further south, towards Tetbury, is the fortress known as Beverston Castle, founded in 1229 by Maurice de Gaunt. In the same area is Calcot Manor, a manor house with origins in about 1300 as a tithe barn. Tetbury Market House was built in 1655. During the Middle Ages, Tetbury became an important market for Cotswold wool and yarn. Chavenage House is an Elizabethan-era manor house northwest of Tetbury. Chedworth Roman Villa, where several mosaic floors are on display, is near the Roman road known as the Fosse Way, north of the town of Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester). Cirencester Abbey was founded as an Augustinian monastery in 1117, and Malmesbury Abbey was one of the few English houses with a continual history from the 7th century through to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. An unusual house in this area is Quarwood, a Victorian Gothic house in Stow-on-the-Wold. The grounds, covering , include parkland, fish ponds, paddocks, garages, woodlands and seven cottages. Another is Woodchester Mansion, an unfinished, Gothic revival mansion house in Woodchester Park near Nympsfield. Newark Park is a Grade I listed country house of Tudor origins near the village of Ozleworth, Wotton-under-Edge. The house sits in an estate of at the Cotswold escarpment's southern end. Another of the many manor houses in the area, Owlpen Manor in the village of Owlpen in the Stroud district, is also Tudor and Grade I listed. Further north, Broadway Tower is a folly on Broadway Hill, near the village of Broadway, Worcestershire. To the south of the Cotswolds is Corsham Court, a country house in a park designed by Capability Brown in the town of Corsham, west of Chippenham, Wiltshire. ===Top attractions=== According to users of the worldwide TripAdvisor travel site, in 2018 the following were among the best attractions in the Cotswolds: Walks With Hawks, Cheltenham Cotswolds Distillery, Stourton Cotswold Falconry Centre, Moreton-in-Marsh Chavenage House, Tetbury Tewkesbury Abbey, Tewkesbury Gloucestershire Warwickshire Steam Railway, Cheltenham Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucester The Royal Gardens at Highgrove, Tetbury Jet Age Museum, Gloucester Cotswold Wildlife Park, Burford Hook Norton Brewery, Hook Norton ==Transport== The Cotswolds lie between the M5, M40 and M4 motorways. The main A-roads through the area are: the A46: Bath – Stroud – Cheltenham – Evesham; the A419: Swindon – Cirencester – Stroud; the A417: Lechlade – Cirencester – Gloucester; the A429: Malmesbury – Cirencester – Stow-on-the-Wold – Moreton-in-Marsh; the A44: Chipping Norton – Moreton-in-Marsh – Evesham; the A40: Oxford – Burford – Cheltenham – Gloucester. These all roughly follow the routes of ancient roads, some laid down by the Romans, such as Ermin Way and the Fosse Way. There are local bus services across the area, but some are infrequent. The River Thames flows from the Cotswolds and is navigable from Inglesham and Lechlade-on-Thames downstream to Oxford. West of Inglesham. the Thames and Severn Canal and the Stroudwater Navigation connected the Thames to the River Severn; this route is mostly disused nowadays but several parts are in the process of being restored. ===Railways=== The area is bounded by two major rail routes: in the south by the main Bristol–Bath–London line (including the South Wales main line) and in the west by the Bristol–Birmingham main line. In addition, the Cotswold line runs through the Cotswolds from Oxford to Worcester, and the Golden Valley line runs across the hills from Swindon via Stroud to Gloucester, carrying fast and local services. Mainline rail services to the big cities run from railway stations such as Bath, Swindon, Oxford, Cheltenham, and Worcester. Mainline trains run by Great Western Railway to London Paddington also are available from Kemble station near Cirencester, Kingham station near Stow-on-the-Wold, Charlbury station, and Moreton-in-Marsh station. Additionally, there is the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway, a steam heritage railway over part of the closed Stratford–Cheltenham line, running from Cheltenham Racecourse through Gotherington, Winchcombe, and Hayles Abbey Halt to Toddington and Laverton. The preserved line has been extended to Broadway. ==Demographics== The population of the Cotswold local authority area in the 2021 census was 90,800, an increase of 9.6% from 82,900 in 2011. The percentage of usual residents in relationships, aged 16 and above, were: Married or in a registered civil partnership: 53.2% Never married and never registered a civil partnership: 27.9% Divorced or civil partnership dissolved: 9.8% Widowed or surviving civil partnership partner: 7.1% Separated, but still legally married or still legally in a civil partnership: 2.0% In 2021, 96.3% of people in Cotswold identified their ethnic group with the "White" category, a slight decrease from 97.8% in 2011. Over 1.3% identified as "Asian" or British Asian, 1.5% chose "Mixed or Multiple" category, 0.4% were "Black, Black British, Caribbean or African" and 0.4% chose "Other". ==In culture== The Cotswold region has inspired several notable English composers. In the early 1900s, Herbert Howells and Ivor Gurney took long walks together over the hills, and Gurney urged Howells to make the landscape, including the nearby Malvern Hills, the inspiration for future work. In 1916, Howells wrote his first major piece, the Piano Quartet in A minor, inspired by the magnificent view of the Malverns; he dedicated it to "the hill at Chosen (Churchdown) and Ivor Gurney who knows it". Another contemporary of theirs, Gerald Finzi, lived in nearby Painswick. Gustav Holst, who was born in Cheltenham, spent much of his early years playing the organ in Cotswold village churches, including at Cranham, after which he titled his tune for In the Bleak Midwinter. He also called his Symphony in F major, Op. 8, H47, The Cotswolds. Holst's friend Ralph Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney in the Cotswolds and, though he moved to Surrey as a boy, gave the name of his native village to the