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Wikipedia:Complete list of language wikis available
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[] |
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7,118 |
Churnsike Lodge
|
Churnsike Lodge is an early Victorian hunting lodge situated in the parish of Greystead, west Northumberland, England. Constructed in 1850 by the Charlton family, descendants of the noted Border Reivers family of the English Middle March, the lodge formed part of the extensive Hesleyside estate, located some 10 miles from Hesleyside Hall itself.
Consisting of the main house, stable block, hunting-dog kennels and gamekeepers bothy, when the property was acquired by the Chesters Estate in 1887 the 'Cairnsyke' estate consisted of several thousand acres of moorland, much of which was managed to support shooting of the formerly populous black grouse. Although much of this land has now reverted to fellside or has been otherwise managed as part of the commercial timber plantations of Kielder Forest, areas of heather moorland persist, dotted with remnants of the shooting butts. It is with reference to these fells that the 1887 sale catalogue described the estate as being the "Finest grouse moor in the Kingdom".
Historically, the Lodge was home to the Irthing Head and Kielder hounds, regionally renowned and headed by the locally famed fox hunter William Dodd. Dodd, and his hounds, are repeatedly referenced in the traditional Northumbrian ballads of James Armstrong's 'Wanny Blossoms'.
Having fallen into ruin by the 1980s, the property fell into the care of the Forestry Commission and was slated for demolition, as many properties in the area were, until being privately purchased. The former gamekeepers bothy now serves as a holiday-home.
|
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"Victorian era",
"black grouse",
"United Kingdom",
"Northumberland",
"Driven grouse shooting",
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"Ordnance Survey National Grid",
"Hesleyside Hall",
"fell",
"Forestry Commission",
"Kielder Forest",
"Border Reiver",
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"Greystead"
] |
7,119 |
William Kidd
|
William Kidd (c. 1645 – 23 May 1701), also known as Captain William Kidd or simply Captain Kidd, was a Scottish privateer. Conflicting accounts exist regarding his early life, but he was likely born in Dundee and later settled in New York City. By 1690, Kidd had become a highly successful privateer, commissioned to protect English interests in North America and the West Indies.
In 1695, Kidd received a royal commission from the Earl of Bellomont, the governor of New York, Massachusetts Bay and New Hampshire, to hunt down pirates and enemy French ships in the Indian Ocean. He received a letter of marque and set sail on a new ship, Adventure Galley, the following year. On his voyage he failed to find many targets, lost much of his crew and faced threats of mutiny. In 1698, Kidd captured his greatest prize, the 400-ton Quedagh Merchant, a ship hired by Armenian merchants and captained by an Englishman. The political climate in England had turned against him, however, and he was denounced as a pirate. Bellomont engineered Kidd's arrest upon his return to Boston and sent him to stand trial in London. He was found guilty and hanged in 1701.
Kidd was romanticized after his death and his exploits became a popular subject of pirate-themed works of fiction. The belief that he had left buried treasure contributed significantly to his legend, which inspired numerous treasure hunts in the following centuries.
==Life and career==
===Early life and education===
Kidd was born in Dundee, Scotland prior to 15 October 1654. While claims have been made of alternative birthplaces, including Greenock and Belfast, he said himself he came from Dundee in a testimony given by Kidd to the High Court of Admiralty in 1695. There have also been records of his baptism taking place in Dundee. A local society supported the family financially after the death of the father. The myth that his "father was thought to have been a Church of Scotland minister" has been discounted, insofar as there is no mention of the name in comprehensive Church of Scotland records for the period. Others still hold the contrary view.
===Early voyages===
As a young man, Kidd settled in New York City, which the English had taken over from the Dutch. There he befriended many prominent colonial citizens, including three governors. Some accounts suggest that he served as a seaman's apprentice on a pirate ship during this time, before beginning his more famous seagoing exploits as a privateer.
By 1689, Kidd was a member of a French–English pirate crew sailing the Caribbean under Captain Jean Fantin. During one of their voyages, Kidd and other crew members mutinied, ousting the captain and sailing to the British colony of Nevis. There they renamed the ship Blessed William, and Kidd became captain either as a result of election by the ship's crew, or by appointment of Christopher Codrington, governor of the island of Nevis.
Kidd was an experienced leader and sailor by that time, and the Blessed William became part of Codrington's small fleet assembled to defend Nevis from the French, with whom the English were at war. The governor did not pay the sailors for their defensive service, telling them instead to take their pay from the French. Kidd and his men attacked the French island of Marie-Galante, destroying its only town and looting the area, and gathering around 2,000 pounds sterling.
Later, during the War of the Grand Alliance, on commissions from the provinces of New York and Massachusetts Bay, Kidd captured an enemy privateer off the New England coast. Shortly afterwards, he was awarded £150 for successful privateering in the Caribbean. One year later, Captain Robert Culliford, a notorious pirate, stole Kidd's ship while he was ashore at Antigua in the West Indies.
In New York City, Kidd was active in financially supporting the construction of Trinity Church, New York.
On 16 May 1691, Kidd married Sarah Bradley Cox Oort, who was still in her early twenties. She had already been twice widowed and was one of the wealthiest women in New York, based on an inheritance from her first husband.
===Preparing his expedition===
On 11 December 1695, Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont, who was governing New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, asked the "trusty and well beloved Captain Kidd" to attack Thomas Tew, John Ireland, Thomas Wake, William Maze, and all others who associated themselves with pirates, along with any enemy French ships. His request had the weight of the Crown behind it, and Kidd would have been considered disloyal, carrying much social stigma, to refuse Bellomont. This request preceded the voyage that contributed to Kidd's reputation as a pirate and marked his image in history and folklore.
Four-fifths of the cost for the 1696 venture was paid by noble lords, who were among the most powerful men in England: the Earl of Orford, the Baron of Romney, the Duke of Shrewsbury, and Sir John Somers. Kidd was presented with a letter of marque, signed personally by King William III of England, which authorized him as a privateer. This letter reserved 10% of the loot for the Crown, and Henry Gilbert's The Book of Pirates suggests that the King fronted some of the money for the voyage himself. Kidd and his acquaintance Colonel Robert Livingston orchestrated the whole plan; they sought additional funding from merchant Sir Richard Blackham. Kidd also had to sell his ship Antigua to raise funds.
The new ship, Adventure Galley, was well suited to the task of catching pirates, weighing over 284 tons burthen and equipped with 34 cannon, oars, and 150 men. The oars were a key advantage, as they enabled Adventure Galley to manoeuvre in a battle when the winds had calmed and other ships were dead in the water. Kidd took pride in personally selecting the crew, choosing only those whom he deemed to be the best and most loyal officers.
Because of Kidd's refusal to salute, the Navy vessel's captain retaliated by pressing much of Kidd's crew into naval service, despite the captain's strong protests and the general exclusion of privateer crew from such action. Short-handed, Kidd sailed for New York City, capturing a French vessel en route (which was legal under the terms of his commission). To make up for the lack of officers, Kidd picked up replacement crew in New York, the vast majority of whom were known and hardened criminals, some likely former pirates.
Among Kidd's officers was quartermaster Hendrick van der Heul. The quartermaster was considered "second in command" to the captain in pirate culture of this era. It is not clear, however, if Van der Heul exercised this degree of responsibility because Kidd was authorised as a privateer. Van der Heul is notable because he might have been African or of Dutch descent. A contemporary source describes him as a "small black Man". If Van der Heul was of African ancestry, he would be considered the highest-ranking black pirate or privateer so far identified. Van der Heul later became a master's mate on a merchant vessel and was never convicted of piracy.
===Hunting for Pirates===
In September 1696, Kidd weighed anchor and set course for the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. A third of his crew died on the Comoros due to an outbreak of cholera, the brand-new ship developed many leaks, and he failed to find the pirates whom he expected to encounter off Madagascar.
With his ambitious enterprise failing, Kidd became desperate to cover its costs. Yet he failed to attack several ships when given a chance, including a Dutchman and a New York privateer. Both were out of bounds of his commission. The latter would have been considered out of bounds because New York was part of the territories of the Crown, and Kidd was authorised in part by the New York governor. Some of the crew deserted Kidd the next time that Adventure Galley anchored offshore. Those who decided to stay on made constant open threats of mutiny.
Kidd killed one of his own crewmen on 30 October 1697. Kidd's gunner William Moore was on deck sharpening a chisel when a Dutch ship appeared. Moore urged Kidd to attack the Dutchman, an act that would have been considered piratical, since the nation was not at war with England, but also certain to anger Dutch-born King William. Kidd refused, calling Moore a lousy dog. Moore retorted, "If I am a lousy dog, you have made me so; you have brought me to ruin and many more." Kidd reportedly dropped an ironbound bucket on Moore, fracturing his skull. Moore died the following day.
Seventeenth-century English admiralty law allowed captains great leeway in using violence against their crew, but killing was not permitted. Kidd said to his ship's surgeon that he had "good friends in England, that will bring me off for that".
===Accusations of piracy===
Escaped prisoners told stories of being hoisted up by the arms and "drubbed" (thrashed) with a drawn cutlass by Kidd. On one occasion, crew members sacked the trading ship Mary and tortured several of its crew members while Kidd and the other captain, Thomas Parker, conversed privately in Kidd's cabin.
Kidd was declared a pirate very early in his voyage by a Royal Navy officer, to whom he had promised "thirty men or so". The letter of marque was intended to protect a privateer's crew from such impressment.
On 30 January 1698, Kidd raised French colours and took his greatest prize, the 400-ton Quedagh Merchant, an Indian ship hired by Armenian merchants. It was loaded with satins, muslins, gold, silver, and a variety of East Indian merchandise, as well as extremely valuable silks. The captain of Quedagh Merchant was an Englishman named Wright, who had purchased passes from the French East India Company promising him the protection of the French Crown.
When news of his capture of this ship reached England, however, officials classified Kidd as a pirate. Various naval commanders were ordered to "pursue and seize the said Kidd and his accomplices" for the "notorious piracies" they had committed.
On 1 April 1698, Kidd reached Madagascar. After meeting privately with trader Tempest Rogers (who would later be accused of trading and selling Kidd's looted East India goods), he found the first pirate of his voyage, Robert Culliford (the same man who had stolen Kidd's ship at Antigua years before) and his crew aboard Mocha Frigate.
Two contradictory accounts exist of how Kidd proceeded. According to A General History of the Pyrates, published more than 25 years after the event by an author whose identity is disputed by historians, Kidd made peaceful overtures to Culliford: he "drank their Captain's health", swearing that "he was in every respect their Brother", and gave Culliford "a Present of an Anchor and some Guns". This account appears to be based on the testimony of Kidd's crewmen Joseph Palmer and Robert Bradinham at his trial.
The other version was presented by Richard Zacks in his 2002 book The Pirate Hunter: The True Story of Captain Kidd. According to Zacks, Kidd was unaware that Culliford had only about 20 crew with him, and felt ill-manned and ill-equipped to take Mocha Frigate until his two prize ships and crews arrived. He decided to leave Culliford alone until these reinforcements arrived. After Adventure Prize and Rouparelle reached port, Kidd ordered his crew to attack Culliford's Mocha Frigate. However, his crew refused to attack Culliford and threatened instead to shoot Kidd. Zacks does not refer to any source for his version of events.
Both accounts agree that most of Kidd's men abandoned him for Culliford. Only 13 remained with Adventure Galley. Deciding to return home, Kidd left the Adventure Galley behind, ordering her to be burnt because she had become worm-eaten and leaky. Before burning the ship, he salvaged every last scrap of metal, such as hinges. With the loyal remnant of his crew, he returned to the Caribbean aboard the Adventure Prize,
The 1698 Act of Grace, which offered a royal pardon to pirates in the Indian Ocean, specifically exempted Kidd (and Henry Every) from receiving a pardon, Kidd became aware both that he was wanted and that he could not make use of the Act of Grace upon his arrival in Anguilla, his first port of call since St. Augustine's Bay. and continued towards New York aboard a sloop. He deposited some of his treasure on Gardiners Island, hoping to use his knowledge of its location as a bargaining tool. Kidd landed in Oyster Bay to avoid mutinous crew who had gathered in New York City. To avoid them, Kidd sailed around the eastern tip of Long Island, and doubled back along the Sound to Oyster Bay. He felt this was a safer passage than the highly trafficked Narrows between Staten Island and Brooklyn.
New York Governor Bellomont, also an investor, was away in Boston, Massachusetts. Aware of the accusations against Kidd, Bellomont was afraid of being implicated in piracy himself and believed that presenting Kidd to England in chains was his best chance to survive. He lured Kidd into Boston with false promises of clemency, and ordered him arrested on 6 July 1699. Kidd was placed in Stone Prison, spending most of the time in solitary confinement. His wife, Sarah, was also arrested and imprisoned. They were separated and she never saw him again.
The conditions of Kidd's imprisonment were extremely harsh, and were said to have driven him at least temporarily insane.
The civil government had changed and the new Tory ministry hoped to use Kidd as a tool to discredit the Whigs who had backed him, but Kidd refused to name names, naively confident his patrons would reward his loyalty by interceding on his behalf. There is speculation that he could have been spared had he talked. Finding Kidd politically useless, the Tory leaders sent him to stand trial before the High Court of Admiralty in London, for the charges of piracy on high seas and the murder of William Moore. Whilst awaiting trial, Kidd was confined in the infamous Newgate Prison, regarded even by the standards of the day as a disgusting hellhole, and was held there for almost 2 years before his trial even began.
Kidd had two lawyers to assist in his defense. However, the money that the Admiralty had set aside for his defense was misplaced until right before the trial’s start, and he had no legal counsel until the morning that the trial started and had time for just one brief consultation with them before it began. He was shocked to learn at his trial that he was charged with murder. He was found guilty on all charges (murder and five counts of piracy) and sentenced to death. He was hanged in a public execution on 23 May 1701, at Execution Dock, Wapping, in London. Kidd’s remains were either buried in the riverbank near where he was executed or more probably taken for the ignominious process of public dissection by surgeons, a common fate for executed persons (e.g. Hogarth's Tom Nero).
Of Kidd's associates, Gabriel Loffe, Able Owens, and Hugh Parrot were also convicted of piracy. They were pardoned just prior to hanging at Execution Dock. Robert Lamley, William Jenkins and Richard Barleycorn were released.
Kidd's Whig backers were embarrassed by his trial. Far from rewarding his loyalty, they participated in the effort to convict him by depriving him of the money and information which might have provided him with some legal defence. In particular, the two sets of French passes he had kept were missing at his trial. These passes (and others dated 1700) resurfaced in the early 20th century, misfiled with other government papers in a London building. These passes confirm Kidd's version of events, and call the extent of his guilt as a pirate into question.
A broadside song, "Captain Kidd's Farewell to the Seas, or, the Famous Pirate's Lament", was printed shortly after his execution. It popularised the common belief that Kidd had confessed to the charges.
==Mythology and legend==
The belief that Kidd had left buried treasure contributed greatly to the growth of his legend. The 1701 broadside song "Captain Kid's Farewell to the Seas, or, the Famous Pirate's Lament" lists "Two hundred bars of gold, and rix dollars manifold, we seized uncontrolled".
It also inspired numerous treasure hunts conducted on Oak Island in Nova Scotia; in Suffolk County, Long Island in New York where Gardiner's Island is located; Charles Island in Milford, Connecticut; the Thimble Islands in Connecticut and Cockenoe Island in Westport, Connecticut.
Kidd was also alleged to have buried treasure on the Rahway River in New Jersey across the Arthur Kill from Staten Island.
Captain Kidd did bury a small cache of treasure on Gardiners Island off the eastern coast of Long Island, New York, in a spot known as Cherry Tree Field. Governor Bellomont reportedly had it found and sent to England to be used as evidence against Kidd in his trial.
Some time in the 1690s, Kidd visited Block Island where he was supplied with provisions by Mrs. Mercy (Sands) Raymond, daughter of the mariner James Sands. It was said that before he departed, Kidd asked Mrs. Raymond to hold out her apron, which he then filled with gold and jewels as payment for her hospitality. After her husband Joshua Raymond died, Mercy moved with her family to northern New London, Connecticut (later Montville), where she purchased much land. The Raymond family was said by family acquaintances to have been "enriched by the apron".
On Grand Manan in the Bay of Fundy, as early as 1875, there were searches on the west side of the island for treasure allegedly buried by Kidd during his time as a privateer. For nearly 200 years, this remote area of the island has been called "Money Cove".
In 1983, Cork Graham and Richard Knight searched for Captain Kidd's buried treasure off the Vietnamese island of Phú Quốc. Knight and Graham were caught, convicted of illegally landing on Vietnamese territory, and each assessed a $10,000 fine. They were imprisoned for 11 months until they paid the fine.
==Quedagh Merchant found==
For years, people and treasure hunters tried to locate Quedagh Merchant. It was reported on 13 December 2007 that "wreckage of a pirate ship abandoned by Captain Kidd in the 17th century has been found by divers in shallow waters off the Dominican Republic". Charles Beeker, the director of Academic Diving and Underwater Science Programs in Indiana University (Bloomington)'s School of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, was one of the experts leading the Indiana University diving team. He said that it was "remarkable that the wreck has remained undiscovered all these years given its location", and that the ship had been the subject of so many prior failed searches. Captain Kidd's cannon, an artifact from the shipwreck, was added to a permanent exhibit at The Children's Museum of Indianapolis in 2011.
==False find==
In May 2015, a ingot expected to be silver was found in a wreck off the coast of Île Sainte-Marie in Madagascar by a team led by marine archaeologist Barry Clifford. It was believed to be part of Captain Kidd's treasure. Clifford gave the booty to Hery Rajaonarimampianina, President of Madagascar. But, in July 2015, a UNESCO scientific and technical advisory body reported that testing showed the ingot consisted of 95% lead, and speculated that the wreck in question was a broken part of the Sainte-Marie port constructions.
==Portrayals in popular culture==
===Literature===
In a short story The Devil and Tom Walker by Washington Irving, the title character finds Kidd's treasure, hidden in a swamp near Boston, by selling his soul to the Devil. The account of Kidd's life and legends of his treasures are told in Irving's Tales of a Traveller collection's story Kidd the Pirate.
Edgar Allan Poe uses the legend of Kidd's buried treasure in his story "The Gold Bug" (1843).
In L. Frank Baum's children's fantasy The Sea Fairies (1911), the sea serpent King Anko lists Captain Kidd among the historical figures he has met over the course of his long life, and insists that the Captain's real name was Captain Kid Glove.
The 1957 children's book Captain Kidd's Cat by Robert Lawson is a largely fictionalised account of Kidd's last voyage, trial and execution. It is told from the point of view of his loyal ship's cat. The book portrays Kidd as an innocent privateer who was framed by corrupt officials as a scapegoat for their own crimes.
In the popular manga One Piece, "Captain" Eustass Kid is based on him.
Bob Dylan used Captain Kidd in the lyrics to "Bob Dylan's 115th Dream".
A fictionalized version of Captain Kidd is featured in Ghostbusters: Dead Man's Chest.
===Film and television===
A "funny animal" version of Captain Kidd (John R. Gurney) antagonises Felix the Cat in the Van Beuren Studios short The Goose That Laid the Golden Egg (1936), part of the Rainbow Parade series.
Stanley Andrews as Kidd in Captain Kidd's Treasure (Short 1938).
Charles Laughton played Kidd twice on film: in Captain Kidd (1945) and in Abbott and Costello Meet Captain Kidd (1952).
John Crawford played Kidd in the 1953 Columbia film serial The Great Adventures of Captain Kidd.
Love Nystrom portrayed Kidd in the 2006 mini-series Blackbeard.
Noah Robbins played William Benedict, a man who used the alias of Captain Kidd in the 11th episode of Season 8 of the TV series The Blacklist.
===Music===
The traditional folk song "The Ballad of Captain Kidd" was popular from its publication at the time of Kidd's death, surviving in the oral tradition into the twentieth century and giving its melody to the hymn "What Wondrous Love Is This".
The song "Ballad of William Kidd" by the heavy metal band Running Wild is based on Kidd's life, particularly the events surrounding his trial and execution.
Canadian band Great Big Sea wrote and recorded the ballad "Captain Kidd". It is a sea chantey with many historically accurate allusions to the life of William Kidd.
He is mentioned in "The Land of Make Believe" by Bucks Fizz.
===Video games===
In Persona 5 and its related titles, Captain Kidd is the Persona of party member Ryuji Sakamoto, which appears as a skeleton dressed as a stylised pirate riding a ship. Likewise, Ryuji's Third-Tier Persona is called William and has a sci-fi motif mixed with pirates.
In Assassin's Creed III, one of the series of side missions involves finding William Kidd's treasure by handing trinkets over for locations where each piece of a treasure map of Kidd's treasure is.
In Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag, the character Mary Read, in order to facilitate her career as a pirate, poses as James Kidd, an illegitimate son of the late William Kidd.
|
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] |
7,120 |
Calreticulin
|
Calreticulin also known as calregulin, CRP55, CaBP3, calsequestrin-like protein, and endoplasmic reticulum resident protein 60 (ERp60) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CALR gene.
Calreticulin is a multifunctional soluble protein that binds Ca2+ ions (a second messenger in signal transduction), rendering them inactive. The Ca2+ is bound with low affinity, but high capacity, and can be released on a signal (see inositol trisphosphate). Calreticulin is located in storage compartments associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and is considered an ER resident protein. is considered to be the same as calreticulin by some sources.
== Function ==
Calreticulin binds to misfolded proteins and prevents them from being exported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.
A similar quality-control molecular chaperone, calnexin, performs the same service for soluble proteins as does calreticulin, however it is a membrane-bound protein. Both proteins, calnexin and calreticulin, have the function of binding to oligosaccharides containing terminal glucose residues, thereby targeting them for degradation. Calreticulin and Calnexin's ability to bind carbohydrates associates them with the lectin protein family. In normal cellular function, trimming of glucose residues off the core oligosaccharide added during N-linked glycosylation is a part of protein processing. If "overseer" enzymes note that residues are misfolded, proteins within the rER will re-add glucose residues so that other calreticulin/calnexin can bind to these proteins and prevent them from proceeding to the Golgi. This leads these aberrantly folded proteins down a path whereby they are targeted for degradation.
Studies on transgenic mice reveal that calreticulin is a cardiac embryonic gene that is essential during development.
Calreticulin and calnexin are also integral in the production of MHC class I proteins. As newly synthesized MHC class I α-chains enter the endoplasmic reticulum, calnexin binds on to them retaining them in a partly folded state. After the β2-microglobulin binds to the peptide-loading complex (PLC), calreticulin (along with ERp57) takes over the job of chaperoning the MHC class I protein while the tapasin links the complex to the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) complex. This association prepares the MHC class I to bind an antigen for presentation on the cell surface.
=== Transcription regulation ===
Calreticulin is also found in the nucleus, suggesting that it may have a role in transcription regulation. Calreticulin binds to the synthetic peptide KLGFFKR, which is almost identical to an amino acid sequence in the DNA-binding domain of the superfamily of nuclear receptors. The amino terminus of calreticulin interacts with the DNA-binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor and prevents the receptor from binding to its specific glucocorticoid response element. Calreticulin can inhibit the binding of androgen receptor to its hormone-responsive DNA element and can inhibit androgen receptor and retinoic acid receptor transcriptional activities in vivo, as well as retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation. Thus, calreticulin can act as an important modulator of the regulation of gene transcription by nuclear hormone receptors.
== Clinical significance ==
Calreticulin binds to antibodies in certain area of systemic lupus and Sjögren patients that contain anti-Ro/SSA antibodies. Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with increased autoantibody titers against calreticulin, but calreticulin is not a Ro/SS-A antigen. Earlier papers referred to calreticulin as an Ro/SS-A antigen, but this was later disproven. Increased autoantibody titer against human calreticulin is found in infants with complete congenital heart block of both the IgG and IgM classes.
In 2013, two groups detected calreticulin mutations in a majority of JAK2-negative/MPL-negative patients with essential thrombocythemia and primary myelofibrosis, which makes CALR mutations the second most common in myeloproliferative neoplasms. All mutations (insertions or deletions) affected the last exon, generating a reading frame shift of the resulting protein, that creates a novel terminal peptide and causes a loss of endoplasmic reticulum KDEL retention signal.
== Role in cancer ==
Calreticulin (CRT) is expressed in many cancer cells and plays a role to promote macrophages to engulf hazardous cancerous cells. The reason why most of the cells are not destroyed is the presence of another molecule with signal CD47, which blocks CRT. Hence antibodies that block CD47 might be useful as a cancer treatment. In mice models of myeloid leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, anti-CD47 were effective in clearing cancer cells while normal cells were unaffected.
== Interactions ==
Calreticulin has been shown to interact with Perforin and NK2 homeobox 1.
|
[
"retinoic acid receptor",
"macrophage",
"nuclear receptor",
"Immunoglobulin G",
"valence (chemistry)",
"chaperone (protein)",
"lectin",
"glycosylation",
"rough endoplasmic reticulum",
"transporter associated with antigen processing",
"ER retention",
"inositol trisphosphate",
"calcium",
"NK2 homeobox 1",
"DNA-binding domain",
"thrombopoietin receptor",
"calnexin",
"glucocorticoid receptor",
"synthetic peptide",
"N-terminus",
"protein–protein interaction",
"Perforin",
"antibody",
"IgM",
"Janus kinase 2",
"androgen receptor",
"MHC class I",
"Golgi apparatus",
"Anti-SSA/Ro autoantibodies",
"chemical affinity",
"non-Hodgkin lymphoma",
"tapasin",
"gene",
"signal transduction",
"oligosaccharide",
"CD47",
"endoplasmic reticulum",
"myeloproliferative disease",
"ion",
"protein",
"Lupus erythematosus",
"Frameshift mutation",
"glucocorticoid response element",
"ERp57",
"myelofibrosis",
"essential thrombocythemia",
"second messenger",
"myeloid leukemia",
"Sjögren syndrome"
] |
7,122 |
Crannog
|
A crannog (; ; ) is typically a partially or entirely artificial island, usually constructed in lakes, bogs and estuarine waters of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Unlike the prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps, which were built on shores and not inundated until later, crannogs were built in the water, thus forming artificial islands.
Humans have inhabited crannogs over five millennia, from the European Neolithic Period to as late as the 17th/early-18th centuries. As a result, crannogs made completely of stone and supporting drystone architecture are common there.
==Etymology and uncertain meanings==
The Irish word derives from Old Irish , which referred to a wooden structure or vessel, stemming from crann, which means "tree", suffixed with "-óg" which is a diminutive ending ultimately borrowed from Welsh. The suffix -óg is sometimes misunderstood by non-native Irish-speakers as óg, which is a separate word that means "young". This misunderstanding leads to a folk etymology whereby crannóg is misanalysed as crann óg, which is pronounced differently and means "a young tree". The modern sense of the term first appears sometime around the 12th century; its popularity spread in the medieval period along with the terms isle, ylle, inis, eilean or oileán.
There is some confusion on what the term crannog originally referred to, as the structure atop the island or the island itself. The Scottish Gaelic form is and has the additional meanings of 'pulpit' and 'churn'. Thus, there is no real consensus on what the term crannog actually implies, although the modern adoption in the English language broadly refers to a partially or completely artificial islet that saw use from the prehistoric to the Post-Medieval period in Ireland and Scotland. while Scotland has 389 sites officially listed as such. The actual number in Scotland varies considerably depending on definition—between about 350 and 500, due to the use of the term "island dun" for well over one hundred Hebridean examples—a distinction that has created a divide between mainland Scottish crannog and Hebridean islet settlement studies. Previously unknown crannogs in Scotland and Ireland are still being found as underwater surveys continue to investigate loch beds for completely submerged examples.
The largest concentrations of crannogs in Ireland are found in the Drumlin Belt of the Midlands, North and Northwest. In Scotland, crannogs are mostly found on the western coast, with high concentrations in Argyll and Dumfries and Galloway. In reality, the Western Isles contain the highest density of lake-settlements in Scotland, yet they are recognised under varying terms besides "crannog". One lone Welsh example exists at Llangorse Lake, probably a product of Irish influence.
In Ireland, crannogs were most prevalent in Connacht and Ulster; where they were built on bogs and small lakes such as Lough Conn and Lough Gara, while being less frequent on larger lakes such as Lough Erne, or rivers such as the Shannon. Today, crannogs typically appear as small, circular islets, often in diameter, covered in dense vegetation due to their inaccessibility to grazing livestock.
==Types and problems with definition==
Crannogs took on many different forms and methods of construction based on what was available in the immediate landscape. The classic image of a prehistoric crannog stems from both post-medieval illustrations The Milton Loch interpretation is of a small islet surrounded or defined at its edges by timber piles and a gangway, topped by a typical Iron Age roundhouse.
The choice of a small islet as a home may seem odd today, yet waterways were the main channels for both communication and travel until the 19th century in much of Ireland and, especially, Highland Scotland. Crannogs are traditionally interpreted as simple prehistorical farmsteads. They are also interpreted as boltholes in times of danger, as status symbols with limited access, and as inherited locations of power that imply a sense of legitimacy and ancestry towards ownership of the surrounding landscape.
A strict definition of a crannog, which has long been debated, requires the use of timber.
Hebridean island dwellings or crannogs were commonly built on both natural and artificial islets, usually reached by a stone causeway. The visible structural remains are traditionally interpreted as duns or, in more recent terminology, as "Atlantic roundhouses". This terminology has recently become popular when describing the entire range of robust, drystone structures that existed in later prehistoric Atlantic Scotland. In some early digs, labourers hauled away tons of materials, with little regard to anything that was not of immediate economic value. Conversely, the vast majority of early attempts at proper excavation failed to accurately measure or record stratigraphy, thereby failing to provide a secure context for artefact finds. Thus only extremely limited interpretations are possible. Preservation and conservation techniques for waterlogged materials such as logboats or structural material were all but non-existent, and a number of extremely important finds were destroyed as a result; in some instances, they were even dried out for firewood. In contrast, relatively few crannogs have been excavated since the Second World War. This number has steadily grown, especially since the early 1980s, and may soon surpass prewar totals. The overwhelming majority of crannogs show multiple phases of occupation and re-use, often extending over centuries. Thus the re-occupiers may have viewed crannogs as a legacy that was alive in local tradition and memory.
Crannog reoccupation is important and significant, especially in the many instances of crannogs built near natural islets, which were often completely unused. This long chronology of use has been verified by both radiocarbon dating and more precisely by dendrochronology.
==History==
The earliest-known constructed crannog is the completely artificial Neolithic islet of Eilean Dòmhnuill, Loch Olabhat on North Uist in Scotland. Eilean Domhnuill Recent radiocarbon dating of worked timber found in Loch Bhorghastail on the Isle of Lewis has produced evidence of crannogs as old as 3380–3630 BC. Prior to the Bronze Age, the existence of artificial island settlement in Ireland is not as clear. While lakeside settlements are evident in Ireland from 4500 BC, these settlements are not crannogs, as they were not intended to be islands. Despite having a lengthy chronology, their use was not at all consistent or unchanging.
Crannog construction and occupation was at its peak in Scotland from about 800 BC to AD 200. but funding was given to repair the structure, and conserve the museum materials retained. The UNESCO Chair in Refugee Integration through Languages and the Arts, Alison Phipps of Glasgow University and African artist Tawona Sithole considered its future and its impact as a symbol of common human history and 'potent ways of healing' including restarting the creative weaving with Soay sheep wool in 'a thousand touches'.
== Footnotes ==
|
[
"North Uist",
"Northern Ireland",
"Samhain",
"Midsummer",
"Alison Phipps (refugee researcher)",
"County Monaghan",
"Deep foundation",
"Craggaunowen",
"deer",
"Scandinavian Scotland",
"Tempus Publishing",
"lake",
"Llangorse Lake",
"prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps",
"Ulster",
"Airgíalla",
"dendrochronology",
"radiocarbon",
"pulpit",
"Outer Hebrides",
"UNESCO",
"Neolithic era",
"Eilean Dòmhnuill",
"estuary",
"Milton Loch",
"County Clare",
"Bronze Age",
"diminutive",
"cattle",
"Monaghan",
"Bronze Age Britain",
"Pig",
"radiocarbon dating",
"Soay sheep",
"Routledge",
"Connacht",
"County Wexford",
"Isle of Lewis",
"Iron Age Britain",
"Dumfries and Galloway",
"Antiquity (journal)",
"Irish Texts Society",
"Ballinderry, Mid Ulster",
"Argyll",
"dry stone",
"Dugout canoe",
"Peggy Guido",
"Wales",
"Butter churn",
"crow's nest",
"World War II",
"Lough Erne",
"Castle Espie",
"dun (fortification)",
"Lough Conn",
"Old Irish",
"confidence level",
"Irish National Heritage Park",
"artificial island",
"University of Glasgow",
"Perthshire",
"mortise and tenon",
"Lough Gara",
"Scottish Gaelic",
"folk etymology",
"Neolithic",
"Second World War",
"County Down",
"River Shannon",
"Scotland",
"Inner Seas off the West Coast of Scotland",
"Lughnasadh",
"bog",
"Island castle",
"revetment",
"Ireland",
"stratigraphy",
"Loch Tay"
] |
7,123 |
Calendar date
|
A calendar date is a reference to a particular day, represented within a calendar system, enabling a specific day to be unambiguously identified. Simple math can be performed between dates; commonly, the number of days between two dates may be calculated, e.g., "25 " is ten days after "15 ". The date of a particular event depends on the time zone used to record it. For example, the air attack on Pearl Harbor that began at 7:48 a.m. local Hawaiian time (HST) on 7 December 1941 is recorded equally as having happened on 8 December at 3:18 a.m. Japan Standard Time (JST).
A particular day may be assigned a different nominal date according to the calendar used. The de facto standard for recording dates worldwide is the Gregorian calendar, the world's most widely used civil calendar. Many cultures use religious calendars such as the Gregorian (Western Christendom, AD), the Julian calendar (Eastern Christendom, AD), Hebrew calendar (Judaism, AM), the Hijri calendars (Islam, AH), or any other of the many calendars used around the world. Regnal calendars (that record a date in terms of years since the beginning of the monarch's reign) are also used in some places, for particular purposes.
In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the (numbered) day of the month, the month, and the (numbered) year. There may also be additional parts, such as the day of the week. Years are counted from a particular starting point called the epoch, with era referring to the span of time since that epoch. A date without the year may also be referred to as a date or calendar date (such as " " rather than " "). As such, it is either shorthand for the current year, or else it defines the day of an annual event such as a birthday on 31 May or Christmas on 25 December.
==Date format==
There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components. These variations use the sample date of 31 May 2006: (e.g. 31/05/2006, 05/31/2006, 2006/05/31), component separators (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31/05/2006, 31-05-2006), whether leading zeros are included (e.g. 31/5/2006 vs. 31/05/2006), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.2006 vs. 31.05.06), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31.V.2006 vs. 31 May 2006).
===Gregorian, day–month–year (DMY) ===
This little-endian sequence is used by a majority of the world and is the preferred form by the United Nations when writing the full date format in official documents. This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as "the Nth day of [month] in the year of our Lord [year]" in Western religious and legal documents. The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant. The following examples use the date of 9 November 2006. (With the years 2000–2009, care must be taken to ensure that two digit years do not intend to be 1900–1909 or other similar years.) The dots have a function of ordinal dot.
"9 November 2006" or "9. November 2006" (the latter is common in German-speaking regions)
9/11/2006 or 09/11/2006
09.11.2006 or 9.11.2006
9. 11. 2006
9-11-2006 or 09-11-2006
09-Nov-2006
09Nov06 – Used, including in the U.S., where space needs to be saved by skipping punctuation (often seen on the dateline of Internet news articles).
[The] 9th [of] November 2006 – 'The' and 'of' are often spoken but generally omitted in all but the most formal writing such as legal documents.
09/Nov/2006 – used in the Common Log Format
Thursday, 9 November 2006
9/xi/06, 9.xi.06, 9-xi.06, 9/xi-06, 9.XI.2006, 9. XI. 2006 or 9 XI 2006 (using the Roman numeral for the month) – In the past, this was a common and typical way of distinguishing day from month and was widely used in many countries, but recently this practice has been affected by the general retreat from the use of Roman numerals. This is usually confined to handwriting only and is not put into any form of print. It is associated with a number of schools and universities. It has also been used by the Vatican as an alternative to using months named after Roman deities. It is used on Canadian postmarks as a bilingual form of the month. It was also commonly used in the Soviet Union, in both handwriting and print.
9 November 2006 CE or 9 November 2006 AD
===Gregorian, year–month–day (YMD) ===
In this format, the most significant data item is written before lesser data items i.e. the year before the month before the day. It is consistent with the big-endianness of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which progresses from the highest to the lowest order magnitude. That is, using this format textual orderings and chronological orderings are identical. This form is standard in East Asia, Iran, Lithuania, Hungary, and Sweden; and some other countries to a limited extent.
Examples for the 9th of November 2003:
2003-11-09: the standard Internet date/time format, a profile of the international standard ISO 8601, orders the components of a date like this, and additionally uses leading zeros, for example, 1996-05-01, to be easily read and sorted by computers. It is used with UTC in RFC 3339. This format is also favored in certain Asian countries, mainly East Asian countries, as well as in some European countries. The big-endian convention is also frequently used in Canada, but all three conventions are used there (both endians and the American MMDDYYYY format are allowed on Canadian bank cheques provided that the layout of the cheque makes it clear which style is to be used).
2003 November 9
2003Nov9 or 2003Nov09
2003-Nov-9 or 2003-Nov-09
2003-Nov-9, Sunday
2003. 9. – The official format in Hungary, point after year and day, month name with small initial. Following shorter formats also can be used: 2003. . 9., 2003. 11. 9., 2003. XI. 9.
2003.11.9 using dots and no leading zeros, common in China.
2003.11.09
2003/11/09 using slashes and leading zeros, common in Japan on the Internet.
2003/11/9
03/11/09
20031109 : the "basic format" profile of ISO 8601, an 8-digit number providing monotonic date codes, common in computing and increasingly used in dated computer file names. It is used in the standard iCalendar file format defined in RFC 5545. A big advantage of the ISO 8601 "basic format" is that a simple textual sort is equivalent to a sort by date.
It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 9 November 2003, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.
===Gregorian, month–day–year (MDY)===
This sequence is used primarily in the Philippines and the United States. It is also used to varying extents in Canada (though never in Quebec). This date format was commonly used alongside the little-endian form in the United Kingdom until the mid-20th century and can be found in both defunct and modern print media such as the London Gazette and The Times, respectively. This format was also commonly used by several English-language print media in many former British colonies and also one of two formats commonly used in India during British Raj era until the mid-20th century.
Thursday, November 9, 2006
November 9, 2006
Nov 9, 2006
Nov-9-2006
Nov-09-2006
11/9/2006 or 11/09/2006
11-09-2006 or 11-9-2006
11.09.2006 or 11.9.2006
11.09.06
11/09/06
Modern style guides recommend avoiding the use of the ordinal (e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 2024), and that format is not included in ISO standards. The ordinal was common in the past and is still sometimes used ([the] 4th [of] July or July 4th).
===Gregorian, year–day–month (YDM)===
This date format is used in Kazakhstan, Latvia, Nepal, and Turkmenistan. According to the official rules of documenting dates by governmental authorities, the long date format in Kazakh is written in the year–day–month order, e.g. 2006 5 April (). However, both Latvia and Kazakhstan use the day-month-year format (DD.MM.YYYY or DD/MM/YYYY) for all-numeric dates.
===Standards===
There are several standards that specify date formats:
ISO 8601 Data elements and interchange formats – Information interchange – Representation of dates and times specifies YYYY-MM-DD (the separators are optional, but only hyphens are allowed to be used), where all values are fixed length numeric, but also allows YYYY-DDD, where DDD is the ordinal number of the day within the year, e.g. 2001–365.
RFC 3339 Date and Time on the Internet: Timestamps specifies YYYY-MM-DD, i.e. a particular subset of the options allowed by ISO 8601.
RFC 5322 Internet Message Format specifies day month year where day is one or two digits, month is a three letter month abbreviation, and year is four digits.
===Difficulties===
Many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits, with no context. For example, "07/08/06" could refer to either 7 August 2006 or July 8, 2006 (or 1906, or the sixth year of any century), or 2007 August 6.
The date format of YYYY-MM-DD in ISO 8601, as well as other international standards, have been adopted for many applications for reasons including reducing transnational ambiguity and simplifying machine processing.
An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as extremely problematic, because of the year 2000 problem. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.
When transitioning from one calendar or date notation to another, a format that includes both styles may be developed; for example Old Style and New Style dates in the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar.
==Advantages for ordering in sequence==
One of the advantages of using the ISO 8601 date format is that the lexicographical order (ASCIIbetical) of the representations is equivalent to the chronological order of the dates, assuming that all dates are in the same time zone. Thus dates can be sorted using simple string comparison algorithms, and indeed by any left to right collation. For example:
2003-02-28 (28 February 2003) sorts before
2006-03-01 (1 March 2006) which sorts before
2015-01-30 (30 January 2015)
The YYYY-MM-DD layout is the only common format that can provide this. Sorting other date representations involves some parsing of the date strings. This also works when a time in 24-hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.
ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human-readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO 8601 for display. All modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files' names.
==Specialized usage==
===Day and year only===
The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, known to them as the "Julian date format", which indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed). For example, "11 December 1999" can be written in some contexts as "1999345" or "99345", for the 345th day of 1999. This system is most often used in US military logistics since it simplifies the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates. For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to South Korea. If the engine is sent on 06104 (Friday, 14 April 2006), it should arrive on 06139 (Friday, 19 May). Outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the Internal Revenue Service, this format is usually referred to as "ordinal date", rather than "Julian date".
Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs (especially those for mainframe systems). Using a three-digit Julian day number saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, for example, "January 17" is 017 in Julian versus 0117 in month-day format. OS/390 or its successor, z/OS, display dates in yy.ddd format for most operations.
UNIX time stores time as a number in seconds since the beginning of the UNIX Epoch (1970-01-01).
Another "ordinal" date system ("ordinal" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day) is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this "logistics" system. The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is highly useful to both groups of specialists. The astronomers describe their system as also being a "Julian date" system.
===Week number used===
Companies in Europe often use year, week number, and day for planning purposes. So, for example, an event in a project can happen on (week 43) or (Monday, week 43) or, if the year needs to be indicated, on (the year 2006, week 43; i.e., Monday 23OctoberSunday 29October 2006).
An ISO week-numbering year has 52 or 53 full weeks. That is 364 or 371 days instead of the conventional Gregorian year of 365 or 366 days. These 53 week years occur on all years that have Thursday as 1 January and on leap years that start on Wednesday the 1 January. The extra week is sometimes referred to as a 'leap week', although ISO 8601 does not use this term.
===Expressing dates in spoken English===
In English-language outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as 7 December 1941 (or 7th December 1941) and spoken as "the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one" (exceedingly common usage of "the" and "of"), with the occasional usage of December 7, 1941 ("December the seventh, nineteen forty-one"). In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.
In Canada and the United States, the usual written form is December 7, 1941, spoken as "December seventh, nineteen forty-one" or colloquially "December the seventh, nineteen forty-one". Ordinal numerals, however, are not always used when writing and pronouncing dates, and "December seven, nineteen forty-one" is also an accepted pronunciation of the date written December 7, 1941. A notable exception to this rule is the Fourth of July (U.S. Independence Day).
|
[
"bilingual",
"Hijri year",
"The Times",
"Full stop",
"ordinal date",
"Islam",
"day of the week",
"Philippines",
"UTC",
"ASCIIbetical",
"slash (punctuation)",
"Federal Information Processing Standard",
"Ordinal number (linguistics)",
"Soviet Union",
"UNIX time",
"Julian date",
"YMD date",
"MDY date",
"epoch",
"IETF",
"iCalendar",
"Category:Calendar algorithms",
"dateline",
"Roman numerals",
"Kazakhstan",
"year",
"Canada",
"Fourth of July",
"civil calendar",
"adoption of the Gregorian calendar",
"United States",
"British Raj",
"Hungary",
"London Gazette",
"ordinal dot",
"East Asian",
"time zone",
"era",
"Latvia",
"Year 2000 problem",
"Common Log Format",
"Hindu–Arabic numeral system",
"Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone",
"Japan Standard Time",
"Old Style and New Style dates",
"punctuation",
"list of calendars",
"Quebec",
"Turkmenistan",
"Operating Systems",
"lexicographical order",
"Calendrical Calculations",
"China",
"Date and time representation by country",
"Arabic numerals",
"Asia",
"de facto standard",
"ISO",
"day",
"calendar",
"United Nations",
"English language",
"z/OS",
"YMD",
"Regnal year",
"German language",
"leap week",
"Anno Domini",
"year 2000 problem",
"OS/390",
"World Wide Web Consortium",
"month",
"ISO week date",
"Common Era",
"Islamic calendar",
"collation",
"dual dating",
"Hebrew calendar",
"Nepal",
"Judaism",
"parsing",
"Independence Day (United States)",
"RFC 5322",
"Internal Revenue Service",
"Western Christianity",
"Julian calendar",
"ISO 8601",
"Gregorian calendar",
"Orthodoxy",
"Anno Mundi",
"monotonic",
"Japan",
"Endianness"
] |
7,124 |
Cist
|
In archeology, a cist (; also kist ;
ultimately from ; cognate to ) or cist grave is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead. In some ways, it is similar to the deeper shaft tomb. Examples occur across Europe and in the Middle East.
A cist may have formerly been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a cairn or a long barrow. Several cists are sometimes found close together within the same cairn or barrow. Often ornaments have been found within an excavated cist, indicating the wealth or prominence of the interred individual.
This old word is preserved in the Nordic languages as in Swedish and in Danish and Norwegian, where it is the word for a funerary coffin. In English the term is related to cistern and to chest.
== Regional examples ==
England
Teffont Evias, England
Estonia
Jõelähtme (Rebala) stone-cist graves, Harju County
Guatemala
Mundo Perdido, Tikal, Petén Department
Ireland
Knockmaree Dolmen, Phoenix Park, Dublin
Israel
Tel Kabri (Area A), Upper Galilee
Latvia
Batariņi
Scotland
Balblair cist, Beauly, Inverness
Dunan Aula, Craignish, Argyll and Bute
Holm Mains Farm, Inverness
Nether Mill, Kilbirnie, North Ayrshire
Sri Lanka
Ibbankatuwa Megalithic Stones
Udaranchamadama
|
[
"shaft tomb",
"Ibbankatuwa Megalithic Tombs",
"sv:likkista",
"Knockmaree Dolmen",
"Dublin",
"Beauly",
"Rebala Heritage Reserve",
"Tel Kabri",
"Haldummulla",
"cistern",
"Dunan Aula",
"Merriam-Webster",
"no:kiste",
"Dartmoor",
"Stone box grave",
"ossuary",
"Drizzlecombe",
"Teffont Evias",
"Dead body",
"Kistvaen",
"Mundo Perdido, Tikal",
"tumulus",
"da:ligkiste",
"archeology",
"Batariņi",
"Phoenix Park",
"Holm, Inverness",
"cairn",
"funerary",
"Dartmoor kistvaens",
"Nether Mill"
] |
7,125 |
Center (group theory)
|
In abstract algebra, the center of a group is the set of elements that commute with every element of . It is denoted , from German Zentrum, meaning center. In set-builder notation,
.
The center is a normal subgroup, , and also a characteristic subgroup, but is not necessarily fully characteristic. The quotient group, , is isomorphic to the inner automorphism group, .
A group is abelian if and only if . At the other extreme, a group is said to be centerless if is trivial; i.e., consists only of the identity element.
The elements of the center are central elements.
==As a subgroup==
The center of G is always a subgroup of . In particular:
contains the identity element of , because it commutes with every element of , by definition: , where is the identity;
If and are in , then so is , by associativity: for each ; i.e., is closed;
If is in , then so is as, for all in , commutes with : .
Furthermore, the center of is always an abelian and normal subgroup of . Since all elements of commute, it is closed under conjugation.
A group homomorphism might not restrict to a homomorphism between their centers. The image elements commute with the image , but they need not commute with all of unless is surjective. Thus the center mapping G\to Z(G) is not a functor between categories Grp and Ab, since it does not induce a map of arrows.
==Conjugacy classes and centralizers==
By definition, an element is central whenever its conjugacy class contains only the element itself; i.e. .
The center is the intersection of all the centralizers of elements of : Z(G) = \bigcap_{g\in G} Z_G(g). As centralizers are subgroups, this again shows that the center is a subgroup.
== Conjugation ==
Consider the map , from to the automorphism group of defined by , where is the automorphism of defined by
.
The function, is a group homomorphism, and its kernel is precisely the center of , and its image is called the inner automorphism group of , denoted . By the first isomorphism theorem we get,
.
The cokernel of this map is the group of outer automorphisms, and these form the exact sequence
.
==Examples==
The center of an abelian group, , is all of .
The center of the Heisenberg group, , is the set of matrices of the form: \begin{pmatrix}
1 & 0 & z\\
0 & 1 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{pmatrix}
The center of a nonabelian simple group is trivial.
The center of the dihedral group, , is trivial for odd . For even , the center consists of the identity element together with the 180° rotation of the polygon.
The center of the quaternion group, , is .
The center of the symmetric group, , is trivial for .
The center of the alternating group, , is trivial for .
The center of the general linear group over a field , , is the collection of scalar matrices, .
The center of the orthogonal group, is .
The center of the special orthogonal group, is the whole group when , and otherwise when n is even, and trivial when n is odd.
The center of the unitary group, U(n) is \left\{ e^{i\theta} \cdot I_n \mid \theta \in [0, 2\pi) \right\}.
The center of the special unitary group, \operatorname{SU}(n) is \left\lbrace e^{i\theta} \cdot I_n \mid \theta = \frac{2k\pi}{n}, k = 0, 1, \dots, n-1 \right\rbrace .
The center of the multiplicative group of non-zero quaternions is the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.
Using the class equation, one can prove that the center of any non-trivial finite p-group is non-trivial.
If the quotient group is cyclic, is abelian (and hence , so is trivial).
The center of the Rubik's Cube group consists of two elements – the identity (i.e. the solved state) and the superflip. The center of the Pocket Cube group is trivial.
The center of the Megaminx group has order 2, and the center of the Kilominx group is trivial.
==Higher centers==
Quotienting out by the center of a group yields a sequence of groups called the upper central series:
The kernel of the map is the th center of (second center, third center, etc.), denoted . Concretely, the ()-st center comprises the elements that commute with all elements up to an element of the th center. Following this definition, one can define the 0th center of a group to be the identity subgroup. This can be continued to transfinite ordinals by transfinite induction; the union of all the higher centers is called the hypercenter.
The ascending chain of subgroups
stabilizes at i (equivalently, ) if and only if is centerless.
===Examples===
For a centerless group, all higher centers are zero, which is the case of stabilization.
By Grün's lemma, the quotient of a perfect group by its center is centerless, hence all higher centers equal the center. This is a case of stabilization at .
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] |
7,129 |
Commonwealth of England
|
The Commonwealth of England was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I. The republic's existence was declared through "An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth", adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament and a Council of State. During the period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed to them, in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and the Anglo-Scottish war of 1650–1652.
In 1653, after dissolution of the Rump Parliament, the Army Council adopted the Instrument of Government, by which Oliver Cromwell was made Lord Protector of a united "Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland", inaugurating the period now usually known as the Protectorate. After Cromwell's death, and following a brief period of rule under his son, Richard Cromwell, the Protectorate Parliament was dissolved in 1659 and the Rump Parliament recalled, starting a process that led to the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The term Commonwealth is sometimes used for the whole of 1649 to 1660 – called by some the Interregnum – although for other historians, the use of the term is limited to the years prior to Cromwell's formal assumption of power in 1653.
In retrospect, the period of republican rule for England was a failure in the short term. During the 11-year period, no stable government was established to rule the English state for longer than a few months at a time. Several administrative structures were tried, and several Parliaments called and seated, but little in the way of meaningful, lasting legislation was passed. The only force keeping it together was the personality of Oliver Cromwell, who exerted control through the military by way of the "Grandees", being the Major-Generals and other senior military leaders of the New Model Army. Not only did Cromwell's regime crumble into near anarchy upon his death and the brief administration of his son, but the monarchy he overthrew was restored in 1660, and its first act was officially to erase all traces of any constitutional reforms of the Republican period. Still, the memory of the Parliamentarian cause, dubbed the Good Old Cause by the soldiers of the New Model Army, lingered on.
The Commonwealth period is better remembered for the military success of Thomas Fairfax, Oliver Cromwell, and the New Model Army. Besides resounding victories in the English Civil War, the reformed Navy under the command of Robert Blake defeated the Dutch in the First Anglo-Dutch War which marked the first step towards England's naval supremacy. In Ireland, the Commonwealth period is remembered for Cromwell's conquest of Ireland, which continued and completed the policies of the Tudor and Stuart periods.
== 1649–1653 ==
=== Rump Parliament ===
The Rump was created by Pride's Purge of those members of the Long Parliament who did not support the political position of the Grandees in the New Model Army. Just before and after the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, the Rump passed a number of acts of Parliament creating the legal basis for the republic. With the abolition of the monarchy, Privy Council and the House of Lords, it had unchecked executive and legislative power. The English Council of State, which replaced the Privy Council, took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy. It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. However, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship. After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords. It declared the people of England "and of all the Dominions and Territories thereunto belonging" to be henceforth under the governance of a "Commonwealth", effectively a republic.
==== Structure ====
In Pride's Purge, all members of parliament (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed. Thus the Rump never had more than two hundred members (less than half the number of the Commons in the original Long Parliament). They included: supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the Levellers; Presbyterians who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the King; and later admissions, such as formerly excluded MPs who were prepared to denounce the Newport Treaty negotiations with the King.
Most Rumpers were gentry, though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments. Less than one-quarter of them were regicides. This left the Rump as basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made it unlikely to want to reform them.
==== Issues and achievements ====
For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from Scotland and Ireland. By 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats.
There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump. Some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of England's traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts. However, they were also aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry. Limited reforms were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals.
Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution and helped to settle England down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history. By 1653, France and Spain had recognised England's new government.
==== Reforms ====
Though the Church of England was retained, episcopacy was suppressed and the Act of Uniformity 1558 was repealed in September 1650. Mainly on the insistence of the Army, many independent churches were tolerated, although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church.
Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure; for example, all court proceedings were now conducted in English rather than in Law French or Latin. However, there were no widespread reforms of the common law. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the common law as reinforcing their status and property rights.
The Rump passed many restrictive laws to regulate people's moral behaviour, such as closing down theatres and requiring strict observance of Sunday. Laws were also passed banning the celebration of Easter and Christmas. This antagonised most of the gentry.
==== Dismissal ====
Cromwell, aided by Thomas Harrison, forcibly dismissed the Rump on 20 April 1653, for reasons that are unclear. Theories are that he feared the Rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government, or that the Rump was preparing for an election which could return an anti-Commonwealth majority. Many former members of the Rump continued to regard themselves as England's only legitimate constitutional authority. The Rump had not agreed to its own dissolution; their legal, constitutional view that it was unlawful was based on Charles' concessionary Act prohibiting the dissolution of Parliament without its own consent (on 11 May 1641, leading to the entire Commonwealth being the latter years of the Long Parliament in their majority view).
=== Barebone's Parliament, July–December 1653 ===
The dissolution of the Rump was followed by a short period in which Cromwell and the Army ruled alone. Nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election, but Cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship. Instead, he ruled through a "nominated assembly" which he believed would be easy for the Army to control since Army officers did the nominating.
Barebone's Parliament was opposed by former Rumpers and ridiculed by many gentries as being an assembly of inferior people. Over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status; an exception was Praise-God Barebone, a Baptist merchant after whom the Assembly got its derogatory nickname. Many were well educated.
The assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it. The Radicals (approximately 40) included a hard core of Fifth Monarchists who wanted to be rid of Common Law and any state control of religion. The Moderates (approximately 60) wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue. The Conservatives (approximately 40) wanted to keep the status quo, since common law protected the interests of the gentry, and tithes and advowsons were valuable property.
Cromwell saw Barebone's Parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. However, members were divided over key issues, only 25 had previous parliamentary experience, and although many had some legal training, there were no qualified lawyers.
Cromwell seems to have expected this group of amateurs to produce reform without management or direction. When the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the status quo in religion, the conservatives, together with many moderates, surrendered their authority back to Cromwell, who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the Assembly. Barebone's Parliament was over.
==Protectorate, 1653–1659==
Throughout 1653, Cromwell and the Army slowly dismantled the machinery of the Commonwealth state. The English Council of State, which had assumed the executive function formerly held by the King and his Privy Council, was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell on 20 April, and in its place a new council, filled with Cromwell's own chosen men, was installed. Three days after Barebone's Parliament dissolved itself, the Instrument of Government was adopted by Cromwell's council and a new state structure, now known historically as The Protectorate, was given its shape. This new constitution granted Cromwell sweeping powers as Lord Protector, an office which ironically had much the same role and powers as the King had under the monarchy, a fact not lost on Cromwell's critics.
On 12 April 1654, under the terms of the Tender of Union, the Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England was issued by the Lord Protector and proclaimed in Scotland by the military governor of Scotland, General George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle. The ordinance declared that "the people of Scotland should be united with the people of England into one Commonwealth and under one Government" and decreed that a new "Arms of the Commonwealth", incorporating the Saltire, should be placed on "all the public seals, seals of office, and seals of bodies civil or corporate, in Scotland" as "a badge of this Union".
===First Protectorate Parliament===
Cromwell and his Council of State spent the first several months of 1654 preparing for the First Protectorate Parliament by drawing up a set of 84 bills for consideration. The Parliament was freely elected (as free as such elections could be in the 17th century) and as such, the Parliament was filled with a wide range of political interests, and as such did not accomplish any of its goals. Having passed none of Cromwell's proposed bills, he dissolved it as soon as law would allow.
===Rule of the Major-Generals and Second Protectorate Parliament===
Having decided that Parliament was not an efficient means of getting his policies enacted, Cromwell instituted a system of direct military rule of England during a period known as the Rule of the Major-Generals; all of England was divided into ten regions, each was governed directly by one of Cromwell's Major-Generals, who were given sweeping powers to collect taxes and enforce the peace. The Major-Generals were highly unpopular, a fact that they themselves noticed and many urged Cromwell to call another Parliament to give his rule legitimacy.
Unlike the prior Parliament, which had been open to all eligible males in the Commonwealth, the new elections specifically excluded Catholics and Royalists from running or voting; as a result, it was stocked with members who were more in line with Cromwell's own politics. The first major bill to be brought up for debate was the Militia Bill, which was ultimately voted down by the House. As a result, the authority of the Major-Generals to collect taxes to support their own regimes ended, and the Rule of the Major Generals came to an end. The second piece of major legislation was the passage of the Humble Petition and Advice, a sweeping constitutional reform which had two purposes. The first was to reserve for Parliament certain rights, such as a three-year fixed-term (which the Lord Protector was required to abide by) and to reserve for the Parliament the sole right of taxation. The second, as a concession to Cromwell, was to make the Lord Protector a hereditary position and to convert the title to a formal constitutional Kingship. Cromwell refused the title of King, but accepted the rest of the legislation, which was passed in final form on 25 May 1657.
A second session of the Parliament met in 1658; it allowed previously excluded MPs (who had been not allowed to take their seats because of Catholic and/or Royalist leanings) to take their seats, however, this made the Parliament far less compliant to the wishes of Cromwell and the Major-Generals; it accomplished little in the way of a legislative agenda and was dissolved after a few months.
=== Richard Cromwell and the Third Protectorate Parliament ===
On the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, his son, Richard Cromwell, inherited the title, Lord Protector. Richard had never served in the Army, which meant he lost control over the Major-Generals that had been the source of his own father's power. The Third Protectorate Parliament was summoned in late 1658 and was seated on 27 January 1659. Its first act was to confirm Richard's role as Lord Protector, which it did by a sizeable, but not overwhelming, majority. Quickly, however, it became apparent that Richard had no control over the Army and divisions quickly developed in the Parliament. One faction called for a recall of the Rump Parliament and a return to the constitution of the Commonwealth, while another preferred the existing constitution. As the parties grew increasingly quarrelsome, Richard dissolved it. He was quickly removed from power, and the remaining Army leadership recalled the Rump Parliament, setting the stage for the return of the Monarchy a year later.
==1659–1660==
After the Grandees in the New Model Army removed Richard, they reinstalled the Rump Parliament in May 1659. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, and one of the seven commissioners for the army. On 9 June he was nominated lord-general (commander-in-chief) of the army. However, his power was undermined in parliament, which chose to disregard the army's authority in a similar fashion to the pre–Civil War parliament. On 12 October 1659 the Commons cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut and the members kept out. On 26 October a "Committee of Safety" was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent, by the Committee of Safety, with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms.
It was into this atmosphere that General George Monck marched south with his army from Scotland. Lambert's army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. On 21 February 1660, Monck reinstated the Presbyterian members of the Long Parliament "secluded" by Pride, so that they could prepare legislation for a new parliament. Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March Lambert was sent to the Tower, from which he escaped a month later. Lambert tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the "Good Old Cause" to rally on the battlefield of Edgehill. However, he was recaptured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a regicide who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime. The Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March.
On 4 April 1660, in response to a secret message sent by Monck, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, which made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England. Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. Charles returned from exile on 23 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday. To celebrate "his Majesty's Return to his Parliament" 29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661.
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7,131 |
Charles Evers
|
James Charles Evers (September 11, 1922July 22, 2020) was an American civil rights activist, businessman, radio personality, and politician. Evers was known for his role in the civil rights movement along with his younger brother Medgar Evers.
He ran for governor in 1971 and the United States Senate in 1978, both times as an independent candidate. In 1989, Evers was defeated for re-election after serving sixteen years as mayor. Evers graduated from Alcorn State University in Lorman, Mississippi. He could not marry her and bring her home to Mississippi because the state's constitution prohibited interracial marriages. making him the first black disc jockey in the state. By the early 1950s, he was managing a hotel, cab company, and burial insurance business in the town. He had a cafe in Philadelphia and influenced over two hundred black citizens to pay their poll tax. Forced to leave due to local white hostility in 1956, he moved to Chicago. Low on money, he began working as a meatpacker in stockyards during the day and as an attendant for the men's restroom at the Conrad Hilton Hotel at nights. He also began pimping and ran a numbers game, taking $500 a week from the latter. He gained enough money to purchase several bars, bootlegged liquor, and sold jukeboxes.
===Civil rights activism===
In Mississippi about 1951, brothers Charles and Medgar Evers grew interested in African freedom movements. They were interested in Jomo Kenyatta and the rise of the Kikuyu tribal resistance to colonialism in Kenya, known as the Mau Mau uprising as it moved to open violence. He also helped his brother with black voter registration drives. Between 1952 and 1955, Evers often spoke at the RCNL's annual conferences in Mound Bayou, a town founded by freedmen, on such issues as voting rights. His brother Medgar continued to be involved in civil rights, becoming field secretary and head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Mississippi. Charles learned of his brother's death several hours later and flew to Jackson the following morning. Deeply upset by the assassination, he heavily involved himself in the planning of his brother's funeral. He decided to relocate to Mississippi to carry on his brother's work. Journalist Jason Berry, who later worked for Charles, said, "I think he wanted to be a better person. I think Medgar's death was a cathartic experience." A decade after his death, Evers and blues musician B.B. King created the Medgar Evers Homecoming Festival, an annual three-day event held the first week of June in Mississippi.
Over the opposition of more establishment figures in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) such as Roy Wilkins, Evers took over his brother's post as head of the NAACP in Mississippi. Wilkins never managed a friendly relationship with Evers, and Medgar's widow, Myrlie, also disapproved of Charles' replacing him. A staunch believer in racial integration, he distrusted what he viewed as the militancy and separatism of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, a black-dominated breakaway of the segregationist Mississippi Democratic Party. In 1965 he launched a series of successful black boycotts in southwestern Mississippi which partnered with the Natchez Deacons for Defense and Justice, which won concessions from the Natchez authorities and ratified his unconventional boycott methods. Often accompanied by a group of 65 male followers, he would pressure local blacks in small towns to avoid stores under boycott and directly challenge white business leaders. He also led a voter registration campaign. He coordinated his efforts from the small town of Fayette in Jefferson County. Fayette was a small, economically depressed town of about 2,500 people. About three-fourths of the population was black, and they had long been socially and economically subordinate to the white minority. Evers moved the NAACP's Mississippi field office from Jackson to Fayette to take advantage of the potential of the black majority and achieve political influence in Jefferson and two adjacent counties. He explained, "My feeling is that Negroes gotta control somewhere in America, and we've dropped anchor in these counties. We are going to control these three counties in the next ten years. There is no question about it."
With his voter registration drives having made Fayette's number of black registered voters double the size of the white electorate, Evers helped elect a black man to the local school board in 1966. He also established the Medgar Evers Community Center at the outskirts of town, which served as a center for registration efforts, grocery store, restaurant, and dance hall. By early 1968 he had established a network of local NAACP branches in the region. The president of each branch served as Evers' deputies, and he attended all of their meetings. That year he made a bid for the open seat of the 3rd congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives, facing six white opponents in the Democratic primary. Though low on funds, he led in the primary with a plurality of the votes. The Mississippi Legislature responded by passing a law mandating a runoff primary in the event of no absolute majority in the initial contest, which Evers lost. He also supported Robert F. Kennedy's 1968 presidential campaign, serving as co-director of his Mississippi campaign organization, and was with Kennedy in Los Angeles when he was assassinated.
===Mayor of Fayette===
In May 1969, Evers ran for the office of Mayor of Fayette and defeated white incumbent R. J. Allen, 386 votes to 255. This made him the first black mayor of a biracial Mississippi town (unlike the all-black Mound Bayou) since Reconstruction. Evers' election as mayor had great symbolic significance statewide and attracted national attention. The NAACP named Evers their 1969 Man of the Year. Evers popularized the slogan, "Hands that picked cotton can now pick the mayor." In his response to the defeat, Evers accepted, said he was tired, and that: "Twenty years is enough. I'm tired of being out front. Let someone else be out front." Despite the fears of public observers, the campaign was largely devoid of overt racist appeals and Evers and Waller avoided negative tactics. Though about 40 percent of the Mississippi electorate in 1971 was black, Evers only secured about 22 percent of the total vote; Waller won with 601,222 votes to Evers' 172,762 and Brady's 6,653. The night of the election, Evers shook the hands of Waller supporters in Jackson and then went to a local television station where his opponent was delivering a victory speech. Learning that Evers had arrived, Waller's nervous aides hurried the governor-elect to his car. Evers approached the car shortly before its departure and told Waller, "I just wanted to congratulate you." Waller replied, "Whaddya say, Charlie?" and his wife leaned over and shook Evers' hand. He finished in third place behind his opponents, Democrat Maurice Dantin and Republican Thad Cochran. He received 24 percent of the vote, likely siphoning off African-American votes that would have otherwise gone to Dantin. Republican Leon Bramlett of Clarksdale, also known as a college All-American football player, finished second with 39 percent of the vote. Evers criticized the NAACP and other organizations for opposing Pickering, as he said the candidate had a record of supporting the civil rights movement in Mississippi.
Evers befriended a range of people from sharecroppers to presidents. He was an informal adviser to politicians as diverse as Lyndon B. Johnson, George C. Wallace, Ronald Reagan and Robert F. Kennedy. During the 2016 presidential election, Evers supported Donald Trump's presidential campaign.
===Books===
Evers wrote two autobiographies or memoirs: Evers (1971), written with Grace Halsell and self-published; and Have No Fear, written with Andrew Szanton and published by John Wiley & Sons (1997).
==Personal life==
Evers was briefly married to Christine Evers until their marriage ended in annulment. In 1951, Evers married Nannie L. Magee, with whom he had four daughters.
==Media portrayal==
Evers was portrayed by Bill Cobbs in the 1996 film Ghosts of Mississippi (1996).
== Honors ==
1969: Evers was named "Man of the Year" by the NAACP.
2025: Evers was honored with a Freedom Trail Marker in Fayette.
|
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"Ted Sorensen",
"Jimmy Swan",
"Charles W. Pickering",
"Jason Berry",
"Ku Klux Klan",
"Decatur, Mississippi",
"Ramsey Clark",
"NAACP",
"Charles M. Payne",
"List of United States Senators from Mississippi",
"Mississippi Public Broadcasting",
"List of civil rights leaders",
"Robert F. Kennedy 1968 presidential campaign",
"Fayette, Mississippi",
"American Archive of Public Broadcasting",
"Chicago",
"Mississippi Democratic Party",
"Byron De La Beckwith",
"Governor of Mississippi",
"blues",
"Bill Cobbs",
"Jefferson County, Mississippi",
"World War II",
"Alcorn State University",
"Jomo Kenyatta",
"Louis Farrakhan",
"Associated Press",
"U.S. House of Representatives",
"Korean War",
"Mississippi's 3rd congressional district",
"urban contemporary gospel",
"Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy",
"Bill Waller",
"Roy Wilkins",
"truancy",
"Lyndon B. Johnson",
"The Clarion-Ledger",
"PBS",
"I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle",
"George Wallace",
"Internal Revenue Service",
"1980 United States presidential election",
"Ronald Reagan",
"George H. W. Bush",
"The New York Times",
"Andrew Szanton",
"Thad Cochran",
"Julian Bond",
"2016 United States presidential election",
"John Wiley & Sons",
"sharecropper",
"Kikuyu people",
"Mau Mau uprising",
"numbers game"
] |
7,143 |
Code-division multiple access
|
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). To permit this without undue interference between the users, CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code).
CDMA optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range and does not limit the user's frequency range.
It is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards. IS-95, also called "cdmaOne", and its 3G evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to as "CDMA", but UMTS, the 3G standard used by GSM carriers, also uses "wideband CDMA", or W-CDMA, as well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio technologies. Many carriers (such as AT&T, UScellular and Verizon) shut down 3G CDMA-based networks in 2022 and 2024, rendering handsets supporting only those protocols unusable for calls, even to 911.
It can be also used as a channel or medium access technology, like ALOHA for example or as a permanent pilot/signalling channel to allow users to synchronize their local oscillators to a common system frequency, thereby also estimating the channel parameters permanently.
In these schemes, the message is modulated on a longer spreading sequence, consisting of several chips (0es and 1es). Due to their very advantageous auto- and crosscorrelation characteristics, these spreading sequences have also been used for radar applications for many decades, where they are called Barker codes (with a very short sequence length of typically 8 to 32).
For space-based communication applications, CDMA has been used for many decades due to the large path loss and Doppler shift caused by satellite motion. CDMA is often used with binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) in its simplest form, but can be combined with any modulation scheme like (in advanced cases) quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), which typically makes it very robust and efficient (and equipping them with accurate ranging capabilities, which is difficult without CDMA). Other schemes use subcarriers based on binary offset carrier modulation (BOC modulation), which is inspired by Manchester codes and enable a larger gap between the virtual center frequency and the subcarriers, which is not the case for OFDM subcarriers.
==History==
The technology of code-division multiple access channels has long been known.
===United States===
In the US, one of the earliest descriptions of CDMA can be found in the summary report of Project Hartwell on "The Security of Overseas Transport", which was a summer research project carried out at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from June to August 1950. Further research in the context of jamming and anti-jamming was carried out in 1952 at Lincoln Lab.
===Soviet Union===
In the Soviet Union (USSR), the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by Dmitry Ageev. It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory. The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in Moscow made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 20–30 km operating distance, and 20–30 hours of battery life. The base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental "pocket" model of mobile phone. This phone weighed 0.5 kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, which he called "correlator." In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the "Altai" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system weighed . It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used a standard handset in the passenger compartment. The main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this service started in Moscow, and in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities.
== Uses ==
Synchronous CDM (code-division 'multiplexing', an early generation of CDMA) was implemented in the Global Positioning System (GPS). This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile phones.
The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne.
The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by several mobile phone companies, including the Globalstar network.
The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA.
CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for transportation logistics.
==Steps in CDMA modulation==
CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access technique. A spread-spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading code is a pseudo-random code in the time domain that has a narrow ambiguity function in the frequency domain, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined by bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread-spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of T_b (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of T_c (chip period). (Note: bandwidth is proportional to 1/T, where T = bit time.) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is 1/T_b and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is 1/T_c. Since T_c is much smaller than T_b, the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio T_b/T_c is called the spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking the same language can understand each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can communicate.
In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and asynchronous (pseudorandom codes).
==Code-division multiplexing (synchronous CDMA)==
The digital modulation method is analogous to those used in simple radio transceivers. In the analog case, a low-frequency data signal is time-multiplied with a high-frequency pure sine-wave carrier and transmitted. This is effectively a frequency convolution (Wiener–Khinchin theorem) of the two signals, resulting in a carrier with narrow sidebands. In the digital case, the sinusoidal carrier is replaced by Walsh functions. These are binary square waves that form a complete orthonormal set. The data signal is also binary and the time multiplication is achieved with a simple XOR function. This is usually a Gilbert cell mixer in the circuitry.
Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of orthogonality between vectors representing the data strings. For example, the binary string 1011 is represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking their dot product, by summing the products of their respective components (for example, if u = (a, b) and v = (c, d), then their dot product u·v = ac + bd). If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are said to be orthogonal to each other. Some properties of the dot product aid understanding of how W-CDMA works. If vectors a and b are orthogonal, then \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} = 0 and:
\mathbf{a}\cdot(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}) = \|\mathbf{a}\|^2,\ \text{since}\ \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} = \|\mathbf{a}\|^2 + 0,
\mathbf{a}\cdot(-\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}) = -\|\mathbf{a}\|^2,\ \text{since}\ {-\mathbf{a}}\cdot\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} = -\|\mathbf{a}\|^2 + 0,
\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}) = \|\mathbf{b}\|^2,\ \text{since}\ \mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b} = 0 + \|\mathbf{b}\|^2,
\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a} - \mathbf{b}) = -\|\mathbf{b}\|^2,\ \text{since}\ \mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a} - \mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b} = 0 - \|\mathbf{b}\|^2.
Each user in synchronous CDMA uses a code orthogonal to the others' codes to modulate their signal. An example of 4 mutually orthogonal digital signals is shown in the figure below. Orthogonal codes have a cross-correlation equal to zero; in other words, they do not interfere with each other. In the case of IS-95, 64-bit Walsh codes are used to encode the signal to separate different users. Since each of the 64 Walsh codes is orthogonal to all other, the signals are channelized into 64 orthogonal signals. The following example demonstrates how each user's signal can be encoded and decoded.
===Example===
Start with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal. (Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, these vectors are usually constructed for ease of decoding, for example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.) An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the adjacent picture. These vectors will be assigned to individual users and are called the code, chip code, or chipping code. In the interest of brevity, the rest of this example uses codes v with only two bits.
Each user is associated with a different code, say v. A 1 bit is represented by transmitting a positive code v, and a 0 bit is represented by a negative code −v. For example, if v = (v0, v1) = (1, −1) and the data that the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1), then the transmitted symbols would be
(v, −v, v, v) = (v0, v1, −v0, −v1, v0, v1, v0, v1) = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1).
For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the transmitted vector.
Each sender has a different, unique vector v chosen from that set, but the construction method of the transmitted vector is identical.
Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they subtract and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled by the addition of the transmission vectors, component by component.
If sender0 has code (1, −1) and data (1, 0, 1, 1), and sender1 has code (1, 1) and data (0, 0, 1, 1), and both senders transmit simultaneously, then this table describes the coding steps:
Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal
(1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) + (−1, −1, −1, −1, 1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, −2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0).
This raw signal is called an interference pattern. The receiver then extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining the sender's code with the interference pattern. The following table explains how this works and shows that the signals do not interfere with one another:
Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are interpreted as 1, while all values less than zero are interpreted as 0. For example, after decoding, data0 is (2, −2, 2, 2), but the receiver interprets this as (1, 0, 1, 1). Values of exactly 0 mean that the sender did not transmit any data, as in the following example:
Assume signal0 = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) is transmitted alone. The following table shows the decode at the receiver:
When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1's code, the data is all zeros; therefore the cross-correlation is equal to zero and it is clear that sender1 did not transmit any data.
==Asynchronous CDMA==
When mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordinated, particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, a different approach is required. Since it is not mathematically possible to create signature sequences that are both orthogonal for arbitrarily random starting points and which make full use of the code space, unique "pseudo-random" or "pseudo-noise" sequences called spreading sequences are used in asynchronous CDMA systems. A spreading sequence is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers. These spreading sequences are used to encode and decode a user's signal in asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthogonal codes in synchronous CDMA (shown in the example above). These spreading sequences are statistically uncorrelated, and the sum of a large number of spreading sequences results in multiple access interference (MAI) that is approximated by a Gaussian noise process (following the central limit theorem in statistics). Gold codes are an example of a spreading sequence suitable for this purpose, as there is low correlation between the codes. If all of the users are received with the same power level, then the variance (e.g., the noise power) of the MAI increases in direct proportion to the number of users. In other words, unlike synchronous CDMA, the signals of other users will appear as noise to the signal of interest and interfere slightly with the desired signal in proportion to number of users.
All forms of CDMA use the spread-spectrum spreading factor to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals. Signals encoded with the specified spreading sequences are received, while signals with different sequences (or the same sequences but different timing offsets) appear as wideband noise reduced by the spreading factor.
Since each user generates MAI, controlling the signal strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals using different codes, time slots or frequency channels due to the orthogonality of these systems. This is not true for asynchronous CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general requirement in any asynchronous CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power-control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.
In 2019, schemes to precisely estimate the required length of the codes in dependence of Doppler and delay characteristics have been developed. Soon after, machine learning based techniques that generate sequences of a desired length and spreading properties have been published as well. These are highly competitive with the classic Gold and Welch sequences. These are not generated by linear-feedback-shift-registers, but have to be stored in lookup tables.
===Advantages of asynchronous CDMA over other techniques===
====Efficient practical utilization of the fixed frequency spectrum====
In theory CDMA, TDMA and FDMA have exactly the same spectral efficiency, but, in practice, each has its own challenges – power control in the case of CDMA, timing in the case of TDMA, and frequency generation/filtering in the case of FDMA.
TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the transmission times of all the users to ensure that they are received in the correct time slot and do not cause interference. Since this cannot be perfectly controlled in a mobile environment, each time slot must have a guard time, which reduces the probability that users will interfere, but decreases the spectral efficiency.
Similarly, FDMA systems must use a guard band between adjacent channels, due to the unpredictable Doppler shift of the signal spectrum because of user mobility. The guard bands will reduce the probability that adjacent channels will interfere, but decrease the utilization of the spectrum.
====Flexible allocation of resources====
Asynchronous CDMA offers a key advantage in the flexible allocation of resources i.e. allocation of spreading sequences to active users. In the case of CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, and FDMA the number of simultaneous orthogonal codes, time slots, and frequency slots respectively are fixed, hence the capacity in terms of the number of simultaneous users is limited. There are a fixed number of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency bands that can be allocated for CDM, TDMA, and FDMA systems, which remain underutilized due to the bursty nature of telephony and packetized data transmissions. There is no strict limit to the number of users that can be supported in an asynchronous CDMA system, only a practical limit governed by the desired bit error probability since the SIR (signal-to-interference ratio) varies inversely with the number of users. In a bursty traffic environment like mobile telephony, the advantage afforded by asynchronous CDMA is that the performance (bit error rate) is allowed to fluctuate randomly, with an average value determined by the number of users times the percentage of utilization. Suppose there are 2N users that only talk half of the time, then 2N users can be accommodated with the same average bit error probability as N users that talk all of the time. The key difference here is that the bit error probability for N users talking all of the time is constant, whereas it is a random quantity (with the same mean) for 2N users talking half of the time.
In other words, asynchronous CDMA is ideally suited to a mobile network where large numbers of transmitters each generate a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals. CDM (synchronous CDMA), TDMA, and FDMA systems cannot recover the underutilized resources inherent to bursty traffic due to the fixed number of orthogonal codes, time slots or frequency channels that can be assigned to individual transmitters. For instance, if there are N time slots in a TDMA system and 2N users that talk half of the time, then half of the time there will be more than N users needing to use more than N time slots. Furthermore, it would require significant overhead to continually allocate and deallocate the orthogonal-code, time-slot or frequency-channel resources. By comparison, asynchronous CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say and go off the air when they do not, keeping the same signature sequence as long as they are connected to the system.
===Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA===
Most modulation schemes try to minimize the bandwidth of this signal since bandwidth is a limited resource. However, spread-spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth. One of the initial reasons for doing this was military applications including guidance and communication systems. These systems were designed using spread spectrum because of its security and resistance to jamming. Asynchronous CDMA has some level of privacy built in because the signal is spread using a pseudo-random code; this code makes the spread-spectrum signals appear random or have noise-like properties. A receiver cannot demodulate this transmission without knowledge of the pseudo-random sequence used to encode the data. CDMA is also resistant to jamming. A jamming signal only has a finite amount of power available to jam the signal. The jammer can either spread its energy over the entire bandwidth of the signal or jam only part of the entire signal. has been investigated for the uplink that exploits the differences between users' fading channel signatures to increase the user capacity well beyond the spreading length in the MAI-limited environment. The authors show that it is possible to achieve this increase at a low complexity and high bit error rate performance in flat fading channels, which is a major research challenge for overloaded CDMA systems. In this approach, instead of using one sequence per user as in conventional CDMA, the authors group a small number of users to share the same spreading sequence and enable group spreading and despreading operations. The new collaborative multi-user receiver consists of two stages: group multi-user detection (MUD) stage to suppress the MAI between the groups and a low-complexity maximum-likelihood detection stage to recover jointly the co-spread users' data using minimal Euclidean-distance measure and users' channel-gain coefficients. An enhanced CDMA version known as interleave-division multiple access (IDMA) uses the orthogonal interleaving as the only means of user separation in place of signature sequence used in CDMA system.
|
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"Nauka i Zhizn",
"orthogonal",
"IS-95",
"time-division multiple access",
"UMTS",
"ALOHA",
"logistics",
"XOR",
"mobile phone standards",
"MIT Lincoln Laboratory",
"dot product",
"Walsh code",
"Global Positioning System",
"quadrature amplitude modulation",
"Spread spectrum",
"chip (CDMA)",
"bandwidth (signal processing)",
"Soviet Union",
"Massachusetts Institute of Technology",
"Electronic counter-countermeasure",
"binary phase-shift keying",
"CDMA2000",
"spread-spectrum",
"Gold code",
"Doppler effect",
"Qualcomm",
"binary offset carrier modulation",
"Pseudorandom binary sequence",
"CNN",
"channel access method",
"Wiener–Khinchin theorem",
"Dmitry Vasiliyevich Ageev",
"rake receiver",
"Walsh function",
"Gilbert cell",
"GSM",
"cross-correlation",
"Wiley (publisher)",
"Bandwidth (signal processing)",
"3G",
"Cross-correlation",
"orthogonality",
"Barker code",
"Pseudorandom noise",
"W-CDMA",
"Verizon (mobile network)",
"central limit theorem",
"Leonid Kupriyanovich",
"spread spectrum",
"orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing",
"Tekhnika Molodezhi",
"bit error rate",
"coordinate vector",
"Comparison of mobile phone standards",
"forward error correction",
"Globalstar",
"ambiguity function",
"Walsh matrix",
"Engineering and Technology History Wiki",
"Convolution encoding",
"CDMA spectral efficiency",
"cdmaOne",
"IS-2000",
"radio",
"U.S. Cellular",
"9-1-1",
"spreading factor",
"Manchester code",
"Radio jamming",
"Altai (mobile telephone system)",
"FDMA",
"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd",
"Quadrature-division multiple access",
"mobile phone",
"Orthogonal variable spreading factor",
"Rise over thermal",
"AT&T Corporation",
"IEEE Transactions on Communications",
"Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio",
"noise"
] |
7,144 |
Internet filter
|
An Internet filter is software that restricts or controls the content an Internet user is capable to access, especially when utilized to restrict material delivered over the Internet via the Web, Email, or other means. Such restrictions can be applied at various levels: a government can attempt to apply them nationwide (see Internet censorship), or they can, for example, be applied by an Internet service provider to its clients, by an employer to its personnel, by a school to its students, by a library to its visitors, by a parent to a child's computer, or by an individual user to their own computers. The motive is often to prevent access to content which the computer's owner(s) or other authorities may consider objectionable. When imposed without the consent of the user, content control can be characterised as a form of internet censorship. Some filter software includes time control functions that empowers parents to set the amount of time that child may spend accessing the Internet or playing games or other computer activities.
==Terminology==
The term "content control" is used on occasion by CNN, Playboy magazine, the San Francisco Chronicle, and The New York Times. However, several other terms, including "content filtering software", "web content filter", "filtering proxy servers", "secure web gateways", "censorware", "content security and control", "web filtering software", "content-censoring software", and "content-blocking software", are often used. "Nannyware" has also been used in both product marketing and by the media. Industry research company Gartner uses "secure web gateway" (SWG) to describe the market segment.
Companies that make products that selectively block Web sites do not refer to these products as censorware, and prefer terms such as "Internet filter" or "URL Filter"; in the specialized case of software specifically designed to allow parents to monitor and restrict the access of their children, "parental control software" is also used. Some products log all sites that a user accesses and rates them based on content type for reporting to an "accountability partner" of the person's choosing, and the term accountability software is used. Internet filters, parental control software, and/or accountability software may also be combined into one product.
Those critical of such software, however, use the term "censorware" freely: consider the Censorware Project, for example. The use of the term "censorware" in editorials criticizing makers of such software is widespread and covers many different varieties and applications: Xeni Jardin used the term in a 9 March 2006 editorial in The New York Times, when discussing the use of American-made filtering software to suppress content in China; in the same month a high school student used the term to discuss the deployment of such software in his school district.
In general, outside of editorial pages as described above, traditional newspapers do not use the term "censorware" in their reporting, preferring instead to use less overtly controversial terms such as "content filter", "content control", or "web filtering"; The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal both appear to follow this practice. On the other hand, Web-based newspapers such as CNET use the term in both editorial and journalistic contexts, for example "Windows Live to Get Censorware."
==Types of filtering==
Filters can be implemented in many different ways: by software on a personal computer, via network infrastructure such as proxy servers, DNS servers, or firewalls that provide Internet access. No solution provides complete coverage, so most companies deploy a mix of technologies to achieve the proper content control in line with their policies.
=== Browser based filters ===
Browser based content filtering solution is the most lightweight solution to do the content filtering, and is implemented via a third party browser extension.
=== E-mail filters ===
E-mail filters act on information contained in the mail body, in the mail headers such as sender and subject, and e-mail attachments to classify, accept, or reject messages. Bayesian filters, a type of statistical filter, are commonly used. Both client and server based filters are available.
=== Client-side filters ===
This type of filter is installed as software on each computer where filtering is required. This filter can typically be managed, disabled or uninstalled by anyone who has administrator-level privileges on the system. A DNS-based client-side filter would be to set up a DNS Sinkhole, such as Pi-Hole.
=== Content-limited (or filtered) ISPs ===
Content-limited (or filtered) ISPs are Internet service providers that offer access to only a set portion of Internet content on an opt-in or a mandatory basis. Anyone who subscribes to this type of service is subject to restrictions. The type of filters can be used to implement government, regulatory or parental control over subscribers.
=== Network-based filtering ===
This type of filter is implemented at the transport layer as a transparent proxy, or at the application layer as a web proxy. Filtering software may include data loss prevention functionality to filter outbound as well as inbound information. All users are subject to the access policy defined by the institution. The filtering can be customized, so a school district's high school library can have a different filtering profile than the district's junior high school library.
=== DNS-based filtering ===
This type of filtering is implemented at the DNS layer and attempts to prevent lookups for domains that do not fit within a set of policies (either parental control or company rules). Multiple free public DNS services offer filtering options as part of their services. DNS Sinkholes such as Pi-Hole can be also be used for this purpose, though client-side only.
=== Search-engine filters ===
Many search engines, such as Google and Bing offer users the option of turning on a safety filter. When this safety filter is activated, it filters out the inappropriate links from all of the search results. If users know the actual URL of a website that features explicit or adult content, they have the ability to access that content without using a search engine. Some providers offer child-oriented versions of their engines that permit only child friendly websites.
==Reasons for filtering==
The Internet does not intrinsically provide content blocking, and therefore there is much content on the Internet that is considered unsuitable for children, given that much content is given certifications as suitable for adults only, e.g. 18-rated games and movies.
Internet service providers (ISPs) that block material containing pornography, or controversial religious, political, or news-related content en route are often utilized by parents who do not permit their children to access content not conforming to their personal beliefs. Content filtering software can, however, also be used to block malware and other content that is or contains hostile, intrusive, or annoying material including adware, spam, computer viruses, worms, trojan horses, and spyware.
Most content control software is marketed to organizations or parents. It is, however, also marketed on occasion to facilitate self-censorship, for example by people struggling with addictions to online pornography, gambling, chat rooms, etc. Self-censorship software may also be utilised by some in order to avoid viewing content they consider immoral, inappropriate, or simply distracting. A number of accountability software products are marketed as self-censorship or accountability software. These are often promoted by religious media and at religious gatherings.
==Criticism==
===Filtering errors===
====Overblocking====
Utilizing a filter that is overly zealous at filtering content, or mislabels content not intended to be censored can result in over-blocking, or over-censoring. Overblocking can filter out material that should be acceptable under the filtering policy in effect, for example health related information may unintentionally be filtered along with porn-related material because of the Scunthorpe problem. Filter administrators may prefer to err on the side of caution by accepting over blocking to prevent any risk of access to sites that they determine to be undesirable. Content-control software was mentioned as blocking access to Beaver College before its name change to Arcadia University. Another example was the filtering of Horniman Museum. As well, over-blocking may encourage users to bypass the filter entirely.
====Underblocking====
Whenever new information is uploaded to the Internet, filters can under block, or under-censor, content if the parties responsible for maintaining the filters do not update them quickly and accurately, and a blacklisting rather than a whitelisting filtering policy is in place.
===Morality and opinion===
Many would not be satisfied with government filtering viewpoints on moral or political issues, agreeing that this could become support for propaganda. Many would also find it unacceptable that an ISP, whether by law or by the ISP's own choice, should deploy such software without allowing the users to disable the filtering for their own connections. In the United States, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution has been cited in calls to criminalise forced internet censorship. (See section below)
===Legal actions===
In 1998, a United States federal district court in Virginia ruled (Loudoun v. Board of Trustees of the Loudoun County Library) that the imposition of mandatory filtering in a public library violates the First Amendment.
In 1996 the US Congress passed the Communications Decency Act, banning indecency on the Internet. Civil liberties groups challenged the law under the First Amendment, and in 1997 the Supreme Court ruled in their favor. Part of the civil liberties argument, especially from groups like the Electronic Frontier Foundation, was that parents who wanted to block sites could use their own content-filtering software, making government involvement unnecessary.
In the late 1990s, groups such as the Censorware Project began reverse-engineering the content-control software and decrypting the blacklists to determine what kind of sites the software blocked. This led to legal action alleging violation of the "Cyber Patrol" license agreement. They discovered that such tools routinely blocked unobjectionable sites while also failing to block intended targets.
Some content-control software companies responded by claiming that their filtering criteria were backed by intensive manual checking. The companies' opponents argued, on the other hand, that performing the necessary checking would require resources greater than the companies possessed and that therefore their claims were not valid.
The Motion Picture Association successfully obtained a UK ruling enforcing ISPs to use content-control software to prevent copyright infringement by their subscribers.
===Religious, anti-religious, and political censorship===
Many types of content-control software have been shown to block sites based on the religious and political leanings of the company owners. Examples include blocking several religious sites (including the Web site of the Vatican), many political sites, and homosexuality-related sites. X-Stop was shown to block sites such as the Quaker web site, the National Journal of Sexual Orientation Law, The Heritage Foundation, and parts of The Ethical Spectacle. CYBERsitter blocks out sites like National Organization for Women. Nancy Willard, an academic researcher and attorney, pointed out that many U.S. public schools and libraries use the same filtering software that many Christian organizations use. Cyber Patrol, a product developed by The Anti-Defamation League and Mattel's The Learning Company, has been found to block not only political sites it deems to be engaging in 'hate speech' but also human rights web sites, such as Amnesty International's web page about Israel and gay-rights web sites, such as glaad.org.
==Content labeling==
Content labeling may be considered another form of content-control software. In 1994, the Internet Content Rating Association (ICRA) — now part of the Family Online Safety Institute — developed a content rating system for online content providers. Using an online questionnaire a webmaster describes the nature of their web content. A small file is generated that contains a condensed, computer readable digest of this description that can then be used by content filtering software to block or allow that site.
ICRA labels come in a variety of formats. These include the World Wide Web Consortium's Resource Description Framework (RDF) as well as Platform for Internet Content Selection (PICS) labels used by Microsoft's Internet Explorer Content Advisor.
ICRA labels are an example of self-labeling. Similarly, in 2006 the Association of Sites Advocating Child Protection (ASACP) initiated the Restricted to Adults self-labeling initiative. ASACP members were concerned that various forms of legislation being proposed in the United States were going to have the effect of forcing adult companies to label their content. The RTA label, unlike ICRA labels, does not require a webmaster to fill out a questionnaire or sign up to use. Like ICRA the RTA label is free. Both labels are recognized by a wide variety of content-control software.
The Voluntary Content Rating (VCR) system was devised by Solid Oak Software for their CYBERsitter filtering software, as an alternative to the PICS system, which some critics deemed too complex. It employs HTML metadata tags embedded within web page documents to specify the type of content contained in the document. Only two levels are specified, mature and adult, making the specification extremely simple.
==Use in public libraries==
===Australia===
The Australian Internet Safety Advisory Body has information about "practical advice on Internet safety, parental control and filters for the protection of children, students and families" that also includes public libraries.
NetAlert, the software made available free of charge by the Australian government, was allegedly cracked by a 16-year-old student, Tom Wood, less than a week after its release in August 2007. Wood supposedly bypassed the $84 million filter in about half an hour to highlight problems with the government's approach to Internet content filtering.
The Australian Government has introduced legislation that requires ISPs to "restrict access to age restricted content (commercial MA15+ content and R18+ content) either hosted in Australia or provided from Australia" that was due to commence from 20 January 2008, known as Cleanfeed.
Cleanfeed is a proposed mandatory ISP level content filtration system. It was proposed by the Beazley led Australian Labor Party opposition in a 2006 press release, with the intention of protecting children who were vulnerable due to claimed parental computer illiteracy. It was announced on 31 December 2007 as a policy to be implemented by the Rudd ALP government, and initial tests in Tasmania have produced a 2008 report. Cleanfeed is funded in the current budget, and is moving towards an Expression of Interest for live testing with ISPs in 2008. Public opposition and criticism have emerged, led by the EFA and gaining irregular mainstream media attention, with a majority of Australians reportedly "strongly against" its implementation. Criticisms include its expense, inaccuracy (it will be impossible to ensure only illegal sites are blocked) and the fact that it will be compulsory, which can be seen as an intrusion on free speech rights. "'It is important that every library in the country has the opportunity to protect children against pornographic material when they are using library computers. It is a main priority for me as Culture Minister to make sure children can surf the net safely at libraries,' states Brian Mikkelsen in a press-release of the Danish Ministry of Culture."
===United Kingdom===
===United States===
The use of Internet filters or content-control software varies widely in public libraries in the United States, since Internet use policies are established by the local library board. Many libraries adopted Internet filters after Congress conditioned the receipt of universal service discounts on the use of Internet filters through the Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA). Other libraries do not install content control software, believing that acceptable use policies and educational efforts address the issue of children accessing age-inappropriate content while preserving adult users' right to freely access information. Some libraries use Internet filters on computers used by children only. Some libraries that employ content-control software allow the software to be deactivated on a case-by-case basis on application to a librarian; libraries that are subject to CIPA are required to have a policy that allows adults to request that the filter be disabled without having to explain the reason for their request.
Many legal scholars believe that a number of legal cases, in particular Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, established that the use of content-control software in libraries is a violation of the First Amendment. The Children's Internet Protection Act [CIPA] and the June 2003 case United States v. American Library Association found CIPA constitutional as a condition placed on the receipt of federal funding, stating that First Amendment concerns were dispelled by the law's provision that allowed adult library users to have the filtering software disabled, without having to explain the reasons for their request. The plurality decision left open a future "as-applied" Constitutional challenge, however.
In November 2006, a lawsuit was filed against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington State for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon requests of adult patrons, but CIPA was not challenged in that matter. In May 2010, the Washington State Supreme Court provided an opinion after it was asked to certify a question referred by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Washington: "Whether a public library, consistent with Article I, § 5 of the Washington Constitution, may filter Internet access for all patrons without disabling Web sites containing constitutionally-protected speech upon the request of an adult library patron." The Washington State Supreme Court ruled that NCRL's internet filtering policy did not violate Article I, Section 5 of the Washington State Constitution. The Court said: "It appears to us that NCRL's filtering policy is reasonable and accords with its mission and these policies and is viewpoint neutral. It appears that no article I, section 5 content-based violation exists in this case. NCRL's essential mission is to promote reading and lifelong learning. As NCRL maintains, it is reasonable to impose restrictions on Internet access in order to maintain an environment that is conducive to study and contemplative thought." The case returned to federal court.
In March 2007, Virginia passed a law similar to CIPA that requires public libraries receiving state funds to use content-control software. Like CIPA, the law requires libraries to disable filters for an adult library user when requested to do so by the user.
==Bypassing filters==
Content filtering in general can "be bypassed entirely by tech-savvy individuals." Blocking content on a device "[will not]…guarantee that users won't eventually be able to find a way around the filter." Content providers may change URLs or IP addresses to circumvent filtering. Individuals with technical expertise may use a different method by employing multiple domains or URLs that direct to a shared IP address where restricted content is present. This strategy doesn't circumvent IP packet filtering, however can evade DNS poisoning and web proxies. Additionally, perpetrators may use mirrored websites that avoid filters.
Some software may be bypassed successfully by using alternative protocols such as FTP or telnet or HTTPS, conducting searches in a different language, using a proxy server or a circumventor such as Psiphon. Also cached web pages returned by Google or other searches could bypass some controls as well. Web syndication services may provide alternate paths for content. Some of the more poorly designed programs can be shut down by killing their processes: for example, in Microsoft Windows through the Windows Task Manager, or in Mac OS X using Force Quit or Activity Monitor. Numerous workarounds and counters to workarounds from content-control software creators exist. Google services are often blocked by filters, but these may most often be bypassed by using https:// in place of http:// since content filtering software is not able to interpret content under secure connections (in this case SSL).
An encrypted VPN can be used as means of bypassing content control software, especially if the content control software is installed on an Internet gateway or firewall. Other ways to bypass a content control filter include translation sites and establishing a remote connection with an uncensored device.
==Products and services==
Some ISPs offer parental control options. Some offer security software which includes parental controls. Mac OS X v10.4 offers parental controls for several applications (Mail, Finder, iChat, Safari & Dictionary). Microsoft's Windows Vista operating system also includes content-control software.
Content filtering technology exists in two major forms: application gateway or packet inspection. For HTTP access the application gateway is called a web-proxy or just a proxy. Such web-proxies can inspect both the initial request and the returned web page using arbitrarily complex rules and will not return any part of the page to the requester until a decision is made. In addition they can make substitutions in whole or for any part of the returned result. Packet inspection filters do not initially interfere with the connection to the server but inspect the data in the connection as it goes past, at some point the filter may decide that the connection is to be filtered and it will then disconnect it by injecting a TCP-Reset or similar faked packet. The two techniques can be used together with the packet filter monitoring a link until it sees an HTTP connection starting to an IP address that has content that needs filtering. The packet filter then redirects the connection to the web-proxy which can perform detailed filtering on the website without having to pass through all unfiltered connections. This combination is quite popular because it can significantly reduce the cost of the system.
There are constraints to IP level packet-filtering, as it may result in rendering all web content associated with a particular IP address inaccessible. This may result in the unintentional blocking of legitimate sites that share the same IP address or domain. For instance, university websites commonly employ multiple domains under one IP address. Moreover, IP level packet-filtering can be surpassed by using a distinct IP address for certain content while still being linked to the same domain or server.
Gateway-based content control software may be more difficult to bypass than desktop software as the user does not have physical access to the filtering device. However, many of the techniques in the Bypassing filters section still work.
|
[
"Google",
"transport layer",
"websense",
"application layer",
"Horniman Museum",
"adware",
"accountability software",
"meta element",
"National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine",
"browser extension",
"IP address",
"Deep packet inspection",
"First Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"propaganda",
"Motion Picture Association",
"Denmark",
"Resource Description Framework",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Internet Content Rating Association",
"Australian Labor Party",
"malware",
"Nymwar",
"Microsoft Windows",
"San Francisco Chronicle",
"Internet",
"BBC News",
"Justia",
"Children's Internet Protection Act",
"HTTPS",
"Mac OS X",
"web-proxy",
"Opposition to pornography",
"Google Search",
"spamming",
"Loudoun v. Board of Trustees of the Loudoun County Library",
"Australian Communications and Media Authority",
"Quaker Oats Company",
"Kim Beazley",
"self-censorship",
"Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union",
"University of California, Berkeley",
"Domain Name System",
"URL",
"proxy server",
"peacefire",
"age-inappropriate",
"Russian State Duma Bill 89417-6",
"Communications Decency Act",
"EULA",
"Peacefire",
"Wordfilter",
"National Academy of Sciences",
"search engine",
"Voluntary Content Rating",
"United States v. American Library Association",
"computer worm",
"Packet filtering",
"pornography",
"censorware",
"accountability partner",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"United States",
"Anti-Defamation League",
"content-blocking",
"CNN",
"The Heritage Foundation",
"ZDNet",
"AARNet",
"Platform for Internet Content Selection",
"Application-level gateway",
"Public recursive name server",
"Microsoft",
"telnet",
"online pornography",
"Kevin Rudd",
"IP tunnel",
"Internet service provider",
"Xeni Jardin",
"Georgia Tech",
"Mail (OS X)",
"Mac OS X v10.4",
"Psiphon",
"National Organization for Women",
"HTML",
"Comodo Cybersecurity",
"Internet safety",
"Association of Sites Advocating Child Protection (ASACP)",
"Computer and network surveillance",
"Playboy",
"Stephen Conroy",
"List of Content Control Software",
"Adultism",
"CYBERsitter",
"CNET",
"David Burt (filtering advocate)",
"trojan horse (computing)",
"gartner",
"Family Online Safety Institute",
"Firewall (computing)",
"File Transfer Protocol",
"Deep content inspection",
"Internet censorship",
"place of worship",
"Microsoft Bing",
"Fairfax Digital",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Comparison of content-control software and providers",
"Proxy server",
"PR Newswire",
"the Sydney Morning Herald",
"University of Michigan",
"TechSoup",
"National Journal of Sexual Orientation Law",
"copyright infringement",
"TechMission",
"Internet censorship circumvention",
"Associated Press",
"web filtering",
"Electronic Frontier Foundation",
"Ad filtering",
"Egress filtering",
"Cleanfeed (content blocking system)",
"transparent proxy",
"tripod.com",
"DNS Sinkhole",
"Bayesian spam filtering",
"World Wide Web",
"Dictionary (software)",
"Internet Explorer",
"Australian Associated Press",
"Solid Oak Software",
"Safari (web browser)",
"Arcadia University",
"Web filtering in schools",
"AOL Hometown",
"Task Manager",
"DNS spoofing",
"The Ethical Spectacle",
"Macintosh Finder",
"iChat",
"Gartner",
"indoctrination",
"Scunthorpe problem",
"data loss prevention software",
"software",
"parental control",
"Activity Monitor (macOS)",
"The New York Times",
"block (internet)",
"Pi-Hole",
"spyware",
"slashdot",
"Financial Coalition Against Child Pornography",
"Content-control software",
"Windows Vista",
"microsoft",
"content security and control",
"Parental controls",
"Email",
"Electronic Frontiers Australia",
"computer virus",
"VPN",
"Tasmania"
] |
7,145 |
Chambered cairn
|
A chambered cairn is a burial monument, usually constructed during the Neolithic, consisting of a sizeable (usually stone) chamber around and over which a cairn of stones was constructed. Some chambered cairns are also passage-graves. They are found throughout Britain and Ireland, with the largest number in Scotland.
Typically, the chamber is larger than a cist, and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either excarnated bones or inhumations (cremations). Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community's "graveyard".
==Scotland==
===Background===
During the early Neolithic (4000–3300 BC) architectural forms are highly regionalised with timber and earth monuments predominating in the east and stone-chambered cairns in the west. During the later Neolithic (3300–2500 BC) massive circular enclosures and the use of grooved ware and Unstan ware pottery emerge. Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns; they are found in various different types described below. Along with the excavations of settlements such as Skara Brae, Links of Noltland, Barnhouse, Rinyo and Balfarg and the complex site at Ness of Brodgar these cairns provide important clues to the character of civilization in Scotland in the Neolithic. However the increasing use of cropmarks to identify Neolithic sites in lowland areas has tended to diminish the relative prominence of these cairns.
In the early phases bones of numerous bodies are often found together and it has been argued that this suggests that in death at least, the status of individuals was played down. During the late Neolithic henge sites were constructed and single burials began to become more commonplace; by the Bronze Age it is possible that even where chambered cairns were still being built they had become the burial places of prominent individuals rather than of communities as a whole.
===Clyde-Carlingford court cairns===
The Clyde or Clyde-Carlingford type are principally found in northern and western Ireland and southwestern Scotland. They first were identified as a separate group in the Firth of Clyde region, hence the name. Over 100 have been identified in Scotland alone. Lacking a significant passage, they are a form of gallery grave. The burial chamber is normally located at one end of a rectangular or trapezoidal cairn, while a roofless, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance provided access from the outside (although the entrance itself was often blocked), and gives this type of chambered cairn its alternate name of court tomb or court cairn. These forecourts are typically fronted by large stones and it is thought the area in front of the cairn was used for public rituals of some kind. The chambers were created from large stones set on end, roofed with large flat stones and often sub-divided by slabs into small compartments. They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland.
Examples include Cairn Holy I and Cairn Holy II near Newton Stewart, a cairn at Port Charlotte, Islay, which dates to 3900–4000 BC, and Monamore, or Meallach's Grave, Arran, which may date from the early fifth millennium BC. Excavations at the Mid Gleniron cairns near Cairnholy revealed a multi-period construction which shed light on the development of this class of chambered cairn.
===Orkney-Cromarty===
The Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse. It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle. The design is of dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments or stalls. The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on Orkney. The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate 'forecourts' protruding from each end, creating what look like small amphitheatres. It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland Europe, as they are similar to designs found in France and Spain.
Examples include Midhowe on Rousay, and both the Unstan Chambered Cairn and Wideford Hill chambered cairn from the Orkney Mainland, both of which date from the mid 4th millennium BC and were probably in use over long periods of time. When the latter was excavated in 1884, grave goods were found that gave their name to Unstan ware pottery. Blackhammer cairn on Rousay is another example dating from the 3rd millennium BC.
The Grey Cairns of Camster in Caithness are examples of this type from mainland Scotland. The Tomb of the Eagles on South Ronaldsay is a stalled cairn that shows some similarities with the later Maeshowe type. It was in use for 800 years or more and numerous bird bones were found here, predominantly white-tailed sea eagle.
===Maeshowe===
The Maeshowe group, named after the famous Orkney monument, is among the most elaborate. They appear relatively late and only in Orkney
In addition to Maeshowe itself, which was constructed c. 2700 BC, there are various other examples from the Orkney Mainland. These include Quanterness chambered cairn (3250 BC) in which the remains of 157 individuals were found when excavated in the 1970s, Cuween Hill near Finstown which was found to contain the bones of men, dogs and oxen and Wideford Hill chambered cairn, which dates from 2000 BC.
Examples from elsewhere in Orkney are the Vinquoy chambered cairn, and the Huntersquoy chambered cairn, both found on the north end of the island of Eday The central chamber of Holm of Papa Westray South cairn is over 20 metres long.
===Bookan===
The Bookan type is named after a cairn found to the north-west of the Ring of Brodgar in Orkney, which is now a dilapidated oval mound, about 16 metres in diameter. Excavations in 1861 indicated a rectangular central chamber surrounded by five smaller chambers. Because of the structure's unusual design, it was originally presumed to be an early form. However, later interpretations and further excavation work in 2002 suggested that they have more in common with the later Maeshowe type rather than the stalled Orkney-Cromarty cairns.
Huntersquoy chambered cairn on Eday is a double storied Orkney–Cromarty type cairn with a Booken-type lower chamber.
===Shetland===
The Shetland or Zetland group are relatively small passage graves, that are round or heel-shaped in outline. The whole chamber is cross or trefoil-shaped and there are no smaller individual compartments. An example is to be found on the uninhabited island of Vementry on the north side of the West Mainland, where it appears that the cairn may have originally been circular and its distinctive heel shape added as a secondary development, a process repeated elsewhere in Shetland. This probably served to make the cairn more distinctive and the forecourt area more defined.
===Hebridean===
Like the Shetland cairn the Hebridean group appear relatively late in the Neolithic. They are largely found in the Outer Hebrides, although a mixture of cairn types are found here. They often have a polygonal chamber and a short passage to one end of the cairn.
The Rubha an Dùnain peninsula on the island of Skye provides an example from the 2nd or 3rd millennium BC. Barpa Langass on North Uist is the best preserved chambered cairn in the Hebrides.
=== Bargrennan ===
Bargrennan chambered cairns are a class of passage graves found only in south-west Scotland, in western Dumfries and Galloway and southern Ayrshire. As well as being structurally different from the nearby Clyde cairns, Bargrennan cairns are distinguished by their siting and distribution; they are found in upland, inland areas of Galloway and Ayrshire. The Clava cairns date from this period, with about 50 cairns of this type in the Inverness area. Corrimony chambered cairn near Drumnadrochit is an example dated to 2000 BC or older. The only surviving evidence of burial was a stain indicating the presence of a single body. The cairn is surrounded by a circle of 11 standing stones. The cairns at Balnuaran of Clava are of a similar date. The largest of three is the north-east cairn, which was partially reconstructed in the 19th century and the central cairn may have been used as a funeral pyre.
Glebe cairn in Kilmartin Glen in Argyll dates from 1700 BC and has two stone cists inside one of which a jet necklace was found during 19th century excavations. There are numerous prehistoric sites in the vicinity including Nether Largie North cairn, which was entirely removed and rebuilt during excavations in 1930.
==Wales==
===Chambered long cairns===
There are 18 Scheduled Ancient Monuments listed:
Siambr gladdu Din Dryfol, Aberffraw
Carnedd gellog hir Pen y Wyrlod, Talgarth
Siambr gladdu Llety'r Filiast, Llandudno
Siambr gladdu Bachwen, Clynnog
Siambr gladdu Rhiw, Aberdaron
Siambr gladdu Maen y Bardd, Caerhun
Siambr gladdu Ystum-Cegid, Llanystumdwy
Siambr gladdu Caer-Dynni, Cricieth
Siambr gladdu Capel Garmon, Bro Garmon, Conwy
Siambr gladdu Tyddyn Bleiddyn, Cefn Meiriadog
Siambr gladdu Hendre-Waelod, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy
Parc Cwm long cairn, Parc le Breos, Gower Peninsula
Siambr gladdu Cefn Bryn, Llanilltud Gŵyr
Siambr gladdu Dyffryn, Dyffryn Ardudwy
Siambr gladdu Carneddau Hengwm, Dyffryn Ardudwy
Siambr gladdu Cors-y-Gedol, Dyffryn Ardudwy
Siambr gladdu Tan-y-Coed, Llandrillo
Siambr gladdu Gorllewin Bron-y-Foel, Dyffryn Ardudwy
===Chambered round cairns===
Siambr gladdu Bryn yr Hen Bobl, Llanddaniel Fab, Môn
Siambr gladdu Gelli, Llanfair-ar-y-bryn, Sir Gaerfyrddin
Siambr gladdu Cefnamwlch, Tudweiliog, Gwynedd
Siambr galddu Afon y Dolau Gwynion, overlooking Lake Vyrnwy, Llanwddyn, Powys
|
[
"Balnuaran of Clava",
"North Uist",
"white-tailed sea eagle",
"France",
"Ayrshire",
"Llanwddyn",
"Unstan Chambered Cairn",
"Môn",
"Siambr gladdu Maen y Bardd",
"Unstan ware",
"Siambr gladdu Cefnamwlch",
"Europe",
"Excarnation",
"Sanday, Orkney",
"Llanfair-ar-y-bryn",
"Rousay",
"Siambr gladdu Tyddyn Bleiddyn",
"Prehistoric Orkney",
"Heart of Neolithic Orkney",
"cropmark",
"Shetland",
"Links of Noltland",
"cairn",
"Cairnholy",
"Mid Gleniron",
"Lake Vyrnwy",
"Gwynedd",
"Spain",
"Siambr gladdu Rhiw",
"Outer Hebrides",
"gallery grave",
"Drumnadrochit",
"Siambr gladdu Capel Garmon",
"Islay",
"Siambr gladdu Dyffryn",
"passage grave",
"Blackhammer Chambered Cairn",
"Bronze Age",
"Gower Peninsula",
"South Ronaldsay",
"Birlinn Limited",
"Siambr gladdu Bachwen",
"Central Lowlands",
"Barnhouse Settlement",
"Newton Stewart",
"Neolithic British Isles",
"Siambr gladdu Carneddau Hengwm",
"Oldest buildings in Scotland",
"Quoyness",
"Skara Brae",
"Port Charlotte, Islay",
"Cricieth",
"Kilmartin Glen",
"Llandudno",
"Wideford Hill chambered cairn",
"Llanddaniel Fab",
"Barpa Langass",
"round cairn",
"Bro Garmon",
"Maeshowe",
"Rinyo",
"Mainland, Orkney",
"Corrimony chambered cairn",
"Dumfries and Galloway",
"Powys",
"Midhowe Chambered Cairn",
"Prehistoric Britain",
"Rubha an Dùnain",
"Siambr gladdu Ystum-Cegid",
"Tomb of the Eagles",
"Llety'r Filiast",
"Eday",
"Llandrillo, Denbighshire",
"Argyll",
"Cefn Meiriadog",
"Siambr gladdu Tan-y-Coed",
"Aberffraw",
"Siambr gladdu Hendre-Waelod",
"Holm of Papa",
"Parc Cwm long cairn",
"Siambr gladdu Din Dryfol",
"heel-shaped cairn",
"Aberdaron",
"Siambr gladdu Cors-y-Gedol",
"Llansanffraid Glan Conwy",
"Orkney",
"Dyffryn Ardudwy",
"Skye",
"Corbel arch",
"Conwy",
"Clava cairn",
"Tudweiliog",
"Severn-Cotswold tomb",
"Siambr gladdu Cefn Bryn",
"Firth of Clyde",
"Isle of Arran",
"trefoil",
"Cuween Hill Chambered Cairn",
"Vementry",
"Mainland, Shetland",
"Llanystumdwy",
"Siambr gladdu Gelli",
"Bryn yr Hen Bobl",
"Finstown",
"Vinquoy chambered cairn",
"Court tomb",
"Siambr gladdu Caer-Dynni",
"Inverness",
"Ness of Brodgar",
"Clynnog",
"Caerhun",
"grooved ware",
"Unchambered long cairn",
"Scotland",
"Siambr gladdu Gorllewin Bron-y-Foel",
"Caithness",
"Carnedd gellog hir Pen y Wyrlod",
"henge",
"Parc le Breos",
"Quanterness chambered cairn",
"Ring of Brodgar",
"Talgarth",
"Hebrides",
"Siambr galddu Afon y Dolau Gwynion",
"Siambr gladdu",
"Balfarg",
"Huntersquoy chambered cairn",
"Sir Gaerfyrddin",
"Ireland",
"cist",
"chambered long barrow",
"Heel-shaped cairn",
"amphitheatres",
"Llanilltud Gŵyr"
] |
7,146 |
Currency code
|
Redirect ISO 4217
|
[
"ISO 4217"
] |
7,147 |
Canadian whisky
|
Canadian whisky is a type of whisky produced in Canada. Most Canadian whiskies are blended multi-grain liquors containing a large percentage of corn spirits, and are typically lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. When Canadian distillers began adding small amounts of highly-flavourful rye grain to their mashes, people began demanding this new rye-flavoured whisky, referring to it simply as "rye". Today, as for the past two centuries, the terms "rye whisky" and "Canadian whisky" are used interchangeably in Canada and (as defined in Canadian law) refer to exactly the same product, which generally is made with only a small amount of rye grain.
==Characteristics==
Historically, in Canada, corn-based whisky that had some rye grain added to the mash bill to give it more flavour came to be called "rye".
The regulations under Canada's Food and Drugs Act stipulate the minimum conditions that must be met in order to label a product as "Canadian Whisky" or "Canadian Rye Whisky" (or "Rye Whisky")—these are also upheld internationally through geographical indication agreements. These regulations state that whisky must "be mashed, distilled and aged in Canada", "be aged in small wood vessels for not less than three years", "contain not less than 40 per cent alcohol by volume" and "may contain caramel and flavouring". Within these parameters Canadian whiskies can vary considerably, especially with the allowance of "flavouring"—though the additional requirement that they "possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky" can act as a limiting factor.
Canadian whiskies are most typically blends of whiskies made from a single grain, principally corn and rye, but also sometimes wheat or barley. Mash bills of multiple grains may also be used for some flavouring whiskies. The availability of inexpensive American corn, with its higher proportion of usable starches relative to other cereal grains, has led it to be most typically used to create base whiskies to which flavouring whiskies are blended in. Exceptions to this include the Highwood Distillery which specializes in using wheat and the Alberta Distillers which developed its own proprietary yeast strain that specializes in distilling rye. The flavouring whiskies are most typically rye whiskies, blended into the product to add most of its flavour and aroma. While Canadian whisky may be labelled as a "rye whisky" this blending technique only necessitates a small percentage (such as 10%) of rye to create the flavour, whereas much more rye would be required if it were added to a mash bill alongside the more readily distilled corn.
The base whiskies are distilled to between 180 and 190 proof which results in few congener by-products (such as fusel alcohol, aldehydes, esters, etc.) and creates a lighter taste. By comparison, an American whisky distilled any higher than 160 proof is labelled as "light whiskey". The flavouring whiskies are distilled to a lower proof so that they retain more of the grain's flavour. The relative lightness created by the use of base whiskies makes Canadian whisky useful for mixing into cocktails and highballs. The minimum three year aging in small wood barrels applies to all whiskies used in the blend. As the regulations do not limit the specific type of wood that must be used, a variety of flavours can be achieved by blending whiskies aged in different types of barrels. In addition to new wood barrels, charred or uncharred, flavour can be added by ageing whiskies in previously used bourbon or fortified wine barrels for different lengths of time.
==History==
In the 18th and early 19th centuries, gristmills distilled surplus grains to avoid spoilage. Most of these early whiskies would have been rough, mostly unaged wheat whiskey. Distilling methods and technologies were brought to Canada by American and European immigrants with experience in distilling wheat and rye. This early whisky from improvised stills, often with the grains closest to spoilage, was produced with various, uncontrolled proofs and was consumed, unaged, by the local market. While most distilling capacity was taken up producing rum, a result of Atlantic Canada's position in the British sugar trade, the first commercial scale production of whisky in Canada began in 1801 when John Molson purchased a copper pot still, previously used to produce rum, in Montreal. With his son Thomas Molson, and eventually partner James Morton, the Molsons operated a distillery in Montreal and Kingston and were the first in Canada to export whisky, benefiting from Napoleonic Wars' disruption in supplying French wine and brandies to England.
Gooderham and Worts began producing whisky in 1837 in Toronto as a side business to their wheat milling but surpassed Molson's production by the 1850s as it expanded their operations with a new distillery in what would become the Distillery District. Henry Corby started distilling whisky as a side business from his gristmill in 1859 in what became known as Corbyville and Joseph Seagram began working in his father-in-law's Waterloo flour mill and distillery in 1864, which he would eventually purchase in 1883. Meanwhile, Americans Hiram Walker and J.P. Wiser moved to Canada: Walker to Windsor in 1858 to open a flour mill and distillery and Wiser to Prescott in 1857 to work at his uncle's distillery where he introduced a rye whisky and was successful enough to buy the distillery five years later. The disruption of American Civil War created an export opportunity for Canadian-made whiskies and their quality, particularly those from Walker and Wiser who had already begun the practice of aging their whiskies, sustained that market even after post-war tariffs were introduced. In the 1880s, Canada's National Policy placed high tariffs on foreign alcoholic products as whisky began to be sold in bottles and the federal government instituted a bottled in bond program that provided certification of the time a whisky spent aging and allowed deferral of taxes for that period, which encouraged aging. In 1890 Canada became the first country to enact an aging law for whiskies, requiring them to be aged at least two years. The growing temperance movement culminated in prohibition in 1916 and distilleries had to either specialize in the export market or switch to alternative products, like industrial alcohols which were in demand in support of the war effort.
With the deferred revenue and storage costs of the Aging Law acting as a barrier to new entrants and the reduced market due to prohibition, consolidation of Canadian whisky had begun. Henry Corby Jr. modernized and expanded upon his father's distillery and sold it, in 1905, to businessman Mortimer Davis who also purchased the Wiser distillery, in 1918, from the heirs of J.P. Wiser. Davis's salesman Harry Hatch spent time promoting the Corby and Wiser brands and developing a distribution network in the United States which held together as Canadian prohibition ended and American prohibition began. After Hatch's falling out with Davis, Hatch purchased the struggling Gooderham and Worts in 1923 and switched out Davis's whisky for his. Hatch was successful enough to be able to also purchase the Walker distillery, and the popular Canadian Club brand, from Hiram's grandsons in 1926. While American prohibition created risk and instability in the Canadian whisky industry, some benefited from purchasing unused American distillation equipment and from sales to exporters (nominally to foreign countries like Saint Pierre and Miquelon, though actually to bootleggers to the United States). Along with Hatch, the Bronfman family was able to profit from making whisky destined for United States during prohibition, though mostly in Western Canada and were able to open a distillery in LaSalle, Quebec and merge their company, in 1928, with Seagram's which had struggled with transitioning to the prohibition marketplace. Samuel Bronfman became president of the company and, with his dominant personality, began a strategy of increasing their capacity and aging whiskies in anticipation of the end of prohibition. When that did occur, in 1933, Seagram's was in a position to quickly expand; they purchased The British Columbia Distilling Company from the Riefel family in 1935, as well as several American distilleries and introduced new brands, one of them being Crown Royal, in 1939, which would eventually become one of the best-selling Canadian whiskies.
While some capacity was switched to producing industrial alcohols in support of the country's World War II efforts, the industry expanded again after the war until the 1980s. In 1945, Schenley Industries purchased one of those industrial alcohol distilleries in Valleyfield, Quebec, and repurposed several defunct American whiskey brands, like Golden Wedding, Old Fine Copper, and starting in 1972, Gibson's Finest. Seeking to secure their supply of Canadian whisky, Barton Brands also built a new distillery in Collingwood, Ontario, in 1967, where they would produce Canadian Mist, though they sold the distillery and brand only four years later to Brown–Forman. As proximity to the shipping routes (by rail and boat) to the US became less important, large distilleries were established in Alberta and Manitoba. Five years after starting to experiment with whiskies in their Toronto gin distillery, W. & A. Gilbey Ltd. created the Black Velvet blend in 1951 which was so successful a new distillery in Lethbridge, Alberta was constructed in 1973 to produce it.
Also in the west, a Calgary-based business group recruited the Riefels from British Columbia to oversee their Alberta Distillers operations in 1948. The company became an innovator in the practice of bulk shipping whiskies to the United States for bottling and the success of their Windsor Canadian brand (produced in Alberta but bottled in the United States) led National Distillers Limited to purchase Alberta Distillers, in 1964, to secure their supply chain. More Alberta investors founded the Highwood Distillery in 1974 in High River, Alberta, which specialized in wheat-based whiskies. Seagram's opened a large, new plant in Gimli, Manitoba, in 1969, which would eventually replace their Waterloo and LaSalle distilleries. In British Columbia, Ernie Potter who had been producing fruit liqueurs from alcohols distilled at Alberta Distillers built his own whisky distillery in Langley in 1958 and produced the Potter's and Century brands of whisky. Hiram Walker's built the Okanagan Distillery in Winfield, British Columbia, in 1970 with the intention of producing Canadian Club but was redirected to fulfill contracts to produce whiskies for Suntory before being closed in 1995.
After decades of expansion, a shift in consumer preferences towards white spirits (such as vodka) in the American market resulted in an excess supply of Canadian whiskies. While this allowed the whiskies to be aged longer, the unexpected storage costs and deferred revenue strained individual companies. With the distillers seeking investors and multinational corporations seeking value brands, a series of acquisitions and mergers occurred. Alberta Distillers was bought in 1987 by Fortune Brands which would go on to become part of Suntory Global Spirits. Hiram Walker was sold in 1987 to Allied Lyons which Pernod Ricard took over in 2006, with Fortune Brands acquiring the Canadian Club brand. Grand Metropolitan had purchased Black Velvet in 1972 but sold the brand in 1999 to Constellation Brands who in turn sold it to Heaven Hill in 2019. Schenley was acquired in 1990 by United Distillers which would go on to become part of Diageo, though Gibson's Finest was sold to William Grant & Sons in 2001. Seagram's was sold in 2000 to Vivendi, which in turn sold its various brands and distilleries to Pernod Ricard and Diageo. Highwood would purchase Potter's in 2006. Despite the consolidation, the Kittling Ridge Distillery in Grimsby, Ontario, began to produce the Forty Creek brand, though it was sold to the Campari Group in 2014. Later, the Sazerac Company would purchase the brands Seagram's VO, Canadian 83 and Five Star from Diageo in 2018.
===Illicit export to the United States===
Canadian whisky featured prominently in rum-running into the U.S. during Prohibition. Hiram Walker's distillery in Windsor, Ontario, directly across the Detroit River and the international boundary between Canada and the United States, easily served bootleggers using small, fast smuggling boats.
==Distilleries and brands==
The following is a listing of distilleries presently producing Canadian whiskys:
===Alberta===
There are several distilleries based in Alberta, including the Alberta Distillers, established in 1946 in Calgary, Alberta. The distillery was purchased in 1987 by Fortune Brands which became Beam Suntory in 2011 and Suntory Global Spirits in 2024. The distillery uses a specific strain of yeast which they developed that specializes in fermenting rye. While the distillery exports much of its whisky for bottling in other countries, they also produce the brands Alberta Premium, Alberta Springs, Windsor Canadian, Tangle Ridge, and Canadian Club Chairman's Select.
Black Velvet Distillery (formerly the Palliser Distillery) was established in 1973 in Lethbridge, Alberta, and has been owned by Heaven Hill since 2019. It produces the Black Velvet brand, mostly shipped in bulk for bottling in America, with some bottled onsite for Canadians. It also makes Danfield's and the Schenley's Golden Wedding and OFC labels.
Highwood Distillery (formerly the Sunnyvale Distillery) was established in 1974 in High River, Alberta, the Highwood Distillery specializes in using wheat in their base whiskies. This distillery also produces vodka, rum, gin and liqueurs. Brands of Canadian whisky produced at the Highwood Distillery include Centennial, Century, Ninety, and Potter's. They also produce White Owl whisky which is charcoal-filtered to remove the colouring introduced by aging in wood barrels.
===Manitoba===
Gimli Distillery was established in 1968 in Gimli, Manitoba, to produce Seagram brands, the distillery was acquired by Diageo in 2001. The Gimli Distillery is responsible for producing Crown Royal, the best-selling Canadian whisky in the world with 7 million cases shipped in 2017. They also supply some of the whisky used in Seagram's VO and other blends.
===Ontario===
Distilleries were established in Ontario during the mid-19th century, with Gooderham and Worts's beginning operations in Toronto's Distillery District in the 1830s. Distilleries continued to operate from the Distillery District until 1990, when the area was reoriented towards commercial and residential development. Other former distilleries in the province includes one in Corbyville, which hosted a distillery operated by Corby Spirit and Wine. A distillery in Waterloo was operated by Seagram to produce Crown Royal until 1992; although the company still maintains a blending and bottling plant in Amherstburg.
Presently, there are several major distilleries based in Ontario. The oldest functioning distillery in Ontario is the Hiram Walker Distillery, established in 1858 in Windsor, Ontario, but modernized and expanded upon several times since. The distillery is owned by Pernod Ricard and operated by Corby Spirit and Wine, of which Pernod has a controlling share. Brands produced at the Walker Distillery include Lot 40, Pike Creek, Gooderham and Worts, Hiram Walker's Special Old, Corby's Royal Reserve, and J.P. Wiser's brands. Most of its capacity is used for contract production of the Suntory Global Spirits brand (and former Hiram Walker brand) Canadian Club, in addition to generic Canadian whisky that is exported in bulk and bottled under various labels in other countries.
Canadian Mist Distillery was established in 1967 in Collingwood, Ontario, the distillery is owned by the Sazerac Company and primarily produces the Canadian Mist brand for export. The distillery also produces whiskies used in the Collingwood brand, introduced 2011, and the Bearface brand, introduced 2018.
Kittling Ridge Distillery was established in 1992 with an associated winery in Grimsby, Ontario, its first whiskies came to market in 2002. The distillery was purchased in 2014 by Campari Group. The distillery produces the Forty Creek brand.
===Quebec===
Old Montreal Distillery was established in 1929 as a Corby Spirit and Wine distillery, it was acquired by Sazerac Company in 2011 and modernized in 2018. It produces Sazerac brands and has taken over bottling of Caribou Crossing.
Valleyfield Distillery (formerly the Schenley Distillery) was established in 1945 in a former brewery in Salaberry-de-Valleyfield, Quebec, near Montreal, the distillery has been owned by Diageo in 2008. Seagram's VO is bottled here with flavouring whisky from the Gimli Distillery. Otherwise, the Valleyfield Distillery specializes in producing base whiskies distilled from corn for other Diageo products.
|
[
"National Policy",
"Corn production in the United States",
"Suntory",
"Mortimer Davis",
"Montreal",
"moonshine",
"Suntory Global Spirits",
"Windsor, Ontario",
"Bronfman family",
"aldehyde",
"Samuel Bronfman",
"Food and Drugs Act",
"Gimli, Manitoba",
"J.P. Wiser's Whisky",
"John Molson",
"Constellation Brands",
"Vivendi",
"William Grant & Sons",
"Collingwood, Ontario",
"Canada–United States border",
"ester",
"Canadian wine",
"Allied Domecq",
"Toronto",
"rum-running",
"Corbyville, Ontario",
"Thomas Molson",
"geographical indication",
"Distillery District",
"LaSalle, Quebec",
"Barton Brands",
"Cereal",
"Langley, British Columbia (city)",
"Prescott, Ontario",
"Canadian Club",
"Bourbon whiskey",
"temperance movement",
"Prohibition in the United States",
"barley",
"prohibition in the United States",
"Kingston, Ontario",
"corn",
"Lethbridge",
"Heaven Hill",
"Grand Metropolitan",
"highball",
"Western Canada",
"Men's Journal",
"Sazerac Company",
"Amherstburg",
"Henry Corby Jr.",
"Pernod Ricard",
"wheat",
"American City Business Journals",
"Harry C. Hatch",
"Henry Corby",
"High River, Alberta",
"Seagram",
"Gibson’s Finest Canadian Whisky",
"Fortune Brands (1969–2011)",
"Schenley Industries",
"rye whiskey",
"whisky",
"Brown–Forman",
"Congener (alcohol)",
"Campari Group",
"Detroit River",
"pot still",
"Outline of whisky",
"Activated carbon",
"war effort",
"wheat whiskey",
"World War II",
"Diageo",
"Salaberry-de-Valleyfield",
"Black Velvet (whisky)",
"Maize",
"fortified wine",
"Canadian Mist",
"rye",
"fusel alcohol",
"Grimsby, Ontario",
"United Distillers",
"Gooderham and Worts",
"mash ingredient",
"Canadian beer",
"Napoleonic Wars",
"Alberta Premium",
"rum",
"Corby Spirit and Wine",
"Calgary",
"bottled in bond",
"cocktail",
"Winfield, British Columbia",
"Rum-running",
"Crown Royal",
"Caramel color",
"Saint Pierre and Miquelon",
"Charring",
"Blended whiskey",
"Prohibition in Canada",
"Forty Creek",
"James Morton (Canadian businessman)",
"Mash bill",
"Hiram Walker",
"Spirits business",
"American Civil War",
"The New York Times",
"gristmill",
"Joseph E. Seagram",
"Waterloo, Ontario",
"The Atlantic",
"John Philip Wiser",
"Lethbridge, Alberta"
] |
7,148 |
Collective noun
|
In linguistics, a collective noun is a word referring to a collection of things taken as a whole. Most collective nouns in everyday speech are not specific to one kind of thing. For example, the collective noun "group" can be applied to people ("a group of people"), or dogs ("a group of dogs"), or objects ("a group of stones").
Some collective nouns are specific to one kind of thing, especially terms of venery, which identify groups of specific animals. For example, "pride" as a term of venery always refers to lions, never to dogs or cows. Other examples come from popular culture such as a group of owls, which is called a "parliament".
Different forms of English handle verb agreement with collective count nouns differently. For example, users of British English generally accept that collective nouns take either singular or plural verb forms depending on context and the metonymic shift that it implies, while in some other forms of English the verb agreement is less flexible.
== Derivation ==
Morphological derivation accounts for many collective words and various languages have common affixes for denoting collective nouns. Because derivation is a slower and less productive word formation process than the more overtly syntactical morphological methods, there are fewer collectives formed this way. As with all derived words, derivational collectives often differ semantically from the original words, acquiring new connotations and even new denotations.
== Affixes ==
=== Proto-Indo-European ===
Early Proto-Indo-European used the suffix *eh₂ to form collective nouns, which evolved into the Latin neuter plural ending -a, as in "datum/data". Late Proto-Indo-European used the ending *t, which evolved into the English ending -th, as in "young/youth".
=== English ===
The English endings -age and -ade often signify a collective. Sometimes, the relationship is easily recognizable: baggage, drainage, blockade. Though the etymology is plain to see, the derived words take on a distinct meaning. This is a productive ending, as evidenced in the recent coin, "signage".
=== German ===
German uses the prefix ge- to create collectives. The root word often undergoes umlaut and suffixation as well as receiving the ge- prefix. Nearly all nouns created in that way are of neuter gender:
', "group of hills, mountain range" ', "mountain" or "hill"
', "luggage, baggage" < ', "pack, bundle, pile"
', "poultry, fowl (birds)" < late MHG ', under the influence of ', "wing" < MHG ' < OHG ' = collective formation of ', "bird"
', "plumage" < ', "feather"
', "sibling of another child" or "child of a sibling" < ', "sister"
', "siblings" < ', "sister"
"Der Gebirgszug" and "die Bergkette" also mean "mountain range", drawing on the words "der Zug" = train, and "die Kette" = chain.
There are also several endings that can be used to create collectives, such as "welt" and "masse".
=== Dutch ===
Dutch has a similar pattern but sometimes uses the (unproductive) circumfix :
' 'mountain' > ' 'mountain range'
' 'bone' > ' 'skeleton'
' 'bird' > ' 'poultry'
' 'leaf' > ' 'foliage'
=== Swedish ===
The following Swedish example has different words in the collective form and in the individual form:
An individual mosquito is a ' (plural: '), but mosquitos as a collective is .
=== Esperanto ===
Esperanto uses the collective infix -ar- to produce a large number of derived words:
monto 'mountain' > montaro 'mountain range'
birdo 'bird' > birdaro 'flock'
arbo 'tree' > arbaro 'forest'
ŝipo 'ship' > ŝiparo 'fleet'
manĝilo 'eating utensil' > manĝilaro 'silverware', 'cutlery'
== Metonymic merging of grammatical number ==
Two examples of collective nouns are "team" and "government", which are both words referring to groups of (usually) people. Both "team" and "government" are countable nouns (consider: "one team", "two teams", "most teams"; "one government", "two governments", "many governments").
=== Agreement in different forms of English ===
Confusion often stems from the way that different forms of English handle agreement with collective nouns—specifically, whether or not to use the collective singular: the singular verb form with a collective noun. The plural verb forms are often used in British English with the singular forms of these countable nouns (e.g., "The team have finished the project."). Conversely, in the English language as a whole, singular verb forms can often be used with nouns ending in "-s" that were once considered plural (e.g., "Physics is my favorite academic subject"). This apparent "number mismatch" is a natural and logical feature of human language, and its mechanism is a subtle metonymic shift in the concepts underlying the words.
In British English, it is generally accepted that collective nouns can take either singular or plural verb forms depending on the context and the metonymic shift that it implies. For example, "the team is in the dressing room" (formal agreement) refers to the team as an ensemble, while "the team are fighting among themselves" (notional agreement) refers to the team as individuals. That is also the British English practice with names of countries and cities in sports contexts (e.g., "Newcastle have won the competition.").
In American English, collective nouns almost always take singular verb forms (formal agreement). In cases that a metonymic shift would be revealed nearby, the whole sentence should be recast to avoid the metonymy. (For example, "The team are fighting among themselves" may become "the team members are fighting among themselves" or simply "the team is infighting".) Collective proper nouns are usually taken as singular ("Apple is expected to release a new phone this year"), unless the plural is explicit in the proper noun itself, in which case it is taken as plural ("The Green Bay Packers are scheduled to play the Minnesota Vikings this weekend"). More explicit examples of collective proper nouns include "General Motors is once again the world's largest producer of vehicles", and "Texas Instruments is a large producer of electronics here", and "British Airways is an airline company in Europe". Furthermore, "American Telephone & Telegraph is a telecommunications company in North America". Such phrases might look plural, but they are not.
=== Examples of metonymic shift ===
A good example of such a metonymic shift in the singular-to-plural direction (which exclusively takes place in British English) is the following sentence: "The team have finished the project." In that sentence, the underlying thought is of the individual members of the team working together to finish the project. Their accomplishment is collective, and the emphasis is not on their individual identities, but they are still discrete individuals; the word choice "team have" manages to convey both their collective and discrete identities simultaneously. Collective nouns that have a singular form but take a plural verb form are called collective plurals. An example of such a metonymic shift in the plural-to-singular direction is the following sentence: "Mathematics is my favorite academic subject". The word "mathematics" may have originally been plural in concept, referring to mathematic endeavors, but metonymic shift (the shift in concept from "the endeavors" to "the whole set of endeavors") produced the usage of "mathematics" as a singular entity taking singular verb forms. (A true mass-noun sense of "mathematics" followed naturally.)
Nominally singular pronouns can be collective nouns taking plural verb forms, according to the same rules that apply to other collective nouns. For example, it is correct usage in both British English and American English usage to say: "None are so fallible as those who are sure they're right." In that case, the plural verb is used because the context for "none" suggests more than one thing or person. This also applies to the use of an adjective as a collective noun: "The British are coming!"; "The poor will always be with you."
Other examples include:
"Creedence Clearwater Revival was founded in El Cerrito, California" (but in British English, "Creedence Clearwater Revival were founded ...")
"Arsenal have won the match" (but in American English, "Arsenal has won the game")
"Nintendo is a video game company headquartered in Japan".
This does not, however, affect the tense later in the sentence:
"Cream is a psychedelic rock band who were primarily popular in the 1960s.
Abbreviations provide other "exceptions" in American usage concerning plurals:
"Runs Batted In" becomes "RBIs". "Smith had 10 RBIs in the last three games."
"Revised Statutes Annotated" or RSAs. "The RSAs contain our laws."
When only the name is plural but not the object, place, or person:
"The bends is a deadly disease mostly affecting SCUBA divers."
"Hot Rocks is a greatest hits compilation by The Rolling Stones."
== Terms of venery ==
The tradition of using "terms of venery" or "nouns of assembly", collective nouns that are specific to certain kinds of animals, stems from an English hunting tradition of the Late Middle Ages. The fashion of a consciously developed hunting language came to England from France. It was marked by an extensive proliferation of specialist vocabulary, applying different names to the same feature in different animals. The elements can be shown to have already been part of French and English hunting terminology by the beginning of the 14th century. In the course of the 14th century, it became a courtly fashion to extend the vocabulary, and by the 15th century, the tendency had reached exaggerated and even satirical proportions. Other synonyms for "terms of venery" include "company nouns", "gatherations", and "agminals".
The Treatise, written by Walter of Bibbesworth in the mid-1200s, is the earliest source for collective nouns of animals in any European vernacular (and also the earliest source for animal noises). The Venerie of Twiti (early 14th century) distinguished three types of droppings of animals, and three different terms for herds of animals. Gaston Phoebus (14th century) had five terms for droppings of animals, which were extended to seven in the Master of the Game (early 15th century). The focus on collective terms for groups of animals emerged in the later 15th century. Thus, a list of collective nouns in Egerton MS 1995, dated to under the heading of "termis of venery &c.", extends to 70 items, and the list in the Book of Saint Albans (1486) runs to 164 items, many of which, even though introduced by "the compaynys of beestys and fowlys", relate not to venery, but to human groups and professions and are humorous, such as "a Doctryne of doctoris", "a Sentence of Juges", "a Fightyng of beggers", "an uncredibilite of Cocoldis", "a Melody of harpers", "a Gagle of women", "a Disworship of Scottis", etc.
The Book of Saint Albans became very popular during the 16th century and was reprinted frequently. Gervase Markham edited and commented on the list in his The Gentleman's Academie, in 1595. The book's popularity had the effect of perpetuating many of these terms as part of the Standard English lexicon even if they were originally meant to be humorous and have long ceased to have any practical application.
Even in their original context of medieval venery, the terms were of the nature of kennings, intended as a mark of erudition of the gentlemen able to use them correctly rather than for practical communication. The popularity of the terms in the modern period has resulted in the addition of numerous lighthearted, humorous, or facetious collective nouns.
|
[
"count noun",
"Texas Instruments",
"plural verb",
"herd",
"syntax",
"Decompression sickness",
"suffix",
"prefix",
"video game",
"American English",
"neuter gender",
"Hypernym",
"Gervase Markham",
"The Rolling Stones",
"Gaston Phoebus",
"proper noun",
"Grammatical number",
"circumfix",
"Mass noun",
"signage",
"Old High German",
"metonymy",
"Late Middle Ages",
"Plural",
"Kingdom of England",
"BBC",
"Synesis",
"General Motors",
"James Lipton",
"Middle High German",
"Creedence Clearwater Revival",
"The Treatise (Walter of Bibbesworth)",
"denotation",
"Book of Saint Albans",
"Esperanto",
"affix",
"notional agreement",
"Dutch language",
"Measure word",
"popular culture",
"wikt:mygg",
"Coined word",
"wikt:-ar",
"mass noun",
"Nintendo",
"Agreement (linguistics)",
"Green Bay Packers",
"wikt:myggor",
"wikt:ge-",
"medieval France",
"Swedish language",
"medieval hunting",
"Walter of Bibbesworth",
"kenning",
"droppings",
"The Guardian",
"Hot Rocks",
"linguistics",
"I-mutation",
"Juliana Berners",
"etymology",
"electronics",
"British English",
"Productive (linguistics)",
"Apple Inc.",
"El Cerrito, California",
"German language",
"connotation",
"wikt:mygga",
"formal agreement",
"List of animal names",
"Standard English",
"Plurale tantum",
"telecommunications",
"Semantics",
"Morphological derivation",
"word formation",
"Minnesota Vikings",
"Newcastle United F.C.",
"American Telephone & Telegraph",
"psychedelic rock",
"noun",
"British Airways",
"Arsenal FC",
"Book of St Albans"
] |
7,158 |
Carat (mass)
|
The carat (ct) is a unit of mass equal to , which is used for measuring gemstones and pearls.
The current definition, sometimes known as the metric carat, was adopted in 1907 at the Fourth General Conference on Weights and Measures,
The ANSI X.12 EDI standard abbreviation for the carat is CD.
==Etymology==
First attested in English in the mid-15th century, the word carat comes from Italian carato, which comes from Arabic (qīrāṭ; قيراط), in turn borrowed from Greek kerátion κεράτιον 'carob seed', a diminutive of keras 'horn'. It was a unit of weight, equal to 1/1728 (1/12) of a pound (see Mina (unit)). However, this was a factual inaccuracy, as their mass varies about as much as seeds of other species.
In the past, each country had its own carat. It was often used for weighing gold. Beginning in the 1570s, it was used to measure weights of diamonds. at the fourth sexennial General Conference of the Metric Convention held in Paris in October 1907. It was soon made compulsory by law in France, but uptake of the new carat was slower in England, where its use was allowed by the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1897.
==Historical definitions==
=== UK Board of Trade ===
In the United Kingdom the original Board of Trade carat was exactly grains (~3.170 grains = ~205 mg); in 1888, the Board of Trade carat was changed to exactly grains (~3.168 grains = ~205 mg). Despite it being a non-metric unit, a number of metric countries have used this unit for its limited range of application.
The Board of Trade carat was divisible into four diamond grains, but measurements were typically made in multiples of carat.
=== Refiners' carats ===
There were also two varieties of refiners' carats once used in the United Kingdom—the pound carat and the ounce carat. The pound troy was divisible into 24 pound carats of 240 grains troy each; the pound carat was divisible into four pound grains of 60 grains troy each; and the pound grain was divisible into four pound quarters of 15 grains troy each. Likewise, the ounce troy was divisible into 24 ounce carats of 20 grains troy each; the ounce carat was divisible into four ounce grains of 5 grains troy each; and the ounce grain was divisible into four ounce quarters of grains troy each.
=== Greco-Roman ===
The solidus was also a Roman weight unit. There is literary evidence that the weight of 72 coins of the type called solidus was exactly 1 Roman pound, and that the weight of 1 solidus was 24 siliquae. The weight of a Roman pound is generally believed to have been 327.45 g or possibly up to 5 g less. Therefore, the metric equivalent of 1 siliqua was approximately 189 mg. The Greeks had a similar unit of the same value.
Gold fineness in carats comes from carats and grains of gold in a solidus of coin. The conversion rates 1 solidus = 24 carats, 1 carat = 4 grains still stand. Woolhouse's Measures, Weights and Moneys of All Nations gives gold fineness in carats of 4 grains, and silver in troy pounds of 12 troy ounces of 20 pennyweight each.
|
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7,160 |
European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
|
The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) was established on 26 June 1959 by nineteen European states in Montreux, Switzerland, as a coordinating body for European state telecommunications and postal organizations. The acronym comes from the French version of its name, .
CEPT was responsible for the creation of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1988.
== Organization ==
CEPT is organised into three main components:
Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) – responsible for radiocommunications and telecommunications matters and formed by the merger of ECTRA (European Committee for Telecommunications Regulatory Affairs) and ERC (European Radiocommunications Committee) in September 2001
The permanent secretariat of the ECC is the European Communications Office (ECO)
European Committee for Postal Regulation (CERP, after the French "Comité européen des régulateurs postaux") – responsible for postal matters
The committee for ITU Policy (Com-ITU) is responsible for organising the co-ordination of CEPT actions for the preparation for and during the course of the ITU activities meetings of the council, Plenipotentiary Conferences, World Telecommunication Development Conferences, World Telecommunication Standardisation Assemblies
==Member countries==
As of March 2022: 46 countries.
Albania, Andorra, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City. The Russian Federation and Belarus memberships were suspended indefinitely on 17 March 2022.
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] |
7,162 |
Tramlink
|
Tramlink, previously Croydon Tramlink and currently branded as London Trams, is a light rail tram system serving Croydon and surrounding areas in South London, England. It is the first operational tram system serving the London region since 1952. Tramlink is presently managed by London Trams, a public body part of Transport for London (TfL), and has been operated by FirstGroup since 2017. It is one of two light rail networks in Greater London, the other being the Docklands Light Railway. Tramlink is the fourth-busiest light rail network in the UK behind the Docklands Light Railway, Manchester Metrolink and Tyne and Wear Metro.
Studies for the delivery of a modern-day tram system in Croydon began in the 1960s and detailed planning was performed in the 1980s. Approval of the scheme was received in 1990 and, following a competitive tender process, construction and initial operation of the tramway was undertaken by Tramtrack Croydon (TC) via a 99-year Private Finance Initiative (PFI) contract. The official opening of Tramlink took place on 10 May 2000; by the end of the year three routes were operational. The network consists of 39 stops along of track, on a mixture of street track shared with other traffic, dedicated track in public roads, and off-street track consisting of new rights-of-way, former railway lines, and one right-of-way where the Tramlink track runs parallel to a third rail-electrified Network Rail line. The network's lines coincide in central Croydon, with eastern termini at Beckenham Junction, Elmers End and New Addington, and a western terminus at Wimbledon, where there is an interchange for London Underground.
Since its original opening, the tram network has been expanded and additional rolling stock has been purchased. During 2008, TfL took over Tramlink operations, ending the PFI and making the company a subsidiary of TfL. Additional rolling stock was introduced during the early 2010s. Furthermore, numerous extensions to the network have been discussed, the most recent of which is the Sutton Link, an extension to connect Sutton to Colliers Wood. Sutton Link was paused in 2020 until funding can be secured. In the 2020s, TfL began work to order new trams for the system.
==History==
===Inception===
In the first half of the 20th century, Croydon had many tramlines. However, these were all closed, the first was the Addiscombe – East Croydon station route through George Street to Cherry Orchard Road in 1927 and the last to close was the Purley - Embankment and Croydon (Coombe Road) - Thornton Heath routes closed in April 1951. However, in the Spring of 1950, the Highways Committee were presented by the Mayor with the concept of running trams between East Croydon station and the new estate being constructed at New Addington. This was based on the fact that the Feltham cars used in Croydon were going to Leeds to serve their new estates on reserved tracks. During 1962, a private study with assistance from BR engineers, showed how easy it was to convert the West Croydon - Wimbledon train service to tram operation and successfully prevent conflict between trams and trains.
These two concepts became joined in joint LRTL/TLRS concept of New Addington to Wimbledon every 15 minutes via East and West Croydon and Mitcham plus New Addington to Tattenham Corner every 15 minutes via East and West Croydon, Sutton and Epsom Downs. A branch into Forestdale to give an overlap service from Sutton was also included. During the 1970s, several BR directors and up-and-coming managers were aware of the advantages. Chris Green, upon becoming managing director, Network South East, published his plans in 1987 expanding the concept to take in the Tattenham Corner and Caterham branches and provide a service from Croydon to Lewisham via Addiscombe and Hayes. Following on from the opening of the DLR a small group working under Tony Ridley, then managing director, London Transport, investigated the potential for further light rail in London. The report 'Light Rail for London', written by engineer David Catling and Transport Planner Jon Willis, looked at a number of possible schemes including conversion of the East London Line. However a light rail network focussed on Croydon, with the conversion of existing heavy rail routes, was the most promising. The London Borough of Croydon wanted to improve access to the town centre without further road building and also improve access to the LCC built New Addington estate. Furthermore, road traffic in Croydon expanded considerably during the 1980s and planners were keen to apply public transit to fulfil the recorded growth in demand in the area.
Altram: John Laing, Ansaldo, Serco
Croydon Connect: Tarmac, AEG, Transdev
CT Light Rail Group: GEC Alsthom, Mowlem, Welsh Water
Tramtrack Croydon: CentreWest, Royal Bank of Scotland, Sir Robert McAlpine, Amey, Bombardier Transportation
In May 1996, Tramtrack Croydon (TC) was awarded a 99-year Private Finance Initiative (PFI) contract to design, build, operate and maintain Tramlink. The equity partners in TC were Amey (50%), Royal Bank of Scotland (20%), 3i (20%) and Sir Robert McAlpine with Bombardier Transportation contracted to build and maintain the trams and FirstGroup operate the service. TC retained the revenue generated by Tramlink and LRT had to pay compensation to TC for any changes to the fares and ticketing policy introduced later.
Construction work started in January 1997, with an expected opening in November 1999. The first tram was delivered in October 1998 to the new depot at Therapia Lane and testing on the sections of the Wimbledon line began shortly afterwards. Part of its track is the original route of the Surrey Iron Railway that opened in 1803.
===Opening===
The official opening of Tramlink took place on 10 May 2000 when route 3 from Croydon to New Addington opened to the public. Route 2 from Croydon to Beckenham Junction followed on 23 May 2000, and route 1 from Elmers End to Wimbledon opened a week later on 30 May 2000. It was the first modern tram project in London, with low-floor trams and low platforms allowing accessibility for all.
===Buyout by Transport for London===
In March 2008, TfL announced that it had reached agreement to buy TC for £98million. The purchase was finalised on 28 June 2008. The background to this purchase relates to the requirement that TfL (who took over from London Regional Transport in 2000) compensates TC for the consequences of any changes to the fares and ticketing policy introduced since 1996. In 2007, that payment was £4million, with an annual increase in rate. Despite this change, FirstGroup continues to operate the service.
During October 2008, TfL introduced a new livery, using the blue, white and green of the routes on TfL maps, to distinguish the trams from buses operating in the area. The colour of the cars was changed to green, and the brand name was changed from Croydon Tramlink to simply Tramlink. The rebranding work was completed in early 2009.
===Additional stop and trams===
Centrale tram stop, in Tamworth Road on the one-way central loop, opened on 10 December 2005, However, nothing resulted from this.
In January 2011, TfL opened a tender for the supply of ten new or second-hand trams from the end of summer 2011, for use between Therapia Lane and Elmers End. They entered service in 2012.
In August 2013, TfL ordered an additional four Variobahn trams for delivery in 2015, for use on the Wimbledon to Croydon link, an order later increased to six. This brought the total Variobahn fleet up to ten in 2015, and 12 in 2016 when the final two trams were delivered. In street sections, the stop is integrated with the pavement. On 23 July 2006, the network was restructured, with Route 1 from Elmers End to Croydon, Route 2 from Beckenham Junction to Croydon and Route 3 from New Addington to Wimbledon. On 25 June 2012, Route 4 from Therapia Lane to Elmers End was introduced. On 4 April 2016, Route 4 was extended from Therapia Lane to Wimbledon.
On 25 February 2018, the network and timetables were restructured again for more even and reliable services. As part of this change, trams would no longer display route numbers on their dot matrix destination screens. This resulted in three routes:
New Addington to West Croydon, returning to New Addington every 7–8 minutes (every 10 minutes on Sunday shopping hours and every 15 minutes at late evenings).
Wimbledon to Beckenham Junction every 10 minutes (every 15 minutes on Sundays and late evening)
Wimbledon to Elmers End every 10 minutes (every 15 minutes on Sundays and terminates at Croydon in late evening every 15 minutes)
Additionally, the first two trams from New Addington will run to Wimbledon. Overall, this would result in a decrease in 2tph leaving Elmers End, resulting in a 25% decrease in capacity here, and 14% in the Addiscombe area. However, this would also regulate waiting times in this area and on the Wimbledon branch to every five minutes, from every two–seven minutes.
===Former lines reused===
Tramlink makes use of a number of National Rail lines, running parallel to franchised services, or in some cases, runs on previously abandoned railway corridors. Between Birkbeck and Beckenham Junction, Tramlink uses the Crystal Palace line, running on a single track alongside the track carrying Southern rail services. The National Rail track had been singled some years earlier.
From Elmers End to Woodside, Tramlink follows the former Addiscombe Line. At Woodside, the old station buildings stand disused, and the original platforms have been replaced by accessible low platforms. Tramlink then follows the former Woodside and South Croydon Railway (W&SCR) to reach the current Addiscombe tram stop, adjacent to the site of the demolished Bingham Road railway station. It continues along the former railway route to near Sandilands, where Tramlink curves sharply towards Sandilands tram stop. Another route from Sandilands tram stop curves sharply on to the W&SCR before passing through Park Hill (or Sandilands) tunnels and to the site of Coombe Road station after which it curves away across Lloyd Park.
Between Wimbledon station and Wandle Park, Tramlink follows the former West Croydon to Wimbledon Line, which was first opened in 1855 and closed on 31 May 1997 to allow for conversion into Tramlink. Within this section, from near Phipps Bridge to near Reeves Corner, Tramlink follows the Surrey Iron Railway, giving Tramlink a claim to one of the world's oldest railway alignments. Beyond Wandle Park, a Victorian footbridge beside Waddon New Road was dismantled to make way for the flyover over the West Croydon to Sutton railway line. The footbridge has been re-erected at Corfe Castle station on the Swanage Railway (although some evidence suggests that this was a similar footbridge removed from the site of Merton Park railway station).
===Feeder buses===
Bus routes T31, T32 and T33 used to connect with Tramlink at the New Addington, Fieldway and Addington Village stops. T31 and T32 no longer run, and T33 has been renumbered as 433.
===Onboard announcements===
The onboard announcements are by BBC News reader (and tram enthusiast) Nicholas Owen. The announcement pattern is as follows: e.g. "This tram is for Wimbledon; the next stop will be Merton Park".
==Rolling stock==
===Current fleet===
Tramlink currently uses 35 trams. In summary:
====Bombardier CR4000====
The original fleet comprised 24 articulated low floor Bombardier Flexity Swift CR4000 trams built in Vienna numbered beginning at 2530, continuing from the highest-numbered tram 2529 on London's former tram network, which closed in 1952. The original livery was red and white. One (2550) was painted in FirstGroup white, blue and pink livery. During 2006, the CR4000 fleet was refreshed, with the bus-style destination roller blinds being replaced with a digital dot-matrix display. Between 2008 and 2009 the fleet was repainted externally in the new green livery and the interiors were refurbished with new flooring, seat covers retrimmed in a new moquette and stanchions repainted from yellow to green. One (2551) has been permanently withdrawn having been significantly damaged in the 2016 Croydon tram derailment on 9 November 2016.
In 2007, tram 2535 was named after Steven Parascandolo, a well known tram enthusiast.
====Croydon Variobahn====
In January 2011, Tramtrack Croydon invited tenders for the supply of then new or second-hand trams, Service tram 058 and trailer 061 were both sold to the National Tramway Museum in 2010.
===Future fleet===
In the 2020s, TfL began work to replace the CR4000 tram fleet, which are approaching their end of its life and becoming increasingly unreliable. In June 2023, one-fifth of the CR4000 fleet was temporarily withdrawn due to issues with their wheels.
In January 2024, Tramtrack Croydon invited tenders for a base order of 24 new trams with an option for 16 more and a 30-year technical support contract, costed at £385million. In September 2024, TfL announced that four manufacturers (Alstom, Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles, Hitachi Rail and Stadler Rail Valencia) had been invited to place bids. The new fleet is intended to replace the CR4000 trams, which are reaching the end of their design life. Ticket machines were withdrawn on 16 July 2018.
==Corporate affairs==
===Ownership and structure===
The service was created as a result of the Croydon Tramlink Act 1994 that received Royal Assent on 21 July 1994, a Private Bill jointly promoted by London Regional Transport (the predecessor of Transport for London (TfL)) and Croydon London Borough Council. Following a competitive tender, a consortium company Tramtrack Croydon Limited (incorporated in 1995) was awarded a 99-year concession to build and run the system. On 17 March 2008, it was announced that TfL would take over Tramlink in exchange for £98million. Since 28 June 2008, the company has been a subsidiary of TfL.
Tramlink is currently operated by Tram Operations Ltd (TOL), a subsidiary of FirstGroup, who have a contract to operate the service until 2030. TOL provides the drivers and management to operate the service; the infrastructure and trams are owned and maintained by a TfL subsidiary.
===Business trends===
The key available trends in recent years for Tramlink are (years ending 31 March):
Activities in the financial year 2020/21 were severely reduced by the impact of the coronavirus pandemic.
===Passenger numbers===
Detailed passenger journeys since Tramlink commenced operations in May 2000 were:
==Proposals for extensions==
Numerous extensions to the network have been discussed or proposed over the years, involving varying degrees of support and investigative effort.
During 2002, as part of The Mayor's Transport Strategy for London, a number of proposed extensions were identified, including to Sutton from Wimbledon or Mitcham; to Crystal Palace; to Colliers Wood/Tooting; and along the A23. The Strategy said that "extensions to the network could, in principle, be developed at relatively modest cost where there is potential demand..." and sought initial views on the viability of a number of extensions by summer 2002.
In 2006, in a TfL consultation on an extension to Crystal Palace, three options were presented: on-street, off-street and a mixture of the two. After the consultation, the off-street option was favoured, to include Crystal Palace Station and Crystal Palace Parade. TfL stated in 2008 that due to lack of funding the plans for this extension would not be taken forward. They were revived shortly after Boris Johnson's re-election as Mayor in May 2012, but six months later they were cancelled again.
During November 2014, a 15-year plan, Trams 2030, called for upgrades to increase capacity on the network in line with an expected increase in ridership to 60million passengers by 2031 (although the passenger numbers at the time (2013/14: 31.2 million) have not been exceeded since (as at 2019)).
The upgrades were to improve reliability, support regeneration in the Croydon metropolitan centre, and future-proof the network for Crossrail 2, a potential Bakerloo line extension, and extensions to the tram network itself to a wide variety of destinations. The plans involve dual-tracking across the network and introducing diverting loops on either side of Croydon, allowing for a higher frequency of trams on all four branches without increasing congestion in central Croydon. The £737million investment was to be funded by the Croydon Growth Zone, TfL Business Plan, housing levies, and the respective boroughs, and by the affected developers.
All the various developments, if implemented, could theoretically require an increase in the fleet from 30 to up to 80 trams (depending on whether longer trams or coupled trams are used). As such, an increase in depot and stabling capacity would also be required; enlargement of the current Therapia Lane site, as well as sites near the Elmers End and Harrington Road tram stops, were shortlisted. In 2014, a proposed £320M scheme for a new line to connect Wimbledon to Sutton via Morden was made and brought to consultation jointly by the London Boroughs of Merton and Sutton. Although £100M from TfL was initially secured in the draft 2016/17 budget, this was subsequently reallocated.
In 2018, TfL opened a consultation on proposals for a connection to Sutton, with three route options: from South Wimbledon, from Colliers Wood (both having an option of a bus rapid transit route or a tram line) or from Wimbledon (only as a tram line). During February 2020, following the consultation, TfL announced their preference for a north–south tramway between Colliers Wood and Sutton town centre, with a projected cost of £425M, on the condition of securing additional funding. Work on the project stopped in July 2020, as Transport for London could not find sufficient funding for it to continue. expressing their support for "Route Option 2 (Colliers Wood – Sutton) operated as a tram service ... assuming we are successful in securing funding to deliver the project".,
On 24 July 2020, the project was temporarily put on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic. TfL said they were pausing development work on the scheme "as the transport case is poor and there remains a significant funding gap". Andy Byford, London's Transport Commissioner, said that this involves making 'difficult choices' about which projects can be funded.
During 2023, Sutton's council leader Ruth Dombey advocated for the project and urged TfL and the mayor's office to provide fair and adequate funding, especially in light of the ULEZ charge. However, London Mayor Sadiq Khan dismissed the project as inadequate and pointed out the £440M funding shortfall. London Mayor Sadiq Khan faced criticism from Sutton MP Paul Scully on 21 April 2023, for the delayed Sutton tram extension project and implementing the Ultra Low Emission Zone charge without sufficient public transport alternatives, while defending the delay citing a £440M funding gap. In December 2023, TfL stated that further progress will depend on funding agreements with other stakeholders such as local councils, the Department for Transport, as well as Government, and that the Sutton Link is currently the only extension being considered. Rival proposals included new bus routes.
==Accidents and incidents==
On 7 September 2008, a bus on route 468 travelled through a red traffic signal and collided with tram 2534 in George Street, Croydon, causing a fatality. The driver of the bus was convicted of causing death by dangerous driving a year later in December 2009 and was sentenced to four years in prison.
On 13 September 2008, tram 2530 collided with a cyclist at Morden Hall Park footpath crossing between the Morden Road and Phipps Bridge tram stops. The cyclist sustained serious injuries and later died. The immediate cause of the accident was found to be that the cyclist rode onto the crossing without looking at the approaching tram; among the causal factors were that the cyclist may have been wearing headphones, which prevented him hearing the audible warnings.
On 5 April 2011, a woman tripped over and was dragged under a moving tram. She was taken to hospital in a serious condition. She is believed to have been running to catch the tram outside East Croydon station when she tripped and fell.
On 17 February 2012, a tram derailed after passing over facing points as it approached the platform at East Croydon station.
On 7 February 2016, five people were injured when a car collided with tram 2535, which was going round a bend near Wellesley Road. It resulted in the tram being derailed.
On 9 November 2016, tram 2551 derailed on a sharp curved junction east from the Sandilands tram stop, killing seven people and injuring at least 50 more. The British Transport Police arrested the driver on suspicion of manslaughter. Driver error was found to be the cause of the accident, with suspicions that the driver had a microsleep episode approaching the bend. The driver was charged under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, but was acquitted by a jury following a trial at the Old Bailey.
|
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] |
7,163 |
Catenary
|
In physics and geometry, a catenary ( , ) is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own weight when supported only at its ends in a uniform gravitational field.
The catenary curve has a U-like shape, superficially similar in appearance to a parabola, which it is not.
The curve appears in the design of certain types of arches and as a cross section of the catenoid—the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two parallel circular rings.
The catenary is also called the alysoid, chainette, or, particularly in the materials sciences, an example of a funicular. Rope statics describes catenaries in a classic statics problem involving a hanging rope.
Mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function. The surface of revolution of the catenary curve, the catenoid, is a minimal surface, specifically a minimal surface of revolution. A hanging chain will assume a shape of least potential energy which is a catenary. Galileo Galilei in 1638 discussed the catenary in the book Two New Sciences recognizing that it was different from a parabola. The mathematical properties of the catenary curve were studied by Robert Hooke in the 1670s, and its equation was derived by Leibniz, Huygens and Johann Bernoulli in 1691.
Catenaries and related curves are used in architecture and engineering (e.g., in the design of bridges and arches so that forces do not result in bending moments). In the offshore oil and gas industry, "catenary" refers to a steel catenary riser, a pipeline suspended between a production platform and the seabed that adopts an approximate catenary shape. In the rail industry it refers to the overhead wiring that transfers power to trains. (This often supports a contact wire, in which case it does not follow a true catenary curve.)
In optics and electromagnetics, the hyperbolic cosine and sine functions are basic solutions to Maxwell's equations. The symmetric modes consisting of two evanescent waves would form a catenary shape.
==History==
The word "catenary" is derived from the Latin word catēna, which means "chain". The English word "catenary" is usually attributed to Thomas Jefferson,
who wrote in a letter to Thomas Paine on the construction of an arch for a bridge:
It is often said The fact that the curve followed by a chain is not a parabola was proven by Joachim Jungius (1587–1657); this result was published posthumously in 1669.
The application of the catenary to the construction of arches is attributed to Robert Hooke, whose "true mathematical and mechanical form" in the context of the rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral alluded to a catenary. Some much older arches approximate catenaries, an example of which is the Arch of Taq-i Kisra in Ctesiphon.
In 1671, Hooke announced to the Royal Society that he had solved the problem of the optimal shape of an arch, and in 1675 published an encrypted solution as a Latin anagram in an appendix to his Description of Helioscopes, where he wrote that he had found "a true mathematical and mechanical form of all manner of Arches for Building." He did not publish the solution to this anagram in his lifetime, but in 1705 his executor provided it as ut pendet continuum flexile, sic stabit contiguum rigidum inversum, meaning "As hangs a flexible cable so, inverted, stand the touching pieces of an arch."
In 1691, Gottfried Leibniz, Christiaan Huygens, and Johann Bernoulli derived the equation in response to a challenge by Jakob Bernoulli; David Gregory wrote a treatise on the catenary in 1697 in which he provided an incorrect derivation of the correct differential equation.
==Inverted catenary arch==
Catenary arches are often used in the construction of kilns. To create the desired curve, the shape of a hanging chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then used as a guide for the placement of bricks or other building material.
The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, United States is sometimes said to be an (inverted) catenary, but this is incorrect. It is close to a more general curve called a flattened catenary, with equation , which is a catenary if . While a catenary is the ideal shape for a freestanding arch of constant thickness, the Gateway Arch is narrower near the top. According to the U.S. National Historic Landmark nomination for the arch, it is a "weighted catenary" instead. Its shape corresponds to the shape that a weighted chain, having lighter links in the middle, would form.
File:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|Catenary arches under the roof of Gaudí's Casa Milà, Barcelona, Spain.
File:Sheffield Winter Garden.jpg|The Sheffield Winter Garden is enclosed by a series of catenary arches.
File:Gateway Arch.jpg|The Gateway Arch (St. Louis, Missouri) is a flattened catenary.
File:CatenaryKilnConstruction06025.JPG|Catenary arch kiln under construction over temporary form
==Catenary bridges==
In free-hanging chains, the force exerted is uniform with respect to length of the chain, and so the chain follows the catenary curve. The same is true of a simple suspension bridge or "catenary bridge," where the roadway follows the cable.
A stressed ribbon bridge is a more sophisticated structure with the same catenary shape.
However, in a suspension bridge with a suspended roadway, the chains or cables support the weight of the bridge, and so do not hang freely. In most cases the roadway is flat, so when the weight of the cable is negligible compared with the weight being supported, the force exerted is uniform with respect to horizontal distance, and the result is a parabola, as discussed below (although the term "catenary" is often still used, in an informal sense). If the cable is heavy then the resulting curve is between a catenary and a parabola.
==Anchoring of marine objects==
The catenary produced by gravity provides an advantage to heavy anchor rodes. An anchor rode (or anchor line) usually consists of chain or cable or both. Anchor rodes are used by ships, oil rigs, docks, floating wind turbines, and other marine equipment which must be anchored to the seabed.
When the rope is slack, the catenary curve presents a lower angle of pull on the anchor or mooring device than would be the case if it were nearly straight. This enhances the performance of the anchor and raises the level of force it will resist before dragging. To maintain the catenary shape in the presence of wind, a heavy chain is needed, so that only larger ships in deeper water can rely on this effect. Smaller boats also rely on catenary to maintain maximum holding power.
Cable ferries and chain boats present a special case of marine vehicles moving although moored by the two catenaries each of one or more cables (wire ropes or chains) passing through the vehicle and moved along by motorized sheaves. The catenaries can be evaluated graphically.
==Mathematical description==
===Equation===
The equation of a catenary in Cartesian coordinates has the form All catenary curves are similar to each other, since changing the parameter is equivalent to a uniform scaling of the curve.
The Whewell equation for the catenary is
\kappa=\frac{a}{s^2+a^2},
where \kappa is the curvature.
The radius of curvature is then
\rho = a \sec^2 \varphi,
which is the length of the normal between the curve and the -axis.
===Relation to other curves===
When a parabola is rolled along a straight line, the roulette curve traced by its focus is a catenary. The involute from the vertex, that is the roulette traced by a point starting at the vertex when a line is rolled on a catenary, is the tractrix.
===Geometrical properties===
Over any horizontal interval, the ratio of the area under the catenary to its length equals , independent of the interval selected. The catenary is the only plane curve other than a horizontal line with this property. Also, the geometric centroid of the area under a stretch of catenary is the midpoint of the perpendicular segment connecting the centroid of the curve itself and the -axis.
===Science===
A moving charge in a uniform electric field travels along a catenary (which tends to a parabola if the charge velocity is much less than the speed of light ).
The surface of revolution with fixed radii at either end that has minimum surface area is a catenary
y = a \cosh^{-1}\left(\frac{x}{a}\right) + b
revolved about the y-axis.
==Analysis==
===Model of chains and arches===
In the mathematical model the chain (or cord, cable, rope, string, etc.) is idealized by assuming that it is so thin that it can be regarded as a curve and that it is so flexible any force of tension exerted by the chain is parallel to the chain. The analysis of the curve for an optimal arch is similar except that the forces of tension become forces of compression and everything is inverted.
An underlying principle is that the chain may be considered a rigid body once it has attained equilibrium. Equations which define the shape of the curve and the tension of the chain at each point may be derived by a careful inspection of the various forces acting on a segment using the fact that these forces must be in balance if the chain is in static equilibrium.
Let the path followed by the chain be given parametrically by where represents arc length and is the position vector. This is the natural parameterization and has the property that
\frac{d\mathbf{r}}{ds}=\mathbf{u}
where is a unit tangent vector.
A differential equation for the curve may be derived as follows. Let be the lowest point on the chain, called the vertex of the catenary. The slope of the curve is zero at since it is a minimum point. Assume is to the right of since the other case is implied by symmetry. The forces acting on the section of the chain from to are the tension of the chain at , the tension of the chain at , and the weight of the chain. The tension at is tangent to the curve at and is therefore horizontal without any vertical component and it pulls the section to the left so it may be written where is the magnitude of the force. The tension at is parallel to the curve at and pulls the section to the right. The tension at can be split into two components so it may be written , where is the magnitude of the force and is the angle between the curve at and the -axis (see tangential angle). Finally, the weight of the chain is represented by where is the weight per unit length and is the length of the segment of chain between and .
The chain is in equilibrium so the sum of three forces is , therefore
T \cos \varphi = T_0
and
T \sin \varphi = ws\,,
and dividing these gives
\frac{dy}{dx}=\tan \varphi = \frac{ws}{T_0}\,.
It is convenient to write
a = \frac{T_0}{w}
which is the length of chain whose weight is equal in magnitude to the tension at . Then
\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{s}{a}
is an equation defining the curve.
The horizontal component of the tension, is constant and the vertical component of the tension, is proportional to the length of chain between and the vertex.
===Derivation of equations for the curve===
The differential equation dy/dx = s/a, given above, can be solved
to produce equations for the curve.
We will solve the equation using the boundary condition that
the vertex is positioned at s_0=0 and (x,y)=(x_0,y_0).
First, invoke the formula for
arc length
to get
\frac{ds}{dx}
= \sqrt{1+\left(\frac{dy}{dx}\right)^2}
= \sqrt{1+\left(\frac{s}{a}\right)^2}\,,
then separate variables
to obtain
\frac{ds}{\sqrt{1+(s/a)^2}}
= dx\,.
A reasonably straightforward approach to integrate this is to use
hyperbolic substitution,
which gives
a \sinh^{-1}\frac{s}{a} + x_0 = x
(where x_0 is a constant of integration),
and hence
\frac{s}{a} = \sinh\frac{x-x_0}{a}\,.
But s/a = dy/dx, so
\frac{dy}{dx} = \sinh\frac{x-x_0}{a}\,,
which integrates as
y = a \cosh\frac{x-x_0}{a} + \delta
(with \delta=y_0-a being the constant of integration satisfying the boundary condition).
Since the primary interest here is simply the shape of the curve,
the placement of the coordinate axes are arbitrary;
so make the convenient choice of x_0=0=\delta
to simplify the result to
y = a \cosh\frac{x}{a}.
For completeness, the y \leftrightarrow s relation can be derived by
solving each of the x \leftrightarrow y and x \leftrightarrow s relations for x/a, giving:
\cosh^{-1}\frac{y-\delta}{a} = \frac{x-x_0}{a} = \sinh^{-1}\frac{s}{a}\,,
so
y-\delta = a\cosh\left(\sinh^{-1}\frac{s}{a}\right)\,,
which can be rewritten as
y-\delta = a\sqrt{1+\left(\frac{s}{a}\right)^2} = \sqrt{a^2 + s^2}\,.
===Alternative derivation===
The differential equation can be solved using a different approach. From
s = a \tan \varphi
it follows that
\frac{dx}{d\varphi} = \frac{dx}{ds}\frac{ds}{d\varphi}=\cos \varphi \cdot a \sec^2 \varphi= a \sec \varphi
and
\frac{dy}{d\varphi} = \frac{dy}{ds}\frac{ds}{d\varphi}=\sin \varphi \cdot a \sec^2 \varphi= a \tan \varphi \sec \varphi\,.
Integrating gives,
x = a \ln(\sec \varphi + \tan \varphi) + \alpha
and
y = a \sec \varphi + \beta\,.
As before, the and -axes can be shifted so and can be taken to be 0. Then
\sec \varphi + \tan \varphi = e^\frac{x}{a}\,,
and taking the reciprocal of both sides
\sec \varphi - \tan \varphi = e^{-\frac{x}{a}}\,.
Adding and subtracting the last two equations then gives the solution
y = a \sec \varphi = a \cosh\left(\frac{x}{a}\right)\,,
and
s = a \tan \varphi = a \sinh\left(\frac{x}{a}\right)\,.
===Determining parameters===
In general the parameter is the position of the axis. The equation can be determined in this case as follows:
Relabel if necessary so that is to the left of and let be the horizontal and be the vertical distance from to . Translate the axes so that the vertex of the catenary lies on the -axis and its height is adjusted so the catenary satisfies the standard equation of the curve
y = a \cosh\left(\frac{x}{a}\right)
and let the coordinates of and be and respectively. The curve passes through these points, so the difference of height is
v = a \cosh\left(\frac{x_2}{a}\right) - a \cosh\left(\frac{x_1}{a}\right)\,.
and the length of the curve from to is
L = a \sinh\left(\frac{x_2}{a}\right) - a \sinh\left(\frac{x_1}{a}\right)\,.
When is expanded using these expressions the result is
L^2-v^2=2a^2\left(\cosh\left(\frac{x_2-x_1}{a}\right)-1\right)=4a^2\sinh^2\left(\frac{H}{2a}\right)\,,
so
\frac 1H \sqrt{L^2-v^2}=\frac{2a}H \sinh\left(\frac{H}{2a}\right)\,.
This is a transcendental equation in and must be solved numerically. Since \sinh(x)/x is strictly monotonic on x > 0, there is at most one solution with and so there is at most one position of equilibrium.
However, if both ends of the curve ( and ) are at the same level (), it can be shown that
a = \frac {\frac14 L^2-h^2} {2h}\,
where L is the total length of the curve between and and is the sag (vertical distance between , and the vertex of the curve).
It can also be shown that
L = 2a \sinh \frac {H} {2a}\,
and
H = 2a \operatorname {arcosh} \frac {h+a} {a}\,
where H is the horizontal distance between and which are located at the same level ().
The horizontal traction force at and is , where is the weight per unit length of the chain or cable.
===Tension relations===
There is a simple relationship between the tension in the cable at a point and its - and/or - coordinate. Begin by combining the squares of the vector components of the tension:
(T\cos\varphi)^2 + (T\sin\varphi)^2 = T_0^2 + (ws)^2
which (recalling that T_0=wa) can be rewritten as
\begin{align}
T^2(\cos^2\varphi + \sin^2\varphi) &= (wa)^2 + (ws)^2 \\[6pt]
T^2 &= w^2 (a^2 + s^2) \\[6pt]
T &= w\sqrt{a^2+s^2} \,.
\end{align}
But, as shown above,
y = \sqrt{a^2 + s^2} (assuming that y_0=a), so we get the simple relations
T = wy = wa \cosh\frac{x}{a}\,.
=== Variational formulation ===
Consider a chain of length L suspended from two points of equal height and at distance D. The curve has to minimize its potential energy
U = \int_0^D w y\sqrt{1+y'^2} dx
(where is the weight per unit length) and is subject to the constraint
\int_0^D \sqrt{1+y'^2} dx = L\,.
The modified Lagrangian is therefore
\mathcal{L} = (w y - \lambda )\sqrt{1+y'^2}
where \lambda is the Lagrange multiplier to be determined. As the independent variable x does not appear in the Lagrangian, we can use the Beltrami identity
\mathcal{L}-y' \frac{\partial \mathcal{L} }{\partial y'} = C
where C is an integration constant, in order to obtain a first integral
\frac{(w y - \lambda )}{\sqrt{1+y'^2}} = -C
This is an ordinary first order differential equation that can be solved by the method of separation of variables. Its solution is the usual hyperbolic cosine where the parameters are obtained from the constraints.
==Generalizations with vertical force==
===Nonuniform chains===
If the density of the chain is variable then the analysis above can be adapted to produce equations for the curve given the density, or given the curve to find the density.
Let denote the weight per unit length of the chain, then the weight of the chain has magnitude
\int_\mathbf{c}^\mathbf{r} w\, ds\,,
where the limits of integration are and . Balancing forces as in the uniform chain produces
T \cos \varphi = T_0
and
T \sin \varphi = \int_\mathbf{c}^\mathbf{r} w\, ds\,,
and therefore
\frac{dy}{dx}=\tan \varphi = \frac{1}{T_0} \int_\mathbf{c}^\mathbf{r} w\, ds\,.
Differentiation then gives
w=T_0 \frac{d}{ds}\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{T_0 \dfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}}{\sqrt{1+\left(\dfrac{dy}{dx}\right)^2}}\,.
In terms of and the radius of curvature this becomes
w= \frac{T_0}{\rho \cos^2 \varphi}\,.
===Suspension bridge curve===
A similar analysis can be done to find the curve followed by the cable supporting a suspension bridge with a horizontal roadway. If the weight of the roadway per unit length is and the weight of the cable and the wire supporting the bridge is negligible in comparison, then the weight on the cable (see the figure in Catenary#Model of chains and arches) from to is where is the horizontal distance between and . Proceeding as before gives the differential equation
\frac{dy}{dx}=\tan \varphi = \frac{w}{T_0}x\,.
This is solved by simple integration to get
y=\frac{w}{2T_0}x^2 + \beta
and so the cable follows a parabola. If the weight of the cable and supporting wires is not negligible then the analysis is more complex.
===Catenary of equal strength===
In a catenary of equal strength, the cable is strengthened according to the magnitude of the tension at each point, so its resistance to breaking is constant along its length. Assuming that the strength of the cable is proportional to its density per unit length, the weight, , per unit length of the chain can be written , where is constant, and the analysis for nonuniform chains can be applied.
In this case the equations for tension are
\begin{align}
T \cos \varphi &= T_0\,,\\
T \sin \varphi &= \frac{1}{c}\int T\, ds\,.
\end{align}
Combining gives
c \tan \varphi = \int \sec \varphi\, ds
and by differentiation
c = \rho \cos \varphi
where is the radius of curvature.
The solution to this is
y = c \ln\left(\sec\left(\frac{x}{c}\right)\right)\,.
In this case, the curve has vertical asymptotes and this limits the span to . Other relations are
x = c\varphi\,,\quad s = \ln\left(\tan\left(\frac{\pi+2\varphi}{4}\right)\right)\,.
The curve was studied 1826 by Davies Gilbert and, apparently independently, by Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis in 1836.
Recently, it was shown that this type of catenary could act as a building block of electromagnetic metasurface and was known as "catenary of equal phase gradient".
===Elastic catenary===
In an elastic catenary, the chain is replaced by a spring which can stretch in response to tension. The spring is assumed to stretch in accordance with Hooke's law. Specifically, if is the natural length of a section of spring, then the length of the spring with tension applied has length
s=\left(1+\frac{T}{E}\right)p\,,
where is a constant equal to , where is the stiffness of the spring. In the catenary the value of is variable, but ratio remains valid at a local level, so
\frac{ds}{dp}=1+\frac{T}{E}\,.
The curve followed by an elastic spring can now be derived following a similar method as for the inelastic spring.
The equations for tension of the spring are
T \cos \varphi = T_0\,,
and
T \sin \varphi = w_0 p\,,
from which
\frac{dy}{dx}=\tan \varphi = \frac{w_0 p}{T_0}\,,\quad T=\sqrt{T_0^2+w_0^2 p^2}\,,
where is the natural length of the segment from to and is the weight per unit length of the spring with no tension. Write
a = \frac{T_0}{w_0}
so
\frac{dy}{dx}=\tan \varphi = \frac{p}{a} \quad\text{and}\quad T=\frac{T_0}{a}\sqrt{a^2+p^2}\,.
Then
\begin{align}
\frac{dx}{ds} &= \cos \varphi = \frac{T_0}{T} \\[6pt]
\frac{dy}{ds} &= \sin \varphi = \frac{w_0 p}{T}\,,
\end{align}
from which
\begin{alignat}{3}
\frac{dx}{dp} &= \frac{T_0}{T}\frac{ds}{dp} &&= T_0\left(\frac{1}{T}+\frac{1}{E}\right) &&= \frac{a}{\sqrt{a^2+p^2}}+\frac{T_0}{E} \\[6pt]
\frac{dy}{dp} &= \frac{w_0 p}{T}\frac{ds}{dp} &&= \frac{T_0p}{a}\left(\frac{1}{T}+\frac{1}{E}\right) &&= \frac{p}{\sqrt{a^2+p^2}}+\frac{T_0p}{Ea}\,.
\end{alignat}
Integrating gives the parametric equations
\begin{align}
x&=a\operatorname{arsinh}\left(\frac{p}{a}\right)+\frac{T_0}{E}p + \alpha\,, \\[6pt]
y&=\sqrt{a^2+p^2}+\frac{T_0}{2Ea}p^2+\beta\,.
\end{align}
Again, the and -axes can be shifted so and can be taken to be 0. So
\begin{align}
x&=a\operatorname{arsinh}\left(\frac{p}{a}\right)+\frac{T_0}{E}p\,, \\[6pt]
y&=\sqrt{a^2+p^2}+\frac{T_0}{2Ea}p^2
\end{align}
are parametric equations for the curve. At the rigid limit where is large, the shape of the curve reduces to that of a non-elastic chain.
==Other generalizations==
===Chain under a general force===
With no assumptions being made regarding the force acting on the chain, the following analysis can be made.
First, let be the force of tension as a function of . The chain is flexible so it can only exert a force parallel to itself. Since tension is defined as the force that the chain exerts on itself, must be parallel to the chain. In other words,
\mathbf{T} = T \mathbf{u}\,,
where is the magnitude of and is the unit tangent vector.
Second, let be the external force per unit length acting on a small segment of a chain as a function of . The forces acting on the segment of the chain between and are the force of tension at one end of the segment, the nearly opposite force at the other end, and the external force acting on the segment which is approximately . These forces must balance so
\mathbf{T}(s+\Delta s)-\mathbf{T}(s)+\mathbf{G}\Delta s \approx \mathbf{0}\,.
Divide by and take the limit as to obtain
\frac{d\mathbf{T}}{ds} + \mathbf{G} = \mathbf{0}\,.
These equations can be used as the starting point in the analysis of a flexible chain acting under any external force. In the case of the standard catenary, where the chain has weight per unit length.
|
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] |
7,164 |
Color temperature
|
Color temperature is a parameter describing the color of a visible light source by comparing it to the color of light emitted by an idealized opaque, non-reflective body. The temperature of the ideal emitter that matches the color most closely is defined as the color temperature of the original visible light source. The color temperature scale describes only the color of light emitted by a light source, which may actually be at a different (and often much lower) temperature.
Color temperature has applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, and other fields. In practice, color temperature is most meaningful for light sources that correspond somewhat closely to the color of some black body, i.e., light in a range going from red to orange to yellow to white to bluish white. Although the concept of correlated color temperature extends the definition to any visible light, the color temperature of a green or a purple light rarely is useful information. Color temperature is conventionally expressed in kelvins, using the symbol K, a unit for absolute temperature.
Color temperatures over 5000 K are called "cool colors" (bluish), while lower color temperatures (2700–3000 K) are called "warm colors" (yellowish). "Warm" in this context is with respect to a traditional categorization of colors, not a reference to black body temperature. The hue-heat hypothesis states that low color temperatures will feel warmer while higher color temperatures will feel cooler. The spectral peak of warm-colored light is closer to infrared, and most natural warm-colored light sources emit significant infrared radiation. The fact that "warm" lighting in this sense actually has a "cooler" color temperature often leads to confusion.
==Categorizing different lighting==
The color temperature of the electromagnetic radiation emitted from an ideal black body is defined as its surface temperature in kelvins, or alternatively in micro reciprocal degrees (mired). This permits the definition of a standard by which light sources are compared.
To the extent that a hot surface emits thermal radiation but is not an ideal black-body radiator, the color temperature of the light is not the actual temperature of the surface. An incandescent lamp's light is thermal radiation, and the bulb approximates an ideal black-body radiator, so its color temperature is essentially the temperature of the filament. Thus a relatively low temperature emits a dull red and a high temperature emits the almost white of the traditional incandescent light bulb. Metal workers are able to judge the temperature of hot metals by their color, from dark red to orange-white and then white (see red heat).
Many other light sources, such as fluorescent lamps, or light emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light primarily by processes other than thermal radiation. This means that the emitted radiation does not follow the form of a black-body spectrum. These sources are assigned what is known as a correlated color temperature (CCT). CCT is the color temperature of a black-body radiator which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted temperature, derived from comparison to a black-body radiator.
===The Sun===
The Sun closely approximates a black-body radiator. The effective temperature, defined by the total radiative power per square unit, is 5772 K. The color temperature of sunlight above the atmosphere is about 5900 K.
The Sun may appear red, orange, yellow, or white from Earth, depending on its position in the sky. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of the scattering of sunlight and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by Earth's atmosphere causes the blue color of the sky, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light.
Some daylight in the early morning and late afternoon (the golden hours) has a lower ("warmer") color temperature due to increased scattering of shorter-wavelength sunlight by atmospheric particulates – an optical phenomenon called the Tyndall effect.
Daylight has a spectrum similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6500 K (D65 viewing standard) or 5500 K (daylight-balanced photographic film standard).
For colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, whereas red occurs at lower temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which "red" is "hot", and "blue" is "cold".
==Applications==
===Lighting===
For lighting building interiors, it is often important to take into account the color temperature of illumination. A warmer (i.e., a lower color temperature) light is often used in public areas to promote relaxation, while a cooler (higher color temperature) light is used to enhance concentration, for example in schools and offices.
CCT dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task, since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output. Here feedback loop systems are used, for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control the color output of multiple color mixing LEDs.
===Aquaculture===
In fishkeeping, color temperature has different functions and foci in the various branches.
In freshwater aquaria, color temperature is generally of concern only for producing a more attractive display. Lights tend to be designed to produce an attractive spectrum, sometimes with secondary attention paid to keeping the plants in the aquaria alive.
In a saltwater/reef aquarium, color temperature is an essential part of tank health. Within about 400 to 3000 nanometers, light of shorter wavelength can penetrate deeper into water than longer wavelengths, providing essential energy sources to the algae hosted in (and sustaining) coral. This is equivalent to an increase of color temperature with water depth in this spectral range. Because coral typically live in shallow water and receive intense, direct tropical sunlight, the focus was once on simulating this situation with 6500 K lights.
===Digital photography===
In digital photography, the term color temperature sometimes refers to remapping of color values to simulate variations in ambient color temperature. Most digital cameras and raw image software provide presets simulating specific ambient values (e.g., sunny, cloudy, tungsten, etc.) while others allow explicit entry of white balance values in kelvins. These settings vary color values along the blue–yellow axis, while some software includes additional controls (sometimes labeled "tint") adding the magenta–green axis, and are to some extent arbitrary and a matter of artistic interpretation.
===Photographic film===
Photographic emulsion film does not respond to lighting color identically to the human retina or visual perception. An object that appears to the observer to be white may turn out to be very blue or orange in a photograph. The color balance may need to be corrected during printing to achieve a neutral color print. The extent of this correction is limited since color film normally has three layers sensitive to different colors and when used under the "wrong" light source, every layer may not respond proportionally, giving odd color casts in the shadows, although the mid-tones may have been correctly white-balanced under the enlarger. Light sources with discontinuous spectra, such as fluorescent tubes, cannot be fully corrected in printing either, since one of the layers may barely have recorded an image at all.
Photographic film is made for specific light sources (most commonly daylight film and tungsten film), and, used properly, will create a neutral color print. Matching the sensitivity of the film to the color temperature of the light source is one way to balance color. If tungsten film is used indoors with incandescent lamps, the yellowish-orange light of the tungsten incandescent lamps will appear as white (3200 K) in the photograph. Color negative film is almost always daylight-balanced, since it is assumed that color can be adjusted in printing (with limitations, see above). Color transparency film, being the final artefact in the process, has to be matched to the light source or filters must be used to correct color.
Filters on a camera lens, or color gels over the light source(s) may be used to correct color balance. When shooting with a bluish light (high color temperature) source such as on an overcast day, in the shade, in window light, or if using tungsten film with white or blue light, a yellowish-orange filter will correct this. For shooting with daylight film (calibrated to 5600 K) under warmer (low color temperature) light sources such as sunsets, candlelight or tungsten lighting, a bluish (e.g. #80A) filter may be used. More-subtle filters are needed to correct for the difference between, say 3200 K and 3400 K tungsten lamps or to correct for the slightly blue cast of some flash tubes, which may be 6000 K.
If there is more than one light source with varied color temperatures, one way to balance the color is to use daylight film and place color-correcting gel filters over each light source.
Photographers sometimes use color temperature meters. These are usually designed to read only two regions along the visible spectrum (red and blue); more expensive ones read three regions (red, green, and blue). However, they are ineffective with sources such as fluorescent or discharge lamps, whose light varies in color and may be harder to correct for. Because this light is often greenish, a magenta filter may correct it. More sophisticated colorimetry tools can be used if such meters are lacking.
Apple iOS, iPadOS and macOS are use sRGB and DCI-P3 as default display color spaces.
===TV, video, and digital still cameras===
The NTSC and PAL TV norms call for a compliant TV screen to display an electrically black and white signal (minimal color saturation) at a color temperature of 6500 K. On many consumer-grade televisions, there is a very noticeable deviation from this requirement. However, higher-end consumer-grade televisions can have their color temperatures adjusted to 6500 K by using a preprogrammed setting or a custom calibration. Current versions of ATSC explicitly call for the color temperature data to be included in the data stream, but old versions of ATSC allowed this data to be omitted. In this case, current versions of ATSC cite default colorimetry standards depending on the format. Both of the cited standards specify a 6500 K color temperature.
Most video and digital still cameras can adjust for color temperature by zooming into a white or neutral colored object and setting the manual "white balance" (telling the camera that "this object is white"); the camera then shows true white as white and adjusts all the other colors accordingly. White-balancing is necessary especially when indoors under fluorescent lighting and when moving the camera from one lighting situation to another. Most cameras also have an automatic white balance function that attempts to determine the color of the light and correct accordingly. While these settings were once unreliable, they are much improved in today's digital cameras and produce an accurate white balance in a wide variety of lighting situations.
However, in NTSC-J and NTSC-C standards, 9300 K color temperature is recommended. TVs and projectors sold in Japan, South Korea, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Philippines are usually adopt 9300 K as default settings. But for compatibility reasons, computer monitors sold in these country/region are usually adopt 6500 K as default settings; these color temperature settings are usually tuneable in OSD menu.
===Artistic application via control of color temperature===
Video camera operators can white-balance objects that are not white, downplaying the color of the object used for white-balancing. For instance, they can bring more warmth into a picture by white-balancing off something that is light blue, such as faded blue denim; in this way white-balancing can replace a filter or lighting gel when those are not available.
Cinematographers do not "white balance" in the same way as video camera operators; they use techniques such as filters, choice of film stock, pre-flashing, and, after shooting, color grading, both by exposure at the labs and also digitally. Cinematographers also work closely with set designers and lighting crews to achieve the desired color effects.
For artists, most pigments and papers have a cool or warm cast, as the human eye can detect even a minute amount of saturation. Gray mixed with yellow, orange, or red is a "warm gray". Green, blue, or purple create "cool grays". This sense of temperature is the reverse of that of real temperature; bluer is described as "cooler" even though it corresponds to a higher-temperature black body.
Lighting designers sometimes select filters by color temperature, commonly to match light that is theoretically white. Since fixtures using discharge type lamps produce a light of a considerably higher color temperature than do tungsten lamps, using the two in conjunction could potentially produce a stark contrast, so sometimes fixtures with HID lamps, commonly producing light of 6000–7000 K, are fitted with 3200 K filters to emulate tungsten light. Fixtures with color mixing features or with multiple colors (if including 3200 K), are also capable of producing tungsten-like light. Color temperature may also be a factor when selecting lamps, since each is likely to have a different color temperature.
==Correlated color temperature ==
==Color rendering index==
The CIE color rendering index (CRI) is a method to determine how well a light source's illumination of eight sample patches compares to the illumination provided by a reference source. Cited together, the CRI and CCT give a numerical estimate of what reference (ideal) light source best approximates a particular artificial light, and what the difference is.
==Spectral power distribution==
Light sources and illuminants may be characterized by their spectral power distribution (SPD). The relative SPD curves provided by many manufacturers may have been produced using 10 nm increments or more on their spectroradiometer. The result is what would seem to be a smoother ("fuller spectrum") power distribution than the lamp actually has. Owing to their spiky distribution, much finer increments are advisable for taking measurements of fluorescent lights, and this requires more expensive equipment.
==Color temperature in astronomy==
In astronomy, the color temperature is defined by the local slope of the SPD at a given wavelength, or, in practice, a wavelength range. Given, for example, the color magnitudes B and V which are calibrated to be equal for an A0V star (e.g. Vega), the stellar color temperature T_C is given by the temperature for which the color index B-V of a black-body radiator fits the stellar one. Besides the B-V, other color indices can be used as well. The color temperature (as well as the correlated color temperature defined above) may differ largely from the effective temperature given by the radiative flux of the stellar surface. For example, the color temperature of an A0V star is about 15000 K compared to an effective temperature of about 9500 K.
For most applications in astronomy (e.g., to place a star on the HR diagram or to determine the temperature of a model flux fitting an observed spectrum) the effective temperature is the quantity of interest. Various color-effective temperature relations exist in the literature. There relations also have smaller dependencies on other stellar parameters, such as the stellar metallicity and surface gravity
|
[
"Colored fire",
"scattering",
"aquarium",
"Incandescent light bulb",
"white",
"Sterling Publishing",
"OLED",
"Earth's atmosphere",
"golden hour (photography)",
"macOS",
"position of the Sun",
"NTSC-C",
"Microsoft Windows",
"iOS",
"Black-body radiation",
"black body",
"sensitometry",
"computer monitor",
"American Medical Association",
"Planck's law",
"Windows 11",
"CIE Standard Illuminant D65",
"color magnitude",
"Sun",
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"colorimetry",
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"Black body",
"Rayleigh scattering",
"LED",
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"digital photography",
"color gel",
"DCI-P3",
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"light scattering by particles",
"kelvin",
"electromagnetic radiation",
"black-body spectrum",
"daylight",
"iPadOS",
"Metal halide lamp",
"A V star",
"Whiteness (colorimetry)",
"Cinematographer",
"Hertzsprung–Russell diagram",
"color rendering index",
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"Windows 11 22H2",
"Kruithof curve",
"visible light",
"visible spectrum",
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"astrophysics",
"photography",
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"correlated color temperature",
"color vision",
"filter (photography)",
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"standard illuminant",
"High-intensity discharge lamp",
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"Metamerism (color)",
"unit of measure",
"Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing, and Processing",
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"tungsten film",
"lighting",
"ATSC (standards)",
"light table",
"EDID",
"NTSC",
"thermal radiation",
"incandescent lamp",
"Luminous efficacy",
"Vega",
"temperature",
"Brightness temperature",
"Digital camera",
"Tyndall effect",
"on-screen display",
"color",
"red heat",
"filter (optics)",
"International Commission on Illumination",
"publishing",
"fishkeeping",
"white point",
"DVD",
"optical phenomenon",
"nanometer",
"NASA",
"morning",
"Effective temperature",
"atmospheric particulates",
"effective temperature",
"tungsten lighting",
"Color balance",
"pre-flashing",
"NTSC-J",
"Lighting designers",
"afternoon",
"ambient light sensor",
"sunlight",
"tungsten",
"Electric light",
"hue-heat hypothesis",
"full-spectrum light",
"PAL",
"Electromagnetic absorption by water"
] |
7,165 |
Cartoon
|
A cartoon is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or series of images intended for satire, caricature, or humor; or a motion picture that relies on a sequence of illustrations for its animation. Someone who creates cartoons in the first sense is called a cartoonist, and in the second sense they are usually called an animator.
The concept originated in the Middle Ages, and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, beginning in Punch magazine in 1843, cartoon came to refer – ironically at first – to humorous artworks in magazines and newspapers. Then it also was used for political cartoons and comic strips. When the medium developed, in the early 20th century, it began to refer to animated films that resembled print cartoons.
==Fine art==
In fine art, a cartoon (from and —words describing strong, heavy paper or pasteboard and cognates for carton) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a design or modello for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days (giornate). In media such as stained tapestry or stained glass, the cartoon was handed over by the artist to the skilled craftsmen who produced the final work.
Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or "pounced" over a cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster ("pouncing"). Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, Francisco Goya's tapestry cartoons, and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right. Tapestry cartoons, usually colored, could be placed behind the loom, where the weaver would replicate the design. As tapestries are worked from behind, a mirror could be placed behind the loom to allow the weaver to see their work; in such cases the cartoon was placed behind the weaver. particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster in London.
Sir John Tenniel—illustrator of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland—joined Punch in 1850, and over 50 years contributed over two thousand cartoons.
Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips.
Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a single drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath, or, less often, a speech balloon. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher and others. Many consider New Yorker cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, and Chon Day.
Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus, and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson illustrated numerous feature articles in The Washington Post before creating his Cul de Sac comic strip. The sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester "Chet" Brown's All in Sport.
Editorial cartoons are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters, and Gerald Scarfe. The medium began to develop in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. By calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account for their behaviour, many of Gillray's satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of revolutionary France and Napoleon. George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray, from 1815 until the 1840s. His career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications.
By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many other countries featured cartoons commenting on the politics of the day. Thomas Nast, in New York City, showed how realistic German drawing techniques could redefine American cartooning. His 160 cartoons relentlessly pursued the criminal characteristic of the Tweed machine in New York City, and helped bring it down. Indeed, Tweed was arrested in Spain when police identified him from Nast's cartoons. In Britain, Sir John Tenniel was the toast of London. In France under the July Monarchy, Honoré Daumier took up the new genre of political and social caricature, most famously lampooning the rotund King Louis Philippe.
Political cartoons can be humorous or satirical, sometimes with piercing effect. The target of the humor may complain, but can seldom fight back. Lawsuits have been very rare; the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century in Britain came in 1921, when J. H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of "Black Friday", when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners' Federation. To Thomas, the framing of his image by the far left threatened to grievously degrade his character in the popular imagination. Soviet-inspired communism was a new element in European politics, and cartoonists unrestrained by tradition tested the boundaries of libel law. Thomas won the lawsuit and restored his reputation.
===Scientific===
Cartoons such as xkcd have also found their place in the world of science, mathematics, and technology. For example, the cartoon Wonderlab looked at daily life in the chemistry lab. In the U.S., one well-known cartoonist for these fields is Sidney Harris. Many of Gary Larson's cartoons have a scientific flavor.
===Comic books===
The first comic-strip cartoons were of a humorous tone. Notable early humor comics include the Swiss comic-strip book Mr. Vieux Bois (1837), the British strip Ally Sloper (first appearing in 1867) and the American strip Yellow Kid (first appearing in 1895).
In the United States in the 1930s, books with cartoons were magazine-format "American comic books" with original material, or occasionally reprints of newspaper comic strips.
In Britain in the 1930s, adventure comic magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines, comic books and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just. DC Thomson issued the first The Dandy Comic in December 1937. It had a revolutionary design that broke away from the usual children's comics that were published broadsheet in size and not very colourful. Thomson capitalized on its success with a similar product The Beano in 1938.
On some occasions, new gag cartoons have been created for book publication.
==Animation==
Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated films, cartoon came to refer to animation, and the word cartoon is currently used in reference to both animated cartoons and gag cartoons. While animation designates any style of illustrated images seen in rapid succession to give the impression of movement, the word "cartoon" is most often used as a descriptor for television programs and short films aimed at children, possibly featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists or related themes.
|
[
"Scott Adams",
"Gary Larson",
"Cul de Sac (comic strip)",
"All in Sport",
"Bill Hoest",
"British Communist Party",
"modello",
"xkcd",
"realism (arts)",
"fresco",
"E. C. Segar",
"Eadweard Muybridge",
"Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum",
"Peter Arno",
"James Gillray",
"Caricature",
"Sidney Harris (cartoonist)",
"Thomas Rowlandson",
"The Dandy",
"superhero",
"stained glass",
"George Cruikshank",
"Chon Day",
"Bill Holman (cartoonist)",
"July Monarchy",
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"humor",
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"paper",
"Louis Philippe I",
"Chelsea House",
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"Charles Addams",
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"Bill Watterson",
"Morgan James Publishing",
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"plaster",
"Napoleon",
"Mike Peters (cartoonist)",
"Gerald Scarfe",
"University Press of Mississippi",
"rotoscoping",
"science",
"Herblock",
"Mort Walker",
"George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend",
"editorial cartoons",
"Fantagraphics Books",
"G.P. Putnam's Sons",
"weaving",
"gag cartoon",
"animator",
"The New Yorker",
"Webster's Dictionary",
"The Comics Journal",
"Fred Neher",
"Mr. Vieux Bois",
"comic strip",
"Comics studies",
"tapestry",
"caricature",
"Jeff MacNelly",
"Mel Calman",
"William M. Tweed",
"Animation",
"Richard Thompson (cartoonist)",
"Action-adventure comics",
"George Lichty",
"loom",
"Painting",
"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland",
"technology",
"Yellow Kid",
"animated cartoon",
"painting",
"visual art",
"William Hogarth",
"J. H. Thomas",
"Charles Barsotti",
"comic book",
"American comic book",
"The Washington Post",
"List of editorial cartoonists",
"List of comic strips",
"Anthropomorphism",
"Palace of Westminster",
"Thomas Nast",
"revolutionary France",
"George III of the United Kingdom",
"Jerry Marcus",
"Leonardo da Vinci",
"carton",
"political cartoon",
"John Tenniel",
"Charles Schulz",
"Virgil Partch",
"Animated cartoon",
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"Editorial cartoonist",
"Honoré Daumier",
"animation",
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"Ernest Sackville Turner",
"Middle Ages",
"mathematics",
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] |
7,167 |
Chief Minister of the Northern Territory
|
The chief minister of the Northern Territory is the head of government of the Northern Territory. The office is the equivalent of a state premier.
When the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was created in 1974, the head of government was officially known as majority leader. This title was used in the first parliament (1974–1977) and the first eighteen months of the second. When the Northern Territory acquired limited self-government in 1978, the title of the head of government became chief minister with greatly expanded powers, though still somewhat less than those of a state premier.
The chief minister is formally appointed by the administrator, who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whichever party holds the majority of seats in the unicameral Legislative Assembly. In times of constitutional crisis, the administrator can appoint someone else as chief minister, though this has never occurred.
Since 28 August 2024, following the 2024 Northern Territory general election, the chief minister is Lia Finocchiaro of the Country Liberal Party. She is the fourth female chief minister of the Northern Territory.
==History==
The Country Liberal Party won the first Northern Territory election on 19 October 1974 and elected Goff Letts majority leader. He headed an Executive that carried out most of the functions of a ministry at the state level. At the 1977 election Letts lost his seat and party leadership. He was succeeded on 13 August 1977 by Paul Everingham (CLP) as Majority Leader. When the Territory attained self-government on 1 July 1978, Everingham became chief minister and his Executive became a Ministry.
Despite the Majority Leader's title, the Majority Leader's opposite number was not known as Minority Leader but instead the Leader of the Opposition.
In 2001, Clare Martin became the first Labor and female chief minister of the Northern Territory. Until 2004 the conduct of elections and drawing of electoral boundaries was performed by the Northern Territory Electoral Office, a unit of the Department of the chief minister. In March 2004 the independent Northern Territory Electoral Commission was established.
In 2013, Mills was replaced as chief minister and CLP leader by Adam Giles at the 2013 CLP leadership ballot on 13 March to become the first indigenous Australian to lead a state or territory government in Australia.
Following the 2016 election landslide outcome, Labor's Michael Gunner became chief minister; he was the first Chief Minister who was born in the Northern Territory. On 10 May 2022, Gunner announced his intention to resign. On 13 May 2022, Natasha Fyles was elected to the position by the Labor caucus. On 19 December 2023, Fyles resigned following controversy over undeclared shares in mining company South32. On 21 December 2023, Eva Lawler replaced Fyles by a unanimous decision of the Labor caucus.
==List of chief ministers of the Northern Territory==
From the foundation of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in 1974 until the granting of self-government in 1978, the head of government was known as the majority leader:
Political parties
From 1978, the position was known as the chief minister:
|
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"Michael Gunner",
"1987 Northern Territory general election",
"Henderson Ministry",
"Tom Pauling (barrister)",
"1994 Northern Territory general election",
"Electoral division of Wanguri",
"National Cabinet (Australia)",
"Electoral division of Fannie Bay",
"Tuxworth Ministry",
"Terry Mills (Australian politician)",
"Territory Labor Party",
"Jock Nelson",
"Letts Executive",
"Electoral division of Drysdale",
"Eva Lawler",
"Denis Burke (Australian politician)",
"John Anictomatis",
"Austin Asche",
"Northern Territory",
"Fyles Ministry",
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"Electoral division of Barkly",
"Finocchiaro ministry",
"1983 Northern Territory general election",
"Goff Letts",
"Paul Everingham",
"Constitutional convention (political custom)",
"South32",
"1980 Northern Territory general election"
] |
7,172 |
Chemotherapy
|
Chemotherapy (often abbreviated chemo, sometimes CTX and CTx) is the type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) in a standard regimen. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent (which almost always involves combinations of drugs), or it may aim only to prolong life or to reduce symptoms (palliative chemotherapy). Chemotherapy is one of the major categories of the medical discipline specifically devoted to pharmacotherapy for cancer, which is called medical oncology.
The term chemotherapy now means the non-specific use of intracellular poisons to inhibit mitosis (cell division) or to induce DNA damage (so that DNA repair can augment chemotherapy). This meaning excludes the more-selective agents that block extracellular signals (signal transduction). Therapies with specific molecular or genetic targets, which inhibit growth-promoting signals from classic endocrine hormones (primarily estrogens for breast cancer and androgens for prostate cancer), are now called hormonal therapies. Other inhibitions of growth-signals, such as those associated with receptor tyrosine kinases, are targeted therapy.
The use of drugs (whether chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, or targeted therapy) is systemic therapy for cancer: they are introduced into the blood stream (the system) and therefore can treat cancer anywhere in the body. Systemic therapy is often used with other, local therapy (treatments that work only where they are applied), such as radiation, surgery, and hyperthermia.
Traditional chemotherapeutic agents are cytotoxic by means of interfering with cell division (mitosis) but cancer cells vary widely in their susceptibility to these agents. To a large extent, chemotherapy can be thought of as a way to damage or stress cells, which may then lead to cell death if apoptosis is initiated. Many of the side effects of chemotherapy can be traced to damage to normal cells that divide rapidly and are thus sensitive to anti-mitotic drugs: cells in the bone marrow, digestive tract and hair follicles. This results in the most common side-effects of chemotherapy: myelosuppression (decreased production of blood cells, hence that also immunosuppression), mucositis (inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract), and alopecia (hair loss). Because of the effect on immune cells (especially lymphocytes), chemotherapy drugs often find use in a host of diseases that result from harmful overactivity of the immune system against self (so-called autoimmunity). These include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, vasculitis and many others.
== Treatment strategies ==
There are a number of strategies in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms.