tune for Come Down, O Love Divine. His opera Hugh the Drover depicts life in a Cotswold village and incorporates local folk melodies. In 1988, the 6th symphony (Op. 109) of composer Derek Bourgeois was titled A Cotswold Symphony. The Cotswolds are a popular location for scenes in movies and television programmes. The 2008 film Better Things, directed by Duane Hopkins, is set in a small Cotswold village. The fictional detective Agatha Raisin lives in the fictional Cotswold village of Carsely. Other movies filmed in the Cotswolds or nearby, at least in part, include some of the Harry Potter series (Gloucester Cathedral), Bridget Jones's Diary (Snowshill), Pride and Prejudice (Cheltenham Town Hall), and Braveheart (Cotswold Farm Park). In 2014, some scenes of the 2016 movie Alice Through the Looking Glass were filmed at the Gloucester Docks just outside the Cotswold District; some scenes in the 2006 movie Amazing Grace were also filmed at the Docks. The television series Father Brown is set and primarily filmed in the Cotswolds. Scenes and buildings in Sudeley Castle was often featured in the series. The vicarage in Blockley was used for the main character's residence and the Anglican St Peter and St Paul church was the Roman Catholic St Mary's in the series. In the 2010s BBC TV series Poldark, the location for Ross Poldark's family home, Trenwith, is Chavenage House, Tetbury, which is open to the public. Many exterior shots of village life in the Downton Abbey TV series were filmed in Bampton, Oxfordshire. The city of Bath hosted crews that filmed parts of the movies Vanity Fair, Persuasion, Dracula, and The Duchess. Gloucester and other places in Gloucestershire, some within the Area of Natural Beauty, have been a popular location for filming period films and television programmes over the years. Gloucester Cathedral has been particularly popular. The sighting of peregrine falcons in the landscape of the Cotswolds is mentioned in The Peregrine by John Alec Baker. The television documentary agriculture-themed series Clarkson's Farm was filmed at various locations around Chipping Norton.	[ "Hayles Abbey Halt railway station", "escarpment", "William Morris", "Winchcombe railway station", "Stratford-upon-Avon", "spa town", "Herbert Howells", "Gustav Holst", "Dursley", "Malmesbury", "Box, Wiltshire", "Broadway, Worcestershire", "Marshfield, Gloucestershire", "Pride & Prejudice (2005 film)", "A46 road", "cuesta", "dip slope", "Cheltenham Spa railway station", "Cricklade", "TripAdvisor", "Lechlade-on-Thames", "grassland", "Snowshill", "Duke of Burgundy butterfly", "National Parks", "Dictionary.com", "Tewkesbury Abbey", "peregrine falcon", "Warwickshire", "M5 motorway", "A429 road", "bedrock", "Stroud railway station", "Cotswold architecture", "Sudeley Castle", "Yorkshire Dales", "Kingham railway station", "Hook Norton Brewery", "Calcot Manor", "Father Brown (2013 TV series)", "sea urchin", "Clarkson's Farm", "Cotswold District", "Castle Combe", "Coberley", "Dissolution of the Monasteries", "Gloucestershire Warwickshire Steam Railway", "Moreton-in-Marsh railway station", "Gloucestershire", "Wotton-under-Edge", "Bibury", "Roman Catholic", "Chedworth Roman Villa", "Natural England", "Stanton, Gloucestershire", "The Duchess (film)", "Hugh the Drover", "Orchard Farm", "Grade I listed", "Come Down, O Love Divine", "Geology of Great Britain", "Corsham", "Cotswold Wildlife Park", "Hook Norton", "Upper Slaughter", "J. B. Priestley", "English Place-Name Society", "mother goddess", "Fairford", "Capability Brown", "Church of St Peter and St Paul, Blockley", "Gerald Finzi", "Bath and North East Somerset", "limestone", "Oxfordshire", "Nailsworth", "Worcester Shrub Hill railway station", "Blockley", "M40 motorway", "J. A. Baker", "Birmingham", "Cotswold Olimpick Games", "Ralph Vaughan Williams", "Paddington railway station", "Tetbury Market House", "quarry", "folly", "Stroud", "Michael Gove", "Thames Valley", "Harry Potter (film series)", "Stroudwater Navigation", "Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway", "Oxford railway station", "Moreton-in-Marsh", "Cross Country Route", "Gotherington railway station", "Swindon", "Toddington railway station", "Bridget Jones's Diary (film)", "sheep", "Worcestershire", "Cotswold District Council", "oolite", "Tudor period", "Chedworth", "Burford", "A419 road", "Kemble railway station", "In the Bleak Midwinter", "River Severn", "Gloucester Cathedral", "Newark Park", "Better Things (film)", "Northampton", "River Thames", "The Wolds", "Vanity Fair (2004 film)", "Jurassic", "Agatha Raisin", "England and Wales", "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty", "Carsely", "Gloucester", "Lower Slaughter", "Witney", "Cheltenham", "Corsham Court", "Roman Britain", "Ermin Way", "Cheltenham Racecourse railway station", "Downton Abbey", "Great Western Main Line", "Broadway railway station", "beech", "Cutsdean", "A40 road", "Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016 film)", "Thames and Severn Canal", "Oxford", "Winchcombe", "Chalford", "Arts and Crafts movement", "rock-climbing", "Chavenage House", "national nature reserves in England", "Somerset", "Woodchester Mansion", "Jet Age Museum", "rapeseed", "Amazing Grace (2006 film)", "Bath, Somerset", "Stow-on-the-Wold", "Wiltshire", "Charlbury", "Stroud District", "A417 road", "Bristol", "Cirencester Abbey", "Painswick", "Cirencester", "Bampton, Oxfordshire", "National Trails", "Gloucester railway station", "Persuasion (1995 film)", "River Avon, Warwickshire", "Old English", "Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000", "Beverston Castle", "Highgrove House", "Great Western Railway (train operating company)", "Minchinhampton", "Broadway Tower, Worcestershire", "Ivor Gurney", "English Journey", "Derek Bourgeois", "the Weald", "Owlpen Manor", "Chilterns", "Charlbury railway station", "Poldark (2015 TV series)", "M4 motorway", "Evesham", "Bourton-on-the-Water", "Chipping Norton", "Cranham, Gloucestershire", "Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981", "Cotswold Way", "Neolithic", "Fosse Way", "Swindon railway station", "Chipping Sodbury", "Lake District", "Bath Spa railway station", "A44 road", "Braveheart", "Cleeve Hill, Gloucestershire", "Malmesbury Abbey", "South West England", "Guiting Power", "Inglesham", "Tetbury", "echinoderm", "English country house", "Malvern Hills", "Maurice de Gaunt", "Northleach", "Site of Special Scientific Interest", "Special Area of Conservation", "Quarwood", "Churchdown", "Celtic mythology", "Golden Valley line", "Worcester, England", "fossil", "Lechlade", "Random House", "Surrey", "Honeybourne Line", "National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949", "Cotswold line", "Severn Valley", "Down Ampney", "Chipping Campden", "Middle Ages" ]
6,903	AC ChievoVerona	Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona, commonly referred to as ChievoVerona or simply Chievo (, ), is an Italian football club named after and representing Chievo, a suburb of 4,500 inhabitants in Verona, Veneto. It is owned since 2024 by the team's former captain Sergio Pellissier, representing a group of almost 800 stakeholders created through a crowdfunding program, first case in the Italian football. The team plays in the Serie D, the fourth level of Italian football. The club was founded in 1929 and refounded two times during its history in 1948 and 2024. It is the only football team coming from the lowest level of Italian football succeeding in climbing the whole amateur and professional pyramid until reaching Serie A for the first time in 2001–02 and European competitions the year after. It currently plays in Comunale stadium in Sona. During its years as a professional club, Chievo shared the 38,402-seat Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi stadium with its cross-town rivals Hellas Verona. ==History== ===Early years=== The team was founded in 1929 by a small number of football fans from Chievo, a Verona . Initially, the club was not officially affiliated to the Italian Football Federation (FIGC), but nonetheless played several amateur tournaments and friendly matches under the denomination Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro Chievo, a title imposed by the fascist regime. The club's formal debut in an official league was on 8 November 1931. The team colours at the time were blue and white. Chievo disbanded in 1936, however, due to economic woes but returned to play in 1948 after World War II, being registered in the regional league of (Second Division). In 1957, the team moved to the field "Carlantonio Bottagisio", where they played until 1986. In 1959, after the restructuring of the football leagues, Chievo was admitted to play the Seconda Categoria (Second Category), a regional league placed next-to-last in the Italian football pyramid. That year, Chievo changed its name to Cardi Chievo after a new sponsor and was quickly promoted to the Prima Categoria, from which it experienced its first-ever relegation in 1962. ===Series of promotions=== In 1964, Luigi Campedelli, a businessman and owner of the Paluani company, was named the new Chievo chairman. Under Campedelli's presidency, Chievo climbed through the Italian football pyramid, reaching the Serie D after the 1974–75 season. Under the name Paluani Chievo the team was promoted to Serie C2 in 1986. Due to promotion, Chievo was forced to move to the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi, the main venue in Verona; another promotion to Serie C1 followed in 1989. In 1990, the team changed its name to its current one, A.C. ChievoVerona. In 1992, President Luigi Campedelli, who had returned at the helm of the club two years before, died of a heart attack, and his son Luca Campedelli, aged just 23, became the new and youngest chairman of an Italian professional football club. Campedelli promoted Giovanni Sartori to director of football and named Alberto Malesani as the new head coach. Under Malesani, the team astonishingly won the Serie C1 and was promoted to Serie B, where city rival Hellas Verona was playing at the time. In 1997, after Malesani signed for Fiorentina, Silvio Baldini was appointed the new head coach. The following season, with Domenico Caso as the coach, saw the first dismissal of a coach during the presidency of Luca Campedelli, with Caso being fired and replaced with Lorenzo Balestro. It was during these years that the nickname "mussi volanti" ("flying donkeys") was born. It originated from supporters of their crosstown rivals Hellas, who would mock long-suffering Chievo supporters that Chievo will only be promoted if "donkeys could fly" (the equivalent of the English language falsism "if pigs could fly," denoting an impossible dream). In 2000–01, Luigi Delneri was signed as coach and led Chievo, by virtue of its third-place finish in Serie B, to promotion to Serie A, the first time in team history that it had reached the top tier of Italian football. ===Mussi Volanti (2001–2007)=== In 2001–02, Chievo's Serie A debut season, the team was most critics' choice for an instant return to Serie B. However, they became the surprise team in the league, often playing spectacular and entertaining football and even leading the league for six consecutive weeks. The club finally ended the season with a highly respectable fifth-place finish, qualifying the team to play in the UEFA Cup. Chievo's impressive performance inspired a 2002 book about soccer economics titled "Fenomeno Chievo. Economia, costume, società" by Marco Vitale. In 2002–03, Chievo debuted at the European level but were eliminated in the first round by Red Star Belgrade. The team finished the Serie A season in seventh place, again proving itself one of the better Serie A teams. The 2003–04 season, the last with Delneri at the helm, saw Chievo finish ninth. The 2004–05 season is remembered as one of the toughest ever in Chievo's history. Mario Beretta, a Serie A novice from Ternana, was named coach, but after a strong start that brought Chievo to third behind Juventus and Milan, the team slowly lost position in the league table. With three matches remaining in the season, Chievo was third-from-last, a position which would see it relegated to Serie B. As a