Induction chemotherapy is the first line treatment of cancer with a chemotherapeutic drug. This type of chemotherapy is used for curative intent.
Combined modality chemotherapy is the use of drugs with other cancer treatments, such as surgery, radiation therapy, or hyperthermia therapy.
Consolidation chemotherapy is given after remission in order to prolong the overall disease-free time and improve overall survival. The drug that is administered is the same as the drug that achieved remission.
Adjuvant chemotherapy is given after a local treatment (radiotherapy or surgery). It can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence.
Maintenance chemotherapy is a repeated low-dose treatment to prolong remission. Current chemotherapy regimens apply drug treatment in cycles, with the frequency and duration of treatments limited by toxicity.
=== Effectiveness ===
The effectiveness of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage. The overall effectiveness ranges from being curative for some cancers, such as some leukemias, to being ineffective, such as in some brain tumors, to being needless in others, like most non-melanoma skin cancers.
=== Dosage ===
thumb|left|Dose response relationship of cell killing by chemotherapeutic drugs on normal and cancer cells. At high doses the percentage of normal and cancer cells killed is very similar. For this reason, doses are chosen where anti-tumour activity exceeds normal cell death. The study only included nine human subjects. When chemotherapy was introduced in the 1950s, the BSA formula was adopted as the official standard for chemotherapy dosing for lack of a better option.
The validity of this method in calculating uniform doses has been questioned because the formula only takes into account the individual's weight and height. Drug absorption and clearance are influenced by multiple factors, including age, sex, metabolism, disease state, organ function, drug-to-drug interactions, genetics, and obesity, which have major impacts on the actual concentration of the drug in the person's bloodstream. As a result, there is high variability in the systemic chemotherapy drug concentration in people dosed by BSA, and this variability has been demonstrated to be more than ten-fold for many drugs. In other words, if two people receive the same dose of a given drug based on BSA, the concentration of that drug in the bloodstream of one person may be 10 times higher or lower compared to that of the other person. For example, in a randomized clinical trial, investigators found 85% of metastatic colorectal cancer patients treated with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) did not receive the optimal therapeutic dose when dosed by the BSA standard—68% were underdosed and 17% were overdosed. Because of their higher BSA, clinicians often arbitrarily reduce the dose prescribed by the BSA formula for fear of [[overdosing.
Oncologists are already individualizing dosing of some cancer drugs based on exposure. Carboplatin and busulfan dosing rely upon results from blood tests to calculate the optimal dose for each person. Simple blood tests are also available for dose optimization of methotrexate, 5-FU, paclitaxel, and docetaxel.
The serum albumin level immediately prior to chemotherapy administration is an independent prognostic predictor of survival in various cancer types.
=== Types ===
thumb|left| Two DNA bases that are cross-linked by a nitrogen mustard. Different nitrogen mustards will have different chemical groups (R). The nitrogen mustards most commonly alkylate the N7 nitrogen of guanine (as shown here) but other atoms can be alkylated. DNA is made of two strands and the molecules may either bind twice to one strand of DNA (intrastrand crosslink) or may bind once to both strands (interstrand crosslink). If the cell tries to replicate crosslinked DNA during [[cell division, or tries to repair it, the DNA strands can break. This leads to a form of programmed cell death called apoptosis. cisplatins and derivatives, and non-classical alkylating agents. Nitrogen mustards include mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, chlorambucil, ifosfamide and busulfan. Nitrosoureas include N-Nitroso-N-methylurea (MNU), carmustine (BCNU), lomustine (CCNU) and semustine (MeCCNU), fotemustine and streptozotocin. Tetrazines include dacarbazine, mitozolomide and temozolomide. Aziridines include thiotepa, mytomycin and diaziquone (AZQ). Cisplatin and derivatives include cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin. They impair cell function by forming covalent bonds with the amino, carboxyl, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups in biologically important molecules. Non-classical alkylating agents include procarbazine and hexamethylmelamine. These drugs exert their effect by either blocking the enzymes required for DNA synthesis or becoming incorporated into DNA or RNA. By inhibiting the enzymes involved in DNA synthesis, they prevent mitosis because the DNA cannot duplicate itself. Also, after misincorporation of the molecules into DNA, DNA damage can occur and programmed cell death (apoptosis) is induced. Unlike alkylating agents, anti-metabolites are cell cycle dependent. This means that they only work during a specific part of the cell cycle, in this case S-phase (the DNA synthesis phase). For this reason, at a certain dose, the effect plateaus and proportionally no more cell death occurs with increased doses. Subtypes of the anti-metabolites are the anti-folates, fluoropyrimidines, deoxynucleoside analogues and thiopurines. The fluoropyrimidines include fluorouracil and capecitabine. Fluorouracil is a nucleobase analogue that is metabolised in cells to form at least two active products; 5-fluourouridine monophosphate (FUMP) and 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine 5'-phosphate (fdUMP). FUMP becomes incorporated into RNA and fdUMP inhibits the enzyme thymidylate synthase; both of which lead to cell death. The deoxynucleoside analogues include cytarabine, gemcitabine, decitabine, azacitidine, fludarabine, nelarabine, cladribine, clofarabine, and pentostatin. The thiopurines include thioguanine and mercaptopurine. Microtubules are dynamic structures, which means that they are permanently in a state of assembly and disassembly. Vinca alkaloids and taxanes are the two main groups of anti-microtubule agents, and although both of these groups of drugs cause microtubule dysfunction, their mechanisms of action are completely opposite: Vinca alkaloids prevent the assembly of microtubules, whereas taxanes prevent their disassembly. By doing so, they can induce mitotic catastrophe in the cancer cells. Following this, cell cycle arrest occurs, which induces programmed cell death (apoptosis).
Vinca alkaloids are derived from the Madagascar periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus, formerly known as Vinca rosea. They bind to specific sites on tubulin, inhibiting the assembly of tubulin into microtubules. The original vinca alkaloids are natural products that include vincristine and vinblastine. Following the success of these drugs, semi-synthetic vinca alkaloids were produced: vinorelbine (used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer), vindesine, and vinflunine.
Podophyllotoxin is an antineoplastic lignan obtained primarily from the American mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) and Himalayan mayapple (Sinopodophyllum hexandrum). It has anti-microtubule activity, and its mechanism is similar to that of vinca alkaloids in that they bind to tubulin, inhibiting microtubule formation. Podophyllotoxin is used to produce two other drugs with different mechanisms of action: etoposide and teniposide.
==== Topoisomerase inhibitors ====
Topoisomerase inhibitors are drugs that affect the activity of two enzymes: topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II. When the DNA double-strand helix is unwound, during DNA replication or transcription, for example, the adjacent unopened DNA winds tighter (supercoils), like opening the middle of a twisted rope. The stress caused by this effect is in part aided by the topoisomerase enzymes. They produce single- or double-strand breaks into DNA, reducing the tension in the DNA strand. This allows the normal unwinding of DNA to occur during replication or transcription. Inhibition of topoisomerase I or II interferes with both of these processes.
Two topoisomerase I inhibitors, irinotecan and topotecan, are semi-synthetically derived from camptothecin, which is obtained from the Chinese ornamental tree Camptotheca acuminata.
==== Cytotoxic antibiotics ====
The cytotoxic antibiotics are a varied group of drugs that have various mechanisms of action. The common theme that they share in their chemotherapy indication is that they interrupt cell division. The most important subgroup is the anthracyclines and the bleomycins; other prominent examples include mitomycin C and actinomycin.
Among the anthracyclines, doxorubicin and daunorubicin were the first, and were obtained from the bacterium Streptomyces peucetius. Derivatives of these compounds include epirubicin and idarubicin. Other clinically used drugs in the anthracycline group are pirarubicin, aclarubicin, and mitoxantrone. The mechanisms of anthracyclines include DNA intercalation (molecules insert between the two strands of DNA), generation of highly reactive free radicals that damage intercellular molecules and topoisomerase inhibition.
Actinomycin is a complex molecule that intercalates DNA and prevents RNA synthesis.
Bleomycin, a glycopeptide isolated from Streptomyces verticillus, also intercalates DNA, but produces free radicals that damage DNA. This occurs when bleomycin binds to a metal ion, becomes chemically reduced and reacts with oxygen.
=== Delivery ===
Most chemotherapy is delivered intravenously, although a number of agents can be administered orally (e.g., melphalan, busulfan, capecitabine). According to a recent (2016) systematic review, oral therapies present additional challenges for patients and care teams to maintain and support adherence to treatment plans.
There are many intravenous methods of drug delivery, known as vascular access devices. These include the winged infusion device, peripheral venous catheter, midline catheter, peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC), central venous catheter and implantable port. The devices have different applications regarding duration of chemotherapy treatment, method of delivery and types of chemotherapeutic agent.
Isolated limb perfusion (often used in melanoma), or isolated infusion of chemotherapy into the liver or the lung have been used to treat some tumors. The main purpose of these approaches is to deliver a very high dose of chemotherapy to tumor sites without causing overwhelming systemic damage. These approaches can help control solitary or limited metastases, but they are by definition not systemic, and, therefore, do not treat distributed metastases or micrometastases.
Topical chemotherapies, such as 5-fluorouracil, are used to treat some cases of non-melanoma skin cancer.
If the cancer has central nervous system involvement, or with meningeal disease, intrathecal chemotherapy may be administered.
In very severe myelosuppression, which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow stem cells (cells that produce white and red blood cells) are destroyed, meaning allogenic or autologous bone marrow cell transplants are necessary. (In autologous BMTs, cells are removed from the person before the treatment, multiplied and then re-injected afterward; in allogenic BMTs, the source is a donor.) However, some people still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow.
Although people receiving chemotherapy are encouraged to wash their hands, avoid sick people, and take other infection-reducing steps, about 85% of infections are due to naturally occurring microorganisms in the person's own gastrointestinal tract (including oral cavity) and skin. This may manifest as systemic infections, such as sepsis, or as localized outbreaks, such as Herpes simplex, shingles, or other members of the Herpesviridea. The risk of illness and death can be reduced by taking common antibiotics such as quinolones or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole before any fever or sign of infection appears. Quinolones show effective prophylaxis mainly with hematological cancer.
Trilaciclib is an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 approved for the prevention of myelosuppression caused by chemotherapy. The drug is given before chemotherapy to protect bone marrow function.
=== Neutropenic enterocolitis ===
Due to immune system suppression, neutropenic enterocolitis (typhlitis) is a "life-threatening gastrointestinal complication of chemotherapy." Typhlitis is an intestinal infection which may manifest itself through symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, a distended abdomen, fever, chills, or abdominal pain and tenderness.
Typhlitis is a medical emergency. It has a very poor prognosis and is often fatal unless promptly recognized and aggressively treated. Successful treatment hinges on early diagnosis provided by a high index of suspicion and the use of CT scanning, nonoperative treatment for uncomplicated cases, and sometimes elective right hemicolectomy to prevent recurrence. Malnutrition and dehydration can result when the recipient does not eat or drink enough, or when the person vomits frequently, because of gastrointestinal damage. This can result in rapid weight loss, or occasionally in weight gain, if the person eats too much in an effort to allay nausea or heartburn. Weight gain can also be caused by some steroid medications. These side-effects can frequently be reduced or eliminated with antiemetic drugs. Low-certainty evidence also suggests that probiotics may have a preventative and treatment effect of diarrhoea related to chemotherapy alone and with radiotherapy. However, a high index of suspicion is appropriate, since diarrhoea and bloating are also symptoms of typhlitis, a very serious and potentially life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.
=== Anemia ===
Anemia can be a combined outcome caused by myelosuppressive chemotherapy, and possible cancer-related causes such as bleeding, blood cell destruction (hemolysis), hereditary disease, kidney dysfunction, nutritional deficiencies or anemia of chronic disease. Treatments to mitigate anemia include hormones to boost blood production (erythropoietin), iron supplements, and blood transfusions. Myelosuppressive therapy can cause a tendency to bleed easily, leading to anemia. Medications that kill rapidly dividing cells or blood cells can reduce the number of platelets in the blood, which can result in bruises and bleeding. Extremely low platelet counts may be temporarily boosted through platelet transfusions and new drugs to increase platelet counts during chemotherapy are being developed. Sometimes, chemotherapy treatments are postponed to allow platelet counts to recover.
Fatigue may be a consequence of the cancer or its treatment, and can last for months to years after treatment. One physiological cause of fatigue is anemia, which can be caused by chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, primary and metastatic disease or nutritional depletion. Aerobic exercise has been found to be beneficial in reducing fatigue in people with solid tumours.
=== Nausea and vomiting ===
Nausea and vomiting are two of the most feared cancer treatment-related side-effects for people with cancer and their families. In 1983, Coates et al. found that people receiving chemotherapy ranked nausea and vomiting as the first and second most severe side-effects, respectively. Up to 20% of people receiving highly emetogenic agents in this era postponed, or even refused potentially curative treatments. Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) are common with many treatments and some forms of cancer. Since the 1990s, several novel classes of antiemetics have been developed and commercialized, becoming a nearly universal standard in chemotherapy regimens, and helping to successfully manage these symptoms in many people. Effective mediation of these unpleasant and sometimes debilitating symptoms results in increased quality of life for the recipient and more efficient treatment cycles, as patients are less likely to avoid or refuse treatment.
=== Hair loss ===
Hair loss (alopecia) can be caused by chemotherapy that kills rapidly dividing cells; other medications may cause hair to thin. These are most often temporary effects: hair usually starts to regrow a few weeks after the last treatment, but sometimes with a change in color, texture, thickness or style. Sometimes hair has a tendency to curl after regrowth, resulting in "chemo curls." Severe hair loss occurs most often with drugs such as doxorubicin, daunorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide and etoposide. Permanent thinning or hair loss can result from some standard chemotherapy regimens.
Chemotherapy induced hair loss occurs by a non-androgenic mechanism, and can manifest as alopecia totalis, telogen effluvium, or less often alopecia areata. It is usually associated with systemic treatment due to the high mitotic rate of hair follicles, and more reversible than androgenic hair loss, although permanent cases can occur. Chemotherapy induces hair loss in women more often than men.
Scalp cooling offers a means of preventing both permanent and temporary hair loss; however, concerns about this method have been raised.
=== Secondary neoplasm ===
Development of secondary neoplasia after successful chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatment can occur. The most common secondary neoplasm is secondary acute myeloid leukemia, which develops primarily after treatment with alkylating agents or topoisomerase inhibitors. Survivors of childhood cancer are more than 13 times as likely to get a secondary neoplasm during the 30 years after treatment than the general population. Not all of this increase can be attributed to chemotherapy.
=== Infertility ===
Some types of chemotherapy are gonadotoxic and may cause infertility. Chemotherapies with high risk include procarbazine and other alkylating drugs such as cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, busulfan, melphalan, chlorambucil, and chlormethine. This loss is not necessarily a direct effect of the chemotherapeutic agents, but could be due to an increased rate of growth initiation to replace damaged developing follicles. As more than half of cancer patients are elderly, this adverse effect is only relevant for a minority of patients. A study in France between 1999 and 2011 came to the result that embryo freezing before administration of gonadotoxic agents to females caused a delay of treatment in 34% of cases, and a live birth in 27% of surviving cases who wanted to become pregnant, with the follow-up time varying between 1 and 13 years.
Potential protective or attenuating agents include GnRH analogs, where several studies have shown a protective effect in vivo in humans, but some studies show no such effect. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has shown similar effect, but its mechanism of inhibiting the sphingomyelin apoptotic pathway may also interfere with the apoptosis action of chemotherapy drugs.
In chemotherapy as a conditioning regimen in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, a study of people conditioned with cyclophosphamide alone for severe aplastic anemia came to the result that ovarian recovery occurred in all women younger than 26 years at time of transplantation, but only in five of 16 women older than 26 years.
=== Teratogenicity ===
Chemotherapy is teratogenic during pregnancy, especially during the first trimester, to the extent that abortion usually is recommended if pregnancy in this period is found during chemotherapy. Second- and third-trimester exposure does not usually increase the teratogenic risk and adverse effects on cognitive development, but it may increase the risk of various complications of pregnancy and fetal myelosuppression.).
In males previously having undergone chemotherapy or radiotherapy, there appears to be no increase in genetic defects or congenital malformations in their children conceived after therapy. Chemotherapy drugs associated with CIPN include thalidomide, epothilones, vinca alkaloids, taxanes, proteasome inhibitors, and the platinum-based drugs. Whether CIPN arises, and to what degree, is determined by the choice of drug, duration of use, the total amount consumed and whether the person already has peripheral neuropathy. Though the symptoms are mainly sensory, in some cases motor nerves and the autonomic nervous system are affected. CIPN often follows the first chemotherapy dose and increases in severity as treatment continues, but this progression usually levels off at completion of treatment. The platinum-based drugs are the exception; with these drugs, sensation may continue to deteriorate for several months after the end of treatment. Some CIPN appears to be irreversible.
=== Cognitive impairment ===
Some people receiving chemotherapy report fatigue or non-specific neurocognitive problems, such as an inability to concentrate; this is sometimes called post-chemotherapy cognitive impairment, referred to as "chemo brain" in popular and social media.
=== Tumor lysis syndrome ===
In particularly large tumors and cancers with high white cell counts, such as lymphomas, teratomas, and some leukemias, some people develop tumor lysis syndrome. The rapid breakdown of cancer cells causes the release of chemicals from the inside of the cells. Following this, high levels of uric acid, potassium and phosphate are found in the blood. High levels of phosphate induce secondary hypoparathyroidism, resulting in low levels of calcium in the blood. This causes kidney damage and the high levels of potassium can cause cardiac arrhythmia. Although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated in people with large tumors, this is a dangerous side-effect that can lead to death if left untreated.
Hepatotoxicity (liver damage) can be caused by many cytotoxic drugs. The susceptibility of an individual to liver damage can be altered by other factors such as the cancer itself, viral hepatitis, immunosuppression and nutritional deficiency. The liver damage can consist of damage to liver cells, hepatic sinusoidal syndrome (obstruction of the veins in the liver), cholestasis (where bile does not flow from the liver to the intestine) and liver fibrosis.
Nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) can be caused by tumor lysis syndrome and also due direct effects of drug clearance by the kidneys. Different drugs will affect different parts of the kidney and the toxicity may be asymptomatic (only seen on blood or urine tests) or may cause acute kidney injury.
Ototoxicity (damage to the inner ear) is a common side effect of platinum based drugs that can produce symptoms such as dizziness and vertigo. Children treated with platinum analogues have been found to be at risk for developing hearing loss.
=== Other side-effects ===
Less common side-effects include red skin (erythema), dry skin, damaged fingernails, a dry mouth (xerostomia), water retention, and sexual impotence. Some medications can trigger allergic or pseudoallergic reactions.
Specific chemotherapeutic agents are associated with organ-specific toxicities, including cardiovascular disease (e.g., doxorubicin), interstitial lung disease (e.g., bleomycin) and occasionally secondary neoplasm (e.g., MOPP therapy for Hodgkin's disease).
Hand-foot syndrome is another side effect to cytotoxic chemotherapy.
Nutritional problems are also frequently seen in cancer patients at diagnosis and through chemotherapy treatment. Research suggests that in children and young people undergoing cancer treatment, parenteral nutrition may help with this leading to weight gain and increased calorie and protein intake, when compared to enteral nutrition.
== Limitations ==
Chemotherapy does not always work, and even when it is useful, it may not completely destroy the cancer. People frequently fail to understand its limitations. In one study of people who had been newly diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.
The blood–brain barrier poses an obstacle to delivery of chemotherapy to the brain. This is because the brain has an extensive system in place to protect it from harmful chemicals. Drug transporters can pump out drugs from the brain and brain's blood vessel cells into the cerebrospinal fluid and blood circulation. These transporters pump out most chemotherapy drugs, which reduces their efficacy for treatment of brain tumors. Only small lipophilic alkylating agents such as lomustine or temozolomide are able to cross this blood–brain barrier.
Blood vessels in tumors are very different from those seen in normal tissues. As a tumor grows, tumor cells furthest away from the blood vessels become low in oxygen (hypoxic). To counteract this they then signal for new blood vessels to grow. The newly formed tumor vasculature is poorly formed and does not deliver an adequate blood supply to all areas of the tumor. This leads to issues with drug delivery because many drugs will be delivered to the tumor by the circulatory system.
== Resistance ==
Resistance is a major cause of treatment failure in chemotherapeutic drugs. There are a few possible causes of resistance in cancer, one of which is the presence of small pumps on the surface of cancer cells that actively move chemotherapy from inside the cell to the outside. Cancer cells produce high amounts of these pumps, known as p-glycoprotein, in order to protect themselves from chemotherapeutics. Research on p-glycoprotein and other such chemotherapy efflux pumps is currently ongoing. Medications to inhibit the function of p-glycoprotein are undergoing investigation, but due to toxicities and interactions with anti-cancer drugs their development has been difficult. Another mechanism of resistance is gene amplification, a process in which multiple copies of a gene are produced by cancer cells. This overcomes the effect of drugs that reduce the expression of genes involved in replication. With more copies of the gene, the drug can not prevent all expression of the gene and therefore the cell can restore its proliferative ability. Cancer cells can also cause defects in the cellular pathways of apoptosis (programmed cell death). As most chemotherapy drugs kill cancer cells in this manner, defective apoptosis allows survival of these cells, making them resistant. Many chemotherapy drugs also cause DNA damage, which can be repaired by enzymes in the cell that carry out DNA repair. Upregulation of these genes can overcome the DNA damage and prevent the induction of apoptosis. Mutations in genes that produce drug target proteins, such as tubulin, can occur which prevent the drugs from binding to the protein, leading to resistance to these types of drugs. Drugs used in chemotherapy can induce cell stress, which can kill a cancer cell; however, under certain conditions, cells stress can induce changes in gene expression that enables resistance to several types of drugs. In lung cancer, the transcription factor NFκB is thought to play a role in resistance to chemotherapy, via inflammatory pathways.
== Cytotoxics and targeted therapies ==
Targeted therapies are a relatively new class of cancer drugs that can overcome many of the issues seen with the use of cytotoxics. They are divided into two groups: small molecule and antibodies. The massive toxicity seen with the use of cytotoxics is due to the lack of cell specificity of the drugs. They will kill any rapidly dividing cell, tumor or normal. Targeted therapies are designed to affect cellular proteins or processes that are utilised by the cancer cells. This allows a high dose to cancer tissues with a relatively low dose to other tissues. Although the side effects are often less severe than that seen of cytotoxic chemotherapeutics, life-threatening effects can occur. Initially, the targeted therapeutics were supposed to be solely selective for one protein. Now it is clear that there is often a range of protein targets that the drug can bind. An example target for targeted therapy is the BCR-ABL1 protein produced from the Philadelphia chromosome, a genetic lesion found commonly in chronic myelogenous leukemia and in some patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. This fusion protein has enzyme activity that can be inhibited by imatinib, a small molecule drug.
== Mechanism of action ==
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells coupled with malignant behaviour: invasion and metastasis (among other features). It is caused by the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors. These factors lead to accumulations of genetic mutations in oncogenes (genes that control the growth rate of cells) and tumor suppressor genes (genes that help to prevent cancer), which gives cancer cells their malignant characteristics, such as uncontrolled growth.
In the broad sense, most chemotherapeutic drugs work by impairing mitosis (cell division), effectively targeting fast-dividing cells. As these drugs cause damage to cells, they are termed cytotoxic. They prevent mitosis by various mechanisms including damaging DNA and inhibition of the cellular machinery involved in cell division. One theory as to why these drugs kill cancer cells is that they induce a programmed form of cell death known as apoptosis.
As chemotherapy affects cell division, tumors with high growth rates (such as acute myelogenous leukemia and the aggressive lymphomas, including Hodgkin's disease) are more sensitive to chemotherapy, as a larger proportion of the targeted cells are undergoing cell division at any time. Malignancies with slower growth rates, such as indolent lymphomas, tend to respond to chemotherapy much more modestly. Heterogeneic tumours may also display varying sensitivities to chemotherapy agents, depending on the subclonal populations within the tumor.
Cells from the immune system also make crucial contributions to the antitumor effects of chemotherapy. For example, the chemotherapeutic drugs oxaliplatin and cyclophosphamide can cause tumor cells to die in a way that is detectable by the immune system (called immunogenic cell death), which mobilizes immune cells with antitumor functions. Chemotherapeutic drugs that cause cancer immunogenic tumor cell death can make unresponsive tumors sensitive to immune checkpoint therapy.
== Other uses ==
Some chemotherapy drugs are used in diseases other than cancer, such as in autoimmune disorders, while in other cases doses similar to ones used to treat cancer are used. Methotrexate is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriasis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis. Cyclophosphamide is sometimes used to treat lupus nephritis, a common symptom of systemic lupus erythematosus. Dexamethasone along with either bortezomib or melphalan is commonly used as a treatment for AL amyloidosis. Recently, bortezomid in combination with cyclophosphamide and dexamethasone has also shown promise as a treatment for AL amyloidosis. Other drugs used to treat myeloma such as lenalidomide have shown promise in treating AL amyloidosis.
Chemotherapy drugs are also used in conditioning regimens prior to bone marrow transplant (hematopoietic stem cell transplant). Conditioning regimens are used to suppress the recipient's immune system in order to allow a transplant to engraft. Cyclophosphamide is a common cytotoxic drug used in this manner and is often used in conjunction with total body irradiation. Chemotherapeutic drugs may be used at high doses to permanently remove the recipient's bone marrow cells (myeloablative conditioning) or at lower doses that will prevent permanent bone marrow loss (non-myeloablative and reduced intensity conditioning). When used in non-cancer setting, the treatment is still called "chemotherapy", and is often done in the same treatment centers used for people with cancer.
== Occupational exposure and safe handling ==
In the 1970s, antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drugs were identified as hazardous, and the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP) has since then introduced the concept of hazardous drugs after publishing a recommendation in 1983 regarding handling hazardous drugs. The adaptation of federal regulations came when the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) first released its guidelines in 1986 and then updated them in 1996, 1999, and, most recently, 2006.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has been conducting an assessment in the workplace since then regarding these drugs. Occupational exposure to antineoplastic drugs has been linked to multiple health effects, including infertility and possible carcinogenic effects. A few cases have been reported by the NIOSH alert report, such as one in which a female pharmacist was diagnosed with papillary transitional cell carcinoma. Twelve years before the pharmacist was diagnosed with the condition, she had worked for 20 months in a hospital where she was responsible for preparing multiple antineoplastic drugs. The pharmacist did not have any other risk factor for cancer, and therefore, her cancer was attributed to the exposure to the antineoplastic drugs, although a cause-and-effect relationship has not been established in the literature. Another case happened when a malfunction in biosafety cabinetry is believed to have exposed nursing personnel to antineoplastic drugs. Investigations revealed evidence of genotoxic biomarkers two and nine months after that exposure.
=== Routes of exposure ===
Antineoplastic drugs are usually given through intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal, or subcutaneous administration. In most cases, before the medication is administered to the patient, it needs to be prepared and handled by several workers. Any worker who is involved in handling, preparing, or administering the drugs, or with cleaning objects that have come into contact with antineoplastic drugs, is potentially exposed to hazardous drugs. Health care workers are exposed to drugs in different circumstances, such as when pharmacists and pharmacy technicians prepare and handle antineoplastic drugs and when nurses and physicians administer the drugs to patients. Additionally, those who are responsible for disposing antineoplastic drugs in health care facilities are also at risk of exposure.
Dermal exposure is thought to be the main route of exposure due to the fact that significant amounts of the antineoplastic agents have been found in the gloves worn by healthcare workers who prepare, handle, and administer the agents. Another noteworthy route of exposure is inhalation of the drugs' vapors. Multiple studies have investigated inhalation as a route of exposure, and although air sampling has not shown any dangerous levels, it is still a potential route of exposure. Ingestion by hand to mouth is a route of exposure that is less likely compared to others because of the enforced hygienic standard in the health institutions. However, it is still a potential route, especially in the workplace, outside of a health institute. One can also be exposed to these hazardous drugs through injection by needle sticks. Research conducted in this area has established that occupational exposure occurs by examining evidence in multiple urine samples from health care workers.
=== Hazards ===
Hazardous drugs expose health care workers to serious health risks. Many studies show that antineoplastic drugs could have many side effects on the reproductive system, such as fetal loss, congenital malformation, and infertility. Health care workers who are exposed to antineoplastic drugs on many occasions have adverse reproductive outcomes such as spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, and congenital malformations. Moreover, studies have shown that exposure to these drugs leads to menstrual cycle irregularities. Antineoplastic drugs may also increase the risk of learning disabilities among children of health care workers who are exposed to these hazardous substances.
Moreover, these drugs have carcinogenic effects. In the past five decades, multiple studies have shown the carcinogenic effects of exposure to antineoplastic drugs. Similarly, there have been research studies that linked alkylating agents with humans developing leukemias. Studies have reported elevated risk of breast cancer, nonmelanoma skin cancer, and cancer of the rectum among nurses who are exposed to these drugs. Other investigations revealed that there is a potential genotoxic effect from anti-neoplastic drugs to workers in health care settings.
==== Preparation ====
NIOSH recommends using a ventilated cabinet that is designed to decrease worker exposure. Additionally, it recommends training of all staff, the use of cabinets, implementing an initial evaluation of the technique of the safety program, and wearing protective gloves and gowns when opening drug packaging, handling vials, or labeling. When wearing personal protective equipment, one should inspect gloves for physical defects before use and always wear double gloves and protective gowns. Health care workers are also required to wash their hands with water and soap before and after working with antineoplastic drugs, change gloves every 30 minutes or whenever punctured, and discard them immediately in a chemotherapy waste container.
The gowns used should be disposable gowns made of polyethylene-coated polypropylene. When wearing gowns, individuals should make sure that the gowns are closed and have long sleeves. When preparation is done, the final product should be completely sealed in a plastic bag.
The health care worker should also wipe all waste containers inside the ventilated cabinet before removing them from the cabinet. Finally, workers should remove all protective wear and put them in a bag for their disposal inside the ventilated cabinet.
==== Employee training ====
All employees whose jobs in health care facilities expose them to hazardous drugs must receive training. Training should include shipping and receiving personnel, housekeepers, pharmacists, assistants, and all individuals involved in the transportation and storage of antineoplastic drugs. These individuals should receive information and training to inform them of the hazards of the drugs present in their areas of work. They should be informed and trained on operations and procedures in their work areas where they can encounter hazards, different methods used to detect the presence of hazardous drugs and how the hazards are released, and the physical and health hazards of the drugs, including their reproductive and carcinogenic hazard potential. Additionally, they should be informed and trained on the measures they should take to avoid and protect themselves from these hazards. This information ought to be provided when health care workers come into contact with the drugs, that is, perform the initial assignment in a work area with hazardous drugs. Moreover, training should also be provided when new hazards emerge as well as when new drugs, procedures, or equipment are introduced.
==== Spill control ====
A written policy needs to be in place in case of a spill of antineoplastic products. The policy should address the possibility of various sizes of spills as well as the procedure and personal protective equipment required for each size. A trained worker should handle a large spill and always dispose of all cleanup materials in the chemical waste container according to EPA regulations, not in a yellow chemotherapy waste container.
=== Occupational monitoring ===
A medical surveillance program must be established. In case of exposure, occupational health professionals need to ask for a detailed history and do a thorough physical exam. They should test the urine of the potentially exposed worker by doing a urine dipstick or microscopic examination, mainly looking for blood, as several antineoplastic drugs are known to cause bladder damage.
== History ==
The first use of small-molecule drugs to treat cancer was in the early 20th century, although the specific chemicals first used were not originally intended for that purpose. Mustard gas was used as a chemical warfare agent during World War I and was discovered to be a potent suppressor of hematopoiesis (blood production). A similar family of compounds known as nitrogen mustards were studied further during World War II at the Yale School of Medicine. It was reasoned that an agent that damaged the rapidly growing white blood cells might have a similar effect on cancer. Concurrently, during a military operation in World War II, following a German air raid on the Italian harbour of Bari, several hundred people were accidentally exposed to mustard gas, which had been transported there by the Allied forces to prepare for possible retaliation in the event of German use of chemical warfare. The survivors were later found to have very low white blood cell counts. After WWII was over and the reports declassified, the experiences converged and led researchers to look for other substances that might have similar effects against cancer. The first chemotherapy drug to be developed from this line of research was mustine. Since then, many other drugs have been developed to treat cancer, and drug development has exploded into a multibillion-dollar industry, although the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply.
=== The term chemotherapy ===
The word chemotherapy without a modifier usually refers to cancer treatment, but its historical meaning was broader. The term was coined in the early 1900s by Paul Ehrlich as meaning any use of chemicals to treat any disease (chemo- + -therapy), such as the use of antibiotics (antibacterial chemotherapy). Ehrlich was not optimistic that effective chemotherapy drugs would be found for the treatment of cancer. This was later followed by sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) and penicillin. In today's usage, the sense "any treatment of disease with drugs" is often expressed with the word pharmacotherapy.
== Research ==
=== Targeted delivery vehicles ===
Specially targeted delivery vehicles aim to increase effective levels of chemotherapy for tumor cells while reducing effective levels for other cells. This should result in an increased tumor kill or reduced toxicity or both.
==== Antibody-drug conjugates ====
Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) comprise an antibody, drug and a linker between them. The antibody will be targeted at a preferentially expressed protein in the tumour cells (known as a tumor antigen) or on cells that the tumor can utilise, such as blood vessel endothelial cells. They bind to the tumor antigen and are internalised, where the linker releases the drug into the cell. These specially targeted delivery vehicles vary in their stability, selectivity, and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells. Reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in people who are sicker and that they can carry new chemotherapeutic agents that would have been far too toxic to deliver via traditional systemic approaches.
The first approved drug of this type was gemtuzumab ozogamicin (Mylotarg), released by Wyeth (now Pfizer). The drug was approved to treat acute myeloid leukemia. Two other drugs, trastuzumab emtansine and brentuximab vedotin, are both in late clinical trials, and the latter has been granted accelerated approval for the treatment of refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma and systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma. and magnetic particles. Nanoparticles made of magnetic material can also be used to concentrate agents at tumor sites using an externally applied magnetic field.
=== Electrochemotherapy ===
Electrochemotherapy is the combined treatment in which injection of a chemotherapeutic drug is followed by application of high-voltage electric pulses locally to the tumor. The treatment enables the chemotherapeutic drugs, which otherwise cannot or hardly go through the membrane of cells (such as bleomycin and cisplatin), to enter the cancer cells. Hence, greater effectiveness of antitumor treatment is achieved. The method has been reported as safe, simple and highly effective in all reports on clinical use of electrochemotherapy. According to the ESOPE project (European Standard Operating Procedures of Electrochemotherapy), the Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for electrochemotherapy were prepared, based on the experience of the leading European cancer centres on electrochemotherapy. Recently, new electrochemotherapy modalities have been developed for treatment of internal tumors using surgical procedures, endoscopic routes or percutaneous approaches to gain access to the treatment area.
=== Hyperthermia therapy ===
Hyperthermia therapy is heat treatment for cancer that can be a powerful tool when used in combination with chemotherapy (thermochemotherapy) or radiation for the control of a variety of cancers. The heat can be applied locally to the tumor site, which will dilate blood vessels to the tumor, allowing more chemotherapeutic medication to enter the tumor. Additionally, the tumor cell membrane will become more porous, further allowing more of the chemotherapeutic medicine to enter the tumor cell.
Hyperthermia has also been shown to help prevent or reverse "chemo-resistance." Chemotherapy resistance sometimes develops over time as the tumors adapt and can overcome the toxicity of the chemo medication. "Overcoming chemoresistance has been extensively studied within the past, especially using CDDP-resistant cells. In regard to the potential benefit that drug-resistant cells can be recruited for effective therapy by combining chemotherapy with hyperthermia, it was important to show that chemoresistance against several anticancer drugs (e.g. mitomycin C, anthracyclines, BCNU, melphalan) including CDDP could be reversed at least partially by the addition of heat.
== Other animals ==
Chemotherapy is used in veterinary medicine similar to how it is used in human medicine.
|
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] |
7,174 |
Chinese historiography
|
Chinese historiography is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China.
==Overview of Chinese history==
The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty ( 1600–1046 BC). Many written examples survive of ceremonial inscriptions, divinations and records of family names, which were carved or painted onto tortoise shell or bones. The uniformly religious context of Shang written records makes avoidance of preservation bias important when interpreting Shang history. The first conscious attempt to record history in China may have been the inscription on the Zhou dynasty bronze Shi Qiang pan. This and thousands of other Chinese bronze inscriptions form our primary sources for the period in which they were interred in elite burials.
The oldest surviving history texts of China were compiled in the Book of Documents (Shujing). The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu), the official chronicle of the State of Lu, cover the period from 722 to 481 BC and are among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged as annals. The compilations of both of these works are traditionally ascribed to Confucius. The Zuo zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BC. The anonymous Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work composed of sporadic materials on the Warring States period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC.
The first systematic Chinese historical text, the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), was written by Sima Qian (145 or 135–86BC) based on work by his father, Sima Tan, during the Han dynasty. It covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author's own lifetime. Two instances of systematic book-burning and a palace fire in the preceding centuries narrowed the sources available for this work. Because of this highly praised and frequently copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. The Twenty-Four Histories, the official histories of the dynasties considered legitimate by imperial Chinese historians, all copied Sima Qian's format. Typically, rulers initiating a new dynasty would employ scholars to compile a final history from the records of the previous one, using a broad variety of sources.
Around the turn of the millennium, father–son imperial librarians Liu Xiang and Liu Xin edited and catalogued a large number of early texts, including each individual text listed by name above. Much transmitted literature surviving today is known to be ultimately the version they edited down from a larger volume of material available at the time. In 190, the imperial capital was again destroyed by arson, causing the loss of significant amounts of historical material.
Toward the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, scholars looked to Japan and the West for models. In the late 1890s, although deeply learned in the traditional forms, Liang Qichao began to publish extensive and influential studies and polemics that converted young readers to a new type of historiography that Liang regarded as more scientific. Liu Yizheng published several specialized history works including History of Chinese Culture. This next generation became professional historians, training and teaching in universities. They included Chang Chi-yun, Gu Jiegang, Fu Sinian, and Tsiang Tingfu, who were PhDs from Columbia University; and Chen Yinke, who conducted his investigations into medieval Chinese history in both Europe and the United States. Other historians, such as Qian Mu, who was trained largely through independent study, were more conservative but remained innovative in their response to world trends. In the 1920s, wide-ranging scholars, such as Guo Moruo, adapted Marxism in order to portray China as a nation among nations, rather than having an exotic and isolated history. The ensuing years saw historians such as Wu Han master both Western theories, including Marxism, and Chinese learning.
==Key organizing concepts==
===Dynastic cycle===
Like the three ages of the Greek poet Hesiod, the oldest Chinese historiography viewed mankind as living in a fallen age of depravity, cut off from the virtues of the past, as Confucius and his disciples revered the sage kings Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun.
Unlike Hesiod's system, however, the Duke of Zhou's idea of the Mandate of Heaven as a rationale for dethroning the supposedly divine Zi clan led subsequent historians to see man's fall as a cyclical pattern. In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a morally upright founder, but his successors cannot help but become increasingly corrupt and dissolute. This immorality removes the dynasty's divine favor and is manifested by natural disasters (particularly floods), rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes weak enough to be replaced by a new one, whose founder is able to rectify many of society's problems and begin the cycle anew. Over time, many people felt a full correction was not possible, and that the golden age of Yao and Shun could not be attained.
This teleological theory implies that there can be only one rightful sovereign under heaven at a time. Thus, despite the fact that Chinese history has had many lengthy and contentious periods of disunity, a great effort was made by official historians to establish a legitimate precursor whose fall allowed a new dynasty to acquire its mandate. Similarly, regardless of the particular merits of individual emperors, founders would be portrayed in more laudatory terms, and the last ruler of a dynasty would always be castigated as depraved and unworthy – even when that was not the case. Such a narrative was employed after the fall of the empire by those compiling the history of the Qing, and by those who justified the attempted restorations of the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun.
===Multi-ethnic history===
Traditional Chinese historiography includes states ruled by other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans etc.) in the dynastic history of China proper, ignoring their own historical traditions and considering them parts of China. Two historiographic traditions: of unity in East Asia as a historical norm for this region, and of dynasties successively reigning on the Son of Heaven's throne allowed Chinese elites describing historical process in China in simplified categories providing the basis for the concept of modern "unitary China" within the borders of the former Qing Empire, which was also ruled by Chinese emperors. However, deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, there was not a succession of dynasties ruled the same unitary China, but there were different states in certain regions of East Asia, some of which have been termed by later historiographers as the Empire ruled by the Son of the Heaven.
As early as the 1930s, the American scholar Owen Lattimore argued that China was the product of the interaction of farming and pastoral societies, rather than simply the expansion of the Han people. Lattimore did not accept the more extreme Sino-Babylonian theories that the essential elements of early Chinese technology and religion had come from Western Asia, but he was among the scholars to argue against the assumption they had all been indigenous.
Both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China hold the view that Chinese history should include all the ethnic groups of the lands held by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak, with these ethnicities forming part of the Zhonghua minzu (Chinese nation). This view is in contrast with Han chauvinism promoted by the Qing-era Tongmenghui. This expanded view encompasses internal and external tributary lands, as well as conquest dynasties in the history of a China seen as a coherent multi-ethnic nation since time immemorial, incorporating and accepting the contributions and cultures of non-Han ethnicities.
The acceptance of this view by ethnic minorities sometimes depends on their views on present-day issues. The 14th Dalai Lama, long insistent on Tibet's history being separate from that of China, conceded in 2005 that Tibet "is a part of" China's "5,000-year history" as part of a new proposal for Tibetan autonomy. Korean nationalists have virulently reacted against China's application to UNESCO for recognition of the Goguryeo tombs in Chinese territory. The absolute independence of Goguryeo is a central aspect of Korean identity, because, according to Korean legend, Goguryeo was independent of China and Japan, compared to subordinate states such as the Joseon dynasty and the Korean Empire. The legacy of Genghis Khan has been contested between China, Mongolia, and Russia, all three states having significant numbers of ethnic Mongols within their borders and holding territory that was conquered by the Khan.
The Jin dynasty tradition of a new dynasty composing the official history for its preceding dynasty/dynasties has been seen to foster an ethnically inclusive interpretation of Chinese history. The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor. The Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruled by the Mongols and Manchus, faithfully carried out this practice, composing the official Chinese-language histories of the Han-ruled Song and Ming dynasties, respectively.
Recent Western scholars have reacted against the ethnically inclusive narrative in traditional and Chinese Communist Party (CCP)-sponsored history, by writing revisionist histories of China such as the New Qing History that feature, according to James A. Millward, "a degree of 'partisanship' for the indigenous underdogs of frontier history". Scholarly interest in writing about Chinese minorities from non-Chinese perspectives is growing. So too is the rejection of a unified cultural narrative in early China. Historians engaging with archaeological progress find increasingly demonstrated a rich amalgam of diverse cultures in regions the received literature positions as homogeneous.
===Marxism===
Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo, and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are:
Slave society
Feudal society
Capitalist society
Socialist society
The world communist society
The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history.
Slave society – Xia to Zhou
Feudal society (decentralized) – Qin to Sui
Feudal society (bureaucratic) – Tang to the First Opium War
Feudal society (semi-colonial) – First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty
Semi-feudal and Semi-capitalist society – Republican era
Socialist society – PRC 1949 to present
Because of the strength of the CCP and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.
Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them.
There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as the primary form of labor. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analyzed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed.
The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that "Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West" and assumed that China existed in a "qualitatively different historical world from Western society". That is, there is an argument between those who see "unilinear, monistic world history" and those who conceive of a "two-tracked or multi-tracked world history". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analyzing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. His conclusion was that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on.
There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics.
===Modernization===
This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society as a traditional society needing to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption of Western society as the model. Such a view was common amongst European and American historians during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now criticized for being a Eurocentric viewpoint, since such a view permits an implicit justification for breaking the society from its static past and bringing it into the modern world under European direction.
By the mid-20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of "changeless China" was untenable. A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank, was the notion of "change within tradition", which argued that China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. This notion has also been subject to the criticism that to say "China has not changed fundamentally" is tautological, since it requires that one look for things that have not changed and then arbitrarily define those as fundamental.
Nonetheless, studies seeing China's interaction with Europe as the driving force behind its recent history are still common. Such studies may consider the First Opium War as the starting point for China's modern period. Examples include the works of H.B. Morse, who wrote chronicles of China's international relations such as Trade and Relations of the Chinese Empire. The Chinese convention is to use the word jindai ("modern") to refer to a timeframe for modernity which begins with the Opium wars and continues through the May Fourth period.
In the 1950s, several of Fairbank's students argued that Confucianism was incompatible with modernity. Joseph Levenson and Mary C. Wright, and Albert Feuerwerker argued in effect that traditional Chinese values were a barrier to modernity and would have to be abandoned before China could make progress. Wright concluded, "The failure of the [[Tongzhi Restoration|T'ung-chih [Tongzhi] Restoration]] demonstrated with a rare clarity that even in the most favorable circumstances there is no way in which an effective modern state can be grafted onto a Confucian society. Yet in the decades that followed, the political ideas that had been tested and, for all their grandeur, found wanting, were never given a decent burial."
In a different view of modernization, the Japanese historian Naito Torajiro argued that China reached modernity during its mid-Imperial period, centuries before Europe. He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society. The problem associated with this approach is the subjective meaning of modernity. The Chinese nobility had been in decline since the Qin dynasty, and while the exams were largely meritocratic, performance required time and resources that meant examinees were still typically from the gentry. Moreover, expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats when it came to managing public works or preparing a budget. Confucian hostility to commerce placed merchants at the bottom of the four occupations, itself an archaism maintained by devotion to classic texts. The social goal continued to be to invest in land and enter the gentry, ideas more like those of the physiocrats than those of Adam Smith.
===Hydraulic despotism===
With ideas derived from Marx and Max Weber, Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems. Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture. Yu the Great, one of China's legendary founders, is known for his control of the floods of the Yellow River. The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability; while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. In Europe abundant rainfall meant less dependence on irrigation. In the Orient natural conditions were such that the bulk of the land could not be cultivated without large-scale irrigation works. As only a centralized administration could organize the building and maintenance of large-scale systems of irrigation, the need for such systems made bureaucratic despotism inevitable in Oriental lands.
When Wittfogel published his Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power, critics pointed out that water management was given the high status China accorded to officials concerned with taxes, rituals, or fighting off bandits. The theory also has a strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern.
While Wittfogel's theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control. The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by a strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability.
===Convergence===
Convergence theory, including Hu Shih and Ray Huang's involution theory, holds that the past 150 years have been a period in which Chinese and Western civilization have been in the process of converging into a world civilization. Such a view is heavily influenced by modernization theory but, in China's case, it is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of Shijie Datong or "Great Unity". It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians, as postmodern Western historians discount overarching narratives, and nationalist Chinese historians feel similar about narratives failing to account for some special or unique characteristics of Chinese culture.
===Anti-imperialism===
Closely related are colonial and anti-imperialist narratives. These often merge or are part of Marxist critiques from within China or the former Soviet Union, or are postmodern critiques such as Edward Said's Orientalism, which fault traditional scholarship for trying to fit West, South, and East Asia's histories into European categories unsuited to them. With regard to China particularly, T.F. Tsiang and John Fairbank used newly opened archives in the 1930s to write modern history from a Chinese point of view. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu then edited the influential volume China's Response to the West (1953). This approach was attacked for ascribing the change in China to outside forces. In the 1980s, Paul Cohen, a student of Fairbank's, issued a call for a more "China-Centered history of China".
===Republican===
The schools of thought on the 1911 Revolution have evolved from the early years of the Republic. The Marxist view saw the events of 1911 as a bourgeois revolution. In the 1920s, the Nationalist Party issued a theory of three political stages based on Sun Yatsen's writings:
Military unification – 1923 to 1928 (Northern Expedition)
Political tutelage – 1928 to 1947
Constitutional democracy – 1947 onward
The most obvious criticism is the near-identical nature of "political tutelage" and of a "constitutional democracy" consisting only of the one-party rule until the 1990s. Against this, Chen Shui-bian proposed his own four-stage theory.
===Postmodernism===
Postmodern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject narrative history and instead focus on a small subset of Chinese history, particularly the daily lives of ordinary people in particular locations or settings.
===Long-term political economy===
Zooming out from the dynastic cycle but maintaining focus on power dynamics, the following general periodization, based on the most powerful groups and the ways that power is used, has been proposed for Chinese history:
The aristocratic settlement state (to 550 BCE)
Centralization of power with military revolution ( 550 BCE – 25 CE)
Landowning families competing for central power and integrating the South ( 25 – 755)
Imperial examination scholar-officials and commercialization ( 755 – 1550)
Commercial interests with global convergence (since 1550)
==Recent trends==
From the beginning of CCP rule in 1949 until the 1980s, Chinese historical scholarship focused largely on the officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggle. From the time of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1992) on, there has been a drift towards a Marxist-inspired Chinese nationalist perspective, and consideration of China's contemporary international status has become of paramount importance in historical studies. The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to the dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 era. Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism's influence, this remains the primary interest for most historians inside China.
The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen numerous studies of Chinese history that challenge traditional paradigms. The field is rapidly evolving, with much new scholarship, often based on the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. For example, an active topic concerns whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous quantities of primary source material that have not yet been analyzed. Scholars are using previously overlooked documentary evidence, such as masses of government and family archives, and economic records such as census tax rolls, price records, and land surveys. In addition, artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to manuals, and children's books are analyzed for clues about day-to-day life.
Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism, and has questioned modernist narratives of China's backwardness and lack of development. The desire to challenge the preconception that 19th-century China was weak, for instance, has led to a scholarly interest in Qing expansion into Central Asia. Postmodern scholarship largely rejects grand narratives altogether, preferring to publish empirical studies on the socioeconomics, and political or cultural dynamics, of smaller communities within China.
As of at least 2023, there has been a surge of historical writing about key leaders of the Nationalist period. A significant amount of new writing includes texts written for a general (as opposed to only academic) audience.
After 1911, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated the late imperial system and its failures. However, in the 21st century, a highly favorable revisionism has emerged in the popular culture, in both the media and social media.
Florian Schneider argues that nationalism in China in the early twenty-first century is largely a product of the digital revolution and that a large fraction of the population participates as readers and commentators who relate ideas to their friends over the internet.
|
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] |
7,175 |
Chinese Communist Party
|
{{Infobox political party
| name = Communist Party of China
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = zh-Hans-CN
| abbreviation =
| founders =
| logo = Danghui.svg
| logo_size = 150px
| colorcode =
| general_secretary = Xi Jinping
| standing_committee =
| founded =
| headquarters = Zhongnanhai, Xicheng District, Beijing
| newspaper = People's Daily
| youth_wing = Communist Youth League of China
| wing1_title = Children's wing
| wing1 = Young Pioneers of China
| wing2_title = Armed wing
| wing2 =
| wing3_title = Research office
| wing3 = Central Policy Research Office
| membership_year = 2023
| membership = 99,185,000 officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang and proclaimed the establishment of the PRC under the leadership of Mao Zedong in October 1949. Since then, the CCP has governed China and has had sole control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA). , the CCP has more than 99 million members, making it the second largest political party by membership in the world.
In 1921, Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao led the founding of the CCP with the help of the Far Eastern Bureau of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International. Although the CCP aligned with the Kuomintang (KMT) during its initial years, the rise of the right-wing in the KMT under the leadership of Chiang Kai-Shek and massacre of tens of thousands of CCP members, resulted in the split and a prolonged civil war between the two. During the next ten years of guerrilla warfare, Mao Zedong rose to become the most influential figure in the CCP, and the party established a strong base among the rural peasantry with its land reform policies. Support for the CCP continued to grow throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War, and after the Japanese surrender in 1945, the CCP emerged triumphant in the communist revolution against the Nationalist government. After the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, the CCP established the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949.
Mao Zedong continued to be the most influential member of the CCP until his death in 1976. Under Mao, the party completed its land reform program, launched a series of five-year plans, and eventually split with the Soviet Union. Although Mao attempted to purge the party of capitalist and reactionary elements during the Cultural Revolution, after his death, these policies were only briefly continued by the Gang of Four before a less radical faction seized control. During the 1980s, Deng Xiaoping directed the CCP away from Maoist orthodoxy and towards a policy of economic liberalization. Since the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the CCP has focused on maintaining its relations with the ruling parties of the remaining socialist states. The CCP has also established relations with several non-communist parties, including dominant nationalist parties of many developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, as well as social democratic parties in Europe.
As a Marxist–Leninist party, the Chinese Communist Party is organized based on democratic centralism, a principle that entails open policy discussion on the condition of unity among party members in upholding the agreed-upon decision. The highest body of the CCP is the National Congress, convened every fifth year. When the National Congress is not in session, the Central Committee is the highest body, but since that body usually only meets once a year, most duties and responsibilities are vested in the Politburo and its Standing Committee. Members of the latter are seen as the top leadership of the party and the state. Today the party's leader holds the offices of general secretary (responsible for civilian party duties), Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) (responsible for military affairs), and State President (a largely ceremonial position). Because of these posts, the party leader is seen as the country's paramount leader. The current leader is Xi Jinping, who was elected at the 1st Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee held on 15 November 2012 and has been reelected twice, on 25 October 2017 by the 19th Central Committee and on 10 October 2022 by the 20th Central Committee.
==History==
===Founding and early history===
The October Revolution and Marxist theory inspired the founding of the CCP. Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao were among the first to publicly support Leninism and world revolution. Both regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking, believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere.
Some historical analysis views the May Fourth Movement as the beginning of the revolutionary struggle that led to the founding of the People's Republic of China. Following the movement, trends towards social transformation increased. Chen and Li were among the most influential promoters of Marxism in China during the May Fourth period. The CCP itself embraces the May Fourth Movement and views itself as part of the movement's legacy.
Study circles were, according to Cai Hesen, "the rudiments [of our party]". Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement, but by 1920 many grew sceptical about their ability to bring about reforms. China's intellectual movements were fragmented in the early 1920s. The May Fourth Movement and the New Culture Movement had identified issues of broad concern to Chinese progressives, including anti-imperialism, support for nationalism, support for democracy, promotion of feminism, and rejection of traditional values. However, party documents suggest that the party's actual founding date was 23 July 1921, the first day of the 1st National Congress of the CCP. The founding National Congress of the CCP was held 23–31 July 1921. With only 50 members in the beginning of 1921, among them Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao and Mao Zedong, the CCP organization and authorities grew tremendously. The Soviets then contacted the Kuomintang (KMT), which was leading the Guangzhou government parallel to the Beiyang government. On 6 October 1923, the Comintern sent Mikhail Borodin to Guangzhou, and the Soviets established friendly relations with the KMT. The Central Committee of the CCP, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and the Comintern all hoped that the CCP would eventually control the KMT and called their opponents "rightists".
The CCP views the world as organized into two opposing camps; socialist and capitalist. They insist that socialism, on the basis of historical materialism, will eventually triumph over capitalism. In recent years, when the party has been asked to explain the capitalist globalization occurring, the party has returned to the writings of Karl Marx. Despite admitting that globalization developed through the capitalist system, the party's leaders and theorists argue that globalization is not intrinsically capitalist. The reason being that if globalization was purely capitalist, it would exclude an alternative socialist form of modernity. Globalization, as with the market economy, therefore does not have one specific class character (neither socialist nor capitalist) according to the party. The insistence that globalization is not fixed in nature comes from Deng's insistence that China can pursue socialist modernization by incorporating elements of capitalism. Because of this there is considerable optimism within the CCP that despite the current capitalist dominance of globalization, globalization can be turned into a vehicle supporting socialism.
===Analysis and criticism===
While foreign analysts generally agree that the CCP has rejected orthodox Marxism–Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought (or at least basic thoughts within orthodox thinking), the CCP itself disagrees. Critics of the CCP argue that Jiang Zemin ended the party's formal commitment to Marxism–Leninism with the introduction of the ideological theory, the Three Represents. However, party theorist Leng Rong disagrees, claiming that "President Jiang rid the Party of the ideological obstacles to different kinds of ownership... He did not give up Marxism or socialism. He strengthened the Party by providing a modern understanding of Marxism and socialism—which is why we talk about a 'socialist market economy' with Chinese characteristics." The attainment of true "communism" is still described as the CCP's and China's "ultimate goal". While the CCP claims that China is in the primary stage of socialism, party theorists argue that the current development stage "looks a lot like capitalism". Alternatively, certain party theorists argue that "capitalism is the early or first stage of communism." Some have dismissed the concept of a primary stage of socialism as intellectual cynicism. For example, Robert Lawrence Kuhn, a former foreign adviser to the Chinese government, stated: "When I first heard this rationale, I thought it more comic than clever—a wry caricature of hack propagandists leaked by intellectual cynics. But the 100-year horizon comes from serious political theorists."
American political scientist and sinologist David Shambaugh argues that before the "Practice Is the Sole Criterion for the Truth" campaign, the relationship between ideology and decision making was a deductive one, meaning that policy-making was derived from ideological knowledge. However, under Deng's leadership this relationship was turned upside down, with decision making justifying ideology. Chinese policy-makers have described the Soviet Union's state ideology as "rigid, unimaginative, ossified, and disconnected from reality", believing that this was one of the reasons for the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Therefore, Shambaugh argues, Chinese policy-makers believe that their party ideology must be dynamic to safeguard the party's rule.
British sinologist Kerry Brown argues that the CCP does not have an ideology, and that the party organization is pragmatic and interested only in what works. The party itself argues against this assertion. Hu Jintao stated in 2012 that the Western world is "threatening to divide us" and that "the international culture of the West is strong while we are weak ... Ideological and cultural fields are our main targets". As such, the CCP puts a great deal of effort into the party schools and into crafting its ideological message.
==Governance==
===Collective leadership===
Collective leadership, the idea that decisions will be taken through consensus, has been the ideal in the CCP. The concept has its origins back to Lenin and the Russian Bolshevik Party. At the level of the central party leadership this means that, for instance, all members of the Politburo Standing Committee are of equal standing (each member having only one vote). A member of the Politburo Standing Committee often represents a sector; during Mao's reign, he controlled the People's Liberation Army, Kang Sheng, the security apparatus, and Zhou Enlai, the State Council and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This counts as informal power. Despite this, in a paradoxical relation, members of a body are ranked hierarchically (despite the fact that members are in theory equal to one another). Informally, the collective leadership is headed by a "leadership core"; that is, the paramount leader, the person who holds the offices of CCP general secretary, CMC chairman and PRC president. Before Jiang Zemin's tenure as paramount leader, the party core and collective leadership were indistinguishable. In practice, the core was not responsible to the collective leadership. However, by the time of Jiang, the party had begun propagating a responsibility system, referring to it in official pronouncements as the "core of the collective leadership". Academics have noted a decline in collective leadership under Xi Jinping.
===Democratic centralism===
The CCP's organizational principle is democratic centralism, a principle that entails open discussion of policy on the condition of unity among party members in upholding the agreed-upon decision. It is based on two principles: democracy (synonymous in official discourse with "socialist democracy" and "inner-party democracy") and centralism.
In 2018, the shuanggui process was superseded by liuzhi or "retention in custody," which expands beyond CCP members to the entire public sector, academics, and business leaders.
===United front===
The CCP employs a political strategy that it terms "united front work" that involves groups and key individuals that are influenced or controlled by the CCP and used to advance its interests. United front work is managed primarily but not exclusively by the United Front Work Department (UFWD). The united front has historically been a popular front that has included eight legally permitted political parties alongside other people's organizations which have nominal representation in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). However, the CPPCC is a body without real power. While consultation does take place, it is supervised and directed by the CCP. Under Xi Jinping, the united front and its targets of influence have expanded in size and scope.
==Organization==
===Central organization===
The National Congress is the party's highest body, and, since the 9th National Congress in 1969, has been convened every five years (prior to the 9th Congress they were convened on an irregular basis). According to the party's constitution, a congress may not be postponed except "under extraordinary circumstances." The party constitution gives the National Congress six responsibilities:
Electing the Central Committee;
Electing the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI);
Examining the report of the outgoing Central Committee;
Examining the report of the outgoing CCDI;
Discussing and enacting party policies; and,
Revising the party's constitution.
In practice, the delegates rarely discuss issues at length at the National Congresses. Most substantive discussion takes place before the congress, in the preparation period, among a group of top party leaders. In between National Congresses, the Central Committee is the highest decision-making institution. The CCDI is responsible for supervising party's internal anti-corruption and ethics system. In between congresses the CCDI is under the authority of the Central Committee.
The Central Committee, as the party's highest decision-making institution between national congresses, elects several bodies to carry out its work. The first plenary session of a newly elected central committee elects the general secretary of the Central Committee, the party's leader; the Central Military Commission (CMC); the Politburo; the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The first plenum also endorses the composition of the Secretariat and the leadership of the CCDI. According to the party constitution, the general secretary must be a member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), and is responsible for convening meetings of the PSC and the Politburo, while also presiding over the work of the Secretariat. The Politburo "exercises the functions and powers of the Central Committee when a plenum is not in session". The PSC is the party's highest decision-making institution when the Politburo, the Central Committee and the National Congress are not in session. It convenes at least once a week. It was established at the 8th National Congress, in 1958, to take over the policy-making role formerly assumed by the Secretariat. The Secretariat is the top implementation body of the Central Committee, and can make decisions within the policy framework established by the Politburo; it is also responsible for supervising the work of organizations that report directly into the Central Committee, for example departments, commissions, publications, and so on. The CMC is the highest decision-making institution on military affairs within the party, and controls the operations of the People's Liberation Army. The general secretary has, since Jiang Zemin, also served as Chairman of the CMC. Unlike the collective leadership ideal of other party organs, the CMC chairman acts as commander-in-chief with full authority to appoint or dismiss top military officers at will.
A first plenum of the Central Committee also elects heads of departments, bureaus, central leading groups and other institutions to pursue its work during a term (a "term" being the period elapsing between national congresses, usually five years). The General Office is the party's "nerve centre", in charge of day-to-day administrative work, including communications, protocol, and setting agendas for meetings. The CCP currently has six main central departments: the Organization Department, responsible for overseeing provincial appointments and vetting cadres for future appointments, the Publicity Department (formerly "Propaganda Department"), which oversees the media and formulates the party line to the media, the United Front Work Department, which oversees the country's eight minor parties, people's organizations, and influence groups inside and outside of the country, the International Department, functioning as the party's "foreign affairs ministry" with other parties, the Society Work Department, which handles work related to civic groups, chambers of commerce and industry groups and mixed-ownership and non-public enterprises, and the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission, which oversees the country's legal enforcement authorities. The CC also has direct control over the Central Policy Research Office, which is responsible for researching issues of significant interest to the party leadership, the Central Party School, which provides political training and ideological indoctrination in communist thought for high-ranking and rising cadres, the Institute of Party History and Literature, which sets priorities for scholarly research in state-run universities and the Central Party School and studies and translates the classical works of Marxism. The party's newspaper, the People's Daily, is under the direct control of the Central Committee and is published with the objectives "to tell good stories about China and the (Party)" and to promote its party leader. The theoretical magazines Qiushi and Study Times are published by the Central Party School. The China Media Group, which oversees China Central Television (CCTV), China National Radio (CNR) and China Radio International (CRI), is under the direct control of the Publicity Department. The various offices of the "Central Leading Groups", such as the Hong Kong and Macau Work Office, the Taiwan Affairs Office, and the Central Finance Office, also report to the central committee during a plenary session. Additionally, CCP has sole control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA) through its Central Military Commission.
===Lower-level organizations===
After seizing political power, the CCP extended the dual party-state command system to all government institutions, social organizations, and economic entities. The State Council and the Supreme Court each has a party group, established since November 1949. Party committees permeate in every state administrative organ as well as the People's Consultation Conferences and mass organizations at all levels. According to scholar Rush Doshi, "[t]he Party sits above the state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state."
Party committees exist at the level of provinces, cities, counties, and neighbourhoods. These committees play a key role in directing local policy by selecting local leaders and assigning critical tasks. The Party secretary at each level is more senior than that of the leader of the government, with the CCP standing committee being the main source of power.
CCP committees exist inside of companies, both private and state-owned. A business that has more than three party members is legally required to establish a committee or branch.
===Funding===
The funding of all CCP organizations mainly comes from state fiscal revenue. Data for the proportion of total CCP organizations' expenditures in total China fiscal revenue is unavailable.
===Members===
The CCP reached 99.19 million members at the end of 2023, a net increase of 1.1 million over the previous year. It is the second largest political party in the world after India's Bharatiya Janata Party.
To join the CCP, an applicant must go through an approval process. Adults can file applications for membership with their local party branch. A prescreening process, akin to a background check, follows. Next, established party members at the local branch vet applicants' behaviour and political attitudes and may make a formal inquiry to a party branch near the applicants' parents residence to vet family loyalty to communism and the party. In 2014, only 2 million applications were accepted out of some 22 million applicants. Admitted members then spend a year as a probationary member. Probationary members are typically accepted into the party. Members must pay dues regardless of location and, in 2019, the CCP Central Committee issued a rule requiring members abroad to contact CCP cells at home at least once every six months.
In contrast to the past, when emphasis was placed on the applicants' ideological criteria, the current CCP stresses technical and educational qualifications. To become a probationary member, the applicant must take an admission oath before the party flag. The relevant CCP organization is responsible for observing and educating probationary members. Probationary members have duties similar to those of full members, with the exception that they may not vote in party elections nor stand for election. Many join the CCP through the Communist Youth League. Under Jiang Zemin, private entrepreneurs were allowed to become party members.
====Membership demographics====
, individuals who identify as farmers, herdsmen and fishermen make up 26 million members; members identifying as workers totalled 6.6 million. The CCP systematically recruits white-collar workers over other social groups. By 2023, CCP membership had become more educated, younger, and less blue-collar than previously, with 56.2% of party members having a college degree or above. At the top level of decision making, no woman has ever been among the members of the Politburo Standing Committee, while the broader Politburo currently does not have any female members. Just 3 of 27 government ministers are women, and importantly, since 1997, China has fallen to 53rd place from 16th in the world in terms of female representation in the National People's Congress, according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union. CCP leaders such as Zhao Ziyang have vigorously opposed the participation of women in the political process. Within the party women face a glass ceiling.
====Benefits of membership====
A 2019 Binghamton University study found that CCP members gain a 20% wage premium in the market over non-members. A subsequent academic study found that the economic benefit of CCP membership is strongest on those in lower wealth brackets.
Certain CCP cadres have access to a special supply system for foodstuffs called tegong. CCP leadership cadres have access to a dedicated healthcare system managed by the CCP General Office.
===Communist Youth League===
The Communist Youth League (CYL) is the CCP's youth wing, and the largest mass organization for youth in China. To join, an applicant has to be between the ages of 14 and 28. It controls and supervises Young Pioneers, a youth organization for children below the age of 14. The organizational structure of CYL is an exact copy of the CCP's; the highest body is the National Congress, followed by the Central Committee, Politburo, and the Politburo Standing Committee. However, the Central Committee (and all central organs) of the CYL work under the guidance of the CCP central leadership. 2021 estimates put the number of CYL members at over 81 million.
==Symbols==
At the beginning of its history, the CCP did not have a single official standard for the flag, but instead allowed individual party committees to copy the flag of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Central Politburo decreed the establishment of a sole official flag on 28 April 1942: "The flag of the CPC has the length-to-width proportion of 3:2 with a hammer and sickle in the upper-left corner, and with no five-pointed star. The Political Bureau authorizes the General Office to custom-make a number of standard flags and distribute them to all major organs".
===Communist parties===
The CCP continues to have relations with non-ruling communist and workers' parties and attends international communist conferences, most notably the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties. While the CCP retains contact with major parties such as the Communist Party of Portugal, the Communist Party of France, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia, the Communist Party of Brazil, the Communist Party of Greece, the Communist Party of Nepal and the Communist Party of Spain, the party also retains relations with minor communist and workers' parties, such as the Communist Party of Australia, the Workers Party of Bangladesh, the Communist Party of Bangladesh (Marxist–Leninist) (Barua), the Communist Party of Sri Lanka, the Workers' Party of Belgium, the Hungarian Workers' Party, the Dominican Workers' Party, the Nepal Workers Peasants Party, and the Party for the Transformation of Honduras, for instance. It has prickly relations with the Japanese Communist Party. In recent years, noting the self-reform of the European social democratic movement in the 1980s and 1990s, the CCP "has noted the increased marginalization of West European communist parties."
====Ruling parties of socialist states====
The CCP has retained close relations with the ruling parties of socialist states still espousing communism: Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. It spends a fair amount of time analysing the situation in the remaining socialist states, trying to reach conclusions as to why these states survived when so many did not, following the collapse of the Eastern European socialist states in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. In general, the analyses of the remaining socialist states and their chances of survival have been positive, and the CCP believes that the socialist movement will be revitalized sometime in the future.
The ruling party which the CCP is most interested in is the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV). In general the CPV is considered a model example of socialist development in the post-Soviet era. Chinese analysts on Vietnam believe that the introduction of the Đổi Mới reform policy at the 6th CPV National Congress is the key reason for Vietnam's current success.
While the CCP is probably the organization with most access to North Korea, writing about North Korea is tightly circumscribed. The few reports accessible to the general public are those about North Korean economic reforms. While Chinese analysts of North Korea tend to speak positively of North Korea in public, in official discussions they show much disdain for North Korea's economic system, the cult of personality which pervades society, the Kim family, the idea of hereditary succession in a socialist state, the security state, the use of scarce resources on the Korean People's Army and the general impoverishment of the North Korean people. Circa 2008, there are those analysts who compare the current situation of North Korea with that of China during the Cultural Revolution. Over the years, the CCP has tried to persuade the Workers' Party of Korea (or WPK, North Korea's ruling party) to introduce economic reforms by showing them key economic infrastructure in China. For instance, in 2006 the CCP invited then-WPK general secretary Kim Jong Il to Guangdong to showcase the success economic reforms had brought China. In general, the CCP considers the WPK and North Korea to be negative examples of a ruling communist party and socialist state.
There is a considerable degree of interest in Cuba within the CCP. Fidel Castro, the former First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC), is greatly admired, and books have been written focusing on the successes of the Cuban Revolution. Communication between the CCP and the PCC has increased since the 1990s. At the 4th Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, which discussed the possibility of the CCP learning from other ruling parties, praise was heaped on the PCC. When Wu Guanzheng, a Central Politburo member, met with Fidel Castro in 2007, he gave him a personal letter written by Hu Jintao: "Facts have shown that China and Cuba are trustworthy good friends, good comrades, and good brothers who treat each other with sincerity. The two countries' friendship has withstood the test of a changeable international situation, and the friendship has been further strengthened and consolidated."
===Non-communist parties===
Since the decline and fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the CCP has begun establishing party-to-party relations with non-communist parties. These relations are sought so that the CCP can learn from them. For instance, the CCP has been eager to understand how the People's Action Party of Singapore (PAP) maintains its total domination over Singaporean politics through its "low-key presence, but total control." According to the CCP's own analysis of Singapore, the PAP's dominance can be explained by its "well-developed social network, which controls constituencies effectively by extending its tentacles deeply into society through branches of government and party-controlled groups." While the CCP accepts that Singapore is a liberal democracy, they view it as a guided democracy led by the PAP. Other differences are, according to the CCP, "that it is not a political party based on the working class—instead it is a political party of the elite.... It is also a political party of the parliamentary system, not a revolutionary party." Other parties which the CCP studies and maintains strong party-to-party relations with are the United Malays National Organization, which has ruled Malaysia (1957–2018, 2020–2022), and the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, which dominated Japanese politics since 1955.
Since Jiang Zemin's time, the CCP has made friendly overtures to its erstwhile foe, the Kuomintang. The CCP emphasizes strong party-to-party relations with the KMT so as to strengthen the probability of the reunification of Taiwan with mainland China. However, several studies have been written on the KMT's loss of power in 2000 after having ruled Taiwan since 1949 (the KMT officially ruled mainland China from 1928 to 1949). In general, one-party states or dominant-party states are of special interest to the party and party-to-party relations are formed so that the CCP can study them. The longevity of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party is attributed to the personalization of power in the al-Assad family, the strong presidential system, the inheritance of power, which passed from Hafez al-Assad to his son Bashar al-Assad, and the role given to the Syrian military in politics.
Circa 2008, the CCP has been especially interested in Latin America, as shown by the increasing number of delegates sent to and received from these countries. Of special fascination for the CCP is the 71-year-long rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in Mexico. While the CCP attributed the PRI's long reign in power to the strong presidential system, tapping into the machismo culture of the country, its nationalist posture, its close identification with the rural populace and the implementation of nationalization alongside the marketization of the economy, the CCP concluded that the PRI failed because of the lack of inner-party democracy, its pursuit of social democracy, its rigid party structures that could not be reformed, its political corruption, the pressure of globalization, and American interference in Mexican politics. While the CCP was slow to recognize the pink tide in Latin America, it has strengthened party-to-party relations with several socialist and anti-American political parties over the years. The CCP has occasionally expressed some irritation over Hugo Chávez's anti-capitalist and anti-American rhetoric. Despite this, the CCP reached an agreement in 2013 with the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which was founded by Chávez, for the CCP to educate PSUV cadres in political and social fields. By 2008, the CCP claimed to have established relations with 99 political parties in 29 Latin American countries.
Social democratic movements in Europe have been of great interest to the CCP since the early 1980s. With the exception of a short period in which the CCP forged party-to-party relations with far-right parties during the 1970s in an effort to halt "Soviet expansionism", the CCP's relations with European social democratic parties were its first serious efforts to establish cordial party-to-party relations with non-communist parties. The CCP credits the European social democrats with creating a "capitalism with a human face". Before the 1980s, the CCP had a highly negative and dismissive view of social democracy, a view dating back to the Second International and the Marxist–Leninist view on the social democratic movement. By the 1980s, that view had changed and the CCP concluded that it could actually learn something from the social democratic movement. CCP delegates were sent all over Europe to observe. By the 1980s, most European social democratic parties were facing electoral decline and in a period of self-reform. The CCP followed this with great interest, laying most weight on reform efforts within the British Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. The CCP concluded that both parties were re-elected because they modernized, replacing traditional state socialist tenets with new ones supporting privatization, shedding the belief in big government, conceiving a new view of the welfare state, changing their negative views of the market and moving from their traditional support base of trade unions to entrepreneurs, the young and students.
==Electoral history==
===National People's Congress elections===
|
[
"List of largest political parties",
"Binghamton University",
"Hong Kong Free Press",
"Shanghai massacre of 1927",
"Zhu De",
"Three Principles of the People",
"International Studies Quarterly",
"social welfare",
"Ding Xuexiang",
"Northern Expedition",
"big government",
"Shantou",
"Cultural Revolution",
"Central Intelligence Agency",
"Bolsheviks",
"Social democracy",
"General Office of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Chen Tanqiu",
"Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party",
"United Malays National Organization",
"Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International",
"1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"South Lake (Jiaxing)",
"Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference",
"Central Party School of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Zhao Leji",
"Leninism",
"Mao Zedong Thought",
"Chinese Red Army",
"Serve the People",
"Li Da (philosopher)",
"anti-imperialism",
"Portuguese Communist Party",
"Democracy in China",
"Influence operations",
"Chen Duxiu",
"Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist−Leninist)",
"Ye Ting",
"Kuomintang",
"Changsha",
"Xi'an Incident",
"Journal of Democracy",
"Communist Party of Bangladesh (Marxist–Leninist) (Barua)",
"socialist state",
"General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea",
"Chen Gongbo",
"China Radio International",
"Think tank",
"Liuzhi (supervision)",
"Central Commission for Discipline Inspection",
"Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)",
"Columbia University",
"The Paper (newspaper)",
"Three Represents",
"Deng Enming",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"President of China",
"Persecution of Uyghurs in China",
"Wang Huning",
"Ye Dehui",
"Hafez al-Assad",
"The Review of Economic Studies",
"North Korea",
"Chinese Communist Revolution",
"Workers' Party of Korea",
"guerrilla warfare",
"Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (1949–1954)",
"Karl Marx",
"Communist Party of Sri Lanka",
"Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Sino-Soviet split",
"Hu Jintao",
"President of the People's Republic of China",
"Hong Kong and Macau Work Office",
"socialist patriotism",
"Đổi Mới",
"China–Cuba relations",
"Peng Dehuai",
"Two Whatevers",
"China Central Television",
"Stanford University Press",
"French Communist Party",
"The Economist",
"Jinggang Mountains",
"United States Department of Defense",
"Zhao Ziyang",
"Communist Youth League of China",
"7th National People's Congress",
"Shanghai People's Press",
"Nanchang uprising",
"Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Labour Party (UK)",
"Communist Party of Greece",
"People's Daily",
"Leiden University Press",
"Hoover Institution",
"Japanese surrender",
"people's organization",
"Social Democratic Party of Germany",
"The New York Times",
"parliamentary system",
"Yan'an",
"commander-in-chief",
"Laos",
"Great Leap Forward",
"Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan",
"Duke University Press",
"Taiwan Affairs Office",
"1978 Truth Criterion Controversy",
"Communism",
"First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba",
"liberal democracy",
"Society Work Department",
"Chinese nation",
"Xinhua News Agency",
"9th National People's Congress",
"Greenwood Publishing Group",
"Two Centenaries",
"Second Sino-Japanese War",
"19th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party",
"The BMJ",
"Hungarian Workers' Party",
"Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang",
"President of Mexico",
"Communist Party of the Russian Federation",
"world revolution",
"4th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Economy of Mexico",
"Communist Party of Spain",
"Chiang Kai-Shek",
"People's Action Party",
"bourgeois",
"al-Assad family",
"General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Counties of China",
"seek truth from facts",
"WP:NOTRS",
"Marxist–Leninist",
"Rush Doshi",
"Proclamation of the People's Republic of China",
"Generations of Chinese leadership",
"North Korean cult of personality",
"18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party",
"5th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"CNN",
"Communist Party of Brazil",
"historical materialism",
"Encyclopædia Britannica",
"youth wing",
"Vietnam",
"Robert Lawrence Kuhn",
"One-party state",
"Anti-Rightist Campaign",
"Cuban Revolution",
"state socialist",
"Land Reform Movement (China)",
"Zhang Guotao",
"democratic centralism",
"People's Republic of China",
"Modern China Studies",
"discipline",
"Zhang Zuolin",
"Five-year plans of China",
"China Media Group",
"party group",
"Jiaxing",
"Li Lisan",
"Hierarchy",
"Social issues in China",
"Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region",
"Foreign Policy",
"Sun Yat-sen",
"Scientific Outlook on Development",
"He Shuheng",
"Resolution on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century",
"Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars",
"The Guardian",
"market economy",
"ANU Press",
"Chinese economic reform",
"Xi Jinping Thought",
"marketization",
"Militia (China)",
"Shanghai French Concession",
"Sinology",
"Central Policy Research Office",
"central planning",
"Japanese politics",
"Nationalist government",
"State Council of China",
"Hugo Chávez",
"globalization",
"JSTOR",
"nationalization",
"State Council of the People's Republic of China",
"Party for the Transformation of Honduras",
"Zhongnanhai",
"Cai Hesen",
"Chen Yun",
"International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties",
"Revolutions of 1989",
"16th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party",
"anti-capitalist",
"Australian Strategic Policy Institute",
"International Department of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Standing Committee of the National People's Congress",
"reactionary",
"Jiang Qing",
"pink tide",
"Chinese nationalism",
"Empire of Japan",
"Chinese Academy of Social Sciences",
"Wang Jinmei (revolutionary)",
"Politics of China",
"The Atlantic",
"Huaihai campaign",
"Cai Qi",
"Deng Xiaoping Theory",
"Beiyang government",
"Nomenklatura",
"Guangdong",
"humanism",
"Modern China",
"100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party",
"scientific socialism",
"Li Hanjun",
"white-collar worker",
"resource allocation",
"Deng Xiaoping",
"socialism with Chinese characteristics",
"Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping",
"Leader of the Chinese Communist Party",
"18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"National People's Congress",
"Harvard University Press",
"Kang Sheng",
"plenary session",
"Mikhail Borodin",
"Institute of Party History and Literature",
"Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party",
"South China Morning Post",
"Kim Jong Il",
"welfare state",
"Second International",
"Economy of North Korea",
"Trotskyism",
"University of California Press",
"Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China",
"Human Rights Watch",
"glass ceiling",
"privatization",
"dissolution of the Soviet Union",
"Zhou Fohai",
"United Socialist Party of Venezuela",
"Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)",
"Oxford University Press",
"Wu Guanzheng",
"11th National People's Congress",
"social democracy",
"Communist Party of Australia",
"Xi Jinping Administration",
"Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"China Internet Information Center",
"Zhang Xueliang",
"12th National People's Congress",
"presidential system",
"Ashgate Publishing",
"The Diplomat (magazine)",
"Nepal Workers Peasants Party",
"Corruption in Mexico",
"Dartmouth College",
"machismo",
"paramount leader",
"Korean People's Army",
"El Universal (Caracas)",
"Smithsonian (magazine)",
"proletariat",
"Caixin",
"primary stage of socialism",
"liberty",
"Communist International",
"one-party state",
"World Development (journal)",
"Communist Party of Cuba",
"List of political parties in China",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Chinese Communist Party Admission Oath",
"BBC Monitoring",
"Harmonious Society",
"Second United Front",
"Cambridge University Press",
"Young Pioneers of China",
"Great Chinese Famine",
"Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"Green Gang",
"Jiang Zemin",
"Li Qiang",
"Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China",
"China Daily",
"Pioneer movement",
"public sector",
"Nanchang",
"de-Stalinization",
"Historical materialism",
"Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Succession of power in China",
"Vox (website)",
"popular front",
"Healthcare in China",
"Malaysia",
"8th National People's Congress",
"Bharatiya Janata Party",
"anti-communist",
"14th National People's Congress",
"Kerry Brown (historian)",
"Mao Zedong",
"Fidel Castro",
"Cuba",
"Journal of Economic Literature",
"planned economy",
"hammer and sickle",
"Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia",
"Pragmatism",
"Dominican Workers' Party",
"Financial Times",
"CPC and World Political Parties Summit",
"Government of the Republic of China in Guangzhou",
"Pingjin campaign",
"Socialist Harmonious Society",
"Henk Sneevliet",
"Xinjiang internment camps",
"Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong",
"dictatorship of the proletariat",
"State-owned enterprises of China",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Leng Rong",
"SCMP Group",
"political corruption",
"Mexican politics",
"China Review",
"Zhou Enlai",
"Li Xi (politician)",
"sustainable development",
"Military",
"Bashar al-Assad",
"Institutional Revolutionary Party",
"Kim dynasty (North Korea)",
"The Independent",
"October Revolution",
"Provinces of China",
"Yale University Press",
"May Fourth Movement",
"Red Star Over China",
"North Korean economic reform",
"peasant",
"anti-American",
"6th National People's Congress",
"Review of Development Economics",
"state socialism",
"New Culture Movement",
"Zhang Wentian",
"He Jian",
"Politics of Singapore",
"10th National People's Congress",
"Syrian military",
"13th National People's Congress",
"He Long",
"communist party",
"1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre",
"Li Dazhao",
"leadership core",
"Liu Shaoqi",
"Study Times",
"Marxism–Leninism",
"Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Routledge",
"Safeguard Defenders",
"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (China)",
"The Week UK",
"Central Military Commission (China)",
"Marxist philosophy",
"Journal of Contemporary China",
"Manchuria",
"United Front Work Department",
"Wu Peifu",
"16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Gang of Four",
"Jiangxi",
"19th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Hua Guofeng",
"Communist Party of Vietnam",
"Foreign Policy Research Institute",
"Class conflict",
"communism",
"9th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"China–North Korea relations",
"14th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission",
"Qiushi",
"6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam",
"David Shambaugh",
"List of socialist states",
"Chiang Kai-shek",
"vanguard party",
"Bourgeoisie",
"collective leadership",
"Xi Jinping",
"China National Radio",
"Chinese Civil War",
"Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)",
"Hu Yaobang",
"socialist market economy",
"People's Liberation Army",
"free market",
"Site of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Workers Party of Bangladesh",
"Quartz (publication)",
"Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)",
"People's Armed Police",
"guided democracy",
"centralism",
"Dong Biwu",
"Autumn Harvest Uprising",
"Fujian",
"20th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party",
"Japanese Communist Party",
"Reuters",
"Journal of East Asian Studies",
"Soviet empire",
"Gutian Congress",
"Workers' Party of Belgium"
] |
7,176 |
Cryogenics
|
In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures.
The 13th International Institute of Refrigeration's (IIR) International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington, DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of "cryogenics" and "cryogenic" by accepting a threshold of to distinguish these terms from conventional refrigeration. This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie below 120 K, while the Freon refrigerants, hydrocarbons, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above 120 K.
Discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures significantly above the boiling point of nitrogen has provided new interest in reliable, low-cost methods of producing high-temperature cryogenic refrigeration. The term "high temperature cryogenic" describes temperatures ranging from above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, , up to . The discovery of superconductive properties is first attributed to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on July 10, 1908. The discovery came after the ability to reach a temperature of 2 K. These first superconductive properties were observed in mercury at a temperature of 4.2 K.
Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scale, both of which measure from absolute zero, rather than more usual scales such as Celsius which measures from the freezing point of water at sea level or Fahrenheit which measures from the freezing point of a particular brine solution at sea level.
== Definitions and distinctions ==
Cryogenics: The branches of engineering that involve the study of very low temperatures (ultra low temperature i.e. below 123 K), how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures.
Cryobiology: The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms (most often for the purpose of achieving cryopreservation). Other applications include Lyophilization (freeze-drying) of pharmaceutical components and medicine.
Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources: The conservation of genetic material with the intention of conserving a breed. The conservation of genetic material is not limited to non-humans. Many services provide genetic storage or the preservation of stem cells at birth. They may be used to study the generation of cell lines or for stem-cell therapy.
Cryosurgery: The branch of surgery applying cryogenic temperatures to destroy and kill tissue, e.g. cancer cells. Commonly referred to as Cryoablation.
Cryoelectronics: The study of electronic phenomena at cryogenic temperatures. Examples include superconductivity and variable-range hopping.
Cryonics: Cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of future revival. "Cryogenics" is sometimes erroneously used to mean "Cryonics" in popular culture and the press.
== Etymology ==
The word cryogenics stems from Greek κρύος (cryos) – "cold" + γενής (genis) – "generating".
== Cryogenic fluids==
Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in Kelvin and degree Celsius.
== Industrial applications ==
Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached.
These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers with a high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid. Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a metal outer container. Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen. Thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing.
Cryogenic barcode labels are used to mark Dewar flasks containing these liquids, and will not frost over down to −195 degrees Celsius.
Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer liquefied natural gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are cryogenic valves.
=== Cryogenic processing ===
The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by Bill and Ed Busch. With a background in the heat treating industry, the Busch brothers founded a company in Detroit called CryoTech in 1966. Busch originally experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200% and 400% of the original life expectancy using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating. This evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts.
Cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately . Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment. The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems. Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures.
Cryogenic processing is not a substitute for heat treatment, but rather an extension of the heating–quenching–tempering cycle. Normally, when an item is quenched, the final temperature is ambient. The only reason for this is that most heat treaters do not have cooling equipment. There is nothing metallurgically significant about ambient temperature. The cryogenic process continues this action from ambient temperature down to .
In most instances the cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat tempering procedure. As all alloys do not have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies according to the material's chemical composition, thermal history and/or a tool's particular service application.
The entire process takes 3–4 days.
=== Fuels ===
Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels for rockets with liquid hydrogen as the most widely used example. Liquid oxygen (LOX) is even more widely used but as an oxidizer, not a fuel. NASA's workhorse Space Shuttle used cryogenic hydrogen/oxygen propellant as its primary means of getting into orbit. LOX is also widely used with RP-1 kerosene, a non-cryogenic hydrocarbon, such as in the rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev.
Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev developed a version of its popular design Tu-154 with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155. The plane uses a fuel referred to as liquefied natural gas or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989.
== Other applications ==
Some applications of cryogenics:
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is one of the most common methods to determine the physical and chemical properties of atoms by detecting the radio frequency absorbed and subsequent relaxation of nuclei in a magnetic field. This is one of the most commonly used characterization techniques and has applications in numerous fields. Primarily, the strong magnetic fields are generated by supercooling electromagnets, although there are spectrometers that do not require cryogens. In traditional superconducting solenoids, liquid helium is used to cool the inner coils because it has a boiling point of around 4 K at ambient pressure. Inexpensive metallic superconductors can be used for the coil wiring. So-called high-temperature superconducting compounds can be made to super conduct with the use of liquid nitrogen, which boils at around 77 K.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a complex application of NMR where the geometry of the resonances is deconvoluted and used to image objects by detecting the relaxation of protons that have been perturbed by a radio-frequency pulse in the strong magnetic field. This is most commonly used in health applications.
Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoEM) is a popular method in structural biology for elucidating the structures of proteins, cells, and other biological systems. Samples are plunge-frozen into a cryogen such as liquid ethane cooled by liquid nitrogen, and are then kept at liquid nitrogen temperature as they are inserted into an electron microscope for imaging. Electron microscopes are also themselves cooled by liquid nitrogen.
In large cities, it is difficult to transmit power by overhead cables, so underground cables are used. But underground cables get heated and the resistance of the wire increases, leading to waste of power. Superconductors could be used to increase power throughput, although they would require cryogenic liquids such as nitrogen or helium to cool special alloy-containing cables to increase power transmission. Several feasibility studies have been performed and the field is the subject of an agreement within the International Energy Agency.
Cryogenic gases are used in transportation and storage of large masses of frozen food. When very large quantities of food must be transported to regions like war zones, earthquake hit regions, etc., they must be stored for a long time, so cryogenic food freezing is used. Cryogenic food freezing is also helpful for large scale food processing industries.
Many infrared (forward looking infrared) cameras require their detectors to be cryogenically cooled.
Certain rare blood groups are stored at low temperatures, such as −165°C, at blood banks.
Cryogenics technology using liquid nitrogen and CO2 has been built into nightclub effect systems to create a chilling effect and white fog that can be illuminated with colored lights.
Cryogenic cooling is used to cool the tool tip at the time of machining in manufacturing process. It increases the tool life. Oxygen is used to perform several important functions in the steel manufacturing process.
Many rockets and lunar landers use cryogenic gases as propellants. These include liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen, and liquid methane.
By freezing an automobile or truck tire in liquid nitrogen, the rubber is made brittle and can be crushed into small particles. These particles can be used again for other items.
Experimental research on certain physics phenomena, such as spintronics and magnetotransport properties, requires cryogenic temperatures for the effects to be observable.
Certain vaccines must be stored at cryogenic temperatures. For example, the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine must be stored at temperatures of . (See cold chain.)
== Production ==
Cryogenic cooling of devices and material is usually achieved via the use of liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, or a mechanical cryocooler (which uses high-pressure helium lines). Gifford-McMahon cryocoolers, pulse tube cryocoolers and Stirling cryocoolers are in wide use with selection based on required base temperature and cooling capacity. The most recent development in cryogenics is the use of magnets as regenerators as well as refrigerators. These devices work on the principle known as the magnetocaloric effect.
== Detectors ==
There are various cryogenic detectors which are used to detect particles.
For cryogenic temperature measurement down to 30 K, Pt100 sensors, a resistance temperature detector (RTD), are used. For temperatures lower than 30 K, it is necessary to use a silicon diode for accuracy.
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"LNG storage tank",
"Cryopreservation",
"Tu-155",
"Space Shuttle",
"electron microscope",
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"humidity",
"International Institute of Refrigeration"
] |
7,179 |
Cary Elwes
|
Ivan Simon Cary Elwes (; born 26 October 1962) is an English actor. He starred as Westley in The Princess Bride (1987), and also had lead roles in films such as Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993) and the Saw series. The accolades he has received include nominations for a Screen Actors Guild Award and two Satellite Awards. Elwes' other performances in films include Glory (1989), Days of Thunder (1990), Hot Shots! (1991), Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), Twister (1996), Kiss the Girls (1997), Liar Liar (1997), Shadow of the Vampire (2000), The Cat's Meow (2001), Ella Enchanted (2004), Pope John Paul II (2005), No Strings Attached (2011), Burning at Both Ends (2022), BlackBerry, and Mission: Impossible – Dead Reckoning Part One (both 2023).
Elwes has appeared on television in a number of series including The X-Files, Seinfeld, From the Earth to the Moon, Psych, and Life in Pieces. In 2019, he appeared in the Netflix drama series Stranger Things, the Amazon Prime comedy series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel, and in 2024, he appeared in the Paramount+ comedy series Knuckles. Elwes has written a memoir of his time working on The Princess Bride called As You Wish, which was published in 2014.
== Early life and education ==
Elwes was born on 26 October 1962 in Westminster, London. He is the youngest of three sons of portrait painter Dominick Elwes and Tessa Kennedy, an interior designer and socialite. Cary is the brother of artist Damian Elwes whose own father was the diplomat and tenor Gervase Elwes (1866–1921).
One of Cary Elwes' relatives is John Elwes, a British miser who was the inspiration for Ebenezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol (1843), having been referenced by Charles Dickens himself in chapter six of his last completed novel, Our Mutual Friend. Elwes himself played five roles in the 2009 film adaptation of A Christmas Carol. Through his maternal grandfather, Elwes is also related to Sir Alexander William "Blackie" Kennedy, one of the first photographers to document the archaeological site of Petra following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
Elwes was brought up as a Catholic and was an altar boy at Westminster Cathedral. His paternal relatives include such clerics as Dudley Charles Cary-Elwes (1868–1932), the Bishop of Northampton, and Abbot Columba Cary-Elwes (Ampleforth Abbey, Saint Louis Abbey). He discussed this in an interview while he was filming the 2005 CBS television film Pope John Paul II, in which he played the young priest Karol Wojtyła.
Elwes's parents divorced when he was four years old. In 1975, when Elwes was 13, his father died by suicide. He was educated at Harrow School, In 1981, he moved to the United States to study acting at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, New York. While living there, Elwes studied acting at both the Actors Studio
== Career ==
=== 1984–1999 ===
Elwes made his acting debut in 1984 in Marek Kanievska's film Another Country, which was loosely based on the English boarding school exploits of British spies Burgess, Philby and MacLean. He played James Harcourt, a gay student. but received critical acclaim. As a result of years of reviews, it earned a score of 97% on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes. Since being released on home video and television, the film has become a cult classic.}}
Elwes continued to work steadily, varying between dramatic roles, such as in the Oscar-winning Glory (1989) and comedic roles, as in Hot Shots! (1991). He played a rival driver to Tom Cruise in Days of Thunder (1990). In 1993, he starred as Robin Hood in Mel Brooks's comedy Robin Hood: Men in Tights. Elwes then appeared in supporting roles in such films as Francis Ford Coppola's adaptation of Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), The Crush (1993), The Jungle Book (1994), Twister (1996), Liar Liar (1997), and Kiss the Girls. In 1999, he portrayed famed theatre and film producer John Houseman for Tim Robbins in his ensemble film based on Orson Welles's musical, Cradle Will Rock. Following that, he travelled to Luxembourg to work with John Malkovich and Willem Dafoe in Shadow of the Vampire.
Elwes made his first television appearance in 1996 as David Lookner on Seinfeld. Two years later he played astronaut Michael Collins in the Golden Globe Award-winning HBO miniseries From the Earth To the Moon. The following year Elwes was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television for his portrayal of Colonel James Burton in The Pentagon Wars directed by Richard Benjamin. In 1999, he guest starred as Dr. John York in an episode of the television series The Outer Limits.
=== 2000–2009 ===
In 2001, he co-starred in Peter Bogdanovich's ensemble film The Cat's Meow portraying film mogul Thomas Ince, who died mysteriously while vacationing with William Randolph Hearst on his yacht. Shortly afterward Elwes received another Golden Satellite Award nomination for his work on the ensemble NBC Television film Uprising opposite Jon Voight directed by Jon Avnet. Elwes had a recurring role in the final season (from 2001 to 2002) of Chris Carter's hit series The X-Files as FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer. In 2003 Elwes portrayed Kerry Max Cook in the off-Broadway play The Exonerated in New York, directed by Bob Balaban (18–23 March 2003).
In 2004, Elwes starred in the horror–thriller Saw which, at a budget of a little over $1 million, grossed over $100 million worldwide. The same year he appeared in Ella Enchanted, this time as the villain, not the hero. Also in 2004, he portrayed serial killer Ted Bundy in the A&E Network film The Riverman, which became one of the highest rated original films in the network's history and garnered a prestigious BANFF Rockie Award nomination. The following year, Elwes played the young Karol Wojtyła in the CBS television film Pope John Paul II. The TV film was highly successful not only in North America but also in Europe, where it broke box office records in the late Pope's native Poland and became the first film ever to break $1 million in three days. He made an uncredited appearance as Sam Green, the man who introduced Andy Warhol to Edie Sedgwick, in the 2006 film Factory Girl. In 2007, he appeared in Garry Marshall's Georgia Rule opposite Jane Fonda.
In 2007, he made a guest appearance on the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Dependent" as a Mafia lawyer. In 2009, he played the role of Pierre Despereaux, an international art thief, in the fourth-season premiere of Psych. Also in 2009 Elwes joined the cast of Robert Zemeckis's motion capture adaptation of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol portraying five roles. That same year he was chosen by Steven Spielberg to appear in his motion capture adaptation of Belgian artist Hergé's popular comic strip The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn.
Elwes's voice-over work includes the narrator in James Patterson's audiobook The Jester, as well as characters in film and television animations such as Quest for Camelot, Pinky and The Brain, Batman Beyond, and the English versions of the Studio Ghibli films, Porco Rosso, Whisper of the Heart and The Cat Returns. For the 2004 video game The Bard's Tale, he served as screenwriter, improviser, and voice actor of the main character The Bard. In 2009, Elwes reunited with Jason Alexander for the Indian film, Delhi Safari. The following year Elwes portrayed the part of Gremlin Gus in Disney's video game, Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two. In 2014, he appeared in Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey as the voice of scientists Edmond Halley and Robert Hooke.
=== 2010–present ===
In 2010, he returned to the Saw franchise in Saw 3D (2010), the seventh film in the series, as Dr. Lawrence Gordon. In 2010, he returned to Psych, reprising his role in the second half of the fifth season, again in the show's sixth season, and again in the show's eighth season premiere. In 2014, Elwes played Hugh Ashmeade, Director of the CIA, in the second season of the BYUtv series Granite Flats. In 2011, he was selected by Ivan Reitman to star alongside Natalie Portman in No Strings Attached. That same year, Elwes and Garry Marshall teamed up again in the ensemble romantic comedy New Year's Eve opposite Robert de Niro and Halle Berry.
In 2012, Elwes starred in the independent drama The Citizen. and the following year Elwes joined Selena Gomez for the comedy ensemble, Behaving Badly directed by Tim Garrick. In 2015, he completed Sugar Mountain directed by Richard Gray; the drama We Don't Belong Here, opposite Anton Yelchin and Catherine Keener directed by Peer Pedersen, and Being Charlie which reunited Elwes with director Rob Reiner after 28 years and premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. In 2016, Elwes starred opposite Penelope Cruz in Fernando Trueba's Spanish-language period pic The Queen of Spain, a sequel to Trueba's 1998 drama The Girl of Your Dreams. This also re-united Elwes with his Princess Bride co-star, Mandy Patinkin.
In October 2014 Touchstone (Simon & Schuster) published Elwes's memoir of the making of The Princess Bride, entitled As You Wish: Inconceivable Tales from the Making of The Princess Bride, which he co-wrote with Joe Layden. The book featured never-before-told stories, exclusive behind-the-scenes photographs, and interviews with co-stars Robin Wright, Wallace Shawn, Billy Crystal, Christopher Guest, Fred Savage and Mandy Patinkin, as well as screenwriter William Goldman, producer Norman Lear, and director Rob Reiner. The book debuted on The New York Times Best Seller list.
In 2014, Elwes co-wrote the screenplay for a film entitled Elvis & Nixon, about the pair's famous meeting at the White House in 1970. The film starred Michael Shannon and Kevin Spacey; it was bought by Amazon as their first theatrical feature and released on 22 April 2016. In May 2015, Elwes was cast as Arthur Davenport, a shrewd and eccentric world-class collector of illegal art and antiquities in Crackle's first streaming network series drama, The Art of More, which explored the cutthroat world of premium auction houses. The series debuted on 19 November and was picked up for a second season.
In April 2018 Elwes portrayed Larry Kline, mayor of Hawkins, for the third season of the Netflix series Stranger Things, which premiered in July 2019. He was nominated along with the cast for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. In May 2019, he joined the third season of the Amazon series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel as Gavin Hawk.
== Personal life ==
Elwes met photographer Lisa Marie Kurbikoff in 1991 at a chili cook-off in Malibu, California; they were engaged in 1997. They married in 2000 and have one daughter. Elwes and his family lost their home in the Palisades Fire during the January 2025 Southern California wildfires, but evacuated safely.
In March 2021, Elwes posted on his social media accounts that his younger half-sister Milica had died after battling Stage 4 cancer for more than a year.
Elwes is known for his feud with Republican Texas Senator and Princess Bride fan Ted Cruz. According to the Hollywood Reporter, Elwes initiated the 2020 fundraiser that re-united many Princess Bride cast members to support Joe Biden in the battleground state of Wisconsin. The Princess Bride Reunion raised more than $4 million for Wisconsin Democrats.