last resort, Beretta was fired, and Maurizio D'Angelo, a former Chievo player, was appointed temporarily to replace him as coach. Morale improved, and two wins and a draw from the final three matches proved enough to keep Chievo in Serie A. In 2005–06, Giuseppe Pillon of Treviso FBC was appointed as new coach. The team experienced a return to the successful Delneri era, both in style of play and results, which resulted in Chievo ending the season in seventh and gaining a berth in the UEFA Cup. However, because of the football scandal involving several top-class teams, all of which finished higher than Chievo in the 2005–06 season, the Flying Donkeys were awarded a place in the next Champions League preliminary phase. On 14 July 2006, the verdict in the scandal was made public. Juventus, Milan and Fiorentina, who had all initially qualified for the 2006–07 Champions League, and Lazio, who had initially qualified for the 2006–07 UEFA Cup, were all banned from UEFA competition for the 2006–07 season. However, Milan were allowed to enter the Champions League after their appeal to the FIGC. Chievo took up a place in the third qualifying stage of the competition along with Milan and faced Bulgarian side Levski Sofia. Chievo lost the first leg 2–0 in Sofia and managed a 2–2 home draw on the second leg and were eliminated by a 4–2 aggregate score, with Levski advancing to the Champions League group stage. As a Champions League third round qualifying loser, Chievo was given a place in the UEFA Cup final qualifying round. On 25 August 2006, they were drawn to face Portuguese side Braga. The first leg, played on 14 September in Braga, ended in a 2–0 win for the Portuguese. The return match, played on 28 September in Verona, although won by Chievo 2–1, resulted in a 3–2 aggregate loss and the club's elimination from the competition. On 16 October 2006, following a 1–0 defeat against Torino, head coach Giuseppe Pillon was fired and replaced by Luigi Delneri, one of the original symbols of the miracle Chievo, who had led the club to the Serie A in 2002. On 27 May 2007, the last match day of the 2006–07 Serie A season, Chievo was one of five teams in danger of falling into the last undecided relegation spot. Needing only a draw against Catania, a direct competitor in the relegation battle, Chievo lost 2–0 playing on a neutral field in Bologna. Wins by Parma, Siena and Reggina condemned Chievo to Serie B for the 2007–08 season after six seasons in the topflight. ===A year with the Cadetti (2007–08)=== Chievo bounced back quickly from the disappointment of their relegation on the last matchday of 2006–07, searching for an immediate promotion return to the topflight. After the expected departure of several top-quality players, including Franco Semioli, Salvatore Lanna, Matteo Brighi, Paolo Sammarco and Erjon Bogdani, the manager Delneri also parted ways with the club. Giuseppe Iachini replaced him and the captain, Lorenzo D'Anna, gave way to Sergio Pellissier at the end of the transfer window. A new squad was constructed, most notably including the arrivals of midfielders Maurizio Ciaramitaro and Simone Bentivoglio, defender César and forward Antimo Iunco. This new incarnation of the gialloblu were crowned winter champions (along with Bologna), en route to a 41st matchday promotion after a 1–1 draw at Grosseto left them four points clear of third-place Lecce with one match remaining. In addition to winning promotion, they were conferred with the Ali della Vittoria trophy on the final matchday of the season, their first league title of any kind in 14 years. ===Return in Serie A (2008–2019)=== In their first season return to the topflight, Chievo immediately struggled in the league, resulting in the dismissal of Iachini in November and his replacement with former Parma boss Domenico Di Carlo. After Di Carlo's appointment, Chievo managed a remarkable resurgence that led the gialloblu out of the relegation zone after having collected just nine points from their first 17 matches. Highlight matches included a 3–0 defeat of Lazio (who then won the 2008–09 Coppa Italia title) at the Stadio Olimpico, and a thrilling 3–3 draw away to Juventus in which captain and longtime Chievo striker Sergio Pellissier scored a late equalizer to complete his first career hat-trick. A series of hard-fought draws against top clubs Roma, Internazionale and Genoa in the final stretch of the season solidified Ceo's position outside the drop zone and Serie A status was finally confirmed on matchday 37 with a home draw against Bologna. An essentially unchanged line-up earned safety the following season with four matchdays to spare. Lorenzo D'Anna remained as coach of the club for the 2018–19 season after replacing Rolando Maran during the 2017–18 season. On 13 September, Chievo were deducted 3 points after being found guilty of false accounting on exchanging players with Cesena. President Luca Campedelli was banned for three months as a result of the scheme. Chievo were officially relegated on 14 April 2019 after a 3–1 home loss to Napoli. ===Serie B years and league exclusion (2019–2021)=== In July 2021, Chievo was expelled from Serie B for the 2021–22 season for being unable to prove its financial viability due to outstanding tax payments. The club argued that there was an agreement in place during the COVID-19 pandemic that allowed them to spread the payments out over a longer period. However, after three unsuccessful appeals, the decision to bar Chievo Verona from registering to Serie B was upheld, with Cosenza taking their place in Serie B. ===Clivense and Serie D restart (2021–current)=== Over the next months following the club's exclusion, former captain Sergio Pellissier led the search for a new ownership group to allow a phoenix club to compete in Serie D under the Chievo name. However, on 21 August, Pellissier announced in an Instagram post that no owners were found in time for the Serie D registration deadline. The original Chievo club has in the meantime appealed to the Council of State against its exclusion and is currently registered in no division, albeit still with