=== Saw lawsuit ===
In August 2005, Elwes filed a lawsuit against Evolution Entertainment, his management firm and producer of Saw. Elwes said he was promised a minimum of 1% of the producers' net profits and did not receive the full amount. The case was settled out of court. Elwes returned to the series in 2010 reprising his role in Saw 3D.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Video games ===
== Works ==
|
[
"Flying Lessons (2010 film)",
"Billy Crystal",
"Ottoman Empire",
"Amazon Prime Video",
"Poland",
"Mandy Patinkin",
"Cook-off",
"Dread Pirate Roberts",
"Dead Man's Wire",
"Ted Cruz",
"MTV Movie Award for Best Frightened Performance",
"Banff World Media Festival",
"Natalie Portman",
"Pinky and the Brain",
"The Adventures of Puss in Boots",
"Helena Bonham Carter",
"Petra",
"Saint Louis Abbey",
"Kevin Spacey",
"Chris Carter (screenwriter)",
"Robin Wright",
"Days of Thunder",
"John Malkovich",
"The Hyperions",
"Tim Robbins",
"Deadline Hollywood",
"New York Daily News",
"Ampleforth Abbey",
"off-Broadway",
"Garry Marshall",
"miniseries",
"H8RZ",
"The Adventures of Tintin (film)",
"Ella Enchanted (film)",
"Neo Ned",
"Camilla Dickinson (film)",
"Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film",
"Thriller film",
"Fargo Film Festival",
"Gervase Elwes",
"Anton Yelchin",
"Carl Yankowski",
"Thomas H. Ince",
"Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two",
"Cradle Will Rock",
"Race Against Time (film)",
"Robin Hood: Men in Tights",
"The Oogieloves in the Big Balloon Adventure",
"Peter Bogdanovich",
"Seinfeld",
"The Straits Times",
"inXile Entertainment",
"Saw (2004 film)",
"Delhi Safari",
"Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series",
"We Don't Belong Here (film)",
"National Lampoon's Pucked",
"Academy Awards",
"William Randolph Hearst",
"Indian film",
"Prince Hamlet",
"Batman Beyond",
"Screen Actors Guild Award",
"Blockbuster Entertainment Awards",
"London",
"Kim Philby",
"Entertainment Weekly",
"Toronto International Film Festival",
"Twister (1996 film)",
"Watertown Daily Times",
"Last Train to Christmas",
"The Wait Out",
"Samuel Adams Green",
"Amazon Studios",
"Ted Bundy",
"Paramount+",
"When Knowledge Conquered Fear",
"Leather Jackets (film)",
"Palisades Fire",
"Democratic Party of Wisconsin",
"Christopher Guest",
"Paris (mythology)",
"Golden Satellite Award",
"Satellite Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film",
"Charles T. Barney",
"Reach Me",
"The New York Times",
"Georgia Rule",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Northampton",
"The Girl of Your Dreams",
"The Art of More",
"Jane Fonda",
"Marek Kanievska",
"Rotten Tomatoes",
"The Queen of Spain",
"Burning at Both Ends (film)",
"The Unholy (2021 film)",
"Steven Spielberg",
"San Francisco Chronicle",
"VHS",
"The Story of Luke",
"People (magazine)",
"The Crush (1993 film)",
"New Year's Eve (2011 film)",
"Factory Girl (2006 film)",
"Robert Hooke",
"MTV Movie Award",
"The Riverman",
"Bronxville, New York",
"Octopussy",
"Edison (film)",
"Mission: Impossible – Dead Reckoning Part One",
"Hot Shots!",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"Kerry Max Cook",
"André the Giant (film)",
"cult film",
"Simon & Schuster",
"Edmond Halley",
"Psych (season 5)",
"Our Mutual Friend",
"Dominick Elwes",
"The Jester (novel)",
"Rocky Marciano",
"motion capture",
"Evolution Entertainment",
"Best Sellers (film)",
"Bob Balaban",
"Never on Tuesday",
"Jon Avnet",
"Alexander Kennedy",
"The Palm Beach Post",
"January 2025 Southern California wildfires",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Dr. Watson",
"Family Guy",
"legal settlement",
"Halle Berry",
"Malibu, California",
"YouTube",
"television animation",
"Crackle (company)",
"The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel",
"Stranger Things",
"Glory (1989 film)",
"Psych (season 6)",
"Francis Ford Coppola",
"Operation Fortune: Ruse de Guerre",
"GalaxyCon",
"Richard Benjamin",
"HBO",
"Psych",
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit",
"Ivan Reitman",
"Don't Sleep (film)",
"Amazon (company)",
"Willem Dafoe",
"Fangoria",
"memoir",
"Ebenezer Scrooge",
"Rob Reiner",
"Marlon Brando",
"The Bard's Tale (2004 video game)",
"Robert Zemeckis",
"Guy Burgess",
"Pope John Paul II",
"Ned Irish",
"A Haunting in Cawdor",
"CBS",
"Maschenka (1987 film)",
"Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey",
"The Panic",
"Granite Flats",
"The Bard's Tale (2004)",
"boarding school",
"The Outer Limits (1995 TV series)",
"Cassian Elwes",
"The Chase (1994 film)",
"Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"A Castle for Christmas",
"Kiss the Girls (1997 film)",
"Orson Welles",
"Kent County Daily Times",
"Robert de Niro",
"yacht",
"Psych (season 8)",
"Catherine Keener",
"Katy Keene (TV series)",
"John Elwes (politician)",
"Arthur Holmwood",
"Disney Interactive Studios",
"Behaving Badly (film)",
"Tessa Kennedy",
"Brad Follmer",
"The Age",
"audiobook",
"Screen Actors Guild Awards",
"The Pentagon Wars",
"Mafia",
"Pierre Despereaux",
"Harrow School",
"Hercules (1998 TV series)",
"Lady Jane (1986 film)",
"Fritz Hippler",
"Comic Book Villains",
"James Patterson",
"Being Charlie",
"A Bit of Bad Luck",
"Selena Gomez",
"From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)",
"Life in Pieces",
"No Strings Attached (2011 film)",
"Studio Ghibli",
"Khan Kluay 2",
"Home Movie: The Princess Bride",
"Edie Sedgwick",
"The X-Files",
"A&E (TV channel)",
"Hellgate (2011 film)",
"A Mouse Tale",
"Penelope Cruz",
"Hollywood Reporter",
"Hergé",
"Al Pacino",
"Absolution (1978 film)",
"The Informant (1997 film)",
"Donald Maclean (spy)",
"Another Country (1984 film)",
"Beyond Beyond",
"Michael Shannon",
"Elliott Kastner",
"Perception (U.S. TV series)",
"Charles Dickens",
"Sugar Mountain (film)",
"Knuckles (TV series)",
"Actors Studio",
"Princess Bride Reunion",
"Quest for Camelot",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"American Crime (film)",
"Elvis & Nixon",
"The Jungle Book (1994 film)",
"The Princess Bride (film)",
"Golden Globe Award",
"Porco Rosso",
"Satellite Awards",
"CIA",
"USA Today",
"William Goldman",
"Westminster Cathedral",
"A Christmas Carol (2009 film)",
"Karol Wojtyła",
"Fritz Arno Wagner",
"Bollywood Hungama",
"Hansel & Gretel Get Baked",
"Luxembourg",
"Fred Savage",
"Norman Lear",
"Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot)",
"Catholic Church",
"altar boy",
"Shadow of the Vampire",
"Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992 film)",
"Saw (franchise)",
"Columba Cary-Elwes",
"Chicago Sun-Times",
"The New York Times Best Seller list",
"TheWrap",
"Black Christmas (2019 film)",
"Ghost Light (2018 film)",
"Association of American Publishers",
"Lost & Found (2016 American film)",
"Netflix",
"Pinky and The Brain",
"The Bride (1985 film)",
"As Good as Dead (2010 film)",
"Charles Laughton",
"Workaholics",
"Lawrence Gordon (character)",
"Mel Brooks",
"Box Office Mojo",
"Bloody Disgusting",
"Jon Voight",
"Houston Chronicle",
"clerics",
"Leverage (American TV series)",
"Night Visions (TV series)",
"Indiscretion (2016 film)",
"London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art",
"InXile Entertainment",
"Horror film",
"The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn",
"The Citizen (film)",
"Sarah Lawrence College",
"A Christmas Carol",
"The Princess Bride (novel)",
"Andy Warhol",
"BlackBerry (film)",
"White House",
"The Cat Returns",
"Robin Hood",
"Whisper of the Heart (film)",
"Fernando Trueba",
"Wallace Shawn",
"Colin Gubbins",
"Continuum International Publishing Group",
"Dudley Charles Cary-Elwes",
"The Exonerated (play)",
"Damian Elwes",
"Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (video game)",
"John Houseman",
"Rebel Moon – Part Two: The Scargiver",
"Westminster",
"Superman (1978 film)",
"Oxford Blues",
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 8)",
"Sweetwater (2023 film)",
"The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Stranger Things (TV series)",
"Rebel Moon",
"Vanity Fair (magazine)",
"Saw 3D",
"Uprising (2001 film)",
"The Cat's Meow",
"Psych 9",
"Jason Alexander",
"CraveOnline",
"Liar Liar",
"Guilford Dudley",
"Hachette Audio",
"British people",
"James G. Burton",
"Aquaman",
"Stranger Things (season 3)",
"Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute",
"voice-over",
"Little Murder",
"Billionaire Boys Club (2018 film)",
"Youth & Consequences",
"FBI Assistant Director",
"Yesterday's Hero",
"Simon Elwes",
"Pope John Paul II (miniseries)",
"The Anna Nicole Story",
"Sofia the First"
] |
7,180 |
Chris Sarandon
|
{{Infobox person
| name = Chris Sarandon
| image = Chris Sarandon by Gage Skidmore.jpg
| caption = Sarandon in 2019
| birth_name = Christopher Sarandon His father, whose surname was originally "Sarondonethes", was born to Greek parents in Istanbul, Turkey.
Sarandon graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in Beckley. He earned a degree in speech at West Virginia University, and earned his master's degree in theater from Catholic University of America (CUA) in Washington, D.C.
==Career==
After graduation, he toured with numerous improvisational companies and became much involved with regional theatre, making his professional debut in the play The Rose Tattoo during 1965. Later that year, Sarandon moved to New York City, where he obtained his first television role as Dr. Tom Halverson for the series The Guiding Light (1973–1974). He appeared in the primetime television films The Satan Murders (1974) and Thursday's Game before obtaining the role in Dog Day Afternoon (1975), a performance which earned him nominations for Best New Male Star of the Year at the Golden Globes and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.
Sarandon appeared in the Broadway play The Rothschilds and The Two Gentlemen of Verona, as well making regular appearances at numerous Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw festivals in the United States and Canada. He also had a series of television roles, some of which (such as A Tale of Two Cities in 1980) corresponded to his affinity for the classics. He also had roles in the thriller film Lipstick (1976) and as a demon in the film The Sentinel (1977).
To avoid being typecast in villainous roles, Sarandon accepted various roles of other types during the years to come, portraying the title role of Christ in the television film The Day Christ Died (1980). He received accolades for his portrayal of Sydney Carton in a TV-film version of A Tale of Two Cities (1980), co-starred with Dennis Hopper in the 1983 film The Osterman Weekend, which was based on the Robert Ludlum novel of the same name, and co-starred with Goldie Hawn in the film Protocol (1984). These were followed by another mainstream success as the vampire Jerry Dandrige in the horror film Fright Night (1985). He starred in the 1986 TV film Liberty, which addressed the making of the Statue of Liberty.
Chris Sarandon's other film roles include Prince Humperdinck in The Princess Bride (1987) and Mike Norris in Child's Play (1988). In 1992, he played Joseph Curwen/Charles Dexter Ward in The Resurrected. He also played Jack Skellington, the main character of the animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), and has since reprised the role in other productions, including the video games Kingdom Hearts and The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge. Sarandon also reprised his role as Jack for several Disneyland Halloween events and attractions including; Halloween Screams, the Frightfully Fun Parade, and the Haunted Mansion Holiday, a three-month overlay of the Haunted Mansion.
Sarandon appeared in TV again with a recurring role as Dr. Burke on NBC's long-running medical drama ER.
In 1991 he performed on Broadway in the short-lived musical Nick & Nora (based on the film The Thin Man) with Joanna Gleason, the daughter of Monty Hall. Sarandon married Gleason in 1994. They have appeared together in a number of films, including Edie & Pen (1996), American Perfekt (1997), and Let the Devil Wear Black (1999). During the 2000s he made guest appearances in several TV series, notably as the Necromancer demon, Armand, in Charmed, and as superior court judge Barry Krumble for six episodes of Judging Amy.
In 2006 he played Signor Naccarelli in the six-time Tony Award-winning Broadway musical play The Light in the Piazza at Lincoln Center. Most recently he appeared in Cyrano de Bergerac as Antoine de Guiche, with Kevin Kline, Jennifer Garner, and Daniel Sunjata.
In 2016 he performed in the Off-Broadway production of the Dave Malloy musical Preludes as Anton Chekhov, Tchaikovsky, Alexander Glazunov, Leo Tolstoy, Tsar Nicholas II, and The Master.
He is on the advisory board for the Greenbrier Valley Theatre in Lewisburg, West Virginia.
==Personal life==
Sarandon has been married three times: he married actress Susan Tomalin in 1967, who took his surname and became Susan Sarandon. After his divorce from Susan, he married his second wife, fashion model Lisa Ann Cooper, in 1980. The couple met while performing in Broadway's short-lived 1991 musical Nick & Nora; they returned to the stage together in 1998's Thorn and Bloom.
|-
| 1994 || David's Mother || Philip ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1995 || Just Cause || Lyle Morgan ||
|-
| When the Dark Man Calls || Lloyd Carson ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1996 || Terminal Justice || Reginald Matthews ||
|-
| No Greater Love || Sam Horowitz ||
|-
| Edie & Pen || Max ||
|-
| Bordello of Blood || Rev. J.C. Current ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1997 || American Perfekt || Deputy Sammy ||
|-
| Road Ends || Esteban Maceda ||
|-
| 1998 || Little Men || Fritz Bhaer ||
|-
| 1999 || Let the Devil Wear Black || Mr. Lyne ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2000 || Race Against Time || Dr. Anton Stofeles ||
|-
| Reaper || Luke Sinclair ||
|-
| 2001 || Perfume || Gary Packer ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2005 || Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind || Kurotowa (voice) ||English dub by Walt Disney Pictures; originally released in Japanese in 1984
|-
| 2023 || Disney Dreamlight Valley ||
|-
| 2024 || Disney Speedstorm ||
|}
=== Theme parks and live attractions ===
Haunted Mansion Holiday – Jack Skellington
Halloween Screams – Jack Skellington
Frightfully Fun Parade – Jack Skellington
Disney on Ice – Jack Skellington
=== Music videos ===
Hands Clean — Alanis Morissette
==Theatre==
==Awards and nominations==
|
[
"Cuba (film)",
"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012 TV series)",
"The Osterman Weekend (film)",
"Alanis Morissette",
"The Rose Tattoo",
"Saturn Award for Best Actor",
"Statue of Liberty",
"American Theatre Wing",
"Jennifer Garner",
"Academy Award",
"A Tale of Two Cities (1980 film)",
"Mickey's Halloween Party",
"Washington, D.C.",
"Independent (newspaper)",
"Law & Order",
"The Good Wife",
"Istanbul",
"Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix",
"48th Academy Awards",
"Lewisburg, West Virginia",
"The Two Gentlemen of Verona",
"Kingdom Hearts II",
"The Outer Limits (1995 TV series)",
"Just Cause (film)",
"Felicity (TV series)",
"Ottoman Greeks",
"Cyrano de Bergerac (play)",
"Disney Infinity 3.0",
"Disney on Ice",
"Susan Sarandon",
"West Virginia & Regional History Center",
"Chicago Hope",
"The Stranger Within (1990 film)",
"Jerry Dandridge",
"Big Stone Gap (film)",
"Typecasting (acting)",
"Tchaikovsky",
"Multiple Sarcasms",
"Haunted Mansion Holiday",
"New York City",
"No Greater Love (1996 film)",
"Prop Culture",
"Perfume (2001 film)",
"List of Charmed characters",
"Whispers (1990 film)",
"Skin (American TV series)",
"Nick & Nora (musical)",
"David's Mother",
"latimes.com",
"The Court (TV series)",
"The Sentinel (1977 film)",
"The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge",
"The Haunted Mansion",
"Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actor",
"Loggerheads (2005 film)",
"Kingdom Hearts",
"Canada",
"Joanna Gleason",
"When the Dark Man Calls",
"Child's Play (1988 film)",
"United States",
"I Smile Back",
"The Woods (play)",
"Thursday's Game",
"The Day Christ Died",
"The Rothschilds (musical)",
"Tailspin: Behind the Korean Airliner Tragedy",
"Danny Phantom",
"Wayside Theatre",
"Sydney Carton",
"Protocol (film)",
"Forced March",
"Dog Day Afternoon",
"My Sassy Girl (2008 film)",
"Jerry Dandrige",
"Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Turkey",
"Woodrow Wilson High School (Beckley, West Virginia)",
"demon",
"The Voice of the Turtle (play)",
"Bachelor of Arts",
"The Resurrected",
"Broken Promise (film)",
"Greeks in Turkey",
"Disney Infinity (video game)",
"NYFCC Award",
"Orange Is The New Black",
"Race Against Time (film)",
"Broadway (play)",
"Frank the Bastard",
"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine",
"Cold Case",
"The Chosen One (2007 film)",
"Beckley, West Virginia",
"Mayflower Madam",
"The Guiding Light",
"Regional theatre in the United States",
"Daniel Sunjata",
"Alexander Glazunov",
"Anton Chekhov",
"Preludes (musical)",
"Through a Glass, Darkly (musical)",
"Kevin Kline",
"Jesus Christ",
"Collision Course (1989 film)",
"The Exonerated",
"Lincoln Center",
"Hands Clean",
"George Bernard Shaw",
"Kingdom Hearts (video game)",
"Master of Fine Arts",
"Edie & Pen",
"Saturn Award",
"West Virginia University",
"Adventures from the Book of Virtues",
"Charmed",
"Tsar Nicholas II",
"Picket Fences",
"Disney Speedstorm",
"A Tale of Two Cities",
"Halloween Screams",
"New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Monty Hall",
"Fright Night",
"The Wild Thornberrys",
"Tony Award",
"Broadway theatre",
"Prince Humperdinck",
"The Practice",
"Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (film)",
"Disneyland",
"Bordello of Blood",
"Disney Dreamlight Valley",
"Jack Skellington",
"Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix",
"The Nightmare Before Christmas",
"American Perfekt",
"Psych",
"Stark Raving Mad (TV series)",
"Golden Globe",
"Robert Ludlum",
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit",
"ER (TV series)",
"master's degree",
"The Light in the Piazza (musical)",
"Playbill",
"Golden Globes",
"The Princess Bride (film)",
"Catholic University of America",
"Let the Devil Wear Black",
"Greek Orthodox Church",
"Curse of Chucky",
"Little Men (1998 film)",
"Goldie Hawn",
"Dave Malloy",
"Liberty (1986 film)",
"Safe (2012 film)",
"Guiding Light",
"Slaves of New York",
"theater",
"Rivals (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)",
"Avalanche Software",
"Two Gentlemen of Verona",
"Dennis Hopper",
"Marco Polo Sings a Solo",
"NBC",
"Lipstick (1976 film)",
"Shakespeare",
"The Thin Man (film)",
"Leo Tolstoy",
"Count Dracula",
"Fright Night (2011 film)",
"Judging Amy"
] |
7,182 |
Christopher Guest
|
Christopher Haden-Guest, 5th Baron Haden-Guest (born 5 February 1948), known professionally as Christopher Guest, is a British-American actor, comedian, screenwriter and director. Guest has written, directed, and starred in his series of comedy films shot in mockumentary style. He wrote and acted in the rock satire This Is Spinal Tap (1984), and later directed a string of satirical mockumentary films such as Waiting for Guffman (1996), Best in Show (2000), A Mighty Wind (2003), For Your Consideration (2006), and Mascots (2016). His acting credits include roles in Death Wish (1974), Little Shop of Horrors (1986), The Princess Bride (1987), and A Few Good Men (1992). For one season (1984–85), he was a regular cast member on the long running NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live.
Guest holds a hereditary British peerage as the 5th Baron Haden-Guest, but has publicly expressed a desire to see the House of Lords reformed as a democratically elected chamber. Though he was initially active in the Lords, his career there was cut short by the House of Lords Act 1999, which removed the right of most hereditary peers to a seat in the parliament. When using his title, he is normally styled as Lord Haden-Guest. Guest is married to the actress Jamie Lee Curtis, who is styled as The Right Honourable the Lady Haden-Guest; however, she opts not to use her title.
== Early life ==
Guest was born 5 February 1948 in New York City, the son of Peter Haden-Guest, a British United Nations diplomat who later became the 4th Baron Haden-Guest, and his second wife, the former Jean Pauline Hindes, an American former vice president of casting at CBS. Guest's maternal grandparents were Jewish emigrants from Russia. Both of Guest's parents had become atheists, and Guest himself had no religious upbringing. Guest later began performing with bluegrass bands until he took up rock and roll. Guest went to Bard College for a year
== Career ==
=== 1970s ===
Guest began his career in theatre during the early 1970s with one of his earliest professional performances being the role of Norman in Michael Weller's Moonchildren for the play's American premiere at the Arena Stage in Washington, DC, in November 1971. Guest continued with the production when it moved to Broadway in 1972. The following year, he began making contributions to The National Lampoon Radio Hour for a variety of National Lampoon audio recordings. He both performed comic characters (Flash Bazbo—Space Explorer, Mr. Rogers, music critic Roger de Swans, and sleazy record company rep Ron Fields) and wrote, arranged, and performed numerous musical parodies (of Bob Dylan, James Taylor, and others). He was featured alongside Chevy Chase and John Belushi in the off-Broadway revue National Lampoon's Lemmings. Two of his earliest film roles were small parts as uniformed police officers in the 1972 film The Hot Rock and 1974's Death Wish.
Along with Bill Murray, Brian Doyle-Murray, and others Guest was one of the "Prime Time Players" on Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell. This was the short-lived variety show that aired from September 20, 1975 to January 17, 1976, not to be confused with the long-running sketch show Saturday Night Live that began airing a month later and lampooned the group by billing their own sketch comedy actors as "The Not Ready for Prime Time Players".
Guest played a small role in the 1977 All in the Family episode "Mike and Gloria Meet", where in a flashback sequence Mike and Gloria recall their first blind date, set up by Michael's college buddy Jim (Guest), who dated Gloria's girlfriend Debbie (Priscilla Lopez).
Guest also had a small but important role in It Happened One Christmas, the 1977 gender-reversed TV remake of the Frank Capra classic It's a Wonderful Life, starring Marlo Thomas as Mary Bailey (the Jimmy Stewart role), with Cloris Leachman as Mary's guardian angel and Orson Welles as the villainous Mr. Potter. Guest played Mary's brother Harry, who returned from the Army in the final scene, speaking one of the last lines of the film: "A toast! To my big sister Mary, the richest person in town!"
=== 1980s ===
Guest's biggest role of the first two decades of his career is likely that of Nigel Tufnel in the 1984 Rob Reiner film This Is Spinal Tap. Guest made his first appearance as Tufnel on the 1978 sketch comedy program The TV Show.
Along with Martin Short, Billy Crystal, and Harry Shearer, Guest was hired as a one-year-only cast member for the 1984–1985 season on NBC's Saturday Night Live.
Together, Guest, his frequent writing partner Eugene Levy, and a small band of actors have formed a loose repertory group, which appears in several films. These include Catherine O'Hara, Michael McKean, Parker Posey, Bob Balaban, Jane Lynch, John Michael Higgins, Harry Shearer, Jennifer Coolidge, Ed Begley Jr., Jim Piddock and Fred Willard. Guest and Levy write backgrounds for each of the characters and notecards for each specific scene, outlining the plot, and then leave it up to the actors to improvise the dialogue, which is supposed to result in a much more natural conversation than scripted dialogue would. Typically, everyone who appears in these movies receives the same fee and the same portion of profits. Among the films performed in this manner, which have been written and directed by Guest, include Waiting for Guffman (1996), about a community theatre group, Best in Show (2000), about the dog show circuit, A Mighty Wind (2003), about folk singers, For Your Consideration (2006), about the hype surrounding Oscar season, and Mascots (2016), about a sports team mascot competition.
Guest had a guest voice-over role in the animated comedy series SpongeBob SquarePants as SpongeBob's cousin, Stanley.
Guest again collaborated with Reiner in A Few Good Men (1992), appearing as Dr. Stone. In the 2000s, Guest appeared in the 2005 biographical musical Mrs Henderson Presents and in the 2009 comedy The Invention of Lying.
He is also currently a member of the musical group The Beyman Bros, which he formed with childhood friend David Nichtern and Spinal Tap's current keyboardist C. J. Vanston. Their debut album Memories of Summer as a Child was released on January 20, 2009.
In 2010, the United States Census Bureau paid $2.5 million to have a television commercial directed by Guest shown during television coverage of Super Bowl XLIV.
Guest holds an honorary doctorate from and is a member of the board of trustees for Berklee College of Music in Boston.
In 2013, Guest was the co-writer and producer of the HBO series Family Tree, in collaboration with Jim Piddock, a lighthearted story in the style he made famous in This is Spinal Tap, in which the main character, Tom Chadwick, inherits a box of curios from his great aunt, spurring interest in his ancestry.
On August 11, 2015, Netflix announced that Mascots, a film directed by Guest and co-written with Jim Piddock, about the competition for the World Mascot Association championship's Gold Fluffy Award, would debut in 2016.
Guest reprised his role as Count Tyrone Rugen in the Princess Bride Reunion on September 13, 2020.
== Family ==
Guest became the 5th Baron Haden-Guest, of Great Saling, in the County of Essex, when his father died in 1996. He succeeded upon the ineligibility of his older half-brother, Anthony Haden-Guest, who was born before his parents married. According to a 2004 article in The Guardian, Guest attended the House of Lords regularly until the House of Lords Act 1999 barred most hereditary peers from their seats. In the article Guest remarked: ||
|}
|
[
"National Lampoon Lemmings",
"Taxi (TV series)",
"Billy Crystal",
"Fresh Air",
"C. J. Vanston",
"country music",
"mandolin",
"The Lily Tomlin Special",
"Stockbridge, Massachusetts",
"CBS",
"The Hospital",
"The Return of Spinal Tap",
"Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay",
"Anthony Haden-Guest",
"National Lampoon's Lemmings",
"The Invention of Lying",
"Laverne & Shirley",
"Fantasporto",
"Dennis Miller",
"mascot",
"Catherine O'Hara",
"peerage",
"Jim Rusk",
"Chevy Chase",
"Mrs Henderson Presents",
"David Guest (communist)",
"Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media",
"Leslie Haden-Guest, 1st Baron Haden-Guest",
"George Yanok",
"Larry Miller (comedian)",
"Independent Spirit Award",
"Netflix",
"Writers Guild of America Award",
"Style (manner of address)",
"Saturday Night Live",
"Michael McKean",
"This Is Spinal Tap",
"Albert Goldsmid",
"Negro league baseball",
"adoption",
"Little Shop of Horrors (1986 film)",
"New York City",
"Orson Welles",
"Stanley S. SquarePants",
"John Michael Higgins",
"Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle",
"Michael Weller",
"repertory",
"Trying Times",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Special",
"Super Bowl XLIV",
"Martin Short",
"The National Lampoon Radio Hour",
"Arena Stage",
"off-Broadway",
"MADtv",
"Goldsmid family",
"The Billion Dollar Bubble",
"The Right Honourable",
"Eugene Levy",
"Almost Heroes",
"Bard College",
"Parker Posey",
"Colonel (United Kingdom)",
"Fred Willard",
"Maccabaeans",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"The Little Shop of Horrors",
"Jim Piddock",
"Ann Elder",
"Massachusetts",
"Latka Gravas",
"Jeb Stuart Magruder",
"International Brigades",
"St. Elsewhere",
"Dilbert (TV series)",
"Death Wish (1974 film)",
"Small Soldiers",
"A Mighty Wind",
"Communist Party of Great Britain",
"American Comedy Award",
"Improvisational comedy",
"Haywire (book)",
"Nicholas Guest",
"flashback (narrative)",
"Rod Warren",
"Tall Tales & Legends",
"Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell",
"List of SpongeBob SquarePants characters",
"A Futile and Stupid Gesture (film)",
"A Piano for Mrs. Cimino",
"Bill Murray",
"Primetime Emmy Award",
"The Secret Policeman's Ball",
"Bob Balaban",
"SpongeBob SquarePants",
"House of Lords",
"Conversion to Judaism",
"Weekend Update",
"The Missing Link (1980 film)",
"Jane Lynch",
"Old Curtisville Historic District",
"Brian Doyle-Murray",
"dog show",
"The Andros Targets",
"It Happened One Christmas",
"Heartbeeps",
"Jewish Lads' and Girls' Brigade",
"Waiting for Guffman",
"rock and roll",
"The Beyman Bros",
"84th Academy Awards",
"Earl Pomerantz",
"Nigel Tufnel",
"The Long Riders",
"Tisch School of the Arts",
"High School of Music & Art",
"Ed Begley Jr.",
"Animaniacs",
"Harry Shearer",
"Beyond Therapy (film)",
"Academy Awards",
"Peerages in the United Kingdom",
"Master of Fine Arts",
"folk music",
"Essex",
"Annette O'Toole",
"Spanish Civil War",
"Great Saling",
"illegitimacy",
"Oscar season",
"David Nichtern",
"The Guardian",
"Moonchildren",
"Bluegrass music",
"John Belushi",
"atheist",
"Cloris Leachman",
"A Few Good Men",
"Priscilla Lopez",
"Paul Benedict",
"Grammy Award",
"Broadway theatre",
"Family Tree (TV series)",
"WHYY-FM",
"House of Lords Act 1999",
"Michael Hitchcock",
"Morton & Hayes",
"Elissa Haden Guest",
"Andy Kaufman",
"Hereditary peer",
"Lily Tomlin",
"Super Bowl",
"Seth Green",
"Sticky Fingers (1988 film)",
"Independent Spirit Award for Best Director",
"mockumentary",
"Berklee College of Music",
"Girlfriends (1978 film)",
"The Otto Show",
"Baron Haden-Guest",
"Jamie Lee Curtis",
"Attack of the 50 Ft. Woman (1993 film)",
"Peter Haden-Guest, 4th Baron Haden-Guest",
"Arlo Guthrie",
"Independent Spirit Award for Best Screenplay",
"Best in Show (film)",
"Blind Ambition (miniseries)",
"HBO",
"Jean Haden-Guest, Lady Haden-Guest",
"Princess Bride Reunion",
"The Big Picture (1989 film)",
"Likely Stories",
"The Last Word (1979 film)",
"The Simpsons",
"Stockbridge School",
"Jennifer Coolidge",
"Spinal Tap II: The End Continues",
"Labour Party (UK)",
"For Your Consideration (film)",
"The Joe Franklin Show",
"community theatre",
"Mascots (2016 film)",
"DVD Exclusive Award",
"Rowland Baring, 2nd Earl of Cromer",
"The Princess Bride (film)",
"Saturday Night Live (Season 10)",
"List of All in the Family episodes",
"Marlo Thomas",
"Million Dollar Infield",
"Golden Satellite Award",
"Ivan the Terrible",
"Brad Hall",
"NPR",
"Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead",
"Saturday Night Live season 10",
"It's a Wonderful Life",
"All in the Family",
"The New York Times",
"The Fortune",
"Rob Reiner",
"United States Census Bureau",
"hereditary peer",
"New York University",
"NBC",
"Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian",
"Goofy Scoopers",
"Peeping Times",
"The Guardian Weekend",
"The Hot Rock (film)",
"Fran Drescher"
] |
7,183 |
Carol Kane
|
Carolyn Laurie Kane (born June 18, 1952 Her family is Jewish, and her grandparents emigrated from Russia, Austria, and Poland. Due to her father's occupation, Kane moved frequently as a child; she briefly lived in Paris at age eight, where she began learning to speak French. Additionally, she resided in Haiti at age 10.
She attended the Cherry Lawn School, a boarding school in Darien, Connecticut, until 1965. She studied theater at HB Studio and also went to the Professional Children's School in New York City. She became a member of both the Screen Actors Guild and the Actors' Equity Association at age 14. Kane made her professional theater debut in a 1966 production of The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie starring Tammy Grimes, her first job as a member of Actors' Equity.
Despite this recognition, however, Kane has recounted waiting for approximately a year before being cast in her next role, which she has attributed to the trend of actors being typecast after receiving awards attention. Her return to the screen would come with Gene Wilder's 1977 comedy The World's Greatest Lover, which she has credited for identifying the comedic talents that would become her staple in later years. In 1979, she also appeared in a cameo role in The Muppet Movie.
=== 1980–1990: Taxi and transition into comedy ===
From 1980 to 1983, Kane portrayed Simka Dahblitz-Gravas, the wife of Andy Kaufman's character Latka Gravas, on the American television series Taxi. She has theorized that she was cast in Taxi in part due to her work in Hester Street, where a significant portion of her dialogue was spoken in Yiddish, since Simka speaks a fictional language with a vaguely Eastern European accent.
Kane has attributed the on-screen rapport she shared with Kaufman to their different work ethics: where she was trained in the theater and enjoyed rehearsal time, Kaufman was rooted more in stand-up comedy and did not care for rehearsals, a contrast that she believes enhanced their believability as a married couple. Her role on the series has largely been credited as the beginning of her pivot towards more comedic roles, as she began to regularly appear in sitcoms and comedy films after the series ended.
In 1984, Kane appeared in episode 12, season 3 of Cheers as Amanda, an acquaintance of Diane Chambers from her time spent in a mental institution. She was also a regular on the 1986 series All Is Forgiven.
In 1987, Kane appeared in Ishtar, Elaine May's notorious box-office flop turned cult classic, playing the frustrated girlfriend of Dustin Hoffman's character. That year also saw her make one of her most recognizable film appearances in Rob Reiner's fantasy romance The Princess Bride, where she played Valerie, the wife of Miracle Max (Billy Crystal). In 1988, Kane appeared in the Cinemax Comedy Experiment Rap Master Ronnie: A Report Card alongside Jon Cryer and the Smothers Brothers. During the same year, she was also featured in the Bill Murray vehicle Scrooged, where she portrayed a contemporary version of the Ghost of Christmas Present, depicted in the film as a fairy. For this performance, Variety called her "unquestionably [the] pic's comic highlight". Additionally, she played a potential love interest for Steve Martin's character in the 1990 film My Blue Heaven.
=== 1990–2004: Television and film regularity ===
Kane became a regular on the NBC series American Dreamer, which ran from 1990 to 1991. In 1993, she appeared in Addams Family Values where she replaced Judith Malina as Grandmama Addams; this role saw her reunite with her Taxi castmate Christopher Lloyd. She also guest starred on a 1994 episode of Seinfeld, as well as a 1996 episode of Ellen. In 1996, she was given a supporting role in the short-lived sitcom Pearl. From there, she continued to appear in a number of film roles throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, including The Pallbearer (1996), Office Killer (1997), Jawbreaker (1999), and My First Mister (2001). In 1998, she voiced Mother Duck in the American version of the animated television film The First Snow of Winter.
In 1999, she made a cameo in the Andy Kaufman biopic Man on the Moon as herself playing the Taxi character.
=== 2005–2014: Wicked and career expansion ===
Kane is also known for her portrayal of the evil headmistress Madame Morrible in the Broadway musical Wicked, whom she played in various productions from 2005 to 2014. Kane made her Wicked debut on the 1st National Tour, playing the role from March 9 through December 19, 2005. She then reprised the role in the Broadway production from January 10 through November 12, 2006. She again played the role for the Los Angeles production which began performances on February 7, 2007. She left the production on December 30, 2007, and later returned on August 26, 2008, until the production closed on January 11, 2009.
In January 2009, she guest starred in the television series Two and a Half Men as the mother of Alan Harper's receptionist.
She then transferred with the Los Angeles company of Wicked to reprise her role once again, this time in the San Francisco production, which began performances January 27, 2009. She ended her limited engagement on March 22, 2009.
In March 2010, Kane appeared in the ABC series Ugly Betty as Justin Suarez's acting teacher.
Kane starred in the off-Broadway play Love, Loss, and What I Wore in February 2010. She made her West End debut in January 2011 in a major revival of Lillian Hellman's drama The Children's Hour at London's Comedy Theatre, where she starred alongside Keira Knightley, Elisabeth Moss and Ellen Burstyn. In May 2012, Kane appeared on Broadway as Betty Chumley in a revival of the play Harvey.
Kane returned to the Broadway company of Wicked from July 1, 2013, through February 22, 2014, a period that included the show's 10th anniversary.
In 2014, she was cast in a recurring role on the television series Gotham as Gertrude Kapelput, the mother of Oswald Cobblepot, also known as Penguin.
=== 2015–present: Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt and legacy roles ===
In 2015, Kane was cast in the recurring role of Lillian Kaushtupper, the landlord to the title character of the Netflix series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt. Kane joined the cast due in part to her admiration of showrunner Tina Fey, with whom she had previously wanted to collaborate on the NBC series 30 Rock. She was promoted to a series regular for the show's second season. Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt ran for four seasons, making it one of Kane's longest television roles to date. She reprised the role in the "interactive" television special Kimmy vs the Reverend.
In 2018, Kane was cast in Jacques Audiard's Western film The Sisters Brothers. In 2019, she appeared in Jim Jarmusch's horror comedy The Dead Don't Die, marking another collaboration with Bill Murray. That same year, she was featured in the recurring role of Bianca Nova in season one of the HBO series Los Espookys, where she reunited with her Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt castmate Fred Armisen.
In 2020, Kane was featured in the ensemble cast of the Amazon series Hunters, which also includes her longtime acquaintance Al Pacino.
It was announced on Star Trek Day 2022 that Kane would join the cast of Star Trek: Strange New Worlds for season two as Chief Engineer Pelia. Prior to her casting, Kane had never seen an episode of the original Star Trek series, though she has said the show's writers thought this oversight improved her performance.
In 2024, Kane starred in Nathan Silver's comedy film Between the Temples, in which she portrays a woman who, having been raised by secular parents, decides to have a bat mitzvah later in life. Kane has stated that she drew inspiration from Silver's mother, who studied for a bat mitzvah in her sixties; she was also inspired by her own mother, who, at age 55, moved to Paris to become a musician. For her work in the film, she received the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress, and was nominated for Best Supporting Performance at the Independent Spirit Awards.
== Personal life ==
Kane was in a relationship with actor Woody Harrelson from 1986 to 1988. The two have remained friends since their break-up, and Harrelson was seen attending Kane's 60th birthday party in 2012.
She has never been married, nor has she had any children. Regarding the latter decision, she has said, "I never felt that I would be calm and stable enough to be the kind of mother I'd like to be. I don't think everyone randomly is mother material."
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Stage ===
=== Music videos ===
== Awards and nominations ==
|
[
"Billy Crystal",
"Two and a Half Men",
"Zebras (Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)",
"48th Academy Awards",
"Sunset Park (film)",
"Ishtar (film)",
"Martin Beck Theatre",
"Amazon Prime Video",
"List of Wicked characters",
"List of Tales from the Crypt episodes",
"Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Performance",
"Ted & Venus",
"Two and a Half Men season 6",
"Monk season 8",
"Napoleon (1995 film)",
"Love in the Time of Money",
"Theodore Rex (film)",
"Los Espookys",
"Faerie Tale Theatre",
"Screen Actors Guild",
"Academy Award for Best Actress",
"HB Studio",
"Wicked (musical)",
"Caught Stealing (film)",
"Woody Allen",
"Deadline Hollywood",
"AACTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role",
"off-Broadway",
"The Crazysitter",
"Tina Fey",
"Terror in the Aisles",
"Vampirina",
"List of Tiny Toon Adventures episodes",
"Girls (TV series)",
"Ellen Burstyn",
"Wedding in White",
"Pandemonium (1982 film)",
"Dog Day Afternoon",
"sex worker",
"Hunters (2020 TV series)",
"Harvey (play)",
"Tall Tales & Legends",
"Annie Hall",
"Drama Desk Award",
"Smothers Brothers",
"The Pallbearer",
"Seinfeld",
"American Broadcasting Company",
"American Dreamer (TV series)",
"Gene Wilder",
"AACTA Awards",
"Can She Bake a Cherry Pie?",
"Jean Acker",
"Emmy Award",
"Steve Martin",
"My First Mister",
"Academy Awards",
"List of Ray Bradbury Theater episodes",
"Jumpin' Jack Flash (film)",
"Vox (magazine)",
"Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt",
"The Ray Bradbury Theater",
"Entertainment Weekly",
"Diane Chambers",
"Star vs. the Forces of Evil",
"Sticky Fingers (1988 film)",
"Great Performances",
"History of the Jews in Russia",
"The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy",
"Harold Pinter Theatre",
"My Blue Heaven (1990 American film)",
"Lillian Kaushtupper",
"Love, Loss, and What I Wore",
"Oswald Cobblepot (Gotham)",
"Transylvania 6-5000 (1985 film)",
"Aladdin (animated TV series)",
"Big Mouth (American TV series)",
"Jack Nicholson",
"Visions (1976 TV series)",
"The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (novel)",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series",
"Judith Malina",
"The Washington Post",
"The Simpsons",
"When a Stranger Calls (1979 film)",
"Golden Globe Awards",
"Democratic Party of Wisconsin",
"Justin Suarez",
"and Hope to Die",
"The New York Times",
"In the Soup",
"Sidney Lumet",
"Mike Nichols",
"The Sisters Brothers (film)",
"License to Drive",
"Homicide: Life on the Street",
"Dora the Explorer (TV series)",
"The First Snow of Winter",
"The Dead Don't Die (2019 film)",
"Blue's Clues",
"Bar and bat mitzvah",
"Addams Family Values",
"People (magazine)",
"Star Trek: Strange New Worlds",
"Hester Street (film)",
"List of The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy episodes",
"Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film",
"New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress",
"List of Faerie Tale Theatre episodes",
"Jon Cryer",
"Man on the Moon (film)",
"Western film",
"iMordecai",
"List of Tales from the Darkside episodes",
"All the World's a Stage (Ugly Betty)",
"Cleveland, Ohio",
"Anger Management (TV series)",
"Latka Gravas",
"Entertainment Community Fund",
"Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (film)",
"Ethel Barrymore Theatre",
"Gotham (TV series)",
"Tales from the Darkside",
"Parade (magazine)",
"Studio 54",
"Dustin Hoffman",
"Bubble Guppies",
"The Civilization of Maxwell Bright",
"Crazy Like a Fox (TV series)",
"West End theatre",
"This Is My Night",
"Big Bully (film)",
"Trees Lounge",
"Nathan Silver",
"Court Theatre (Los Angeles)",
"Family Guy",
"Office Killer",
"As Told by Ginger",
"YouTube",
"List of Hope & Faith episodes",
"Chaka Khan",
"Adventures from the Book of Virtues",
"IndieWire",
"Independent Spirit Awards",
"Actors' Equity Association",
"Scrooged",
"Noddy (TV series)",
"Ken Russell",
"Sleepwalk with Me",
"Andy Kaufman",
"TV Land Award",
"Beggars and Choosers (TV series)",
"The Mafu Cage",
"List of Two and a Half Men characters",
"Haiti",
"HBO",
"Step Brother from the Same Planet",
"List of Hey Arnold! episodes",
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit",
"Flashback (1990 film)",
"The Tic Code",
"Danny DeVito",
"The Secret Diary of Sigmund Freud",
"Keira Knightley",
"Tammy Grimes",
"Emission Impossible",
"The Games of Countess Dolingen",
"F Is for Family",
"Star Trek",
"Animals (American TV series)",
"Rob Reiner",
"Monster High (TV series)",
"40th Independent Spirit Awards",
"NBC",
"List of Empty Nest episodes",
"TriBeCa (TV series)",
"When a Stranger Calls Back",
"Sly Fox",
"stand-up comedy",
"Tiny Toon Adventures",
"Valentino (1977 film)",
"Jake and the Never Land Pirates",
"Four Christmases",
"Madame Morrible",
"Carnal Knowledge (film)",
"Noah's Ark (miniseries)",
"Chicago Hope",
"Hey Arnold!",
"Hal Ashby",
"30 Rock",
"CBS New York",
"Desperate Characters (film)",
"Christopher Lloyd",
"Randall Carver",
"Crowded (TV series)",
"Jawbreaker (film)",
"The Pacifier",
"Ellen season 3",
"All Is Forgiven (TV series)",
"Freaky Friday (1995 film)",
"Halt and Catch Fire (TV series)",
"Hope & Faith",
"The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds",
"Joan Micklin Silver",
"Ugly Betty",
"Secularity",
"Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur",
"Primetime Emmy Award",
"The Wacky Adventures of Ronald McDonald",
"Jim Jarmusch",
"Merry Christmas, George Bailey",
"Comic Book Resources",
"The Dick Cavett Show",
"Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen",
"Eastern Europe",
"The Last Detail",
"Gershwin Theatre",
"Ghost of Christmas Present",
"List of Taxi episodes",
"Elisabeth Moss",
"Samuel J. Friedman Theatre",
"Cult film",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"New York Film Critics Circle Award",
"Al Pacino",
"Larry King Now",
"Broadway theatre",
"Tony Danza",
"Summer Camp Island",
"Grandmama (The Addams Family)",
"Between the Temples",
"Elaine May",
"Super Duper Bunny League",
"Darren Aronofsky",
"Rap Master Ronnie",
"sitcom",
"Norman Loves Rose",
"Playbill",
"The Princess Bride (film)",
"A.J.'s Time Travelers",
"Pete Smalls Is Dead",
"Over the Brooklyn Bridge",
"Brooklyn Bridge (TV series)",
"Closer (magazine)",
"The Key Man (2011 film)",
"Harry and Walter Go to New York",
"American Strays",
"Joe Versus the Volcano",
"Ellen (TV series)",
"Phineas and Ferb",
"Taxi (TV series)",
"Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure",
"Judd Hirsch",
"The Tony Danza Show (1997 TV series)",
"Fred Armisen",
"AllMovie",
"Laverne & Shirley",
"Racing with the Moon",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series",
"The Bounty Hunter (2010 film)",
"TV.com",
"The Shrink Is In",
"List of Laverne & Shirley episodes",
"Ghost Light (2018 film)",
"Emoticon ;)",
"Netflix",
"jazz",
"List of As Told by Ginger episodes",
"Kimmy Schmidt",
"List of Aladdin episodes",
"American Playhouse",
"The Lemon Sisters",
"Cosmopolitan (film)",
"Yiddish",
"Migration (2023 film)",
"Gone Fishin' (film)",
"Woody Harrelson",
"Pearl (TV series)",
"Cinemax Comedy Experiment",
"Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play",
"Star Trek Day",
"Jeff Conaway",
"OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes",
"Bianca Hunter",
"Homicide: Life on the Street season 6",
"Bill Murray",
"Strong Medicine (film)",
"Professional Children's School",
"Jacques Audiard",
"The Exonerated (play)",
"My Girlfriend's Boyfriend (2010 film)",
"The Children's Hour (play)",
"The Happy Elf",
"Monk (TV series)",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Cheers season 3",
"Empty Nest",
"Lillian Hellman",
"Cheers",
"Rudolph Valentino",
"Pinkalicious & Peterrific",
"That's Life (2000 TV series)",
"List of Chicago Hope episodes",
"Dinner with the Parents",
"The World's Greatest Lover",
"Refinery29",
"Thanks for Sharing",
"Sibs",
"Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt: Kimmy vs the Reverend",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series",
"The Muppet Movie",
"The Year Without a Santa Claus (2006 film)",
"silent film",
"Kung Fu Panda: Secrets of the Furious Five",
"Ava's Possessions",
"Sesame Street",
"Tales from the Crypt (TV series)",
"The Nation",
"The Marine Biologist",
"James L. Brooks",
"Comedy horror",
"The Grubbs"
] |
7,184 |
C*-algebra
|
In mathematics, specifically in functional analysis, a C∗-algebra (pronounced "C-star") is a Banach algebra together with an involution satisfying the properties of the adjoint. A particular case is that of a complex algebra A of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties:
A is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.
A is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators.
Another important class of non-Hilbert C*-algebras includes the algebra C_0(X) of complex-valued continuous functions on X that vanish at infinity, where X is a locally compact Hausdorff space.
C*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in quantum mechanics to model algebras of physical observables. This line of research began with Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and in a more mathematically developed form with Pascual Jordan around 1933. Subsequently, John von Neumann attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras, which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators. These papers considered a special class of C*-algebras that are now known as von Neumann algebras.
Around 1943, the work of Israel Gelfand and Mark Naimark yielded an abstract characterisation of C*-algebras making no reference to operators on a Hilbert space.
C*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics. Another active area of research is the program to obtain classification, or to determine the extent of which classification is possible, for separable simple nuclear C*-algebras.
== Abstract characterization ==
We begin with the abstract characterization of C*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gelfand and Naimark.
A C*-algebra, A, is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map x \mapsto x^* for x\in A with the following properties:
It is an involution, for every x in A:
x^{**} = (x^*)^* = x
For all x, y in A:
(x + y)^* = x^* + y^*
(x y)^* = y^* x^*
For every complex number \lambda\in\mathbb{C} and every x in A:
(\lambda x)^* = \overline{\lambda} x^* .
For all x in A:
\|x x^* \| = \|x\|\|x^*\|.
Remark. The first four identities say that A is a *-algebra. The last identity is called the C* identity and is equivalent to:
\|xx^*\| = \|x\|^2,
which is sometimes called the B*-identity. For history behind the names C*- and B*-algebras, see the history section below.
The C*-identity is a very strong requirement. For instance, together with the spectral radius formula, it implies that the C*-norm is uniquely determined by the algebraic structure:
\|x\|^2 = \|x^* x\| = \sup\{|\lambda| : x^* x - \lambda \,1 \text{ is not invertible} \}.
A bounded linear map, π : A → B, between C*-algebras A and B is called a *-homomorphism if
For x and y in A
\pi(x y) = \pi(x) \pi(y) \,
For x in A
\pi(x^*) = \pi(x)^* \,
In the case of C*-algebras, any *-homomorphism π between C*-algebras is contractive, i.e. bounded with norm ≤ 1. Furthermore, an injective *-homomorphism between C*-algebras is isometric. These are consequences of the C*-identity.
A bijective *-homomorphism π is called a C*-isomorphism, in which case A and B are said to be isomorphic.
== Some history: B*-algebras and C*-algebras ==
The term B*-algebra was introduced by C. E. Rickart in 1946 to describe Banach *-algebras that satisfy the condition:
\lVert x x^* \rVert = \lVert x \rVert ^2 for all x in the given B*-algebra. (B*-condition)
This condition automatically implies that the *-involution is isometric, that is, \lVert x \rVert = \lVert x^* \rVert . Hence, \lVert xx^*\rVert = \lVert x \rVert \lVert x^*\rVert, and therefore, a B*-algebra is also a C*-algebra. Conversely, the C*-condition implies the B*-condition. This is nontrivial, and can be proved without using the condition \lVert x \rVert = \lVert x^* \rVert. For these reasons, the term B*-algebra is rarely used in current terminology, and has been replaced by the term 'C*-algebra'.
The term C*-algebra was introduced by I. E. Segal in 1947 to describe norm-closed subalgebras of B(H), namely, the space of bounded operators on some Hilbert space H. 'C' stood for 'closed'. In his paper Segal defines a C*-algebra as a "uniformly closed, self-adjoint algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space".
== Structure of C*-algebras ==
C*-algebras have a large number of properties that are technically convenient. Some of these properties can be established by using the continuous functional calculus or by reduction to commutative C*-algebras. In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the Gelfand isomorphism.
=== Self-adjoint elements ===
Self-adjoint elements are those of the form x = x^* . The set of elements of a C*-algebra A of the form x^*x forms a closed convex cone. This cone is identical to the elements of the form xx^* . Elements of this cone are called non-negative (or sometimes positive, even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of \mathbb{R})
The set of self-adjoint elements of a C*-algebra A naturally has the structure of a partially ordered vector space; the ordering is usually denoted \geq . In this ordering, a self-adjoint element x \in A satisfies x \geq 0 if and only if the spectrum of x is non-negative, if and only if x = s^*s for some s \in A. Two self-adjoint elements x and y of A satisfy x \geq y if x - y \geq 0 .
This partially ordered subspace allows the definition of a positive linear functional on a C*-algebra, which in turn is used to define the states of a C*-algebra, which in turn can be used to construct the spectrum of a C*-algebra using the GNS construction.
=== Quotients and approximate identities ===
Any C*-algebra A has an approximate identity. In fact, there is a directed family {eλ}λ∈I of self-adjoint elements of A such that
x e_\lambda \rightarrow x
0 \leq e_\lambda \leq e_\mu \leq 1\quad \mbox{ whenever } \lambda \leq \mu.
In case A is separable, A has a sequential approximate identity. More generally, A will have a sequential approximate identity if and only if A contains a strictly positive element, i.e. a positive element h such that hAh is dense in A.
Using approximate identities, one can show that the algebraic quotient of a C*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided ideal, with the natural norm, is a C*-algebra.
Similarly, a closed two-sided ideal of a C*-algebra is itself a C*-algebra.
== Examples ==
=== Finite-dimensional C*-algebras ===
The algebra M(n, C) of n × n matrices over C becomes a C*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space, Cn, and use the operator norm ||·|| on matrices. The involution is given by the conjugate transpose. More generally, one can consider finite direct sums of matrix algebras. In fact, all C*-algebras that are finite dimensional as vector spaces are of this form, up to isomorphism. The self-adjoint requirement means finite-dimensional C*-algebras are semisimple, from which fact one can deduce the following theorem of Artin–Wedderburn type:
Theorem. A finite-dimensional C*-algebra, A, is canonically isomorphic to a finite direct sum
A = \bigoplus_{e \in \min A } A e
where min A is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of A.
Each C*-algebra, Ae, is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra M(dim(e), C). The finite family indexed on min A given by {dim(e)}e is called the dimension vector of A. This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C*-algebra. In the language of K-theory, this vector is the positive cone of the K0 group of A.
A †-algebra (or, more explicitly, a †-closed algebra) is the name occasionally used in physics for a finite-dimensional C*-algebra. The dagger, †, is used in the name because physicists typically use the symbol to denote a Hermitian adjoint, and are often not worried about the subtleties associated with an infinite number of dimensions. (Mathematicians usually use the asterisk, *, to denote the Hermitian adjoint.) †-algebras feature prominently in quantum mechanics, and especially quantum information science.
An immediate generalization of finite dimensional C*-algebras are the approximately finite dimensional C*-algebras.
=== C*-algebras of operators ===
The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is the algebra B(H) of bounded (equivalently continuous) linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space H; here x* denotes the adjoint operator of the operator x : H → H. In fact, every C*-algebra, A, is *-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of B(H) for a suitable Hilbert space, H; this is the content of the Gelfand–Naimark theorem.
=== C*-algebras of compact operators ===
Let H be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The algebra K(H) of compact operators on H is a norm closed subalgebra of B(H). It is also closed under involution; hence it is a C*-algebra.
Concrete C*-algebras of compact operators admit a characterization similar to Wedderburn's theorem for finite dimensional C*-algebras:
Theorem. If A is a C*-subalgebra of K(H), then there exists Hilbert spaces {Hi}i∈I such that
A \cong \bigoplus_{i \in I } K(H_i),
where the (C*-)direct sum consists of elements (Ti) of the Cartesian product Π K(Hi) with ||Ti|| → 0.
Though K(H) does not have an identity element, a sequential approximate identity for K(H) can be developed. To be specific, H is isomorphic to the space of square summable sequences l2; we may assume that H = l2. For each natural number n let Hn be the subspace of sequences of l2 which vanish for indices k ≥ n and let en be the orthogonal projection onto Hn. The sequence {en}n is an approximate identity for K(H).
K(H) is a two-sided closed ideal of B(H). For separable Hilbert spaces, it is the unique ideal. The quotient of B(H) by K(H) is the Calkin algebra.
=== Commutative C*-algebras ===
Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space. The space C_0(X) of complex-valued continuous functions on X that vanish at infinity (defined in the article on local compactness) forms a commutative C*-algebra C_0(X) under pointwise multiplication and addition. The involution is pointwise conjugation. C_0(X) has a multiplicative unit element if and only if X is compact. As does any C*-algebra, C_0(X) has an approximate identity. In the case of C_0(X) this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of X, and for each compact K let f_K be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on K. Such functions exist by the Tietze extension theorem, which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces. Any such sequence of functions \{f_K\} is an approximate identity.
The Gelfand representation states that every commutative C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to the algebra C_0(X), where X is the space of characters equipped with the weak* topology. Furthermore, if C_0(X) is isomorphic to C_0(Y) as C*-algebras, it follows that X and Y are homeomorphic. This characterization is one of the motivations for the noncommutative topology and noncommutative geometry programs.
=== C*-enveloping algebra ===
Given a Banach *-algebra A with an approximate identity, there is a unique (up to C*-isomorphism) C*-algebra E(A) and *-morphism π from A into E(A) that is universal, that is, every other continuous *-morphism factors uniquely through π. The algebra E(A) is called the C*-enveloping algebra of the Banach *-algebra A.
Of particular importance is the C*-algebra of a locally compact group G. This is defined as the enveloping C*-algebra of the group algebra of G. The C*-algebra of G provides context for general harmonic analysis of G in the case G is non-abelian. In particular, the dual of a locally compact group is defined to be the primitive ideal space of the group C*-algebra. See spectrum of a C*-algebra.
=== Von Neumann algebras ===
Von Neumann algebras, known as W* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C*-algebra. They are required to be closed in the weak operator topology, which is weaker than the norm topology.
The Sherman–Takeda theorem implies that any C*-algebra has a universal enveloping W*-algebra, such that any homomorphism to a W*-algebra factors through it.
== Type for C*-algebras ==
A C*-algebra A is of type I if and only if for all non-degenerate representations π of A the von Neumann algebra π(A) (that is, the bicommutant of π(A)) is a type I von Neumann algebra. In fact it is sufficient to consider only factor representations, i.e. representations π for which π(A) is a factor.
A locally compact group is said to be of type I if and only if its group C*-algebra is type I.
However, if a C*-algebra has non-type I representations, then by results of James Glimm it also has representations of type II and type III. Thus for C*-algebras and locally compact groups, it is only meaningful to speak of type I and non type I properties.
== C*-algebras and quantum field theory ==
In quantum mechanics, one typically describes a physical system with a C*-algebra A with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of A (elements x with x* = x) are thought of as the observables, the measurable quantities, of the system. A state of the system is defined as a positive functional on A (a C-linear map φ : A → C with φ(u*u) ≥ 0 for all u ∈ A) such that φ(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable x, if the system is in state φ, is then φ(x).
This C*-algebra approach is used in the Haag–Kastler axiomatization of local quantum field theory, where every open set of Minkowski spacetime is associated with a C*-algebra.
|
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"group algebra of a locally compact group",
"physics",
"approximate identity",
"Artin–Wedderburn theorem",
"closed set",
"group C^*-algebra",
"conjugate transpose",
"Compact operator on Hilbert space",
"locally compact",
"Calkin algebra",
"Character (mathematics)",
"Jordan operator algebra",
"operator norm",
"Gelfand representation",
"Operator K-theory",
"universal morphism",
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] |
7,185 |
London Borough of Croydon
|
The London Borough of Croydon () is a borough in South London, part of Outer London. It covers an area of and has a population of 397,714, making it the most populous London borough. It is the southernmost borough of London. At its centre is the town of Croydon, from which the borough takes its name, while other urban centres include Thornton Heath, Coulsdon, Purley, South Norwood, Norbury, New Addington, and Selsdon. Croydon is mentioned in the Domesday Book, and developed from a small market town into one of the most populous towns on the outskirts of London. The borough is now a significant business and cultural centre outside central London. Its influence in entertainment and the arts contributes to its status as a metropolitan centre.
The borough was formed in 1965 from the merger of the County Borough of Croydon with Coulsdon and Purley Urban District, both of which had been in Surrey. The local authority, Croydon London Borough Council, is now part of London Councils, the local government association for Greater London. The economic strength of Croydon dates back to Croydon Airport, which was a major factor in the development of Croydon as a business centre. Once London's main airport for all international flights to and from the capital, it was closed on 30 September 1959 due to the lack of expansion space needed for an airport to serve the growing city. It is now a Grade II listed building and tourist attraction. Croydon Council and its predecessor Croydon Corporation unsuccessfully applied for city status in 1954, 2000, 2002, and 2012. The area is undergoing a major regeneration project named Croydon Vision 2020, which is predicted to attract more businesses and tourists to the area, as well as backing Croydon's bid to become "London's Third City" (after the City of London and Westminster). While Croydon is predominantly urban, the borough's southern areas feature suburban and rural landscapes. Since 2003, Croydon has been certified as a Fairtrade borough by the Fairtrade Foundation. It was the first London borough to be awarded Fairtrade status.
The area has a notable cultural presence in London and South East England and is home to institutions such as the major arts and entertainment centre Fairfield Halls. However, its famous fringe theatre, the Warehouse Theatre, went into administration in 2012 when the council withdrew funding, and the building was demolished in 2013. The Croydon Clocktower was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 as an arts venue featuring a library, the independent David Lean Cinema (closed by the council in 2011, but now partially reopened on a part-time and volunteer basis), and a museum.
Premier League football club Crystal Palace F.C. have played at Selhurst Park in Selhurst since 1924. Other landmarks in the borough include what remains of Croydon Palace, an important residence of the Archbishops of Canterbury since around the 9th century CE, which was known as 'The Old Palace' during its time as a school. It served as the manor house of the manor of Croydon, held by the Archbishops from the Anglo-Saxon period onwards. Its local successor is Addington Palace, an eighteenth-century mansion that became the official second residence of six archbishops. The borough is also home to Shirley Windmill, one of the few surviving large windmills in Greater London built in the 1850s, and to the BRIT School, a creative arts institute run by the BRIT Trust which has produced artists such as Adele, Amy Winehouse and Leona Lewis.
==History==
For the history of the original town see History of Croydon
The name Croydon comes from Crogdene, or Croindone, named by the Saxons in the 8th century when they settled there, although the area had been inhabited since prehistoric times. It is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon croeas deanas, meaning "the valley of the crocuses." This may indicate that, like Saffron Walden in Essex, it was a centre for the collection of saffron.
At the time of the Norman invasion, Croydon had a church, a mill, and around 365 inhabitants, as recorded in the Domesday Book. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop Lanfranc lived at Croydon Palace. Visitors included Thomas Becket (another Archbishop), and royal figures such as Henry VIII of England and Elizabeth I. The royal charter for Surrey Street Market dates back to 1276.
Croydon continued as a market town, producing charcoal, tanned leather, and beer. Croydon was served by the Surrey Iron Railway, the first public railway (horse-drawn) in the world, in 1803, and by the London to Brighton rail link in the mid-19th century, helping it to become the largest town in what was then Surrey. British Airways Ltd used the airport for a short period after redirecting from Northolt Aerodrome, and Croydon was the operating base for Imperial Airways. It was partly due to the airport that Croydon suffered heavy bomb damage during World War II. As aviation technology progressed, and aircraft became larger and more numerous, it was recognised in 1952 that the airport would be too small to cope with the increasing volume of air traffic. The last scheduled flight departed on 30 September 1959. It was superseded as the main airport by both London Heathrow and London Gatwick Airport (see below). The air terminal, now known as Airport House, has been restored and contains a hotel and museum. The centre was officially opened in October 1970 by the Duchess of Kent. The original Whitgift School there had moved to Haling Park, South Croydon in the 1930s; the replacement school on the site, Whitgift Middle School, now the Trinity School of John Whitgift, moved to Shirley Park in the 1960s, when the buildings were demolished.
Croydon was hit by extensive rioting in August 2011 during the 2011 England riots. Reeves, a historic furniture store established in 1867 that gave its name to a junction and tram stop in the town centre, was destroyed by arson.
Since a 1999 study by town planning consultants EDAW, Croydon has been the subject of a series of development projects ranging from £200 million to £3.5 billion, called Croydon Vision 2020. This aims to change the urban planning of central Croydon. It aims to make Croydon London's Third City and the hub of retail, business, culture, and living in south London and south-east England. The plan was showcased in a series of events called Croydon Expo.
===Administrative history===
The area of the modern borough broadly corresponds to the four ancient parishes of Croydon, Addington, Coulsdon and Sanderstead.
The parish of Croydon was governed by improvement commissioners from 1829 until 1849 when it was made a local board district. Croydon was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1883. When elected county councils were established in 1889, Croydon was considered large enough to provide its county-level services. It was therefore made a county borough, independent from the new Surrey County Council, whilst remaining part of Surrey for judicial and lieutenancy purposes. The borough was enlarged in 1928 to absorb the neighbouring parish of Addington.
Coulsdon and Sanderstead were governed as rural parishes within the Croydon Rural District until 1915 when the Coulsdon and Purley Urban District was created covering the two parishes. Purley itself was not a civil parish, being in the parish of Coulsdon, but was included in the urban district's name on account of it being one of the main built-up settlements in the district. There were subsequent adjustments to the boundaries with neighbouring areas, notably including in 1933 when the urban district absorbed the parish of Farleigh, after which there were three urban parishes in the district, Cousldon, Farleigh, and Sanderstead.
The London Borough of Croydon was created on 1 April 1965 under the London Government Act 1963, covering the combined area of the former Coulsdon and Purley Urban District and the County Borough of Croydon, both of which were abolished at the same time. The area was transferred from Surrey to Greater London to become one of the 32 London boroughs.
The borough council has unsuccessfully applied for city status on several occasions: in 1965, 1977, 1992, 2000, 2002, and 2012. At present, the London Borough of Croydon is the second most populous local government district of England without city status. Croydon's applications were refused as it was felt not to have an identity separate from the rest of Greater London. In 1965, it was described as "...now just part of the London conurbation and almost indistinguishable from many of the other Greater London boroughs" and in 2000 as having "no particular identity of its own".
==Governance==
Croydon Council is the local authority for the borough of Croydon. The council holds its meetings at Croydon Town Hall, which is situated on Katherine Street in the centre of Croydon. The council's main administrative offices are located in the adjoining building, Bernard Weatherill House. Since 2022, the council has been led by the directly elected Mayor of Croydon.
===Greater London representation===
Since 2000, for elections to the London Assembly, the borough forms part of the Croydon and Sutton constituency.
===Westminster representation===
The borough is covered by three parliamentary constituencies: Croydon North, Croydon Central, and Croydon South. Croydon Central is represented by Labour MP Sarah Jones, Croydon North by Labour MP Steve Reed, and Croydon South by Conservative MP Chris Philp.
===Government buildings===
Croydon Town Hall on Katharine Street in central Croydon houses the committee rooms, the mayor's and other councillors' offices, electoral services, and the arts and heritage services. The present Town Hall is Croydon's third. The first town hall is thought to have been built in either 1566 or 1609. The second was built in 1808 to serve the growing town but was demolished after the present town hall was erected in 1895.
The 1808 building cost £8,000, which was regarded as an enormous sum at the time and was perhaps as controversial as the administrative building Bernard Weatherill House opened for occupation in 2013 and is reputed to have cost £220,000,000. The early 19th-century building was known initially as "Courthouse" as, like its predecessor and successor, the local court met there. The building stood on the western side of a High Street near the junction with Surrey Street, the location of the town's market. The building became inadequate for the growing local administrative responsibilities and stood at a narrow point of a High Street in need of widening.
The present town hall was designed by local architect Charles Henman The current house was officially opened in 1967 by the then Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson. Today, Ruskin House continues to serve as the headquarters of the Trade Union, Labour, and Co-operative movements in Croydon, hosting a range of meetings and being the base for several labour movement groups. Office tenants include the headquarters of the Communist Party of Britain and Croydon Labour Party. Geraint Davies, the MP for Croydon Central, had offices in the building, until he was defeated by Andrew Pelling and is now the Labour representative standing for Swansea West in Wales.
Taberner House was built between 1964 and 1967, designed by architect H. Thornley, with Allan Holt and Hugh Lea as borough engineers. Although the council had needed extra space since the 1920s, it was only with the imminent creation of the London Borough of Croydon that action was taken. The building, which was demolished in 2014, was in classic 1960s style, praised at the time but subsequently much derided. It has its elegant upper slab block narrowing towards both ends, a formal device that has been compared to the famous Pirelli Tower in Milan. It was named after Ernest Taberner OBE, Town Clerk from 1937 to 1963. Until September 2013, Taberner House housed most of the council's central employees and was the main location for the public to access information and services, particularly concerning housing.
In September 2013, Council staff moved into Bernard Weatherill House in Fell Road, (named after the former Speaker of the House and Member of Parliament for Croydon North-East). Staff from the Met Police, NHS, Jobcentre Plus, Croydon Credit Union, Citizens Advice Bureau as well as 75 services from the council all moved to the new building.
==Geography and climate==
The borough is in the far south of London, with the M25 orbital motorway stretching to the south of it, between Croydon and Tandridge. To the north and east, the borough mainly borders the London Borough of Bromley, and in the northwest the boroughs of Lambeth and Southwark. The boroughs of Sutton and Merton are located directly to the west. Croydon is at the head of the River Wandle, just to the north of a significant gap in the North Downs. It lies south of Central London, and the earliest settlement may have been a Roman staging post on the London-Portslade road, although conclusive evidence has not yet been found. The main town centre houses a great variety of well-known stores in North End and two shopping centres. It was pedestrianised in 1989 to attract people back to the town centre. Another shopping centre called Park Place was due to open in 2012 but has since been scrapped.
===Townscape description===
The CR postcode area covers most of the south and centre of the borough while the SE and SW postcodes cover the northern parts, including Crystal Palace, Upper Norwood, South Norwood, Selhurst (part), Thornton Heath (part), Norbury and Pollards Hill (part).
Districts in the London Borough of Croydon include Addington, a village to the east of Croydon which until 2000 was poorly linked to the rest of the borough as it was without any railway or light rail stations, with only a few patchy bus services. Addiscombe is a district just northeast of the centre of Croydon, and is popular with commuters to central London as it is close to the busy East Croydon station. Ashburton, to the northeast of Croydon, is mostly home to residential houses and flats, being named after Ashburton House, one of the three big houses in the Addiscombe area. Broad Green is a small district, centred on a large green with many homes and local shops in West Croydon. Croydon is the principal area of the borough, Crystal Palace is an area north of Croydon, which is shared with the London Boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Lewisham and Bromley. Fairfield, just northeast of Croydon, holds the Fairfield Halls and the village of Forestdale, to the east of Croydon's main area, commenced work in the late 1960s and completed in the mid-70s to create a larger town on what was previously open ground. Hamsey Green is a place on the plateau of the North Downs, south of Croydon. Kenley, again south of the centre, lies within the London Green Belt and features a landscape dominated by green space. New Addington, to the east, is a large local council estate surrounded by open countryside and golf courses. Norbury, to the northwest, is a suburb with a large ethnic population. Norwood New Town is a part of the Norwood triangle, to the north of Croydon. Monks Orchard is a small district made up of large houses and open space in the northeast of the borough. Pollards Hill is a residential district with houses on roads, which are lined with pollarded lime trees, stretching to Norbury. Purley, to the south, is a main town whose name derives from "pirlea", which means 'Peartree lea'. Sanderstead, to the south, is a village mainly on high ground at the edge of suburban development in Greater London. Selhurst is a town, to the north of Croydon, which holds the nationally known school, The BRIT School. Selsdon is a suburb which was developed during the inter-war period in the 1920s and 1930s, and is notable for its many Art Deco houses, to the south-east of Croydon Centre. Shirley, is to the east of Croydon, and holds Shirley Windmill. South Croydon, to the south of Croydon, is a locality which holds local landmarks such as The Swan and Sugarloaf public house and independent Whitgift School, part of the Whitgift Foundation. South Norwood, to the north, is in common with West Norwood and Upper Norwood, named after a contraction of Great North Wood and has a population of around 14,590. Thornton Heath is a town, to the northwest of Croydon, which holds Croydon's principal hospital Mayday. Upper Norwood is north of Croydon, on a mainly elevated area of the borough. Waddon is a residential area, mainly based on the Purley Way retail area, to the west of the borough. Woodside is located to the northeast of the borough, with streets based on Woodside Green, a small area of green land. And finally Whyteleafe is a town, right to the edge of Croydon with some areas in the Surrey district of Tandridge.
Croydon is a gateway to the south from central London, with some major roads running through it. Purley Way, part of the A23, was built to by-pass Croydon town centre. It is one of the busiest roads in the borough, and is the site of several major retail developments, including one of only 18 IKEA stores in the country, built on the site of the former power station. The A23 continues southward as Brighton Road, which is the main route running towards the south from Croydon to Purley. The centre of Croydon is very congested, and the urban planning has since become out of date and quite inadequate, due to the expansion of Croydon's main shopping area and office blocks. Wellesley Road is a north–south dual carriageway that cuts through the centre of the town, and makes it hard to walk between the town centre's two railway stations. Croydon Vision 2020 includes a plan for a more pedestrian-friendly replacement. It has also been named as one of the worst roads for cyclists in the area. Construction of the Croydon Underpass beneath the junction of George Street and Wellesley Road/Park Lane started in the early 1960s, mainly to alleviate traffic congestion on Park Lane, above the underpass. The Croydon Flyover is also near the underpass, and next to Taberner House. It mainly leads traffic on to Duppas Hill, towards Purley Way, with links to Sutton and Kingston upon Thames.
===Topography and climate===
Croydon covers an area of 86.52 km2. Croydon's physical features consist of many hills and rivers spread out across the borough and into the North Downs, Surrey, and the rest of south London. Addington Hills is a major hilly area to the south of London and is recognised as a significant obstacle to the growth of London from its origins as a port on the north side of the river, to a large circular city. The Great North Wood is a former natural oak forest that covered the Sydenham Ridge and the southern reaches of the River Effra and its tributaries.
The most notable tree, called Vicar's Oak, marked the boundary of four ancient parishes: Lambeth, Camberwell, Croydon and Bromley. John Aubrey referred to this "ancient remarkable tree" in the past tense as early as 1718, but according to J. B. Wilson, the Vicar's Oak survived until 1825. The River Wandle, a chalk stream, is also a major tributary of the River Thames, flowing to Wandsworth and Putney for from its main source in Waddon.
Croydon has a temperate climate, in common with most areas of Great Britain: its Köppen climate classification is Cfb. Its mean annual temperature of 9.6 °C is similar to that experienced throughout the Weald, and slightly cooler than nearby areas such as the Sussex coast and central London. Rainfall is considerably below England's average (1971–2000) level of 838 mm, and every month is drier overall than the England average.
===Architecture===
The skyline of Croydon has significantly changed over the past 50 years. High-rise buildings, mainly office blocks, now dominate the skyline. The most notable of these buildings include Croydon Council's former headquarters Taberner House, which has been compared to the famous Pirelli Tower of Milan, and the Nestlé Tower, the former UK headquarters of Nestlé.
In recent years, the development of tall buildings, such as the approved Croydon Vocational Tower and Wellesley Square, has been encouraged in the London Plan, and will lead to the erection of new skyscrapers in the coming years as part of London's high-rise boom.
No. 1 Croydon, formerly the NLA Tower, Britain's 88th tallest tower, close to East Croydon station, is an example of 1970s architecture. The tower was originally nicknamed the Threepenny bit building, as it resembles a stack of pre-decimalisation Threepence coins, which were 12-sided. It is now most commonly called The Octagon, being 8-sided.
Lunar House is another high-rise building. Like other government office buildings on Wellesley Road, such as Apollo House, the name of the building was inspired by the US Moon landings (In the Croydon suburb of New Addington there is a public house, built during the same period, called The Man on the Moon). Lunar House houses the Home Office building for Visas and Immigration. Apollo House is home to The Border Patrol Agency.
A new generation of buildings is being considered by the council as part of Croydon Vision 2020, so that the borough does not lose its title of having the "largest office space in the south east", excluding central London. Projects such as Wellesley Square, which will be a mix of residential and retail with an eye-catching colour design, and 100 George Street — a proposed modern office block — are included in this vision.
Notable events that have happened to Croydon's skyline include the Millennium project to create the largest single urban lighting project ever. It was created for the buildings of Croydon to illuminate them for the third millennium. The project provided new lighting for the buildings and offered an opportunity to project images and words onto them, mixing art and poetry with coloured light, and also displaying public information after dark. Apart from increasing night-time activity in Croydon and thereby reducing the fear of crime, it helped to promote the sustainable use of older buildings by displaying them in a more positive way.
===Landmarks===
There are numerous attractions and places of interest across the borough of Croydon, ranging from historic sites in the north and south to modern towers in the centre.
Croydon Airport was once London's main airport, but closed on 30 September 1959 due to the expansion of London and because it did not have room to grow. Heathrow International Airport took over as London's main airport. It has now been mostly converted to offices, although some important elements of the airport remain. It is a tourist attraction. Shirley Windmill is a working windmill and one of the few surviving large windmills in Surrey, built in 1854. It is Grade II listed and received a £218,100 grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund. Addington Palace is an 18th-century mansion in Addington that was originally built as Addington Place in the 16th century. The palace became the official second residence of six archbishops, five of whom are buried in St Mary's Church and churchyard nearby. and is one of the tallest towers in England, which is due to be re-fitted during the Park Place development. The Fairfield Halls is a well-known concert hall and exhibition centre, opened in 1962. It is frequently used for BBC recordings and was formerly the home of ITV's World of Sport.
The BRIT School is a performing Arts & Technology school, owned by the BRIT Trust (known for the BRIT Awards Music Ceremony). Famous former students include Kellie Shirley, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Adele, Kate Nash, Dane Bowers, Katie Melua and Lyndon David-Hall. Grants is an entertainment venue in the centre of Croydon which includes a Vue cinema.
Surrey Street Market has roots in the 13th century, or earlier, and was chartered by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1276. The market is regularly used as a location for TV, film and advertising. Croydon Minster, formerly the parish church, was established in the Anglo-Saxon period, and parts of the surviving building (notably the tower) date from the 14th and 15th centuries. However, the church was largely destroyed by fire in 1867, so the present structure is a rebuild of 1867–69 to the designs of George Gilbert Scott. It still contains several important monuments and fittings saved from the old church.
==Demography==
===Population change===
The table shows population change since 1801, including the percentage change since the previous census. Although the London Borough of Croydon has existed only since 1965, earlier figures have been generated by combining data from the towns, villages, and civil parishes that would later be absorbed into the authority.
===Ethnicity===
According to the 2011 census, Croydon had a population of 363,378, making Croydon the most populated borough in Greater London. The estimated population in 2017 was around 384,800. 186,900 were males, with 197,900 females. The density was 4,448 inhabitants per km2. 248,200 residents of Croydon were between the age of 16 and 64.
In 2011, white was the majority ethnicity with 55.1%. Black was the second-largest ethnicity with 20.2%; 16.4% were Asian and 8.3% stated to be something other.
The most common householder type was owner occupied with only a small percentage rented. Many new housing schemes and developments are currently taking place in Croydon, such as The Exchange and Bridge House, IYLO, Wellesley Square (now known as Saffron Square) and Altitude 25. In 2006, The Metropolitan Police recorded a 10% fall in the number of crimes committed in Croydon, better than the rate at which crime in London as a whole is falling. Croydon has had the highest fall in the number of cases of violence against the person in south London, and is one of the top 10 safest local authorities in London. According to Your Croydon (a local community magazine) this is due to a stronger partnership struck between Croydon Council and the police. In 2007, overall crime figures across the borough saw a decrease of 5%, with the number of incidents dropping from 32,506 in 2006 to 30,862 in 2007. However, in the year ending April 2012, The Metropolitan Police recorded the highest rates for murder and rape throughout London in Croydon, accounting for almost 10% of all murders, and 7% of all rapes. Croydon has five police stations. Croydon police station is on Park Lane in the centre of the town near the Fairfield Halls; South Norwood police station is a newly refurbished building just off the High Street; Norbury police station is on London Road; Kenley station is on Godstone Road; and New Addington police station is on Addington Village road.
===Religion===
The main employment sectors of the Borough are retail and enterprise, which are mainly based in Central Croydon. Major employers are well-known companies, which have stores or offices in the town. The Purley Way shopping district is a major employer of people. IKEA Croydon, when it was built in 1992, brought many non-skilled jobs to Croydon. The store, which is a total size of 23,000 m2, took over the former site of Croydon Power station, which had led to the unemployment of many skilled workers. In May 2006, the expansion of IKEA made it the fifth biggest employer in Croydon.
Croydon town centre is also a major retail centre, and home to many high street and department stores as well as designer boutiques. The main town centre shopping areas are on the North End precinct, in the Whitgift Centre, Centrale and St George's Walk. Croydon's main market is Surrey Street Market, which has a royal charter dating back to 1276. Shopping areas outside the town centre include the Valley Park retail complex, Croydon Colonnades, Croydon Fiveways, and the Waddon Goods Park.
In research from 2010 on retail footprint, Croydon ranked 29th in Britain in terms of retail expenditure at £770 million, sixth in the Greater London area. The 2010 results were a decline from the 2005 figures, when Croydon was 21st in Britain and second in London, with £909 million in expenditures.
In 2007, Croydon leapt up the annual business growth league table, with a 14% rise in new firms trading in the borough after 125 new companies started up, increasing the number from 900 to 1,025, enabling the town, which has also won the Enterprising Britain Award and "the most enterprising borough in London" award, to jump from 31 to 14 in the table.
Tramlink created many jobs when it opened in 2000, not only for drivers but for engineers as well. Many of the people involved came from Croydon, which was the original hub of the system. Retail stores inside both Centrale and the Whitgift Centre as well as on North End employ people regularly and create many jobs, especially at Christmas. As well as the new building of Park Place, which will create yet more jobs, so will the regeneration of Croydon, called Croydon Vision 2020, highlighted in the Croydon Expo which includes the Croydon Gateway, Wellesley Square, Central One plus much more.
Croydon is a major office area in South East England, being the largest outside central London. Many large companies based in Europe and worldwide have European or British headquarters in the town. American International Group (AIG) has offices in No. 1 Croydon, formerly the NLA Tower, shared with Liberata, Pegasus and the Institute of Public Finance. AIG is the sixth-largest company in the world according to the 2007 Forbes Global 2000 list. The Swiss company Nestlé has its UK headquarters in the Nestlé Tower, on the site of the formerly proposed Park Place shopping centre. Real Digital International has developed a purpose-built factory on Purley Way equipped with "the most sophisticated production equipment and technical solutions". ntl:Telewest, now Virgin Media, has offices at Communications House, from the Telewest side when it was known as Croydon Cable.
The Home Office UK Visas and Immigration department has its headquarters in Lunar House in Central Croydon. In 1981, Superdrug opened a distribution centre and office complex at Beddington Lane. The head office of international engineering and management consultant Mott MacDonald is located in Mott MacDonald House on Sydenham Road, one of four offices they occupy in the town centre. BT has large offices in Prospect East in Central Croydon. The Royal Bank of Scotland also has large offices in Purley, south of Croydon. Direct Line also has an office opposite Taberner House. Other companies with offices in Croydon include Lloyds TSB, Merrill Lynch and Balfour Beatty. Ann Summers used to have its headquarters in the borough but has moved to the Wapses Lodge Roundabout in Tandridge.
The Council declared bankruptcy via a section 114 notice in December 2020.
==Transport==
===Rail===
East Croydon and West Croydon are the main stations in the borough.
South Croydon railway station is also a railway station in Croydon, but it is less prominent.
East Croydon is the largest and busiest station in Croydon and the third busiest in London, excluding Travelcard Zone 1. It is served by Govia Thameslink Railway, operating under the Southern and Thameslink brands. Services travel via the Brighton Main Line north to London Victoria, London Bridge, London St Pancras, Luton Airport, Bedford, Cambridge and Peterborough and south to Gatwick Airport, Ore, Brighton, Littlehampton, Bognor Regis, Southampton and Portsmouth.
East Croydon was also served by long-distance Arriva CrossCountry services to Birmingham and the North of England until they were withdrawn in December 2008.
West Croydon is served by London Overground and Southern services north to Highbury & Islington, London Bridge and London Victoria, and south to Sutton and Epsom Downs.
South Croydon is mainly served by Network Rail services operated by Southern for suburban lines to and from London Bridge, London Victoria and the eastern part of Surrey.
Croydon is one of only five London Boroughs not to have at least one London Underground station within its boundaries, with the closest tube station being Morden.
===Bus===
A sizeable bus infrastructure which is part of the London Buses network operates from a hub at West Croydon bus station. The original bus station opened in May 1985, closing in October 2014. A new bus station opened in October 2016.
Addington Village Interchange is a regional bus terminal in Addington Village which has an interchange between Tramlink and bus services in the remote area. Services are operated under contract by Arriva London, London Central, Metrobus, Quality Line, Selkent and Transport UK London Bus.
===Tram===
The Tramlink light rail system opened in 2000, serving the borough and surrounding areas. Its network consists of three lines, from Elmers End to West Croydon, from Beckenham to West Croydon, and from New Addington to Wimbledon, with all three lines running via the Croydon loop on which it is centred. It is also the only tram system in London, but there is another light rail system, the Docklands Light Railway. It serves Mitcham, Woodside, Addiscombe and the Purley Way retail and industrial area amongst others.
===Road===
Croydon is linked into the national motorway network via the M23 and M25 orbital motorway. The M25 skirts the south of the borough, linking Croydon with other parts of London and the surrounding counties; the M23 branches from the M25 close to Coulsdon, linking the town with the south coast, Crawley, Reigate, and Gatwick Airport. The A23 connects the borough with the motorways. The A23 is the major trunk road through Croydon, linking it with central London, East Sussex, Horsham, and Littlehaven. The old London to Brighton road passes through the west of the borough on Purley Way, bypassing the commercial centre of Croydon which it once did.
The A22 and A23 are the major trunk roads through Croydon. These both run north–south, connecting to each other in Purley. The A22 connects Croydon, its starting point, to East Grinstead, Tunbridge Wells, Uckfield, and Eastbourne. Other major roads generally radiate spoke-like from the town centre. The A23 road cuts right through Croydon, and it starts from London and links to Brighton and Gatwick Airport. Wellesley Road is an urban dual carriageway which cuts through the middle of the central business district. It was constructed in the 1960s as part of a planned ring road for Croydon and includes an underpass, which allows traffic to avoid going into the town centre.
===Air===
The closest international airport to Croydon is Gatwick Airport, which is located from the town centre. Gatwick Airport opened in August 1930 as an aerodrome and is a major international operational base for British Airways, EasyJet and Virgin Atlantic. It currently handles around 35 million passengers a year, making it London's second largest airport, and the second busiest airport in the United Kingdom after Heathrow. Heathrow, London City and Luton airports all lie within a two-hour drive of Croydon. Gatwick and Luton Airports are connected to Croydon by frequent direct trains, while Heathrow is accessible by the route SL7 bus.
===Cycling===
Although hilly, Croydon is compact and has few major trunk roads running through it. It is on one of the Connect2 schemes which are part of the National Cycle Network route running around Croydon. The North Downs, an area of outstanding natural beauty popular with both on- and off-road cyclists, is so close to Croydon that part of the park lies within the borough boundary, and there are routes into the park almost from the civic centre.
===Travel to work===
Below is a table listing transport methods as used by residents aged 16 to 74 according to a 2011 survey.
==Public services==
Home Office policing in Croydon is provided by the Metropolitan Police. The force's Croydon arm has its head offices for policing on Park Lane next to the Fairfield Halls and Croydon College in central Croydon. Public transport is co-ordinated by Transport for London. Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the London Fire Brigade, which has five stations in Croydon.
Croydon University Hospital, formerly known as Mayday Hospital, built on a site in Thornton Heath at the west of Croydon's boundaries with Merton, is a large NHS hospital administered by Croydon Health Services NHS Trust. Former names of the hospital include the Croydon Union Infirmary from 1885 to 1923 and the Mayday Road Hospital from 1923 to around 1930. It is a District General Hospital with a 24-hour accident and emergency department. NHS Direct has a regional centre based at the hospital. The NHS Trust also provides services at Purley War Memorial Hospital, in Purley. Croydon General Hospital was on London Road but services transferred to Mayday, as the size of this hospital was insufficient to cope with the growing population of the borough. Sickle Cell and Thalassaemia Centre and the Emergency Minor Treatment Centre are other smaller hospitals operated by the Mayday in the borough. Cane Hill was a psychiatric hospital in Coulsdon.
===Waste management===
Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority. Unlike other waste disposal authorities in Greater London, Croydon's rubbish is collected independently and is not part of a shared waste authority unit. Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill in the south of Croydon. There have recently been calls by the ODPM to bring waste management powers to the Greater London Authority, giving it a waste function. However, it has had significant support from all other sectors and the surrounding regions managing most of London's waste. Croydon has the joint best recycling rate in London, at 36%, but the refuse collectors have been criticised for their rushed performance lacking quality. Croydon's distribution network operator for electricity is EDF Energy Networks; there are no power stations in the borough. Thames Water manages Croydon's drinking and waste water; water supplies are sourced from several local reservoirs, including Beckton and King George VI. Before 1971, Croydon Corporation was responsible for water treatment in the borough.
===London Fire Brigade===
The borough of Croydon is 86.52 km2, populating approximately 340,000 people. There are five fire stations within the borough; Addington (two pumping appliances), Croydon (two pumping appliances, incident response unit, fire rescue unit and a USAR appliance), Norbury (two pumping appliances), Purley (one pumping appliance) and Woodside (one pumping appliance). Purley has the largest station ground, but dealt with the fewest incidents during 2006/07.
The fire stations, as part of the Community Fire Safety scheme, visited 49 schools in 2006/2007. Croydon College has its main building in Central Croydon, and it is a high-rise building. John Ruskin College is one of the other colleges in the borough, located in Addington, and Coulsdon College in Coulsdon. South Norwood has been the home of Spurgeon's College, a world-famous Baptist theological college, since 1923; Spurgeon's is located on South Norwood Hill and currently has around 1,000 students. The London Borough of Croydon is the local education authority for the borough.
Overall, Croydon was ranked 77th out of all the local education authorities in the UK, up from 92nd in 2007. In 2007, the Croydon LEA was ranked 81st out of 149 in the country – and 21st in Greater London – based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least 5 A* – C grades at GCSE including maths and English (37.8% compared with the national average of 46.7%). The most successful public sector schools in 2010 were Harris City Academy Crystal Palace and Coloma Convent Girls' School. The percentage of pupils achieving 5 A* – C GCSEs including maths and English was above the national average in 2010.
===Libraries===
The borough of Croydon has 14 libraries, a joint library and a mobile library. Many of the libraries were built a long time ago and therefore have become outdated, so the council started updating a few, including Ashburton Library, which moved from its former spot into the state-of-the-art Ashburton Learning Village complex (on the former site of the old 'A Block' of Ashburton Community School). The library is now on one floor. This format was planned to be rolled out across all of the council's libraries but was deemed too costly to implement everywhere.
South Norwood Library, New Addington Library, Shirley Library, Selsdon Library, Sanderstead Library, Broad Green, Purley Library, Coulsdon Library and Bradmore Green Library are examples of older council libraries. The main library is Croydon Central Library, which holds many references, newspaper archives and a tourist information point (one of three in southeast London). Upper Norwood Library is a joint library with the London Borough of Lambeth. This means that both councils fund the library and its resources, but even though Lambeth has nearly doubled its funding for the library in the past several years, Croydon has kept its contribution the same, leading to concerns about the library's future.
==Sport and leisure==
The borough has been criticised in the past for not having enough leisure facilities, which contributed to Croydon being rated a three-star borough. Thornton Heath's ageing sports centre was demolished and replaced by a newer, more modern leisure centre. South Norwood Leisure Centre was closed down in 2006 so that it could be demolished and re-designed from scratch like Thornton Heath, at an estimated cost of around £10 million.
South Norwood Forum had called for the new centre to be built on the site of the old one, but the Conservative council decided a refurbishment would be more economical than a full rebuild, causing some controversy.
Sport Croydon, is the commercial arm for leisure in the borough. Fusion currently provides leisure services for the council, a contract previously held by Parkwood Leisure.
Football teams include Crystal Palace F.C., which play at Selhurst Park, and in the Premier League. AFC Croydon Athletic, whose nickname is The Rams, is a football club who play at Croydon Sports Arena along with Croydon F.C., both in the Combined Counties League and Holmesdale, who were founded in South Norwood but currently play on Oakley Road in Bromley, and compete in the Southern Counties East Football League.
Non-football teams that play in Croydon are Streatham-Croydon RFC, a rugby union club in Thornton Heath who play at Frant Road, as well as South London Storm Rugby League Club, based at Streatham's ground, which compete in the Rugby League Conference. The London Olympians are an American Football team that play in Division 1 South in the British American Football League. The Croydon Pirates are one of the most successful teams in the British Baseball Federation, though their ground is actually located just outside the borough in Sutton.
There are a number of field hockey clubs based in and around Croydon that are part of the South East Hockey and the London Hockey league structures. Current hockey clubs in and around the area are Addiscombe, Croydon Trinity Whitgiftian, Kenley, Purley, Purley Walcountians and Sanderstead.
Croydon Amphibians SC plays in the Division 2 British Water Polo League. The team won the National League Division 2 in 2008.
Croydon has over 120 parks and open spaces, ranging from the Selsdon Wood Nature Reserve to many recreation grounds and sports fields scattered throughout the Borough. This provides many places for rambling. The Wandle Trail links central London to Croydon and then The Vanguard Way links East Croydon to the South Coast, intersecting The London Loop, the North Downs Way and the Pilgrims' Way.
==Culture==
Croydon has cut funding to the Warehouse Theatre.
In 2005, Croydon Council drew up a Public Art Strategy, with a vision intended to be accessible and to enhance people's enjoyment of their surroundings. The public art strategy delivered a new event called Croydon's Summer Festival hosted in Lloyd Park. The festival consists of two days of events. The first is called Croydon's World Party which is a free one-day event with three stages featuring world, jazz and dance music from the UK and internationally. The final day's event is the Croydon Mela, a day of music with a mix of traditional Asian culture and east-meets-western club beats across four stages, as well as dozens of food stalls and a funfair. It has attracted crowds of over 50,000 people. The strategy also created a creative industries hub in Old Town, ensured that public art is included in developments such as College Green and Ruskin Square and investigated the possibility of gallery space in the Cultural Quarter.
Fairfield Halls, Arnhem Gallery and the Ashcroft Theatre show productions that are held throughout the year such as drama, ballet, opera and pantomimes, and can be converted to show films. It also contains the Arnhem Gallery civic hall and an art gallery. Other cultural activities, including shopping and exhibitions, are Surrey Street Market which is mainly a meat and vegetables market near the main shopping environment of Croydon. The market has a Royal Charter dating back to 1276. Airport House is a newly refurbished conference and exhibition centre inside part of Croydon Airport. The Whitgift Centre is the current main shopping centre in the borough. Centrale is a new shopping centre that houses many more familiar names, as well as Croydon's House of Fraser.
==Media==
There are three local newspapers which operate within the borough. The Croydon Advertiser began life in 1869, and was in 2005 the third-best selling paid-for weekly newspaper in London. The Advertiser is Croydon's major paid-for weekly paper and is on sale every Friday in five geographical editions: Croydon; Sutton & Epsom; Coulsdon & Purley; New Addington; and Caterham. The paper converted from a broadsheet to a compact (tabloid) format on 31 March 2006. It was bought by Northcliffe Media which is part of the Daily Mail and General Trust group on 6 July 2007. The Croydon Post is a free newspaper available across the borough and is operated by the Advertiser group. The circulation of the newspaper was in 2008 more than the main title published by the Advertiser Group.
The Croydon Guardian is another local weekly paper, which is paid for at newsagents but free at Croydon Council libraries and via deliveries. It is one of the best-circulated local newspapers in London and once had the highest circulation in Croydon with around one thousand more copies distributed than The Post.
The borough is served by the London regional versions of BBC and ITV coverage, from either the Crystal Palace or Croydon transmitters.
Croydon Television is owned by Croydon broadcasting corporation. Broadcasting from studios in Croydon, the CBC is fully independent. It does not receive any government or local council grants or funding and is supported by donations, sponsorship and by commercial advertising.
Capital Radio and Gold serve the borough. Local BBC radio is provided by BBC London 94.9. Other stations include Kiss 100, Absolute Radio and Magic 105.4 FM from Bauer Radio and Capital Xtra, Heart 106.2 and Smooth Radio from Global Radio. In 2012, Croydon Radio, an online and FM radio station, and the first official FM radio station for the London Borough of Croydon, began serving the area. The borough is also home to its own local TV station, Croydon TV.
==Twinning==
The London Borough of Croydon is twinned with the municipality of Arnhem which is located in the east of the Netherlands. The city of Arnhem is one of the 20 largest cities in the Netherlands. They have been twinned since 1946 after both towns had suffered extensive bomb damage during the recently ended war. There is also a Guyanese link supported by the council.
==Investment in the tobacco industry==
In September 2009 it was revealed that Croydon Council had around £5.66 million of its pension fund for employees invested in shares in British American Tobacco. Members of the opposition Labour group on the council, who had banned such shareholdings when in control, described this as "dealing in death" and inconsistent with the council's tobacco control strategy.
In 2014, it was reported that the Croydown Council had divested its pension funds from tobacco-related holdings, in addition to nuclear power and weapons.
==Freedom of the Borough==
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Croydon.
===Individuals===
Michael Owuo Jr.: 19 May 2023.
Merah Louise Smith: 19 May 2023.
===Military units===
41 (Princess Louise's Kensington) Signal Squadron Royal Corps of Signals (Volunteers): 1993.
151 Regiment RLC (Volunteers): 1993.
2 Company 10th Battalion The Parachute Regiment (Volunteers): 1993.
"C" Squadron Kent and Sharpshooters Yeomanry The Royal Yeomanry: 1993.
2nd Battalion The Rifles: 2010.
|
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"Elizabeth I",
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"irreligious",
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"Steve Reed (politician)",
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"List of MPs elected in the 2019 United Kingdom general election",
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"Reeves Corner tram stop",
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"East Croydon railway station",
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"Harold Wilson",
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] |
7,188 |
Carme (moon)
|
{{Infobox planet
| name = Carme
| image = Carmé.jpg
| caption = Carme photographed by the Haute-Provence Observatory in December 1998
| pronounced =
| adjective = Carmean
| named_after = Κάρμη Karmē
| mpc_name = Jupiter XI
| alt_names =
| discovery_ref =
| surface_grav =
| escape_velocity =
| rotation = before then, it was simply known as . It was sometimes called "Pan" between 1955 and 1975 (Pan is now the name of a satellite of Saturn).
It gives its name to the Carme group, made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°. Its orbital elements are as of 17 December 2020.
|
[
"Degree (angle)",
"Seth Barnes Nicholson",
"Sun",
"retrograde motion",
"California",
"Haute-Provence Observatory",
"ecliptic",
"Britomartis",
"Prentice-Hall",
"Taygete (moon)",
"Scott S. Sheppard",
"Julian year (astronomy)",
"Jupiter's moons in fiction",
"Mount Wilson Observatory",
"Crete",
"Kalyke",
"irregular satellite",
"Irregular satellite",
"Carme group",
"Julian day",
"Jupiter",
"Pan (moon)",
"D-type asteroid",
"Zeus",
"Carme (mythology)",
"Pan (mythology)"
] |
7,193 |
Commutator
|
In mathematics, the commutator gives an indication of the extent to which a certain binary operation fails to be commutative. There are different definitions used in group theory and ring theory.
== Group theory ==
The commutator of two elements, and , of a group , is the element
.
This element is equal to the group's identity if and only if and commute (that is, if and only if ).
The set of all commutators of a group is not in general closed under the group operation, but the subgroup of G generated by all commutators is closed and is called the derived group or the commutator subgroup of G. Commutators are used to define nilpotent and solvable groups and the largest abelian quotient group.
The definition of the commutator above is used throughout this article, but many group theorists define the commutator as
.
Using the first definition, this can be expressed as .
=== Identities (group theory) ===
Commutator identities are an important tool in group theory. The expression denotes the conjugate of by , defined as .
x^y = x^{-1}[x, y].
[y, x] = [x,y]^{-1}.
[x, zy] = [x, y]\cdot [x, z]^y and [x z, y] = [x, y]^z \cdot [z, y].
\left[x, y^{-1}\right] = [y, x]^{y^{-1}} and \left[x^{-1}, y\right] = [y, x]^{x^{-1}}.
\left[\left[x, y^{-1}\right], z\right]^y \cdot \left[\left[y, z^{-1}\right], x\right]^z \cdot \left[\left[z, x^{-1}\right], y\right]^x = 1 and \left[\left[x, y\right], z^x\right] \cdot \left[[z ,x], y^z\right] \cdot \left[[y, z], x^y\right] = 1.
Identity (5) is also known as the Hall–Witt identity, after Philip Hall and Ernst Witt. It is a group-theoretic analogue of the Jacobi identity for the ring-theoretic commutator (see next section).
N.B., the above definition of the conjugate of by is used by some group theorists. Many other group theorists define the conjugate of by as . This is often written {}^x a. Similar identities hold for these conventions.
Many identities that are true modulo certain subgroups are also used. These can be particularly useful in the study of solvable groups and nilpotent groups. For instance, in any group, second powers behave well:
(xy)^2 = x^2 y^2 [y, x][[y, x], y].
If the derived subgroup is central, then
(xy)^n = x^n y^n [y, x]^\binom{n}{2}.
== Ring theory ==
Rings often do not support division. Thus, the commutator of two elements a and b of a ring (or any associative algebra) is defined differently by
[a, b] = ab - ba.
The commutator is zero if and only if a and b commute. In linear algebra, if two endomorphisms of a space are represented by commuting matrices in terms of one basis, then they are so represented in terms of every basis. By using the commutator as a Lie bracket, every associative algebra can be turned into a Lie algebra.
The anticommutator of two elements and of a ring or associative algebra is defined by
\{a, b\} = ab + ba.
Sometimes [a,b]_+ is used to denote anticommutator, while [a,b]_- is then used for commutator. The anticommutator is used less often, but can be used to define Clifford algebras and Jordan algebras and in the derivation of the Dirac equation in particle physics.
The commutator of two operators acting on a Hilbert space is a central concept in quantum mechanics, since it quantifies how well the two observables described by these operators can be measured simultaneously. The uncertainty principle is ultimately a theorem about such commutators, by virtue of the Robertson–Schrödinger relation. In phase space, equivalent commutators of function star-products are called Moyal brackets and are completely isomorphic to the Hilbert space commutator structures mentioned.
=== Identities (ring theory) ===
The commutator has the following properties:
==== Lie-algebra identities ====
[A + B, C] = [A, C] + [B, C]
[A, A] = 0
[A, B] = -[B, A]
[A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0
Relation (3) is called anticommutativity, while (4) is the Jacobi identity.
==== Additional identities ====
[A, BC] = [A, B]C + B[A, C]
[A, BCD] = [A, B]CD + B[A, C]D + BC[A, D]
[A, BCDE] = [A, B]CDE + B[A, C]DE + BC[A, D]E + BCD[A, E]
[AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B
[ABC, D] = AB[C, D] + A[B, D]C + [A, D]BC
[ABCD, E] = ABC[D, E] + AB[C, E]D + A[B, E]CD + [A, E]BCD
[A, B + C] = [A, B] + [A, C]
[A + B, C + D] = [A, C] + [A, D] + [B, C] + [B, D]
[AB, CD] = A[B, C]D + [A, C]BD + CA[B, D] + C[A, D]B =A[B, C]D + AC[B,D] + [A,C]DB + C[A, D]B
[[A, C], [B, D]] = [[[A, B], C], D] + [[[B, C], D], A] + [[[C, D], A], B] + [[[D, A], B], C]
If is a fixed element of a ring R, identity (1) can be interpreted as a Leibniz rule for the map \operatorname{ad}_A: R \rightarrow R given by \operatorname{ad}_A(B) = [A, B]. In other words, the map adA defines a derivation on the ring R. Identities (2), (3) represent Leibniz rules for more than two factors, and are valid for any derivation. Identities (4)–(6) can also be interpreted as Leibniz rules. Identities (7), (8) express Z-bilinearity.
From identity (9), one finds that the commutator of integer powers of ring elements is:
[A^N, B^M] = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1}\sum_{m=0}^{M-1} A^{n}B^{m} [A,B] B^{N-n-1}A^{M-m-1} = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1}\sum_{m=0}^{M-1} B^{n}A^{m} [A,B] A^{N-n-1}B^{M-m-1}
Some of the above identities can be extended to the anticommutator using the above ± subscript notation.
For example:
[AB, C]_\pm = A[B, C]_- + [A, C]_\pm B
[AB, CD]_\pm = A[B, C]_- D + AC[B, D]_- + [A, C]_- DB + C[A, D]_\pm B
[[A,B],[C,D]]=[[[B,C]_+,A]_+,D]-[[[B,D]_+,A]_+,C]+[[[A,D]_+,B]_+,C]-[[[A,C]_+,B]_+,D]
\left[A, [B, C]_\pm\right] + \left[B, [C, A]_\pm\right] + \left[C, [A, B]_\pm\right] = 0
[A,BC]_\pm = [A,B]_- C + B[A,C]_\pm = [A,B]_\pm C \mp B[A,C]_-
[A,BC] = [A,B]_\pm C \mp B[A,C]_\pm
==== Exponential identities ====
Consider a ring or algebra in which the exponential e^A = \exp(A) = 1 + A + \tfrac{1}{2!}A^2 + \cdots can be meaningfully defined, such as a Banach algebra or a ring of formal power series.
In such a ring, Hadamard's lemma applied to nested commutators gives: e^A Be^{-A}
\ =\ B + [A, B] + \frac{1}{2!}[A, [A, B]] + \frac{1}{3!}[A, [A, [A, B]]] + \cdots
\ =\ e^{\operatorname{ad}_A}(B).
(For the last expression, see Adjoint derivation below.) This formula underlies the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff expansion of log(exp(A) exp(B)).
A similar expansion expresses the group commutator of expressions e^A (analogous to elements of a Lie group) in terms of a series of nested commutators (Lie brackets),
e^A e^B e^{-A} e^{-B} =
\exp\!\left( [A, B] + \frac{1}{2!}[A{+}B, [A, B]] + \frac{1}{3!} \left(\frac{1}{2} [A, [B, [B, A]]] + [A{+}B, [A{+}B, [A, B]]]\right) + \cdots\right).
== Graded rings and algebras ==
When dealing with graded algebras, the commutator is usually replaced by the graded commutator, defined in homogeneous components as
[\omega, \eta]_{gr} := \omega\eta - (-1)^{\deg \omega \deg \eta} \eta\omega.
== Adjoint derivation ==
Especially if one deals with multiple commutators in a ring R, another notation turns out to be useful. For an element x\in R, we define the adjoint mapping \mathrm{ad}_x:R\to R by:
\operatorname{ad}_x(y) = [x, y] = xy-yx.
This mapping is a derivation on the ring R:
\mathrm{ad}_x\!(yz) \ =\ \mathrm{ad}_x\!(y) \,z \,+\, y\,\mathrm{ad}_x\!(z).
By the Jacobi identity, it is also a derivation over the commutation operation:
\mathrm{ad}_x[y,z] \ =\ [\mathrm{ad}_x\!(y),z] \,+\, [y,\mathrm{ad}_x\!(z)] .
Composing such mappings, we get for example \operatorname{ad}_x\operatorname{ad}_y(z) = [x, [y, z]\,] and \operatorname{ad}_x^2\!(z) \ =\
\operatorname{ad}_x\!(\operatorname{ad}_x\!(z)) \ =\
[x, [x, z]\,]. We may consider \mathrm{ad} itself as a mapping, \mathrm{ad}: R \to \mathrm{End}(R) , where \mathrm{End}(R) is the ring of mappings from R to itself with composition as the multiplication operation. Then \mathrm{ad} is a Lie algebra homomorphism, preserving the commutator:
\operatorname{ad}_{[x, y]} = \left[ \operatorname{ad}_x, \operatorname{ad}_y \right].
By contrast, it is not always a ring homomorphism: usually \operatorname{ad}_{xy} \,\neq\, \operatorname{ad}_x\operatorname{ad}_y .
=== General Leibniz rule ===
The general Leibniz rule, expanding repeated derivatives of a product, can be written abstractly using the adjoint representation:
x^n y = \sum_{k = 0}^n \binom{n}{k} \operatorname{ad}_x^k\!(y)\, x^{n - k}.
Replacing x by the differentiation operator \partial, and y by the multiplication operator m_f : g \mapsto fg, we get \operatorname{ad}(\partial)(m_f) = m_{\partial(f)}, and applying both sides to a function g, the identity becomes the usual Leibniz rule for the nth derivative \partial^{n}\!(fg).
|
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] |
7,196 |
Cairn
|
A cairn is a human-made pile (or stack) of stones raised for a purpose, usually as a marker or as a burial mound. The word cairn comes from the (plural ).
Cairns have been and are used for a broad variety of purposes. In prehistory, they were raised as markers, as memorials and as burial monuments (some of which contained chambers).
In the modern era, cairns are often raised as landmarks, especially to mark the summits of mountains, and as trail markers. They vary in size from small piles of stones to entire artificial hills, and in complexity from loose conical rock piles to elaborate megalithic structures. Cairns may be painted or otherwise decorated, whether for increased visibility or for religious reasons.