the right to apply for a spot in an amateur league of Veneto in the following weeks. Campedelli eventually opted to keep the club alive as a youth team for the 2021–22 season, while Pellissier decided instead to found a new club himself, which was admitted to Terza Categoria at the very bottom of the Italian football league system; the club, originally named FC Chievo 2021, was then renamed to FC Clivense following a legal warning from AC ChievoVerona. On 10 May 2024, Sergio Pellissier and the owners of Clivense, by then in the Serie D league, successfully acquired the logo and naming rights of the original ChievoVerona club in an auction. Later on 29 May, Clivense formally changed its denomination to AC ChievoVerona, thus becoming the legal heir to the original club, albeit maintaining white and blue as its colours. == Identity == ===Crest=== The official crest of the club depicts since 1998 Cangrande della Scala, ruler of Verona during medieval times, the shape of it taking inspiration from a historical statue located in the old town. The logo, coloured in yellow and blue, shows the full name of the club and the year of foundation. It was confirmed as Chievo's logo after a survey among the club's stakeholder in June 2024. Being founded by amateur football lovers in 1929 as an after-work sport club, at that time encouraged by the fascist regime, the first crest of Chievo included a fasces. Since 1959, after adopting yellow-blue colours, the club used the shape of a Swiss shield with different official denominations during the years, including some private company names sponsoring the club. During the 1980s, president Luigi Campedelli, a businessman owning the cake company Paluani, used the commercial logo of the company as official crest, showing often the full name on the official football shirt. Since the 1990s, after reaching professional leagues and after changing the official name into A.C. ChievoVerona, the crest included for the first time the shape of Cangrande della Scala and boasted a letter V, symbolizing the pride of representing the whole city. In 2001, the logo took its actual aspect including Fraktur font and the foundation year, until its last modernization in 2021. In the period 2001-2021 an alternative logo, representing a white ladder on a burgundy background, was in use both on shirts and club's activities, inspired by the historical logo of the Province of Verona and already used by the club in the 1930s after winning the province champion's title in the local leagues. This is a gallery of the evolution of Chievo's crest since its foundation: 1 Cardi Chievo.png\| Cardi Chievo (1959–1975) 2 AC Chievo.png\| A.C. Chievo (1975–1981) Paulani Chievo stemma 1981-86.png\| Paluani Chievo (1981–1986) A.C. ChievoVerona logo.svg\|A.C. ChievoVerona (2001–2021) Scala.png\|Logo alternativo (2001–2021) === Colours === Chievo has worn two different colours patterns during its history: in the early foundation years until 1956 a white/blue combination, with occasional use of white/light blue and red-blue; from 1956 until 2021 a yellow-blue pattern in different styles, inspired by the crest of Verona and already used by the main football team of the city Hellas Verona. After the refoundation of 2024 the club decided to keep the white-blue combination of the origins, already used by Clivense since 2021. These are the most iconic football kits worn over the years: ===Nicknames=== The club's historic nickname is Gialloblu (from the club colours of yellow and blue), sharing it with the more famous local rivals Hellas Verona. Local supporters often call the club Ceo, which is Venetian for Chievo. The club is also sometimes referred to as the I Mussi Volanti ("The Flying Donkeys" in the Verona dialect of Venetian). "The Flying Donkeys" nickname was originally used by fans from crosstown rivals Hellas to mock Chievo. The two clubs first met in Serie B in the mid-1990s, with Hellas chanting Quando i mussi volara, il Ceo in Serie A – "Donkeys will fly before Chievo are in Serie A." However, once Chievo earned promotion to Serie A at the end of the 2000–01 Serie B season, Chievo fans started to call themselves "The Flying Donkeys". ==Retired numbers== 30 Jason Mayélé, left/right winger, 2001–2002 (posthumous) 31 Sergio Pellissier, left/right winger, 2000–2019 (retired in recognition of his career) ==Notable players== Note: this list includes players that have reached international status. Francesco Acerbi Amauri Daniel Andersson Simone Barone Massimo Marazzina Andrea Barzagli Erjon Bogdani Oliver Bierhoff Valter Birsa Albano Bizzarri Michael Bradley Matteo Brighi Boštjan Cesar Bernardo Corradi Rinaldo Cruzado Dario Dainelli Boukary Dramé Mauro Esposito Marcelo Estigarribia Ivan Fatić Gelson Fernandes Giannis Fetfatzidis Stefano Fiore Alessandro Gamberini Massimo Gobbi Jonathan de Guzmán Përparim Hetemaj Bojan Jokić Radoslav Kirilov Kamil Kosowski Nicola Legrottaglie Christian Manfredini Jason Mayélé Stephen Makinwa John Mensah Victor Obinna Sergio Pellissier Simone Pepe Simone Perrotta Mauricio Pinilla Giampiero Pinzi Ivan Radovanović Flavio Roma Eugenio Corini Fredrik Risp Mamadou Samassa Nikos Spyropoulos Samir Ujkani Sauli Väisänen Martin Valjent Mario Yepes ==Coaches== ==Fans== The Clivense fan base has a few groups within it, but the best known are the North Side 94, a group of fans born in 1994 together with the promotion of the club to the Serie B. The supporters' group has given full support and to Sergio Pellissier's Clivense after the exclusion of ChievoVerona from all federal championships in 2021. ==Stadium== ChievoVerona shared since its promotion to the Serie C2 in 1986 the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi with rival team Hellas Verona. Since the refoundation in 2024 the club plays its home games at Stadio Aldo Olivieri in Verona. During the three previous years FC Clivense was based at Stadio Comunale (Phoenix Arena for sponsorship reasons) in San Martino Buon Albergo. ==Honours== Serie B Winners: 2007–08 Serie C1 Winners: 1993–94 (group A) Serie C2 Winners: 1988–89 (group B) Serie D Winners: 1985–86 (group