==History==
===Europe===
The building of cairns for various purposes goes back into prehistory in Eurasia, ranging in size from small rock sculptures to substantial human-made hills of stone (some built on top of larger, natural hills). The latter are often relatively massive Bronze Age or earlier structures which, like kistvaens and dolmens, frequently contain burials; they are comparable to tumuli (kurgans), but of stone construction instead of earthworks. Cairn originally could more broadly refer to various types of hills and natural stone piles, but today is used exclusively of artificial ones.
==== Ireland and Britain ====
The word cairn derives from Scots (with the same meaning), in turn from Scottish Gaelic , which is essentially the same as the corresponding words in other native Celtic languages of Britain, Ireland and Brittany, including Welsh (and ), Breton , Irish , and Cornish or . In Highland folklore it is recounted that before Highland clans fought in a battle, each man would place a stone in a pile. Those who survived the battle returned and removed a stone from the pile. The stones that remained were built into a cairn to honour the dead. Cairns in the region were also put to vital practical use. For example, Dún Aonghasa, an all-stone Iron Age Irish hill fort on Inishmore in the Aran Islands, is still surrounded by small cairns and strategically placed jutting rocks, used collectively as an alternative to defensive earthworks because of the karst landscape's lack of soil. In February 2020, ancient cairns dated back to 4,500 year-old used to bury the leaders or chieftains of Neolithic tribes people were revealed in the Cwmcelyn in Blaenau Gwent by the Aberystruth Archaeological Society.
==== Scandinavia and Iceland ====
In Scandinavia, cairns have been used for centuries as trail and sea marks, among other purposes, the most notable being the Three-Country Cairn. In Iceland, cairns were often used as markers along the numerous single-file roads or paths that crisscrossed the island; many of these ancient cairns are still standing, although the paths have disappeared. In Norse Greenland, cairns were used as a hunting implement, a game-driving "lane", used to direct reindeer towards a game jump.
==== Greece and the Balkans ====
In the mythology of ancient Greece, cairns were associated with Hermes, the god of overland travel. According to one legend, Hermes was put on trial by Hera for slaying her favorite servant, the monster Argus. All of the other gods acted as a jury, and as a way of declaring their verdict they were given pebbles, and told to throw them at whichever person they deemed to be in the right, Hermes or Hera. Hermes argued so skillfully that he ended up buried under a heap of pebbles, and this was the first cairn.
In Croatia, in areas of ancient Dalmatia, such as Herzegovina and the Krajina, they are known as gromila.
==== Portugal ====
In Portugal, a cairn is called a . In a legend the are enchanted soldiers, and if one stone is taken from the pile and put under a pillow, in the morning a soldier will appear for a brief moment, then will change back to a stone and magically return to the pile. The cairns that mark the place where someone died or cover the graves alongside the roads where in the past people were buried are called . The same name given to the stones was given to the dead whose identity was unknown.
===North and northeast Africa===
Cairns (taalo) are a common feature at El Ayo, Haylan, Qa'ableh, Qombo'ul, Heis, Salweyn and Gelweita, among other places. Somalia in general is home to a lot of such historical settlements and archaeological sites wherein are found numerous ancient ruins and buildings, many of obscure origins. However, many of these old structures have yet to be properly explored, a process which would help shed further light on local history and facilitate their preservation for posterity.
Since Neolithic times, the climate of North Africa has become drier. A reminder of the desertification of the area is provided by megalithic remains, which occur in a great variety of forms and in vast numbers in presently arid and uninhabitable wastelands: cairns (kerkour), dolmens and circles like Stonehenge, underground cells excavated in rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, and step pyramid-like mounds.
===Middle East===
The Biblical place name Gilead (mentioned in the Old Testament books of Genesis, Numbers, Judges and elsewhere) means literally 'a heap of testimony (or evidence)' as does its Aramaic translation Yegar Sahaduta. In modern Hebrew, gal-'ed (גל-עד) is the actual word for "cairn". In Genesis 31 the cairn of Gilead was set up as a border demarcation between Jacob and his father-in-law Laban at their last meeting.
===Asia and the Pacific===
Starting in the Bronze Age, burial cists were sometimes interred into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased. Though most often found in the British Isles, evidence of Bronze Age cists have been found in Mongolia. The stones may have been thought to deter grave robbers and scavengers. Another explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising. There remains a Jewish tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave as a token of respect, known as visitation stones, though this is generally to relate the longevity of stone to the eternal nature of the soul and is not usually done in a cairn fashion. Stupas in India and Tibet probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a Buddhist saint or lama.
A traditional and often decorated, heap-formed cairn called an ovoo is made in Mongolia. It primarily serves religious purposes, and finds use in both Tengriist and Buddhist ceremonies. Ovoos were also often used as landmarks and meeting points in traditional nomadic Mongolian culture. Traditional ceremonies still take place at ovoos today, and in a survey conducted, 75 participants out of 144 participants stated that they believe in ovoo ceremonies. However, mining and other industrial operations today threaten the ovoos
In Hawaii, cairns, called by the Hawaiian word , are still being built today. Though in other cultures, the cairns were typically used as trail markers and sometimes funerary sites, the ancient Hawaiians also used them as altars or security towers. The Hawaiian people are still building these cairns today, using them as the focal points for ceremonies honoring their ancestors and spirituality.
In South Korea, cairns are quite prevalent, often found along roadsides and trails, up on mountain peaks, and adjacent to Buddhist temples. Hikers frequently add stones to existing cairns trying to get just one more on top of the pile, to bring good luck. This tradition has its roots in the worship of San-shin, or Mountain Spirit, so often still revered in Korean culture.
===The Americas===
Throughout what today are the continental United States and Canada, some Indigenous peoples of the Americas have built structures similar to cairns. In some cases, these are general trail markers, and in other cases they mark game-driving "lanes", such as those leading to buffalo jumps.
==== Religious Practices (North America) ====
Stacked rock features have been noted to have religious significance to the Klamath and Modoc Tribes of indigenous people of the Western United States, the respective tribes prohibiting photography of or touching the stone formations. These cairn-like structures are noted to be constructed for ritual and prayer purposes. Indigenous tribes practiced piling rocks (forming a rock cairn) as a step in a series of physically demanding tasks in part of a ritual to receive what they call spirit dreams. This practice is part of the vision quest ritual within the puberty rite the boys of the tribe undergo.
Cairns were often used to mark the cremation sites for burial practices. When the Klamath tribe traveled within their territory, a person may pass away during this period. If the death occurs away from their village, the passed person would be buried near where they passed and a cairn would be constructed to mark this site. Burial cairns constructed by indigenous people, taking the shape of stone mounds, have been found throughout the Midwest and South of the United States. These mounds are typically made in large piles and mark the burial site, also protecting it from wildlife.
Peoples from some of the Indigenous cultures of arctic North America (i.e. northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland) have built carefully constructed stone sculptures called and , which serve as landmarks and directional markers. The oldest of these structures are very old and pre-date contact with Europeans. They are iconic of the region (an even features on the flag of the Canadian far-northeastern territory, Nunavut).
Cairns have been used throughout what is now Latin America, since pre-Columbian times, to mark trails. Even today, in the Andes of South America, the Quechuan peoples build cairns as part of their spiritual and religious traditions.
==Today==
Cairns can be used to mark hiking trails, especially in mountain regions at or above the tree line. Placed at regular intervals, a series of cairns can be used to indicate a path across stony or barren terrain.
===Sea cairns===
Coastal cairns called sea marks are also common in the northern latitudes, especially in the island-strewn waters of Scandinavia and eastern Canada. They are placed along shores and on islands and islets. Usually painted white for improved offshore visibility, they serve as navigation aids. In Sweden, they are called , in Finland , in Norway , and are indicated in navigation charts and maintained as part of the nautical marking system.
==Other types==
Chambered cairn
Clava cairn
Clearance cairn
Court cairn
Pyramid
Ring cairn
Tumulus
Unchambered long cairn
== Concerns ==
Concerns have been raised over the construction of needless cairns.
The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory asks visitors to say “no” to rock piles after a surge in the creation of cairns by visitors. The construction of these rock formations comes at the cost of important geological features that visitors pry rocks off of. The practice is viewed as an act of graffiti on the landscape of the park.
The US National Park Service has a set of rules regarding public interaction with cairns found within the boundaries of the park. Falling within the rules set by the Leave No Trace rule, the Park Service has three rules:
Do not tamper with cairns
Do not build unauthorized cairns
Do not add to existing cairns
This guideline is made with the intent of preventing needless cairns created by visitors and preventing the destruction of important trail-marking cairns.
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"Leave No Trace",
"karst",
"Blaenau Gwent",
"Ireland",
"cist",
"desertification"
] |
7,198 |
Characteristic subgroup
|
In mathematics, particularly in the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, a characteristic subgroup is a subgroup that is mapped to itself by every automorphism of the parent group. Because every conjugation map is an inner automorphism, every characteristic subgroup is normal; though the converse is not guaranteed. Examples of characteristic subgroups include the commutator subgroup and the center of a group.
== Definition ==
A subgroup of a group is called a characteristic subgroup if for every automorphism of , one has ; then write .
It would be equivalent to require the stronger condition = for every automorphism of , because implies the reverse inclusion .
== Basic properties ==
Given , every automorphism of induces an automorphism of the quotient group , which yields a homomorphism .
If has a unique subgroup of a given index, then is characteristic in .
== Related concepts ==
=== Normal subgroup ===
A subgroup of that is invariant under all inner automorphisms is called normal; also, an invariant subgroup.
Since and a characteristic subgroup is invariant under all automorphisms, every characteristic subgroup is normal. However, not every normal subgroup is characteristic. Here are several examples:
Let be a nontrivial group, and let be the direct product, . Then the subgroups, and , are both normal, but neither is characteristic. In particular, neither of these subgroups is invariant under the automorphism, , that switches the two factors.
For a concrete example of this, let be the Klein four-group (which is isomorphic to the direct product, \mathbb{Z}_2 \times \mathbb{Z}_2). Since this group is abelian, every subgroup is normal; but every permutation of the 3 non-identity elements is an automorphism of , so the 3 subgroups of order 2 are not characteristic. Here . Consider and consider the automorphism, ; then is not contained in .
In the quaternion group of order 8, each of the cyclic subgroups of order 4 is normal, but none of these are characteristic. However, the subgroup, , is characteristic, since it is the only subgroup of order 2.
If > 2 is even, the dihedral group of order has 3 subgroups of index 2, all of which are normal. One of these is the cyclic subgroup, which is characteristic. The other two subgroups are dihedral; these are permuted by an outer automorphism of the parent group, and are therefore not characteristic.
=== Strictly characteristic subgroup ===
A ', or a ', is one which is invariant under surjective endomorphisms. For finite groups, surjectivity of an endomorphism implies injectivity, so a surjective endomorphism is an automorphism; thus being strictly characteristic is equivalent to characteristic. This is not the case anymore for infinite groups.
=== Fully characteristic subgroup ===
For an even stronger constraint, a fully characteristic subgroup (also, fully invariant subgroup) of a group G, is a subgroup H ≤ G that is invariant under every endomorphism of (and not just every automorphism):
.
Every group has itself (the improper subgroup) and the trivial subgroup as two of its fully characteristic subgroups. The commutator subgroup of a group is always a fully characteristic subgroup.
Every endomorphism of induces an endomorphism of , which yields a map .
=== Verbal subgroup ===
An even stronger constraint is verbal subgroup, which is the image of a fully invariant subgroup of a free group under a homomorphism. More generally, any verbal subgroup is always fully characteristic. For any reduced free group, and, in particular, for any free group, the converse also holds: every fully characteristic subgroup is verbal.
== Transitivity ==
The property of being characteristic or fully characteristic is transitive; if is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of , and is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of , then is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of .
.
Moreover, while normality is not transitive, it is true that every characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal.
Similarly, while being strictly characteristic (distinguished) is not transitive, it is true that every fully characteristic subgroup of a strictly characteristic subgroup is strictly characteristic.
However, unlike normality, if and is a subgroup of containing , then in general is not necessarily characteristic in .
== Containments ==
Every subgroup that is fully characteristic is certainly strictly characteristic and characteristic; but a characteristic or even strictly characteristic subgroup need not be fully characteristic.
The center of a group is always a strictly characteristic subgroup, but it is not always fully characteristic. For example, the finite group of order 12, , has a homomorphism taking to , which takes the center, 1 \times \mathbb{Z} / 2 \mathbb{Z}, into a subgroup of , which meets the center only in the identity.
The relationship amongst these subgroup properties can be expressed as:
Subgroup ⇐ Normal subgroup ⇐ Characteristic subgroup ⇐ Strictly characteristic subgroup ⇐ Fully characteristic subgroup ⇐ Verbal subgroup
==Examples==
=== Finite example ===
Consider the group (the group of order 12 that is the direct product of the symmetric group of order 6 and a cyclic group of order 2). The center of is isomorphic to its second factor \mathbb{Z}_2. Note that the first factor, , contains subgroups isomorphic to \mathbb{Z}_2, for instance ; let f: \mathbb{Z}_2<\rarr \text{S}_3 be the morphism mapping \mathbb{Z}_2 onto the indicated subgroup. Then the composition of the projection of onto its second factor \mathbb{Z}_2, followed by , followed by the inclusion of into as its first factor, provides an endomorphism of under which the image of the center, \mathbb{Z}_2, is not contained in the center, so here the center is not a fully characteristic subgroup of .
=== Cyclic groups ===
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is characteristic.
=== Subgroup functors ===
The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group is a verbal subgroup. The torsion subgroup of an abelian group is a fully invariant subgroup.
=== Topological groups ===
The identity component of a topological group is always a characteristic subgroup.
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7,199 |
List of cat breeds
|
Domestic cats have been diversified by humans into breeds and domestic and wild hybrids. Many such breeds recognized by various cat registries. Additionally, there are new and experimental breeds, landraces being established as standardized breeds, distinct domestic populations not being actively developed and lapsed (extinct) breeds.
As of 2023, The International Cat Association (TICA) recognizes 73 standardized breeds, the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) recognizes 45, the Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe) recognizes 50, the Governing Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF) recognizes 45, and the World Cat Federation (WCF) recognizes 69.
Inconsistency in a breed's classification and naming among registries means that an individual animal may be considered different breeds by different registries (though not necessarily eligible for registry in them all, depending on its exact ancestry). For example, TICA's Himalayan is considered a colorpoint variety of the Persian by the CFA, while the Javanese (or Colorpoint Longhair) is a color variation of the Balinese in both the TICA and the CFA; both breeds are merged (along with the Colorpoint Shorthair) into a single "mega-breed", the Colourpoint, by the World Cat Federation (WCF), who have repurposed the name "Javanese" for the Oriental Longhair. Also, "Colourpoint Longhair" refers to different breeds in other registries. There are many examples of nomenclatural overlap and differences of this sort. Furthermore, many geographical and cultural names for cat breeds are fanciful selections made by Western breeders to be exotic sounding and bear no relationship to the actual origin of the breeds; the Balinese, Javanese, and Himalayan are all examples of this trend.
The domestic short-haired and domestic long-haired cat types are not breeds, but terms used (with various spellings) in the cat fancy to describe "mongrel" or "bicolor" cats by coat length, ones that do not belong to a particular breed. Some registries such as the Cat Fanciers' Association allow for domestic short hairs and domestic long hairs to be registered for the purpose of outcrossing. They should not be confused with standardized breeds with similar names, such as the British Shorthair and Oriental Longhair.
== Breeds ==
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"Lykoi",
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"Bengal cat",
"Minuet cat",
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"Persian cat",
"bicolor cat",
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"Raas Island",
"Peterbald",
"Southeast Asia",
"American Bobtail",
"Sokoke",
"Tabby cat",
"Selkirk Rex",
"LaPerm",
"Ragamuffin cat",
"Burmese cat",
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"Selective breeding",
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"Bambino cat"
] |
7,200 |
Class action
|
A class action, also known as a class action lawsuit, class suit, or representative action, is a type of lawsuit where one of the parties is a group of people who are represented collectively by a member or members of that group. The class action originated in the United States and is still predominantly an American phenomenon, but Canada, as well as several European countries with civil law, have made changes in recent years to allow consumer organizations to bring claims on behalf of consumers.
==Description==
In a typical class action, a plaintiff sues a defendant or a number of defendants on behalf of a group, or class, of absent parties. This differs from a traditional lawsuit, in which the plaintiffs sue one or more defendants, and all of the parties are present in court. For example, a group in a class action lawsuit could be any person who ever bought a specific dangerous product; in a traditional lawsuit, the plaintiff is a single individual person or business that bought the dangerous product.
Although standards differ between states and countries, class actions are most common where the allegations usually involve at least 40 people who the same defendant has injured in the same way. These lawsuits involved groups of people either suing or being sued in actions at common law. These groups were usually based on existing societal structures like villages, towns, parishes, and guilds. Unlike modern courts, the medieval English courts did not question the right of the actual plaintiffs to sue on behalf of a group or a few representatives to defend an entire group.
This allowed for representative suits in situations where there were too many individual parties (which now forms the first requirement for class-action litigation – numerosity). However, this rule did not allow such suits to bind similarly situated absent parties, which rendered the rule ineffective.
The Advisory Committee that drafted the new Rule 23 in the mid-1960s was influenced by two major developments. First was the suggestion of Harry Kalven Jr. and Maurice Rosenfield in 1941 that class-action litigation by individual shareholders on behalf of all shareholders of a company could effectively supplement direct government regulation of securities markets and other similar markets. In response, lawyers have added provisions to consumer contracts of adhesion called "collective action waivers", which prohibit those signing the contracts from bringing class-action suits. In 2011, the US Supreme Court ruled in a 5–4 decision in AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion that the Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 preempts state laws that prohibit contracts from disallowing class-action lawsuits, which will make it more difficult for consumers to file class-action lawsuits. The dissent pointed to a saving clause in the federal act which allowed states to determine how a contract or its clauses may be revoked.
In two major 21st-century cases, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 against certification of class actions due to differences in each individual members' circumstances: first in Wal-Mart v. Dukes (2011) and later in Comcast Corp. v. Behrend (2013).
Companies may insert the phrase "may elect to resolve any claim by individual arbitration" into their consumer and employment contracts to use arbitration and prevent class-action lawsuits.
Rejecting arguments that they violated employees' rights to collective bargaining, and that modestly-valued consumer claims would be more efficiently litigated within the parameters of one lawsuit, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis (2018), enabled the use of class action waivers. Citing its deference to freedom to contract principles, the Epic Systems opinion opened the door dramatically to the use of these waivers as a condition of employment, consumer purchases and the like. Some commentators in opposition to the ruling see it as a "death knell" to many employment and consumer class actions, and have increasingly pushed for legislation to circumvent it in hopes of reviving otherwise-underrepresented parties' ability to litigate on a group basis. Supporters (mostly pro-business) of the high court's ruling argue its holding is consistent with private contract principles. Many of those supporters had long-since argued that class action procedures were generally inconsistent with due process mandates and unnecessarily promoted litigation of otherwise small claims—thus heralding the ruling's anti-litigation effect.
In 2017, the US Supreme Court issued its opinion in Bristol-Meyer Squibb Co. v. Superior Court of California, 137 S. Ct. 1773 (2017), holding that over five hundred plaintiffs from other states cannot bring a consolidated mass action against the pharmaceutical giant in the State of California. This opinion may arguably render nationwide mass action and class action impossible in any single state besides the defendant's home state.
In 2020, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals found incentive awards are impermissible. Incentive awards are a relatively modest payment made to class representatives as part of a class settlement. The ruling was a response to an objector who claimed Rule 23 required that the fee petition be filed before the time frame for class member objections to be filed; and payments to the class representative violates doctrine from two US Supreme Court cases from the 1800s.
=== Statistics ===
As of 2010, there was no publicly maintained list of nonsecurities class-action settlements, although a securities class-action database exists in the Stanford Law School Securities Class Action Clearinghouse and several for-profit companies maintain lists of the securities settlements. One study of federal settlements required the researcher to manually search databases of lawsuits for the relevant records, although state class actions were not included due to the difficulty in gathering the information.
==Advantages==
Proponents of class actions state that they offer a number of advantages because they aggregate many individualized claims into one representational lawsuit.
First, aggregation can increase the efficiency of the legal process, and lower the costs of litigation. In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating "days of the same witnesses, exhibits and issues from trial to trial". Jenkins v. Raymark Indus. Inc., 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving asbestos).
Second, a class action may overcome "the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights". Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor, 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp., 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)). "A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone's (usually an attorney's) labor." Amchem Prods., Inc., 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting Mace, 109 F.3d at 344). In other words, a class action ensures that a defendant who engages in widespread harmbut does so minimally against each individual plaintiffmust compensate those individuals for their injuries. For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders. Perhaps even more important than compensation is that class treatment of claims may be the only way to impose the costs of wrongdoing on the wrongdoer, thus deterring future wrongdoing.
Third, class-action cases may be brought to purposely change behavior of a class of which the defendant is a member. Landeros v. Flood (1976) was a landmark case decided by the California Supreme Court that aimed at purposefully changing the behavior of doctors, encouraging them to report suspected child abuse. Otherwise, they would face the threat of civil action for damages in tort proximately flowing from the failure to report the suspected injuries. Previously, many physicians had remained reluctant to report cases of apparent child abuse, despite existing law that required it.
Fourth, in "limited fund" cases, a class action ensures that all plaintiffs receive relief and that early-filing plaintiffs do not raid the fund (i.e., the defendant) of all its assets before other plaintiffs may be compensated. See Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp., 527 U.S. 815 (1999). A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one venue where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the plaintiffs if they win the case.
Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create "incompatible standards" of conduct for the defendant to follow. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A). For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to determine whether they may convert their bonds to common stock. Refusing to litigate the case in one trial could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the defendant corporation. Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation. See, e.g., Van Gemert v. Boeing Co., 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966).
Whether a class action is superior to individual litigation depends on the case and is determined by the judge's ruling on a motion for class certification. The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that mass torts are ordinarily "not appropriate" for class treatment. Class treatment may not improve the efficiency of a mass tort because the claims frequently involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis. See Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co., 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies). Mass torts also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice. Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment.
The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005, passed by the United States Congress, found:
Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm.
==Criticisms==
There are several criticisms of class actions. The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act stated that some abusive class actions have harmed class members possessing legitimate claims and defendants acting responsibly; have adversely affected interstate commerce; and have undermined public respect for the country's judicial system.
Class members often receive little or no benefit from class actions. Examples cited for this include large fees for the attorneys, while leaving class members with coupons or other awards of little or no value; unjustified awards are made to certain plaintiffs at the expense of other class members; and confusing notices are published that prevent class members from being able to fully understand and effectively exercise their rights. The extortion thesis was first articulated by law professor Milton Handler, who published a famous law review article in 1971 calling the class action a form of "legalized blackmail".
Advertising or otherwise soliciting to find lead plaintiffs may also be unethical, as the plaintiff may not genuinely be aggrieved.
==Defendant class action==
Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendant class actions are also possible. For example, in 2005, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon was sued as part of the Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal. All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendant class. This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement. Where both the plaintiffs and the defendants have been organized into court-approved classes, the action is called a bilateral class action.
In the United States, only a few hundred defendant class actions have been filed (mostly in securities cases and constitutional challenges), and circuit courts are split as to whether injunctive relief is available against defendant classes at all.
==Mass actions==
In a class action, the plaintiff seeks court approval to litigate on behalf of a group of similarly situated persons. Not every plaintiff looks for or could obtain such approval. As a procedural alternative, plaintiff's counsel may attempt to sign up every similarly situated person that counsel can find as a client. Plaintiff's counsel can then join the claims of all of these persons in one complaint, a so-called "mass action", hoping to have the same efficiencies and economic leverage as if a class had been certified.
Because mass actions operate outside the detailed procedures laid out for class actions, they can pose special difficulties for both plaintiffs, defendants, and the court. For example, settlement of class actions follows a predictable path of negotiation with class counsel and representatives, court scrutiny, and notice. There may not be a way to uniformly settle all of the many claims brought via a mass action. Some states permit plaintiff's counsel to settle for all the mass action plaintiffs according to a majority vote, for example. Other states, such as New Jersey, require each plaintiff to approve the settlement of that plaintiff's own individual claims.
==Class action legislation==
===Argentina===
Class actions were recognized in "Halabi" leading case (Supreme Court, 2009).
=== Australia and New Zealand ===
Class actions became part of the Australian legal landscape only when the Federal Parliament amended the Federal Court of Australia Act in 1992 to introduce "representative proceedings", the equivalent of the American "class actions".
Likewise, class actions appeared slowly in the New Zealand legal system. However, a group can bring litigation through the action of a representative under the High Court Rules which provide that one or a multitude of persons may sue on behalf of, or for the benefit of, all persons "with the same interest in the subject matter of a proceeding". The presence and expansion of litigation funders have been playing a significant role in the emergence of class actions in New Zealand. For example, the "Fair Play on Fees" proceedings in relation to penalty fees charged by banks were funded by Litigation Lending Services (LLS), a company specializing in the funding and management of litigation in Australia and New Zealand. It was the biggest class-action suit in New Zealand history.
===Austria===
The Austrian Code of Civil Procedure ( – ZPO) does not provide for a special proceeding for complex class-action litigation. However, Austrian consumer organizations ( (VKI) and the Federal Chamber of Labour / ) have brought claims on behalf of hundreds or even thousands of consumers. In these cases, the individual consumers assigned their claims to one entity, who has then brought an ordinary (two-party) lawsuit over the assigned claims. The monetary benefits were redistributed among the class. This technique, labeled as "class action Austrian style", allows for a significant reduction of overall costs. The Austrian Supreme Court, in a judgment, confirmed the legal admissibility of these lawsuits under the condition that all claims are essentially based on the same grounds.
The Austrian Parliament unanimously requested the Austrian Federal Minister for Justice to examine the possibility of new legislation providing for a cost-effective and appropriate way to deal with mass claims. Together with the Austrian Ministry for Social Security, Generations and Consumer Protection, the Justice Ministry opened the discussion with a conference held in Vienna in June 2005. With the aid of a group of experts from many fields, the Justice Ministry began drafting the new law in September 2005. With the individual positions varying greatly, a political consensus could not be reached.
===Canada===
Provincial laws in Canada allow class actions. All provinces permit plaintiff classes and some permit defendant classes. Quebec was the first province to enact class proceedings legislation, in 1978. Ontario was next, with the Class Proceedings Act, 1992. As of 2008, 9 of 10 provinces had enacted comprehensive class actions legislation. In Prince Edward Island, where no comprehensive legislation exists, following the decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in Western Canadian Shopping Centres Inc. v. Dutton, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 534, class actions may be advanced under a local rule of court. The Federal Court of Canada permits class actions under Part V.1 of the Federal Courts Rules.
Legislation in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia expressly or by judicial opinion has been read to allow for what are informally known as national "opt-out" class actions, whereby residents of other provinces may be included in the class definition and potentially be bound by the court's judgment on common issues unless they opt out in a prescribed manner and time. Court rulings have determined that this permits a court in one province to include residents of other provinces in the class action on an "opt-out" basis.
Judicial opinions have indicated that provincial legislative national opt-out powers should not be exercised to interfere with the ability of another province to certify a parallel class action for residents of other provinces. The first court to certify will generally exclude residents of provinces whose courts have certified a parallel class action. However, in the Vioxx litigation, two provincial courts certified overlapping class actions whereby Canadian residents were class members in two class actions in two provinces. Both decisions are under appeal.
Other legislation may provide for representative actions on behalf of a large number of plaintiffs, independent of class action procedures. For instance, under Ontario's Condominium Act, a condominium's governing corporation may launch a lawsuit on behalf of the owners for damage to the condominium's common elements, even though the corporation does not own the common elements.
The largest class action suit in Canada was settled in 2005 after Nora Bernard initiated efforts that led to an estimated 79,000 survivors of Canada's residential school system suing the Canadian government. The settlement amounted to upwards of $5 billion.
=== Chile ===
Chile approved class actions in 2004. The Chilean model is technically an opt-out issue class action, followed by a compensatory stage which can be collective or individual. This means that the class action is designed to declare the defendant generally liable with effects if and only if the defendant is found liable, and the declaratory judgment can be used then to pursue damages in the same procedure or in individual ones in different jurisdictions. If the latter is the case, the liability cannot be discussed, but only the damages. There under the Chilean procedural rules, one particular case works as an opt-out class action for damages. This is the case when defendants can identify and compensate consumers directly, i.e. because it is their banking institution. In such cases, the judge can skip the compensatory stage and order redress directly. Since 2005 more than 100 cases have been filed, mostly by [SERNAC], the Chilean consumer protection agency. Salient cases have been Condecus v. BancoEstado and SERNAC v. La Polar.
===France===
Under French law, an association can represent the collective interests of consumers; however, each claimant must be individually named in the lawsuit. On January 4, 2005, President Chirac urged changes that would provide greater consumer protection. A draft bill was proposed in April 2006 but did not pass.
Following the change of majority in France in 2012, the new government proposed introducing class actions into French law. The project of of May 2013 aimed to limit the class action to consumer and competition disputes. The law was passed on March 1, 2014.
=== Germany ===
Class actions are generally not permitted in Germany, as German law does not recognize the concept of a targeted class being affected by certain actions. This requires each plaintiff to individually prove that they were affected by an action, and present their individual damages, and prove the causality between both parties.
Joint litigation () is a legal act that may permit plaintiffs that are in the same legal community with respect to the dispute, or are entitled by the same factual or legal reason. These are not typically regarded as class action suits, as each individual plaintiff is entitled to compensation for their individual, incurred damages and not as a result of being a member of a class.
The combination of court cases () is another method that permits a judge to combine multiple separate court cases into a single trial with a single verdict. According to § 147 ZPO, this is only permissible if all cases are regarding the same factual and legal event and basis.
==== Mediation procedure ====
A genuine extension of the legal effect of a court decision beyond the parties involved in the proceedings is offered under corporate law. This procedure applies to the review of stock payoffs under the Stock Corporation Act (). Pursuant to Sec. 13 Paragraph 2 of the Mediation Procedure Act (), the court decision concerning the dismissal or direction of a binding arrangement of an adequate compensation is effective for and against all shareholders, including those who have already agreed to a previous settlement in this matter.
==== Investor model case proceedings ====
The Capital Investor Model Case Act () is an attempt to enable model cases to be brought by a large number of potentially affected parties in the event of disputes, limited to the investment market. In contrast to US class actions, each affected party must file a lawsuit in its own name in order to participate in the model proceedings.
==== Model Declaratory Action ====
Effective on November 1, 2018, the Code of Civil Procedure () introduced the Model Declaratory Action (§ 606 ZPO) that created the ability to bundle similar claims by many affected parties efficiently into one proceeding.
Registered Consumer Protection Associations can file – if they represent at least 10 individuals – for a (general) judicial finding whether the factual and legal requirements for of claims or legal relationships are met or not. These individuals have to register in order to inhibit their claims. Since these Adjudications are more of a general nature, each individual must assert their claims in their own court proceedings. The competent court is bound by the Model Declaratory Action decision.
==== Associate Action ====
German law also recognizes the associative action (), which is comparable to the class action and is predominantly used in environmental law. In civil law, the associative action is represented by a foreign body in the matter of asserting and enforcing individual claims and the claimant can no longer control the proceedings.
==== Class action with relation to the United States ====
Class actions can be brought by Germans in the US for events in Germany if the facts of the case relate to the US. For example, in the case of the Eschede train disaster, the lawsuit was allowed because several aggrieved parties came from the US and had purchased rail tickets there.
===India===
Decisions of the Indian Supreme Court in the 1980s loosened strict locus standi requirements to permit the filing of suits on behalf of rights of deprived sections of society by public-minded individuals or bodies. Although not strictly "class action litigation" as it is understood in American law, public interest litigation arose out of the wide powers of judicial review granted to the Supreme Court of India and the various High Courts under Article 32 and Article 226 of the Constitution of India. The sort of remedies sought from courts in public interest litigation go beyond mere award of damages to all affected groups, and have sometimes (controversially) gone on to include Court monitoring of the implementation of legislation and even the framing of guidelines in the absence of Parliamentary legislation.
However, this innovative jurisprudence did not help the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy, who were unable to fully prosecute a class-action litigation (as understood in the American sense) against Union Carbide due to procedural rules that would make such litigation impossible to conclude and unwieldy to carry out. Instead, the Government of India exercised its right of parens patriae to appropriate all the claims of the victims and proceeded to litigate on their behalf, first in the New York courts and later, in the Indian courts. Ultimately, the matter was settled between the Union of India and Union Carbide (in a settlement overseen by the Supreme Court of India) for a sum of as a complete settlement of all claims of all victims for all time to come.
Public interest litigation has now broadened in scope to cover larger and larger groups of citizens who may be affected by government inaction. Examples of this trend include the conversion of all public transport in the city of Delhi from diesel engines to compressed natural gas engines on the basis of the orders of the Delhi High Court; the monitoring of forest use by the High Courts and the Supreme Court to ensure that there is no unjustified loss of forest cover; and the directions mandating the disclosure of assets of electoral candidates for the Houses of Parliament and State Assembly.
The Supreme Court has observed that the PIL has tended to become a means to gain publicity or obtain relief contrary to constitutionally valid legislation and policy. Observers point out that many High Courts and certain Supreme Court judges are reluctant to entertain PILs filed by non-governmental organizations and activists, citing concerns of separation of powers and parliamentary sovereignty.
===Ireland===
In Irish law, there is no such thing as a "class action" per se. Third-party litigation funding (champerty) is prohibited under Irish law. Instead, there is the 'representative action' () or 'test case' (). A representative action is "where one claimant or defendant, with the same interest as a group of claimants or defendants in an action, institutes or defends proceedings on behalf of that group of claimants or defendants."
Some test cases in Ireland have included:
the CervicalCheck cancer scandal
financial product misselling
damages claims brought by Irish hauliers against price-fixing by European truck makers
===Italy===
Italy has class action legislation. Consumer associations can file claims on behalf of groups of consumers to obtain judicial orders against corporations that cause injury or damage to consumers. These types of claims are increasing, and Italian courts have allowed them against banks that continue to apply compound interest on retail clients' current account overdrafts. Class action is regulated by art. 140 bis of the Italian consumers' code and has been in force since 1 July 2009. On May 19, 2021, the reform of the Italian legal framework on class actions finally entered into force. The new rules, designed by Law n. 31 and published on April 18, 2019, (Law n. 31/2019), were initially intended to become effective on April 19, 2020, but were delayed twice. The new rules on class actions are now included in the Italian Civil Procedure Code (ICPC). Overall, the new class action appears to be a viable instrument which, through a system of economic incentives, could overcome the rational apathy of small-claims holders and ensure redress.
===Netherlands===
Dutch law allows associations () and foundations () to bring a so-called collective action on behalf of other persons, provided they can represent the interests of such persons according to their by-laws () (section 3:305a Dutch Civil Code). All types of actions are permitted. This includes a claim for monetary damages, provided the event occurred after 15 November 2016 (pursuant to new legislation which entered into force 1 January 2020). Most class actions over the past decade have been in the field of securities fraud and financial services. The acting association or foundation may come to a collective settlement with the defendant. The settlement may also include – and usually primarily consists of – monetary compensation of damages. Such settlement can be declared binding for all injured parties by the Amsterdam Court of Appeal (section 7:907 Dutch Civil Code). The injured parties have an opt-out right during the opt-out period set by the Court, usually 3 to 6 months. Settlements involving injured parties from outside the Netherlands can also be declared binding by the Court. Since US courts are reluctant to take up class actions brought on behalf of injured parties not residing in the US who have suffered damages due to acts or omissions committed outside the US, combinations of US class actions and Dutch collective actions may come to a settlement that covers plaintiffs worldwide. An example of this is the Royal Dutch Shell Oil Reserves Settlement that was declared binding upon both US and non-US plaintiffs.
===Poland===
or class action has been allowed under Polish law since July 19, 2010. A minimum of 10 persons, suing based on the same law, is required.
===Russia===
Collective litigation has been allowed under Russian law since 2002. Basic criteria are, like in the US, numerosity, commonality, and typicality.
===Spain===
Spanish law allows nominated consumer associations to take action to protect the interests of consumers. A number of groups already have the power to bring collective or class actions: certain consumer associations, bodies legally constituted to defend the "collective interest" and groups of injured parties.
Recent changes to Spanish civil procedure rules include the introduction of a quasi-class action right for certain consumer associations to claim damages on behalf of unidentified classes of consumers. The rules require consumer associations to represent an adequate number of affected parties who have suffered the same harm. Also, any judgment made by the Spanish court will list the individual beneficiaries or, if that is not possible, conditions that need to be fulfilled for a party to benefit from a judgment.
===Switzerland===
Swiss law does not allow for any form of class action. When the government proposed a new federal code of civil procedure in 2006, replacing the cantonal codes of civil procedure, it rejected the introduction of class actions, arguing that
===United Kingdom===
==== England and Wales ====
The Civil Procedure Rules of the courts of England and Wales came into force in 1999 and have provided for group litigation orders in limited circumstances (under Part 19.21–26, supplemented by Practice Direction 19B). HM Courts and Tribunals Service maintains a public list of group litigation orders, and there have been 124 orders granted.
A sectoral mechanism was adopted by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, taking effect on October 1, 2015. Under the provisions therein, opt-in or opt-out collective procedures may be certified for breaches of competition law. This is currently the closest mechanism to a class action in England and Wales.
==== Scotland ====
A similar approach exists in Scotland to bring group proceedings under Part 4 of the Civil Litigation (Expenses and Group Proceedings) (Scotland) Act 2018. The Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service maintain a public list of group proceedings cases.
===United States===
In the United States, the class representative, also called a lead plaintiff, named plaintiff, or representative plaintiff, is the named party in a class-action lawsuit. Although the class representative is named as a party to the litigation, the court must approve the class representative when it certifies the lawsuit as a class action.
The class representative must be able to represent the interests of all the members of the class, by being typical of the class members and not having conflicts with them. He or she is responsible for hiring the attorney, filing the lawsuit, consulting on the case, and agreeing to any settlement. In exchange, the class representative may be entitled to compensation (at the court's discretion) out of the recovery amount.
====Standing====
In securities class actions that allege violations of Section 11 of the Securities Act of 1933, "officers and directors are liable together with the corporation for material misrepresentations in the registration statement."
To have standing to sue under Section 11 of the 1933 Act in a class action, a plaintiff must be able to prove that he can trace his shares to the registration statement in question, as to which there is alleged a material misstatement or omission. In the absence of an ability to actually trace his shares, such as when securities issued at multiple times are held by the depository trust company in a fungible bulk and physical tracing of particular shares may be impossible, the plaintiff may be barred from pursuing his claim for lack of standing. Cases in federal courts are only allowed to proceed as class actions if the court has jurisdiction to hear the case, and if the case meets the criteria set out in Rule 23. In the vast majority of federal class actions, the class is acting as the plaintiff. However, Rule 23 also provides for defendant class actions.
Typically, federal courts are thought to be more favorable for defendants, and state courts more favorable for plaintiffs. Many class actions are filed initially in state court. The defendant will frequently try to remove the case to federal court. The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 increases defendants' ability to remove state cases to federal court by giving federal courts original jurisdiction for all class actions with damages exceeding $5,000,000 exclusive of interest and costs. The Class Action Fairness Act contains carve-outs for, among other things, shareholder class actions covered by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 and those concerning internal corporate governance issues (the latter typically being brought as shareholder derivative actions in the state courts of Delaware, the state of incorporation of most large corporations).
=====Jurisdiction=====
Class actions may be brought in federal court if the claim arises under federal law or if the claim falls under 28 U.S.C. § 1332(d). Under § 1332(d)(2) the federal district courts have original jurisdiction over any civil action where the amount in controversy exceeds $5,000,000 and
any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State different from any defendant; or
any member of a class of plaintiffs is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state and any defendant is a citizen of a State; or
any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State and any defendant is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state.
Nationwide plaintiff classes are possible, but such suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines. This may be difficult if the civil law in the various states lack significant commonalities. Large class actions brought in federal court frequently are consolidated for pre-trial purposes through the device of multidistrict litigation (MDL). It is also possible to bring class actions under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class, including out of state (or even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant.
=====Class certification under Rule 23=====
For the case to proceed as a class action and bind absent class members, the court must certify the class under Rule 23 on a motion from the party wishing to proceed on a class basis. For a class to be certified, the moving party must meet all of the criteria listed under Rule 23(a), and at least one of the criteria listed under Rule 23(b). Numerosity refers to the number of people in the class. To be certified, the class has to have enough members that simply adding each of them as a named party to the lawsuit would be impractical. The typicality requirement ensures that the claims or defenses of the named plaintiff are typical of those of everyone else in the class.
=====Notice and settlement=====
Due process requires in most cases that notice describing the class action be sent, published, or broadcast to class members. As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice allowing class members to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class, informing them of the details of the proposed settlement.
====State courts====
Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP. However, some states, like California, have civil procedure systems, which deviate significantly from the federal rules; the California Codes provide for four separate types of class actions. As a result, there are two separate treatises devoted solely to the complex topic of California class actions.{ , only Virginia and Massachusetts do not provide for any class actions. Others, such as New York, limit the types of claims that may be brought as class actions.
|
[
"price-fixing",
"litigation",
"corporation",
"Law of the United States",
"Federal Equity Rules",
"civil rights movement",
"environmentalism",
"s:Constitution of India/Part III",
"Supreme Court of Argentina",
"Landeros v. Flood",
"Jacques Chirac",
"List of class action lawsuits",
"Unincorporated associations in English law",
"Due process",
"group litigation order",
"Nova Scotia",
"Indian Supreme Court",
"misselling",
"Federal Rules of Civil Procedure",
"consumer protection",
"consumerism",
"Law of the Republic of Ireland",
"asbestos",
"wikt:exhibit",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Stuff.co.nz",
"AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion",
"pleonasm",
"11th Cir.",
"plaintiffs",
"Judicature Acts",
"Bond (finance)",
"Class action waiver",
"List of Ministers of Social Affairs (Austria)",
"US Supreme Court",
"asset",
"Delhi High Court",
"Venue (law)",
"Federal Parliament",
"Arbitration clause",
"Swiss Federal Council",
"Henry Friendly",
"Securities Class Action",
"U.S.C.",
"Prince Edward Island",
"insolvency",
"Government of India",
"common law",
"Parliament of India",
"Austrian Parliament",
"arbitration",
"public interest litigation",
"United States district court",
"Supreme Court of India",
"Zivilprozessordnung (Germany)",
"Wal-Mart v. Dukes",
"California Codes",
"Vioxx",
"witnesses",
"haulier",
"pt:Ação coletiva",
"Richard Allen Epstein",
"Saskatchewan",
"Bill of Peace",
"Public Interest Litigation",
"Class action",
"collective settlement (litigation)",
"European Union",
"declaratory judgment",
"Michael Greve",
"Federal Ministry of Justice (Austria)",
"Manitoba",
"standard form contract",
"locus standi",
"mass tort",
"Bureau of Justice Statistics",
"Securities Act of 1933",
"West v. Randall",
"Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis",
"Sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic archdiocese of Portland",
"Eschede train disaster",
"separation of powers",
"Nora Bernard",
"Civil procedure code of Germany",
"trial (law)",
"lawsuit",
"Arthur Taylor von Mehren",
"Jim Copland",
"coupon settlement",
"Union Carbide",
"Standing (law)",
"case law",
"Ontario",
"Class Action (film)",
"parens patriae",
"Civil law (legal system)",
"Bryan A. Garner",
"compressed natural gas",
"overdraft",
"Quebec",
"Comcast Corp. v. Behrend",
"Richard Posner",
"non-governmental organization",
"original jurisdiction",
"parliamentary sovereignty",
"champerty",
"extortion",
"Civil procedure code of Austria",
"settlement (law)",
"Private Securities Litigation Reform Act",
"CervicalCheck cancer scandal",
"multidistrict litigation",
"Canadian government",
"Collective redress",
"plaintiff",
"condominium",
"Court of Chancery",
"Milton Handler",
"blackmail",
"Association of Trial Lawyers of America",
"common stock",
"voluntary association",
"Inhibition (law)",
"Class Action Fairness Act of 2005",
"medieval England",
"tort",
"Wars of the Roses",
"compound interest",
"Federal Court of Canada",
"consumer organization",
"U.S. Supreme Court",
"Canadian Indian residential school system",
"erga omnes",
"Austrian Supreme Court",
"Constitution of India",
"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon",
"Consumer Rights Act 2015",
"Civil law (private law)",
"Equity (law)",
"Star Chamber",
"Legal Information Institute",
"Joseph Story",
"debt",
"environmental law",
"Law of Canada",
"Bhopal disaster",
"Dukes v. Wal-Mart",
"Supreme Court of Canada",
"Reuters",
"Congressional Research Service",
"removal jurisdiction",
"Delhi",
"Civil Procedure Rules",
"California Supreme Court",
"amount in controversy",
"English court",
"defendant"
] |
7,201 |
Contempt of court
|
Contempt of court, often referred to simply as "contempt", is the crime of being disobedient to or disrespectful toward a court of law and its officers in the form of behavior that opposes or defies the authority, justice, and dignity of the court. A similar attitude toward a legislative body is termed contempt of Parliament or contempt of Congress. The verb for "to commit contempt" is contemn (as in "to contemn a court order") and a person guilty of this is a contemnor or contemner.
There are broadly two categories of contempt: being disrespectful to legal authorities in the courtroom, or willfully failing to obey a court order. Contempt proceedings are especially used to enforce equitable remedies, such as injunctions. In some jurisdictions, the refusal to respond to subpoena, to testify, to fulfill the obligations of a juror, or to provide certain information can constitute contempt of the court.
When a court decides that an action constitutes contempt of court, it can issue an order in the context of a court trial or hearing that declares a person or organization to have disobeyed or been disrespectful of the court's authority, called "found" or "held" in contempt. That is the judge's strongest power to impose sanctions for acts that disrupt the court's normal process.
A finding of being in contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material or non-disclosure of material, which in doing so is deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine, jail or social service for someone found guilty of contempt of court, which makes contempt of court a process crime. Judges in common law systems usually have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems.
==In use today==
Contempt of court is essentially seen as a form of disturbance that may impede the functioning of the court. The judge may impose fines and/or jail time upon any person committing contempt of court. The person is usually let out upon an agreement to fulfill the wishes of the court. Civil contempt can involve acts of omission. The judge will make use of warnings in most situations that may lead to a person being charged with contempt if the warnings are ignored. It is relatively rare that a person is charged for contempt without first receiving at least one warning from the judge. Constructive contempt, also called consequential contempt, is when a person fails to fulfill the will of the court as it applies to outside obligations of the person. In most cases, constructive contempt is considered to be in the realm of civil contempt due to its passive nature.
Indirect contempt is something that is associated with civil and constructive contempt and involves a failure to follow court orders. Criminal contempt includes anything that could be considered a disturbance, such as repeatedly talking out of turn, bringing forth previously banned evidence, or harassment of any other party in the courtroom, including committing an assault against the defendant in a criminal case. There have been instances during murder trials that grieving family members of murder victims have attacked the defendants in courtrooms in plain view of judges, bailiffs, and jurors, leading to said family members to be charged with contempt.
===Australia===
In Australia, a judge may impose a fine or jail for contempt of court.
===Belgium===
A Belgian correctional or civil judge may immediately try the person for insulting the court.
=== British West Indies ===
In 1888, Louis de Souza, a young barrister in British Guiana was fined $500 and imprisoned for six months for contempt of court for publicly criticising judicial decisions. De Souza applied for special leave to appeal his case to the Privy Council as the decisions that he had criticised were not ongoing or cases in which he appeared and, therefore, broader than disrespect to legal authorities in a courtroom. A few years earlier, in Grenada, a newspaper had also been sanctioned for defaming a judge by printing remarks about a case.
The Privy Council granted De Souza's leave, with the judges apparently remarking that judges in England are subjected to far worse. De Souza, however, contracted tuberculosis while in jail and died 3 months after his release. His imprisonment was reported across the West Indies and his death elicited outrage. Valence Gale, a Barbadian journalist, wrote passionately about the events leading up De Souza's death. One of his articles is credited with paving the way for the passage of Barbados' Contempt of Court Act 1891,
If it is a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person being imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order or fine.
====Tax Court of Canada====
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of Tax Court of Canada Act, a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.
====Provincial courts====
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in British Columbia, a justice of the peace can only issue a summons to an offender for contempt, which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done in the face of the justice.
===Hong Kong===
Judges from the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal, High Court of Hong Kong, District Court along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner's Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislation or through common law:
Insult a judge or justice, witness or officers of the court
Interrupts the proceedings of the court
Interfere with the course of justice
Misbehaves in court (e.g., use of mobile phone or recording devices without permission)
Juror who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings
Disobeying a judgment or court order
Breach of undertaking
Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court
The use of insulting or threatening language in the magistrates' courts or against a magistrate is in breach of section 99 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) which states the magistrate can 'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.'
In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority for contempt by them (e.g., Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc.). For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the Court of First Instance who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.
===England and Wales===
In England and Wales (a common law jurisdiction), the law on contempt is partly set out in case law (common law), and partly codified by the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be classified as criminal or civil. The maximum penalty for criminal contempt under the 1981 Act is committal to prison for two years.
Disorderly, contemptuous or insolent behaviour toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behaviour observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.
There are limits to the powers of contempt created by rulings of European Court of Human Rights. Reporting on contempt of court, the Law Commission commented that "punishment of an advocate for what he or she says in court, whether a criticism of the judge or a prosecutor, amounts to an interference with his or her rights under article 10 of the ECHR" and that such limits must be "prescribed by law" and be "necessary in a democratic society", citing Nikula v Finland.
====Criminal contempt====
The Crown Court is a superior court according to the Senior Courts Act 1981, and Crown Courts have the power to punish contempt. The Divisional Court as part of the High Court has ruled that this power can apply in these three circumstances:
Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
Disobedience of a court order; and
Breaches of undertakings to the court.
Where it is necessary to act quickly, a judge may act to impose committal (to prison) for contempt.
Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the Attorney General can intervene and the Crown Prosecution Service will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before a Divisional Court of the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. In January 2012, for example, a juror who had researched information on the internet was jailed for contempt of court. Theodora Dallas, initially searching for the meaning of the term "grievous bodily harm", added search criteria which localised her search and brought to light another charge against the defendant. Because she then shared this information with the other jurors, the judge stated that she had compromised the defendant's right to a fair trial and the prosecution was abandoned.
Magistrates' courts also have powers under the 1981 Act to order to detain any person who "insults the court" or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon contempt being admitted or proved the (invariably) District Judge (sitting as a magistrate) may order committal to prison for a maximum of one month, impose a fine of up to £2,500, or both.
It will be contempt to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.
It will not be contempt according to section 10 of the Act for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime".
====Strict liability contempt====
Under the Contempt of Court Act it is criminal contempt to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the Attorney General has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial or linked trials are over and the juries have given their verdicts.
Section 2 of the Act defines and limits the previous common law definition of contempt (which was previously based upon a presumption that any conduct could be treated as contempt, regardless of intent), to only instances where there can be proved an intent to cause a substantial risk of serious prejudice to the administration of justice (i.e./e.g., the conduct of a trial).
====Civil contempt====
In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:
Failure to attend at court despite a summons requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a writ of latitat would have been issued, but now a bench warrant is issued, authorizing the tipstaff to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally "backed for bail"—i.e., bail will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice"—i.e., notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment—is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claimant of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.
===India===
In India, contempt of court is of two types:
===Pakistan===
===Singapore===
===United States===
In United States jurisprudence, acts of contempt are generally divided into direct or indirect, and civil or criminal. Direct contempt occurs in the presence of a judge; civil contempt is "coercive and remedial" as opposed to punitive. In the United States, relevant statutes include and Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 42.
Direct contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (in facie curiae) and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
Indirect contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and, since there is no written procedure, may or may not be allowed to present evidence in rebuttal.
Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.
Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a fine or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to their own cell, thus conventional due process is not required. In federal and most state courts, the burden of proof for civil contempt is clear and convincing evidence, a lower standard than in criminal cases.
In civil contempt cases there is no principle of proportionality. In Chadwick v. Janecka (3d Cir. 2002), a U.S. court of appeals held that H. Beatty Chadwick could be held indefinitely for his failure to produce $2.5 million as a state court ordered in a civil trial. Chadwick had been imprisoned for nine years at that time and continued to be held in prison until 2009, when a state court set him free after 14 years, making his imprisonment the longest on a contempt charge to date.
Civil contempt is only appropriate when the imposed party has the power to comply with the underlying order. Controversial contempt rulings have periodically arisen from cases involving asset protection trusts, where the court has ordered a settlor of an asset protection trust to repatriate assets so that the assets may be made available to a creditor. A court cannot maintain an order of contempt where the imposed party does not have the ability to comply with the underlying order. This claim when made by the imposed party is known as the "impossibility defense".
Contempt of court is considered a prerogative of the court, and "the requirement of a jury does not apply to 'contempts committed in disobedience of any lawful writ, process, order, rule, decree, or command entered in any suit or action brought or prosecuted in the name of, or on behalf of, the United States. This stance is not universally agreed with by other areas of the legal world, and there have been many calls to have contempt cases to be tried by jury, rather than by judge, as a potential conflict of interest rising from a judge both accusing and sentencing the defendant. At least one Supreme Court justice has made calls for jury trials to replace judge trials on contempt cases.
The United States Marshals Service is the agency component that first holds all federal prisoners. It uses the Prisoner Population Management System / Prisoner Tracking System. The only types of records that are disclosed as being in the system are those of "federal prisoners who are in custody pending criminal proceedings." The records of "alleged civil contempors" are not listed in the Federal Register as being in the system leading to a potential claim for damages under The Privacy Act, .
====News media in the United States====
In the United States, because of the broad protections granted by the First Amendment, with extremely limited exceptions, unless the media outlet is a party to the case, a media outlet cannot be found in contempt of court for reporting about a case because a court cannot order the media in general not to report on a case or forbid it from reporting facts discovered publicly. Newspapers cannot be closed because of their content.
====Criticism====
There have been criticisms over the practice of trying contempt from the bench. In particular, Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black wrote in a dissent, "It is high time, in my judgment, to wipe out root and branch the judge-invented and judge-maintained notion that judges can try criminal contempt cases without a jury."
|
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"asset protection",
"Contempt of Court Act 1981",
"Offence of scandalizing the court in Singapore",
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"Barbadians",
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"tipstaff",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Magistrate (England and Wales)",
"District Court (Hong Kong)",
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"jail",
"jury",
"summons",
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"Law Commission",
"Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal",
"injunction",
"Law of England and Wales",
"King's Bench Division",
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"prerogative",
"Fine (penalty)",
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"Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure",
"bench warrant",
"civil suit",
"Magistrates' court (England and Wales)",
"common law offence",
"Duke Law Journal",
"bail",
"Legal burden of proof",
"Juror",
"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council",
"Contumacy",
"jurisprudence",
"Crown Prosecution Service",
"grievous bodily harm",
"Latitat",
"H. Beatty Chadwick",
"Criminal Code (Canada)",
"European Court of Human Rights",
"Tax Court of Canada",
"due process of law",
"trial (law)",
"justice of the peace",
"Barbados",
"Perjury",
"contempt of Parliament",
"Judiciary of England and Wales",
"Valence Gale",
"Hugo Black",
"Obstruction of justice",
"West Indies",
"British Guiana",
"Attorney General for England and Wales",
"journalist",
"Lèse-majesté",
"Judicial discretion",
"Louis de Souza (barrister)",
"Senior Courts Act 1981",
"Equitable remedy",
"hearing (law)",
"tuberculosis",
"fair trial",
"fine (penalty)",
"process crime",
"officers of the court",
"First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States",
"Australia",
"High Court of England and Wales",
"Proportionality (law)",
"sanctions (law)",
"civil law (legal system)",
"magistrates' court (Hong Kong)",
"punitive",
"British Columbia",
"mobile phone",
"Crown Court",
"Sheriffs in the United States",
"necessary in a democratic society",
"High Court of Hong Kong",
"Court of First Instance (Hong Kong)",
"superior court"
] |
7,202 |
Corroborating evidence
|
Corroborating evidence, also referred to as corroboration, is a type of evidence in lawful command.
==Types and uses==
Corroborating evidence tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some initial evidence, therefore confirming the proposition. For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car. Meanwhile, Y, another witness, corroborates the proposition by testifying that when he examined X's car, later that day, he noticed green paint on its fender. There can also be corroborating evidence related to a certain source, such as what makes an author think a certain way due to the evidence that was supplied by witnesses or objects.
Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the Baconian method, i.e., the method of agreement, method of difference, and method of concomitant variations.
These methods are followed in experimental design. They were codified by Francis Bacon, and developed further by John Stuart Mill and consist of controlling several variables, in turn, to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations, and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design.
In law, corroboration refers to the requirement in some jurisdictions, such as in Scots law, that any evidence adduced be backed up by at least one other source (see Corroboration in Scots law).
== An example of corroboration ==
Defendant says, "It was like what he/she (a witness) said but...". This is Corroborative evidence from the defendant that the evidence the witness gave is true and correct.
Corroboration is not needed in certain instances. For example, there are certain statutory exceptions. In the Education (Scotland) Act, it is only necessary to produce a register as proof of lack of attendance. No further evidence is needed.
==England and Wales==
Perjury
See section 13 of the Perjury Act 1911.
Speeding offences
See section 89(2) of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984.
Sexual offences
See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
Confessions by mentally handicapped persons
See section 77 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984.
Evidence of children
See section 34 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.
Evidence of accomplices
See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
|
[
"Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994",
"Scots law",
"Casuistry",
"Dependent and independent variables",
"Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984",
"Baconian method",
"Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984",
"experimental design",
"Mill's Methods",
"method of concomitant variations",
"Education (Scotland) Act",
"causality",
"John Stuart Mill",
"method of agreement",
"Corroboration in Scots law",
"Perjury Act 1911",
"Criminal Justice Act 1988",
"Francis Bacon (philosopher)",
"Karl Popper"
] |
7,203 |
Cross-examination
|
In law, cross-examination is the interrogation of a witness by one's opponent. It is preceded by direct examination (known as examination-in-chief in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, India and Pakistan) and may be followed by a redirect (known as re-examination in the aforementioned countries). A redirect examination, performed by the attorney or pro se individual who performed the direct examination, clarifies the witness' testimony provided during cross-examination including any subject matter raised during cross-examination but not discussed during direct examination. Recross examination addresses the witness' testimony discussed in redirect by the opponent. Depending on the judge's discretion, opponents are allowed multiple opportunities to redirect and recross examine witnesses (this may vary by jurisdiction).
== Variations by jurisdiction ==
In the United States federal courts, a cross-examining attorney is generally limited by Rule 611 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to the "subject matter of the direct examination and matters affecting the witness's credibility". The rule also permits the trial court, in its discretion, to "allow inquiry into additional matters as if on direct examination". Many state courts do permit a lawyer to cross-examine a witness on matters not raised during direct examination, though California restricts cross-examination to "any matter within the scope of the direct examination". Similarly, courts in England, South Africa, Australia, and Canada allow a cross-examiner to exceed the scope of direct examination.
Since a witness called by the opposing party is presumed to be hostile, leading questions are allowed on cross-examination. A witness called by a direct examiner, on the other hand, may only be treated as hostile by that examiner after being permitted to do so by the judge, at the request of that examiner and as a result of the witness being openly antagonistic and/or prejudiced against the party that called them.
== Affecting the outcome of jury trials ==
Cross-examination is a key component of a trial and the topic is given substantial attention during courses on trial advocacy. The opinions of a jury or judge are often changed if cross-examination casts doubt on the witness. On the other hand, a credible witness may reinforce the substance of their original statements and enhance the judge's or jury's belief. Though the closing argument is often considered the deciding moment of a trial, effective cross-examination wins trials.
Attorneys anticipate hostile witnesses' responses during pretrial planning, and often attempt to shape the witnesses' perception of the questions to draw out information helpful to the attorney's case. Typically during an attorney's closing argument, they will repeat any admissions made by witnesses that favor their case. In the United States, cross-examination is seen as a core part of the entire adversarial system of justice, in that it "is the principal means by which the believability of a witness and the truth of his testimony are tested." Another key component affecting a trial outcome is jury selection, in which attorneys will attempt to include jurors from whom they feel they can get a favorable response or at the least an unbiased fair decision. So while there are many factors affecting the outcome of a trial, the cross-examination of a witness will often influence an open-minded unbiased jury searching for the certainty of facts upon which to base their decision.
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7,206 |
Christiania
|
Christiania may refer to:
==Businesses and organizations==
Christiania Bank, a former Norwegian bank
Christiania Theatre, formerly in Oslo, Norway
Christiania Norwegian Theatre, merged in 1863
Christiania Spigerverk, a former Norwegian steel company
==Places==
Christiania or Kristiania, official names of Oslo (1624–1924), nickname (from 1925) for the part of Oslo that was founded by King Christian IV
Christiania Islands, Antarctica
Christiania Township, Jackson County, Minnesota, U.S.
Freetown Christiania, or Christiania, an anarchist territory in Copenhagen, Denmark
==Other uses==
Christiania (brachiopod), an extinct genus
Christiania RK, a rowing club from Oslo, Norway
Christiania SK, a former Norwegian Nordic skiing club
|
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"Christiania RK",
"Oslo",
"Cristian (disambiguation)",
"Christiania SK",
"Christiania Spigerverk",
"Christiania Bank",
"Freetown Christiania",
"Christiania Township, Jackson County, Minnesota",
"Christiana (disambiguation)",
"Christiania Theatre",
"Christiania (brachiopod)",
"Christiania Norwegian Theatre",
"Christiania Islands"
] |
7,207 |
Charles d'Abancourt
|
Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville d'Abancourt (4 July 17589 September 1792) was a French statesman, minister to Louis XVI.
==Biography==
D'Abancourt was born in Douai, and was the nephew of Charles Alexandre de Calonne. He was Louis XVI's last minister of war (July 1792), and organised the defence of the Tuileries Palace during the 10 August attack. Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss Guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent to Orléans to be tried.
At the end of August the Assembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orléans to be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude Fournier, nicknamed l'Americain. At Versailles they learned of the massacres at Paris. Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were murdered in cold blood during the 9 September massacres (9 September 1792) at Versailles. Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.
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"Douai",
"Tuileries Palace",
"Charles Alexandre de Calonne",
"Versailles (city)",
"Secretary of State for War (France)",
"Joseph Marie Servan de Gerbey"
] |
7,211 |
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk
|
The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk is an American single-engined, single-seat, all-metal fighter-bomber that first flew in 1938. The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36 Hawk which reduced development time and enabled a rapid entry into production and operational service. The Warhawk was used by most Allied powers during World War II, and remained in frontline service until the end of the war. It was the third most-produced American fighter of World War II, after the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt; by November 1944, when production of the P-40 ceased, 13,738 had been built, all at Curtiss-Wright Corporation's main production facilities in Buffalo, New York.
P-40 Warhawk was the name the United States Army Air Corps gave the plane, and after June 1941, the USAAF
adopted the name for all models, making it the official name in the U.S. for all P-40s. The British Commonwealth and Soviet air forces used the name Tomahawk for models equivalent to the original P-40, P-40B, and P-40C, and the name Kittyhawk for models equivalent to the P-40D and all later variants. P-40s first saw combat with the British Commonwealth squadrons of the Desert Air Force in the Middle East and North African campaigns, during June 1941. No. 112 Squadron Royal Air Force, was among the first to operate Tomahawks in North Africa and the unit was the first Allied military aviation unit to feature the "shark mouth" logo, copying similar markings on some Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine fighters.|group=N}}
The lack of a two-speed supercharger for the P-40's Allison V-1710 engine's made it inferior to Luftwaffe fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 in high-altitude combat and it was rarely used in operations in Northwest Europe. However, between 1941 and 1944, the P-40 played a critical role with Allied air forces in three major theaters: North Africa, the Southwest Pacific, and China. It also had a significant role in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Alaska and Italy. The P-40's performance at high altitudes was not as important in those theaters, where it served as an air superiority fighter, bomber escort and fighter-bomber.
Although it gained a postwar reputation as a mediocre design, suitable only for close air support, more recent research including scrutiny of the records of Allied squadrons indicates that this was not the case; the P-40 performed surprisingly well as an air superiority fighter, at times suffering severe losses, but also inflicting a very heavy toll on enemy aircraft. Based on war-time victory claims, over 200 Allied fighter pilots – from the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, the US and the Soviet Union – became aces flying the P-40. These included at least 20 double aces, mostly over North Africa, China, Burma and India, the South West Pacific and Eastern Europe. The P-40 offered the additional advantages of low cost and durability, which kept it in production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was obsolescent as a fighter.
==Design and development==
===Origins===
On 14 October 1938, Curtiss test pilot Edward Elliott flew the prototype XP-40 on its first flight in Buffalo. The XP-40 was the 10th production Curtiss P-36 Hawk, with its Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine replaced at the direction of Chief Engineer Don R. Berlin by a liquid-cooled, supercharged Allison V-1710 V-12 engine. The first prototype placed the glycol coolant radiator in an underbelly position on the fighter, just aft of the wing's trailing edge. USAAC Fighter Projects Officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey flew this prototype some 300 miles in 57 minutes, approximately . Hiding his disappointment, he told reporters that future versions would likely go faster. Kelsey was interested in the Allison engine because it was sturdy and dependable, and it had a smooth, predictable power curve. The V-12 engine offered as much power as a radial engine but had a smaller frontal area and allowed a more streamlined cowl than an aircraft with a radial engine, promising a theoretical 5% increase in top speed.
Curtiss engineers worked to improve the XP-40's speed by moving the radiator forward in steps. Seeing little gain, Kelsey ordered the aircraft to be evaluated in a NACA wind tunnel to identify solutions for better aerodynamic qualities. From 28 March to 11 April 1939, the prototype was studied by NACA. Based on the data obtained, Curtiss moved the glycol coolant radiator forward to the chin; its new air scoop also accommodated the oil cooler air intake. Other improvements to the landing gear doors and the exhaust manifold combined to give performance that was satisfactory to the USAAC.|group=N}} Further tests in December 1939 proved the fighter could reach .
An unusual production feature was a special truck rig to speed delivery at the main Curtiss plant in Buffalo, New York. The rig moved the newly built P-40s in two main components, the main wing and the fuselage, the eight miles from the plant to the airport where the two units were mated for flight and delivery.
===Performance characteristics===
The P-40 was conceived as a pursuit aircraft and was agile at low and medium altitudes but suffered from a lack of power at higher altitudes. At medium and high speeds it was one of the tightest-turning early monoplane designs of the war, and it could out-turn most opponents it faced in North Africa and the Russian Front. In the Pacific Theater it was out-turned at lower speeds by the lightweight fighters Mitsubishi A6M Zero and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (known to Allies as "Oscar"). The American Volunteer Group Commander Claire Chennault advised against prolonged dog-fighting with the Japanese fighters due to speed reduction favoring the Japanese.
Allison's V-1710 engines produced at sea level and . This was not powerful compared with contemporary fighters, and the early P-40 variants' top speeds were only average. The single-stage, single-speed supercharger meant that the P-40 was a poor high-altitude fighter. Later versions, with Allisons or more powerful 1,400 hp Packard Merlin engines were more capable. Climb performance was fair to poor, depending on the subtype. The P-40 had one of the fastest maximum dive speeds of any fighter of the early war period, and good high-speed handling.
The P-40 tolerated harsh conditions and a variety of climates. Its semi-modular design was easy to maintain in the field. It lacked innovations such as boosted ailerons or automatic leading edge slats, but its strong structure included a five-spar wing, which enabled P-40s to pull high-G turns and survive some midair collisions. Intentional ramming attacks against enemy aircraft were occasionally recorded as victories by the Desert Air Force and Soviet Air Forces. Caldwell said P-40s "would take a tremendous amount of punishment, violent aerobatics as well as enemy action". This was improved with the P-40D (Kittyhawk I) which abandoned the synchronized gun mounts and instead had two guns in each wing, although Caldwell still preferred the earlier Tomahawk in other respects. The D had armor around the engine and the cockpit, which enabled it to withstand considerable damage. This allowed Allied pilots in Asia and the Pacific to attack Japanese fighters head on, rather than try to out-turn and out-climb their opponents. Late-model P-40s were well armored. Visibility was adequate, although hampered by a complex windscreen frame, and completely blocked to the rear in early models by a raised turtledeck. Poor ground visibility and relatively narrow landing gear track caused many losses on the ground.
==Operational history==
In April 1939, the U.S. Army Air Corps, having witnessed the new, sleek, high-speed, in-line-engined fighters of the European air forces, placed the largest fighter order it had ever made for 524 P-40s.
===French Air Force===
An early order came from the French Armée de l'Air, which was already operating P-36s. The Armée de l'Air ordered 100 (later the order was increased to 230) as the Hawk 81A-1 but the French were defeated before the aircraft had left the factory and the aircraft were diverted to British and Commonwealth service (as the Tomahawk I), in some cases complete with metric flight instruments.
In late 1942, as French forces in North Africa split from the Vichy government to side with the Allies, U.S. forces transferred P-40Fs from 33rd FG to GC II/5, a squadron that was historically associated with the Lafayette Escadrille. GC II/5 used its P-40Fs and Ls in combat in Tunisia and later for patrol duty off the Mediterranean coast until mid-1944, when they were replaced by Republic P-47D Thunderbolts.
===British Commonwealth===
====Deployment====
In all, 18 Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons, four Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), three South African Air Force (SAAF) and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s. The first units to convert were Hawker Hurricane squadrons of the Desert Air Force (DAF), in early 1941. The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or self-sealing fuel tanks, which were installed in subsequent shipments. Pilots used to British fighters sometimes found it difficult to adapt to the P-40's rear-folding landing gear, which was more prone to collapse than the lateral-folding landing gear of the Hurricane or Supermarine Spitfire. In contrast to the "three-point landing" commonly employed with British types, P-40 pilots were obliged to use a "wheels landing": a longer, low angle approach that touched down on the main wheels first.
Testing showed the aircraft did not have the performance needed for use in Northwest Europe at high-altitude, due to the service ceiling limitation. Spitfires used in the theater operated at heights around , while the P-40's Allison engine, with its single-stage, low altitude rated supercharger, worked best at or lower. When the Tomahawk was used by Allied units based in the UK from February 1941, this limitation relegated the Tomahawk to low-level reconnaissance with RAF Army Cooperation Command
and only No. 403 Squadron RCAF was used in the fighter role for a mere 29 sorties, before being replaced by Spitfires. Air Ministry deemed the P-40 unsuitable for the theater. UK P-40 squadrons
The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk ("D"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943. Kittyhawks included many improvements and were the DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until "tropicalised" Supermarine Spitfires were available. DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF and the majority of the 700 "lightweight" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50 in (12.7 mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA). The DAF also received some 21 of the later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs. The "lightweight" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly as fighter-bombers. From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the U.S. 57th Fighter Group (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union.
====Combat performance====
Tomahawks and Kittyhawks bore the brunt of Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica fighter attacks during the North African campaign. The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force.}}
The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of advantage in the Allies' favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the Luftwaffe accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite Luftwaffe units, such as Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG27), in North Africa. Most air combat in North Africa took place well below , negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in turning, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling.
The P-40 was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the Fiat G.50 Freccia and the Macchi C.200. Its performance against the Macchi C.202 Folgore elicited varying opinions. Some observers consider the Macchi C.202 superior. Caldwell, who scored victories against them in his P-40, felt that the Folgore was superior to the P-40 and the Bf 109 except that its armament of only two or four machine guns was inadequate. Other observers considered the two equally matched or favored the Folgore in aerobatic performance, such as turning radius. The aviation historian Walter J. Boyne wrote that over Africa, the P-40 and the Folgore were "equivalent". Against its lack of high-altitude performance, the P-40 was considered to be a stable gun platform and its rugged construction meant that it was able to operate from rough front line airstrips with a good rate of serviceability.
The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include Vichy French aircraft, during the 1941 Syria-Lebanon campaign, against Dewoitine D.520s, a type often considered to be the best French fighter of the war.
Some DAF units initially failed to use the P-40's strengths or used outdated defensive tactics such as the Lufbery circle. The superior climb rate of the Bf 109 enabled fast, swooping attacks, neutralizing the advantages offered by conventional defensive tactics. Various new formations were tried by Tomahawk units from 1941 to 1942, including "fluid pairs" (similar to the German rotte); the Thach Weave (one or two "weavers") at the back of a squadron in formation and whole squadrons bobbing and weaving in loose formations. Werner Schröer, who was credited with destroying 114 Allied aircraft in only 197 combat missions, referred to the latter formation as "bunches of grapes", because he found them so easy to pick off.
From 26 May 1942, Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, giving rise to the nickname "Kittybomber". As a result of this change in role and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high losses; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s.
Caldwell believed that Operational Training Units did not properly prepare pilots for air combat in the P-40 and as a commander, stressed the importance of training novice pilots properly.
Competent pilots who took advantage of the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica.|group=N}} Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s. Billy Drake of 112 Squadron was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories. A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces.|group=N}}]]
The Flying Tigers, known officially as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG), were a unit of the Chinese Air Force, recruited from amongst U.S. Navy, Marine Corps and Army aviators and ground crew.
AVG leader Claire Chennault received crated Model Bs which his airmen assembled in Burma at the end of 1941, adding self-sealing fuel tanks and a second pair of wing guns, such that the aircraft became a hybrid of B and C models. These were not well-liked by their pilots: they lacked drop tanks for extra range, and there were no bomb racks on the wings. Chennault considered the liquid-cooled engine vulnerable in combat because a single bullet through the coolant system would cause the engine to overheat in minutes. The Tomahawks also had no radios, so the AVG improvised by installing a fragile radio transceiver, the RCA-7-H, which had been built for a Piper Cub. Because the plane had a single-stage low-altitude supercharger, its effective ceiling was about . The most critical problem was the lack of spare parts; the only source was from damaged aircraft. The planes were viewed as cast-offs that no one else wanted, dangerous and difficult to fly. But the pilots did appreciate some of the planes' features. There were two heavy sheets of steel behind the pilot's head and back that offered solid protection, and overall the planes were ruggedly constructed.
Compared to opposing Japanese fighters, the P-40B's strengths were that it was sturdy, well-armed, faster in a dive and possessed an excellent rate of roll. While the P-40s could not match the maneuverability of the Japanese Army air arm's Nakajima Ki-27s and Ki-43s, nor the much more famous Zero naval fighter in slow, turning dogfights, at higher speeds the P-40s were more than a match. Chennault trained his pilots to use the P-40's particular performance advantages. The P-40 had a higher dive speed than any Japanese fighter aircraft of the early war years, for example, and could exploit so-called "boom-and-zoom" tactics. The AVG was highly successful, and its feats were widely publicized by an active cadre of international journalists to boost sagging public morale at home. According to its official records, in just months, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 enemy aircraft for the loss of just four of its own in air-to-air combat.
In the spring of 1942, the AVG received a small number of Model E's. Each came equipped with a radio, six .50-caliber machine guns, and auxiliary bomb racks that could hold 35-lb fragmentation bombs. Chennault's armorer added bomb racks for 570-lb Russian bombs, which the Chinese had in abundance. These planes were used in the battle of the Salween River Gorge in late May 1942, which kept the Japanese from entering China from Burma and threatening Kunming. Spare parts, however, remained in short supply. "Scores of new planes...were now in India, and there they stayed—in case the Japanese decided to invade... the AVG was lucky to get a few tires and spark plugs with which to carry on its daily war."
====4th Air Group====
China received 27 P-40E models in early 1943. These were assigned to squadrons of the 4th Air Group.
===United States Army Air Forces===
A total of 15 USAAF pursuit/fighter groups (FG), along with other pursuit/fighter squadrons and a few tactical reconnaissance (TR) units, operated the P-40 during 1941–45. and in the Philippines, USAAF P-40 squadrons suffered crippling losses on the ground and in the air to Japanese fighters such as the A6M Zero and Ki-43 Hayabusa respectively. During the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of the USAAF fighters were P-40Bs, the majority of which were destroyed. However, a few P-40s managed to get in the air and shoot down several Japanese aircraft, most notably by George Welch and Kenneth Taylor.
In the Dutch East Indies campaign, the 17th Pursuit Squadron (Provisional), formed from USAAF pilots evacuated from the Philippines, claimed 49 Japanese aircraft destroyed, for the loss of 17 P-40s In the Solomon Islands and New Guinea Campaigns and the air defence of Australia, improved tactics and training allowed the USAAF to better use the strengths of the P-40. Due to aircraft fatigue, scarcity of spare parts and replacement problems, the US Fifth Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force created a joint P-40 management and replacement pool on 30 July 1942 and many P-40s went back and forth between the air forces.
The 49th Fighter Group was in action in the Pacific from the beginning of the war. Robert M. DeHaven scored 10 kills (of 14 overall) in the P-40 with the 49th FG. He compared the P-40 favorably with the P-38:
"If you flew wisely, the P-40 was a very capable aircraft. [It] could outturn a P-38, a fact that some pilots didn't realize when they made the transition between the two aircraft. [...] The real problem with it was lack of range. As we pushed the Japanese back, P-40 pilots were slowly left out of the war. So when I moved to P-38s, an excellent aircraft, I did not [believe] that the P-40 was an inferior fighter, but because I knew the P-38 would allow us to reach the enemy. I was a fighter pilot and that was what I was supposed to do."
The 8th, 15th, 18th, 24th, 49th, 343rd and 347th PGs/FGs, flew P-40s in the Pacific theaters between 1941 and 1945, with most units converting to P-38s from 1943 to 1944. In 1945, the 71st Reconnaissance Group employed them as armed forward air controllers during ground operations in the Philippines, until it received delivery of P-51s.
In the Battle of the Salween River Gorge of May 1942 the AVG used the P-40E model equipped with wing racks that could carry six 35-pound fragmentation bombs and Chennault's armorer developed belly racks to carry Russian 570-pound bombs, which the Chinese had in large quantity.
Units arriving in the CBI after the AVG in the 10th and 14th Air Forces continued to perform well with the P-40, claiming 973 kills in the theater, or 64.8 percent of all enemy aircraft shot down. Aviation historian Carl Molesworth stated that "...the P-40 simply dominated the skies over Burma and China. They were able to establish air superiority over free China, northern Burma and the Assam valley of India in 1942, and they never relinquished it." The 3rd, 5th, 23rd, 51st and 80th FGs, along with the 10th TRS, operated the P-40 in the CBI.
The P-40 saw the most front line use in Soviet hands in 1942 and early 1943. Deliveries over the Alaska-Siberia ALSIB ferry route began in October 1942. It was used in the northern sectors and played a significant role in the defense of Leningrad. The most numerically important types were P-40B/C, P-40E and P-40K/M. By the time the better P-40F and N types became available, production of superior Soviet fighters had increased sufficiently so that the P-40 was replaced in most Soviet Air Force units by the Lavochkin La-5 and various later Yakovlev types. In spring 1943, Lt D.I. Koval of the 45th IAP gained ace status on the North Caucasian front, shooting down six German aircraft flying a P-40. Some Soviet P-40 squadrons had good combat records. Some Soviet pilots became aces on the P-40, though not as many as on the P-39 Airacobra, the most numerous Lend-Lease fighter used by the Soviet Union.
===Japan===
The Japanese Army captured some P-40s and later operated a number in Burma. The Japanese appear to have had as many as 10 flyable P-40Es. For a brief period in 1943, a few of them were used operationally by 2 Hiko Chutai, 50 Hiko Sentai (2nd Air Squadron, 50th Air Regiment) in the defense of Rangoon. Testimony of this is given by Yasuhiko Kuroe, a member of the 64 Hiko Sentai. In his memoirs, he says one Japanese-operated P-40 was shot down in error by a friendly Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally" over Rangoon.
===Other nations===
The P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war. The P-40 was used by Brazil, Egypt, Finland and Turkey. The last P-40s in military service, used by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB), were retired in 1954.
In the air war over Finland, several Soviet P-40s were shot down or had to crash-land due to other reasons. The Finns, short of good aircraft, collected these and managed to repair one P-40M, P-40M-10-CU 43–5925, white 23, which received Finnish Air Force serial number KH-51 (KH denoting "Kittyhawk", as the British designation of this type was Kittyhawk III). This aircraft was attached to an operational squadron HLeLv 32 of the Finnish Air Force, but lack of spares kept it on the ground, with the exception of a few evaluation flights.
Several P-40Ns were used by the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force with No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF against the Japanese before being used during the fighting in Indonesia until February 1949.
==Variants and development stages==
XP-40
The original Curtiss XP-40, ordered July 1937, was converted from the 10th P-36A by replacing the radial engine with a new Allison V-1710-19 engine. It flew for the first time in October 1938.
This new liquid-cooled engine fighter had a radiator mounted under the rear fuselage
but the prototype XP-40 was later modified and the radiator was moved forward under the engine.
P-40
The P-40 (Curtiss Model 81A-1) was the first production variant, 199 built.
P-40A
One P-40 was modified with a camera installation in the rear fuselage and re-designated P-40A.
Revised versions of the P-40 soon followed: the P-40B or Tomahawk IIA had extra .30 in (7.62 mm) U.S., or .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns in the wings and a partially protected fuel system; the P-40C or Tomahawk IIB added underbelly drop tank and bomb shackles, self-sealing fuel tanks and other minor revisions, but the extra weight did have a negative impact on aircraft performance. (All versions of the P-40 had a relatively low power-to-weight ratio compared to contemporary fighters.)
Only a small number of P-40D or Kittyhawk Mk Is were made, fewer than 50. With a new, larger Allison engine, slightly narrower fuselage, redesigned canopy, and improved cockpit, the P-40D eliminated the nose-mounted .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and instead had a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in each wing. The distinctive chin airscoop grew larger so they could adequately cool the large Allison engine.
Retrospective designation for a single prototype. The P-40A was a single camera-carrying aircraft.
The P-40E or P-40E-1 was similar in most respects to the P-40D, except for a slightly more powerful engine and an extra .50 in (12.7 mm) gun in each wing, bringing the total to six. Some aircraft also had small underwing bomb shackles. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk IA. The P-40E was the variant that bore the brunt of air-to-air combat by the type in the key period of early to mid 1942, for example with the first US squadrons to replace the AVG in China (the AVG was already transitioning to this type from the P-40B/C), the type used by the Australians at Milne Bay, by the New Zealand squadrons during most of their air-to-air combat, and by the RAF/Commonwealth in North Africa as the Kittyhawk IA.
P-40F and P-40L, which both featured Packard V-1650 Merlin engine in place of the normal Allison, and thus did not have the carburetor scoop on top of the nose. Performance for these models at higher altitudes was better than their Allison-engined cousins. The L in some cases also featured a fillet in front of the vertical stabilizer, or a stretched fuselage to compensate for the higher torque. The P-40L was sometimes nicknamed "Gypsy Rose Lee", after a famous stripper of the era, due to its stripped-down condition. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces under the designation Kittyhawk Mk II, a total of 330 Mk IIs were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease. The first 230 aircraft are sometimes known as the Kittyhawk Mk IIA. The P-40F/L was extensively used by U.S. fighter groups operating in the Mediterranean Theater.
P-40G: 43 P-40 aircraft fitted with the wings of the Tomahawk Mk IIA. A total of 16 aircraft were supplied to the Soviet Union, and the rest to the US Army Air Forces. It was later redesignated RP-40G.
P-40K, an Allison-engined P-40L, with the nose-top scoop retained and the Allison-configured nose radiators scoop, cowl flaps and vertical-stabilizer-to-fuselage fillet. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk III, it was widely used by US units in the CBI.
P-40M, version generally similar to the P-40K, with a stretched fuselage like the P-40L and powered by an Allison V-1710-81 engine giving better performance at altitude (compared to previous Allison versions). It had some detail improvements and it was characterized by two small air scoops just before the exhaust pipes. Most of them were supplied to Allied countries (mainly UK and USSR), while some others remained in the US for advanced training. It was also supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk. III.
P-40N (manufactured 1943–44), the final production model. The P-40N featured a stretched rear fuselage to counter the torque of the more powerful, late-war Allison engine, and the rear deck of the cockpit behind the pilot was cut down at a moderate slant to improve rearward visibility. A great deal of work was also done to try and eliminate excess weight to improve the Warhawk's climb rate. Early N production blocks dropped a .50 in (12.7 mm) gun from each wing, bringing the total back to four; later production blocks reintroduced it after complaints from units in the field. Supplied to Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk IV. A total of 553 P-40Ns were acquired by the Royal Australian Air Force, making it the variant most commonly used by the RAAF. Subvariants of the P-40N ranged widely in specialization from stripped down four-gun "hot rods" that could reach the highest top speeds of any production variant of the P-40 (up to 380 mph), to overweight types with all the extras intended for fighter-bombing or even training missions. The 15,000th P-40 was an N model decorated with the markings of 28 nations that had employed any of Curtiss-Wright's various aircraft products, not just P-40s. "These spectacular markings gave rise to the erroneous belief that the P-40 series had been used by all 28 countries." Since the P-40N was by 1944 used mainly as a ground attack aircraft in Europe, it was nicknamed B-40 by pilots. Survivors redesignated as ZF-40N in June 1948.
P-40P: The designation of 1,500 aircraft ordered with V-1650-1 engines, but actually built as the P-40N with V-1710-81 engines.
XP-40Q: Three P-40N modified with a 4-bladed prop, cut-down rear fuselage and bubble canopy, four guns, squared-off wingtips and tail surfaces, and improved engine with two-speed supercharger. Even with these changes, its performance was not enough of an improvement to merit production when compared to the contemporary late model P-47Ds and P-51Ds pouring off production lines. The XP-40Q was, however, the fastest of the P-40 series with a top speed of as a result of the introduction of a high-altitude supercharger gear. (No P-40 model with a single-speed supercharger could even approach )
P-40R: The designation of P-40F and P-40L aircraft that had Allison engines retrofitted in the field for standardization and logistics.
RP-40: Some American P-40s were converted into reconnaissance aircraft.
TP-40: Some P-40s were converted into two-seat trainers.
Twin P-40: A single photo exists of a P-40 mocked up with two Merlin engines, mounted atop the wings, over the main landing gear.
==Operators==
Royal Australian Air Force
Brazilian Air Force
Royal Canadian Air Force
Chinese Nationalist Air Force
Royal Egyptian Air Force
Finnish Air Force
French Air Force
Indonesian Air Force
Japanese Army Air Force – Captured P-40s.
Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force
Royal New Zealand Air Force
Polish Air Force
South African Air Force
Soviet Air Force
Soviet Naval Aviation
Turkish Air Force
Royal Air Force
United States Army Air Corps
United States Army Air Forces
==Surviving aircraft==
Of the 13,738 P-40s built, only 28 remain airworthy, with three of them being converted to dual-controls/dual-seat configuration. Approximately 13 aircraft are on static display and another 36 airframes are under restoration for either display or flight.
==Notable P-40 pilots==
Nicky Barr: RAAF ace (11 victories); also a member of the Australia national rugby union team.
Gregory Boyington: AVG/US Marine Corps; later commanded USMC VMF-214, the "Black Sheep Squadron".
Clive Caldwell: RAAF, highest-scoring P-40 pilot from any air force (22 victories); highest-scoring Allied pilot in North Africa; Australia's highest-scoring ace in World War II (28.5 victories).
Levi R. Chase: USAAF; leading US P-40 ace in the Mediterranean theater, with 10 claims; CO 60th Fighter Squadron, 33rd Fighter Group; retired with the rank of Major General.
Claire Chennault: commander, 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG; better known as the "Flying Tigers"), Chinese Air Force.
Chikai Chou, the CO of the Chinese Air Force P-40E-equipped 23rd PS, 4th PG and ace who famously "hijacked" a USAAF P-66 at Liangshan Airbase as it was being raided by Imperial Japanese Army Air Service aircraft; he pursued the raiders shooting down two Kawasaki Ki-48 bombers, while 11 of his comrade's P-40Es were destroyed on the ground in that raid.
Daniel H. David: USAAF; later famous as the comedian and actor Dan Rowan; scored two victories and was wounded, while flying P-40s in the South West Pacific.
Billy Drake: RAF, the leading British P-40 ace, with 13 victories.
Neville Duke: RAF Leading Allied ace in the Mediterranean theater with 27 victories (including eight in P-40); post-war a test pilot and holder of the world air speed record.
James Francis Edwards: RCAF, 15.75 victories (12 on the P-40); also wrote two books about British Commonwealth Kittyhawk pilots.
Geoff Fisken: RNZAF, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific theater (11 victories), including five victories in Kittyhawks.
Jack Frost: SAAF, the highest scoring air ace in a South African unit, with 15 victories (seven on the P-40); missing in action since 16 June 1942.
James H. Howard: AVG/USAAF, six victories in P-40s; later, the only fighter pilot to receive the Medal of Honor for service over Europe, while flying a P-51; retired with the rank of Brigadier-General in 1966.
Nikolai Fedorovitch Kuznetsov: VVS; the highest-scoring Soviet P-40 ace; America's hundred thousand : the U.S. production fighter aircraft of World War II
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|crew=One
|length ft=31
|length in=8.5
|span ft=37
|span in=3.5
|height ft=10
|height in=8
|wing area sqft=236
|airfoil=root: NACA2215; tip :NACA2209
|empty weight lb=5922|gross weight lb=8515
|eng1 number=1|eng1 name=Allison V-1710-39
|eng1 type=V-12 liquid-cooled piston engine
|eng1 hp=1240
|prop blade number=3
|prop name=Curtiss-Wright electric constant-speed propeller
|prop dia ft=|prop dia in=
|max speed mph=361
|max speed note=at
|cruise speed mph=308
|range miles=716
|range note=at 70% power
|ceiling ft=29100
|time to altitude= in 6 minutes 15 seconds
|wing loading lb/sqft=35.1
|power/mass=
|guns=6 × M2 Browning machine guns in the wings
|bombs= bombs to a total of on hardpoints under the fuselage and two underwing
}}
==Notable appearances in media==
|
[
"Jerry Westenra",
"Kawasaki Ki-48",
"Polish Air Force",
"Amchitka",
"Singapore",
"Close air support",
"Order of British Empire",
"United States Navy",
"piston engine",
"Japanese Army Air Force",
"Pacific War",
"Stephan Ridny",
"Junkers Ju 52",
"Soviet Air Force",
"Nose art",
"Curtiss P-36 Hawk",
"Salween River",
"Adak Airport",
"Brazil",
"Indonesian Air Force",
"Herschel Green",
"14 Squadron RNZAF",
"No. 400 Squadron RCAF",
"49th Fighter Group",
"Spar (aviation)",
"bubble canopy",
"Focke-Wulf Fw 190",
"Curtiss P-60",
"Strategic Air Command",
"325th Operations Group",
"Aleutian Islands Campaign",
"No. 260 Squadron RAF",
"fire balloon",
"Royal New Zealand Air Force",
"Mediterranean Sea",
"No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF",
"Lafayette Escadrille",
"CANT Z.1007",
"French Morocco",
"Brewster Buffalo",
"New Guinea Campaign",
"g-force",
"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base",
"List of military aircraft of the United States",
"Robert M. DeHaven",
"self-sealing fuel tank",
"Article XV squadrons",
"Hero of the Soviet Union",
"Gregory Boyington",
"RAF Army Cooperation Command",
"African-American",
"Leading-edge slat",
"Italian campaign (World War II)",
"Alexandria",
"Lavochkin La-5",
"Curtiss XP-46",
"Victoria International Airport",
"Confirmation and overclaiming of aerial victories",
"Indonesian National Revolution",
"Abbotsford, British Columbia",
"Walter J. Boyne",
"Flight Lieutenant",
"Iceland",
"David Lee Hill",
"Netherlands East Indies campaign",
"Air Enthusiast",
"North African campaign",
"No. 414 Squadron RCAF",
"Alaska",
"No. 18 Squadron RNZAF",
"No. 450 Squadron RAAF",
"No. 80 Squadron RAAF",
"RAF Hartford Bridge",
"Grumman F4F Wildcat",
"Tropics",
"John F. Hampshire",
"Prime Minister of Australia",
"No. 132 Squadron RCAF",
"group (air force unit)",
"South African Air Force",
"45th Fighter Aviation Regiment",
"Ultra (World War II intelligence)",
"United States Army Air Corps",
"USS Langley (CV-1)",
"Historical P-40C Tomahawk",
"Clive Caldwell",
"Operational Conversion Unit",
"Casablanca",
"AirSols",
"Mitsubishi A6M Zero",
"cmn:周志開",
"Second Sino-Japanese War",
"Royal Egyptian Air Force",
"Saltspring Island",
"Neville Duke",
"Battle of Milne Bay",
"Flying Tigers",
"Browning machine gun",
"MG 151 cannon",
"57th Operations Group",
"M2 Browning machine gun",
"Billy Drake",
"radial engine",
"Erbo Graf von Kageneck",
"324th Fighter Group",
"French Air Force",
"Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force",
"Imperial Japanese Army Air Service",
"No. 16 Squadron RNZAF",
"Basic fighter maneuvers",
"Soviet Air Forces",
"Jurca Pee-40",
"No. 112 Squadron RAF",
"NACA",
"Bruce K. Holloway",
"Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II",
"China Burma India Theater",
"No. 82 Squadron RAAF",
"Tuskegee Airmen",
"Vultee P-66 Vanguard",
"Henry H. Arnold",
"No. 163 Squadron RCAF",
"Gypsy Rose Lee",
"James H. Howard",
"flying Officer",
"No. 75 Squadron RAAF",
"Australian Broadcasting Corporation",
"close air support",
"No. 3 Squadron RAAF",
"Imperial Japanese Army",
"No. 84 Squadron RAAF",
"Curtiss-Wright Corporation",
"Flying Ace",
"New Guinea campaign",
"Levi R. Chase",
"No. 250 Squadron RAF",
"North American P-51 Mustang",
"Packard V-1650",
"Fifth Air Force",
"New Guinea",
"Bobby Gibbes",
"Sardinia",
"Curtiss P-37",
"Chinese Nationalist Air Force",
"Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa",
"Nakajima Ki-27",
".303 British",
"Republic of China Air Force",
"Solomon Islands campaign",
"Grindor",
"Medenine",
"Java",
"Keith Truscott",
"Dan Rowan",
"CH-53E Super Stallion",
"Australian rules football",
"Don R. Berlin",
"No. 430 Squadron RCAF",
"Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3",
"Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport",
"Vought F4U Corsair",
"United States Army Air Forces",
"Supermarine Spitfire",
"fighter-bomber",
"Aichi D3A",
"Myanmar",
"Lockheed P-38 Lightning",
"Messerschmitt Bf 110",
"Luftwaffe",
"No. 111 Squadron RCAF",
"Nakajima Ki-44",
"W.A.R. P40E",
"Fiat G.50 Freccia",
"Women Airforce Service Pilots",
"carburetor",
"VMF-214",
"Nicky Barr",
"Netherlands",
"No. 135 Squadron RCAF",
"Browning M2",
"Air Ministry",
"Macchi C.202",
"Royal Australian Air Force",
"Claire Chennault",
"squadron (aviation)",
"Tunisia",
"ZG 76",
"Messerschmitt Me 323",
"ALSIB",
"Ken Boomer",
"126th Fighter Aviation Regiment",
"80th Flying Training Wing",
"United States Far East Air Force",
"No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron",
"Marston Matting",
"Flying ace",
"Thach Weave",
"Aleutian Islands",
"Cap Bon",
"North-West Europe",
"Siege of Leningrad",
"Battle of Port Moresby",
"Eastern Front (World War II)",
"Egypt",
"List of fighter aircraft",
"Macchi C.200",
"No. 130 Squadron RCAF",
"Jagdgeschwader 27",
"Claire Lee Chennault",
"Yasuhiko Kuroe",
"Clinton D. \"Casey\" Vincent",
"Yakovlev Yak-1",
"drop tank",
"No. 78 Squadron RAAF",
"Royal Canadian Air Force",
"79th Fighter Group",
"58th Operations Group",
"Klimov M-105",
"vertical stabilizer",
"Lockheed Hudson",
"Liangping Airport",
"Operation Flax",
"Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen",
"Robert Lee Scott, Jr.",
"Republic P-47 Thunderbolt",
"Bob Whittle",
"Desert Air Force",
"Guadalcanal",
"tactical reconnaissance",
"NACA airfoil",
"Pyotr Pokryshev",
"Pacific Ocean Area",
"Len Waters",
"Modularity",
"33d Operations Group",
"Curtiss XP-42",
"Boyd Wagner",
"Sassari",
"List of aircraft of World War II",
"No. 20 Squadron RNZAF",
"V12 engine",
"No. 15 Squadron RNZAF",
"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics",
"taxiing",
"indigenous Australian",
"No. 133 Squadron RCAF",
"Geoffrey Fisken",
"aileron",
"South West Pacific theatre of World War II",
"Operation Torch",
"Syria-Lebanon campaign",
"Kiska",
"Sumas Mountain",
"Royal Air Force",
"Zerstörergeschwader 76",
"Allison V-1710-39",
"Shuttleworth, Greater Manchester",
"Vichy France",
"Nikolai Fedorovitch Kuznetsov",
"Air raids on Australia, 1942–43",
"Mitsubishi G4M",
"Lufbery circle",
"Australia national rugby union team",
"power-to-weight ratio",
"Kawasaki Ki-61",
"battle of the Philippines (1941–42)",
"Pantelleria",
"South-East Asian theatre of World War II",
"Aleutian Islands campaign",
"Allison V-1710",
"Finnish Air Force",
"British Malaya",
"Rogožarski IK-3",
"Turkish Air Force",
"Western Front (World War II)",
"Lend-Lease",
"Mitsubishi Ki-21",
"Fighter aircraft",
"Werner Schröer",
"George Welch (pilot)",
"Boris Safonov",
"Reykjavík",
"Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3",
"Warrant Officer",
"John Gorton",
"John Lloyd Waddy",
"No. 403 Squadron RCAF",
"No. 19 Squadron RNZAF",
"No. 118 Squadron RCAF",
"Geoff Fisken",
"Rowley P-40F",
"No. 77 Squadron RAAF",
"Turkey",
"Medal of Honor",
"Buffalo, New York",
"Brazilian Air Force",
"Attu Island",
"Commonwealth of Nations",
"No. 86 Squadron RAAF",
"attack on Pearl Harbor",
"Nakajima A6M2-N",
"No. 76 Squadron RAAF",
"Curtiss-Wright",
"supercharger",
"John Frost (pilot)",
"No. 14 Squadron RCAF",
"Allies of World War II",
"Vertical stabilizer",
"Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)",
"Hamilton Airport (New Zealand)",
"Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp",
"Article XV squadron",
"Flight Sergeant",
"Soviet Naval Aviation",
"forward air controllers",
"Tjilatjap",
"No. 488 Squadron RNZAF",
"No. 17 Squadron RNZAF",
"James Francis Edwards",
"air superiority fighter",
"Rangoon",
"USAAF",
"23rd Fighter Group",
"Hans-Joachim Marseille",
"Finland",
"Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor",
"South West Pacific theater of World War II",
"Milne Bay",
"Regia Aeronautica",
"Hawker Hurricane",
"Bell P-39 Airacobra",
"Kenneth M. Taylor",
"Benjamin S. Kelsey",
"Dewoitine D.520",
"Messerschmitt Bf 109",
"17th Fighter Squadron",
"Aerial ramming",
"Borneo campaign (1945)"
] |
7,212 |
Creed
|
A creed, also known as a confession of faith, a symbol, or a statement of faith, is a statement of the shared beliefs of a community (often a religious community) which summarize its core tenets.
Many Christian denominations use three creeds: the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the Apostles' Creed and the Athanasian Creed. Some Christian denominations do not use any of those creeds.
The term creed is sometimes extended to comparable concepts in non-Christian theologies. The Islamic concept of ʿaqīdah (literally "bond, tie") is often rendered as "creed".
== History ==
The earliest known creed in Christianity, "Jesus is Lord", originated in the writings of Paul the Apostle. One of the most significant and widely used Christian creeds is the Nicene Creed, first formulated in AD 325 at the First Council of Nicaea to affirm the deity of Christ and revised at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381 to affirm the trinity as a whole. The creed was further affirmed in 431 by the Chalcedonian Definition, which clarified the doctrine of Christ. The Apostles' Creed, another early creed which concisely details the trinity, virgin birth, crucifixion, and resurrection, is most popular within western Christianity, and is widely used in Christian church services.
In Islamic theology, the term most closely corresponding to "creed" is ʿaqīdah ().
Some longer statements of faith in the Protestant tradition are instead called "confessions of faith", or simply "confession" (as in e.g. Helvetic Confession). Within Evangelical Protestantism, the terms "doctrinal statement" or "doctrinal basis" tend to be preferred. Doctrinal statements may include positions on lectionary and translations of the Bible, particularly in fundamentalist churches of the King James Only movement.
==Christianity ==
The first confession of faith established within Christianity was the Nicene Creed by the Early Church in 325. It was established to summarize the foundations of the Christian faith and to protect believers from false doctrines. Various Christian denominations from Protestantism and Evangelical Christianity have published confession of faith as a basis for fellowship among churches of the same denomination.
Many Christian denominations did not try to be too exhaustive in their confessions of faith and thus allow different opinions on some secondary topics. In addition, some churches are open to revising their confession of faith when necessary. Moreover, Baptist "confessions of faith" have often had a clause such as this from the First London Baptist Confession (Revised edition, 1646):
=== Excommunication ===
Excommunication is a practice of the Bible to exclude members who do not respect the Church's confession of faith and do not want to repent. It is practiced by most Christian denominations and is intended to protect against the consequences of heretics' teachings and apostasy.
===Christians without creeds===
Some Christian denominations do not profess a creed. This stance is often referred to as "non-creedalism".
Anabaptism, with its origins in the 16th century Radical Reformation, spawned a number of sects and denominations that espouse "No creed, but the Bible/New Testament". This was a common reason for Anabaptist persecution from Catholic and Protestant believers. Anabaptist groups that exist today include the Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren (Church of the Brethren), River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church.
The Religious Society of Friends, the group known as the Quakers, was founded in the 17th century and is similarly non-creedal. They believe that such formal structures, “be they written words, steeple-houses or a clerical hierarchy,” cannot take the place of communal relationships and a shared connection with God.
Similar reservations about the use of creeds can be found in the Restoration Movement and its descendants, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ. Restorationists profess "no creed but Christ".
The Seventh-day Adventist Church also shares this sentiment.
Jehovah's Witnesses contrast "memorizing or repeating creeds" with acting to "do what Jesus said".
===Christian creeds===
Several creeds originated in Christianity.
1 Corinthians 15:3–7 includes an early creed about Jesus' death and resurrection which was probably received by Paul. The antiquity of the creed has been located by most biblical scholars to no more than five years after Jesus' death, probably originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community.
The Old Roman Creed is an earlier and shorter version of the Apostles' Creed. It was based on the 2nd century Rules of Faith and the interrogatory declaration of faith for those receiving baptism, which by the 4th century was everywhere tripartite in structure, following Matthew 28:19.
The Apostles' Creed is used in Western Christianity for both liturgical and catechetical purposes.
The Nicene Creed reflects the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what Christians believed.
The Chalcedonian Creed was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor. It defines that Christ is 'acknowledged in two natures', which 'come together into one person and hypostasis'.
The Athanasian Creed (Quicunque vult) is a Christian statement of belief focusing on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. It is the first creed in which the equality of the three persons of the Trinity is explicitly stated and differs from the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds in the inclusion of anathemas, or condemnations of those who disagree with the Creed.
The Tridentine Creed was initially contained in the papal bull Iniunctum Nobis, issued by Pope Pius IV on 13 November 1565. The creed was intended to summarise the teaching of the Council of Trent (1545–1563).
The Maasai Creed is a creed composed in 1960 by the Maasai people of East Africa in collaboration with missionaries from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Maasai culture.
The Credo of the People of God is a confession of faith that Pope Paul VI published with the motu proprio Solemni hac liturgia of 30 June 1968. Pope Paul VI spoke of it as "a creed which, without being strictly speaking a dogmatic definition, repeats in substance, with some developments called for by the spiritual condition of our time, the creed of Nicea, the creed of the immortal tradition of the holy Church of God."
===Christian confessions of faith===
Protestant denominations are usually associated with confessions of faith, which are similar to creeds but usually longer.
The Sixty-seven Articles of the Swiss reformers, drawn up by Zwingli in 1523
The Schleitheim Confession of the Anabaptist Swiss Brethren in 1527
The Augsburg Confession of 1530, the work of Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon, which marked the breach with Rome
The Tetrapolitan Confession of the German Reformed Church, 1530
The Smalcald Articles of Martin Luther, 1537
The Guanabara Confession of Faith, 1558
The Gallic Confession, 1559
The Scots Confession, drawn up by John Knox in 1560
The Belgic Confession drawn up by Guido de Bres in 1561
The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England in 1562
The Formula of Concord and its Epitome in 1577
The Irish Articles in 1615
The Remonstrant Confession in 1621
The Dordrecht Confession of Faith of Dutch Mennonites in 1632
The Baptist Confession of Faith in 1644 (upheld by Particular Baptists)
The Westminster Confession of Faith in 1647 was the work of the Westminster Assembly of Divines and has commended itself to the Presbyterian Churches of all English-speaking peoples, and also in other languages.