C) ==In Europe== === UEFA Champions League === === UEFA Cup === == Footnotes ==	[ "Bologna F.C. 1909", "Serie C1", "Samir Ujkani", "John Mensah", "Alfredo Aglietti", "Massimo Gobbi", "Forward (association football)", "2008–09 Coppa Italia", "Alessandro Gamberini", "Riccardo Allegretti", "A.C. Milan", "FC Clivense", "Oliver Bierhoff", "Ivan Fatić", "San Martino Buon Albergo", "Bernardo Corradi", "UEFA club competitions", "Verona", "Ternana Calcio", "2007–08 Serie B", "Gelson Fernandes", "Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi", "Sofia", "Chievo", "Giampiero Pinzi", "Paolo Sammarco", "Terza Categoria", "wikt:falsism", "Lorenzo D'Anna", "Football in Italy", "2021–22 Serie B", "Dario Dainelli", "1988–89 Serie C2", "Gianni Bui", "Michele Marcolini", "Ivan Radovanović", "Eugenio Corini", "Domenico Caso", "2006 Serie A scandal", "Serie D", "Marco Zaffaroni", "Giuseppe Iachini", "Torino F.C.", "S.C. Braga", "2000–01 Serie B", "Stadio Marc'Antonio Bentegodi", "Mario Beretta", "Radoslav Kirilov", "Përparim Hetemaj", "Antimo Iunco", "Giuseppe Pillon", "Stefano Pioli", "Veneto", "Sona, Veneto", "PFC Levski Sofia", "Sergio Pellissier", "Bojan Jokić", "Giovanni Sartori (footballer)", "UEFA", "Hellas Verona F.C.", "Francesco Acerbi", "Rinaldo Cruzado", "Venetian language", "Italian Football Federation", "Cosenza Calcio", "Simone Barone", "A.S. Roma", "2003–04 Serie A", "Stephen Makinwa", "2005–06 Serie A", "Giuseppe Sannino", "Calcio Catania", "ACF Fiorentina", "Mauricio Pinilla", "2002–03 UEFA Cup", "Maurizio Ciaramitaro", "S.S. Lazio", "Lorenzo Balestro", "2004–05 Serie A", "U.S. Lecce", "Sauli Väisänen", "Franco Semioli", "Salvatore Lanna", "Reggina Calcio", "Italian football league system", "Jason Mayélé", "Albano Bizzarri", "Andrea Barzagli", "Serie C", "Victor Obinna", "Silvio Baldini", "Mario Yepes", "Erjon Bogdani", "Italian football", "Simone Bentivoglio", "Boštjan Cesar", "Luca Campedelli", "Domenico Di Carlo", "Council of State (Italy)", "Inter Milan", "Hellas Verona", "Boukary Dramé", "Prima Categoria", "Mauro Esposito", "2018–19 A.C. ChievoVerona season", "Serie C2", "Nicola Legrottaglie", "Seconda Divisione", "Parma F.C.", "Nikos Spyropoulos", "Winger (association football)", "Fredrik Risp", "A.C. Siena", "Kingdom of Italy", "Red Star Belgrade", "Amauri", "Treviso F.B.C. 1993", "Cangrande della Scala", "Stefano Fiore", "Braga", "César de Luca", "Carlo De Angelis", "Daniel Andersson (footballer, born 1977)", "Mamadou Samassa (footballer, born 1986)", "Alberto Malesani", "Gian Piero Ventura", "Luigi Delneri", "Kamil Kosowski", "Flavio Roma", "A.C. Cesena", "Rolando Maran", "Michael Bradley (soccer)", "Maurizio D'Angelo", "Province of Verona", "2002–03 Serie A", "S.S.C. Napoli", "Phoenix club (sports)", "Jonathan de Guzmán", "Christian Manfredini", "1993–94 Serie C1", "2001–02 Serie A", "Genoa C.F.C.", "Nicola Ciccolo", "Juventus F.C.", "Valter Birsa", "UEFA Europa League", "Massimo Marazzina", "Simone Perrotta", "U.S. Grosseto F.C.", "Serie A", "fascist regime", "Martin Valjent", "frazione", "UEFA Champions League", "Seconda Categoria", "2006–07 UEFA Champions League", "2006–07 UEFA Cup", "Marcelo Estigarribia", "Matteo Brighi", "Giannis Fetfatzidis", "Simone Pepe", "Serie B", "Overtime (sports)", "Stadio Olimpico" ]
6,904	Context switch	In computing, a context switch is the process of storing the state of a process or thread, so that it can be restored and resume execution at a later point, and then restoring a different, previously saved, state. This allows multiple processes to share a single central processing unit (CPU), and is an essential feature of a multiprogramming or multitasking operating system. In a traditional CPU, each process – a program in execution – uses the various CPU registers to store data and hold the current state of the running process. However, in a multitasking operating system, the operating system switches between processes or threads to allow the execution of multiple processes simultaneously. For every switch, the operating system must save the state of the currently running process, followed by loading the next process state, which will run on the CPU. This sequence of operations that stores the state of the running process and loads the following running process is called a context switch. The precise meaning of the phrase "context switch" varies. In a multitasking context, it refers to the process of storing the system state for one task, so that task can be paused and another task resumed. A context switch can also occur as the result of an interrupt, such as when a task needs to access disk storage, freeing up CPU time for other tasks. Some operating systems also require a context switch to move between user mode and kernel mode tasks. The process of context switching can have a negative impact on system performance. == Cost == Context switches are usually computationally intensive, and much of the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context switches. Switching from one process to another requires a certain amount of time for doing the administration saving and loading registers and memory maps, updating various tables and lists, etc. What is actually involved in a context switch depends on the architectures, operating systems, and the number of resources shared (threads that belong to the same process share many resources compared to unrelated non-cooperating processes). For example, in the Linux kernel, context switching involves loading the corresponding process control block (PCB) stored in the PCB table in the kernel stack to retrieve information about the state of the new process. CPU state information including the registers, stack pointer, and program counter as well as memory management information like segmentation tables and page tables (unless the old process shares the memory with the new) are loaded from the PCB for the new process. To avoid incorrect address translation in the case of the previous and current processes using different memory, the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) must be flushed. This negatively affects performance