The Savoy Declaration of 1658 which was a modification of the Westminster Confession to suit Congregationalist polity
The Standard Confession in 1660 (upheld by General Baptists)
A Catechism and Confession of Faith in 1673 upheld by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)
The Orthodox Creed in 1678 (upheld by General Baptists) of 1823
The New Hampshire Confession in 1833 (upheld by Landmark Baptists)
The Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of the Anglican Communion in 1870
The Richmond Declaration in 1887, upheld by Orthodox Gurneyite Quakers
The Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths in 1916
The Confession of Faith of the United Methodist Church, adopted in 1968
=== Controversies ===
In the Swiss Reformed Churches, there was a quarrel about the Apostles' Creed in the mid-19th century. As a result, most cantonal reformed churches stopped prescribing any particular creed.
In 2005, Bishop John Shelby Spong, retired Episcopal Bishop of Newark, has written that dogmas and creeds were merely "a stage in our development" and "part of our religious childhood." In his book, Sins of the Scripture, Spong wrote that "Jesus seemed to understand that no one can finally fit the holy God into his or her creeds or doctrines. That is idolatry."
==Similar concepts in other religions==
=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
Within the sects of the Latter Day Saint movement, the Articles of Faith are contained in a list which was composed by Joseph Smith as part of an 1842 letter which he sent to "Long" John Wentworth, editor of the Chicago Democrat. It is canonized along with the King James Version of the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine & Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price, as a part of the standard works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
=== Islamic aqīdah ===
In Islamic theology, the term most closely corresponding to "creed" is ʿaqīdah (). The first such creed was written as "a short answer to the pressing heresies of the time" is known as Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar and ascribed to Abū Ḥanīfa. Two well known creeds were the Fiqh Akbar II "representative" of the al-Ash'ari, and Fiqh Akbar III, "representative" of the Ash-Shafi'i. Its most simple definition is the belief in the six articles of faith, known as arkān al-īmān.
Belief in God
Belief in the Angels
Belief in Divine Books
Belief in the Prophets
Belief in the Day of Judgement
Belief in God's predestination
===Jewish Shema Yisrael===
Rabbi Milton Steinberg wrote that "By its nature Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought" and asserted in his book Basic Judaism (1947) that "Judaism has never arrived at a creed."
Still, the opening lines of the prayer Shema Yisrael can be read as a creedal statement of strict monotheism: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One" (; transliterated Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad).
A notable statement of Jewish principles of faith was drawn up by Maimonides as his 13 Principles of Faith.
==Religions without creeds==
Following a debate that lasted more than twenty years, the National Conference of the American Unitarian Association passed a resolution in 1894 that established the denomination as non-creedal. The Unitarians later merged with the Universalist Church of America to form the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA). Instead of a creed, the UUA abides by a set of principles, such as “a free and responsible search for truth and meaning”. It cites diverse sources of inspiration, including Christianity, Judaism, Humanism, and Earth-centered traditions.
|
[
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"Diet of Augsburg",
"Pesher",
"Yawm al-Qiyāmah",
"Covenant (religion)",
"Church of the Brethren",
"western Christianity",
"Book of Mormon",
"monotheism",
"Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)",
"Islam",
"1 Corinthians 15",
"1689 Baptist Confession of Faith",
"Episcopal Church in the United States of America",
"Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed",
"Nicene Creed",
"Doctrine & Covenants",
"United Methodist Church",
"Credo",
"Jehovah's Witnesses",
"Augsburg Confession",
"Savoy Declaration",
"Islamic theology",
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"Paul the Apostle",
"Jewish principles of faith",
"The Wentworth Letter",
"Martin Luther",
"Landmarkism",
"Islamic view of angels",
"Helvetic Confession",
"Iniunctum Nobis",
"Bible",
"Tetrapolitan Confession",
"Arianism",
"Chalcedonian Creed",
"Churches of Christ",
"Amish",
"the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"apostasy",
"Reform Judaism",
"The Five Ks",
"Schwarzenau Brethren",
"ʿAqīdah",
"Protestantism",
"Westminster Confession of Faith",
"Christian denominations",
"Anglican Communion",
"Ash'ari",
"John Shelby Spong",
"Anabaptist",
"Alan Richardson (priest)",
"Iman (concept)",
"New Hampshire Confession of Faith",
"Hutterites",
"Unitarian Universalist Association",
"Jesus is Lord",
"standard works",
"First London Baptist Confession",
"Religious Society of Friends",
"John Knox",
"Swiss Reformed Church",
"Radical Reformation",
"Pope Pius IV",
"Prophets in Islam",
"baptism",
"Tawhid",
"translations of the Bible",
"orthodoxy",
"King James Version",
"Gallic Confession",
"Council of Trent",
"Richmond Declaration",
"catechetical",
"Confession of Faith (United Methodist)",
"Shafi'i",
"Formula of Concord",
"General Baptists",
"First Council of Nicaea",
"Christian denomination",
"Christianity",
"Gurneyite",
"Belgic Confession",
"Late Middle English",
"Protestant",
"Shema Yisrael",
"Earth religion",
"Islamic holy books",
"Latter Day Saint movement",
"13 principles of faith",
"Congregationalist polity",
"First Council of Constantinople",
"incipit",
"Mennonites",
"Maasai people",
"church service",
"Abū Ḥanīfa",
"Early centers of Christianity",
"List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement",
"Chicago Democrat",
"Baptist",
"lectionary",
"Zwingli",
"Philip Melanchthon",
"Remonstrant Confession",
"River Brethren",
"Scots Confession",
"Quakers",
"The American's Creed",
"Westminster Assembly of Divines",
"Predestination in Islam",
"Early Church",
"Christian churches and churches of Christ",
"Pope Paul VI",
"Thirty-nine Articles",
"Presbyterian Church",
"Humanism",
"Romanization of Hebrew",
"Seventh-day Adventist Church",
"Christian liturgy",
"papal bull",
"Central Conference of American Rabbis",
"belief",
"Holy Ghost Fathers",
"Calvinistic Methodists",
"Anabaptism",
"Western Christianity",
"Universalist Church of America",
"Swiss Brethren",
"Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)",
"Apostolic Christian Church",
"Christian fundamentalism",
"Restoration Movement",
"Joseph Smith",
"Tridentine Creed",
"liturgy",
"Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral",
"Credo of the People of God",
"Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths",
"Old Roman Creed",
"Dordrecht Confession of Faith",
"Guanabara Confession of Faith",
"Milton Steinberg",
"1644 Baptist Confession of Faith",
"Maasai Creed",
"Rome",
"Maimonides",
"Church of England"
] |
7,213 |
Claudius Aelianus
|
Claudius Aelianus (, Greek transliteration Kláudios Ailianós; ), commonly Aelian (), born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus, who died in 222. He spoke Greek so fluently that he was called "honey-tongued" ( ); Roman-born, he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in a slightly archaizing Greek himself.
His two chief works are valuable for the numerous quotations from the works of earlier authors, which are otherwise lost, and for the surprising lore, which offers unexpected glimpses into the Greco-Roman world-view. De Natura Animalium is also the only Greco-Roman work to mention Gilgamesh.
==De Natura Animalium==
On the Nature of Animals (alternatively "On the Characteristics of Animals"; , ; usually cited by its Latin title De Natura Animalium) is a collection, He is more attentive to marine life than might be expected, though, and this seems to reflect first-hand personal interest; he often quotes "fishermen". At times he strikes the modern reader as thoroughly credulous, but at others he specifically states that he is merely reporting what is told by others, and even that he does not believe them. Aelian's work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the bestiaries of the Middle Ages.
The surviving portions of the text are badly mangled and garbled and replete with later interpolations. Conrad Gessner (or Gesner), the Swiss scientist and natural historian of the Renaissance, made a Latin translation of Aelian's work, to give it a wider European audience. An English translation by A. F. Scholfield has been published in the Loeb Classical Library, 3 vols. (1958-59).
==Varia Historia==
Various History (, )—for the most part preserved only in an abridged form perhaps so that his readers will not feel guilty, but Jane Ellen Harrison found survivals of archaic rites mentioned by Aelian very illuminating in her Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903, 1922).
Varia Historia was first printed in 1545. The standard modern text is that of Mervin R. Dilts (1974).
Two English translations of the Various History, by Fleming (1576) and Stanley (1665) made Aelian's miscellany available to English readers, but after 1665 no English translation appeared, until three English translations appeared almost simultaneously: James G. DeVoto, Claudius Aelianus: Ποικίλης Ἱστορίας (Varia Historia) Chicago, 1995; Diane Ostrom Johnson, An English Translation of Claudius Aelianus' "Varia Historia", 1997; and N. G. Wilson, Aelian: Historical Miscellany in the Loeb Classical Library.
==Other works==
Considerable fragments of two other works, On Providence and Divine Manifestations, are preserved in the early medieval encyclopedia, the Suda. Twenty "letters from a farmer" after the manner of Alciphron are also attributed to him. The letters are invented compositions to a fictitious correspondent, which are a device for vignettes of agricultural and rural life, set in Attica, though mellifluous Aelian once boasted that he had never been outside Italy, never been aboard a ship (which is at variance, though, with his own statement, de Natura Animalium XI.40, that he had seen the bull Serapis with his own eyes). Thus conclusions about actual agriculture in the Letters are as likely to evoke Latium as Attica. The fragments have been edited in 1998 by D. Domingo-Foraste, but are not available in English. The Letters are available in the Loeb Classical Library, translated by Allen Rogers Benner and Francis H. Fobes (1949).
|
[
"Jane Ellen Harrison",
"Latin",
"Gilgamesh",
"Stoicism",
"Alciphron",
"Pliny the Elder",
"Mount Allison University",
"Pierre Quillard",
"Latium",
"Artificial fly",
"fly fishing",
"Rudolf Hercher",
"Historiae animalium (Gesner)",
"Theopompus",
"Suda",
"Praeneste",
"Ancient Greek",
"Serapis",
"Serpent (symbolism)",
"mythographer",
"Kai Brodersen",
"Loeb Classical Library",
"Septimius Severus",
"Lacquerware",
"Attica",
"A. F. Scholfield",
"Nigel Wilson (Classicist)",
"rhetoric",
"Conrad Gessner",
"Elagabalus",
"Bestiary",
"Lycus of Rhegium"
] |
7,214 |
Callisto (mythology)
|
In Greek mythology, Callisto (; ) was a nymph, or the daughter of King Lycaon; the myth varies in such details. She was believed to be one of the followers of Artemis (Diana for the Romans) who attracted Zeus. Many versions of Callisto's story survive. According to some writers, Zeus transformed himself into the figure of Artemis to pursue Callisto, and she slept with him believing Zeus to be Artemis.
She became pregnant and when this was eventually discovered, she was expelled from Artemis's group, after which a furious Hera, the wife of Zeus, transformed her into a bear, although in some versions, Artemis is the one to give her an ursine form. Later, just as she was about to be killed by her son when he was hunting, she was set among the stars as Ursa Major ("the Great Bear") by Zeus. She was the bear-mother of the Arcadians, through her son Arcas by Zeus.
In other accounts, the birth mother of Arcas was called Megisto, daughter of Ceteus, son of Lycaon, or else Themisto, daughter of Inachus.
The fourth Galilean moon of Jupiter and a main belt asteroid are named after Callisto.
== Mythology ==
As a follower of Artemis, Callisto, who Hesiod said was the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, took a vow to remain a virgin, as did all the nymphs of Artemis.
According to Hesiod, she was seduced by Zeus, and of the consequences that followed:
[Callisto] chose to occupy herself with wild-beasts in the mountains together with Artemis, and, when she was seduced by Zeus, continued some time undetected by the goddess, but afterwards, when she was already with child, was seen by her bathing and so discovered. Upon this, the goddess was enraged and changed her into a beast. Thus she became a bear and gave birth to a son called Arcas. But while she was in the mountains, she was hunted by some goat-herds and given up with her babe to Lycaon. Some while after, she thought fit to go into the forbidden precinct of Zeus, not knowing the law, and being pursued by her own son and the Arcadians, was about to be killed because of the said law; but Zeus delivered her because of her connection with him and put her among the stars, giving her the name Bear because of the misfortune which had befallen her.
Eratosthenes also mentions a variation in which the virginal companion of Artemis that was seduced by Zeus and eventually transformed into the constellation Ursa Minor was named Phoenice instead.
According to Ovid, it was Jupiter who took the form of Diana so that he might evade his wife Juno's detection, forcing himself upon Callisto while she was separated from Diana and the other nymphs. Callisto recognized that something was wrong the moment Jupiter started giving her "non-virginal kisses", but by that point it was too late, and even though she fought him off, he overpowered her. The real Diana arrived in the scene soon after and called Callisto to her, only for the girl to run away in fear she was Jupiter, until she noticed the nymphs accompanying the goddess. Callisto's subsequent pregnancy was discovered several months later while she was bathing with Diana and her fellow nymphs. Diana became enraged when she saw that Callisto was pregnant and expelled her from the group. Callisto later gave birth to Arcas. Juno then took the opportunity to avenge her wounded pride and transformed the nymph into a bear. Sixteen years later Callisto, still a bear, encountered her son Arcas hunting in the forest. Just as Arcas was about to kill his own mother with his javelin, Jupiter averted the tragedy by placing mother and son amongst the stars as Ursa Major and Minor, respectively. Juno, enraged that her attempt at revenge had been frustrated, appealed to Tethys that the two might never meet her waters, thus providing a poetic explanation for the constellations' circumpolar positions in ancient times.
According to Hyginus, the origin of the transformation of Zeus, with its lesbian overtones, was from a rendition of the tale in a comedy in a lost work by the Attic comedian Amphis where Zeus embraced Callisto as Artemis and she, after being questioned by Artemis for her pregnancy, blamed the goddess, thinking she had impregnated her; Artemis then changed her into a bear. She was caught by some Aetolians and brought to Lycaon, her father. Still a bear, she rushed with her son Arcas into a temple of Zeus as the Arcadians followed to kill them; Zeus turned mother and son into constellations. Hyginus also records a version where Hera changed Callisto for sleeping with Zeus, and Artemis later slew her while hunting, not recognizing her. In another of the versions Hyginus records, it was Zeus who turned Callisto into a bear, to conceal her from Juno, who had noticed what her husband was doing. Juno then pointed Callisto to Diana, who proceeded to shoot her with her arrows. Zeus forced himself on Callisto when he disguised himself as Artemis or Apollo, in order to lure the sworn maiden into his embrace. Apollodorus is the only author to mention Apollo, but implies that it is not a rarity. Callisto was then turned into a bear by Zeus trying to hide her from Hera, but Hera asked Artemis to shoot the animal, and Artemis complied. Zeus then took the child, named it Arcas, and gave it to Maia to bring up in Arcadia; and Callisto he turned into a star and called it the Bear. Alternatively, Artemis killed Callisto for not protecting her virginity. Nonnus also writes that a "female paramour entered a woman's bed."
Either Artemis "slew Kallisto with a shot of her silver bow," according to Homer, in order to please Juno (Hera) as Pausanias and Pseudo-Apollodorus write or later Arcas, the eponym of Arcadia, nearly killed his bear-mother, when she had wandered into the forbidden precinct of Zeus. In every case, Zeus placed them both in the sky as the constellations Ursa Major, called Arktos (), the Bear, by Greeks, and Ursa Minor.
According to John Tzetzes, Charon of Lampsacus wrote that Callisto's son Arcas had been fathered not by Zeus but rather by Apollo.
As a constellation, Ursa Major (who was also known as Helice, from an alternative origin story of the constellation) told Demeter, when the goddess asked the stars whether they knew anything about her daughter Persephone's abduction, to ask Helios the sun god, for he knew the deeds of the day well, while the night was blameless.
== Gallery ==
File:Peter Paul Rubens - Diana and Callisto - WGA20326.jpg|Diana and Callisto commissioned from the artist by Philip IV of Spain
File:Arcas Preparing to Kill His Mother - etching - 17.5 x 25.5 cm - Washington DC, NGA.jpg|Arcas about to kill his mother, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius, 16th-17th century.
File:Ovide - Métamorphoses - I -Callisto chassée de la suite de Diane.jpg|Callisto discovered by Diana, engraving by Noël Le Mire.
File:Illustration by Johan Teyler, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 95.jpg|Illustration of Zeus as Artemis with Callisto, ohan Teyler (1648–1709).
File:Jacobus Kellner - Diana and Callisto - O 5460 - Slovak National Gallery.jpg|Diana and Callisto, relief by Jakob Kellner, 1763.
File:Anthonie Blocklandt van Montfoort - Diana Discovering Callisto’s Pregnancy.jpg|Diana and Callisto, Anthonie Blocklandt van Montfoort, c. 1580.
File:Jollain Diane et Callisto.jpg|Diane et Callisto, by Nicolas-René Jollain, 1770, oil on canvas.
File:Amigoni, Jacopo (1675 - 1752), Giove e Callisto -ca. 1740-1750-.jpg|Giove e Callisto, by Jacopo Amigoni, circa 1740–1750, oil on canvas.
File:Diana and Callisto LACMA 60.67.1.jpg|Callisto's pregnancy discovered, engraving by Jan Pietersz, 1599.
File:Diana and Callisto LACMA AC1992.225.3.jpg|Artemis, Callisto and the nymphs, ivory relief by Ignaz Elhafen, circa 1690–1695.
File:Jean-Simon Berthélemy - Jupiter, in the Guise of Diana, and Callisto.jpg|Jupiter in the guise of Diana and Callisto, by Jean-Simon Berthélemy, nineteenth century, oil on canvas.
File:Jupiter and Callisto (Charles-Joseph Natoire) - Nationalmuseum - 17861.tif|Jupiter and Callisto, by Charles-Joseph Natoire, 1745, in the National Museum of Stockholm.
File:Parc de Versailles, Bosquet des Dômes, Nymphe de Diane, Anselme Flamen 01.jpg|Callisto, by Anselme Flamen, 1696, Versailles.
|
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"Temenos",
"Azan (mythology)",
"Gaius Julius Hyginus",
"Helice (mythology)",
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"Megisto (mythology)",
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] |
7,218 |
Cookie
|
A cookie (American English) or biscuit (British English) is a baked snack or dessert that is typically small, flat, and sweet. It usually contains flour, sugar, egg, and some type of oil, fat, or butter. It may include other ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, or nuts.
Cookie texture varies from crisp and crunchy to soft and chewy, depending on the exact combination of ingredients and methods used to create them. Most English-speaking countries call crunchy cookies "biscuits", except for the United States and Canada, where "biscuit" refers to a type of quick bread. Chewier biscuits are sometimes called "cookies,” even in the Commonwealth. Some cookies may also be named by their shape, such as date squares or bars.
Biscuit or cookie variants include sandwich biscuits, such as custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, Bourbons, and Oreos, with marshmallows or jam filling and sometimes dipped in chocolate or another sweet coating. Cookies are often served with beverages such as milk, coffee, or tea and sometimes dunked, an approach which releases more flavour from confections by dissolving the sugars, while also softening their texture. Factory-made cookies are sold in grocery stores, convenience stores, and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses.
==Terminology==
In many English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is "biscuit". However, in some regions both terms are used. The container used to store cookies may be called a cookie jar.
In Scotland, the term "cookie" is sometimes used to describe a plain bun.
Cookies that are baked as a solid layer on a sheet pan and then cut, rather than being baked as individual pieces, are called bar cookies in American English or traybakes in British English. with an informal, dialect variant . According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name may derive from the diminutive form (+ suffix -ie) of the word cook, giving the Middle Scots cookie, cooky or cu(c)kie. There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf.
==Description==
Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or else for just long enough to ensure a soft interior. Other types of cookies are not baked at all, such as varieties of peanut butter cookies that use solidified chocolate rather than set eggs and wheat gluten as a binder. Cookies are produced in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits.
A general theory of cookies may be formulated in the following way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the batter as thin as possible, the better to allow bubbles—responsible for a cake's fluffiness—to form. In the cookie the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a far higher temperature. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs in place of water is much denser after removal from the oven.
Rather than evaporating as water does in a baking cake, oils in cookies remain. These oils saturate the cavities created during baking by bubbles of escaping gases. These gases are primarily composed of steam vaporized from the egg whites and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not render soggy the food it has soaked into.
==History==
Cookie-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking has been documented, in part because they survive travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered cookies by modern standards.
Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain. The first documented instance of the figure-shaped gingerbread man was at the court of Elizabeth I of England in the 16th century. She had the gingerbread figures made and presented in the likeness of some of her important guests.
With global travel becoming widespread at that time, cookies made a natural travel companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled especially well and became known on every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard cookie made largely from nuts, sweetener, and water.
Cookies came to America through the Dutch in New Amsterdam in the late 1620s. The Dutch word "" was Anglicized to "cookie" or cooky. The earliest reference to cookies in America is in 1703, when "The Dutch in New York provided...'in 1703...at a funeral 800 cookies...
The modern form of cookies, which is based on creaming butter and sugar together, did not appear commonly until the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution in Britain and the consumers it created saw cookies (biscuits) become products for the masses, and firms such as Huntley & Palmers (formed in 1822), McVitie's (formed in 1830) and Carr's (formed in 1831) were all established. The decorative biscuit tin, invented by Huntley & Palmers in 1831, saw British cookies exported around the world. In the UK, the term "cookie" often refers only to this particular type of product.
Filled cookies are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit, jam or confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.
Molded cookies are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.
No-bake cookies are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden. Oatmeal clusters and rum balls are no-bake cookies.
Pressed cookies are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.
Refrigerator cookies (also known as icebox cookies) are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking. The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking. Pinwheel cookies and those made by Pillsbury are representative.
Rolled cookies are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie cutter. Gingerbread men are an example.
Sandwich cookies are rolled or pressed cookies that are assembled as a sandwich with a sweet filling. Fillings include marshmallow, jam, and icing. The Oreo cookie, made of two chocolate cookies with a vanilla icing filling, is an example.
Other types of cookies are classified for other reasons, such as their ingredients, size, or intended time of serving:
Breakfast cookies are typically larger, lower-sugar cookies filled with "heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats" that are eaten as a quick breakfast snack.
Low-fat cookies or diet cookies typically have lower fat than regular cookies.
Raw cookie dough is served in some restaurants, though the eggs may be omitted since the dough is eaten raw, which could pose a salmonella risk if eggs were used. Cookie Dough Confections in New York City is a restaurant that has a range of raw cookie dough flavors, which are scooped into cups for customers like ice cream.
Skillet cookies are big cookies that are cooked in a cast-iron skillet and served warm, while they are still soft and chewy. They are either eaten straight from the pan or cut into wedges, often with vanilla ice cream on top.
Supersized cookies are large cookies such as the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie. These very large cookies are sold at grocery stores, restaurants and coffeeshops.
Vegan cookies can be made with flour, sugar, nondairy milk, and nondairy margarine. Aquafaba icing can be used to decorate the cookies.
Cookie cakes are made in a larger circular shape usually with writing made of frosting.
==Reception==
Leah Ettman from Nutrition Action has criticized the high-calorie count and fat content of supersized cookies, which are extra large cookies; she cites the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie, a supersized chocolate chip cookie, which measures inches in diameter and has 800 calories. The word "cookie" has been vulgar slang for "vagina" in the US since 1970. The word "cookies" is used to refer to the contents of the stomach, often in reference to vomiting (e.g., "pop your cookies", a 1960s expression, or "toss your cookies", a 1970s expression).
"Cookie duster" is a whimsical expression for a mustache.
Cookie Monster is a Muppet on the children's television show Sesame Street. He is best known for his voracious appetite for cookies and his famous eating phrases, such as "Me want cookie!", "Me eat cookie!" (or simply "COOKIE!"), and "Om nom nom nom" (said through a mouth full of food).
Cookie Clicker is a game where players click a cookie to buy upgrades to make more cookies.
==Notable varieties==
Alfajor
Angel Wings (Chruściki)
Animal cracker
Anzac biscuit
Berger cookie
Berner Haselnusslebkuchen
Biscotti
Biscuit rose de Reims
Black and white cookie
Blondie
Bourbon biscuit
Brownie
Butter cookie
Chocolate chip cookie
Chocolate-coated marshmallow treat
Congo bar
Digestive biscuit
Fat rascal
Fattigmann
Flies graveyard
Florentine biscuit
Fortune cookie
Fruit squares and bars (date, fig, lemon, raspberry, etc.)
Ginger snap
Gingerbread house
Gingerbread man
Graham cracker
Hamentashen
Hobnob biscuit
Joe Frogger
Jumble
Kifli
Koulourakia
Krumkake
Linzer cookie
Macaroon
Meringue
Nice biscuit
Oatmeal raisin cookie
Pastelito
Peanut butter blossom cookie
Peanut butter cookie
Pepparkakor
Pfeffernüsse
Pizzelle
Polvorón
Qurabiya
Rainbow cookie
Ranger Cookie
Rich tea
Riposteria
Rosette
Rum ball
Rusk
Russian tea cake
Rock cake
Sablé
Sandbakelse
Şekerpare
Shortbread
Snickerdoodle
Speculoos
Springerle
Spritzgebäck (Spritz)
Stroopwafel
Sugar cookie
Tea biscuit
Toruń gingerbread
Tuile
Wafer
Windmill cookie
== Gallery ==
File:Maple spice cookies and thumbprint cookies.jpg|A variety of Maple spice cookies and thumbprint cookies
File:Cookie Cake.JPG|A cookie cake is a large cookie that can be decorated with icing or fondant like a cake. This is made by Mrs. Fields.
File:Heart shaped cookies.jpg|Hearts shaped Valentine's Day cookies adorned with icing
File:McVitie's chocolate digestive biscuit.jpg|A McVitie's chocolate digestive, a popular biscuit to dunk in tea/coffee in the UK
File:Fortune cookie.png|A fortune cookie
File:Meringue cookies.jpg|Meringue cookies
File:Oreo-Two-Cookies.jpg|Commercially sold Oreo cookies
File:Cookie stack.jpg|Choc-chip cookies
File:Cookies being sold.jpg|A cookie shop, filled with a wide range of cookies
File:CookieCuttersAl.jpg|Cookie cutters
File:Chef's Cookie Deep Dish - 27682832174.jpg|A cookie dessert, topped with ice cream
File:Chocolate chip cookies.jpg|A plate of chocolate chip cookies
File:Algerian_cookies.jpg|Algerian cookies
File:Little heart-shaped cookies in West Bengal, India.jpg|Little heart-shaped cookies from India
==Related pastries and confections==
Acıbadem kurabiyesi
Animal crackers
Berliner (pastry)
Bun
Candy
Cake
Churro
Cracker (food)
Cupcake
Danish pastry
Doughnut
Funnel cake
Galette
Graham cracker
Hershey's Cookies 'n' Creme
Kit Kat
Halvah
Ladyfinger (biscuit)
Lebkuchen
Mille-feuille
Marzipan
Mille-feuille (Napoleon)
Moon pie
Pastry
Palmier
Petit four
Rum ball
S'more
Snack cake
Tartlet
Teacake
Teething biscuit
Whoopie pie
==Manufacturers==
Arnott's Biscuits
Bahlsen
Burton's Foods
D.F. Stauffer Biscuit Company
DeBeukelaer
Famous Amos (division of Ferrero)
Fazer
Fox's Biscuits
Interbake Foods
Jules Destrooper
Keebler
Lance
Lotte Confectionery (division of Lotte)
Lotus Bakeries
McKee Foods
Meiji Seika Kaisha Ltd.
Mrs. Fields
Nabisco (division of Mondelēz International)
Nestlé
Northern Foods
Otis Spunkmeyer (division of Aryzta)
Pillsbury (division of General Mills)
Pinnacle Foods
Pepperidge Farm (division of Campbell Soup Company)
Royal Dansk (division of Kelsen Group)
Sunshine Biscuits (historical)
United Biscuits
Walkers Shortbread
Utz Brands
==Product lines and brands==
Animal Crackers (Nabisco, Keebler, Cadbury, Bahlsen, others)
Anna's (Lotus)
Archway Cookies (Lance)
Barnum's Animals (Nabisco)
Betty Crocker (General Mills, cookie mixes)
Biscoff (Lotus)
Chips Ahoy! (Nabisco)
Chips Deluxe (Keebler)
Danish Butter Cookies (Royal Dansk)
Duncan Hines (Pinnacle, cookie mixes)
Famous Amos (Kellogg)
Fig Newton (Nabisco)
Fox's Biscuits (Northern)
Fudge Shoppe (Keebler)
Girl Scout cookie (Keebler, Interbake)
Hello Panda (Meiji)
Hit (Bahlsen)
Hydrox (Sunshine, discontinued by Keebler)
Jaffa Cakes (McVitie)
Jammie Dodgers (United)
Koala's March (Lotte)
Leibniz-Keks (Bahlsen)
Little Debbie (McKee)
Lorna Doone (Nabisco)
Maryland Cookies (Burton's)
McVitie's (United)
Milano (Pepperidge Farm)
Nilla Wafers (Nabisco)
Nutter Butter (Nabisco)
Oreo (Nabisco)
Pillsbury (General Mills, cookie mixes)
Pecan Sandies (Keebler)
Peek Freans (United)
Pirouline (DeBeukelaer)
Stauffer's (Meiji)
Stella D'Oro (Lance)
Sunshine (Keebler)
Teddy Grahams (Nabisco)
Toll House (Nestle)
Tim Tam (Arnott's)
Vienna Fingers (Keebler)
==Miscellaneous==
Christmas cookie
Cookie cutter
Cookie dough
Cookie exchange
Cookie Clicker
Cookie Monster
Cookie sheet
Cookie table
Cookies and cream
Girl Scout cookie
|
[
"chocolate chip",
"Lotte (conglomerate)",
"chocolate",
"Fazer",
"United Biscuits",
"Kelsen Group",
"Tim Tam",
"Toruń gingerbread",
"Animal cracker",
"Hello Panda",
"Teddy Grahams",
"Cookie Monster",
"Marzipan",
"fruit",
"Carr's",
"Anzac biscuit",
"Galette",
"rock cake",
"Animal crackers",
"Fig Newton",
"Rainbow cookie",
"Sugar cookie",
"List of cookies",
"Cookies and cream",
"Chocolate brownie",
"Chocolate biscuit",
"Date square",
"tea",
"Lance Inc.",
"Fat rascal",
"Hamantash",
"McVitie's",
"Peek Freans",
"American English",
"Rich tea",
"D.F. Stauffer Biscuit Company",
"gingerbread man",
"BBC News",
"Spritzgebäck",
"Christmas cookies",
"Hershey's Cookies 'n' Creme",
"chocolate brownie",
"Jammie Dodgers",
"General Mills",
"Arnott's Biscuits",
"added sugar",
"Biscoff",
"Little Debbie",
"Wafer",
"Stauffer's",
"Fox's Biscuits",
"List of desserts",
"Meiji Seika",
"Pizzelle",
"oatmeal",
"margarine",
"Industrial Revolution",
"sandwich",
"Utz Brands",
"Kifli",
"Jumble (cookie)",
"Otis Spunkmeyer",
"Walkers Shortbread",
"Teacake",
"Pfeffernüsse",
"Speculoos",
"Bourbon biscuit",
"icing (food)",
"Krumkake",
"Cake",
"Tartlet",
"peanut butter cookies",
"Pinnacle Foods",
"Lotus Bakeries",
"carbon dioxide",
"North Sea",
"Barnum's Animals",
"Girl Scout cookie",
"Huntley & Palmers",
"Macaroon",
"Snack",
"custard cream",
"Low Countries",
"Candy",
"vanilla",
"Danish pastry",
"Nice biscuit",
"Qurabiya",
"Biscuit (bread)",
"Polvorón",
"date square",
"Churro",
"Archway Cookies",
"Vienna Fingers",
"cookie press",
"Ranger Cookie",
"Chocolate chip cookie",
"Kit Kat",
"flour",
"Rock cake",
"Tea biscuit",
"Dutch language",
"Encyclopædia Britannica",
"Whoopie pie",
"fat",
"Sandbakelse",
"Chocolate-coated marshmallow treat",
"Aquafaba",
"India",
"Pecan Sandies",
"Biscuit rose de Reims",
"Peanut butter cookie",
"Hydrox",
"Koala's March",
"Cookie cutter",
"sheet pan",
"rum ball",
"Blondie (confection)",
"Scottish National Dictionary",
"Dunking (biscuit)",
"United Kingdom",
"Commonwealth of Nations",
"biscuit",
"Mille-feuille",
"Doughnut",
"Pastelito",
"Berner Haselnusslebkuchen",
"diminutive form",
"history of curling",
"Rolling pin",
"Florentine biscuit",
"Campbell Soup Company",
"Cupcake",
"milk",
"Gingerbread man",
"Koulourakia",
"convenience store",
"Valentine's Day",
"biscotti",
"Digestive biscuit",
"Springerle",
"Snack cake",
"Graham cracker",
"Meringue",
"biscuit tin",
"Joe Frogger",
"Cookie table",
"Muslim conquest of Spain",
"Cookie exchange",
"oat",
"Pastry",
"sugar",
"Keebler",
"Milano (cookie)",
"bakery",
"peanut butter",
"Oreo",
"Chips Ahoy!",
"DeBeukelaer",
"Duncan Hines",
"Sablé (biscuit)",
"spice",
"dessert",
"Ginger snap",
"Aryzta",
"Şekerpare",
"Black and white cookie",
"Biscotti",
"Domino (cookie)",
"mustache",
"Burton's Foods",
"cookie cutter",
"Bun",
"History of golf",
"jam",
"Flies graveyard",
"Shortbread",
"McKee Foods",
"Russian tea cake",
"cake",
"Eggs as food",
"Elizabeth I",
"Amsterdam University Press",
"Teething biscuit",
"children's television series",
"Tuile",
"Fattigmann",
"Jaffa Cakes",
"date squares",
"Acıbadem kurabiyesi",
"S'more",
"Nilla",
"Cadbury",
"Anna's Swedish Thins",
"British English",
"cookie jar",
"tract house",
"Petit four",
"Confectionery",
"coffeehouse",
"Middle Dutch",
"Lorna Doone (cookie)",
"Maryland Cookies",
"raisin",
"dunking (biscuit)",
"grocery store",
"Fudge Shoppe",
"tray",
"Middle Scots",
"Cookie sandwich",
"Palmier",
"Stella D'Oro",
"ice cream",
"vending machine",
"Ladyfinger (biscuit)",
"List of baked goods",
"Sheet pan",
"butter",
"Flavoring",
"Stroopwafel",
"Butter cookie",
"viscous",
"Mrs. Fields",
"coffee",
"Interbake Foods",
"Persia",
"nut (fruit)",
"Halvah",
"Time (magazine)",
"Northern Foods",
"Peanut butter blossom cookie",
"bun",
"Baked goods",
"Fortune cookie",
"Famous Amos",
"Gingerbread house",
"Berger Cookies",
"Drink",
"Sandwich cookie",
"Royal Dansk",
"Moon pie",
"Toll House Inn",
"Cookie dough",
"The Muppets",
"marshmallow",
"Ferrero SpA",
"English-speaking world",
"Jules Destrooper",
"Alfajor",
"chocolate digestive",
"Leibniz-Keks",
"salmonella",
"Cookie Clicker",
"Pirouline",
"Snickerdoodle",
"Sesame Street",
"Lebkuchen",
"quick bread",
"Betty Crocker",
"Pepperidge Farm",
"Funnel cake",
"Chips Deluxe",
"Rusk",
"Hobnob biscuit",
"Mughlai cuisine",
"Hamentashen",
"Financial Times",
"Indian subcontinent",
"Nutter Butter",
"List of shortbread biscuits and cookies",
"Rum ball",
"Nestlé",
"Cooking oil",
"Mondelēz International",
"Sunshine Biscuits",
"Oatmeal raisin cookie",
"Berliner (pastry)",
"Rosette (pastry)",
"Cracker (food)",
"North America",
"Lotte Confectionery",
"Nabisco",
"Angel Wings",
"Pillsbury Company",
"Bahlsen",
"Danish Butter Cookies",
"Middle Ages",
"Linzer torte"
] |
7,220 |
Common Gateway Interface
|
In computing, Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is an interface specification that enables web servers to execute an external program to process HTTP or HTTPS user requests.
Such programs are often written in a scripting language and are commonly referred to as CGI scripts, but they may include compiled programs.
A typical use case occurs when a web user submits a web form on a web page that uses CGI. The form's data is sent to the web server within a HTTP request with a URL denoting a CGI script. The web server then launches the CGI script in a new computer process, passing the form data to it. The CGI script passes its output, usually in the form of HTML, to the Web server, and the server relays it back to the browser as its response to the browser's request.
Developed in the early 1990s, CGI was the earliest common method available that allowed a web page to be interactive. Due to a necessity to run CGI scripts in a separate process every time the request comes in from a client, various alternatives were developed.
== History ==
In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) team wrote the specification for calling command line executables on the www-talk mailing list. The other Web server developers adopted it, and it has been a standard for Web servers ever since. A work group chaired by Ken Coar started in November 1997 to get the NCSA definition of CGI more formally defined. This work resulted in RFC 3875, which specified CGI Version 1.1. Specifically mentioned in the RFC are the following contributors: For example, if a web server has the fully-qualified domain name www.example.com, and its document collection is stored at /usr/local/apache/htdocs/ in the local file system (its document root), then the web server will respond to a request for http://www.example.com/index.html by sending to the browser a copy of the file /usr/local/apache/htdocs/index.html (if it exists).
For pages constructed on the fly, the server software may defer requests to separate programs and relay the results to the requesting client (usually, a Web browser that displays the page to the end user).
Such programs usually require some additional information to be specified with the request, such as query strings or cookies. Conversely, upon returning, the script must provide all the information required by HTTP for a response to the request: the HTTP status of the request, the document content (if available), the document type (e.g. HTML, PDF, or plain text), et cetera.
Initially, there were no standardized methods for data exchange between a browser, the HTTP server with which it was communicating and the scripts on the server that were expected to process the data and ultimately return a result to the browser. As a result, mutual incompatibilities existed between different HTTP server variants that undermined script portability.
Recognition of this problem led to the specification of how data exchange was to be carried out, resulting in the development of CGI. Web page-generating programs invoked by server software that adheres to the CGI specification are known as CGI scripts, even though they may actually have been written in a non-scripting language, such as C.
The CGI specification was quickly adopted and continues to be supported by all well-known HTTP server packages, such as Apache, Microsoft IIS, and (with an extension) Node.js-based servers.
An early use of CGI scripts was to process forms. In the beginning of HTML, HTML forms typically had an "action" attribute and a button designated as the "submit" button. When the submit button is pushed the URI specified in the "action" attribute would be sent to the server with the data from the form sent as a query string. If the "action" specifies a CGI script then the CGI script would be executed, the script in turn generating an HTML page.
== Deployment ==
A Web server that supports CGI can be configured to interpret a URL that it serves as a reference to a CGI script. A common convention is to have a cgi-bin/ directory at the base of the directory tree and treat all executable files within this directory (and no other, for security) as CGI scripts. When a Web browser requests a URL that points to a file within the CGI directory (e.g., http://example.com/cgi-bin/printenv.pl/with/additional/path?and=a&query=string), then, instead of simply sending that file (/usr/local/apache/htdocs/cgi-bin/printenv.pl) to the Web browser, the HTTP server runs the specified script and passes the output of the script to the Web browser. That is, anything that the script sends to standard output is passed to the Web client instead of being shown in the terminal window that started the web server. Another popular convention is to use filename extensions; for instance, if CGI scripts are consistently given the extension .cgi, the Web server can be configured to interpret all such files as CGI scripts. While convenient, and required by many prepackaged scripts, it opens the server to attack if a remote user can upload executable code with the proper extension.
The CGI specification defines how additional information passed with the request is passed to the script. The Web server creates a subset of the environment variables passed to it and adds details pertinent to the HTTP environment. For instance, if a slash and additional directory name(s) are appended to the URL immediately after the name of the script (in this example, /with/additional/path), then that path is stored in the PATH_INFO environment variable before the script is called. If parameters are sent to the script via an HTTP GET request (a question mark appended to the URL, followed by param=value pairs; in the example, ?and=a&query=string), then those parameters are stored in the QUERY_STRING environment variable before the script is called. Request HTTP message body, such as form parameters sent via an HTTP POST request, are passed to the script's standard input. The script can then read these environment variables or data from standard input and adapt to the Web browser's request.
== Uses ==
CGI is often used to process input information from the user and produce the appropriate output. An example of a CGI program is one implementing a wiki. If the user agent requests the name of an entry, the Web server executes the CGI program. The CGI program retrieves the source of that entry's page (if one exists), transforms it into HTML, and prints the result. The Web server receives the output from the CGI program and transmits it to the user agent. Then if the user agent clicks the "Edit page" button, the CGI program populates an HTML textarea or other editing control with the page's contents. Finally if the user agent clicks the "Publish page" button, the CGI program transforms the updated HTML into the source of that entry's page and saves it.
== Security ==
CGI programs run, by default, in the security context of the Web server. When first introduced a number of example scripts were provided with the reference distributions of the NCSA, Apache and CERN Web servers to show how shell scripts or C programs could be coded to make use of the new CGI. One such example script was a CGI program called PHF that implemented a simple phone book.
In common with a number of other scripts at the time, this script made use of a function: escape_shell_cmd(). The function was supposed to sanitize its argument, which came from user input and then pass the input to the Unix shell, to be run in the security context of the Web server. The script did not correctly sanitize all input and allowed new lines to be passed to the shell, which effectively allowed multiple commands to be run. The results of these commands were then displayed on the Web server. If the security context of the Web server allowed it, malicious commands could be executed by attackers.
This was the first widespread example of a new type of Web-based attack called code injection, where unsanitized data from Web users could lead to execution of code on a Web server. Because the example code was installed by default, attacks were widespread and led to a number of security advisories in early 1996.
== Alternatives ==
For each incoming HTTP request, a Web server creates a new CGI process for handling it and destroys the CGI process after the HTTP request has been handled. Creating and destroying a process can consume more CPU time and memory resources than the actual work of generating the output of the process, especially when the CGI program still needs to be interpreted by a virtual machine. For a high number of HTTP requests, the resulting workload can quickly overwhelm the Web server.
The computational overhead involved in CGI process creation and destruction can be reduced by the following techniques:
CGI programs precompiled to machine code, e.g. precompiled from C or C++ programs, rather than CGI programs executed by an interpreter, e.g. Perl, PHP or Python programs.
Web server extensions such as Apache modules (e.g. mod_perl, mod_php and mod_python), NSAPI plugins, and ISAPI plugins which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request and hosted within the Web server.
FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request to be hosted externally; i.e., separately from the Web server. Each application process listens on a socket; the Web server handles an HTTP request and sends it via another protocol (FastCGI, SCGI or AJP) to the socket only for dynamic content, while static content is usually handled directly by the Web server. This approach needs fewer application processes so consumes less memory than the Web server extension approach. And unlike converting an application program to a Web server extension, FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP application programs remain independent of the Web server.
Jakarta EE runs Jakarta Servlet applications in a Web container to serve dynamic content and optionally static content which replaces the overhead of creating and destroying processes with the much lower overhead of creating and destroying threads. It also exposes the programmer to the library that comes with Java SE on which the version of Jakarta EE in use is based.
Standalone HTTP Server
Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a modern approach written in the Python programming language. It is defined by PEP 3333 and implemented via various methods like mod_wsgi (Apache module), Gunicorn web server (in between of Nginx & Scripts/Frameworks like Django), UWSGI, etc.
The optimal configuration for any Web application depends on application-specific details, amount of traffic, and complexity of the transaction; these trade-offs need to be analyzed to determine the best implementation for a given task and time budget. Web frameworks offer an alternative to using CGI scripts to interact with user agents.
|
[
"FastCGI",
"code injection",
"mod python",
"Web server",
"standard input",
"computational overhead",
"Java Platform, Standard Edition",
"computer process",
"wiki",
"Web framework",
"Directory (computing)",
"HTTP response",
"web form",
"filename extension",
"environment variable",
"web server",
"C (programming language)",
"Thread (computer science)",
"mod perl",
"Ken Coar",
"HTTP POST",
"ISAPI",
"Rob McCool",
"HTTP GET",
"Gunicorn",
"computing",
"compiler",
"scripting language",
"Apache JServ Protocol",
"PHP",
"Gateway (telecommunications)",
"query string",
"Apache HTTP Server",
"software portability",
"Node.js",
"machine code",
"Web container",
"mod wsgi",
"Python programming language",
"HTTP message body",
"UWSGI",
"HTTPS",
"Ari Luotonen",
"webmaster",
"HTTP cookie",
"CERN httpd",
"HTTP",
"NCSA HTTPd",
"standard output",
"process (computing)",
"interpret",
"Perl",
"C++",
"Python (programming language)",
"Netscape Server Application Programming Interface",
"National Center for Supercomputing Applications",
"Web Server Gateway Interface",
"Uniform Resource Locator",
"URL",
"C library",
"directory (computing)",
"FQDN",
"file system",
"HTTP request",
"C programming language",
"Apache modules",
"Internet Information Services",
"Simple Common Gateway Interface",
"Jakarta EE",
"HTML",
"mod php",
"Jakarta Servlet"
] |
7,222 |
Choctaw
|
The Choctaw ( ) are a Native American people originally based in the Southeastern Woodlands, in what is now Mississippi and Alabama. The Choctaw language is a Western Muskogean language. Today, Choctaw people are enrolled in four federally recognized tribes: the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, Jena Band of Choctaw Indians in Louisiana, and the Yowani Choctaws enrolled under the confederacy of the Caddo Nation. Choctaw descendants are also members of state-recognized tribes.
== Etymology ==
The Choctaw autonym is Chahta; the proper noun "Choctaw" is an anglization. According to anthropologist John R. Swanton, the Choctaw derived their name from an early leader of the Choctaw people. Swanton's report was taken directly from the Choctaw people as they recounted a story of their early history regarding a journey to seek a new homeland. On this journey, the ancestral group of people divided into two groups over different interpretations of a totem the people were consulting on how they might proceed on their journey. A leader named "Chahta" proposes that the totem indicates they should proceed to the north while another leader, Chahta's brother "Chiksa'", proposes the indication is to proceed to the east. The people chose which leader they would follow which split them into two groups. Those who followed Chahta became the Chahta or Choctaw people and those who followed Chiksa' became the Chiksa' or Chickasaw people. Henry Halbert, a historian, suggests that the name is derived from the Choctaw phrase Hacha hatak (river people). This view has little support.
== Origins ==
One Choctaw origin story relates how in pre-historic times the Choctaw people lived in areas near or around what is now known as the Yucatan Peninsula. This story explains that when the ancient South American homeland of the Choctaw people became overcrowded many of them sailed across the sea to the land of present-day Alabama and Mississippi in North America. (Caitlin, Letters and Notes, 1841) A Choctaw origin in South America is supported by DNA evidence as well as the similarities between the beliefs, art, and customs of the people of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex in North America and the Indigenous peoples of South America. The ancestral people of the Choctaw and other indigenous peoples in North America have participated in the evolution of their respective North American cultures for hundreds and even thousands of years. However, the Choctaw people as they are known today are believed to have coalesced during the 16th century. The original peoples involved in this coalescence likely formed in Alabama and were made up of populations such as the Plaquemine culture. Prior to their arrival in the Americas the founding populations of both North and South American indigenous peoples are generally explained to be Beringian populations broken down into several groups which are illuminated within the fields of archeology, anthropology, and genomics. Technological advances have provided breakthroughs in the genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of North and South America. Until modern times the connection between North and South American indigenous people was unknown in modern scholarship.
==Language==
The Choctaw language is a member of the Muskogean language family. The Choctaw language was well known among the American frontiersmen of the early 19th century. In 1870, a Christian Missionary and fluent Choctaw speaker Cyrus Byington published a Choctaw Dictionary Grammar of the Choctaw Language. Revised additions include contributions from American historian Henry S. Halbert, who was also a fluent Choctaw speaker, and anthropologist John R. Swanton.
Choctaw or Chahta, as it is called in the native language, is closely related to the Chickasaw language. Some linguists consider Choctaw and Chickasaw to be dialects of a singular original language. This idea is supported by Choctaw and Chickasaw origin stories which both state that the Choctaw and Chickasaw people arose out of a singular ancestral people.
The Choctaw language is at the heart of Choctaw tribal culture, tradition, and identity. The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma currently offers courses in the Choctaw language. Choctaw is regularly spoken as part of daily life on the Mississippi Choctaw reservation. Although Choctaw had begun to diminish in the 20th century it remains a living language and in recent years has shown a resurgence among the people of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, and the Yowani Choctaws.
===Orthography===
The written Choctaw language is based upon the English version of the Roman alphabet and was developed in conjunction with the "civilization program" of the United States in the early 19th century. Byington's alphabet and a version modified by John R. Swanton is seen here.
====Byington (Original)====
====Byington/Swanton (Linguistic)====
The following table is an example of Choctaw text and its translation:
== Traditional religion ==
The traditional Choctaw belief system evolved out of the North American Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. The Choctaw believed in a good spirit and an evil spirit. They may have been sun, or Hvshtahli, worshippers. The anthropologist John Swanton wrote,
{{blockquote|[T]he Choctaws anciently regarded the sun as a deity ... the sun was ascribed the power of life and death. He was represented as looking down upon the earth, and as long as he kept his flaming eye fixed on any one, the person was safe ... fire, as the most striking representation of the sun, was considered as possessing intelligence, and as acting in concert with the sun ... [having] constant intercourse with the sun ...
Choctaw prophets were known to have addressed the sun. John Swanton wrote, "an old Choctaw informed Wright that before the arrival of the missionaries, they had no conception of prayer. He added, "I have indeed heard it asserted by some, that anciently their hopaii, or prophets, on some occasions were accustomed to address the sun ..." Choctaw people maintain their ancient traditions in their personal and daily lives as well as participating in community events. One example is the mid-summer Choctaw Indian Fair hosted by the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. This event hosts Choctaw people from all over world and includes hospitality and events such as cooking, entertainment, dancing, and stickball. The Choctaw culture is an ancient culture that continues to thrive within the nations and communities of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma in Oklahoma, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians in Mississippi, the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians in Louisiana, and the Yowani Choctaws in Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana, and in Oklahoma as part of the Caddo Confederacy.
===Traditional tribal structure===
The traditional Choctaw tribal structure prioritized two distinct moieties: Imoklashas (elders) and Inhulalatas (youth). Each moiety had several iksas or clans and in rare cases a totemic clan. Identity for the Choctaw people was established first by moiety and second as part of the individuals iksa. The Choctaw people existed in a matrilineal kinship system, with children born into the iksa of their mother and the mother's iksa conferring her children's social status. Another tradition of this maternally oriented system was the role of the maternal uncle as an important figure in the lives of his sister's children. Maternal uncles acted as fathers and caretakers to the children of their sisters. The Choctaw people's adoration of woman and the Mother goddess was also reflected in their religious and spiritual reverence for the sacred mound of Nanih Waiya which is known as the "Mother Mound". Nanih Waiya is a great earthwork platform mound located in central-east Mississippi. This site remains a place of female pilgrimage for prayer, song, and dance to this day.
Early American writings record some of the names of the historical Choctaw iksas. Anthropologist John R. Swanton made his contribution through his 1931 book Source material for the social and ceremonial life of the Choctaw Indians. The main iksas holding significant sway over all others at the time of his writings were the Okla Falaya meaning "Long People", the eastern Okla Tannap meaning "People on the Other Side", and the southern Okla Hannali meaning "Six Towns People". Swanton reported from both personal contact and previous scholarship in his writings. The names of the known iksas when Swanton's aforementioned book was published are as follows:
Bok Chito or Bogue Chitto, meaning "Big Stream"
Biasha meaning "Mulberry Place"
Okla Untuklo meaning "Seven Towns"
Yakan-Okani meaning "Land Creek"
Haiyip Atokola meaning "Second Lake" or "Two Lakes"
Chickashahe possibly meaning "Chickasaw Potato"
Kushak meaning "Reedbrake People" or the name of a bird found in the reedbrakes.
Spani Okla meaning "Spanish People"
Obala Chaha meaning may relate to the location of Turkey Creek.
Koe chito meaning "Panther"
Bok Falaia meaning "Long Creek"
Yanabe meaning unknown
Yashu meaning unknown
Abeka meaning unknown
Lukfata meaning unknown
Haiyowani, Yowani Choctaws, meaning "caterpillar of the June Bug", also the name of a village of the Yowani.
After the U.S. government had broken several treaties with the Choctaw people, and eventually when the Choctaw were forcibly removed from their traditional lands in Mississippi during the American tragedy of the Trail of Tears, the Choctaw reestablished themselves in Indian Territory according to the three most powerful districts in their lost homeland. The Choctaw named these three districts after the leading chiefs from each of those districts. Moshulatubbee was the name given for the district of the Okla Tannap, Apuckshunubbee was given for Okla Falaya, and Pushmataha was given for Okla Hannali.
===Traditional communal economy===
Early Choctaw communities worked communally and shared their harvest. They had trouble understanding why English settlers allowed their poor to suffer from hunger. In Ireland, the generosity of the Choctaw nation during their Great Famine in the mid-nineteenth century is remembered to this day and recently marked by a sculpture, 'Kindred Spirits', in a park at Midleton, Cork.
===Traditional building structures===
Both, the Chickasaw and the Choctaw Indians traditionally made three kinds of buildings, per family, consisting of 1) a summer house (made into an oblong square), 2) a corn house (also made into an oblong square), and 3) a winter house, which latter was made circular, and was also known as the 'hot house'.
===Traditional clothing===
The colorful dresses worn by today's Choctaw are made by hand. They are based on designs of their ancestors, who adapted 19th-century European-American styles to their needs. Today many Choctaw wear such traditional clothing mainly for special events. Choctaw elders, especially the women, dress in their traditional garb every day. Choctaw dresses are trimmed by full diamond, half diamond or circle, and crosses that represent stickball sticks.
=== Traditional games===
Choctaw stickball, the oldest field sport in North America, was also known as the "little brother of war" because of its roughness and substitution for war. When disputes arose between Choctaw communities, stickball provided a civil way to settle issues. The stickball games would involve as few as twenty or as many as 300 players. The goal posts could be from a few hundred feet apart to a few miles. Goal posts were sometimes located within each opposing team's village. A Jesuit priest referenced stickball in 1729, and George Catlin painted the subject. The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians continue to practice the sport.
Chunkey was a game using a disk-shaped stone that was about 1–2 inches in length.
Players would throw the disk down a corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. As the disk rolled down the corridor, players would throw wooden shafts at it. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it. The corn game used five to seven kernels of corn. One side was blackened and the other side white. Players won points based on each color. One point was awarded for the black side and 5–7 points for the white side. There were usually only two players. Some treaties which the US made with other nations, such as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, indirectly affected the Choctaw.
==Reservations==
Reservations can be found in Louisiana (Jena Band of Choctaw Indians), Mississippi (Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians), and Oklahoma (Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma). The Oklahoma reservation is defined by treaty. Other population centers can be found throughout the United States.
==General history==
The Choctaw coalesced as a people in the 16th century and had developed at least three distinct political and geographical divisions prior to European contact: the western Okla Falaya ("Long People"), the eastern Okla Tannap ("People on the Other Side"), and the southern Okla Hannali ("Six Towns People"). Eventually, these different groups would create distinct, independent alliances with nearby European powers.
The Choctaw were first noted by Europeans in French written records of the 17th century. Early Spanish explorers of the mid-16th century in the Southeast encountered ancestral Mississippian culture villages and chiefs. Eventually, the Spanish, French, and English would all, through their various explorers, governments, and peoples, discover the Choctaw as a complex society with firmly established tribal governments, alliances, religious practice, and culture.
Early contact between the Choctaw and Europeans include the French, based on the Gulf Coast and in Louisiana; the English of the Southeast; and Spain in Florida and Louisiana during the colonial era. These interactions introduced Choctaw communities to new and extensive social interactions and trade with Europeans, including more formal interactions with the governments of Spain, France, and England. These relationships with Europeans were influential in shaping the modern Choctaw people. After the United States was formed and its settlers began to move into the Southeast, the Choctaw were among the Five Civilized Tribes, who adopted many of their ways. Many Choctaw transitioned to yeoman farming methods and incorporated European Americans and African Americans (as tribal members, prisoners, and slaves) into their society.
Most Choctaw allied with the Americans during the American Revolution, War of 1812, and the Red Stick War, most notably at the Battle of New Orleans. European Americans considered the Choctaw to be one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" of the Southeast. The Choctaw and the United States agreed to a total of nine treaties. By the last three, the US gained vast land cessions in the Southeast. As part of Indian Removal, despite not having waged war against the United States, the majority of Choctaw were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory from 1831 to 1833. The Choctaw government in Indian Territory maintained the tri-union tradition of their homeland by having three governmental districts. Each district had its own chief, who together with the town chiefs, sat on the Choctaw National Council.
Those Choctaw who chose to stay in the state of Mississippi were considered state and U.S. citizens; they were one of the first major non-European ethnic groups to be granted citizenship. Article 14 in the 1830 treaty with the Choctaw stated Choctaws may wish to become citizens of the United States under the 14th Article of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek on all of the combined lands which were consolidated under Article I from all previous treaties between the United States and the Choctaw.
During the American Civil War, the Choctaw in both Indian Territory and Mississippi mostly sided with the Confederate States of America. Under the late 19th-century Dawes Act and Curtis Acts, the US federal government broke up tribal land holdings and dissolved tribal governments in Indian Territory to extinguish Indian land claims before the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907. From that period, for several decades the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs appointed chiefs of the Choctaw and other tribes in the former Indian Territory.
During World War I, Choctaw soldiers served in the US military as some of the first Native American codetalkers, using the Choctaw language. Since the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Choctaw people in three areas have reconstituted their governments and gained federal recognition. The largest are the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, followed by the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, and the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, respectively.
Since the 20th century, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians were federally recognized in 1945, the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma in 1971, and the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians in 1995. The Choctaw Apache Tribe of Ebarb (House Concurrent Resolution 2), Clifton Choctaw Band (House Concurrent Resolution 3), and Louisiana Band of Choctaw (Senate Concurrent Resolution 3), all based in Louisiana, were state-recognized in 1978. The MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians was state-recognized by the Alabama legislature in 1979, and again in 1984 during the establishment of the Alabama Indian Commission through Alabama Code 41-9-708.
== Population history ==
The highest of early estimates – possibly representing the population peak – is that of Le Page du Pratz who estimated the Choctaw at 25,000 warriors (and therefore around 125,000 people) in year 1718. Other estimates from that time period were usually lower, but it is possible that they represented only a part of the tribe. Similar figures were given by St. Denis who estimated the Choctaw at 18,000 warriors (or 90,000 people) in 1714 and by W. Bull who estimated them at 16,000 warriors (or 80,000 people) in 1738. According to B. R. Carroll the Choctaw were reckoned by the French to be the most numerous nation of Indians in America and consisted of many thousand men. John R. Swanton enumerated a total of 102 Choctaw villages and towns in his book. Robert Rogers estimated the Choctaw at 10,000 warriors in 1775 (indicating a total population of 50,000). According to Gilbert Imlay they mustered 6,000 warriors around the year 1800 (implying a total population of 30,000). Jedidiah Morse estimated the Choctaw at 25,000 people in about year 1820. A census taken in 1830, shortly before the removal, reported a total population of 19,554. A report by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs dated 25 November 1841 indicates that by then 15,177 Choctaws had already moved to Oklahoma (Indian Territory). A few thousand more emigrated to the west in subsequent years. The Indian Office in 1856 reported the number of the Choctaws as 22,707. Emmanuel Domenech estimated the Choctaw at up to 25,000 people in about 1860. Enumeration published in 1886 counted 18,000 Choctaws in Oklahoma as of year 1884. The census of 1910 counted 15,917 Choctaws. Around years 1916–1919 there were in Oklahoma 17,488 Choctaws by blood, 1,651 by intermarriage and 6,029 Freedmen, and in addition to that there were also at that time 3,099 Mississippi Choctaws and around 200 Choctaws living elsewhere.
In the 20th and 21st centuries Choctaw population has rebounded, in 2020 they numbered 254,154 (including 90,973 in Oklahoma).
==Influential leaders==
Tuscaloosa (died October 1540) retaliated against Hernando de Soto at the Battle of Mabilia. The battle was the first major conflict in North America between Native Americans and Europeans.
Franchimastabe (died 19th century) was a transitional benefactor and a contemporary of Taboca. To some Americans he was the "leading chief of the Choctaws". He led a war party with British forces against American rebels. Franchasmatabe attended the treaty talks of 1801 near Mobile, Alabama.
Taboca (died 19th century) was a traditional "prophet-chief" who led a delegation starting in October 1785 to Hopewell, South Carolina.
Apuckshunubbee ( – 1824) was chief of the Okla Falaya (Tall People) district in old Choctaw nation. He died in Kentucky on his way to Washington, D.C., to conduct negotiations.
Pushmataha (Apushmataha) (1760s–December 24, 1824) was a chief in old Choctaw nation. He negotiated treaties with the United States and fought on the American's side in the War of 1812. He died in Washington D.C. and is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C.
Mosholatubbee (1770–1836) was a chief in the Choctaw nation before the removal and after. He went to Washington City to negotiate for the tribe in 1824 and was the only major leader to return. In the summer of 1830, he ran for a seat in the Congress of the United States to represent the state of Mississippi.
Greenwood LeFlore (June 3, 1800 – August 31, 1865) was a District Chief of the Choctaws in Mississippi. He was an influential state representative and senator in Mississippi.
George W. Harkins (1810–1890) was a district Choctaw chief in Indian Territory (1850–1857) prior to the Civil War and author of the "Farewell Letter to the American People".
Peter Pitchlynn (January 30, 1806 – January 17, 1881) was a highly influential leader during the removal era and long after. He represented the Choctaws in Washington, D.C., for some years and is buried in the Congressional Cemetery. Charles Dickens described him "as stately and complete a gentleman of nature's making as ever I beheld."
Wesley Johnson ( – 1925) was elected chief on May 10, 1913, in Meridian, Mississippi. He would lead the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw Council's delegation to Washington, D.C., in February 1914 where he met President Woodrow Wilson and many members of congress. There he expressed the dire situation of the Mississippi Choctaws. Wesley Johnson represented the Alabama Delegation from Southwest Alabama in Mobile and Washington Counties. Wesley Johnson was also known as Wesley Wakatubee.
Phillip Martin (March 13, 1926 – February 4, 2010) was the Chief of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians from 1979 to 2007 and worked in tribal government for over fifty years. He encouraged outside investment and reduced unemployment to nearly 0% on the reservation.
|
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"Greenwood LeFlore",
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"Trail of Tears",
"Jedidiah Morse",
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] |
7,224 |
Calypso
|
Calypso, Calipso, Kalypso, Kalipso, may refer to:
==Arts and entertainment==
===Mythological and fictional entities===
Calypso (mythology), a nymph who imprisoned Odysseus for seven years
Calypso (nymphs), various other nymphs
Calypso (comics), a Marvel Comics character
Calypso, a character in mythology novels by Rick Riordan
Calypso, or Tia Dalma, a Pirates of the Caribbean movie character
Calypso (dog), a dog from the animated TV show Bluey
Calypso, a character from the Twisted Metal video game series
Planet Calypso, a location in Entropia Universe
UNS Calypso, a starship in Alien Legacy
=== Literature ===
"Calypso", an episode in James Joyce's novel Ulysses
Calypso (book), a 2018 essay collection by David Sedaris
=== Music ===
Calypso music, a genre of Trinidadian folk music
Calypso (album), by Harry Belafonte
"Calypso" (John Denver song), 1975
"Calypso" (Luis Fonsi and Stefflon Don song), 2018
"Calypso" (Spiderbait song), 1997
"Calypso", a song by France Gall from the 1984 album Débranche!
"Calypso", a song by Jean-Michel Jarre from Waiting for Cousteau
"Calypso", a song by Suzanne Vega from the 1987 album Solitude Standing
"Calypso", a song by Bryson Tiller from the 2024 album Bryson Tiller
"Calipso" (song), by Charlie Charles and Dardust, 2019
=== Television ===
Calypso (TV series), a Venezuelan telenovela
"Calypso", an episode of Star Trek: Short Treks
"Calypso", an episode of Bluey
Calipso TV, Venezuela TV channel
==People==
Calypso (painter), 3rd century BC Greek painter
Calypso Rose (born 1940), Trinidadan musician
Kalypso Nicolaïdis (born 1962), a Franco-Grecian academic
Kalipso Chalkidou (born 1976), a Greek physician
Juno Calypso (born 1989), UK photographer
Charlotte Di Calypso (born 1990), French fashion model
==Places==
Calypso Cliffs, Bowman Inlet, Antarctica
Calypso Deep, the deepest point of the Mediterranean Sea
Calypso, North Carolina, a town in the United States
Calypso Park, Limoges, Ontario, Canada; a Canadian theme waterpark
Calypso (moon), a moon of Saturn
== Science and technology ==
Calypso (electronic ticketing system)
Calypso (email client), later called Courier
Kalypso (software), an open source modelling program
HP Calypso, a PDA from Hewlett-Packard
Calypso (plant), an orchid genus containing a single species Calypso bulbosa
Calypso bean, a bean cultivar of the species Phaseolus vulgaris
== Transportation==
Boeing Starliner Calypso, a space capsule
Ultracraft Calypso, a Belgian light aircraft design
Calypso (ship), the name of several ships
M/S Kalypso, a cruiseferry
Greek ship Kalypso (M64), a Greek minehunter
Italian torpedo boat Calipso
== Other uses ==
CALIPSO, a satellite
Calypso (camera), an underwater camera
Calypso (typeface)
Calypso Technology, later Adenza
Calypso Lemonade, a lemonade company
Kalypso Media, a video game developer
|
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"Kalipso Chalkidou",
"Juno Calypso",
"Entropia Universe",
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"Waiting for Cousteau",
"Twisted Metal",
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"Ultracraft Calypso",
"Calypso Rose",
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"Calypso (mythology)",
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"Calypso (John Denver song)",
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] |
7,225 |
Chemical affinity
|
In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.
== History ==
===Early theories===
The idea of affinity is extremely old. Many attempts have been made at identifying its origins. Physical chemistry, however, was one of the first branches of science to study and formulate a "theory of affinity". The name affinitas was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher Albertus Magnus near the year 1250. Later, those as Robert Boyle, John Mayow, Johann Glauber, Isaac Newton, and Georg Stahl put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how heat is evolved during combustion reactions.
The term affinity has been used figuratively since c. 1600 in discussions of structural relationships in chemistry, philology, etc., and reference to "natural attraction" is from 1616. "Chemical affinity", historically, has referred to the "force" that causes chemical reactions. as well as, more generally, and earlier, the ″tendency to combine″ of any pair of substances. The broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition.
The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor "elective affinity" or elective attractions, a term that was used by the 18th century chemistry lecturer William Cullen. Whether Cullen coined the phrase is not clear, but his usage seems to predate most others, although it rapidly became widespread across Europe, and was used in particular by the Swedish chemist Torbern Olof Bergman throughout his book (1775). Affinity theories were used in one way or another by most chemists from around the middle of the 18th century into the 19th century to explain and organise the different combinations into which substances could enter and from which they could be retrieved. Antoine Lavoisier, in his famed 1789 Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry), refers to Bergman's work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions.
According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Reactions by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term "affinity" by the term "free energy" in much of the English-speaking world.
According to Prigogine, the term was introduced and developed by Théophile de Donder.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe used the concept in his novel Elective Affinities (1809).
=== Visual representations ===
The affinity concept was very closely linked to the visual representation of substances on a table. The first-ever affinity table, which was based on displacement reactions, was published in 1718 by the French chemist Étienne François Geoffroy. Geoffroy's name is best known in connection with these tables of "affinities" (tables des rapports), which were first presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1718 and 1720.
During the 18th century many versions of the table were proposed with leading chemists like Torbern Bergman in Sweden and Joseph Black in Scotland adapting it to accommodate new chemical discoveries. All the tables were essentially lists, prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents.
Crucially, the table was the central graphic tool used to teach chemistry to students and its visual arrangement was often combined with other kinds diagrams. Joseph Black, for example, used the table in combination with chiastic and circlet diagrams to visualise the core principles of chemical affinity. Affinity tables were used throughout Europe until the early 19th century when they were displaced by affinity concepts introduced by Claude Berthollet.
== Modern conceptions ==
In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. That is,
A = -\left(\frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi}\right)_{P,T}.
It follows that affinity is positive for spontaneous reactions.
In 1923, the Belgian mathematician and physicist Théophile de Donder derived a relation between affinity and the Gibbs free energy of a chemical reaction. Through a series of derivations, de Donder showed that if we consider a mixture of chemical species with the possibility of chemical reaction, it can be proven that the following relation holds:
A = -\Delta_rG. \,
With the writings of Théophile de Donder as precedent, Ilya Prigogine and Defay in Chemical Thermodynamics (1954) defined chemical affinity as the rate of change of the uncompensated heat of reaction Q' as the reaction progress variable or reaction extent ξ grows infinitesimally:
A = \frac{{\mathrm d}Q'}{{\mathrm d}\xi}. \,
This definition is useful for quantifying the factors responsible both for the state of equilibrium systems (where ), and for changes of state of non-equilibrium systems (where A ≠ 0).
|
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] |
7,227 |
Comet Hale–Bopp
|
Comet Hale–Bopp (formally designated C/1995 O1) is a long-period comet that was one of the most widely observed of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many decades.
Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp discovered Comet Hale–Bopp separately on July 23, 1995, before it became visible to the naked eye. It is difficult to predict the maximum brightness of new comets with any degree of certainty, but Hale–Bopp exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997, reaching about magnitude −1.8. Its massive nucleus size made it visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months. This is twice as long as the Great Comet of 1811, the previous record holder. Accordingly, Hale–Bopp was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997.
== Discovery ==
The comet was discovered independently on July 23, 1995, by two observers, Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp, both in the United States.
Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon Hale–Bopp just after midnight. The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10.5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius. Hale first established that there was no other deep-sky object near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky. Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, the clearing house for astronomical discoveries.
Bopp did not own a telescope. He was out with friends near Stanfield, Arizona, observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend's telescope. He realized he might have spotted something new when, like Hale, he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep-sky objects were known to be near M70, and found none. He alerted the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams through a Western Union telegram. Brian G. Marsden, who had run the bureau since 1968, laughed, "Nobody sends telegrams anymore. I mean, by the time that telegram got here, Alan Hale had already e-mailed us three times with updated coordinates."
The following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was given the designation C/1995 O1. The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187.
== Early observation ==
Hale–Bopp's orbital position was calculated as 7.2 astronomical units (au) from the Sun, placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs. Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernible activity, but Hale–Bopp already had an observable coma. A precovery image taken at the UK Schmidt Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then-unnoticed comet some 13 AU from the Sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable. (Halley's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun.) Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was kilometres in diameter, approximately six times the size of Halley's Comet.
Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that comet Hale–Bopp might become very bright when it reached perihelion in 1997. However, comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distances only to diminish in brightness later. Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a "comet of the century" and turned out to be unspectacular.
== Perihelion ==
Hale–Bopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year, scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright. It was too closely aligned with the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with light-polluted skies.
The Internet was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular. The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet Hale–Bopp.
As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at 2nd magnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit. On March 9, a solar eclipse in China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime. Hale–Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22, 1997, at a distance of 1.315 au.
As it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997, the comet developed into a spectacular sight. It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius, and its dust tail stretched 40–45 degrees across the sky. The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, comet Hale–Bopp was visible all night to Northern Hemisphere observers.
== After perihelion ==
After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere. The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere, but southerners could see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997. The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about months. The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811, which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.
The comet continued to fade as it receded, but was still tracked by astronomers. In October 2007, 10 years after the perihelion and at a distance of 25.7 au from the Sun, the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO-driven coma. Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet Hale–Bopp is covered in a fresh frost layer. Hale–Bopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30.7 AU away from the Sun, and in 2012, at 33.2 AU from the Sun. The James Webb Space Telescope observed Hale–Bopp in 2022, when it was 46.2 AU from the Sun.
== Orbital changes ==
The comet likely made its previous perihelion approximately 4,200 years ago, roughly the year 2215 BC. The estimated closest approach to Earth was 1.4 au, and it may have been observed in ancient Egypt during the 6th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Pepi II (Reign: 2247 – c. 2216 BC). Pepi's pyramid at Saqqara contains a text referring to an "nhh-star" as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens, where "" is the hieroglyph for long hair.
Hale–Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in 2215 BC, which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit, and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud. The comet's current orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, so further close approaches to planets will be rare. However, in April 1996 the comet passed within of Jupiter, close enough for its orbit to be measurably affected by the planet's gravity. The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2,399 years, and it will next return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385. Its greatest distance from the Sun (aphelion) will be about 354 AU, reduced from about 525 AU.
The estimated probability of Hale–Bopp's striking Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote, about 2.5×10−9 per orbit. However, given that the comet nucleus is around in diameter, the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic. Weissman conservatively estimates the diameter at ; an estimated density of 0.6 g/cm3 then gives a cometary mass of 1.3×1019 g. At a probable impact velocity of 52.5 km/s, impact energy can be calculated as 1.9×1032 ergs, or 4.4×109 megatons, about 44 times the estimated energy of the K-T impact event.
Over many orbits, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values. Hale–Bopp has about a 15% chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process. If such is the case, it could undergo huge mass loss, or break up into smaller pieces like the Kreutz sungrazers. It would also be extremely bright, due to a combination of closeness to the Sun and nuclei size, potentially exceeding Halley's Comet in 837 AD.
== Scientific results ==
Due to the massive size of its nucleus, Comet Hale–Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations. The dust production rate of the comet was very high (up to 2.0 kg/s), which may have made the inner coma optically thick. Based on the properties of the dust grainshigh temperature, high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission featurethe astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet.
Hale–Bopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet. Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains. It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale–Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet.
=== Sodium tail ===
One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail. In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, Hale–Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters. Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail. Hale–Bopp's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms (not ions), and extended to some in length.
The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma, although not necessarily the nucleus. There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and "sputtering" of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light. It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale–Bopp's sodium tail, and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins.
While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two. This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by radiation pressure.
=== Deuterium abundance ===
The abundance of deuterium in comet Hale–Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth's oceans. If Hale–Bopp's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets, this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they cannot be the only source.
Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet. The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds, rather than in the solar nebula. Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet Hale–Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25–45 kelvin.
=== Organics ===
Spectroscopic observations of Hale–Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals, several of which had never been detected in comets before. These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet.
=== Detection of argon ===
Hale–Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected. Noble gases are chemically inert and vary from low to high volatility. Since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures, and don't interact with other elements, they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices. Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16–20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance, while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance. Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale–Bopp has always been colder than 35–40 K, but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed, this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud.
=== Rotation ===
Comet Hale–Bopp's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several specific jets. Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes.
=== Binary nucleus question ===
In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet Hale–Bopp's dust emission observed in October 1995. The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about , with the main nucleus being about across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about . This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide-Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite.
Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus, controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus. The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations. Also, while comets have been observed to break up before, no case had been found of a stable binary nucleus until the subsequent discovery of P/2006 VW139|.
== UFO claims ==
In November 1996, amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston, Texas took a CCD image of the comet which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby. His computer sky-viewing program did not identify the star, so Shramek called the Art Bell radio program Coast to Coast AM to announce that he had discovered a "Saturn-like object" following Hale–Bopp. UFO enthusiasts, such as remote viewing proponent and Emory University political science professor Courtney Brown, soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet.
Several astronomers, including Alan Hale, stated that the object was simply the 8.5-magnitude star SAO141894. They noted that the star did not appear on Shramek's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly. Art Bell claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery. However, astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images.
Thirty-nine members of the Heaven's Gate cult died in a mass suicide, in March 1997 with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship which they believed was flying behind the comet.
Nancy Lieder, who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain, stated that Hale–Bopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of "Nibiru" or "Planet X", a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth's rotation, causing global cataclysm. Her original date for the apocalypse was May 2003, which passed without incident, but various conspiracy websites continued to predict the coming of Nibiru, most of whom tied it to the 2012 phenomenon. Lieder and others' claims of the planet Nibiru have been repeatedly debunked by scientists.
== Legacy ==
Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale–Bopp was probably the most-observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley's Comet in 1986, and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley's previous appearances. For instance, 69% of Americans had seen Hale–Bopp by April 9, 1997.
Hale–Bopp was a record-breaking cometthe farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs, with the largest well-measured cometary nucleus known after 95P/Chiron, and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record-holder. It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks, longer than any other recorded comet.
Carolyn Shoemaker and her husband Gene, co-discoverers of comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, were involved in a car crash after photographing the comet. Gene died in the crash and his ashes were sent to the Moon aboard NASA's Lunar Prospector mission along with an image of Hale–Bopp, "the last comet that the Shoemakers observed together".
Composer Dmitry Kayukin created the music album “Comet 97” based on his memories of observing Comet Hale–Bopp.
|
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"Thomas Bopp",
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"ancient Egypt",
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"Minor Planet Center",
"International Astronomical Union",
"Alan Hale (astronomer)"
] |
7,230 |
Conspiracy
|
thumb|230px|right|Illustration of the conspirators in the [[Gunpowder Plot, a secret plan devised in 1605 to blow up the Parliament of England. The plot was a failed attempt at regicide against King James I by a group of English Catholics. while keeping their agreement secret from the public or from other people affected by it. In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of people united in the goal of subverting established political power structures. This can take the form of usurping or altering them, or even continually illegally profiteering from certain activities in a way that weakens the establishment with help from various political authorities. Depending on the circumstances, a conspiracy may also be a crime or a civil wrong. The term generally connotes, or implies, wrongdoing or illegality on the part of the conspirators, as it is commonly believed that people would not need to conspire to engage in activities that were lawful and ethical, or to which no one would object.
There are some coordinated activities that people engage in with secrecy that are not generally thought of as conspiracies. For example, intelligence agencies such as the American CIA and the British MI6 necessarily make plans in secret to spy on suspected enemies of their respective countries and the general populace of its home countries, but this kind of activity is generally not considered to be a conspiracy so long as their goal is to fulfill their official functions, and not something like improperly enriching themselves. Similarly, the coaches of competing sports teams routinely meet behind closed doors to plan game strategies and specific plays designed to defeat their opponents, but this activity is not considered a conspiracy because this is considered a legitimate part of the sport. Furthermore, a conspiracy must be engaged in knowingly. The continuation of social traditions that work to the advantage of certain groups and to the disadvantage of certain other groups, though possibly unethical, is not a conspiracy if participants in the practice are not carrying it forward for the purpose of perpetuating this advantage. During the Cold War, the United States tried to covertly change other nations' governments 66 times, succeeding in 26 cases.
A "conspiracy theory" is a belief that a conspiracy has actually been decisive in producing a political event of which the theorists strongly disapprove. Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other; they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them. Political scientist Michael Barkun has described conspiracy theories as relying on the view that the universe is governed by design, and embody three principles: nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it seems, and everything is connected. Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them, so that they become, as Barkun writes, a closed system that is unfalsifiable, and therefore "a matter of faith rather than proof."
== Etymology ==
Conspiracy comes from the Latin word conspiratio. While conspiratio can mean "plot" or "conspiracy", it can also be translated as "unity" and "agreement", in the context of a group an example of this "Kirri and Adele commenced the conspiracy at the secret thursday gin meeting". Conspiratio comes from conspiro which, while still meaning "conspiracy" in the modern sense, also means "I sing in unison", as con- means "with" or "together", and spiro means "I breathe", literally meaning "I breathe together with others".
== Types of conspiracies ==
Conspiracy (civil), an agreement between people to deceive, mislead, or defraud others of their legal rights or to gain an unfair advantage.
Conspiracy (criminal), an agreement between people to break the law in the future, in some cases having committed an act to further that agreement.
Conspiracy (political), an agreement between people with the goal of gaining political power or meeting a political objective.
Hub-and-spoke conspiracy, a conspiracy in which one or more principal conspirators (the "hub") enter into several similar agreements with others (the "spokes") who know concerted action is contemplated, usually where the success of the concerted action depends on the participation of the other spokes.
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7,232 |
Cholistan Desert
|
The Cholistan Desert (; Punjabi: ), also locally known as Rohi (), is a desert in the southern part of Pakistani Punjab that forms part of the Greater Thar Desert, which extends to Sindh province and the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is one of two large deserts in Punjab, the other being the Thal Desert. The name is derived from the Turkic word chol, meaning "sands,"
Cholistan was a center for caravan trade, leading to the construction of numerous forts in the medieval period to protect trade routes—of which the Derawar Fort is the best-preserved example.
== Geography ==
Cholistan covers an area of in the Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, and Rahim Yar Khan districts of southern Punjab. The nearest major city is Bahawalpur city, from the edge of the desert. The desert stretches about 480 kilometres in length, with a width varying between 32 and 192 kilometres. It is located between 27°42΄00΄΄ to 29° 45΄00΄΄ north, and 69°57' 30'′ to 72° 52' 30'′ east. 81% of the desert is sandy, while 19% is characterized by alluvial flats and small sandy dunes. with very low annual humidity. The mean temperature in Cholistan is , with the hottest month being July with a mean temperature of .
== Geology ==
Cholistan was formed during the Pleistocene period. The dry bed of the Hakra River runs through the area, along which many settlements of the Indus Valley civilization/Harappan culture have been discovered, including the large urban site of Ganweriwal. The river system supported settlements in the region between 4000 BCE and 600 BCE when the river changed course.
==Economy==
===Livestock===
The backbone of Cholistan economy is animal rearing. Few other livelihood opportunities aside from livestock farming are available in the region. Agricultural farming away from the irrigated regions in Lower Cholistan is difficult due to the lack of steady water supply.
In December 2016, a Qatari prince had his hunting license rejected due to the species being endangered. Another prince, Dr. Fahad was fined with Rs. 80,000 ($760) and all of the birds he caught were set free for hunting without permit and license.
A few endangered species in this desert are the Chinkara Antelope, Great Indian Bustard, and Blue Bull, etc. Their population of Chinkara has decreased from 3,000 in 2007 to just a little above 1,000 in 2010 due to non-permit hunting of the species by influential political families.
Islamgarh Fort
Mirgarh Fort
Jamgarh Fort
Mojgarh Fort
Marot Fort
Phoolra Fort
Khangarh Fort
Khairgarh Fort
Nawankot Fort
Bijnot Fort
==Terracotta==
The Indus civilization was one of the earliest centres of pottery, and thus the pottery of Cholistan has a long history. Local soil is very fine and suitable for making pottery. The fineness of the earth can be observed on the Kacha houses which are actually plastered with mud but look like they have been white washed. The chief Cholistani ceramic articles are their surahies (jugs), piyalas (cups), and glasses, remarkable for their lightness and fine finishing.
In earlier times, only the art of pottery and terracotta developed, but from the seventh century onwards, a large number of temples and images were also built on account of the intensified religious passions and the accumulation of wealth in cities.
|
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"Cenchrus ciliaris",
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"Pakistan"
] |
7,233 |
Causantín mac Cináeda
|
Causantín mac Cináeda (Modern Gaelic: ; 836-877) was a king of the Picts. He is often known as Constantine I in reference to his place in modern lists of Scottish monarchs, but contemporary sources described only as a Pictish king. A son of ("Kenneth MacAlpin"), he succeeded his uncle as Pictish king following the latter's death on 13 April 862. The reign of Causantín likely saw increased activity by Vikings, based in Ireland, Northumbria and northern Britain. He died fighting one such invasion.
|
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"Ælla of Northumbria",
"Cináed mac Conaing",
"kingdom of Strathclyde",
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"Northumbria",
"Cináed mac Maíl Coluim",
"Atlantic",
"Flann Sinna",
"Mercia",
"Atholl",
"Donald II of Scotland",
"Old English",
"Northumbrians",
"Scandinavia",
"northern Britain",
"Latin",
"Artgal of Alt Clut",
"Scottish Gaelic",
"Francia",
"Celtic Britons",
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"Pictland",
"Scotland",
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"York",
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"Richard Cooper, the elder",
"Fife Ness",
"Auisle",
"Domnall mac Ailpín",
"king of Brega",
"Ireland",
"toponymy",
"Kingdom of East Anglia",
"Chronicle of the Kings of Alba",
"Áed of Scotland"
] |
7,234 |
Constantine II (emperor)
|
Constantine II (; 316–340) was Roman emperor from 337 to 340. The son of the emperor Constantine I, he was proclaimed caesar by his father shortly after his birth. He was associated with military victories over the Sarmatians, Alamanni and Goths during his career, for which he was granted a number of victory titles. He held the consulship four times – in 320, 321, 324, and 329.
Constantine I had arranged for his sons to share power with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, but this was not accepted by Constantine II and his brothers. As a result, Constantine II's brother Constantius II ordered the killings of numerous male relatives following Constantine I's death, including Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, thus eliminating any possible opponents to the succession of Constantine I's sons. Constantine II then ascended to the throne alongside his two younger brothers, ruling Gaul, Hispania, and Britain. However, his belief in his rights of primogeniture and attempts to exert them over his youngest brother Constans caused conflict, which ended with his death in a failed invasion of Italy in 340. Constans subsequently took control of Constantine's territories, with the latter being subjected to damnatio memoriae.
== Life ==
Born in Arles in 316, Constantine II was the second son of the Roman emperor Constantine I, and the eldest with his wife Fausta, the daughter of the emperor Maximian.
=== Caesar ===
On 1 March 317, he was made caesar at Serdica. After accompanying his father on his campaign against the Sarmatians in 323, he was commemorated on coinage produced to recognize the ensuing victory. Constantine II usually resided with his father until 328, when his own court was installed at Trier. An inscription dated to 328–330 records the title of , indicating that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni. His military career continued when Constantine I made him field commander during the 332 winter campaign against the Goths. Unlike his younger brothers, he gained little from Dalmatius's removal.
Constantine was evidently left unsatisfied with the results of their meeting, seemingly believing that his age granted him some sort of seniority in the imperial college and, by extension, control over the dominion of his youngest brother Constans, who was still a teenager in 337. Even after campaigning successfully against the Alamanni in 338, Constantine continued to maintain his position. The Theodosian Code recorded his legislative intervention in Constans's territory through issuing an edict to the proconsul of Africa in 339.
In April 340, Constantine launched an invasion into Italy to claim territory from Constans. Constans, at that time in Naissus, sent a number of troops to confront him, and Constantine was killed in an ambush near Aquileia. Constans then took control of his brother's realm, whose inhabitants seem to have been largely unaffected by their change in ruler.
After his death, Constantine was subjected to damnatio memoriae. Constans issued legislation repealing Constantine's acts shortly after his death, where the deceased emperor was branded as "the public enemy and our own enemy." Years later, when Libanius delivered a panegyric for both Constans and Constantius, Constantine was completely omitted from the narrative, as if he had never existed.
==Gallery==
File:INC-2046-a Ауреус. Константин II. Ок. 337—340 гг. (аверс).png|Coin of Constantine II as caesar (aged 1–7), marked: (Our Lord Flavius Claudius Constantine, Noblest Caesar)
File:Constantineii90010167.jpg|Aureus of Constantine II as caesar (aged 8), marked: ("Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar") on the obverse
File:Constantine II as Caesar.jpg|Solidus of Constantine II as caesar (aged 19), marked: on the obverse ("Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar") and (Princeps of youth) on the reverse
|
[
"Piazza del Campidoglio",
"Fausta",
"Roman Gaul",
"Constantinian dynasty",
"Ariaric",
"Pannonia",
"Byzantine Empire",
"damnatio memoriae",
"Vettius Iustus",
"Zosimus (historian)",
"Libanius",
"Petronius Probianus",
"Hispania",
"Dalmatius",
"Arles",
"Africa (Roman province)",
"Vettius Rufinus",
"Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum",
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"Augustus (title)",
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"Constantius II",
"Roman consul",
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"Amnius Anicius Julianus",
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"Sextus Anicius Paulinus",
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"List of Roman emperors",
"primogeniture",
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"Valerius Proculus",
"Serdica",
"Aquileia",
"Caesar (title)",
"Trier",
"Flavia Maximiana Theodora",
"Athanasius of Alexandria",
"Naissus",
"Acilius Severus (consul)",
"De Imperatoribus Romanis",
"Licinius Caesar",
"Theodosian Code",
"Constans",
"Claudius Gothicus",
"Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire",
"Julian (emperor)",
"Alamanni",
"Hannibalianus",
"Rome",
"Crispus",
"Solidus (coin)"
] |
7,235 |
Constantine II of Scotland
|
Causantín mac Áeda (Modern Gaelic: , anglicised Constantine II; born no later than 879; died 952) was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name Alba. The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine's lifetime, was situated in what is now Northern Scotland.
The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay. Its southern limit was the River Forth, northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness, while its western limits are uncertain. Constantine's grandfather Kenneth I (Cináed mac Ailpín, died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but as king of the Picts. This change of title, from king of the Picts to king of Alba, is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine's lifetime.
His reign, like those of his predecessors, was dominated by the actions of Viking rulers in the British Isles, particularly the Uí Ímair ('Grandsons/Descendants of Ímar', or Ivar the Boneless). During Constantine's reign, the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, later the Kingdom of England, extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria. At first, the southern rulers allied with him against the Vikings, but in 934, Æthelstan, unprovoked, invaded Scotland both by sea and land with a huge retinue that included four Welsh kings. He ravaged southern Alba, but there is no record of any battles. He had withdrawn by September. Three years later, in 937, probably in retaliation for the invasion of Alba, King Constantine allied with Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, but they were defeated at the battle of Brunanburh. In 943, Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé (Culdee) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952. He was succeeded by his predecessor's son Malcolm I (Máel Coluim mac Domnaill).
Constantine's reign of 43 years, exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, is believed to have played a defining part in the Gaelicisation of Pictland, in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor. During his reign, the words "Scots" and "Scotland" () were first used to mean part of what is now Scotland. The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until the Davidian Revolution also appears at this time.
|
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"Druim Alban",
"St Andrews",
"damnatio memoriae",
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"Alan Orr Anderson",
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"Leinster",
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"River Thames",
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"Edmund I",
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"Battle of Corbridge",
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"Cathach of St. Columba",
"Buckingham",
"river Tees",
"Kenneth MacAlpin",
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"Owain ap Dyfnwal (fl. 934)",
"Edward the Elder",
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"Giric",
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"Cerball mac Muirecáin",
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"Malcolm I",
"East Anglia",
"Scottish Gaelic language",
"Francia",
"origins of the Kingdom of Alba",
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"crozier",
"Kenneth I",
"Cnut of Northumbria",
"Cormac mac Cuilennáin",
"Máel Muire ingen Cináeda",
"Nottingham",
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"The Lennox",
"Church of St Mary on the Rock",
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"Sutherland",
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"Poppleton manuscript",
"Chronicle of the Kings of Alba",
"The Prophecy of Berchán",
"Henry of Huntingdon",
"Áed of Scotland",
"king of Dál Riata"
] |
7,236 |
Constantine the Great
|
Constantine I (; 27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, decriminalizing Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution. This was a turning point in the Christianization of the Roman Empire. He founded the city of Constantinople and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium.
Born in Naissus, a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš, Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer of Illyrian origin from Moesia, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy and one of the Illyrian Emperors who ruled Rome. His mother, Helena, was a woman of low birth, probably from Asia Minor in modern Turkey. Later canonised as a saint, she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. Constantine served with distinction under the Roman emperors Diocletian and Galerius. He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians, before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight alongside his father in the province of Britannia. After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum (York, England). He eventually emerged victorious in the civil wars against emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324.
Upon his ascension, Constantine enacted numerous reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus, a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units (), often around the Emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops () which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable, over time, of countering full-scale barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—such as the Franks, the Alemanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians—and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman culture.
Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan and later as a catechumen, he began to favour Christianity beginning in 312, finally becoming a Christian and being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop, although the Catholic Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church maintain that he was baptised by Pope Sylvester I. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which produced the statement of Christian belief known as the Nicene Creed. On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem, and was deemed the holiest place in all of Christendom. The papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the fabricated Donation of Constantine. He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor", but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. Nevertheless, he is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity, and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture.
The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium, which was officially renamed New Rome, while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty, Constantine's immediate political legacy was the effective replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession. His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts.
|
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"Equites singulares Augusti",
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"coin",
"Maximinus Daza",
"List of Roman consuls",
"Jerusalem",
"Saint Elen",
"Nicene Creed",
"heir presumptive",
"Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church",
"centenionalis",
"Jerome",
"Lucius (praenomen)",
"Saône",
"eunuch",
"Arnold Hugh Martin Jones",
"Picts",
"Licinius",
"Flavius Dalmatius",
"Santi Cosma e Damiano, Rome",
"The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire",
"Romania",
"Klaus Martin Girardet",
"panegyric",
"Eunapius",
"Eusebius",
"Peter Heather",
"Constantia (wife of Gratian)",
"Gamzigrad",
"Arles",
"Philostorgius",
"Severus II",
"Faustina (wife of Constantius II)",
"Concubinatus",
"Arianism",
"Tony Honoré",
"Carnuntum",
"Galerius",
"Epitome de Caesaribus",
"Laurus nobilis",
"Apollo",
"Ancient Roman religion",
"Anglican Communion",
"Trier Imperial Baths",
"Hagia Sophia",
"De Ceremoniis",
"Saint",
"German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine",
"quaestor",
"Routledge",
"House of Habsburg",
"New Rome",
"Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire",
"Henry VIII",
"Kingdom of Gwynedd",
"Ascaric",
"Bronze colossus of Constantine",
"History of Trier",
"Latin Church",
"Dardania (Roman province)",
"Lazzaro Baldi",
"dies imperii",
"Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus",
"Vatican Museums",
"Helena (mother of Constantine)",
"Eastern Catholic Church",
"Adige",
"Ceionius Rufius Albinus",
"Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum",
"Paul Veyne",
"Suicide by hanging",
"Mosaic",
"Alemanni",
"Gallicanus (consul 330)",
"Didyma",
"Victoria (mythology)",
"List of legendary kings of Britain",
"Roman governor",
"Septimius Severus",
"Naissus",
"Raphael Rooms",
"Anatolia",
"Palmyrene Empire",
"praenomen",
"catechumen",
"Aurelian Walls",
"Praetorian Guard",
"limitanei",
"Coel Hen",
"Latin",
"Chronicon (Jerome)",
"History of Sofia",
"Bructeri",
"Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.",
"Asia Minor",
"André Piganiol",
"castra",
"Athanasius",
"Lucian of Antioch",
"Passover",
"Johannes Leunclavius",
"Tyrian purple",
"Maximinus II",
"Jordan River",
"Rhine",
"Danube",
"Marcus (praenomen)",
"Antonius Caecina Sabinus",
"classical antiquity",
"Ramsay MacMullen",
"Donation of Constantine",
"Ponte Milvio",
"Hannibalianus",
"argenteus"
] |
7,237 |
Common Language Infrastructure
|
The Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) is an open specification and technical standard originally developed by Microsoft and standardized by ISO/IEC (ISO/IEC 23271) and Ecma International (ECMA 335) that describes executable code and a runtime environment that allows multiple high-level languages to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures. This implies it is platform agnostic. The .NET Framework, .NET and Mono are implementations of the CLI.
The metadata format is also used to specify the API definitions exposed by the Windows Runtime.
==Overview==
Among other things, the CLI specification describes the following five aspects:
The Common Type System (CTS)
A set of data types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages.
The Metadata
Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language the developer is not using.
The Common Language Specification (CLS)
The CLS, a subset of the CTS, are rules to which components developed with/for the supported languages must adhere.
They apply to consumers (developers who are programmatically accessing a component that is CLS-compliant), frameworks (developers who are using a language compiler to create CLS-compliant libraries), and extenders (developers who are creating a tool such as a language compiler or a code parser that creates CLS-compliant components).
The Virtual Execution System (VES)
The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime.
All compatible languages compile to Common Intermediate Language (CIL), which is an intermediate language that is abstracted from the platform hardware. When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the machine language according to the specific hardware and operating system.
In the CLI standard initially developed by Microsoft, the VES is implemented by the Common Language Runtime (CLR).
The Standard Libraries
A set of libraries providing many common functions, such as file reading and writing. Their core is the Base Class Library (BCL).
==Standardization and licensing==
In August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and others worked to standardize CLI. By December 2001, it was ratified by the Ecma, with ISO/IEC standardization following in April 2003.
Microsoft and its partners hold patents for CLI. Ecma and ISO/IEC require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under "reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms." It is common for RAND licensing to require some royalty payment, which could be a cause for concern with Mono. , neither Microsoft nor its partners have identified any patents essential to CLI implementations subject to RAND terms.
, Microsoft added C# and CLI to the list of specifications that the Microsoft Community Promise applies to, so anyone can safely implement specified editions of the standards without fearing a patent lawsuit from Microsoft. To implement the CLI standard requires conformance to one of the supported and defined profiles of the standard, the minimum of which is the kernel profile. The kernel profile is actually a very small set of types to support in comparison to the well known core library of default .NET installations. However, the conformance clause of the CLI allows for extending the supported profile by adding new methods and types to classes, as well as deriving from new namespaces. But it does not allow for adding new members to interfaces. This means that the features of the CLI can be used and extended, as long as the conforming profile implementation does not change the behavior of a program intended to run on that profile, while allowing for unspecified behavior from programs written specifically for that implementation.
In 2012, Ecma and ISO/IEC published the new edition of the CLI standard.
==Implementations==
.NET Framework is Microsoft's original commercial implementation of the CLI. It only supports Windows. It was superseded by .NET in November 2020.
.NET, previously known as .NET Core, is the free and open-source multi-platform successor to .NET Framework, released under the MIT License
.NET Compact Framework is Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for portable devices and Xbox 360.
.NET Micro Framework is an open source implementation of the CLI for resource-constrained devices.
Mono is an alternative open source implementation of CLI and accompanying technologies, mainly used for mobile and game development.
DotGNU is a decommissioned part of the GNU Project started in January 2001 that aimed to provide a free and open source software alternative to Microsoft's .NET Framework.
|
[
"programming language",
".NET Standard",
"Virtual Execution System",
"metadata",
".NET Compact Framework",
"Mono (software)",
"Metadata (CLI)",
".NET Framework",
"Windows Runtime",
"Standard Libraries (CLI)",
"technical standard",
"machine language",
"API",
"Intel",
"Computing platform",
"Reasonable and non-discriminatory licensing",
"free and open source software",
"DotGNU",
".NET",
".NET Micro Framework",
"ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22",
"Common Intermediate Language",
"Xbox 360",
"MIT License",
"Microsoft",
"International Electrotechnical Commission",
"International Organization for Standardization",
"Cross-platform",
"Hewlett-Packard",
"specification",
"Microsoft Community Promise",
"intermediate language",
"data type",
"Common Type System",
"List of CLI languages",
"Common Language Runtime",
"Language-independent specification",
"C Sharp (programming language)",
"Ecma International"
] |
7,239 |
Cricket World Cup
|
The ICC Men's Cricket World Cup is a quadrennial world cup for cricket in One Day International (ODI) format, organised by the International Cricket Council (ICC). The tournament is one of the world's most viewed sporting events and considered the flagship event of the international cricket calendar by the ICC.
The first Cricket World Cup was organised in England in June 1975, with the first ODI cricket match having been played only four years earlier. However, a separate Women's Cricket World Cup had been held two years before the first men's tournament, and a tournament involving multiple international teams had been held as early as 1912, when a triangular tournament of Test matches was played between Australia, England and South Africa. The first three World Cups were held in England. From the 1987 tournament onwards, hosting has been shared between countries under an unofficial rotation system, with 14 ICC members having hosted at least one match in the tournament.
The current format involves a qualification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years, to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 10 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation, compete for the title at venues within the host nation over about a month. In the 2027 World Cup, the format will be changed to accommodate an expanded 14-team final competition.
A total of twenty teams have competed in the 13 editions of the tournament, with ten teams competing in the recent 2023 tournament. Australia has won the tournament six times, India and West Indies twice each, while Pakistan, Sri Lanka and England have won it once each. The best performance by a non-full-member team came when Kenya made the semi-finals of the 2003 tournament.
Australia are the current champions after winning the 2023 World Cup in India. The subsequent 2027 World Cup will be held jointly in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia.
==History==
The first international cricket match was played between Canada and the United States, on 24 and 25 September 1844. However, the first credited Test match was played in 1877 between Australia and England, and the two teams competed regularly for The Ashes in subsequent years. South Africa was admitted to Test status in 1889. Representative cricket teams were selected to tour each other, resulting in bilateral competition. Cricket was also included as an Olympic sport at the 1900 Paris Games, where Great Britain defeated France to win the gold medal. This was the only appearance of cricket at the Summer Olympics.
The first multilateral competition at international level was the 1912 Triangular Tournament, a Test cricket tournament played in England between all three Test-playing nations at the time: England, Australia and South Africa. The event was not a success: the summer was exceptionally wet, making play difficult on damp uncovered pitches, and crowd attendances were poor, attributed to a "surfeit of cricket". Since then, international Test cricket has generally been organised as bilateral series: a multilateral Test tournament was not organised again until the triangular Asian Test Championship in 1999.
The number of nations playing Test cricket increased gradually over time, with the addition of West Indies in 1928, New Zealand in 1930, India in 1932, and Pakistan in 1952. However, international cricket continued to be played as bilateral Test matches over three, four or five days.
In the early 1960s, English county cricket teams began playing a shortened version of cricket which only lasted for one day. Starting in 1962 with a four-team knockout competition known as the Midlands Knock-Out Cup, and continuing with the inaugural Gillette Cup in 1963, one-day cricket grew in popularity in England. A national Sunday League was formed in 1969. The first One-Day International match was played on the fifth day of a rain-aborted Test match between England and Australia at Melbourne in 1971, to fill the time available and as compensation for the frustrated crowd. It was a forty over game with eight balls per over. The success and popularity of the domestic one-day competitions in England and other parts of the world, as well as the early One-Day Internationals, prompted the ICC to consider organizing a Cricket World Cup.
===Prudential World Cups (1975–1983)===
The inaugural Cricket World Cup was hosted in 1975 by England, the only nation able to put forward the resources to stage an event of such magnitude at the time. The first three tournaments were held in England and officially known as the Prudential Cup after the sponsors Prudential plc. The matches consisted of 60 six-ball overs per team, played during daytime in the traditional form, with the players wearing cricket whites and using red cricket balls.
Eight teams participated in the first tournament: Australia, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, and the West Indies (the six Test nations at the time), together with Sri Lanka and a composite team from East Africa. One notable omission was South Africa, who were banned from international cricket due to apartheid. The tournament was won by the West Indies, who defeated Australia by 17 runs in the final at Lord's.
The 1979 World Cup saw the introduction of the ICC Trophy competition to select non-Test playing teams for the World Cup, with Sri Lanka and Canada qualifying. The West Indies won a second consecutive World Cup tournament, defeating the hosts England by 92 runs in the final. At a meeting which followed the World Cup, the International Cricket Conference agreed to make the competition a quadrennial event. The teams faced each other twice, before moving into the knock-outs. India was crowned champions after upsetting the West Indies by 43 runs in the final.
=== Different champions (1987–1996) ===
India and Pakistan jointly hosted the 1987 tournament, the first time that the competition was held outside England. The games were reduced from 60 to 50 overs per innings, the current standard, because of the shorter daylight hours in the Indian subcontinent compared with England's summer. Australia won the championship by defeating England by 7 runs in the final, the closest margin in the World Cup final until the 2019 edition between England and New Zealand.
The 1992 World Cup, held in Australia and New Zealand, introduced many changes to the game, such as coloured clothing, white balls, day/night matches, and a change to the fielding restriction rules. The South African cricket team participated in the event for the first time, following the fall of the apartheid regime and the end of the international sports boycott. Pakistan overcame a dismal start in the tournament to eventually defeat England by 22 runs in the final and emerge as winners.
The 1996 championship was held in the Indian subcontinent for a second time, with the inclusion of Sri Lanka as host for some of its group stage matches. In the semi-final, Sri Lanka, heading towards a crushing victory over India at Eden Gardens after the hosts lost eight wickets while scoring 120 runs in pursuit of 252, were awarded victory by default after crowd unrest broke out in protest against the Indian performance. Sri Lanka went on to win their maiden championship by defeating Australia by seven wickets in the final at Lahore.
===Australian treble (1999–2007)===
In 1999, the event was hosted by England, with some matches also being held in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the Netherlands. Twelve teams contested the World Cup. Australia qualified for the semi-finals after reaching their target in their Super 6 match against South Africa off the final over of the match. They then proceeded to the final with a tied match in the semi-final also against South Africa where a mix-up between South African batsmen Lance Klusener and Allan Donald saw Donald drop his bat and stranded mid-pitch to be run out. In the final, Australia dismissed Pakistan for 132 and then reached the target in less than 20 overs and with eight wickets in hand.
South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya hosted the 2003 World Cup. The number of teams participating in the event increased from twelve to fourteen. Kenya's victories over Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, among others – and a forfeit by the New Zealand team, which refused to play in Kenya because of security concerns – enabled Kenya to reach the semi-finals, the best result by an associate. In the final, Australia made 359 runs for the loss of two wickets, the largest ever total in a final, defeating India by 125 runs.
In 2007, the tournament was hosted by the West Indies and expanded to sixteen teams. Following Pakistan's upset loss to World Cup debutants Ireland in the group stage, Pakistani coach Bob Woolmer was found dead in his hotel room. Jamaican police had initially launched a murder investigation into Woolmer's death but later confirmed that he died of heart failure. Australia defeated Sri Lanka in the final by 53 runs (D/L) in farcical light conditions, and extended their undefeated run in the World Cup to 29 matches and winning three straight championships.
=== Hosts triumph (2011–2019) ===
India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh together hosted the 2011 World Cup. Pakistan was stripped of its hosting rights following the terrorist attack on the Sri Lankan cricket team in 2009, with the games originally scheduled for Pakistan redistributed to the other host countries. The number of teams participating in the World Cup was reduced to fourteen. Australia lost their final group stage match against Pakistan on 19 March 2011, ending an unbeaten streak of 35 World Cup matches, which had begun on 23 May 1999. India won their second World Cup title by beating Sri Lanka by 6 wickets in the final at Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai, where the Indian captain M.S. Dhoni along with the spinning all-rounder Yuvraj Singh chased 275 with notable performances from Gautam Gambhir and Virat Kohli, making India the first country to win the World Cup at home.
Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the 2015 World Cup. The number of participants remained at fourteen. Ireland was the most successful Associate nation with a total of three wins in the tournament. New Zealand beat South Africa in a thrilling first semi-final to qualify for their maiden World Cup final. Australia defeated New Zealand by seven wickets in the final at Melbourne to lift the World Cup for the fifth time.
The 2019 World Cup was hosted by England and Wales. The number of participants was reduced to 10. New Zealand defeated India in the first semi-final, which was pushed over to the reserve day due to rain. England defeated the defending champions, Australia, in the second semi-final. Neither finalist had previously won the World Cup. In the final, the scores were tied at 241 after 50 overs and the match went to a super over, after which the scores were again tied at 15. The World Cup was won by England, whose boundary count was greater than New Zealand's.
=== Australian Resurgence (2023) ===
The 2023 Cricket World Cup was hosted by India. The number of teams in the tournament remained at 10, including the Netherlands, which returned to the tournament after a 12-year absence and excluding the inaugural and two-time champions the West Indies; they shockingly failed to qualify for the World Cup for the first time in history. India were unbeaten in the group stage, as they won all of their matches and defeated New Zealand to advance to the final; Australia lost twice during the group stage before rebounding and going on an eight-game winning streak, including a defeat of South Africa in the semi-finals. Afghanistan had their most successful World Cup, with four wins during the group stage, including over defending champions England and former champions Pakistan; they also came close to defeating Australia before Glenn Maxwell's double century steered the Aussies to victory. In the final, Australia defeated the 10-match unbeaten India to clinch their record-extending 6th World Cup.
==Format==
===Qualification===
From the first World Cup in 1975 up to the 2019 World Cup, the majority of teams taking part qualified automatically. Until the 2015 World Cup this was mostly through having Full Membership of the ICC, and for the 2019 World Cup this was mostly through ranking position in the ICC ODI Championship.
Since the second World Cup in 1979 up to the 2019 World Cup, the teams that qualified automatically were joined by a small number of others who qualified for the World Cup through the qualification process. The first qualifying tournament being the ICC Trophy; later the process expanding with pre-qualifying tournaments. For the 2011 World Cup, the ICC World Cricket League replaced the past pre-qualifying processes; and the name "ICC Trophy" was changed to "ICC Men's Cricket World Cup Qualifier". The World Cricket League was the qualification system provided to allow the Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC more opportunities to qualify. The number of teams qualifying varied throughout the years.
From the 2023 World Cup onwards, only the host nation(s) will qualify automatically. All countries will participate in a series of leagues to determine qualification, with automatic promotion and relegation between divisions from one World Cup cycle to the next.
===Tournament===
The format of the Cricket World Cup has changed greatly over the course of its history. Each of the first four tournaments was played by eight teams, divided into two groups of four. The competition consisted of two stages, a group stage and a knock-out stage. The four teams in each group played each other in the round-robin group stage, with the top two teams in each group progressing to the semi-finals. The winners of the semi-finals played against each other in the final. With South Africa returning in the fifth tournament in 1992 as a result of the end of the apartheid boycott, nine teams played each other once in the group phase, and the top four teams progressed to the semi-finals. The tournament was further expanded in 1996, with two groups of six teams. The top four teams from each group progressed to quarter-finals and semi-finals.
A distinct format was used for the 1999 and 2003 World Cups. The teams were split into two pools, with the top three teams in each pool advancing to the Super 6. The Super 6 teams played the three other teams that advanced from the other group. As they advanced, the teams carried their points forward from previous matches against other teams advancing alongside them, giving them an incentive to perform well in the group stages.
The format used in the 2007 World Cup involved 16 teams allocated into four groups of four. Within each group, the teams played each other in a round-robin format. Teams earned points for wins and half-points for ties. The top two teams from each group moved forward to the Super 8 round. The Super 8 teams played the other six teams that progressed from the different groups. Teams earned points in the same way as the group stage, but carried their points forward from previous matches against the other teams who qualified from the same group to the Super 8 stage. The top four teams from the Super 8 round advanced to the semi-finals, and the winners of the semi-finals played in the final.
The format used in the 2011 and 2015 World Cups featured two groups of seven teams, each playing in a round-robin format. The top four teams from each group proceeded to the knock out stage consisting of quarter-finals, semi-finals and ultimately the final.
In the 2019 and 2023 editions of the tournament, the number of teams participating dropped to 10. Each team is scheduled to play against each other once in a round robin format, before entering the semifinals, a similar format to the 1992 World Cup. The 2027 and 2031 World Cups will have 14 teams, with the format same as the 2003 edition.
==Trophy==
The ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy is presented to the winners of the World Cup. The current trophy was created for the 1999 championships, and was the first permanent prize in the tournament's history. Prior to this, different trophies were made for each World Cup. Before introducing the permanent ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy in 1999, individual trophies were designed and awarded for each edition of the tournament. For example, the Prudential Cup trophies were used for the first three editions (1975, 1979, and 1983) when Prudential plc was the sponsor. Similarly, subsequent tournaments used different designs until the permanent trophy was introduced. This shift to a permanent design was intended to establish a consistent and iconic representation of the World Cup's legacy. The trophy was designed and produced in London by a team of craftsmen from Garrard & Co over a period of two months.
The current trophy is made from silver and gilt, and features a golden globe held up by three silver columns. The columns, shaped as stumps and bails, represent the three fundamental aspects of cricket: batting, bowling and fielding, while the globe characterises a cricket ball. The seam is tilted to symbolize the axial tilt of the Earth. It stands high and weighs approximately . The names of the previous winners are engraved on the base of the trophy, with space for a total of twenty inscriptions. The ICC keeps the original trophy. A replica differing only in the inscriptions is permanently awarded to the winning team.
==Media coverage==
The tournament is one of the world's most-viewed sporting events, and successive tournaments have generated increasing media attention as One-Day International cricket has become more established. The 2011 Cricket World Cup was televised in over 200 countries to over 2.2 billion viewers. Television rights, mainly for the 2011 and 2015 World Cup, were sold for over US$1.1 billion, and sponsorship rights were sold for a further US$500 million. The ICC claimed a total of 1.6 billion viewers for the 2019 World Cup as well as 4.6 billion views of digital video of the tournament. The most-watched match of the tournament was the group game between India and Pakistan, which was watched by more than 300 million people live.
==Attendance==
==Selection of hosts==
The International Cricket Council's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining the bids made by the nations keen to hold a Cricket World Cup.
England hosted the first three competitions. The ICC decided that England should host the first tournament because it was ready to devote the resources required to organising the inaugural event. India volunteered to host the third Cricket World Cup, but most ICC members preferred England as the longer period of daylight in England in June meant that a match could be completed in one day. The 1987 Cricket World Cup was held in India and Pakistan, the first hosted outside England.
Many of the tournaments have been jointly hosted by nations from the same geographical region, such as South Asia in 1987, 1996 and 2011, Australasia (in Australia and New Zealand) in 1992 and 2015, Southern Africa in 2003 and West Indies in 2007.
In November 2021, ICC published the name of the hosts for ICC events to be played between 2024 and 2031 cycle. The hosts for the 50-over World Cup along with T20 World Cup and Champions Trophy were selected through a competitive bidding process.
==Results==
Notes
==Tournament summary==
Twenty nations have qualified for the Cricket World Cup at least once. Six teams have competed in every tournament, five of which have won the title. Australia and England repeated the feat in 2015 and 2019 respectively.
===Teams' performances===
An overview of the teams' performances in every World Cup is given below. For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.
Legend
– Winner
– Runner up
– Semi-finals
– Super Six (1999–2003)
– Quarter-finals (1996, 2011–2015)
– Super Eight (2007)
GP – Group stage / First round
Q – Qualified, Still in Competition
— Hosts
===Debutant teams===
===Overview===
The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past World Cups, as of the end of the 2023 tournament. Teams are ordered by best result then by appearances, then by winning percentage, then by total number of wins, total number of number of games, and then alphabetically:
Note:
==Tournament records==
|
[
"1996 Cricket World Cup",
"Australia national cricket team",
"Sri Lanka national cricket team",
"Canadian cricket team in the United States in 1844",
"1983 Cricket World Cup",
"1969 English cricket season",
"Melbourne Cricket Ground",
"1996 Cricket World Cup final",
"Test cricket",
"cricket",
"2019 Cricket World Cup",
"Namibia",
"Kenya national cricket team",
"Kolkata",
"South Africa national cricket team",
"wicket-keeper",
"1999 Cricket World Cup final",
"Wanderers Stadium",
"2019 Cricket World Cup Final",
"Day/Night ODI",
"ICC associate membership",
"Johannesburg",
"2023 Cricket World Cup final",
"Awarded (cricket)",
"world cup",
"Marlon Samuels",
"Cricket World Cup hosts",
"1963 English cricket season",
"1992 Cricket World Cup final",
"Women's Cricket World Cup",
"Allan Donald",
"run out",
"engraving",
"Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method",
"1999 Cricket World Cup",
"2003 Cricket World Cup",
"West Indies cricket team",
"tournament",
"Canadian cricket team",
"2015 Cricket World Cup",
"1987 Cricket World Cup final",
"Sachin Tendulkar",
"ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy",
"Cricket West Indies",
"round-robin tournament",
"2027 Cricket World Cup",
"World cup",
"cricket clothing and equipment",
"India national cricket team",
"Martin Guptill",
"Simon & Schuster",
"Kensington Oval",
"Zimbabwe",
"Gaddafi Stadium",
"2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team",
"1979 Cricket World Cup",
"International structure of cricket",
"ICC ODI Championship",
"2003 Cricket World Cup final",
"Glenn McGrath",
"trophy",
"India",
"bail (cricket)",
"Bridgetown",
"Rohit Sharma",
"2015 Cricket World Cup final",
"Kumar Sangakkara",
"Ahmedabad",
"West Indies national cricket team",
"One Day International",
"2023 Cricket World Cup",
"Glenn Maxwell",
"England",
"Zimbabwe national cricket team",
"partnership (cricket)",
"The Ashes",
"1992 Cricket World Cup",
"Ricky Ponting",
"France at the 1900 Summer Olympics",
"run (cricket)",
"Lance Klusener",
"broadcasting",
"Summer Olympic Games",
"Mumbai",
"over (cricket)",
"axial tilt",
"bowling (cricket)",
"1987 Cricket World Cup",
"Sports television broadcast contracts",
"gilding",
"promotion and relegation",
"Olympic Games",
"Australasia",
"West Indies",
"National League (cricket)",
"county cricket",
"International Cricket Council",
"fielding (cricket)",
"ICC Trophy",
"Lord's",
"ICC Men's Cricket World Cup Qualifier",
"1975 Cricket World Cup",
"2019 Cricket World Cup final",
"wicket",
"Martin Place",
"1983 Cricket World Cup final",
"2011 Cricket World Cup final",
"List of International Cricket Council members",
"2007 Cricket World Cup final",
"Mitchell Starc",
"London",
"Ireland cricket team",
"Wankhede Stadium",
"2011 Cricket World Cup",
"Eden Gardens",
"batting (cricket)",
"2023 Cricket World Cup Qualification",
"single-elimination tournament",
"Chris Gayle",
"Gold medal",
"Cricinfo",
"New Zealand national cricket team",
"not out",
"1962 English cricket season",
"Narendra Modi Stadium",
"Virat Kohli",
"icc.cricket.org",
"South Africa",
"England national cricket team",
"Limited overs cricket",
"stump (cricket)",
"Fielding restrictions (cricket)",
"ICC World Cricket League",
"Friends Provident Trophy",
"English cricket team in Australia in 1970–71",
"Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era",
"Prudential plc",
"2007 Cricket World Cup",
"Asian Test Championship",
"List of most-watched television broadcasts",
"East African cricket team",
"1912 Triangular Tournament",
"1975 Cricket World Cup final",
"Melbourne",
"Pakistan national cricket team",
"Great Britain and Ireland at the 1900 Summer Olympics",
"Gulf News",
"Indian subcontinent",
"Bob Woolmer",
"cricket ball",
"1979 Cricket World Cup final",
"apartheid",
"super over",
"England cricket team",
"Garrard & Co",
"1900 Summer Olympics",
"Lahore"
] |
7,241 |
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
|
The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM; or) is a biennial summit meeting of the governmental leaders from all Commonwealth nations. Despite the name, the head of state may be present in the meeting instead of the head of government, especially among semi-presidential states. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state and is chaired by that nation's respective prime minister or president, who becomes the Commonwealth Chair-in-Office until the next meeting. Queen Elizabeth II, who was the Head of the Commonwealth, attended every CHOGM beginning with Ottawa in 1973 until Perth in 2011, although her formal participation only began in 1997. She was represented by the Prince of Wales at the 2013 meeting as the 87-year-old monarch was curtailing long-distance travel. and the 2018 summit (delayed by one year) in London, but was represented again by the Prince of Wales at the 2022 meeting (delayed by two years) in Rwanda.
The first CHOGM was held in 1971 in Singapore and there have been 27 held in total: the most recent was held in Apia, Samoa.
==History==
The meetings originated with the leaders of the self-governing colonies of the British Empire. The First Colonial Conference in 1887 was followed by periodic meetings, known as Imperial Conferences from 1907, of government leaders of the Empire. The development of the independence of the dominions, and the creation of a number of new dominions, as well as the invitation of Southern Rhodesia (which also attended as a sui generis colony), changed the nature of the meetings. This decentralisation of power demanded a reformulation of the meetings. Instead of the meetings always being held in London, they would rotate across the membership, subject to countries' ability to host the meetings: beginning with Singapore in 1971. They were also renamed the 'Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings' to reflect the growing diversity of the constitutional structures in the Commonwealth.
==Structure==
The core of the CHOGM are the executive sessions, which are the formal gatherings of the heads of government to do business. However, the majority of the important decisions are held not in the main meetings themselves, but at the informal 'retreats': introduced at the second CHOGM, in Ottawa, by Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Trudeau, The 1971 CHOGM lasted for nine days, and the 1977 and 1991 CHOGMs for seven days each. However, Harare's epochal CHOGM was the last to last a week; the 1993 CHOGM lasted for five days, and the contentious 1995 CHOGM for only three-and-a-half. According to his daughter, Denis Thatcher also referred to CHOGM as standing for 'Coons Holidaying on Government Money'.
In 2011, British Prime Minister David Cameron informed the British House of Commons that his proposals to reform the rules governing royal succession, a change which would require the approval of all sixteen Commonwealth realms, was approved at the 28–30 October CHOGM in Perth, subsequently referred to as the Perth Agreement.
Rwanda joined the Commonwealth in 2009 despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative's (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission". Both the CHRI and Human Rights Watch have found that respect for democracy and human rights in Rwanda has declined since the country joined the Commonwealth. There have been calls for the Commonwealth to stand up for democracy and human rights in Rwanda at the 2022 CHOGM.
==Agenda==
Under the Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, each CHOGM is responsible for renewing the remit of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, whose responsibility it is to uphold the Harare Declaration on the core political principles of the Commonwealth.
==Incidents==
A bomb exploded at the Sydney Hilton Hotel, the venue for the February 1978 Commonwealth Heads of Government Regional Meeting. Twelve foreign heads of government were staying in the hotel at the time. Most delegates were evacuated by Royal Australian Air Force helicopters and the meeting was moved to Bowral, protected by 800 soldiers of the Australian Army.
As the convocation of heads of governments and permanent Commonwealth staff and experts, CHOGMs are the highest institution of action in the Commonwealth, and rare occasions on which Commonwealth leaders all come together. CHOGMs have been the venues of many of the Commonwealth's most dramatic events. Robert Mugabe announced Zimbabwe's immediate withdrawal from the Commonwealth at the 2003 CHOGM, and Nigeria's execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others on the first day of the 1995 CHOGM led to that country's suspension. ||||Apia||Mulifanua|| Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa
|-
! 2026
|TBD
||||St. John's||TBD||TBD||Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey
|}
*The 1986 and 2023 meetings were special sessions that fell outside the usual timetable. The 1986 CHOGM convened to discuss the issue of apartheid and only involved a handful of heads of government. The 2023 meeting (billed as 'Commonwealth Leaders' Summit') was an extraordinary session on the occasion of the Coronation of King Charles III and consisted of a leaders meeting at Marlborough House and a reception at Buckingham Palace. Heads of State were also in attendance and the position of Chair-In-Office did not transfer to the prime minister of the United Kingdom. According to a statement issued by the Commonwealth Secretariat "After their meeting with the King, leaders from the Commonwealth's 56 member states then met privately to discuss issues of mutual interest, including initiatives to support the empowerment of young people, as this year has been designated the Commonwealth Year of Youth."
The 25th CHOGM was originally scheduled for Vanuatu in 2017 but the country rescinded its offer to host after Cyclone Pam devastated the country's infrastructure in March 2015. The meeting was rescheduled for the United Kingdom in the spring of 2018 which also resulted in the 26th CHOGM, originally scheduled for 2019, to be rescheduled for 22–27 June 2020. However, due to the coronavirus pandemic, the 26th CHOGM was again postponed to 2022.
|
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] |
7,242 |
Chinese classics
|
The Chinese classics or canonical texts are the works of Chinese literature authored prior to the establishment of the imperial Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Prominent examples include the Four Books and Five Classics in the Neo-Confucian tradition, themselves an abridgment of the Thirteen Classics. The Chinese classics used a form of written Chinese consciously imitated by later authors, now known as Classical Chinese. A common Chinese word for "classic" () literally means 'warp thread', in reference to the techniques by which works of this period were bound into volumes.
Texts may include shi (, 'histories') zi ( 'master texts'), philosophical treatises usually associated with an individual and later systematized into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and ji ( 'literary works') as well as the cultivation of jing, 'essence' in Chinese medicine.
In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those Confucian scholars who wished to take the imperial examination and needed to pass them in order to become scholar-officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not become part of the literati—or even a military officer in some periods—without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized the Chinese characters of the Three Character Classic and Hundred Family Surnames and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values.
==Qin dynasty==
===Loss of texts===
According to Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, after Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, unified China in 221 BC, his chancellor Li Si suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the Hundred Schools of Thought, with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of Legalism. According to the Shiji, three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime.
Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later. Regarding the alleged Qin objective of strengthening Legalism, the traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period, Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period, but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles. Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the Spring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods.
Classic of Poetry
A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house.
Book of Documents
A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC. It includes examples of early Chinese prose.
Book of Rites
Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself.
I Ching
The book contains a divination system comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system. In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.
Spring and Autumn Annals
A historical record of the State of Lu, Confucius's native state, 722–481 BC.
Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn.
===Han imperial library===
In 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor, Liu Xiang (77–6 BC) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the Abstracts (), and is the first known editor of the Classic of Mountains and Seas, which was finished by his son. Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the Biographies of Exemplary Women. He has long erroneously been credited with compiling the Biographies of the Immortals, a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns. Liu Xiang was also a poet, being credited with the "Nine Laments" that appears in the Chu Ci.
The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include:
This work was continued by his son, Liu Xin, who finally completed the task after his father's death. The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from the versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin. Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair's editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China's pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does.
== Song dynasty ==
=== Four Books ===
The Four Books () are texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism. They were selected by Zhu Xi (1130–1200) during the Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.
They are:
Great Learning
Originally one chapter in the Book of Rites. It consists of a short main text attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zengzi, one of the disciples of Confucius. Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning. It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked.
Doctrine of the Mean
Another chapter in Book of Rites, attributed to Confucius's grandson Zisi. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on the Tao that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue of de. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.
Analects
Thought to be a compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held. Since Confucius's time, the Analects has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The imperial examinations, started in the Sui dynasty and eventually abolished with the founding of the Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.
Mencius
A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.
==Ming dynasty==
===Thirteen Classics===
The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the Thirteen Classics. In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates.
I Ching
Book of Documents
Classic of Poetry
The Three Ritual Classics ()
Rites of Zhou
Ceremonies and Rites
Book of Rites
"Great Learning" chapter ()
"Doctrine of the Mean" chapter ()
The Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals
Zuo Zhuan
The Commentary of Gongyang
The Commentary of Guliang
Analects
Classic of Filial Piety
Erya
Mencius
==List of classics==
===Before 221 BC===
It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being "pre-Qin", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed "authors".
The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the Siku Quanshu (Complete Library of the Four Treasuries), the encyclopedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor. The Siku Quanshu classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch.
====Classics branch====
====History branch====
====Philosophy branch====
The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within the text itself. The categorization of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times. Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time.
====Poetry====
===After 206 BC===
The Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of authoritative histories of China for various dynasties:
The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian
The Book of Han by Ban Gu.
The Book of Later Han by Fan Ye
The Records of Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou
The Book of Jin by Fang Xuanling
The Book of Song by Shen Yue
The Book of Southern Qi by Xiao Zixian
The Book of Liang by Yao Silian
The Book of Chen by Yao Silian
The History of the Southern Dynasties by Li Yanshou
The Book of Wei by Wei Shou
The Book of Zhou by Linghu Defen
The Book of Northern Qi by Li Baiyao
The History of the Northern Dynasties by Li Yanshou
The Book of Sui by Wei Zheng
The Old Book of Tang by Liu Xu
The New Book of Tang by Ouyang Xiu
The Old History of Five Dynasties by Xue Juzheng
The New History of Five Dynasties by Ouyang Xiu
The History of Song by Toqto'a
The History of Liao by Toqto'a
The History of Jin by Toqto'a
The History of Yuan by Song Lian
The History of Ming by Zhang Tingyu
The Draft History of Qing by Zhao Erxun is usually referred as the 25th classic of history records
The New History of Yuan by Ke Shaomin is sometimes referred as the 26th classic of history records
The Chronicles of Huayang, an old record of ancient history and tales of southwestern China, attributed to Chang Qu.
The Biographies of Exemplary Women, a biographical collection of exemplary women in ancient China, compiled by Liu Xiang.
The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms, a historical record of the Sixteen Kingdoms, attributed to Cui Hong, is lost.
The Shiming, is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century.
A New Account of the Tales of the World, a collection of historical anecdotes and character sketches of some 600 literati, musicians, and painters.
The Thirty-Six Strategies, a military strategy book attributed to Tan Daoji.
The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, a review book on ancient Chinese literature and writings by Liu Xie.
The Commentary on the Water Classic, a book on hydrology of rivers in China attributed to the great geographer Li Daoyuan.
The Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong, a military strategy book attributed to Li Jing
The Zizhi Tongjian, with Sima Guang as its main editor.
The Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, a historical record of the states of Wu and Yue during the Spring and Autumn period, attributed to Zhao Ye.
The Zhenguan Zhengyao, a record of governance strategies and leadership of Emperor Taizong of Tang, attributed to Wu Jing.
The Jiaoshi Yilin, a work modeled after the I Ching, composed during the Western Han dynasty and attributed to Jiao Yanshou.
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of Han dynasty.
The Thousand Character Classic, attributed to Zhou Xingsi.
The Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era, compiled by Gautama Siddha, is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination.
The Shitong, written by Liu Zhiji, a work on historiography.
The Tongdian, written by Du You, a contemporary text focused on the Tang dynasty.
The Tang Huiyao, compiled by Wang Pu, a text based on the institutional history of the Tang dynasty.
The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, compiled by Bianji; a recount of Xuanzang's journey.
The Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, written by Duan Chengshi, records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs.
The Four Great Books of Song, a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of Song dynasty:
The Taiping Yulan, a leishu encyclopedia.
The Taiping Guangji, a collection of folk tales and theology.
The Wenyuan Yinghua, an anthology of poetry, odes, songs and other writings.
The Cefu Yuangui, a leishu encyclopedia of political essays, autobiographies, memorials and decrees.
The Dream Pool Essays, a collection of essays on science, technology, military strategies, history, politics, music and arts, written by Shen Kuo.
The Tiangong Kaiwu, an encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing.
The Compendium of Materia Medica, a classic book of medicine written by Li Shizhen.
The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history.
The New Songs from the Jade Terrace, a poetry collection from the Six Dynasties period.
The Complete Tang Poems, compiled during the Qing dynasty, published in 1705.
The Xiaolin Guangji, a collection of jokes compiled during the Qing dynasty.
|
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"Dream Pool Essays",
"Complete Tang Poems",
"Jiaoshi Yilin",
"Four Great Books of Song",
"Qin Shi Huang"
] |
7,243 |
Call centre
|
A call centre (Commonwealth spelling) or call center (American spelling; see spelling differences) is a managed capability that can be centralised or remote that is used for receiving or transmitting a large volume of enquiries by telephone. An inbound call centre is operated by a company to administer incoming product or service support or information inquiries from consumers. Outbound call centres are usually operated for sales purposes such as telemarketing, for solicitation of charitable or political donations, debt collection, market research, emergency notifications, and urgent/critical needs blood banks. A contact centre is a further extension of call centres telephony based capabilities, administers centralised handling of individual communications, including letters, faxes, live support software, social media, instant message, and email.
A call center was previously seen as an open workspace for call center agents, with workstations that included a computer and display for each agent and were connected to an inbound/outbound call management system, and one or more supervisor stations. It can be independently operated or networked with additional centers, often linked to a corporate computer network, including mainframes, microcomputer, servers and LANs. It is expected that artificial intelligence-based chatbots will significantly impact call centre jobs and will increase productivity substantially. Many organisations have already adopted AI-based chatbots to improve their customer service experience.
The contact center is a central point from which all customer contacts are managed. Through contact centers, valuable information can be routed to the appropriate people or systems, contacts can be tracked, and data may be gathered. It is generally a part of the company's customer relationship management infrastructure. The majority of large companies use contact centers as a means of managing their customer interactions. These centers can be operated by either an in-house department responsible or outsourcing customer interaction to a third-party agency (known as Outsourcing Call Centres).
==History==
Answering services, as known in the 1960s through the 1980s, earlier and slightly later, involved a business that specifically provided the service. Primarily, by using an off-premises extension (OPX) for each subscribing business, connected at a switchboard at the answering service business, the answering service would answer the otherwise unattended phones of the subscribing businesses with a live operator. The live operator could take messages or relay information, doing so with greater human interactivity than a mechanical answering machine. Although undoubtedly more costly (the human service, the cost of setting up and paying the phone company for the OPX on a monthly basis), it had the advantage of being more ready to respond to the unique needs of after-hours callers. The answering service operators also had the option of calling the client and alerting them to particularly important calls.
The origins of call centers date back to the 1960s with the UK-based Birmingham Press and Mail, which installed Private Automated Business Exchanges (PABX) to have rows of agents handling customer contacts. By 1973, call centers had received mainstream attention after Rockwell International patented its Galaxy Automatic Call Distributor (GACD) for a telephone booking system as well as the popularization of telephone headsets as seen on televised NASA Mission Control Center events.
During the late 1970s, call center technology expanded to include telephone sales, airline reservations, and banking systems. The term "call center" was first published and recognised by the Oxford English Dictionary in 1983. The 1980s saw the development of toll-free telephone numbers to increase the efficiency of agents and overall call volume. Call centers increased with the deregulation of long-distance calling and growth in information-dependent industries.
As call centres expanded, workers in North America began to join unions such as the Communications Workers of America and the United Steelworkers. In Australia, the National Union of Workers represents unionised workers; their activities form part of the Australian labour movement. In Europe, UNI Global Union of Switzerland is involved in assisting unionisation in the call center industry, and in Germany Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft represents call centre workers.
During the 1990s, call centres expanded internationally and developed into two additional subsets of communication: contact centres and outsourced bureau centres. A contact centre is a coordinated system of people, processes, technologies, and strategies that provides access to information, resources, and expertise, through appropriate channels of communication, enabling interactions that create value for the customer and organization. In contrast to in-house management, outsourced bureau contact centres are a model of contact centre that provide services on a "pay per use" model. The overheads of the contact centre are shared by many clients, thereby supporting a very cost effective model, especially for low volumes of calls. The modern contact centre includes automated call blending of inbound and outbound calls as well as predictive dialing capabilities, dramatically increasing agents' productivity. New implementations of more complex systems require highly skilled operational and management staff that can use multichannel online and offline tools to improve customer interactions.
==Technology==
Call centre technologies often include: speech recognition software which allowed Interactive Voice Response (IVR) systems to handle first levels of customer support, text mining, natural language processing to allow better customer handling, agent training via interactive scripting and automatic mining using best practices from past interactions, support automation and many other technologies to improve agent productivity and customer satisfaction. Automatic lead selection or lead steering is also intended to improve efficiencies, both for inbound and outbound campaigns. This allows inbound calls to be directly routed to the appropriate agent for the task, whilst minimising wait times and long lists of irrelevant options for people calling in.
For outbound calls, lead selection allows management to designate what type of leads go to which agent based on factors including skill, socioeconomic factors, past performance, and percentage likelihood of closing a sale per lead.
The universal queue standardises the processing of communications across multiple technologies such as fax, phone, and email. The virtual queue provides callers with an alternative to waiting on hold when no agents are available to handle inbound call demand.
===Premises-based technology===
Historically call centres have been built on Private branch exchange (PBX) equipment owned, hosted, and maintained by the call centre operator. The PBX can provide functions such as automatic call distribution, interactive voice response, and skills-based routing.
===Virtual call centre===
In a virtual call centre model, the call centre operator (business) pays a monthly or annual fee to a vendor that hosts the call centre telephony and data equipment in their own facility, cloud-based. In this model, the operator does not own, operate or host the equipment on which the call centre runs. Agents connect to the vendor's equipment through traditional PSTN telephone lines, or over voice over IP. Calls to and from prospects or contacts originate from or terminate at the vendor's data centre, rather than at the call centre operator's premises. The vendor's telephony equipment (at times data servers) then connects the calls to the call centre operator's agents.
Virtual call centre technology allows people to work from home or any other location instead of in a traditional, centralised, call centre location, which increasingly allows people 'on the go' or with physical or other disabilities to work from desired locations – i.e. not leaving their house. The only required equipment is Internet access, a workstation, and a softphone. If the virtual call centre software utilizes webRTC, a softphone is not required to dial. The companies are preferring Virtual Call Centre services due to cost advantage. Companies can start their call centre business immediately without installing the basic infrastructure like Dialer, ACD and IVRS.
Virtual call centres became increasingly used after the COVID-19 pandemic restricted businesses from operating with large groups of people working in close proximity.
===Cloud computing===
Through the use of application programming interfaces (APIs), hosted and on-demand call centres that are built on cloud-based software as a service (SaaS) platforms can integrate their functionality with cloud-based applications for customer relationship management (CRM), lead management and more.
Developers use APIs to enhance cloud-based call centre platform functionality—including Computer telephony integration (CTI) APIs which provide basic telephony controls and sophisticated call handling from a separate application, and configuration APIs which enable graphical user interface (GUI) controls of administrative functions.
===Outsourcing===
Outsourced call centres are often located in developing countries, where wages are significantly lower than in western countries with higher minimum wages. These include the call centre industries in the Philippines, Bangladesh, and India.
Companies that regularly utilise outsourced contact centre services include British Sky Broadcasting and Orange in the telecommunications industry, Adidas in the sports and leisure sector, Audi in car manufacturing and charities such as the RSPCA.
==Industries==
===Healthcare===
The healthcare industry has and continues to use outbound call centre programmes for years to help manage billing, collections, and patient communication. The inbound call centre is a new and increasingly popular service for many types of healthcare facilities, including large hospitals. Inbound call centres can be outsourced or managed in-house.
These healthcare call centres are designed to help streamline communications, enhance patient retention and satisfaction, reduce expenses and improve operational efficiencies.
===Hospitality===
Many large hospitality companies such as the Hilton Hotels Corporation and Marriott International make use of call centres to manage reservations. These are known in the industry as "central reservations offices". Staff members at these call centres take calls from clients wishing to make reservations or other inquiries via a public number, usually a 1-800 number. These centres may operate as many as 24 hours per day, seven days a week, depending on the call volume the chain receives.
==Evaluation==
===Mathematical theory===
Queueing theory is a branch of mathematics in which models of service systems have been developed. A call centre can be seen as a queueing network and results from queueing theory such as the probability an arriving customer needs to wait before starting service useful for provisioning capacity. (Erlang's C formula is such a result for an M/M/c queue and approximations exist for an M/G/k queue.) Statistical analysis of call centre data has suggested arrivals are governed by an inhomogeneous Poisson process and jobs have a log-normal service time distribution. Simulation algorithms are increasingly being used to model call arrival, queueing and service levels.
Call centre operations have been supported by mathematical models beyond queueing, with operations research, which considers a wide range of optimisation problems seeking to reduce waiting times while keeping server utilisation and therefore efficiency high.
==Criticism==
Call centres have received criticism for low rates of pay and restrictive working practices for employees, which have been deemed as a dehumanising environment. Other research illustrates how call centre workers develop ways to counter or resist this environment by integrating local cultural sensibilities or embracing a vision of a new life. Most call centres provide electronic reports that outline performance metrics, quarterly highlights and other information about the calls made and received. This has the benefit of helping the company to plan the workload and time of its employees. However, it has also been argued that such close monitoring breaches the human right to privacy.
Complaints are often logged by callers who find the staff do not have enough skill or authority to resolve problems, as well as appearing apathetic. These concerns are due to a business process that exhibits levels of variability because the experience a customer gets and results a company achieves on a given call are dependent upon the quality of the agent. Call centres are beginning to address this by using agent-assisted automation to standardise the process all agents use. However, more popular alternatives are using personality and skill based approaches. The various challenges encountered by call operators are discussed by several authors.
==Media portrayals==
Call centres located in India have been the focus of several documentary films, the 2004 film Thomas L. Friedman Reporting: The Other Side of Outsourcing, the 2005 films John and Jane, Nalini by Day, Nancy by Night, and 1-800-India: Importing a White-Collar Economy, and the 2006 film Bombay Calling, among others. An Indian call centre is also the subject of the 2006 film Outsourced and a key location in the 2008 film, Slumdog Millionaire. The 2014 BBC fly on the wall documentary series The Call Centre gave an often distorted although humorous view of life in a Welsh call centre.
==Appointment setting==
Appointment setting is a specialized function within call centres, where dedicated agents focus on facilitating and scheduling meetings between clients and businesses or sales representatives. This service is particularly prevalent in various industries such as financial services, healthcare, real estate, and B2B sales, where time-sensitive and personalized communications are essential for effective client engagement.
==Lead generation==
Lead generation is a common operation for call centers, encompassing strategies and activities aimed at identifying potential customers or clients for businesses or sales representatives. It involves gathering information and generating interest among individuals or organizations who may have a potential interest in the products or services offered.
|
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"text mining",
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"universal queue",
"Health and Safety Executive",
"Virtual queue",
"Queue management system",
"North America",
"Audi",
"McKinsey & Company"
] |
7,246 |
Charles Messier
|
Charles Messier (; 26 June 1730 – 12 April 1817) was a French astronomer. He published an astronomical catalogue consisting of 110 nebulae and star clusters, which came to be known as the Messier objects, referred to with the letter M and their number between 1 and 110. Messier's purpose for the catalogue was to help astronomical observers distinguish between permanent and transient visually diffuse objects in the sky.
==Biography==
Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France, in 1730, the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a Court usher. Six of his brothers and sisters died while young, and his father died in 1741. Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular solar eclipse visible from his hometown on 25 July 1748.
In 1751, Messier entered the employ of Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of 6 May 1753, followed by his observations journals at Cluny Hotel and at the French Navy observatories.
In 1764, Messier was made a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; and on 30 June 1770, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. He was given the nickname "Ferret of Comets" by King Louis XV.
Messier discovered 13 comets:
C/1760 B1 (Messier)
C/1763 S1 (Messier)
C/1764 A1 (Messier)
C/1766 E1 (Messier)
C/1769 P1 (Messier)
D/1770 L1 (Lexell)
C/1771 G1 (Messier)
C/1773 T1 (Messier)
C/1780 U2 (Messier)
C/1785 A1 (Messier–Méchain)
C/1788 W1 (Messier)
C/1793 S2 (Messier)
C/1798 G1 (Messier)
He also co-discovered comet C/1801 N1 (Pons), a discovery shared with several other observers including Pons, Méchain, and Bouvard.
Near the end of his life, Messier self-published a booklet connecting the great comet of 1769 to the birth of Napoleon, who was in power at the time of publishing. According to Maik Meyer:
Messier is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in the 20th arrondissement of Paris.
==Messier catalogue==
Messier's occupation as a comet hunter led him to continually come across fixed diffuse objects in the night sky which could be mistaken for comets. He compiled a list of them, in collaboration with his friend and assistant Pierre Méchain (who may have found at least 20 of the objects), to avoid wasting time sorting them out from the comets they were looking for. The entries are now known to be 39 galaxies, 4 planetary nebulae, 7 other types of nebulae, 26 open star clusters and 29 globular star clusters.
Messier did his observing with a 100 mm (four-inch) refracting telescope from Hôtel de Cluny (now the Musée national du Moyen Âge), in downtown Paris, France. The list he compiled only contains objects found in the area of the sky Messier could observe, from the north celestial pole to a declination of about −35.7° . They are not organized scientifically by object type, or by location. The first version of Messier's catalogue contained 45 objects and was published in 1774 in the journal of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris. In addition to his own discoveries, this version included objects previously observed by other astronomers, with only 17 of the 45 objects being discovered by Messier himself. By 1780 the catalog had increased to 80 objects.
The final version of the catalogue was published in 1781, in the 1784 issue of Connaissance des Temps. The final list of Messier objects had grown to 103. On several occasions between 1921 and 1966, astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven objects that were observed either by Messier or by Méchain, shortly after the final version was published. These seven objects, M 104 through M 110, are accepted by astronomers as "official" Messier objects.
The objects' Messier designations, from M 1 to M 110, are still used by professional and amateur astronomers today and their relative brightness makes them popular objects in the amateur astronomical community.
==Legacy==
The lunar crater Messier and the asteroid 7359 Messier were named in his honour.
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] |
7,247 |
Cemetery H culture
|
The Cemetery H culture was a Bronze Age culture in the Punjab region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. It is regarded as a regional form of the late phase of the Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation (alongside the Jhukar culture of Sindh and Rangpur culture of Gujarat), but also as a phase of the Indo-Aryan migrations.
==Origins==
The Cemetery H culture was located in and around the Punjab region in present-day India and Pakistan. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at Harappa. Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE.
According to Mohammad Rafique Mughal, the Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley civilization around 1700 BCE, being part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases that developed in the Localization Era or "Late Harappan phase" of the Indus Valley Tradition. According to Kenoyer, the Cemetery H culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past." According to Kennedy and Mallory & Adams, the Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.
Some traits of the Cemetery H culture have been associated with the Swat culture, which has been regarded as evidence of the Indo-Aryan movement toward the Indian subcontinent. According to Parpola, the Cemetery H culture represents a first wave of Indo-Aryan migration from as early as 1900 BCE, which was followed by a migration to the Punjab –1400 BCE. According to Kochhar, the Swat IV co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000–1800 BCE), while the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the Painted Grey Ware culture (to 1400 BCE).
Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Cemetery H culture is considered by some scholars as a factor in the formation of the Vedic civilization.
==Features==
The distinguishing features of this culture include:
The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the "grave skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous.
Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
Expansion of settlements into the east.
Rice became a main crop.
Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.
Continued use of mud brick for building.
Some of the designs painted on the Cemetery H funerary urns have been interpreted through the lens of Vedic mythology:
For instance, peacocks with hollow bodies and a small human form inside, which has been interpreted as the souls of the dead, and a hound that can be seen as the hound of Yama, the god of death. This may indicate the introduction of new religious beliefs during this period, but the archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis that the Cemetery H people were the destroyers of the Harappan cities.
==Archaeology==
Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture, a practice previously described in the Vedas. The Rigveda contains a reference to the emerging practice, in RV 10.15.14, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)" are invoked.
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] |
7,248 |
Corrado Gini
|
Corrado Gini (23 May 1884 – 13 March 1965) was an Italian statistician, demographer and sociologist who developed the Gini coefficient, a measure of the income inequality in a society. Gini was a proponent of organicism and applied it to nations. Gini was a eugenicist, and prior to and during World War II, he was an advocate of Italian Fascism. Following the war, he founded the Italian Unionist Movement, which advocated for the annexation of Italy by the United States.
==Career==
Gini was born on May 23, 1884, in Motta di Livenza, near Treviso, into an old landed family. He entered the Faculty of Law at the University of Bologna, where in addition to law he studied mathematics, economics, and biology.
Gini's scientific work ran in two directions: towards the social sciences and towards statistics. His interests ranged well beyond the formal aspects of statistics—to the laws that govern biological and social phenomena.
His first published work was Il sesso dal punto di vista statistico (1908). This work is a thorough review of the natal sex ratio, looking at past theories and at how new hypothesis fit the statistical data. In particular, it presents evidence that the tendency to produce one or the other sex of child is, to some extent, heritable.
He published the Gini coefficient in the 1912 paper Variability and Mutability (). Also called the Gini index and the Gini ratio, it is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income inequality within a nation or other group.
In 1910, he acceded to the Chair of Statistics in the University of Cagliari and then at Padua in 1913.
He founded the statistical journal Metron in 1920, directing it until his death; it only accepted articles with practical applications.
He became a professor at the Sapienza University of Rome in 1925. At the University, he founded a lecture course on sociology, maintaining it until his retirement. He also set up the School of Statistics in 1928, and, in 1936, the Faculty of Statistical, Demographic and Actuarial Sciences.
==Under fascism==
In 1926, he was appointed President of the Central Institute of Statistics in Rome. This he organised as a single centre for Italian statistical services. He was a close intimate of Mussolini throughout the 20s. He resigned from his position within the institute in 1932.
In 1927 he published a treatise entitled The Scientific Basis of Fascism.
In 1929, Gini founded the Italian Committee for the Study of Population Problems (Comitato italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione) which, two years later, organised the first Population Congress in Rome.
A eugenicist apart from being a demographer, Gini led an expedition to survey Polish populations, among them the Karaites. Gini was throughout the 20s a supporter of fascism, and expressed his hope that Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy would emerge as victors in WW2. However, he never supported any measure of exclusion of the Jews.
Milestones during the rest of his career include:
In 1933 – vice president of the International Sociological Institute.
In 1934 – president of the Italian Genetics and Eugenics Society.
In 1935 – president of the International Federation of Eugenics Societies in Latin-language Countries.
In 1937 – president of the Italian Sociological Society.
In 1941 – president of the Italian Statistical Society.
In 1957 – Gold Medal for outstanding service to the Italian School.
In 1962 – National Member of the Accademia dei Lincei.
==Italian Unionist Movement==
On October 12, 1944, Gini joined with the Calabrian activist Santi Paladino, and fellow-statistician Ugo Damiani to found the Italian Unionist Movement, for which the emblem was the Stars and Stripes, the Italian flag and a world map. According to the three men, the government of the United States should annex all free and democratic nations worldwide, thereby transforming itself into a world government, and allowing Washington, D.C. to maintain Earth in a perpetual condition of peace. The party existed up to 1948 but had little success and its aims were not supported by the United States.
==Organicism and nations==
Gini was a proponent of organicism and saw nations as organic in nature. At this point, the decadent nation with its aging population can be overrun by a more youthful and vigorous nation. Gini's organicist theories of nations and natality are believed to have influenced policies of Italian Fascism.
==Honours==
The following honorary degrees were conferred upon him:
Economics by the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milan (1932),
Sociology by the University of Geneva (1934),
Sciences by Harvard University (1936),
Social Sciences by the University of Cordoba, Argentine (1963).
==Partial bibliography==
Il sesso dal punto di vista statistica: le leggi della produzione dei sessi (1908)
Sulla misura della concentrazione e della variabilità dei caratteri (1914)
Quelques considérations au sujet de la construction des nombres indices des prix et des questions analogues (1924)
Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.1: Variabilità e Concentrazione (1955)
Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.2: Transvariazione (1960)
|
[
"Sociology",
"Demography",
"Motta di Livenza",
"sociology",
"income inequality",
"eugenics",
"Karaite Judaism",
"world government",
"Italian Unionist Movement",
"Italian flag",
"Oswald Spengler",
"National Institute of Statistics (Italy)",
"income distribution",
"Santi Paladino",
"Political Science Quarterly",
"peace",
"University of Cagliari",
"Statistics",
"Veneto",
"Italian Fascism",
"Working class",
"statistician",
"Accademia dei Lincei",
"Italy",
"landed family",
"Flag of the United States",
"Treviso",
"University of Padua",
"Decadence",
"University of Bologna",
"demography",
"Statistical dispersion",
"sex ratio",
"Imperialism",
"birth rate",
"Kingdom of Italy",
"social sciences",
"annexation",
"Italians",
"organicism",
"Gini coefficient",
"Sapienza University of Rome",
"social phenomenon",
"Rome",
"upper class"
] |
7,249 |
Crankshaft
|
A crankshaft is a mechanical component used in a piston engine to convert the reciprocating motion into rotational motion. The crankshaft is a rotating shaft containing one or more crankpins, that are driven by the pistons via the connecting rods.
The crankpins are also called rod bearing journals, and they rotate within the "big end" of the connecting rods.
Most modern crankshafts are located in the engine block. They are made from steel or cast iron, using either a forging, casting or machining process.
== Design ==
The crankshaft is located within the engine block and held in place via main bearings which allow the crankshaft to rotate within the block. The up-down motion of each piston is transferred to the crankshaft via connecting rods. A flywheel is often attached to one end of the crankshaft, in order to smoothen the power delivery and reduce vibration.
A crankshaft is subjected to enormous stresses, in some cases more than per cylinder. Crankshafts for single-cylinder engines are usually a simpler design than for engines with multiple cylinders.
===Bearings===
The crankshaft is able to rotate in the engine block due to the 'main bearings'. Since the crankshaft is subject to large horizontal and torsional forces from each cylinder, these main bearings are located at various points along the crankshaft, rather than just one at each end. The number of main bearings is determined based on the overall load factor and the maximum engine speed. Crankshafts in diesel engines often use a main bearing between every cylinder and at both ends of the crankshaft, due to the high forces of combustion present.
Flexing of the crankshaft was a factor in V8 engines replacing straight-eight engines in the 1950s; the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds (RPM).
===Piston stroke===
The distance between the axis of the crankpins and the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine.
=== Cross-plane and flat-plane configurations ===
When designing an engine, the crankshaft configuration is closely related to the engine's firing order.
Most production V8 engines (such as the Ford Modular engine and the General Motors LS engine) use a cross-plane crank whereby the crank throws are spaced 90 degrees apart. However, some high-performance V8 engines (such as the Ferrari 488) instead use a flat-plane crank, whereby the throws are spaced 180° apart, which essentially results in two inline-four engines sharing a common crankcase. Flat-plane engines are usually able to operate at higher RPM, however they have higher second-order vibrations, so they are better suited to racing car engines.
===Engine balance===
For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of the piston, conrods and crankshaft, in order to improve the engine balance. These counterweights are typically cast as part of the crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces.
===Flying arms===
In some engines, the crankshaft contains direct links between adjacent crankpins, without the usual intermediate main bearing. These links are called flying arms. This arrangement is sometimes used in V6 and V8 engines, in order to maintain an even firing interval while using different V angles, and to reduce the number of main bearings required. The downside of flying arms is that the rigidity of the crankshaft is reduced, which can cause problems at high RPM or high power outputs.
=== Counter-rotating crankshafts ===
In most engines, each connecting rod is attached a single crankshaft, which results in the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke. This variation in angle pushes the pistons against the cylinder wall, which causes friction between the piston and cylinder wall. To prevent this, some early engines – such as the 1900–1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines – connected each piston to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions. This arrangement cancels out the lateral forces and reduces the requirement for counterweights. This design is rarely used, however a similar principle applies to balance shafts, which are occasionally used.
=== Eccentricity and dynamic displacement of diesel engines ===
Eccentricity and dynamic displacement are critical factors influencing the performance, efficiency, and durability of diesel engines. These phenomena arise due to the flexibility of the crankshaft, secondary piston motion, and varying loads during engine operation. Understanding these effects is essential for reducing mechanical wear, improving fuel efficiency, and optimizing engine design.
==Construction==
=== Forged crankshafts ===
Crankshafts can be created from a steel bar using roll forging. Today, manufacturers tend to favour the use of forged crankshafts due to their lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged crankshafts, vanadium micro-alloyed steels are mainly used as these steels can be air-cooled after reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, except for the surface hardening of the bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high-alloy steels. Carbon steels also require additional heat treatment to reach the desired properties.
=== Cast crankshafts ===
Another construction method is to cast the crankshaft from ductile iron. Cast iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines where the loads are lower.
=== Machined crankshafts ===
Crankshafts can also be machined from billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted steel. Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material's chemical composition generated during casting) does not follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be used. Per unit, these crankshafts tend to be expensive due to the large amount of material that must be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat treatment required. However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method allows small production runs without high up-front costs.
==History==
=== Crankshaft ===
In 9th century Abbasid Baghdad, automatically operated cranks appear in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in the Book of Ingenious Devices. These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a crankshaft, five centuries before the earliest known European description of a crankshaft. However, the automatic crank mechanism described by the Banū Mūsā would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.
In the Artuqid Sultanate, Arab engineer Ismail al-Jazari (1136–1206) described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine for two of his water-raising machines, which include both crank and shaft mechanisms.
The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (), planning for a new Crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels, identified as an early crankshaft prototype by Lynn Townsend White.
Crankshafts were described by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) Cranks were formerly common on some machines in the early 20th century; for example almost all phonographs before the 1930s were powered by clockwork motors wound with cranks. Reciprocating piston engines use cranks to convert the linear piston motion into rotational motion. Internal combustion engines of early 20th century automobiles were usually started with hand cranks, before electric starters came into general use.
|
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"flywheel",
"Torsion (mechanics)",
"Donald Hill",
"reciprocating engine",
"Crankpin",
"crossplane",
"engine block",
"Lanchester Motor Company",
"automobile",
"Machining",
"Abbasid",
"phonograph",
"Cam engine",
"Crusade",
"crankshaft",
"sawmill",
"Vanadium",
"Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest",
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"Baghdad",
"compression ratio",
"Lynn Townsend White",
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"Georg Andreas Böckler",
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"Forging",
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"cylinder bore",
"Shaft (mechanical engineering)",
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"clockwork",
"patent",
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"cast iron",
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"balance shaft",
"Stroke (engine)",
"connecting rods",
"machining",
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"Brace (tool)",
"Camshaft",
"single-cylinder engine",
"Piston motion equations",
"Cam (mechanism)",
"Vacuum arc remelting",
"internal combustion engine",
"steel",
"Ferrari 488",
"Scotch yoke",
"American Journal of Archaeology",
"Cambridge University Press",
"Springer Science + Business Media",
"counterweight",
"Artuqids",
"Internal combustion engine",
"Tunnel crankshaft",
"engine balance",
"LS based GM small-block engine",
"rotational motion",
"Bearing (mechanical)",
"straight-eight engine",
"reciprocating motion",
"piston",
"crankpin",
"Automobile self starter",
"main bearing",
"Swashplate",
"Billet (manufacturing)",
"Torsional vibration",
"Cast iron",
"The Journal of Roman Studies",
"forging",
"flat-plane crank",
"Leonardo da Vinci",
"Crankset",
"Crank (mechanism)",
"Diesel engine",
"V8 engine",
"List of auto parts",
"Agostino Ramelli",
"V6 engine",
"casting (metalworking)"
] |
7,250 |
CNS
|
CNS may refer to:
==Science and medicine==
Central nervous system
Clinical nurse specialist
Coagulase-negative staphylococcus
Connectedness to nature scale
Conserved non-coding sequence of DNA
Crigler–Najjar syndrome
Crystallography and NMR system, a software library
Color Naming System
==Military==
CNS (chemical weapon), a mixture of chloroacetophenone, chloropicrin and chloroform
Chief of the Naval Staff (disambiguation), in several countries
Former Taiwanese navy ship prefix
==Education==
Cicero-North Syracuse High School, New York, US
City of Norwich School, England
Computation and Neural Systems, a Caltech program
==Organisations==
Canadian Nuclear Society
Chinese Nuclear Society
Congress of Neurological Surgeons
Corporation for National Service, later the Corporation for National and Community Service, commonly known as AmeriCorps
Council for National Security, military junta of Thailand in 2006
Cuban National Series, baseball league
Szekler National Council (), Romania
==Media==
Cartoon Network Studios
Catholic News Service
China News Service
City News Service
CNSNews, formerly Cybercast News Service
==Other==
Cairns International Airport, IATA code
Chateau Neuf Spelemannslag, Norwegian folk music group
Chinese National Standards
Cooper Nuclear Station, a nuclear power plant in United States
Communication, navigation and surveillance, in air traffic management
Custody Notification Service, Australian advice service
"Cell, Nature, or Science": a "CNS Paper" means a scientific publication in one of these high-profile scientific journals
|
[
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"Chief of the Naval Staff (disambiguation)",
"Communication, navigation and surveillance",
"Congress of Neurological Surgeons",
"Cartoon Network Studios",
"Science (journal)",
"AmeriCorps",
"City News Service",
"Nature (journal)",
"China News Service",
"Chinese Nuclear Society",
"Custody Notification Service",
"Computation and Neural Systems",
"Council for National Security",
"Catholic News Service",
"Conserved non-coding sequence",
"Cooper Nuclear Station",
"Central nervous system",
"Republic of China Navy",
"Szekler National Council",
"Connectedness to nature scale",
"Clinical nurse specialist",
"Color Naming System",
"Cairns International Airport",
"CNS (chemical weapon)",
"Cicero-North Syracuse High School",
"Coagulase-negative staphylococcus",
"Canadian Nuclear Society",
"Cuban National Series",
"Chinese National Standards",
"Crigler–Najjar syndrome",
"Cell (journal)",
"Chateau Neuf Spelemannslag",
"CNSNews",
"City of Norwich School"
] |
7,251 |
Central nervous system
|
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and diploblasts. It is a structure composed of nervous tissue positioned along the rostral (nose end) to caudal (tail end) axis of the body and may have an enlarged section at the rostral end which is a brain. Only arthropods, cephalopods and vertebrates have a true brain, though precursor structures exist in onychophorans, gastropods and lancelets.
The rest of this article exclusively discusses the vertebrate central nervous system, which is radically distinct from all other animals.
==Overview==
In vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges. The meninges provide a barrier to chemicals dissolved in the blood, protecting the brain from most neurotoxins commonly found in food. Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in cerebral spinal fluid which replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals.
In vertebrates, the CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, while the brain is housed in the cranial cavity within the skull. The spinal cord is housed in the spinal canal within the vertebrae.
In vertebrates, the CNS also includes the retina and the optic nerve (cranial nerve II), As parts of the CNS, they connect directly to brain neurons without intermediate ganglia. The olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue outside the meninges in direct contact with the environment, which opens up a pathway for therapeutic agents which cannot otherwise cross the meninges barrier. occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.
===White and gray matter===
Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of white and gray matter.
====Brainstem====
The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane, which envelop and enclose the axon.
==Development==
During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube. The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation. At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone. The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells, multiply and generate neurons through the process of neurogenesis, forming the rudiment of the CNS.
The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord. The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon, and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon. (By six weeks in the human embryo) the prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube.
As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum, the hippocampus and the neocortex, and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles (lateral ventricles). Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, and its cavity forms the third ventricle. The tectum, pretectum, cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things, the pons and the cerebellum, the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata, and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle.
Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS. Like vertebrates, have a distinct CNS and PNS. The nerves projecting laterally from the CNS form their PNS.
A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans.
====Arthropoda====
In arthropods, the ventral nerve cord, the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS. Arthropoda, unlike vertebrates, have inhibitory motor neurons due to their small size.
====Chordata====
The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine. The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the entire mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts.
=====Mammals=====
Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as the neocortex. This part of the brain is, in mammals, involved in higher thinking and further processing of all senses in the sensory cortices (processing for smell was previously only done by its bulb while those for non-smell senses were only done by the tectum). The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wombats, and Tasmanian devils) lack the convolutions – gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental mammals (eutherians).
Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans.
|
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"skull",
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"myelin",
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"pupil",
"cerebellum",
"vertebrae",
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"cranial endocast",
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"ventral nerve cord",
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"brain",
"cephalopods",
"Ganglion",
"blood vessels",
"marsupials",
"Positron emission tomography",
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"vertebrate",
"wombat",
"cranial nerves",
"notochord",
"epilepsy",
"third ventricle",
"Schwann cells",
"subesophageal ganglia",
"hunger",
"Malignant brain tumor",
"cerebral spinal fluid",
"immune system",
"bilateria",
"hindbrain",
"spinal locomotion",
"Nerve tract",
"radial glial cell",
"medulla oblongata",
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"essential tremor",
"cranial nerve",
"Astrocyte",
"hippocampus",
"Rhinencephalon",
"monotremes",
"cerebral hemisphere",
"Efferent nerve fiber",
"white matter",
"Parkinson's disease",
"motivation",
"Extracellular fluid",
"olfactory nerve",
"brachial plexus",
"dolphin",
"optic nerve",
"Pons",
"macrophage",
"hearing",
"neural tube",
"amyotrophic lateral sclerosis",
"eutherians",
"taste",
"fourth ventricle",
"pituitary gland",
"axon",
"American College of Radiology",
"pineal gland",
"oligodendrocyte",
"commissural fiber",
"retina",
"brain tissue",
"supraesophageal ganglia",
"adrenoleukodystrophy",
"myelencephalon",
"encephalitis",
"gliosis",
"multiple sclerosis",
"motor neurons",
"cranial cavity",
"cognition",
"mesencephalon",
"List of central nervous system infections",
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"acute disseminated encephalomyelitis",
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"spinal canal",
"Tectum",
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"sponge",
"pontine nuclei",
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"breathing",
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"spinal cord",
"reticular formation",
"foramen magnum",
"sacral plexus",
"cerebral peduncle",
"allometry",
"dorsal nerve cord",
"platypus",
"bilaterian",
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"Mammal",
"fMRI",
"midbrain",
"Blood–brain barrier",
"pons",
"lateral ventricles",
"Specialty (medicine)",
"lancelets",
"Vesicle (embryology)",
"prosencephalon",
"forebrain",
"ventricular zone",
"nerve",
"cell membrane",
"neurogenesis",
"Coelenterata",
"neural groove",
"anatomical terminology",
"neural folds",
"Platyhelminthes",
"olfactory epithelium",
"kangaroo",
"pretectum",
"Spinal cord",
"vertebrates",
"maternal bond",
"epithalamus",
"metabolite",
"vertebral canal",
"lancelet",
"tectum",
"migraine",
"alertness",
"enteric nervous system",
"chordate",
"neck",
"Tasmanian devil",
"balance (ability)",
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"basal ganglia",
"neuroblast",
"Neurodegeneration",
"cerebrum",
"glia",
"reflex",
"neural plate"
] |
7,252 |
Cell cycle
|
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the sequential series of events that take place in a cell that causes it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the growth of the cell, duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) and some of its organelles, and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm, chromosomes and other components into two daughter cells in a process called cell division.
In eukaryotic cells (having a cell nucleus) including animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells, the cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase, and the M phase that includes mitosis and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, and replicates its DNA and some of its organelles. During the M phase, the replicated chromosomes, organelles, and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper replication of cellular components and division, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints after each of the key steps of the cycle that determine if the cell can progress to the next phase.
In cells without nuclei the prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells.
In single-celled organisms, a single cell-division cycle is how the organism reproduces to ensure its survival. In multicellular organisms such as plants and animals, a series of cell-division cycles is how the organism develops from a single-celled fertilized egg into a mature organism, and is also the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are regenerated and healed (with possible exception of nerves; see nerve damage). After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cell cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of the cell division.
== Phases ==
The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's nucleus divides, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm and cell membrane divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence known as G0 phase or resting phase.
===G0 phase (quiescence)===
G0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Some cells enter the G0 phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g., epithelial cells.
The word "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G1. Cellular senescence may make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.
===Interphase ===
Interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.
Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase.
====G1 phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase)====
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G1 (G indicating gap). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G1 phase, a cell has three options.
To continue cell cycle and enter S phase
Stop cell cycle and enter G0 phase for undergoing differentiation.
Become arrested in G1 phase hence it may enter G0 phase or re-enter cell cycle.
The deciding point is called check point (Restriction point). This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G1/S cyclins, which cause transition from G1 to S phase. Passage through the G1 check point commits the cell to division.
====S phase (DNA replication)====
The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has doubled, though the ploidy and number of chromosomes are unchanged. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.
====G2 phase (growth)====
G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle (preprophase). Before proceeding to mitotic phase, cells must be checked at the G2 checkpoint for any DNA damage within the chromosomes. The G2 checkpoint is mainly regulated by the tumor protein p53. If the DNA is damaged, p53 will either repair the DNA or trigger the apoptosis of the cell. If p53 is dysfunctional or mutated, cells with damaged DNA may continue through the cell cycle, leading to the development of cancer.
===Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)===
The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis) and division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis). M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to microtubules that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animal cells undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.
===Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components)===
Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Cytokinesis occurs differently in plant and animal cells. While the cell membrane forms a groove that gradually deepens to separate the cytoplasm in animal cells, a cell plate is formed to separate it in plant cells. The position of the cell plate is determined by the position of a preprophase band of microtubules and actin filaments. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the parent cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.
Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "M phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime molds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can result in cell death through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.
==Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle==
Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle.
===Role of cyclins and CDKs===
Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle. Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules. Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general, more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle") followed by an identifying number, e.g. cdc25 or cdc20.
Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.
====General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction====
Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G1 cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G1 cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. Results from a study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.
Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G1 phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.
Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G2 phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.
====Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes====
Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cells that enter the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D levels stay low in resting cells that are not proliferating. Additionally, CDK4/6 and CDK2 are also inactive because CDK4/6 are bound by INK4 family members (e.g., p16), limiting kinase activity. Meanwhile, CDK2 complexes are inhibited by the CIP/KIP proteins such as p21 and p27, When it is time for a cell to enter the cell cycle, which is triggered by a mitogenic stimuli, levels of cyclin D increase. In response to this trigger, cyclin D binds to existing CDK4/6, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4/6 complexes in turn mono-phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb) to pRb. The un-phosphorylated Rb tumour suppressor functions in inducing cell cycle exit and maintaining G0 arrest (senescence).
In the last few decades, a model has been widely accepted whereby pRB proteins are inactivated by cyclin D-Cdk4/6-mediated phosphorylation. Rb has 14+ potential phosphorylation sites. Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 progressively phosphorylates Rb to hyperphosphorylated state, which triggers dissociation of pRB–E2F complexes, thereby inducing G1/S cell cycle gene expression and progression into S phase.
Scientific observations from a study have shown that Rb is present in three types of isoforms: (1) un-phosphorylated Rb in G0 state; (2) mono-phosphorylated Rb, also referred to as "hypo-phosphorylated' or 'partially' phosphorylated Rb in early G1 state; and (3) inactive hyper-phosphorylated Rb in late G1 state. In early G1 cells, mono-phosphorylated Rb exists as 14 different isoforms, one of each has distinct E2F binding affinity. and the idea that different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms have different protein partners was very appealing. A later report confirmed that mono-phosphorylation controls Rb's association with other proteins and generates functional distinct forms of Rb. All different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms inhibit E2F transcriptional program and are able to arrest cells in G1-phase. Different mono-phosphorylated forms of Rb have distinct transcriptional outputs that are extended beyond E2F regulation. This observation based on the structural analysis of Rb phosphorylation supports that Rb is phosphorylated in a different level through multiple Cyclin-Cdk complexes. This also makes feasible the current model of a simultaneous switch-like inactivation of all mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms through one type of Rb hyper-phosphorylation mechanism. In addition, mutational analysis of the cyclin D- Cdk 4/6 specific Rb C-terminal helix shows that disruptions of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 binding to Rb prevents Rb phosphorylation, arrests cells in G1, and bolsters Rb's functions in tumor suppressor. Cyclin B-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis.
Many human cancers possess the hyper-activated Cdk 4/6 activities. Given the observations of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 functions, inhibition of Cdk 4/6 should result in preventing a malignant tumor from proliferating. Consequently, scientists have tried to invent the synthetic Cdk4/6 inhibitor as Cdk4/6 has been characterized to be a therapeutic target for anti-tumor effectiveness. Three Cdk4/6 inhibitors – palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib – currently received FDA approval for clinical use to treat advanced-stage or metastatic, hormone-receptor-positive (HR-positive, HR+), HER2-negative (HER2-) breast cancer. For example, palbociclib is an orally active CDK4/6 inhibitor which has demonstrated improved outcomes for ER-positive/HER2-negative advanced breast cancer. The main side effect is neutropenia which can be managed by dose reduction.
Cdk4/6 targeted therapy will only treat cancer types where Rb is expressed. Cancer cells with loss of Rb have primary resistance to Cdk4/6 inhibitors.
===Transcriptional regulatory network===
Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800–1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle. They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.
Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects. Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression. The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).
Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (clb1,2,3,4,5,6). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between G1 and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events.
While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.
===DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity===
Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes. This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression, and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.
== Checkpoints ==
Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.
It is estimated that in normal human cells about 1% of single-strand DNA damages are converted to about 50 endogenous DNA double-strand breaks per cell per cell cycle. Although such double-strand breaks are usually repaired with high fidelity, errors in their repair are considered to contribute significantly to the rate of cancer in humans.
While these are the three "main" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially acquire mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G0 until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.
Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G0, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.
p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.
== Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle ==
Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO2) was fused to hCdt1(30/120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins. The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G2, or M phase and degraded during the G0 or G1 phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G0 or G1 phase and destroyed during the S, G2, or M phase. A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria-derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome-derived fluorescent protein (movie found at this link).
Several modifications have been made to the original FUCCI system to improve its usability in several in vitro systems and model organisms. These advancements have increased the sensitivity and accuracy of cell cycle phase detection, enabling more precise assessments of cellular proliferation
== Role in tumor formation ==
A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation. As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G0 phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.
The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G0 to G1 phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle. Non-homologous end joining, a less accurate and more mutagenic process for repairing double strand breaks, is active throughout the cell cycle.
== Cell cycle evolution ==
===Evolution of the genome===
The cell cycle must duplicate all cellular constituents and equally partition them into two daughter cells. Many constituents, such as proteins and ribosomes, are produced continuously throughout the cell cycle (except during M-phase). However, the chromosomes and other associated elements like MTOCs, are duplicated just once during the cell cycle. A central component of the cell cycle is its ability to coordinate the continuous and periodic duplications of different cellular elements, which evolved with the formation of the genome.
The pre-cellular environment contained functional and self-replicating RNAs. All RNA concentrations depended on the concentrations of other RNAs that might be helping or hindering the gathering of resources. In this environment, growth was simply the continuous production of RNAs. These pre-cellular structures would have had to contend with parasitic RNAs, issues of inheritance, and copy-number control of specific RNAs.
Partitioning "genomic" RNA from "functional" RNA helped solve these problems. The fusion of multiple RNAs into a genome gave a template from which functional RNAs were cleaved. Now, parasitic RNAs would have to incorporate themselves into the genome, a much greater barrier, in order to survive. Controlling the copy number of genomic RNA also allowed RNA concentration to be determined through synthesis rates and RNA half-lives, instead of competition. However, in animals, whole families of CDKs have evolved. Cdk1 controls entry to mitosis and Cdk2, Cdk4, and Cdk6 regulate entry into S phase. Despite the evolution of the CDK family in animals, these proteins have related or redundant functions. For example, cdk2 cdk4 cdk6 triple knockout mice cells can still progress through the basic cell cycle. cdk1 knockouts are lethal, which suggests an ancestral CDK1-type kinase ultimately controlling the cell cycle. running counter to the opisthokont pattern of CDK1-type kinases as essential regulators controlling the cell cycle. Plants also have a unique group of B-type CDKs, whose functions may range from development-specific functions to major players in mitotic regulation.
===G1/S checkpoint evolution===
thumb|Overviews of the G1/S transition control networks in plants, animals, and yeast. All three show striking network topology similarities, even though individual proteins in the network have very little sequence similarity.
Entry into S-phase in both yeast and animals is controlled by the levels of two opposing regulators. Additional regulation of the regulatory network for the G1/S checkpoint in yeast and animals includes the [[phosphorylation/de-phosphorylation of CDK-cyclin complexes. The sum of these regulatory networks creates a hysteretic and bistable scheme, despite the specific proteins being highly diverged. For yeast, Whi5 must be suppressed by Cln3 phosphorylation for SBF to be expressed, while in animals Rb must be suppressed by the Cdk4/6-cyclin D complex for E2F to be expressed. Both Rb and Whi5 inhibit transcript through the recruitment of histone deacetylase proteins to promoters. Both proteins additionally have multiple CDK phosphorylation sites through which they are inhibited. For example, plants also need to suppress Rb for E2F translation in the network. These conserved elements of the plant and animal cell cycles may be ancestral in eukaryotes. While yeast share a conserved network topology with plants and animals, the highly diverged nature of yeast regulators suggests possible rapid evolution along the yeast lineage.
|
[
"prokaryote",
"Origin recognition complex",
"Cellular differentiation",
"P57 (gene)",
"Nuclear Localization Signal",
"mitotic spindle",
"cell plate",
"interphase",
"G0 phase",
"cytokinesis",
"plant",
"Leland H. Hartwell",
"chromosomes",
"Retinoblastoma protein",
"Cyclin-dependent kinase 4",
"fluorescent protein",
"Saccharomyces cerevisiae",
"RNA",
"Radiotherapy",
"INK4",
"mitosis",
"p53",
"ribosome",
"slime mold",
"Hysteresis",
"transcription factor",
"protist",
"ubiquitination",
"cytoplasm",
"ubiquitin ligase",
"cell division",
"karyokinesis",
"smURFP",
"conservation (genetics)",
"Cell division",
"Arabidopsis thaliana",
"Cellular model",
"Elsevier",
"ploidy",
"R. Timothy Hunt",
"prometaphase",
"debulking",
"endoreplication",
"metaphase",
"Cyclin-dependent kinase 2",
"organelle",
"TGF β",
"Wee1",
"Healing",
"retinoblastoma",
"Cyclin A",
"viscus",
"Tim Hunt",
"neuron",
"Microtubule organizing center",
"cancer",
"midblastula transition",
"origin of replication",
"fungi",
"DNA",
"Mitotic phase",
"Interphase",
"microtubule",
"eukaryotic cells",
"fission (biology)",
"DNA damage",
"Cyclin E",
"Mitosis",
"telophase",
"Schizosaccharomyces pombe",
"anaphase-promoting complex",
"thymidine kinase",
"Transcription (genetics)",
"organism",
"Non-homologous end joining",
"cyclin",
"Paul Nurse",
"gene copy number",
"pre-replication complex",
"genome",
"mutation",
"Cell cycle checkpoint",
"Chromosome",
"histone",
"proteasome",
"apoptosis",
"hair",
"sister chromatids",
"Protein degradation",
"Mitotic catastrophe",
"opisthokont",
"cyanobacteria",
"fertilized egg",
"anaphase",
"Cdk1",
"skin",
"Nerve injury",
"cdc20",
"HER2 negative breast cancer",
"cell (biology)",
"Paul M. Nurse",
"neutropenia",
"chromatid",
"Regeneration (biology)",
"Cdc25",
"DNA repair",
"S phase",
"Aspergillus nidulans",
"Phytochrome",
"p16 (gene)",
"M phase",
"kinetochore",
"G1 phase",
"yeast",
"animal",
"microarray",
"postreplication checkpoint",
"actin",
"Synchronous culture",
"fungal",
"Protein biosynthesis",
"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine",
"cyclin A",
"Metastatic breast cancer",
"Hormone receptor positive breast tumor",
"p21",
"archaea",
"Whi5",
"cyclin-dependent kinase",
"blood cell",
"DNA polymerase",
"chromosome",
"phosphorylation",
"cdc25",
"fungus",
"eukaryotic",
"cell cycle checkpoint",
"tumor suppressor",
"nerve",
"cell membrane",
"restriction point",
"P53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis",
"cyclin-CDK",
"zygote",
"Homologous recombination",
"nuclear envelope",
"ribociclib",
"heterodimer",
"green fluorescent protein",
"p27 (gene)",
"mRNA",
"Cellular senescence",
"Eukaryotic DNA replication",
"fluorescence",
"Drosophila melanogaster",
"palbociclib",
"DNA damage (naturally occurring)",
"DNA replication",
"Cyclin D",
"tumor",
"eukaryote",
"Chemotherapy",
"cell nucleus",
"DNA synthesis",
"abemaciclib",
"cellular differentiation",
"Cyclin B",
"prophase",
"p14arf",
"E2F",
"bacteria",
"cyclin E",
"growth factor",
"Restriction point",
"G2 phase"
] |
7,253 |
Cartesian
|
Cartesian means of or relating to the French philosopher René Descartes—from his Latinized name Cartesius. It may refer to:
==Mathematics==
Cartesian closed category, a closed category in category theory
Cartesian coordinate system, modern rectangular coordinate system
Cartesian diagram, a construction in category theory
Cartesian geometry, now more commonly called analytic geometry
Cartesian morphism, formalisation of pull-back operation in category theory
Cartesian oval, a curve
Cartesian product, a direct product of two sets
Cartesian product of graphs, a binary operation on graphs
Cartesian tree, a binary tree in computer science
==Philosophy==
Cartesian anxiety, a hope that studying the world will give us unchangeable knowledge of ourselves and the world
Cartesian circle, a potential mistake in reasoning
Cartesian doubt, a form of methodical skepticism as a basis for philosophical rigor
Cartesian dualism, the philosophy of the distinction between mind and body
Cartesianism, the philosophy of René Descartes
Cartesianists, followers of Cartesianism
Cartesian Meditations, a work by Edmund Husserl
Cartesian linguistics, a work by Noam Chomsky
Cartesian theatre, a derisive view of Cartesian dualism coined by Daniel Dennett
==Science==
Cartesian diver, a science experiment demonstrating buoyancy and the ideal gas law
Cartesian physics, attempts to explain gravity without a need for action at distance
|
[
"Cartesian circle",
"Cartesian product",
"Cart (disambiguation)",
"Carte (disambiguation)",
"Cartesian doubt",
"Cartesian diver",
"Cartesian oval",
"Cartesian closed category",
"Cartesianism",
"Cartesian theatre",
"analytic geometry",
"Cartesian diagram",
"Cartesian tree",
"Descartes (disambiguation)",
"Fibred category",
"Cartesian linguistics",
"Cartesian product of graphs",
"Cartesian Meditations",
"Cartesian physics",
"Cartesian coordinate system",
"René Descartes",
"Cartesian anxiety",
"Cartesian dualism",
"Cartes (disambiguation)"
] |
7,255 |
Connection (dance)
|
In partner dancing, connection is physical, non-verbal communication between dancers to facilitate synchronized or coordinated dance movements. Some forms of connection involve "lead/follow" in which one dancer (the "lead") directs the movements of the other dancer (the "follower") by means of non-verbal directions conveyed through a physical connection between the dancers. In other forms, connection involves multiple dancers (more than two) without a distinct leader or follower (e.g. contact improvisation). Connection refers to a host of different techniques in many types of partner dancing, especially (but not exclusively) those that feature significant physical contact between the dancers, including the Argentine Tango, Lindy Hop, Balboa, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing, Salsa, and other ballroom dances.
Other forms of communication, such as visual cues or spoken cues, sometimes aid in connecting with one's partner, but are often used in specific circumstances (e.g., practicing figures, or figures which are purposely danced without physical connection). Connection can be used to transmit power and energy as well as information and signals; some dance forms (and some dancers) primarily emphasize power or signaling, but most are probably a mixture of both. Philosopher of dance Ilya Vidrin argues that connection between partners involves norm-based communication that include “a physical exchange of information on the basis of ethically-bound conditions” (proximity, orientation, and points of contact) which constrain agency and predictability.
==Lead/Follow==
Following and leading in a partner dance is accomplished by maintaining a physical connection called the frame that allows the leader to transmit body movement to the follower, and for the follower to suggest ideas to the leader. A frame is a stable structural combination of both bodies maintained through the dancers' arms and/or legs.
Connection occurs in both open and closed dance positions (also called "open frame" and "closed frame").
In closed position with body contact, connection is achieved by maintaining the frame. The follower moves to match the leader, maintaining the pressure between the two bodies as well as the position.
When creating frame, tension is the primary means of establishing communication. Changes in tension are made to create rhythmic variations in moves and movements, and are communicated through points of contact. In an open position or a closed position without body contact, the hands and arms alone provide the connection, which may be one of three forms: tension, compression or neutral.
During tension or leverage connection, the dancers are pulling away from each other with an equal and opposite force. The arms do not originate this force alone: they are often assisted by tension in trunk musculature, through body weight or by momentum.
During compression connection, the dancers are pushing towards each other.
In a neutral position, the hands do not impart any force other than the touch of the follower's hands in the leader's.
In swing dances, tension and compression may be maintained for a significant period of time. In other dances, such as Latin, tension and compression may be used as indications of upcoming movement. However, in both styles, tension and compression do not signal immediate movement: the follow must be careful not to move prior to actual movement by the lead. Until then, the dancers must match pressures without moving their hands. In some styles of Lindy Hop, the tension may become quite high without initiating movement.
The general rule for open connections is that moves of the leader's hands back, forth, left or right are originated through moves of the entire body. Accordingly, for the follower, a move of the connected hand is immediately transformed into the corresponding move of the body. Tensing the muscles and locking the arm achieves this effect but is neither comfortable nor correct. Such tension eliminates the subtler communication in the connection, and eliminates free movement up and down, such as is required to initiate many turns.
Instead of just tensing the arms, connection is achieved by engaging the shoulder, upper body and torso muscles. Movement originates in the body's core. A leader leads by moving himself and maintaining frame and connection. Different forms of dance and different movements within each dance may call for differences in the connection. In some dances the separation distance between the partners remains pretty constant. In others e.g. Modern Jive moving closer together and further apart are fundamental to the dance, requiring flexion and extension of the arms, alternating compression and tension.
The connection between two partners has a different feel in every dance and with every partner. Good social dancers adapt to the conventions of the dance and the responses of their partners.
|
[
"Dance move",
"frame (dance)",
"East Coast Swing",
"ballroom dances",
"Argentine Tango",
"Lindy Hop",
"closed position",
"Balboa (dance)",
"salsa (dance)",
"Ilya Vidrin",
"partner dancing",
"contact improvisation",
"Frame (dance)",
"Modern Jive",
"Ballroom dance",
"West Coast Swing",
"open position",
"Musicality (dance)",
"Lead and follow"
] |
7,257 |
Caste
|
A caste is a fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (endogamy), follow lifestyles often linked to a particular occupation, hold a ritual status observed within a hierarchy, and interact with others based on cultural notions of exclusion, with certain castes considered as either more pure or more polluted than others. The term "caste" is also applied to morphological groupings in eusocial insects such as ants, bees, and termites.
The paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste is the division of India's Hindu society into rigid social groups. Its roots lie in South Asia's ancient history and it still exists; The Portuguese and Spanish word "casta" originated in Gothic "kasts" - "group of animals". The word entered the languages of the Iberian Peninsula with the sense "type of animal," and soon developed into "race of men" and later "class, condition of men". When the Spanish colonised the New World, they used the word to mean a 'clan or lineage'. It was, however, the Portuguese, the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498, to first employ in the primary modern sense of the English word 'caste' when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered. The use of the spelling caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested in English in 1613.
== In South Asia ==
=== India ===
Modern India's caste system is based on the superimposition of an old four-fold theoretical classification called varna on the social ethnic grouping called jāti. The Vedic period conceptualised a society as consisting of four types of varnas, or categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, according to the nature of the work of its members. Varna was not an inherited category and the occupation determined the varna. However, a person's Jati is determined at birth and makes them take up that Jati's occupation; members could and did change their occupation based on personal strengths as well as economic, social and political factors. A 2016 study based on the DNA analysis of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous jatis originated during the Gupta Empire. Today, there are around 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes in India.
From 1901 onwards, for the purposes of the Decennial Census, the British colonial authorities arbitrarily and incorrectly forced all Jātis into the four Varna categories as described in ancient texts. Herbert Hope Risley, the Census Commissioner, noted that "The principle suggested as a basis was that of classification by social precedence as recognized by native public opinion at the present day, and manifesting itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be the modern representatives of one or other of the castes of the theoretical Indian system."
Varna, as mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, describes society as divided into four categories: Brahmins (scholars and yajna priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants and artisans) and Shudras (workmen/service providers). Scholars believe that the Varnas system was never truly operational in society and there is no evidence of it ever being a reality in Indian history. The practical division of the society has been in terms of Jatis (birth groups), which are not based on any specific religious principle but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations to geographic areas. The Jātis have been endogamous social groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political, or economic status. Many of India's major empires and dynasties like the Mauryas, Shalivahanas, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas among many others, were founded by people who would have been classified as Shudras, under the Varnas system, as interpreted by the British rulers. It is well established that by the 9th century, kings from all the four Varnas, including Brahmins and Vaishyas, had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India, contrary to the Varna theory. Historically the kings and rulers had been called upon to mediate on the ranks of Jātis, which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region. In practice, the jātis are seen to fit into the varna classes, but the varna status of jātis itself was subject to articulation over time.
Starting with the 1901 Census of India led by colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. According to political scientist Lloyd Rudolph, Risley believed that varna, however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and "[he] meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it." The terms varna (conceptual classification based on occupation) and jāti (groups) are two distinct concepts: while varna is a theoretical four-part division, jāti (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous social groups prevalent across the subcontinent. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when colonial Indologists sometimes confuse the two.
Upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 Jatis across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. This constitution would also ban discrimination of the basis of the caste, though its practice in India remained intact. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes. Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits.
The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanisation and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and politics. The globalisation and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population. Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. There is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties. Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilisation of people and policy development.
Studies by Bhatt and Beteille have shown changes in status, openness, mobility in the social aspects of Indian society. As a result of modern socio-economic changes in the country, India is experiencing significant changes in the dynamics and the economics of its social sphere. While arranged marriages are still the most common practice in India, the internet has provided a network for younger Indians to take control of their relationships through the use of dating apps. This remains isolated to informal terms, as marriage is not often achieved through the use of these apps. Hypergamy is still a common practice in India and Hindu culture. Men are expected to marry within their caste, or one below, with no social repercussions. If a woman marries into a higher caste, then her children will take the status of their father. If she marries down, her family is reduced to the social status of their son in law. In this case, the women are bearers of the egalitarian principle of the marriage. There would be no benefit in marrying a higher caste if the terms of the marriage did not imply equality. However, men are systematically shielded from the negative implications of the agreement.
Geographical factors also determine adherence to the caste system. Many Northern villages are more likely to participate in exogamous marriage, due to a lack of eligible suitors within the same caste. Women in North India have been found to be less likely to leave or divorce their husbands since they are of a relatively lower caste system, and have higher restrictions on their freedoms. On the other hand, Pahari women, of the northern mountains, have much more freedom to leave their husbands without stigma. This often leads to better husbandry as his actions are not protected by social expectations.
Chiefly among the factors influencing the rise of exogamy is the rapid urbanisation in India experienced over the last century. It is well known that urban centers tend to be less reliant on agriculture and are more progressive as a whole. As India's cities boomed in population, the job market grew to keep pace. Prosperity and stability were now more easily attained by an individual, and the anxiety to marry quickly and effectively was reduced. Thus, younger, more progressive generations of urban Indians are less likely than ever to participate in the antiquated system of arranged endogamy.
India has also implemented a form of Affirmative Action, locally known as "reservation groups". Quota system jobs, as well as placements in publicly funded colleges, hold spots for the 8% of India's minority, and underprivileged groups. As a result, in states such as Tamil Nadu or those in the north-east, where underprivileged populations predominate, over 80% of government jobs are set aside in quotas. In education, colleges lower the marks necessary for the Dalits to enter.
=== Nepal ===
The Nepali caste system resembles in some respects the Indian jāti system, with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Licchavi period. Jayasthiti Malla (1382–1395) categorised Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–1575). The Hindu social code was later set up in the Gorkha Kingdom by Ram Shah (1603–1636).
=== Pakistan ===
McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan. Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes.
=== Sri Lanka ===
The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata, influenced by the textbook jāti system found in India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the Kandyan-period Kadayimpoth – Boundary books as well indicates the continuation of the tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy.
== Outside South Asia ==
=== Southeast Asia ===
==== Indonesia ====
Balinese caste structure has been described as being based either on three categories—the noble triwangsa (thrice born), the middle class of dwijāti (twice born), and the lower class of ekajāti (once born), much similar to the traditional Indian BKVS social stratification — or on four castes
Brahminas – priest
Satrias – knighthood
Wesias – commerce
Sudras – servitude
The Brahmana caste was further subdivided by Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa caste was subdivided into five: Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to castas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.
Classless societies – egalitarian societies with no class structure. Examples include the Mangyan and the Kalanguya peoples.
Royalty – (Visayan: kadatoan) the datu and immediate descendants. They are often further categorised according to purity of lineage. The power of the datu is dependent on the willingness of their followers to render him respect and obedience. Most roles of the datu were judicial and military. In case of an unfit datu, support may be withdrawn by his followers. Datu were almost always male, though in some ethnic groups like the Banwaon people, the female shaman (babaiyon) co-rules as the female counterpart of the datu.
Nobility – (Visayan: tumao; Tagalog: maginoo; Kapampangan ginu; Tausug: bangsa mataas) the ruling class, either inclusive of or exclusive of the royal family. Most are descendants of the royal line or gained their status through wealth or bravery in battle. They owned lands and subjects, from whom they collected taxes.
Shamans – (Visayan: babaylan; Tagalog: katalonan) the spirit mediums, usually female or feminised men. While they were not technically a caste, they commanded the same respect and status as nobility.
Warriors – (Visayan: timawa; Tagalog: maharlika) the martial class. They could own land and subjects like the higher ranks, but were required to fight for the datu in times of war. In some Filipino ethnic groups, they were often tattooed extensively to record feats in battle and as protection against harm. They were sometimes further subdivided into different classes, depending on their relationship with the datu. They traditionally went on seasonal raids on enemy settlements.
Commoners and slaves – (Visayan, Maguindanao: ulipon; Tagalog: alipin; Tausug: kiapangdilihan; Maranao: kakatamokan) – the lowest class composed of the rest of the community who were not part of the enfranchised classes. They were further subdivided into the commoner class who had their own houses, the servants who lived in the houses of others, and the slaves who were usually captives from raids, criminals, or debtors. Most members of this class were equivalent to the European serf class, who paid taxes and can be conscripted to communal tasks, but were more or less free to do as they please.
=== East Asia ===
==== China and Mongolia ====
During the period of the Yuan dynasty, ruler Kublai Khan enforced a Four Class System, which was a legal caste system. The order of four classes of people in descending order were:
Mongolian
Semu people
Han people (in the northern areas of China)
Southerners (people of the former Southern Song dynasty)
==== Tibet ====
There is significant controversy over the social classes of Tibet, especially with regards to the serfdom in Tibet controversy. There were three main feudal social groups in Tibet prior to 1959, namely ordinary laypeople (mi ser in Tibetan), lay nobility (sger pa), and monks.
has put forth the argument that pre-1950s Tibetan society was functionally a caste system, in contrast to previous scholars who defined the Tibetan social class system as similar to European feudal serfdom, as well as non-scholarly western accounts which seek to romanticise a supposedly 'egalitarian' ancient Tibetan society.
==== Japan ====
In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, were rigid and highly formalised in a system called (). At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shōgun and daimyō.
Older scholars believed that there were of "samurai, peasants (hyakushō), craftsmen, and merchants (chōnin)" under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants. However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification.
Marriage between certain classes was generally prohibited. In particular, marriage between daimyo and court nobles was forbidden by the Tokugawa shogunate because it could lead to political maneuvering. For the same reason, marriages between daimyo and high-ranking hatamoto of the samurai class required the approval of the Tokugawa shogunate. It was also forbidden for a member of the samurai class to marry a peasant, craftsman, or merchant, but this was done through a loophole in which a person from a lower class was adopted into the samurai class and then married. Since there was an economic advantage for a poor samurai class person to marry a wealthy merchant or peasant class woman, they would adopt a merchant or peasant class woman into the samurai class as an adopted daughter and then marry her. Samurai had the right to strike and even kill with their sword anyone of a lower class who compromised their honour.
Japan had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracised, historically referred to by the insulting term eta, now called burakumin. While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the buraku or burakumin underclasses. The burakumin are regarded as "ostracised". The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaido and those of Korean or Chinese descent.
==== Korea ====
The baekjeong () were an "untouchable" outcaste of Korea. The meaning today is that of butcher. It originates in the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century. The defeated Khitans who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society.
In 1392, with the foundation of the Confucian Joseon dynasty, Korea systemised its own native class system. At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban, which literally means "two classes". It was composed of scholars () and warriors (). Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors. Below were the (: literally "middle people"). This was a small class of specialised professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc. Below that were the (: literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields. Korea also had a serf population known as the nobi. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated, and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5% of the total population of Korea. The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894, They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and "commoners", and the use of degrading language against children in public schools.
With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished. Following the collapse of the Gabo government, the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality, which was implemented by the loyalists' cabinet. Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation.
While most Koreans by then had surnames and even , although still substantial number of , mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some appropriated their masters' surname, while others simply took the most common surname and its in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term ("people") and later, ("citizen"). Called Songbun, Barbara Demick describes this "class structure" as an updating of the hereditary "caste system", a combination of Confucianism and Communism. It originated in 1946 and was entrenched by the 1960s, and consisted of 53 categories ranging across three classes: loyal, wavering, and impure. The privileged "loyal" class included members of the Korean Workers' Party and Korean People's Army officers' corps, the wavering class included peasants, and the impure class included collaborators with Imperial Japan and landowners. She claims that a bad family background is called "tainted blood", and that by law this "tainted blood" lasts three generations.
=== West Asia ===
==== Kurdistan ====
===== Yazidis =====
There are three hereditary groups, often called castes, in Yazidism. Membership in the Yazidi society and a caste is conferred by birth. Pîrs and Sheikhs are the priestly castes, which are represented by many sacred lineages (). Sheikhs are in charge of both religious and administrative functions and are divided into three endogamous houses, Şemsanî, Adanî and Qatanî who are in turn divided into lineages. The Pîrs are in charge of purely religious functions and traditionally consist of 40 lineages or clans, but approximately 90 appellations of Pîr lineages have been found, which may have been a result of new sub-lineages arising and number of clans increasing over time due to division as Yazidis settled in different places and countries. Division could occur in one family, if there were a few brothers in one clan, each of them could become the founder of their own Pîr sub-clan (). Mirîds are the lay caste and are divided into tribes, who are each affiliated to a Pîr and a Sheikh priestly lineage assigned to the tribe.
==== Iran ====
Pre-Islamic Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organisation governing numerous different groups within the empire. Historians believe society comprised four social classes, which linguistic analysis indicates may have been referred to collectively as "pistras". The classes, from highest to lowest status, were priests (), warriors (), secretaries (), and commoners ().
==== Yemen ====
In Yemen there exists a hereditary caste, the African-descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers. Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million.
=== Africa ===
Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa. In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the Nupe of Nigeria, the Beni Amer of East Africa, and the Tira of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors.
====West Africa====
Among the Igbo of Nigeria – especially Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia, Ebonyi, Edo and Delta states of the country – scholar Elijah Obinna finds that the Osu caste system has been and continues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual. Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracised, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities.
In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in Ivory Coast, with six sub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers.
Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties. The Mande class system regards the jonow slaves as inferior. Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass neeno. In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions. Other castes include Griots, Forgerons, and Cordonniers.
Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the Malinke people no later than 14th century, and was present among the Wolof and Soninke, as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 16th century. Tamari claims that wars, such as the Sosso-Malinke war described in the Sunjata epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire.
As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specialisations or changed occupations. Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari. Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father.
====Central Africa====
Ethel M. Albert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems. Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes. The Tutsi, noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility.
==== Horn of Africa ====
In Ethiopia, there have been a number of studies of castes. Broad studies of castes have been written by Alula Pankhurst, who has published a study of caste groups in SW Ethiopia. and a later volume by Dena Freeman writing with Pankhurst.
thumb|upright|The [[Madhiban (Midgan) specialise in leather occupation. Along with the Tumal and Yibir, they are collectively known as sab.
Among the Kafa, there were also traditionally groups labelled as castes. "Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system. At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manjo). In this hierarchy, the Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves."
The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class. Though the Wata today speak the Oromo language, they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo.
The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein the Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the Madhiban were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts. As Gabooye, the Madhiban along with the Yibir and Tumaal (collectively referred to as sab) have since obtained political representation within Somalia, and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers.
==== Basque Country ====
For centuries, through the modern times, the majority regarded Cagots who lived primarily in the Basque region of France and Spain as an inferior caste, and a group of untouchables. While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the churches they had to use segregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, and receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons. It was a closed social system. The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobility non-existent.
==== United Kingdom ====
In July 2013, the UK government announced its intention to amend the Equality Act 2010, to "introduce legislation on caste, including any necessary exceptions to the caste provisions, within the framework of domestic discrimination law". Section 9(5) of the Equality Act 2010 provides that "a Minister may by order amend the statutory definition of race to include caste and may provide for exceptions in the Act to apply or not to apply to caste".
From September 2013 to February 2014, Meena Dhanda led a project on "Caste in Britain" for the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC).
=== Americas ===
==== Latin America ====
In colonial Spanish America (16th-early 19th centuries), there were legal divisions of society, the Republic of Spaniards (), comprising European whites, African slaves (), and mixed-race , the offspring of unions between whites, blacks, and indigenous. The Republic of Indians () comprised all the various indigenous peoples, now classified in a single category, , by their colonial rulers. In the social and racial hierarchy, European Spaniards were at the apex, with legal rights and privileges. Lower racial groups (Africans, mixed-race castas, and pure indigenous), had fewer legal rights and lower social status. Unlike the rigid caste system in India, in colonial Spanish America there was some fluidity within the social order.
==== United States ====
In the opinion of W. Lloyd Warner, discrimination in the Southern United States in the 1930s against Blacks was similar to Indian castes in such features as residential segregation and marriage restrictions. In her 2020 book Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents, journalist Isabel Wilkerson used caste as an analogy to understand racial discrimination in the United States.
Gerald D. Berreman contrasted the differences between discrimination in the United States and India. In India, there are complex religious features which make up the system, whereas in the United States race and color are the basis for differentiation. The caste systems in India and the United States have higher groups which desire to retain their positions for themselves and thus perpetuate the two systems.
The process of creating a homogenized society by social engineering in both India and the Southern US has created other institutions that have made class distinctions among different groups evident. Anthropologist James C. Scott elaborates on how "global capitalism is perhaps the most powerful force for homogenization, whereas the state may be the defender of local difference and variety in some instances". The caste system, a relic of feudalistic economic systems, emphasizes differences between socio-economic classes that are obviated by openly free market capitalistic economic systems, which reward individual initiative, enterprise, merit, and thrift, thereby creating a path for social mobility. When the feudalistic slave economy of the southern United States was dismantled, Jim Crow laws and acts of domestic terrorism committed by white supremacists prevented many industrious African Americans from participating in the formal economy and achieving economic success on parity with their white peers, or destroying that economic success in instances where it was achieved, such as Black Wall Street, with only rare but commonly touted exceptions to lasting personal success such as Maggie Walker, Annie Malone, and Madame C.J. Walker. Parts of the United States are sometimes divided by race and class status despite the national narrative of integration.
A survey on caste discrimination conducted by Equality Labs found 67% of Indian Dalits living in the US reporting that they faced caste-based harassment at the workplace, and 27% reporting verbal or physical assault based on their caste. However, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace study in 2021 criticizes Equality Labs findings and methodology noting Equality Labs study "relied on a nonrepresentative snowball sampling method to recruit respondents. Furthermore, respondents who did not disclose a caste identity were dropped from the data set. Therefore, it is likely that the sample does not fully represent the South Asian American population and could skew in favor of those who have strong views about caste. While the existence of caste discrimination in India is incontrovertible, its precise extent and intensity in the United States can be contested".
In 2023, Seattle became the first city in the United States to ban discrimination based on caste.
== Racial casteism ==
Racial casteism is a term used to identify the relationship between caste, race, and colorism. In modern-day India, the caste system has expanded to include groups and identities from diasporic groups as well such as the Africana Siddis and Kaffirs. Siddis make up 40,000 of India's vast population and are perceived as untouchables under the caste framework.This categorization is paired with anti-black ideology in the country, that is often adapted by broader uses of the term caste in western countries, most notably the United States. Like the Siddis, Africana caste Sri Lanka Kaffirs make up a small minority of the population with scholars noting that the exact number is hard to determine due to exclusion and lack of recognition from the government. Siddis and Kaffirs are considered untouchables due to their darker skin color alongside other physical factors that distinguish the group as lower caste.
The migration of Africana groups such as the Siddis and Kaffirs to South Asia is widely considered to be a result of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade, initiated by Muslim Arabs. During the trade, enslaved Africans were often brought as court servants, herbalists, midwives, or as bonded labor. The limited awareness of these groups can be attributed to caste-ideology fueled from this trade.
The racial understanding of caste has largely been debated by scholars, with some like Dr. B. R. Ambedkar arguing that caste differences between higher caste Aryans and lower cast native-Indians being more due to religious factors. While the term remains contended, it is widely understood that this racial assessment is based on the way lower-caste people are treated. Africana diasporic groups who do not fit the caste system reflected by the scheduled tribe are thus considered inferior for their darker skin and grouped in with the untouchables. Since caste is inherited at birth and is inflexible to change throughout a lifetime, this can lead to a racial caste system where colorism largely influences the mobility one has in their lifetime. Terminology shifted away from race-conscious terms in South Asian antiquity, where Aryans had pre-conceived social hierarchies built off of race, to a caste framework during Buddhism's rise in the third century BCE.
Racial caste is embedded in the institutions that make up South Asia, particularly its governing bodies. When it comes to the electorate of India, voter preference is often based on race, caste, religion, alongside other attributing physical and political factors. This power imbalance alongside the rigid nature of caste can work against those of darker skin complexion to hold positions of power.
== Caste and higher education ==
The foundational divisions of caste have historically been seen as a determining factor in one's skills and career prospects. Today, many people perceive higher education as a means of achieving their own professional goals, but there are still methods based on caste assumptions used to keep lower caste out of universities. This leads to their exclusion from the potential to be part of higher-paying jobs that are perceived as more elite. This social expectation and prevention of access to education and opportunity have elongated the struggle for financial and social equity amongst people from scheduled tribes and castes.
Affirmative Action has been a global phenomenon to develop more spaces in politics, jobs, and education for people from historically disadvantaged backgrounds, which has led to the reservation system being applied to universities. Even with these regulations, caste nevertheless remains a largely determining factor in the university system in India. The guarantee of admittance to a certain proportion of people from oppressed castes is not enough to deal with the implications of divisions in higher education. For example, the reservation percentage can vary by state but is generally around 15% for Scheduled Castes, but 2019-20 data shows most universities miss this mark. Across the board, there is an average of 14.7% of scheduled caste students, meaning many universities are at a far lower rate than legislated. These reservation systems have backlash from upper caste groups, who claim that people are only admitted due to their caste status, as opposed to merit, in a similar argument playing out to affirmative action in the United States.
Reservation policies constitute a first step in providing access to admittance into higher education opportunities but do not overcome the overarching challenge of casteism. Caste-based discrimination and social stigma can still affect the experiences of students from marginalized communities in academic institutions. Universities are a crucial place of integration and moving to offer equitable opportunity beyond just attendance, but implementing protective policies to ensure students can be successful. Attendance at university has already been shown to impact how people view caste and has the potential to shape equity building beyond the current interpersonal and systemic relationship.
Several forms of discrimination manifest in universities:
Social Discrimination: Students from marginalized castes face social discrimination, exclusion, and/or isolation on campuses. This affects their general educational experience and mental well-being. Numerous cases of harassment and bullying based on caste lines have been reported, with drastic consequences for the victims, but often none for the perpetrators. This promotes a hostile environment for students and hampers their ability to engage positively in the academic community.
"When I was enrolled for an undergraduate course, I was vocal about his Dalit identity and vouched for the rights of Dalits and marginalized sections. Most of my upper-caste mates were against reservation. I was always typecast, stereotyped and even labeled with derogatory nicknames," Nishat Kabir, who is studying film at Ambedkar University in New Delhi, told Anadolu Agency.
Campus Facilities: Discrimination can also be observed in access to living facilities, food services, and other campus amenities. Students from marginalized castes may encounter difficulties in availing of these services without bias, and the living arrangements are often internally segregated.
Academic + Faculty Discrimination: Discrimination may extend to the academic sphere, with students facing biased treatment, unfair grading, or limited access to academic resources based on their caste background. Instances of discrimination can involve faculty members, who may hold biases that affect their interactions with students. This comes from the inherent hierarchical nature of caste having built centuries of prejudice against lower caste and indigenous students. This influences academic mentorship, guidance, and opportunities for students from marginalized backgrounds.
Eighty-four percent of the SC/ST students surveyed said examiners had asked them about their caste directly or indirectly during their evaluations. One student said: "Teachers are fine till they do not know your caste. The moment they come to know, their attitude towards you changes completely."
Due to the challenges experienced on top of the normal pressure of being a student, the discrimination that Dalits and people of OBCs face has led to increased rates of suicide, with numerous examples shown to be tied directly to campus harassment and lack of administrative support.
The clarity that comes from people sharing their experiences has led to significant pushback in the 21st century, where students have been centering fights for justice and equity, often based on movements that student activists of the past have used. Allahabad University has seen a spike in student protests and demonstrations against institutional discrimination. Students used tactics of information spreading from pamphlets and court cases, to public civil disobedience through marches and sit-ins to disrupt the flow of university life and lead to broader discussions. The student unrest was not unique to Allahabad University but was strong enough to last over 90 days.
==Caste in sociology and entomology==
The initial observational studies of the division of labour in ant colonies attempted to demonstrate that ants specialized in tasks that were best suited to their size when they emerged from the pupae stage into the adult stage. A large proportion of the experimental work was done in species that showed strong variation in size. As the size of an adult was fixed for life, workers of a specific size range came to be called a "caste", calling up the traditional caste system in India in which a human's standing in society was decided at birth.
The notion of caste encouraged a link between scholarship in entomology and sociology because it served as an example of a division of labour in which the participants seemed to be uncompromisingly adapted to special functions and sometimes even unique environments. To bolster the concept of caste, entomologists and sociologists referred to the complementary social or natural parallel and thereby appeared to generalize the concept and give it an appearance of familiarity. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, the perceived similarities between the Indian caste system and caste polymorphism in insects were used to create a correspondence or parallelism for the purpose of explaining or clarifying racial stratification in human societies; the explanations came particularly to be employed in the United States. Ideas from heredity and natural selection influenced some sociologists who believed that some groups were predetermined to belong to a lower social or occupational status. Chiefly through the work of W. Lloyd Warner at the University of Chicago, a group of sociologists sharing similar principles came to evolve around the creed of caste in the 1930s and 1940s.