because every memory reference to the TLB will be a miss because it is empty after most context switches. Furthermore, analogous context switching happens between user threads, notably green threads, and is often very lightweight, saving and restoring minimal context. In extreme cases, such as switching between goroutines in Go, a context switch is equivalent to a coroutine yield, which is only marginally more expensive than a subroutine call. == Switching cases == There are three potential triggers for a context switch: === Multitasking === Most commonly, within some scheduling scheme, one process must be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. This context switch can be triggered by the process making itself unrunnable, such as by waiting for an I/O or synchronization operation to complete. On a pre-emptive multitasking system, the scheduler may also switch out processes that are still runnable. To prevent other processes from being starved of CPU time, pre-emptive schedulers often configure a timer interrupt to fire when a process exceeds its time slice. This interrupt ensures that the scheduler will gain control to perform a context switch. === Interrupt handling === Modern architectures are interrupt driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to busy-wait until the read is over; it can issue the request (to the I/O device) and continue with some other task. When the read is over, the CPU can be interrupted (by a hardware in this case, which sends interrupt request to PIC) and presented with the read. For interrupts, a program called an interrupt handler is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk. When an interrupt occurs, the hardware automatically switches a part of the context (at least enough to allow the handler to return to the interrupted code). The handler may save additional context, depending on details of the particular hardware and software designs. Often only a minimal part of the context is changed in order to minimize the amount of time spent handling the interrupt. The kernel does not spawn or schedule a special process to handle interrupts, but instead the handler executes in the (often partial) context established at the beginning of interrupt handling. Once interrupt servicing is complete, the context in effect before the interrupt occurred is restored so that the interrupted process can resume execution in its proper state. === User and kernel mode switching === When the system transitions between user mode and kernel mode, a context switch is not necessary; a mode transition is not by itself a context switch. However, depending on the operating system, a context switch may also take place at this time. == Steps == The state of the currently executing process must be saved so it can be restored when rescheduled for execution. The process state includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the program counter, plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. This is usually stored in a data structure called a process control block (PCB) or switchframe. The PCB might be stored on a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode call stack), or there may be some specific operating system-defined data structure for this information. A handle to the PCB is added to a queue of processes that are ready to run, often called the ready queue. Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of one process, it can then switch context by choosing a process from the ready queue and restoring its PCB. In doing so, the program counter from the PCB is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the chosen process. Process and thread priority can influence which process is chosen from the ready queue (i.e., it may be a priority queue). == Examples == The details vary depending on the architecture and operating system, but these are common scenarios. ===No context switch needed=== Considering a general arithmetic addition operation A = B+1. The instruction is stored in the instruction register and the program counter is incremented. A and B are read from memory and are stored in registers R1, R2 respectively. In this case, B+1 is calculated and written in R1 as the final answer. This operation as there are sequential reads and writes and there's no waits for function calls used, hence no context switch/wait takes place in this case. ===Context switch caused by interrupt=== Suppose a process A is running and a timer interrupt occurs. The user registers — program counter, stack pointer, and status register — of process A are then implicitly saved by the CPU onto the kernel stack of A. Then, the hardware switches to kernel mode and jumps into interrupt handler for the operating system to take over. Then the operating system calls the switch() routine to first save the general-purpose user registers of A onto A's kernel stack, then it saves A's current kernel register values into the PCB of A, restores kernel registers from the PCB of process B, and switches context, that is, changes kernel stack pointer to point to the kernel stack of process B. The operating system then returns from interrupt. The hardware then loads user registers from B's kernel stack, switches to user mode, and starts running process B from B's program counter. == Performance == Context switching itself has a cost in performance, due to running the task scheduler, TLB flushes, and indirectly due to sharing the CPU cache between multiple tasks. Switching between threads of a single process can be faster than between two separate processes because threads share the same virtual memory maps, so a TLB flush is not necessary. The time to switch between two separate processes is called the process switching latency. The time to switch between two threads of the same process is called the thread switching latency. The time from when a hardware interrupt is generated to when the interrupt is serviced is called the interrupt latency. Switching between two processes in a single address space operating system can be faster than switching between two processes in an operating system with private per-process address spaces. === Hardware vs. software === Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the Intel 80386 and its successors, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the task state segment (TSS). A task switch can be explicitly triggered with a CALL or JMP instruction targeted at a TSS descriptor in the global descriptor table. It can occur implicitly when an interrupt or exception is triggered if there is a task gate in the interrupt descriptor table (IDT). When a task switch occurs, the CPU can automatically load the new state from the TSS. As with other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including Windows and Linux, do not use this feature. This is mainly due to two reasons: Hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general-purpose registers, not floating-point registers — although the TS bit is automatically turned on in the CR0 control register, resulting in a fault when executing floating-point instructions and giving the OS the opportunity to save and restore the floating-point state as needed). Associated performance issues, e.g., software context switching can be selective and store only those registers that need storing, whereas hardware context switching stores nearly all registers whether they are required or not.	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6,905	Carnatic	Carnatic may refer to: Carnatic region, Southern India Carnatic music, the classical music of Southern India , the name of several ships , a minesweeper of the Royal Indian Navy , the name of several ships of the Royal Navy	[ "Carnatic music", "Canara (disambiguation)", "Carnatic wars", "Carnatic region", "Kannada (disambiguation)", "Carnatic Hall", "ca:Carnàtic", "Karnataka (disambiguation)" ]
6,907	Chakra	A chakra (; ; ) is one of the various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, part of the inner traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. The concept of the chakra arose in Hinduism. Beliefs differ between the Indian religions: Buddhist texts mention four or five chakras, while Hindu sources often have six or seven. The modern "Western chakra system" arose from multiple sources, starting in the 1880s with H. P. Blavatsky and other Theosophists, followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras. Psychological and other attributes, rainbow colours, and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later. == Etymology == Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form *kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (). It has both literal and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11, pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts. In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel". Within the Buddhist scriptures referred to as the Tripitaka, Shakyamuni Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. Shakyamuni Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional. In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature. As in other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center. ==Ancient history== thumb\|Chakra iconography may derive from the five symbols of [[yajna, the Vedic fire altar. The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling". The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunannamā. Literally, it means "she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions. Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE, but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad. The latter, states David Gordon White, were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers, such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti. These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma (lotus) or pitha (mound). ==Overview== The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions. The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions, one "physical body" (sthula sarira) and other "psychological, emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body" (sukshma sarira). This subtle body is energy, while the physical body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other. The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and other motifs. Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture. The meditation is aided by extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened. These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.}} ===Contrast with classical yoga=== Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga. According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it." ==Classical traditions== The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a "subtle body" context. The concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy. ===Hindu tantra=== Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent. This seven-part system, central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many systems found in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six chakras of the six-plus-one system. == Western chakra system == === History === Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras, treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan. Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977. In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland, More recently, the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands. The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white. Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later. The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions, each chakra is associated with a physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, and a classical element; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra. Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in future. == Skeptical response == There is no scientific evidence to prove chakras exist, nor is there any meaningful way to try and measure them scientifically. The Edinburgh Skeptics Society claimed that there has never been any evidence for chakras.	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