The ecologically oriented sociologist Robert E. Park, although attributing more weight to environmental explanations than the biological nonetheless believed that there were obstacles to the assimilation of blacks into American society and that an "accommodation stage" in a biracially organized caste system was required before full assimilation. He did disavow his position in 1937, suggesting that blacks were a minority and not a caste. The Indian sociologist Radhakamal Mukerjee was influenced by Robert E. Park and adopted the concept of "caste" to describe race relations in the US. According to anthropologist Diane Rodgers, Mukerjee "proceeded to suggest that a caste system should be correctly instituted in the (US) South to ease race relations." Mukerjee often employed both entomological and sociological data and clues to describe caste systems. He wrote "while the fundamental industries of man are dispersed throughout the insect world, the same kind of polymorphism appears again and again in different species of social insects which have reacted in the same manner as man, under the influence of the same environment, to ensure the supply and provision of subsistence." Comparing the caste system in India to caste polymorphism in insects, he noted, "where we find the organization of social insects developed to perfection, there also has been seen among human associations a minute and even rigid specialization of functions, along with ant- and bee-like societal integrity and cohesiveness." He considered the "resemblances between insect associations and caste-ridden societies" to be striking enough to be "amusing".
|
[
"Spanish Empire",
"Ant",
"Jim Crow laws",
"Meena Dhanda",
"North India",
"Mandé peoples",
"Hokkaido",
"Soninke people",
"Hutu",
"Gabo Reform",
"Zainichi Korean",
"daimyō",
"Africa",
"Mandaya people",
"SAGE Publications",
"serf",
"Government of India",
"social class",
"Han Chinese",
"Enlightenment Party",
"tumao",
"ant",
"serfdom in Tibet controversy",
"Susan Bayly",
"Khitan people",
"burakumin",
"Trifunctional hypothesis",
"social group",
"Ghana",
"Madhiban",
"Maranao people",
"Islamized",
"Liberia",
"Uki, Kumamoto",
"W. Lloyd Warner",
"Ebonyi State",
"Banwaon people",
"bongwan",
"Journal of Anthropological Society",
"social stratification",
"Estates of the realm",
"Workers' Party of Korea",
"UNICEF",
"Gerald Berreman",
"heredity",
"Committee for Human Rights in North Korea",
"Nigeria",
"Caste politics",
"Stanford University Press",
"The Economist",
"natural selection",
"Herbert Hope Risley",
"Visayan people",
"Constitution of India",
"Mangyan people",
"Robert E. Park",
"samurai",
"Fayard",
"baekjeong",
"Sierra Leone",
"Kiri-sute gomen",
"University of Wisconsin Press",
"Minyanka language",
"The New York Times",
"kadatoan",
"Semu",
"Wolof people",
"Fula people",
"Carnegie Endowment for International Peace",
"Boxer Codex",
"New Spain",
"Princeton University Press",
"New World",
"Communism",
"casta",
"Vaishya",
"Igbo people",
"Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society",
"Somali people",
"Guinea",
"University of Chicago",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Imo State",
"Madam C. J. Walker",
"Land tenure",
"CBC News",
"Plutocracy",
"demographics of Japan",
"Toucouleur people",
"Kublai Khan",
"Ram Shah",
"bee",
"Endogamy",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"CNN",
"B. R. Ambedkar",
"Kalanguya people",
"Tamil Nadu",
"monk",
"Chinese in Japan",
"Equality Act 2010",
"AnthroSource",
"Laity",
"Alula Pankhurst",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"B'laan people",
"social equality",
"social exclusion",
"Inter-caste marriages in India",
"Priestly caste",
"South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region",
"Beni Amer",
"Senegal",
"Tuareg people",
"Cagot",
"Senufo people",
"Al-Akhdam",
"Osu caste system",
"Ainu people",
"Enugu State",
"Bagobo people",
"southern United States",
"domestic terrorism",
"Kingdom of Kafa",
"Nupe people",
"Kurdish tribes",
"Radhakamal Mukerjee",
"Horn of Africa",
"Feudalism",
"Gupta Empire",
"Tokyo Shoseki",
"Jayasthiti Malla",
"Anambra State",
"The Journal of African History",
"Edo State",
"Serer people",
"Japan",
"John Wiley & Sons",
"Hypergamy",
"Kshatriya",
"Gurage people",
"Yemen",
"Minister (government)",
"Ethel M. Albert",
"University of Chicago Press",
"Maguindanao people",
"Propiska in the Soviet Union",
"mangayaw",
"Greater India",
"Yazidism",
"Tagalog people",
"Netherlands",
"kuge",
"Greenwood District, Tulsa",
"Columbia University Press",
"knight",
"Isabel Wilkerson",
"Lloyd Rudolph",
"Tropenmuseum",
"daimyo",
"Hinduism",
"Oxford University Press",
"Confucianism",
"alipin",
"endogamy",
"social classes of Tibet",
"Southwestern Journal of Anthropology",
"Tutsi",
"Scheduled Caste",
"Christian mission",
"Gambia",
"Korean Empire",
"feudalistic",
"ABC News (Australia)",
"Tagakaulo people",
"Korean People's Army",
"Basque Country (greater region)",
"maharlika",
"Census of India prior to independence",
"Konso people",
"Residential segregation in the United States",
"serfdom",
"Untouchability",
"Philippine shamans",
"commerce",
"Moro people",
"Involuntary servitude",
"Reservation in India",
"Borana Oromo",
"Job",
"Equality and Human Rights Commission",
"Ethiopia",
"priestly caste",
"The Hindu",
"white supremacists",
"Songhai people",
"Cambridge University Press",
"honour",
"Joseon dynasty",
"Brahmin",
"Licchavi (kingdom)",
"Abia State",
"Tausug people",
"Tokugawa shogunate",
"capitalism",
"Kalinga people",
"Somalia",
"Chalosse",
"Affirmative action in India",
"cheonmin",
"Rwanda",
"ulipon",
"African Americans",
"Buddhism",
"Statutory order",
"Family patrimony",
"Ifugao people",
"Bontoc people",
"maginoo",
"Affirmative action",
"Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents",
"Oromo language",
"Mandinka people",
"Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes",
"Journal of African American Studies",
"Ivory Coast",
"Song dynasty",
"SUNY Press",
"American Anthropologist",
"Vaishyas",
"Shudras",
"jāti",
"The Asahi Shimbun",
"Yuan dynasty",
"vassal",
"Burundi",
"Jāti",
"Historical Vedic religion",
"Cameroon",
"BBC News",
"Dalit",
"Mongols",
"urbanisation in India",
"The Independent",
"hatamoto",
"Yale University Press",
"Harijan",
"Tibet",
"timawa",
"Gothic language",
"British Raj",
"Kingdom of Kandy",
"Uttar Pradesh",
"Twa",
"University of Pennsylvania",
"Rahanweyn",
"Kamaiya",
"Varna (Hinduism)",
"caste system in India",
"Shudra",
"Delta state",
"Barbara Demick",
"Collaboration with Imperial Japan",
"India",
"Louisiana State University Press",
"Ateneo de Manila University Press",
"Luzon",
"Goryeo-Khitan Wars",
"Gers",
"Routledge",
"Urbanization in India",
"Tira people",
"Seattle",
"ABC-CLIO",
"Dogon people",
"Shimonoseki",
"Songbun",
"James C. Scott",
"Bali",
"Isneg people",
"Vedic period",
"Four divisions of society",
"egalitarianism",
"Annie Turnbo Malone",
"Sassanid",
"chōnin",
"Journal of Kurdish Studies",
"Oxford English Dictionary",
"The Indian Express",
"Social exclusion",
"Ibaloi people",
"Yibir",
"Asian Survey",
"Elijah Obinna",
"Africa (journal)",
"datu",
"Central Africa",
"Maggie L. Walker",
"termites",
"3rd century BC",
"head-hunting",
"Shōgun",
"DNA analysis",
"Caste-related violence in India",
"Gabo reform",
"serfs",
"Yangban",
"eusocial",
"Kankanaey people",
"Cordillera Central (Luzon)",
"priest",
"Sri Lanka Kaffirs",
"Kapampangan people",
"American Journal of Sociology",
"Gorkha Kingdom",
"John Minsheu",
"Northeast India",
"Anthropologica",
"Indian Ocean slave trade"
] |
7,258 |
Creation
|
Creation or The Creation or Creations, may refer to:
==Religion==
Creatio ex nihilo, the concept that matter was created by a divine being out of nothing.
Creation myth, a religious story of the origin of the world and how people first came to inhabit it.
Creationism, the belief that the universe was created in specific divine acts and the social movement affiliated with it.
Creator deity, a deity responsible for the creation of everything that exists.
Genesis creation narrative, the biblical account of creation.
Creation Museum, a creationist museum in Kentucky
Creation Ministries International, a Christian apologetics organization.
Creation Festival, two annual four-day Christian music festivals held in the United States.
==Arts, entertainment, media==
Creation (Dragonlance), creation of Krynn, a fictional world of Dragonlance.
"The Creation of Adam" (ca. 1511), a 1512 section of Michelangelo's fresco Sistine Chapel ceiling.
Creation (video game), an unreleased video game developed by Bullfrog Productions.
===Literature===
Creation (novel), a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal
The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth (2006), a book by biologist Edward O. Wilson
"The Creation" (1927), a poem by James Weldon Johnson, published in God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse
===Music===
Creation, Nathaniel Shilkret's contribution to the Genesis Suite (1945)
Creation Records, a record label created in 1983 by Alan McGee
====Bands====
Creation (American band), a teen musical group
Creation (Japanese band), also known as Blues Creation, led by Kazuo Takeda
Creations (band), Australian Christian band
The Creation (band), a British band
====Albums====
Creation (Seven Lions EP), 2016 EP by Seven Lions
Creation (Yorushika EP), 2021 EP by Yorushika
Creation (John Coltrane album), 1965
Creation (Branford Marsalis album), 2001
Creation (Keith Jarrett album), 2015
Creation (Archie Roach album), 2013
Creation (The Pierces album), 2014
Creation, album by Creation
Creation, album by Leslie Satcher 2005
====Songs====
"Creation" (William Billings), a hymn tune composed by William Billings
The Creation, 1954, an orchestral song by Wolfgang Fortner
"Creation", a song by The Creation, 1994
"Creation", a song by Joe Higgs, 1976
"Creation", a song by Jonathan King, 1965
"Creation", a song by The Pierces from Creation, 2014
"Creation", a song by Zion I from Mind Over Matter
===Stage and screen===
The Creation (Haydn), a 1798 oratorio by Joseph Haydn
Création, a 1940 ballet by Shirō Fukai
La création du monde, a 1923 ballet by Darius Milhaud
Creation (2009 film), by Jon Amiel about the life of Charles Darwin
Creation (unfinished film), a 1931 film that inspired King Kong
==Other uses==
Creation (initial grant) of a noble title (such as a dukedom or earldom)
The use of creativity
a cultural artifact, a creation, an object from creativity
|
[
"Creation (Keith Jarrett album)",
"Creation (Yorushika EP)",
"God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse",
"Creation (Archie Roach album)",
"Creation (John Coltrane album)",
"Creation (2009 film)",
"Create (disambiguation)",
"Creationism",
"Creation (American band)",
"creativity",
"Origin (disambiguation)",
"The Creation (band)",
"Creation (Seven Lions EP)",
"Creation (Japanese band)",
"Creation (William Billings)",
"Creation (Branford Marsalis album)",
"The Creation (Haydn)",
"James Weldon Johnson",
"Creation Ministries International",
"Creation (novel)",
"Edward O. Wilson",
"Creation Records",
"Joe Higgs",
"Creation myth",
"Creation (unfinished film)",
"La création du monde",
"Creator (disambiguation)",
"Generate (disambiguation)",
"Genesis creation narrative",
"Wolfgang Fortner",
"Creations (band)",
"Leslie Satcher",
"Creation (Dragonlance)",
"Creation Museum",
"Existence (disambiguation)",
"Creation science",
"Genesis Suite",
"Creation of the world (disambiguation)",
"Creatio ex nihilo",
"The Creation of Adam",
"Creation (The Pierces album)",
"noble title",
"Creation (video game)",
"Jonathan King",
"cultural artifact",
"Creation Festival",
"Artifact (disambiguation)",
"Mind over Matter (Zion I album)",
"Shirō Fukai",
"Creator deity"
] |
7,262 |
CORAL
|
CORAL, short for Computer On-line Real-time Applications Language is a programming language originally developed in 1964 at the Royal Radar Establishment (RRE), Malvern, Worcestershire, in the United Kingdom. It was influenced primarily by JOVIAL, and thus ALGOL, but is not a subset of either.
The most widely-known version, CORAL 66, was subsequently developed by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths under the auspices of the Inter-Establishment Committee for Computer Applications (IECCA). Its official definition, edited by Woodward, Wetherall, and Gorman, was first published in 1970.
In 1971, CORAL was selected by the Ministry of Defence as the language for future military applications and to support this, a standardization program was introduced to ensure CORAL compilers met the specifications. This process was later adopted by the US Department of Defense while defining Ada.
== Overview ==
Coral 66 is a general-purpose programming language based on ALGOL 60, with some features from Coral 64, JOVIAL, and Fortran. It includes structured record types (as in Pascal) and supports the packing of data into limited storage (also as in Pascal). Like Edinburgh IMP it allows inline (embedded) assembly language, and also offers good runtime checking and diagnostics. It is designed for real-time computing and embedded system applications, and for use on computers with limited processing power, including those limited to fixed-point arithmetic and those without support for dynamic storage allocation.
The language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry. It was used to write software for both the Ferranti and General Electric Company (GEC) computers from 1971 onwards. Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, PDP-11, VAX and Alpha platforms and HPE Integrity Servers; for the Honeywell, and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL, later ITL) Modular-1;
As Coral was aimed at a variety of real-time work, rather than general office data processing, there was no standardised equivalent to a stdio library. IECCA recommended a primitive input/output (I/O) package to accompany any compiler (in a document titled Input/Output of Character data in Coral 66 Utility Programs). Most implementers avoided this by producing Coral interfaces to extant Fortran and, later, C libraries.
CORAL's most significant contribution to computing may have been enforcing quality control in commercial compilers. To have a CORAL compiler approved by IECCA, and thus allowing a compiler to be marketed as a CORAL 66 compiler, the candidate compiler had to compile and execute a standard suite of 25 test programs and 6 benchmark programs. The process was part of the British Standard (BS) 5905 approval process. This methodology was observed and adapted later by the United States Department of Defense for the certification of Ada compilers.
Source code for a Coral 66 compiler (written in BCPL) has been recovered and the Official Definition of Coral 66 document by Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has issued a licence to the Edinburgh Computer History project to allow them to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use.
== Variants ==
A variant of Coral 66 named PO-CORAL was developed during the late 1970s to early 1980s by the British General Post Office (GPO), together with GEC, STC and Plessey, for use on the System X digital telephone exchange control computers. This was later renamed BT-CORAL when British Telecom was spun off from the Post Office. Unique features of this language were the focus on real-time execution, message processing, limits on statement execution between waiting for input, and a prohibition on recursion to remove the need for a stack.
|
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"Procedural programming",
"Edinburgh IMP",
"programming language",
"Runtime (program lifecycle phase)",
"Intel 8080",
"US Department of Defense",
"Royal Radar Establishment",
"Berkeley Software Distribution",
"Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)",
"United States Department of Defense",
"Source code",
"Royal Signals and Radar Establishment",
"Computer Technology Limited",
"quality control",
"HPE Integrity Servers",
"Linux",
"PDP-11",
"ALGOL",
"DXC Technology",
"x86",
"BCPL",
"general-purpose programming language",
"real-time computing",
"embedded system",
"input/output",
"C (programming language)",
"Intel",
"Library (computing)",
"Malvern, Worcestershire",
"Fortran",
"Static type",
"stdio",
"DEC Alpha",
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"Unix",
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"compiler",
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"Structured programming",
"ALGOL 60",
"Ferranti",
"subset",
"Ferranti Limited",
"General Electric Company",
"GEC Computers",
"Zilog Z80",
"JOVIAL",
"Strong and weak typing",
"Inline assembler",
"Elizabeth II",
"Pascal (programming language)",
"Honeywell",
"ARPANET",
"SPARC",
"head of state",
"Solaris (operating system)",
"Imperative programming language",
"assembly language",
"VAX",
"GEC 4000 series",
"OpenVMS",
"fixed-point arithmetic",
"Internet Archive",
"Ada (programming language)",
"General Post Office",
"Philip Woodward",
"Plessey",
"Motorola 68000",
"System X (telephony)",
"British Telecom"
] |
7,264 |
Rhyming slang
|
Rhyming slang is a form of slang word construction in the English language. It is especially prevalent among Cockneys in England, and was first used in the early 19th century in the East End of London; hence its alternative name, Cockney rhyming slang. In the US, especially the criminal underworld of the West Coast between 1880 and 1920, rhyming slang has sometimes been known as Australian slang.
The construction of rhyming slang involves replacing a common word with a phrase of two or more words, the last of which rhymes with the original word; then, in almost all cases, omitting, from the end of the phrase, the secondary rhyming word (which is thereafter implied), making the origin and meaning of the phrase elusive to listeners not in the know.
== Examples ==
The form of Cockney slang is made clear with the following example. The rhyming phrase "apples and pears" is used to mean "stairs". Following the pattern of omission, "and pears" is dropped, thus the spoken phrase "I'm going up the apples" means "I'm going up the stairs".
The following are further common examples of these phrases:
In some examples the meaning is further obscured by adding a second iteration of rhyme and truncation to the original rhymed phrase. For example, the word "Aris" is often used to indicate the buttocks. This is the result of a double rhyme, starting with the original rough synonym "arse", which is rhymed with "bottle and glass", leading to "bottle". "Bottle" was then rhymed with "Aristotle" and truncated to "Aris". "Aris" was then rhymed with "plaster of Paris" and truncated to "plaster".
=== Phonetic versus phono-semantic forms ===
Ghil'ad Zuckermann, a linguist and revivalist, has proposed a distinction between rhyming slang based on sound only, and phono-semantic rhyming slang, which includes a semantic link between the slang expression and its referent (the thing it refers to). An example of rhyming slang based only on sound is the Cockney "tea leaf" (thief). An example of phono-semantic rhyming slang is the Cockney "sorrowful tale" ((three months in) jail), in which case the person coining the slang term sees a semantic link, sometimes jocular, between the Cockney expression and its referent.
=== Mainstream usage ===
The use of rhyming slang has spread beyond the purely dialectal and some examples are to be found in the mainstream British English lexicon, although many users may be unaware of the origin of those words.
Another example is to "have a butcher's" for to have a look, from "butcher's hook".
Most of the words changed by this process are nouns, but a few are adjectival, e.g., "bales" of cotton (rotten), or the adjectival phrase "on one's tod" for "on one's own", after Tod Sloan, a famous jockey.
== History ==
Rhyming slang is believed to have originated in the mid-19th century in the East End of London, with several sources suggesting some time in the 1840s. The Flash Dictionary, of unknown authorship, published in 1921 by Smeeton (48mo), contains a few rhymes. John Camden Hotten's 1859 Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant, and Vulgar Words likewise states that it originated in the 1840s ("about twelve or fifteen years ago"), but with "chaunters" and "patterers" in the Seven Dials area of London.
== Development ==
Many examples of rhyming slang are based on locations in London, such as "Peckham Rye", meaning "tie", which dates from the late nineteenth century; "Hampstead Heath", meaning "teeth" (usually as "Hampsteads"), which was first recorded in 1887; and "barnet" (Barnet Fair), meaning "hair", which dates from the 1850s.
In the 20th century, rhyming slang began to be based on the names of celebrities — Gregory Peck (neck; cheque), Ruby Murray [as Ruby] (curry), Alan Whicker [as "Alan Whickers"] (knickers), Puff Daddy (caddy), Max Miller (pillow [pronounced ]), Meryl Streep (cheap), Nat King Cole ("dole"), Britney Spears (beers, tears), Henry Halls (balls) — and after pop culture references — Captain Kirk (work), Pop Goes the Weasel (diesel), Mona Lisa (pizza), Mickey Mouse (Scouse), Wallace and Gromit (vomit), Brady Bunch (lunch), Bugs Bunny (money), Scooby-Doo (clue), Winnie the Pooh (shoe), and Schindler's List (pissed). Some words have numerous definitions, such as dead (Father Ted, "gone to bed", brown bread), door (Roger Moore, Andrea Corr, George Bernard Shaw, Rory O'Moore), cocaine (Kurt Cobain; [as "Charlie"] Bob Marley, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Gianluca Vialli, oats and barley; [as "line"] Patsy Cline; [as "powder"] Niki Lauda), flares ("Lionel Blairs", "Tony Blairs", "Rupert Bears", "Dan Dares"), etc.
Many examples have passed into common usage. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in England in their contracted form. "To have a butcher's", meaning to have a look, originates from "butcher's hook", an S-shaped hook used by butchers to hang up meat, and dates from the late nineteenth century but has existed independently in general use from around the 1930s simply as "butchers". Similarly, "use your loaf", meaning "use your head", derives from "loaf of bread" and also dates from the late nineteenth century but came into independent use in the 1930s.
In some cases, false etymologies exist. For example, the term "barney" has been used to mean an altercation or fight since the late nineteenth century, although without a clear derivation. In the 2001 feature film Ocean's Eleven, the explanation for the term is that it derives from Barney Rubble, the name of a cartoon character from the Flintstones television program many decades later in origin.
Rhyming slang is continually evolving, and new phrases are introduced all the time; new personalities replace old ones—pop culture introduces new words—as in "I haven't a Scooby" (from Scooby Doo, the eponymous cartoon dog of the cartoon series) meaning "I haven't a clue".
=== Taboo terms ===
Rhyming slang is often used as a substitute for words regarded as taboo, often to the extent that the association with the taboo word becomes unknown over time. "Berk" (often used to mean "foolish person") originates from the most famous of all fox hunts, the "Berkeley Hunt" meaning "cunt"; "cobblers" (often used in the context "what you said is rubbish") originates from "cobbler's awls", meaning "balls" (as in testicles); and "hampton" (usually "'ampton") meaning "prick" (as in penis) originates from "Hampton Wick" (a place in London) – the second part "wick" also entered common usage as "he gets on my wick" (he is an annoying person).
Lesser taboo terms include "pony and trap" for "crap" (as in defecate, but often used to denote nonsense or low quality); to blow a raspberry (rude sound of derision) from raspberry tart for "fart"; "D'Oyly Carte" (an opera company) for "fart"; "Jimmy Riddle" (an American country musician) for "piddle" (as in urinate), "J. Arthur Rank" (a film mogul), "Sherman tank", "Jodrell Bank" or "ham shank" for "wank", "Bristol Cities" (contracted to 'Bristols') for "titties", etc. "Taking the Mick" or "taking the Mickey" is thought to be a rhyming slang form of "taking the piss", where "Mick" came from "Mickey Bliss".
In December 2004 Joe Pasquale, winner of the fourth series of ITV's I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, became well known for his frequent use of the term "Jacobs", for Jacob's Cream Crackers, a rhyming slang term for knackers i.e. testicles.
== In popular culture ==
Rhyming slang has been widely used in popular culture including film, television, music, literature, sport and degree classification.
=== In university degree classification ===
In the British undergraduate degree classification system a first class honours degree is known as a "Geoff Hurst" (First) after the English 1966 World Cup footballer. An upper second class degree (a.k.a. a "2:1") is called an "Attila the Hun", and a lower second class ("2:2") a "Desmond Tutu", while a third class degree is known as a "Thora Hird" or "Douglas Hurd".
=== In film ===
Cary Grant's character teaches rhyming slang to his female companion in Mr. Lucky (1943), describing it as 'Australian rhyming slang'. Rhyming slang is also used and described in a scene of the 1967 film To Sir, with Love starring Sidney Poitier, where the English students tell their foreign teacher that the slang is a drag and something for old people. The closing song of the 1969 crime caper, The Italian Job, ("Getta Bloomin' Move On" a.k.a. "The Self Preservation Society") contains many slang terms.
Rhyming slang has been used to lend authenticity to an East End setting. Examples include Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) (wherein the slang is translated via subtitles in one scene); The Limey (1999); Sexy Beast (2000); Snatch (2000); Ocean's Eleven (2001); and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002); It's All Gone Pete Tong (2004), after BBC radio disc jockey Pete Tong whose name is used in this context as rhyming slang for "wrong"; Green Street Hooligans (2005). In Margin Call (2011), Will Emerson, played by London-born actor Paul Bettany, asks a friend on the telephone, "How's the trouble and strife?" ("wife").
Cockneys vs Zombies (2012) mocked the genesis of rhyming slang terms when a Cockney character calls zombies "Trafalgars" to even his Cockney fellows' puzzlement; he then explains it thus: "Trafalgar square – fox and hare – hairy Greek – five day week – weak and feeble – pins and needles – needle and stitch – Abercrombie and Fitch – Abercrombie: zombie".
The live-action Disney film Mary Poppins Returns song "Trip A Little Light Fantastic" involves Cockney rhyming slang in part of its lyrics, and is primarily spoken by the London lamplighters.
In the animated superhero film Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023), character Spider-Punk, a Camden native, is heard saying: "I haven't got a scooby" ("clue").
=== Television ===
Slang had a resurgence of popular interest in Britain beginning in the 1970s, resulting from its use in a number of London-based television programmes such as Steptoe and Son (1970–74); and Not On Your Nellie (1974–75), starring Hylda Baker as Nellie Pickersgill, alludes to the phrase "not on your Nellie Duff", rhyming slang for "not on your puff" i.e. not on your life. Similarly, The Sweeney (1975–78) alludes to the phrase "Sweeney Todd" for "Flying Squad", a rapid response unit of London's Metropolitan Police. In The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin (1976–79), a comic twist was added to rhyming slang by way of spurious and fabricated examples which a young man had laboriously attempted to explain to his father (e.g. 'dustbins' meaning 'children', as in 'dustbin lids'='kids'; 'Teds' being 'Ted Heath' and thus 'teeth'; and even 'Chitty Chitty' being 'Chitty Chitty Bang Bang', and thus 'rhyming slang'...). It was also featured in an episode of The Good Life in the first season (1975) where Tom and Barbara purchase a wood-burning range from a junk trader called Sam, who litters his language with phony rhyming slang in hopes of convincing suburban residents that he is an authentic traditional Cockney trader. He comes up with a fake story as to the origin of Cockney rhyming slang and is caught out rather quickly. In The Jeffersons season 2 (1976) episode "The Breakup: Part 2", Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang to George Jefferson, in that "whistle and flute" means "suit", "apples and pears" means "stairs", "plates of meat" means "feet".
The use of rhyming slang was also prominent in Mind Your Language (1977–79), Citizen Smith (1977–80), Minder (1979–94), Only Fools and Horses (1981–91), and EastEnders (1985–). Minder could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification. Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, "iron" was "male homosexual" ('iron'='iron hoof'='poof'). One episode in Series 5 of Steptoe and Son was entitled "Any Old Iron", for the same reason, when Albert thinks that Harold is 'on the turn'. Variations of rhyming slang were also used in sitcom Birds of a Feather, by main characters Sharon and Tracey, often to the confusion of character, Dorian Green, who was unfamiliar with the terms.
One early US show to regularly feature rhyming slang was the Saturday morning children's show The Bugaloos (1970–72), with the character of Harmony (Wayne Laryea) often incorporating it in his dialogue.
=== Music ===
In popular music, Spike Jones and his City Slickers recorded "So 'Elp Me", based on rhyming slang, in 1950. The 1967 Kinks song "Harry Rag" was based on the usage of the name Harry Wragg as rhyming slang for "fag" (i.e. a cigarette). The idiom made a brief appearance in the UK-based DJ reggae music of the 1980s in the hit "Cockney Translation" by Smiley Culture of South London; this was followed a couple of years later by Domenick and Peter Metro's "Cockney and Yardie". London-based artists such as Audio Bullys and Chas & Dave (and others from elsewhere in the UK, such as The Streets, who are from Birmingham) frequently use rhyming slang in their songs.
British-born M.C. MF Doom released an ode entitled "Rhymin' Slang", after settling in the UK in 2010. The track was released on the 2012 JJ Doom album Key to the Kuffs.
Another contributor was Lonnie Donegan who had a song called "My Old Man's a Dustman". In it he says his father has trouble putting on his boots "He's got such a job to pull them up that he calls them daisy roots".
=== Literature ===
In modern literature, Cockney rhyming slang is used frequently in the novels and short stories of Kim Newman, for instance in the short story collections "The Man from the Diogenes Club" (2006) and "Secret Files of the Diogenes Club" (2007), where it is explained at the end of each book.
It is also parodied in Going Postal by Terry Pratchett, which features a geriatric Junior Postman by the name of Tolliver Groat, a speaker of 'Dimwell Arrhythmic Rhyming Slang', the only rhyming slang on the Disc which does not actually rhyme. Thus, a wig is a 'prunes', from 'syrup of prunes', an obvious parody of the Cockney syrup from syrup of figs – wig. There are numerous other parodies, though it has been pointed out that the result is even more impenetrable than a conventional rhyming slang and so may not be quite so illogical as it seems, given the assumed purpose of rhyming slang as a means of communicating in a manner unintelligible to all but the initiated.
In the book Goodbye to All That by Robert Graves, a beer is a "broken square" as Welch Fusiliers officers walk into a pub and order broken squares when they see men from the Black Watch. The Black Watch had a minor blemish on its record of otherwise unbroken squares. Fistfights ensued.
In Dashiell Hammett's The Dain Curse, the protagonist exhibits familiarity with Cockney rhyming slang, referring to gambling at dice with the phrase "rats and mice."
Cockney rhyming slang is one of the main influences for the dialect spoken in A Clockwork Orange (1962). The author of the novel, Anthony Burgess, also believed the phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" was Cockney slang having heard it in a London pub in 1945, and subsequently named it in the title of his book.
=== Sport ===
In Scottish football, a number of clubs have nicknames taken from rhyming slang. Partick Thistle are known as the "Harry Rags", which is taken from the rhyming slang of their 'official' nickname "the jags". Rangers are known as the "Teddy Bears", which comes from the rhyming slang for "the Gers" (shortened version of Ran-gers). Heart of Midlothian are known as the "Jambos", which comes from "Jam Tarts" which is the rhyming slang for "Hearts" which is the common abbreviation of the club's name. Hibernian are also referred to as "The Cabbage" which comes from Cabbage and Ribs being the rhyming slang for Hibs. The phrase Hampden Roar (originally describing the loud crowd noise emanating from the national stadium) is employed as "What's the Hampden?", ("What's the score?", idiom for "What's happening / what's going on?").
In rugby league, "meat pie" is used for try.
|
[
"Anthony Burgess",
"brown bread",
"Scooby-Doo (character)",
"Scouse",
"It's All Gone Pete Tong",
"Winnie the Pooh",
"Charing Cross",
"Kurt Cobain",
"The Flintstones",
"Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse",
"M4 Sherman",
"Wiktionary",
"EastEnders",
"Berkshire Hunt",
"Navvy",
"East End of London",
"Boutros Boutros-Ghali",
"Daffynition",
"Desmond Tutu",
"John Camden Hotten",
"Rupert Bear",
"blowing a raspberry",
"Hampton Wick",
"Meat hook",
"Tony Blair",
"Urinate",
"Joe Pasquale",
"Aristotle",
"Flying Squad",
"Mind Your Language",
"Seven Dials, London",
"Captain Kirk",
"Kinks",
"Schindler's List",
"cocaine",
"MF Doom",
"Frog",
"Gregory Peck",
"Victorian Turkish bath",
"Beef plate",
"Hat",
"Alan Whicker",
"Niki Lauda",
"Berkeley Hunt",
"jam tart",
"Green Street Hooligans",
"Birds of a Feather (TV series)",
"The Bugaloos",
"Audio Bullys",
"Mince pie",
"Key to the Kuffs",
"cigarette",
"Sidney Poitier",
"collusion",
"Bristol City Football Club",
"barley",
"Pete Tong",
"Britney Spears",
"Spike Jones",
"Dashiell Hammett",
"Mona Lisa",
"Douglas Hurd",
"Tod Sloan (jockey)",
"Discworld (world)",
"Ebury Press",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Mate (colloquialism)",
"MDMA",
"Khyber Pass",
"Boracic lint",
"Jimmy Riddle",
"Paul Bettany",
"Father Ted",
"Jacob's",
"referent",
"door",
"Harry Bentley (character)",
"Harry Wragg",
"curry",
"Macmillan Publishers",
"Oxford University Press",
"Ghil'ad Zuckermann",
"Blowing a raspberry",
"idiom",
"Nickname",
"Citizen Smith",
"Barnet Fair",
"Peckham Rye",
"A Clockwork Orange (novel)",
"Frog and Toad",
"wikt:Arse",
"Jodrell Bank",
"New Statesman",
"Palgrave Macmillan",
"Patsy Cline",
"necktie",
"The Brady Bunch",
"drunk",
"Costermonger",
"Syrup of figs",
"Only Fools and Horses",
"Terence Dolan",
"Commonwealth of Nations",
"cheque",
"Dan Dare",
"Try (rugby)",
"D'Oyly Carte Opera Company",
"Mickey Mouse",
"Routledge",
"Lonnie Donegan",
"Ogden Nash",
"Penguin Books",
"Plaster of Paris",
"Nat King Cole",
"Royal Welch Fusiliers",
"pillow",
"Ruby Murray",
"plaster of Paris",
"Ocean's Eleven",
"Minder (TV series)",
"Alternative words for British",
"Hammam",
"Cockney",
"Margin Call (film)",
"Mary Poppins Returns",
"Flared trousers",
"cryptolect",
"Spider-Punk",
"Chas & Dave",
"Argot",
"To Sir, with Love",
"Gianluca Vialli",
"oat",
"Attila the Hun",
"Gary Ablett (English footballer)",
"Threepence (British coin)",
"Sexy Beast",
"Mr. Lucky (film)",
"taking the piss",
"Terry Pratchett",
"Hampstead Heath",
"Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)",
"Wayne Laryea",
"George Bernard Shaw",
"Treacle Tart",
"tears",
"pizza",
"West Coast of the United States",
"Pop Goes the Weasel",
"Yankee",
"Partick Thistle F.C.",
"Steptoe and Son",
"Hibernian F.C.",
"Linguistics",
"diesel fuel",
"Puff Daddy",
"A load of old cobblers",
"rugby league",
"Scooby-Doo",
"Bob Marley",
"The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada",
"Max Miller (comedian)",
"testicles",
"Heart of Midlothian F.C.",
"criminal underworld",
"Geoff Hurst",
"48mo",
"J. Arthur Rank",
"Smiley Culture",
"urinate",
"JJ Doom",
"Bristol City F.C.",
"Porcelain",
"Oxford English Dictionary",
"The Good Life (1975 TV series)",
"English language",
"George Jefferson",
"Pork pie",
"The Streets",
"Disney",
"Robert Graves",
"Jewellery",
"thieves' cant",
"Thora Hird",
"Camden Town",
"The Bulletin (Australian periodical)",
"Barney Rubble",
"Roger Moore",
"Hylda Baker",
"The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin",
"Wallace and Gromit",
"ITV (TV network)",
"knickers",
"Cockneys vs Zombies",
"Lionel Blair",
"wank (sexual act)",
"Phono-semantic matching",
"Trap (carriage)",
"Road",
"Time (magazine)",
"Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels",
"Rory O'Moore",
"Hank Marvin",
"Good-Bye to All That",
"The Sweeney",
"South London",
"Going Postal",
"Meryl Streep",
"Benefits (social welfare)",
"Angus & Robertson",
"wikt:berk",
"Fart",
"British undergraduate degree classification",
"Austin Powers in Goldmember",
"The Dain Curse",
"Euphemism",
"Hampden Park",
"The Jeffersons",
"Birdlime",
"Breasts",
"Stitching awl",
"I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!",
"Andrea Corr",
"Bugs Bunny",
"lot–cloth split",
"Not On Your Nellie",
"Language revitalization",
"neck",
"Henry Hall (bandleader)",
"Kim Newman",
"The Italian Job",
"cunt",
"East End",
"wikt:titty",
"Snatch (film)",
"East Midlands",
"Ham hock",
"wikt:skint",
"fox hunting",
"The Limey",
"False etymology",
"A Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant, and Vulgar Words"
] |
7,265 |
Canchim
|
The Canchim is a breed of beef cattle developed in Central Brazil by crossing European Charolais cattle with Indubrazil cattle already kept in Brazil where Asian Zebu type cattle are best suited to the tropical conditions. When compared with Zebu bulls, Canchim bulls produce the same number of calves, but heavier and of superior quality. Compared to European breeds, the Canchim bull produces calves with the same weight but in larger numbers. The fast-growing progeny, from crossbred zebu cows with Canchim bulls, can be slaughtered at 18 months old from feedlots after weaning, up to 24 months old from feedlots after grazing and at 30 months from grazing on the range.
==Origin==
Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus), introduced to Brazil in the last century, were extensively crossbred with herds of native cattle. The Indian breed, well known for its ability to survive in the tropics, adapted quickly to Brazil, and soon populated large areas, considerably improving Brazilian beef cattle breeding. Zebu cattle were however found to be inferior to the European breeds in growth rate and yield of meat. It became clear that the beef cattle population required genetic improvement. Simply placing European beef cattle (Bos Taurus), highly productive in temperate climates, in Central Brazil, would not produce good results, due to their inability to adapt to a tropical environment. Besides the climate, other factors such as the high occurrence of parasites, diseases and the very low nutritional value of the native forage were problems.
==Formation of the breed==
The European breed used in the formation of Canchim cattle was Charolais. In 1922 the Ministry of Agriculture imported Charolais cattle to the State of Goias, where they remained till 1936, when they were transferred to São Carlos in the State of São Paulo, to the Canchim Farm of the Government Research Station, EMBRAPA. From this herd originated the dams and sires utilised in the program of crossbreeding.
The main Zebu breed which contributed to the formation to the Canchim was the Indubrazil, although Guzerá and Nelore cattle were also used. Preference was given to the Indubrasil breed, due to the ease of obtaining large herds at reasonable prices, which would have been difficult with Gir, Nelore or Guzerá.
The alternative crossbreeding programs initiated in 1940 by Dr. Antonio Teixeira Viana had the objective of obtaining first, crossbreeds 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu and second, 3/8 Charolais x 5/8 Zebu, to evaluate which of the two was the most successful. The total number of Zebu cows utilized to produce the half-breeds was 368, of which 292 were Indubrasil, 44 Guzerá and 32 Nelore. All the animals produced were reared exclusively on the range. Control of parasites was done every 15 days and the animals were weighed at birth and monthly. The females were weighed up to 30 months and the males up to 40 months.
The data collected during various years of work, permitted an evaluation of the various degrees of crossbreeding. The conclusion was that the 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu was the most suitable, presenting an excellent frame for meat, precocious, resistance to heat and parasites, and a uniform coat. The first crossbred animals, 5/8 Charolais and 3/8 Zebu, were born in 1953. Thus was born a new type of beef cattle for Central Brazil, with the name CANCHIM, derived from the name of a tree very common in the region where the breed was developed. It was not until 1971 that the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders (ABCCAN) was formed, and on 11 November 1972 the Herd Book was initiated. On 18 May 1983 the Ministry of Agriculture, recognized Canchim type cattle as a Breed.
==New bloodlines==
The Canchim breed, being a synthetic breed, permits breeders, in the development of new crossbreeding systems, to use the breeds used to form the Canchim breed, besides the breed itself, in its development.
There are many Canchim breeders forming new blood lines. Today the Nelore breed totally dominates the Zebu breed in the formation of Canchim. American and French Charolais semen, from carefully selected bulls is also used and recommended by the ABCCAN to form new bloodlines.
==Past Presidents of the Brazilian Association of Canchim Cattle Breeders==
Roberto Luiz de Souza Barros; 1971–1978
Francisco Jacintho da Silveira; 1978–1982
Diogo Antonio de Barros; 1984–1992
João Paulo Marques Canto Porto; 1992–1997
Peter Anthony Baines; 1997–2001
Deniz Ferreira Ribeiro; 2001–2007
Luiz Adelar Scheuer; 2007–2009
|
[
"temperate climates",
"Gir cattle",
"Goias",
"Indo-Brazilian cattle",
"Zebu",
"parasitism",
"Nelore",
"Charolais cattle",
"beef cattle",
"São Paulo (state)",
"tropical",
"São Carlos",
"Brazil",
"EMBRAPA"
] |
7,271 |
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
|
{{Infobox political party
| name = Communist Party of the Soviet Union
| native_name = Коммунистическая партия Советского Союза
| logo = КПСС.svg
| colorcode =
| leader1_title = Leadership
| leader1_name = Elena Stasova (first)Vladimir Ivashko (last)
| slogan = "Workers of the world, unite!"
| anthem = "The Internationale""Hymn of the Bolshevik Party"
| headquarters = 4 Staraya Square, Moscow
| founded =Prague Conference|
| banned =
| founder = Vladimir Lenin
| newspaper = Pravda
| position = Far-left
| split = Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
| predecessor = Bolshevik faction of the RSDLP
| successor = UCP–CPSUCPRF (in Russia)
| youth_wing = Komsomol
| wing1 = Little Octobrists, Young Pioneers
| wing1_title = Pioneer wing
| membership = 19,487,822 (1989 )
| ideology =
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), at some points known as the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party and Bolshevik Party, and sometimes referred to as the Soviet Communist Party (SCP), was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990 when the Congress of People's Deputies modified Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, which had previously granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system. The party's main ideology was Marxism–Leninism. The party was outlawed under Russian President Boris Yeltsin's decree on 6 November 1991, citing the 1991 Soviet coup attempt as a reason.
The party started in 1898 as part of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1903, that party split into a Menshevik ("minority") and Bolshevik ("majority") faction; the latter, led by Vladimir Lenin, is the direct ancestor of the CPSU and is the party that seized power in the October Revolution of 1917. Its activities were suspended on Soviet territory 74 years later, on 29 August 1991, soon after a failed coup d'état by conservative CPSU leaders against the reforming Soviet president and party general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.
The CPSU was a communist party based on democratic centralism. This principle, conceived by Lenin, entails democratic and open discussion of policy issues within the party, followed by the requirement of total unity in upholding the agreed policies. The highest body within the CPSU was the Party Congress, which convened every five years. When the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, (previously the Presidium), the Secretariat and the Orgburo (until 1952). The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or two of the three offices concurrently, but never all three at the same time. The party leader was the de facto chairman of the CPSU Politburo and chief executive of the Soviet Union. The tension between the party and the state (Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union) for the shifting focus of power was never formally resolved.
After the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, Lenin had introduced a mixed economy, commonly referred to as the New Economic Policy, which allowed for capitalist practices to resume under the Communist Party dictation in order to develop the necessary conditions for socialism to become a practical pursuit in the economically undeveloped country. In 1929, as Joseph Stalin became the leader of the party, Marxism–Leninism, a fusion of the original ideas of German philosopher and economic theorist Karl Marx, and Lenin, became formalized by Stalin as the party's guiding ideology and would remain so throughout the rest of its existence. The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized, and a command economy was implemented. After recovering from the Second World War, reforms were implemented which decentralized economic planning and liberalized Soviet society in general under Nikita Khrushchev. By 1980, various factors, including the continuing Cold War, and ongoing nuclear arms race with the United States and other Western European powers and unaddressed inefficiencies in the economy, led to stagnant economic growth under Alexei Kosygin, and further with Leonid Brezhnev and growing disillusionment. After the younger, vigorous Mikhail Gorbachev assumed leadership in 1985 (following two short-term elderly leaders, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, who quickly died in succession), rapid steps were taken to transform the tottering Soviet economic system in the direction of a market economy once again. Gorbachev and his allies envisioned the introduction of an economy similar to Lenin's earlier New Economic Policy through a program of "perestroika", or restructuring, but their reforms, along with the institution of free multi-candidate elections led to a decline in the party's power, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the banning of the party by later last RSFSR President Boris Yeltsin and subsequent first President of the successor Russian Federation.
A number of causes contributed to CPSU's loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union during the early 1990s. Some historians have written that Gorbachev's policy of "glasnost" (political openness) was the root cause, noting that it weakened the party's control over society. Gorbachev maintained that perestroika without glasnost was doomed to failure anyway. Others have blamed the economic stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology. In the final years of the CPSU's existence, the Communist Parties of the federal subjects of Russia were united into the Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). After the CPSU's demise, the Communist Parties of the Union Republics became independent and underwent various separate paths of reform. In Russia, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation emerged and has been regarded as the inheritor of the CPSU's old Bolshevik legacy into the present day.
==History==
===Name===
16 August 1917 – 8 March 1918: Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) ()
8 March 1918 – 31 December 1925: Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) ()
31 December 1925 – 14 October 1952: All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) ()
14 October 1952 – 6 November 1991: Communist Party of the Soviet Union ()
===Early years (1898–1924)===
The origin of the CPSU was in the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). This faction arose out of the split between followers of Julius Martov and Vladimir Lenin in August 1903 at the Party's second conference. Martov's followers were called the Mensheviks (which means minority in Russian); and Lenin's, the Bolsheviks (majority). (The two factions were in fact of fairly equal numerical size.) The split became more formalized in 1914, when the factions became named the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks), and Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Mensheviks). Prior to the February Revolution, the first phase of the Russian Revolutions of 1917, the party worked underground as organized anti-Tsarist groups. By the time of the revolution, many of the party's central leaders, including Lenin, were in exile.
After Emperor Nicholas II (1868–1918, reigned 1894–1917) abdicated in March 1917, a republic was established and administered by a provisional government, which was largely dominated by the interests of the military, former nobility, major capitalists business owners and democratic socialists. Alongside it, grassroots general assemblies spontaneously formed, called soviets, and a dual-power structure between the soviets and the provisional government was in place until such a time that their differences would be reconciled in a post-provisional government. Lenin was at this time in exile in Switzerland where he, with other dissidents in exile, managed to arrange with the Imperial German government safe passage through Germany in a sealed train back to Russia through the continent amidst the ongoing World War. In April, Lenin arrived in Petrograd (renamed former St. Petersburg) and condemned the provisional government, calling for the advancement of the revolution towards the transformation of the ongoing war into a war of the working class against capitalism. The rebellion proved not yet to be over, as tensions between the social forces aligned with the soviets (councils) and those with the provisional government now led by Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970, in power 1917), came into explosive tensions during that summer.
The Bolsheviks had rapidly increased their political presence from May onward through the popularity of their program, notably calling for an immediate end to the war, land reform for the peasants, and restoring food allocation to the urban population. This program was translated to the masses through simple slogans that patiently explained their solution to each crisis the revolution created. Up to July, these policies were disseminated through 41 publications, Pravda being the main paper, with a readership of 320,000. This was roughly halved after the repression of the Bolsheviks following the July Days demonstrations so that even by the end of August, the principal paper of the Bolsheviks had a print run of only 50,000 copies. Despite this, their ideas gained them increasing popularity in elections to the soviets.
The factions within the soviets became increasingly polarized in the later summer after armed demonstrations by soldiers at the call of the Bolsheviks and an attempted military coup by commanding Gen. Lavr Kornilov to eliminate the socialists from the provisional government. As the general consensus within the soviets moved leftward, less militant forces began to abandon them, leaving the Bolsheviks in a stronger position. By October, the Bolsheviks were demanding the full transfer of power to the soviets and for total rejection of the Kerensky led provisional government's legitimacy. The provisional government, insistent on maintaining the universally despised war effort on the Eastern Front because of treaty ties with its Allies and fears of Imperial German victory, had become socially isolated and had no enthusiastic support on the streets. On 7 November (25 October, old style), the Bolsheviks led an armed insurrection, which overthrew the Kerensky provisional government and left the soviets as the sole governing force in Russia.
In the aftermath of the October Revolution, the soviets united federally and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the world's first constitutionally socialist state, was established. The Bolsheviks were the majority within the soviets and began to fulfill their campaign promises by signing a damaging peace to end the war with the Germans in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and transferring estates and imperial lands to workers' and peasants' soviets. In this context, in 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks). Outside of Russia, social-democrats who supported the Soviet government began to identify as communists, while those who opposed it retained the social-democratic label.
In 1921, as the Civil War was drawing to a close, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy (NEP), a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and post-war recovery. The NEP ended a brief period of intense rationing called "war communism" and began a period of a market economy under Communist dictation. The Bolsheviks believed at this time that Russia, being among the most economically undeveloped and socially backward countries in Europe, had not yet reached the necessary conditions of development for socialism to become a practical pursuit and that this would have to wait for such conditions to arrive under capitalist development as had been achieved in more advanced countries such as England and Germany. On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), of which Lenin was elected leader. On 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government. He died on 21 January 1924, only thirteen months after the founding of the Soviet Union, of which he would become regarded as the founding father.
===Stalin era (1924–1953)===
After Lenin's death, a power struggle ensued between Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, and Leon Trotsky, the Minister of Defence, each with highly contrasting visions for the future direction of the country. Trotsky sought to implement a policy of permanent revolution, which was predicated on the notion that the Soviet Union would not be able to survive in a socialist character when surrounded by hostile governments and therefore concluded that it was necessary to actively support similar revolutions in the more advanced capitalist countries. Stalin, however, argued that such a foreign policy would not be feasible with the capabilities then possessed by the Soviet Union and that it would invite the country's destruction by engaging in armed conflict. Rather, Stalin argued that the Soviet Union should, in the meantime, pursue peaceful coexistence and invite foreign investment in order to develop the country's economy and build socialism in one country.
Ultimately, Stalin gained the greatest support within the party, and Trotsky, who was increasingly viewed as a collaborator with outside forces in an effort to depose Stalin, was isolated and subsequently expelled from the party and exiled from the country in 1928. Stalin's policies henceforth would later become collectively known as Stalinism. In 1925, the name of the party was changed to the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), reflecting that the republics outside of Russia proper were no longer part of an all-encompassing Russian state. The acronym was usually transliterated as VKP(b), or sometimes VCP(b). Stalin sought to formalize the party's ideological outlook into a philosophical hybrid of the original ideas of Lenin with orthodox Marxism into what would be called Marxism–Leninism. Stalin's position as General Secretary became the top executive position within the party, giving Stalin significant authority over party and state policy.
By the end of the 1920s, diplomatic relations with Western countries were deteriorating to the point that there was a growing fear of another allied attack on the Soviet Union. Within the country, the conditions of the NEP had enabled growing inequalities between increasingly wealthy strata and the remaining poor. The combination of these tensions led the party leadership to conclude that it was necessary for the government's survival to pursue a new policy that would centralize economic activity and accelerate industrialization. To do this, the first five-year plan was implemented in 1928. The plan doubled the industrial workforce, proletarianizing many of the peasants by removing them from their land and assembling them into urban centers. Peasants who remained in agricultural work were also made to have a similarly proletarian relationship to their labor through the policies of collectivization, which turned feudal-style farms into collective farms which would be in a cooperative nature under the direction of the state. These two shifts changed the base of Soviet society towards a more working-class alignment. The plan was fulfilled ahead of schedule in 1932.
The success of industrialization in the Soviet Union led Western countries, such as the United States, to open diplomatic relations with the Soviet government. In 1933, after years of unsuccessful workers' revolutions (including a short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic) and spiraling economic calamity, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, violently suppressing the revolutionary organizers and posing a direct threat to the Soviet Union that ideologically supported them. The threat of fascist sabotage and imminent attack greatly exacerbated the already existing tensions within the Soviet Union and the Communist Party. A wave of paranoia overtook Stalin and the party leadership and spread through Soviet society. Seeing potential enemies everywhere, leaders of the government security apparatuses began severe crackdowns known as the Great Purge. In total, hundreds of thousands of people, many of whom were posthumously recognized as innocent, were arrested and either sent to prison camps or executed. Also during this time, a campaign against religion was waged in which the Russian Orthodox Church, which had long been a political arm of Tsarism before the revolution, was ruthlessly repressed, organized religion was generally removed from public life and made into a completely private matter, with many churches, mosques and other shrines being repurposed or demolished.
The Soviet Union warned the international community of the potential danger of aggression by Nazi Germany. The Western powers, however, remained committed to maintaining peace and avoiding another war breaking out. Many considered the Soviet Union's warnings to be an unwanted provocation. After many unsuccessful attempts to create an anti-fascist alliance among the Western countries, including trying to rally international support for the Spanish Republic in its struggle against a nationalist military rebellion supported by Germany and Italy, in 1939 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, later jointly invading and partitioning Poland to fulfil a secret protocol of the pact, as well as occupying the Baltic States. This pact would be broken in June 1941 when the German military invaded the Soviet Union in the largest land invasion in history, beginning the Great Patriotic War.
The Communist International was dissolved in 1943 after it was concluded that such an organization had failed to prevent the rise of fascism and the global war necessary to defeat it. After the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, the Party held to a doctrine of establishing socialist governments in the post-war occupied territories that would be administered by Communists loyal to Stalin's administration. The party also sought to expand its sphere of influence beyond the occupied territories, using proxy wars and espionage and providing training and funding to promote Communist elements abroad, leading to the establishment of the Cominform in 1947.
In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War. This caused a major shift in the global balance of forces and greatly escalated tensions between the Communists and the Western powers, fueling the Cold War. In Europe, Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, acquired the territory of Trieste, causing conflict both with the Western powers and with Stalin, who opposed such a provocative move. Furthermore, the Yugoslav Communists actively supported the Greek Communists during their civil war, further frustrating the Soviet government. These tensions led to a Tito–Stalin split, which marked the beginning of international sectarian division within the world Communist movement.
===Post-Stalin years (1953–1985)===
After Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev rose to the top post by overcoming political adversaries, including Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov, in a power struggle. In 1955, Khrushchev achieved the demotion of Malenkov and secured his own position as Soviet leader. Early in his rule and with the support of several members of the Presidium, Khrushchev initiated the Thaw, which effectively ended the Stalinist mass terror of the prior decades and reduced socio-economic oppression considerably. At the 20th Congress held in 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes, being careful to omit any reference to complicity by any sitting Presidium members. His economic policies, while bringing about improvements, were not enough to fix the fundamental problems of the Soviet economy. The standard of living for ordinary citizens did increase; 108 million people moved into new housing between 1956 and 1965.
Khrushchev's foreign policies led to the Sino-Soviet split, in part a consequence of his public denunciation of Stalin. Khrushchev improved relations with Josip Broz Tito's League of Communists of Yugoslavia but failed to establish the close, party-to-party relations that he wanted. While the Thaw reduced political oppression at home, it led to unintended consequences abroad, such as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and unrest in Poland, where the local citizenry now felt confident enough to rebel against Soviet control. Khrushchev also failed to improve Soviet relations with the West, partially because of a hawkish military stance. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev's position within the party was substantially weakened. Shortly before his eventual ousting, he tried to introduce economic reforms championed by Evsei Liberman, a Soviet economist, which tried to implement market mechanisms into the planned economy.
Khrushchev was ousted on 14 October 1964 in a Central Committee plenum that officially cited his inability to listen to others, his failure in consulting with the members of the Presidium, his establishment of a cult of personality, his economic mismanagement, and his anti-party reforms as the reasons he was no longer fit to remain as head of the party. He was succeeded in office by Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
The Brezhnev era began with a rejection of Khrushchevism in virtually every arena except one: continued opposition to Stalinist methods of terror and political violence. Khrushchev's policies were criticized as voluntarism, and the Brezhnev period saw the rise of neo-Stalinism. While Stalin was never rehabilitated during this period, the most conservative journals in the country were allowed to highlight positive features of his rule.
At the 23rd Congress held in 1966, the names of the office of First Secretary and the body of the Presidium reverted to their original names: General Secretary and Politburo, respectively. At the start of his premiership, Kosygin experimented with economic reforms similar to those championed by Malenkov, including prioritizing light industry over heavy industry to increase the production of consumer goods. Similar reforms were introduced in Hungary under the name New Economic Mechanism; however, with the rise to power of Alexander Dubček in Czechoslovakia, who called for the establishment of "socialism with a human face", all non-conformist reform attempts in the Soviet Union were stopped.
During his rule, Brezhnev supported détente, a passive weakening of animosity with the West with the goal of improving political and economic relations. However, by the 25th Congress held in 1976, political, economic and social problems within the Soviet Union began to mount, and the Brezhnev administration found itself in an increasingly difficult position. The previous year, Brezhnev's health began to deteriorate. He became addicted to painkillers and needed to take increasingly more potent medications to attend official meetings. Because of the "trust in cadres" policy implemented by his administration, the CPSU leadership evolved into a gerontocracy. At the end of Brezhnev's rule, problems continued to amount; in 1979 he consented to the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan to save the embattled communist regime there and supported the oppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland. As problems grew at home and abroad, Brezhnev was increasingly ineffective in responding to the growing criticism of the Soviet Union by Western leaders, most prominently by US Presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan, and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The CPSU, which had wishfully interpreted the financial crisis of the 1970s as the beginning of the end of capitalism, found its country falling far behind the West in its economic development. Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982, and was succeeded by Yuri Andropov on 12 November.
Andropov, a staunch anti-Stalinist, chaired the KGB during most of Brezhnev's reign. He had appointed several reformers to leadership positions in the KGB, many of whom later became leading officials under Gorbachev. Andropov supported increased openness in the press, particularly regarding the challenges facing the Soviet Union. Andropov was in office briefly, but he appointed a number of reformers, including Yegor Ligachev, Nikolay Ryzhkov, and Mikhail Gorbachev, to important positions. He also supported a crackdown on absenteeism and corruption. Andropov had intended to let Gorbachev succeed him in office, but Konstantin Chernenko and his supporters suppressed the paragraph in the letter which called for Gorbachev's elevation. Andropov died on 9 February 1984 and was succeeded by Chernenko. The elderly Cherneko was in poor health throughout his short leadership and was unable to consolidate power; effective control of the party organization remained with Gorbachev. When Chernenko died on 10 March 1985, his succession was already settled in favor of Gorbachev.
===Gorbachev and the party's demise (1985–1991)===
The Politburo did not want another elderly and frail leader after its previous three leaders, and elected Gorbachev as CPSU General Secretary on 11 March 1985, one day after Chernenko's death. When Gorbachev acceded to power, the Soviet Union was stagnating but was stable and might have continued largely unchanged into the 21st century if not for Gorbachev's reforms.
Gorbachev conducted a significant personnel reshuffling of the CPSU leadership, forcing old party conservatives out of office. In 1985 and early 1986 the new leadership of the party called for uskoreniye (). Gorbachev reinvigorated the party ideology, adding new concepts and updating older ones. Positive consequences of this included the allowance of "pluralism of thought" and a call for the establishment of "socialist pluralism" (literally, socialist democracy). Gorbachev introduced a policy of glasnost (, meaning openness or transparency) in 1986, which led to a wave of unintended democratization. According to the British researcher of Russian affairs, Archie Brown, the democratization of the Soviet Union brought mixed blessings to Gorbachev; it helped him to weaken his conservative opponents within the party but brought out accumulated grievances which had been suppressed during the previous decades.
In reaction to these changes, a conservative movement gained momentum in 1987 in response to Boris Yeltsin's dismissal as First Secretary of the CPSU Moscow City Committee. On 13 March 1988, Nina Andreyeva, a university lecturer, wrote an article titled "I Cannot Forsake My Principles". The publication was planned to occur when both Gorbachev and his protege Alexander Yakovlev were visiting foreign countries. In their place, Yegor Ligachev led the party organization and told journalists that the article was "a benchmark for what we need in our ideology today". Upon Gorbachev's return, the article was discussed at length during a Politburo meeting; it was revealed that nearly half of its members were sympathetic to the letter and opposed further reforms which could weaken the party. The meeting lasted for two days, but on 5 April a Politburo resolution responded with a point-by-point rebuttal to Andreyeva's article.
Gorbachev convened the 19th Party Conference in June 1988. He criticized leading party conservativesLigachev, Andrei Gromyko and Mikhail Solomentsev. In turn, conservative delegates attacked Gorbachev and the reformers. According to Brown, there had not been as much open discussion and dissent at a party meeting since the early 1920s.
Despite the deep-seated opposition to further reform, the CPSU remained hierarchical; the conservatives acceded to Gorbachev's demands in deference to his position as the CPSU General Secretary. The 19th Conference approved the establishment of the Congress of People's Deputies (CPD) and allowed for contested elections between the CPSU and independent candidates. Other organized parties were not allowed. The CPD was elected in 1989; one-third of the seats were appointed by the CPSU and other public organizations to sustain the Soviet one-party state. The elections were democratic, but most elected CPD members opposed any more radical reform. The elections featured the highest electoral turnout in Russian history; no election before or since had a higher participation rate. An organized opposition was established within the legislature under the name Inter-Regional Group of Deputies by dissident Andrei Sakharov. An unintended consequence of these reforms was the increased anti-CPSU pressure; in March 1990, at a session of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the party was forced to relinquish its political monopoly of power, in effect turning the Soviet Union into a liberal democracy.
The CPSU's demise began in March 1990, when state bodies eclipsed party elements in power. From then until the Soviet Union's disestablishment, Gorbachev ruled the country through the newly created post of President of the Soviet Union. Following this, the central party apparatus did not play a practical role in Soviet affairs. Gorbachev had become independent from the Politburo and faced few constraints from party leaders. In the summer of 1990 the party convened the 28th Congress. A new Politburo was elected, previous incumbents (except Gorbachev and Vladimir Ivashko, the CPSU Deputy General Secretary) were removed. Later that year, the party began work on a new program with a working title, "Towards a Humane, Democratic Socialism". According to Brown, the program reflected Gorbachev's journey from an orthodox communist to a European social democrat. The freedoms of thought and organization which Gorbachev allowed led to a rise in nationalism in the Soviet republics, indirectly weakening the central authorities. In response to this, a referendum took place in 1991, in which most of the union republics voted to preserve the union in a different form. In reaction to this, conservative elements within the CPSU launched the August 1991 coup, which overthrew Gorbachev but failed to preserve the Soviet Union. When Gorbachev resumed control (21 August 1991) after the coup's collapse, he resigned from the CPSU on 24 August 1991 and operations were handed over to Ivashko. On 29 August 1991 the activity of the CPSU was suspended throughout the country, on 6 November Yeltsin banned the activities of the party in Russia
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganized themselves within the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF). Today a wide range of parties in Russia present themselves as successors of CPSU. Several of them have used the name "CPSU". However, the CPRF is generally seen (due to its massive size) as the heir of the CPSU in Russia. Additionally, the CPRF was initially founded as the Communist Party of the Russian SFSR in 1990 (sometime before the abolition of the CPSU) and was seen by critics as a "Russian-nationalist" counterpart to the CPSU.
==Governing style==
The style of governance in the party alternated between collective leadership and a cult of personality. Collective leadership split power between the Politburo, the Central Committee, and the Council of Ministers to hinder any attempts to create a one-man dominance over the Soviet political system. By contrast, Stalin's period as leader was characterized by an extensive cult of personality. Regardless of leadership style, all political power in the Soviet Union was concentrated in the organization of the CPSU.
===Democratic centralism===
Democratic centralism is an organizational principle conceived by Lenin. According to Soviet pronouncements, democratic centralism was distinguished from "bureaucratic centralism", which referred to high-handed formulae without knowledge or discussion. In democratic centralism, decisions are taken after discussions, but once the general party line has been formed, discussion on the subject must cease. No member or organizational institution may dissent on a policy after it has been agreed upon by the party's governing body; to do so would lead to expulsion from the party (formalized at the 10th Congress). Because of this stance, Lenin initiated a ban on factions, which was approved at the 10th Congress.
Lenin believed that democratic centralism safeguarded both party unity and ideological correctness. He conceived of the system after the events of 1917 when several socialist parties "deformed" themselves and actively began supporting nationalist sentiments. Lenin intended that the devotion to policy required by centralism would protect the parties from such revisionist ills and bourgeois deformation of socialism. Lenin supported the notion of a highly centralized vanguard party, in which ordinary party members elected the local party committee, the local party committee elected the regional committee, the regional committee elected the Central Committee, and the Central Committee elected the Politburo, Orgburo, and the Secretariat. Lenin believed that the party needed to be ruled from the center and have at its disposal power to mobilize party members at will. This system was later introduced in communist parties abroad through the Communist International (Comintern).
===Vanguardism===
A central tenet of Leninism was that of the vanguard party. In a capitalist society, the party was to represent the interests of the working class and all of those who were exploited by capitalism in general; however, it was not to become a part of that class. Lenin decided that the party's sole responsibility was to articulate and plan the long-term interests of the oppressed classes. It was not responsible for the daily grievances of those classes; that was the responsibility of the trade unions. According to Lenin, the party and the oppressed classes could never become one because the party was responsible for leading the oppressed classes to victory. The basic idea was that a small group of organized people could wield power disproportionate to their size with superior organizational skills. Despite this, until the end of his life, Lenin warned of the danger that the party could be taken over by bureaucrats, by a small clique, or by an individual. Toward the end of his life, he criticized the bureaucratic inertia of certain officials and admitted to problems with some of the party's control structures, which were to supervise organizational life.
==Organization==
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Armenia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Azerbaijan (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Bukhara
Communist Party of Byelorussia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Estonia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Georgia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of the Karelia-Finland SSR (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Kirgizia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Khorezm
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Latvia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Lithuania (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Lithuania and Byelorussia (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Moldavia–Moldova (Central Committee)
Communist Party of the Russian SFSR (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Tajikistan (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Turkestan (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Turkmenistan (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Ukraine (Central Committee)
Communist Party of Uzbekistan (Central Committee)
===Congress===
The Congress, nominally the highest organ of the party, was convened every five years. Leading up to the October Revolution and until Stalin's consolidation of power, the Congress was the party's main decision-making body. However, after Stalin's ascension, the Congresses became largely symbolic. CPSU leaders used Congresses as a propaganda and control tool. The most noteworthy Congress since the 1930s was the 20th Congress, in which Khrushchev denounced Stalin in a speech titled "The Personality Cult and its Consequences".
Despite delegates to Congresses losing their powers to criticize or remove party leadership, the Congresses functioned as a form of elite-mass communication. They were occasions for the party leadership to express the party line over the next five years to ordinary CPSU members and the general public. The information provided was general, ensuring that party leadership retained the ability to make specific policy changes as they saw fit.
The Congresses also provided the party leadership with formal legitimacy by providing a mechanism for the election of new members and the retirement of old members who had lost favor. The elections at Congresses were all predetermined and the candidates who stood for seats to the Central Committee and the Central Auditing Commission were approved beforehand by the Politburo and the Secretariat. A Congress could also provide a platform for the announcement of new ideological concepts. For instance, at the 22nd Congress, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would see "communism in twenty years" a position later retracted.
A Conference, officially referred to as an All-Union Conference, was convened between Congresses by the Central Committee to discuss party policy and to make personnel changes within the Central Committee. 19 conferences were convened during the CPSU's existence. It had about as many members as the Central Committee. In their place, Gorbachev called for the creations of commissions with the same responsibilities as departments, but giving more independence from the state apparatus. This change was approved at the 19th Conference, which was held in 1988. Six commissions were established by late 1988.
====Pravda====
Pravda (The Truth) was the leading newspaper in the Soviet Union. The Organizational Department of the Central Committee was the only organ empowered to dismiss Pravda editors. In 1905, Pravda began as a project by members of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party. Leon Trotsky was approached about the possibility of running the new paper because of his previous work on Ukrainian newspaper Kyivan Thought. The first issue of Pravda was published on 3 October 1908 in Lvov, where it continued until the publication of the sixth issue in November 1909, when the operation was moved to Vienna, Austria-Hungary. During the Russian Civil War, sales of Pravda were curtailed by Izvestia, the government run newspaper. At the time, the average reading figure for Pravda was 130,000. This Vienna-based newspaper published its last issue in 1912 and was succeeded the same year by a new newspaper dominated by the Bolsheviks, also called Pravda, which was headquartered in St. Petersburg. The paper's main goal was to promote Marxist–Leninist philosophy and expose the lies of the bourgeoisie. It is currently owned by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.
====Higher Party School====
The Higher Party School (HPS) was the organ responsible for teaching cadres in the Soviet Union. It was the successor of the Communist Academy, which was established in 1918. from both the working class and rural areas. This represented an attempt to "proletarianize" the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the Old Bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the Party. In 1925, the party had 1,025,000 members in a Soviet population of 147 million. In 1927, membership had risen to 1,200,000. During the collectivization campaign and industrialization campaigns of the first five-year plan from 1929 to 1933, party membership grew rapidly to approximately 3.5 million members. However, party leaders suspected that the mass intake of new members had allowed "social-alien elements" to penetrate the party's ranks and document verifications of membership ensued in 1933 and 1935, removing supposedly unreliable members. Meanwhile, the party closed its ranks to new members from 1933 to November 1936. Even after the reopening of party recruiting, membership fell to 1.9 million by 1939. Nicholas DeWitt gives 2.307 million members in 1939, including candidate members, compared with 1.535 million in 1929 and 6.3 million in 1947. In 1986, the CPSU had over 19 million membersapproximately 10% of the Soviet Union's adult population. Over 44% of party members were classified as industrial workers and 12% as collective farmers. The CPSU had party organizations in 14 of the Soviet Union's 15 republics. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic itself had no separate Communist Party until 1990 because the CPSU controlled affairs there directly.
===Komsomol===
The All-Union Leninist Communist Youth League, commonly referred to as Komsomol, was the party's youth wing. The Komsomol acted under the direction of the CPSU Central Committee. It was responsible for indoctrinating youths in communist ideology and organizing social events. It was closely modeled on the CPSU; nominally the highest body was the Congress, followed by the Central Committee, Secretariat, and the Politburo. The Komsomol participated in nationwide policy-making by appointing members to the collegiums of the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education, the Ministry of Education and, the State Committee for Physical Culture and Sports. The organization's newspaper was the Komsomolskaya Pravda. The First Secretary and the Second Secretary were commonly members of the Central Committee but were never elected to the Politburo. However, at the republican level, several Komsomol first secretaries were appointed to the Politburo.
==Ideology==
===Marxism–Leninism===
Marxism–Leninism was the cornerstone of Soviet ideology. It explained and legitimized the CPSU's right to rule while explaining its role as a vanguard party. For instance, the ideology explained that the CPSU's policies, even if they were unpopular, were correct because the party was enlightened. It was represented as the only truth in Soviet society; the party rejected the notion of multiple truths. Marxism–Leninism was used to justify CPSU rule and Soviet policy, but it was not used as a means to an end. The relationship between ideology and decision-making was at best ambivalent; most policy decisions were made in the light of the continued, permanent development of Marxism–Leninism. Marxism–Leninism as the only truth could notby its very naturebecome outdated.
Despite having evolved over the years, Marxism–Leninism had several central tenets. The main tenet was the party's status as the sole ruling party. The 1977 Constitution referred to the party as "The leading and guiding force of Soviet society, and the nucleus of its political system, of all state and public organizations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union". State socialism was essential and from Stalin until Gorbachev, official discourse considered that private social and economic activity retarding the development of collective consciousness and the economy. Gorbachev supported privatization to a degree but based his policies on Lenin's and Nikolai Bukharin's opinions of the New Economic Policy of the 1920s, and supported complete state ownership over the commanding heights of the economy. Unlike liberalism, Marxism–Leninism stressed the role of the individual as a member of a collective rather than the importance of the individual. Individuals only had the right to freedom of expression if it safeguarded the interests of a collective. For instance, the 1977 Constitution stated that every person had the right to express his or her opinion, but the opinion could only be expressed if it was in accordance with the "general interests of Soviet society". The number of rights granted to an individual was decided by the state, and the state could remove these rights if it saw fit. Soviet Marxism–Leninism justified nationalism; the Soviet media portrayed every victory of the state as a victory for the communist movement as a whole. Largely, Soviet nationalism was based upon ethnic Russian nationalism. Marxism–Leninism stressed the importance of the worldwide conflict between capitalism and socialism; the Soviet press wrote about progressive and reactionary forces while claiming that socialism was on the verge of victory and that the "correlations of forces" were in the Soviet Union's favor. The ideology professed state atheism and party members were consequently not allowed to be religious.
Marxism–Leninism believed in the feasibility of a communist mode of production. All policies were justifiable if it contributed to the Soviet Union's achievement of that stage.
====Leninism====
In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of political theory for the democratic organization of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as a political prelude to the establishment of the socialist mode of production developed by Lenin. Since Karl Marx rarely, if ever wrote about how the socialist mode of production would function, these tasks were left for Lenin to solve. Lenin's main contribution to Marxist thought is the concept of the vanguard party of the working class. He conceived the vanguard party as a highly knit, centralized organization that was led by intellectuals rather than by the working class itself. The CPSU was open only to a small number of workers because the workers in Russia still had not developed class consciousness and needed to be educated to reach such a state. Lenin believed that the vanguard party could initiate policies in the name of the working class even if the working class did not support them. The vanguard party would know what was best for the workers because the party functionaries had attained consciousness.
Lenin, in light of the Marx's theory of the state (which views the state as an oppressive organ of the ruling class), had no qualms of forcing change upon the country. He viewed the dictatorship of the proletariat, rather than the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, to be the dictatorship of the majority. The repressive powers of the state were to be used to transform the country, and to strip of the former ruling class of their wealth. Lenin believed that the transition from the capitalist mode of production to the socialist mode of production would last for a long period. According to some authors, Leninism was by definition authoritarian. In contrast to Marx, who believed that the socialist revolution would comprise and be led by the working class alone, Lenin argued that a socialist revolution did not necessarily need to be led or to comprise the working class alone. Instead, he said that a revolution needed to be led by the oppressed classes of society, which in the case of Russia was the peasant class.
====Stalinism====
Stalinism, while not an ideology per se, refers to Stalin's thoughts and policies. Stalin's introduction of the concept "Socialism in One Country" in 1924 was an important moment in Soviet ideological discourse. According to Stalin, the Soviet Union did not need a socialist world revolution to construct a socialist society. Four years later, Stalin initiated his "Second Revolution" with the introduction of state socialism and central planning. In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution", Stalin launched the "Cult of Lenin"a cult of personality centered upon himself. The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere. The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state". Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930;
We stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the mightiest and most powerful authority of all forms of State that have ever existed. The highest development of the State power for the withering away of State power —this is the Marxian formula. Is this contradictory? Yes, it is contradictory. But this contradiction springs from life itself and reflects completely Marxist dialectic.
At the 1939 18th Congress, Stalin abandoned the idea that the state would wither away. In its place, he expressed confidence that the state would exist, even if the Soviet Union reached communism, as long as it was encircled by capitalism. Two key concepts were created in the latter half of his rule; the "two camps" theory and the "capitalist encirclement" theory. The threat of capitalism was used to strengthen Stalin's personal powers and Soviet propaganda began making a direct link with Stalin and stability in society, saying that the country would crumble without the leader. Stalin deviated greatly from classical Marxism on the subject of "subjective factors"; Stalin said that party members of all ranks had to profess fanatic adherence to the party's line and ideology, if not, those policies would fail.
===Concepts===
====Dictatorship of the proletariat====
Lenin, supporting Marx's theory of the state, believed democracy to be unattainable anywhere in the world before the proletariat seized power. According to Marxist theory, the state is a vehicle for oppression and is headed by a ruling class. He believed that by his time, the only viable solution was dictatorship since the war was heading into a final conflict between the "progressive forces of socialism and the degenerate forces of capitalism". The Russian Revolution was by 1917, already a failure according to its original aim, which was to act as an inspiration for a world revolution. The initial anti-statist posture and the active campaigning for direct democracy was replaced because of Russia's level of development withaccording to their own assessmentsdictatorship. The reasoning was Russia's lack of development, its status as the sole socialist state in the world, its encirclement by imperialist powers, and its internal encirclement by the peasantry.
Marx and Lenin did not care if a bourgeois state was ruled in accordance with a republican, parliamentary or a constitutional monarchical system since this did not change the overall situation. These systems, even if they were ruled by a small clique or ruled through mass participation, were all dictatorships of the bourgeoisie who implemented policies in defense of capitalism. However, there was a difference; after the failures of the world revolutions, Lenin argued that this did not necessarily have to change under the dictatorship of the proletariat. The reasoning came from practical considerations; the majority of the country's inhabitants were not communists, neither could the party reintroduce parliamentary democracy because that was not in synchronization with its ideology and would lead to the party losing power. He, therefore, concluded that the form of government has nothing to do with the nature of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Bukharin and Trotsky agreed with Lenin; both said that the revolution had destroyed the old but had failed to create anything new. Lenin had now concluded that the dictatorship of the proletariat would not alter the relationship of power between men, but would rather "transform their productive relations so that, in the long run, the realm of necessity could be overcome and, with that, genuine social freedom realized". From 1920 to 1921, Soviet leaders and ideologists began differentiating between socialism and communism; hitherto the two terms had been used interchangeably and used to explain the same things. From then, the two terms had different meanings; Russia was in transition from capitalism to socialismreferred to interchangeably under Lenin as the dictatorship of the proletariat, socialism was the intermediate stage to communism and communism was considered the last stage of social development. By now, the party leaders believed that because of Russia's backward state, universal mass participation and true democracy could only take form in the last stage.
In early Bolshevik discourse, the term "dictatorship of the proletariat" was of little significance, and the few times it was mentioned it was likened to the form of government which had existed in the Paris Commune. However, with the ensuing Russian Civil War and the social and material devastation that followed, its meaning altered from commune-type democracy to rule by iron-discipline. By now, Lenin had concluded that only a proletarian regime as oppressive as its opponents could survive in this world. The powers previously bestowed upon the Soviets were now given to the Council of People's Commissars, the central government, which was, in turn, to be governed by "an army of steeled revolutionary Communists [by Communists he referred to the Party]". In a letter to Gavril Myasnikov in late 1920, Lenin explained his new interpretation of the term "dictatorship of the proletariat":
Dictatorship means nothing more nor less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force. The term 'dictatorship' .
Lenin justified these policies by claiming that all states were class states by nature and that these states were maintained through class struggle. This meant that the dictatorship of the proletariat in the Soviet Union could only be "won and maintained by the use of violence against the bourgeoisie". The main problem with this analysis is that the party came to view anyone opposing or holding alternate views of the party as bourgeois. Its worst enemy remained the moderates, which were considered to be "the real agents of the bourgeoisie in the working-class movement, the labor lieutenants of the capitalist class". The term "bourgeoisie" became synonymous with "opponent" and with people who disagreed with the party in general. These oppressive measures led to another reinterpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and socialism in general; it was now defined as a purely economic system. Slogans and theoretical works about democratic mass participation and collective decision-making were now replaced with texts which supported authoritarian management. Considering the situation, the party believed it had to use the same powers as the bourgeoisie to transform Russia; there was no alternative. Lenin began arguing that the proletariat, like the bourgeoisie, did not have a single preference for a form of government and because of that, the dictatorship was acceptable to both the party and the proletariat. In a meeting with party officials, Lenin statedin line with his economist view of socialismthat "Industry is indispensable, democracy is not", further arguing that "we [the Party] do not promise any democracy or any freedom".
====Anti-imperialism====
The Marxist theory on imperialism was conceived by Lenin in his book, Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism (published in 1917). It was written in response to the theoretical crisis within Marxist thought, which occurred due to capitalism's recovery in the 19th century. According to Lenin, imperialism was a specific stage of development of capitalism; a stage he referred to as state monopoly capitalism. The Marxist movement was split on how to solve capitalism's resurgence after the great depression of the late 19th century. Eduard Bernstein from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP) considered capitalism's revitalization as proof that it was evolving into a more humane system, adding that the basic aims of socialists were not to overthrow the state but to take power through elections. Karl Kautsky, also from the SDP, held a highly dogmatic view; he said that there was no crisis within Marxist theory. Both of them denied or belittled the role of class contradictions in society after the crisis. In contrast, Lenin believed that the resurgence was the beginning of a new phase of capitalism; this stage was created because of a strengthening of class contradiction, not because of its reduction.
Lenin did not know when the imperialist stage of capitalism began; he said it would be foolish to look for a specific year, however, said it began at the beginning of the 20th century (at least in Europe). Lenin believed that the economic crisis of 1900 accelerated and intensified the concentration of industry and banking, which led to the transformation of the finance capital connection to industry into the monopoly of large banks. In Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Lenin wrote; "the twentieth century marks the turning point from the old capitalism to the new, from the domination of capital in general to the domination of finance capital". Lenin defines imperialism as the monopoly stage of capitalism.
The 1986 Party Program claimed the Tsarist regime collapsed because the contradictions of imperialism, which he held to be the gap "between the social nature of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation" manifesting itself in wars, economic recessions, and exploitation of the working class, were strongest in Russia. Imperialism was held to have caused the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War, with the 1905 Russian Revolution presented as "the first people's revolution of the imperialist epoch" and the October Revolution is said to have been rooted in "the nationwide movement against imperialist war and for peace."
====Peaceful coexistence====
"Peaceful coexistence" was an ideological concept introduced under Khrushchev's rule. While the concept has been interpreted by fellow communists as proposing an end to the conflict between the systems of capitalism and socialism, Khrushchev saw it as a continuation of the conflict in every area except in the military field. The concept said that the two systems were developed "by way of diametrically opposed laws", which led to "opposite principles in foreign policy".
Peaceful coexistence was steeped in Leninist and Stalinist thought. Lenin believed that international politics were dominated by class struggle; in the 1940s Stalin stressed the growing polarization which was occurring in the capitalist and socialist systems. Khrushchev's peaceful coexistence was based on practical changes which had occurred; he accused the old "two camp" theory of neglecting the non-aligned movement and the national liberation movements. Khrushchev considered these "grey areas", in which the conflict between capitalism and socialism would be fought. He still stressed that the main contradiction in international relations were those of capitalism and socialism. The Soviet Government under Khrushchev stressed the importance of peaceful coexistence, saying that it had to form the basis of Soviet foreign policy. Failure to do, they believed, would lead to nuclear conflict. Despite this, Soviet theorists still considered peaceful coexistence to be a continuation of the class struggle between the capitalist and socialist worlds, but not based on armed conflict. Khrushchev believed that the conflict, in its current phase, was mainly economic.
The emphasis on peaceful coexistence did not mean that the Soviet Union accepted a static world with clear lines. It continued to uphold the creed that socialism was inevitable and they sincerely believed that the world had reached a stage in which the "correlations of forces" were moving towards socialism. With the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe and Asia, Soviet foreign policy planners believed that capitalism had lost its dominance as an economic system.
====Socialism in one country====
The concept of "Socialism in One Country" was conceived by Stalin in his struggle against Leon Trotsky and his concept of permanent revolution. In 1924, Trotsky published his pamphlet Lessons of October, in which he stated that socialism in the Soviet Union would fail because of the backward state of economic development unless a world revolution began. Stalin responded to Trotsky's pamphlet with his article, "October and Comrade Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution". In it, Stalin stated that he did not believe an inevitable conflict between the working class and the peasants would take place, and that "socialism in one country is completely possible and probable". Stalin held the view common among most Bolsheviks at the time; there was a possibility of real success for socialism in the Soviet Union despite the country's backwardness and international isolation. While Grigoriy Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Bukharintogether with Stalinopposed Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution, their views on the way socialism could be built diverged.
According to Bukharin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev supported the resolution of the 14th Conference held in 1925, which stated that "we cannot complete the building of socialism due to our technological backwardness". Despite this cynical attitude, Zinoviev and Kamenev believed that a defective form of socialism could be constructed. At the 14th Conference, Stalin reiterated his position that socialism in one country was feasible despite the capitalist blockade of the Soviet Union. After the conference, Stalin wrote "Concerning the Results of the XIV Conference of the RCP(b)", in which he stated that the peasantry would not turn against the socialist system because they had a self-interest in preserving it. Stalin said the contradictions which arose within the peasantry during the socialist transition could "be overcome by our own efforts". He concluded that the only viable threat to socialism in the Soviet Union was a military intervention.
In late 1925, Stalin received a letter from a party official which stated that his position of "Socialism in One Country" was in contradiction with Friedrich Engels' writings on the subject. Stalin countered that Engels' writings reflected "the era of pre-monopoly capitalism, the pre-imperialist era when there were not yet the conditions of an uneven, abrupt development of the capitalist countries". From 1925, Bukharin began writing extensively on the subject and in 1926, Stalin wrote On Questions of Leninism, which contains his best-known writings on the subject. With the publishing of Leninism, Trotsky began countering Bukharin's and Stalin's arguments, writing that socialism in one country was only possible only in the short term, and said that without a world revolution it would be impossible to safeguard the Soviet Union from the "restoration of bourgeois relations". Zinoviev disagreed with Trotsky and Bukharin, and Stalin; he maintained Lenin's position from 1917 to 1922 and continued to say that only a defective form of socialism could be constructed in the Soviet Union without a world revolution. Bukharin began arguing for the creation of an autarkic economic model, while Trotsky said that the Soviet Union had to participate in the international division of labor to develop. In contrast to Trotsky and Bukharin, in 1938, Stalin said that a world revolution was impossible and that Engels was wrong on the matter. At the 18th Congress, Stalin took the theory to its inevitable conclusion, saying that the communist mode of production could be conceived in one country. He rationalized this by saying that the state could exist in a communist society as long as the Soviet Union was encircled by capitalism. However, with the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe, Stalin said that socialism in one country was only possible in a large country like the Soviet Union and that to survive, the other states had to follow the Soviet line.
==Reasons for demise==
===Western view===
There were few, if any, who believed that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse by 1985. The economy was stagnating, but stable enough for the Soviet Union to continue. The political situation was calm because of twenty years of systematic repression against any threat to the country and one-party rule, and the Soviet Union was in its peak of influence in world affairs. Archie Brown said:
The expectations of, again most notably, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians were enormously enhanced by what they saw happening in the 'outer empire' [Eastern Europe], and they began to believe that they could remove themselves from the 'inner empire'. In truth, a democratized Soviet Union was incompatible with denial of the Baltic states' independence for, to the extent that those Soviet republics became democratic, their opposition to remaining in a political entity whose center was Moscow would become increasingly evident. Yet, it was not preordained that the entire Soviet Union would break up.
However, Brown said that the system did not need to collapse or to do so in the way it did. The democratization from above weakened the party's control over the country and put it on the defensive. Brown added that a different leader than Gorbachev would probably have oppressed the opposition and continued with economic reform. Nonetheless, Gorbachev accepted that the people sought a different road and consented to the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991. He said that because of its peaceful collapse, the fall of Soviet communism is "one of the great success stories of 20th-century politics". According to Lars T. Lih, the Soviet Union collapsed because people stopped believing in its ideology. He wrote:
When in 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed not with a bang but a whimper, this unexpected outcome was partly the result of the previous disenchantments of the narrative of class leadership. The Soviet Union had always been based on the fervent belief in this narrative in its various permutations. When the binding power of the narrative dissolved, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.
===According to the Chinese Communist Party===
The first research into the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc was very simple and did not take into account several factors. However, these examinations became more advanced by the 1990s, and unlike most Western scholarship, which focuses on the role of Gorbachev and his reform efforts, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) examined "core (political) life and death issues" so that it could learn from them and not make the same mistakes. Following the CPSU's demise and the Soviet Union's collapse, the CCP's analysis began examining systematic causes. Several leading CCP officials began hailing Khrushchev's rule, saying that he was the first reformer and that if he had continued after 1964, the Soviet Union would not have witnessed the Era of Stagnation begun under Brezhnev and continued under Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko. The main economic failure was that the political leadership did not pursue any reforms to tackle the economic malaise that had taken hold, dismissing certain techniques as capitalist, and never disentangling the planned economy from socialism. Xu Zhixin from the CASS Institute of Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia, argued that Soviet planners laid too much emphasis on heavy industry, which led to shortages of consumer goods. Unlike his counterparts, Xu argued that the shortages of consumer goods were not an error but "was a consciously planned feature of the system". Other CPSU failures were pursuing the policy of state socialism, the high spending on the military-industrial complex, a low tax base, and the subsidizing of the economy. The CCP argued that when Gorbachev came to power and introduced his economic reforms, they were "too little, too late, and too fast".
While most CCP researchers criticize the CPSU's economic policies, many have criticized what they see as "Soviet totalitarianism". They accuse Joseph Stalin of creating a system of mass terror and intimidation, annulling the democracy component of democratic centralism and emphasizing centralism, which led to the creation of an inner-party dictatorship. Other points were Russian nationalism, a lack of separation between the party and state bureaucracies, suppression of non-Russian ethnicities, distortion of the economy through the introduction of over-centralization and the collectivization of agriculture. According to CCP researcher Xiao Guisen, Stalin's policies led to "stunted economic growth, tight surveillance of society, a lack of democracy in decision-making, an absence of the rule of law, the burden of bureaucracy, the CPSU's alienation from people's concerns, and an accumulation of ethnic tensions". Stalin's effect on ideology was also criticized; several researchers accused his policies of being "leftist", "dogmatist" and a deviation "from true Marxism–Leninism." He is criticized for initiating the "bastardization of Leninism", of deviating from true democratic centralism by establishing a one-man rule and destroying all inner-party consultation, of misinterpreting Lenin's theory of imperialism and of supporting foreign revolutionary movements only when the Soviet Union could get something out of it. Yu Sui, a CCP theoretician, said that "the collapse of the Soviet Union and CPSU is a punishment for its past wrongs!" Similarly, Brezhnev, Mikhail Suslov, Alexei Kosygin and Konstantin Chernenko have been criticized for being "dogmatic, ossified, inflexible, [for having a] bureaucratic ideology and thinking", while Yuri Andropov is depicted by some of having the potential of becoming a new Khrushchev if he had not died early.
While the CCP concur with Gorbachev's assessment that the CPSU needed internal reform, they do not agree on how it was implemented, criticizing his idea of "humanistic and democratic socialism", of negating the leading role of the CPSU, of negating Marxism, of negating the analysis of class contradictions and class struggle, and of negating the "ultimate socialist goal of realizing communism". Unlike the other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev is criticized for pursuing the wrong reformist policies and for being too flexible and too rightist. The CCP Organization Department said, "What Gorbachev in fact did was not to transform the CPSU by correct principles—indeed the Soviet Communist Party —but instead he, step-by-step, and ultimately, eroded the ruling party's dominance in ideological, political and organizational aspects".
The CPSU was also criticized for not taking enough care in building the primary party organization and not having inner-party democracy. Others, more radically, concur with Milovan Đilas assessment, saying that a new class was established within the central party leadership of the CPSU and that a "corrupt and privileged class" had developed because of the nomenklatura system. Others criticized the special privileges bestowed on the CPSU elite, the nomenklatura systemwhich some said had decayed continuously since Stalin's ruleand the relationship between the Soviet military and the CPSU. Unlike in China, the Soviet military was a state institution whereas in China it is a party (and state) institution. The CCP criticizes the CPSU of pursuing Soviet imperialism in its foreign policies.
==Electoral history==
===Presidential election===
===Legislative elections===
====All-Union Congress of Soviets====
====Supreme Soviet====
====Congress of People's Deputies====
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"Dmitriy Ustinov",
"Kirill Mazurov",
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"Aleksey Rykov",
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"non-aligned movement",
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"I Cannot Forsake My Principles",
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"Yegor Ligachyov",
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"New Union Treaty",
"Alexander Shliapnikov",
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"permanent revolution",
"Little Octobrists",
"Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism",
"trade union",
"Allies of World War I",
"Office of the Historian",
"sealed train",
"republic",
"Harvard University Press",
"Mikhail Solomentsev",
"Leningrad",
"Orgburo",
"SFR Yugoslavia",
"New class",
"Cold War",
"Alexander Kerensky",
"Second International",
"1958 Soviet Union legislative election",
"Trotskyism",
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"freedom of expression",
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"nomenklatura",
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"liberation movement",
"socialism in one country",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
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"Boris Yeltsin",
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"collective",
"Elena Stasova",
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"capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)",
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"Ronald Grigor Suny",
"British Broadcasting Corporation",
"Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"Fyodor Kulakov",
"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics",
"Margaret Thatcher",
"Democratic socialism",
"Eduard Bernstein",
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"classical Marxism",
"1991 Soviet coup attempt",
"raion",
"1973–75 recession",
"Council of People's Commissars",
"uskoreniye",
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"Trieste",
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"Joseph Stalin",
"Bulgarian Communist Party",
"1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt",
"New Economic Mechanism",
"17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)",
"Great Soviet Encyclopedia",
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"KGB",
"Leonid Brezhnev",
"October Revolution",
"Gavril Myasnikov",
"Presidium of the Supreme Soviet",
"Mikhail Gorbachev",
"state socialism",
"party line (politics)",
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"Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Mensheviks)",
"Petrograd",
"Workers of the world, unite!",
"glasnost",
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"Nikolay Inozemtsev",
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"Soviet collectivism",
"1977 Soviet Constitution",
"Lavrentiy Beria",
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"Eastern Front (WWII)",
"Marxism–Leninism",
"1931 Soviet Union legislative election",
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"Routledge",
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"cult of personality",
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"Nina Andreyeva",
"Communist Party of Vietnam",
"Communist Party of Uzbekistan",
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"23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"Library of Congress",
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"international division of labor"
] |
7,272 |
Christianity and homosexuality
|
Christianity developed during the 1st century AD as a Jewish Christian sect and, as such, many of its views were rooted in Jewish teaching. As Christianity established itself as a separate religion, with its own scriptures, some views moved away from the Jewish roots while others remained firmly grounded in Jewish tradition. The view within Christianity is that the Jewish scriptures within what became known as The Old Testament, as well as passages within what became known as The New Testament, both make clear that same-sex sexual behaviour is sinful – an interpretation supported by the wording of the various translations of the Bible.
Today, some mainly liberal denominations, churches and individuals hold views that differ from traditional interpretations. Most denominations teach that homosexual behavior and acts are sinful. favouring exclusively penetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women within the boundaries of marriage over all other forms of human sexual activity,
They have believed and taught that such behaviors are forbidden because they are considered sinful, However, the status of LGBTQ people in early Christianity is debated.
The history of Christianity and homosexuality has been much debated with these disagreements often concerning the translations of certain phrases, or the meaning and context of some biblical passages. The Church states that "homosexual tendencies" are "objectively disordered", but does not consider the tendency itself to be sinful but rather a temptation toward sin.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies[...] must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity" and that "every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided." The Catholic Church requires those who are attracted to people of the same (or opposite) sex to practise chastity, because it teaches that sexuality should only be practised within marriage, which includes chaste sex as permanent, procreative, heterosexual, and monogamous. The Vatican distinguishes between "deep-seated homosexual tendencies" and the "expression of a transitory problem", in relation to ordination to the priesthood; saying in a 2005 document that homosexual tendencies "must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate."
A 2011 report based on telephone surveys of self-identified American Catholics conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute found that 56% believe that sexual relations between two people of the same sex are not sinful. Research indicates that the Catholic Church's teachings on sexuality are "a major source of conflict and distress" to LGBTQ Catholics.
In January 2018, German bishop Franz-Josef Bode of the Diocese of Osnabrück, and in February 2018 German Catholic cardinal Reinhard Marx, chairman of the German Bishops' Conference, said in interviews with German journalists that blessing of same-sex unions is possible in Catholic churches in Germany. In Austria blessing of same sex unions is performed in two churches located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Linz. In 2021, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith clarified that same-sex civil unions cannot be blessed.
On 11 March 2023, the Synodal Path with support of over 80 percentage of German Roman Catholic bishops allowed liturgical blessing ceremonies for same-sex unions in all 27 German Roman Catholic diocese. A similar decision had been taken a few months earlier by the Flemish bishops of the Episcopal Conference of Belgium. Both decisions received strong condemnation by the Holy See and by conservative Catholic clergy: Cardinal Pietro Parolin stated that the German bishops had no authority over the issue and Cardinal Wim Eijk urged Flemish bishops to withdraw their decision.
On 18 December 2023, non-liturgical blessings of same-sex couples in the document Fiducia supplicans were approved by Pope Francis and published by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith. However, "it is not a formal liturgical blessing and does not give the impression that the Catholic Church is blessing the union as if it were a marriage".
===Orthodox churches===
The Eastern Orthodox churches condemn homosexual acts. The Orthodox Church shares a long history of church teachings and canon law with the Catholic Church and has a similar conservative stance on homosexuality. Some Orthodox Church jurisdictions, such as the Orthodox Church in America, have taken the approach of welcoming people with "homosexual feelings and emotions", while encouraging them to work towards "overcoming its harmful effects in their lives", while not allowing the sacraments to people who seek to justify homosexual activity. Other Orthodox Churches, such as those in Eastern Europe and Greece, view homosexuality less favourably. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America lists homosexuality along with fornication, adultery, and more because of the thinking that homosexuality breaks up the institution of marriage and family. A 2017 Pew Research Center poll found that the majority of Orthodox Christians in the Eastern European and former USSR states surveyed believe that homosexuality "should not be accepted by society"; 45% of Orthodox Christians in Greece and 31% in the United States answered the same way.
In July 2022, Archbishop Elpidophoros of America baptized two babies adopted by clothing designers Evanggelos Bousis and Peter Dundas, making him the first Greek Orthodox bishop to baptize children adopted by gay couples. According to the metropolitan in whose diocese the baptism took place (Antonios of Glyfada), Elpidophoros did not inform him in advance that the baptism in question was to be performed for a gay couple. Metropolitan Antonios reported Elpidophoros to the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece, which issued a formal protest to both Elpidophoros and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
===Protestant churches===
====Accepting position====
Certain other Christian denominations do not view monogamous same-sex relationships as sinful or immoral, and may bless such unions and consider them marriages. These include the United Church of Canada, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Church of Christ, all German Lutheran, reformed and united churches in EKD, all Swiss reformed churches, the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, the United Protestant Church in Belgium, the United Protestant Church of France, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Iceland, the Church of Norway, and the Uniting Church in Australia. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland also allows prayer for same-sex couples. The Metropolitan Community Church was founded specifically to serve the Christian LGBTQ community. The Global Alliance of Affirming Apostolic Pentecostals (GAAAP) traces its roots back to 1980, making it the oldest LGBT-affirming Apostolic Pentecostal denomination in existence. Another such organization is the Affirming Pentecostal Church International, currently the largest affirming Pentecostal organization, with churches in the US, UK, Central and South America, Europe and Africa.
LGBT-affirming denominations regard homosexuality as a natural occurrence. The United Church of Christ celebrates gay marriage, and some parts of the Anglican and Lutheran In 2000, the Church's General Assembly further affirmed that "human sexual orientations, whether heterosexual or homosexual, are a gift from God and part of the marvelous diversity of creation."
In addition, some Christian denominations such as the Moravian Church, believe that the Bible speaks negatively of homosexual acts but, as research on the matter continues, the Moravian Church seeks to establish a policy on homosexuality and the ordination of homosexuals. In 2014, Moravian Church in Europe allowed blessings of same-sex unions.
Liberal Quakers, those in membership of Britain Yearly Meeting and Friends General Conference in the US and some Conservative Quaker Yearly Meetings approve of same-sex marriage and union. Quakers were the first Christian group in the United Kingdom to advocate for equal marriage and Quakers in Britain formally recognised same-sex relationships in 1963.
The United Methodist Church elected a lesbian bishop in 2016, and on 7 May 2018, the Council of Bishops proposed the One Church Plan, which would allow individual pastors and regional church bodies to decide whether to ordain LGBTQ clergy and perform same-sex weddings. On 26 February 2019, a special session of the General Conference rejected the One Church Plan and voted to strengthen its official opposition to same-sex marriages and ordaining openly LGBTQ clergy.
At the 2024 General Conference, 93% of delegates voted to lift existing bans on the ordination of LGBTQ+ people and the hosting of same-sex marriages.
====Various positions====
===== Anglican =====
Since 1998, the Anglican Church has reassured people with same sex attraction they are loved by God and are welcomed as full members of the Body of Christ. The Church leadership has a variety of views in regard to homosexual expression and ordination. Some expressions of sexuality are considered sinful including "promiscuity, prostitution, incest, pornography, paedophilia, predatory sexual behaviour, and sadomasochism (all of which may be heterosexual and homosexual)". The Church is concerned with pressures on young people to engage sexually and encourages abstinence.
At the 13th Lambeth Conference in 1998, homosexuality was the most hotly debated issue. It was finally decided, by a vote of 526–70, to pass a resolution (1.10) calling for a "listening process" but stating (in an amendment passed by a vote of 389–190) that "homosexual practice" (not necessarily orientation) is "incompatible with Scripture". Reflecting on resolution 1.10 in the lead up to Lambeth 2022, Angela Tilby recalled the intervention of Bishop Michael Bourke, who successfully proposed an amendment which said: "We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons". Tilby considered that while the amendment had appeared inconsequential at the time, it had indeed been significant: she said that the idea of "patient listening" underpinned the Church of England's process "Living in Love and Faith". The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, the Lutheran Church of Australia, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod recognize homosexual behavior as intrinsically sinful and seek to minister to those who are struggling with homosexual inclinations. However, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Norway, or Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany conducts same-sex marriages, while the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada opens the ministry of the church to gay pastors and other professional workers living in committed relationships.
====Rejecting position====
Some mainline Protestant denominations, such as the African Methodist churches, the Reformed Church in America, and the Presbyterian Church in America, Christian Reformed Church in North America also oppose LGBTQ relationships.
Some Conservative Quakers, those within Friends United Meeting and the Evangelical Friends International believe that sexual relations are condoned only in marriage, which they define to be between a man and a woman.
Confessional Lutheran churches teach that it is sinful to have homosexual desires, even if they do not lead to homosexual activity. The Doctrinal statement issued by the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that making a distinction between homosexual orientation and the act of homosexuality is confusing:
However, confessional Lutherans also warn against selective morality which harshly condemns homosexuality while treating other sins more lightly. Some evangelical denominations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage. Others strongly oppose same-sex marriage, same-sex sexual activity, and expression of gay/lesbian/bisexual identity generally. and think they should not be accepted by society. They tend to interpret biblical verses on homosexual acts to mean that the heterosexual family was created by God to be the bedrock of civilization and that same-sex relationships contradict God's design for marriage and is not his will. Christians who oppose homosexual relationships sometimes argue that same-gender sexual activity is a sin.
In opposing interpretations of the Bible that are supportive of homosexual relationships, conservative Christians have argued for the reliability of the Bible, and the meaning of texts related to homosexual acts, while often seeing what they call the diminishing of the authority of the Bible by many homosexual authors as being ideologically driven.
As an alternative to a school-sponsored Day of Silence opposing bullying of LGBTQ students, conservative Christians organized a Golden Rule Initiative, where they passed out cards saying "As a follower of Christ, I believe that all people are created in the image of God and therefore deserve love and respect." Others created a Day of Dialogue to oppose what they believe is the silencing of Christian students who make public their opposition to homosexuality.
On 29 August 2017, the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood released a manifesto on human sexuality known as the "Nashville Statement". The statement was signed by 150 evangelical leaders, and includes 14 points of belief.
===== Fundamentalist position =====
It is in some fundamentalist conservative positions, that there are anti-LGBT activists on TV or radio who accuse homosexual people of a gay agenda and of being responsible for social problems, such as terrorism. Some fundamentalists also regularly accuse homosexuals of being responsible for natural disasters. Some evangelical churches in Uganda strongly oppose homosexuality and homosexuals. They have campaigned for laws criminalizing homosexuality.
===== Moderate position =====
Some churches have a moderate Conservative position. They only support sexuality in marriage between a man and a woman, but show sympathy and respect towards homosexual people. Churches thus see themselves as "welcoming, but not affirming". This expression has its origin in the book Welcoming but Not Affirming: An Evangelical Response to Homosexuality published in 1998 by the American Baptist theologian Stanley Grenz.
====== Organizations ======
The French Evangelical Alliance, a member of the European Evangelical Alliance and the World Evangelical Alliance, adopted on 12 October 2002, through its National Council, a document entitled ("Faith, Hope and Homosexuality"), in which homophobia, hatred and rejection of homosexuals are condemned, but which denies homosexual practices and full church membership of unrepentant homosexuals and those who approve of these practices. In 2015, the Conseil national des évangéliques de France (French National Council of Evangelicals) reaffirmed its position on the issue by opposing marriage of same-sex couples, while not rejecting homosexuals, but wanting to offer them more than a blessing; an accompaniment and a welcome.
The French evangelical pastor Philippe Auzenet, a chaplain of the association Oser en parler, regularly intervenes on the subject in the media. It promotes dialogue and respect, as well as sensitization in order to better understand homosexuals. He also said in 2012 that Jesus would go to a gay bar, because he was going to all people with love.
==== Liberal positions ====
===== International =====
There are some international evangelical associations that are gay-friendly, such as the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists and Affirming Pentecostal Church International.
===== U.S. =====
A 2014 survey reported that 43% of white evangelical American Christians between the ages of 18 and 33 supported same-sex marriage. Some evangelical churches accept homosexuality and celebrate gay weddings. The change in beliefs in favor of gay marriage in evangelical churches has certain consequences for them. Various churches thus received an excommunication from their Christian denomination for not respecting the confession of faith. Other churches have faced significant departures of members from their congregations, seeing their financial resources diminish.
==== Neutral positions ====
Some evangelical associations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage.
The Brethren Mennonite Council for LGBT Interests was founded in 1976 in the US and has member churches of different associations in the US and Canada.
The Mennonite Church in the Netherlands and the Mennonite Church USA permit same-sex marriage.
===== Baptist =====
Most Baptist associations around the world hold a conservative view on homosexuality.
Some Baptist associations in the United States do not have official beliefs about marriage in a confession of faith and invoke congregationalism to leave the choice to each church to decide. This is the case of American Baptist Churches USA, Progressive National Baptist Convention (USA), Cooperative Baptist Fellowship (USA), National Baptist Convention, USA and the Baptist Union of Great Britain.
Some Baptist associations support same-sex marriage. This is the case of the Alliance of Baptists (USA), the Canadian Association for Baptist Freedoms, the Aliança de Batistas do Brasil, the Fraternidad de Iglesias Bautistas de Cuba, and the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists (international).
=====Pentecostalism=====
Most Pentecostal associations take a conservative stance on homosexuality.
The Covenant Network was formed in 2000 in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, and allow same-sex marriage. According to a denomination census released in 2023, it has 18 churches in 3 countries.
===Restorationist churches===
Restorationist churches, such as Seventh-Day Adventists, generally teach that homosexuals are 'broken' and can be 'fixed'. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that "The Bible condemns sexual activity that is not between a husband and wife, whether it is homosexual or heterosexual conduct. (1 Corinthians 6:18)[...] While the Bible disapproves of homosexual acts, it does not condone hatred of homosexuals or homophobia. Instead, Christians are directed to "respect everyone."—1 Peter 2:17, Good News Translation." The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints said in 2015 that it officially welcomes its gay and lesbian members, if they choose sexual abstinence. The Community of Christ, a branch of Mormonism, fully accepts LGBTQ persons, performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBTQ members. Within the Stone-Campbell aligned restorationist churches the views are divergent. The churches of Christ (A Capella) and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ mostly adhere to a conservative position on LGBTQ members and will not perform weddings for gay and lesbian couples. The Disciples of Christ, is fully accepting of LGBTQ persons, often performs weddings for gay and lesbian couples, and ordains LGBTQ members. The United Church of Christ is an officially "open and affirming" church. Other Restorationist churches such as Millerite churches, have taken mixed positions but are increasingly accepting with some of their congregations fully accepting LGBTQ persons in all aspects of religious and political life. The Seventh-day Adventist Church maintains that homosexual sex itself is forbidden in the Bible.
==Views supportive of homosexuality==
In the 20th century, theologians like Jürgen Moltmann, Hans Küng, John Robinson, Bishop David Jenkins, Don Cupitt, and Bishop Jack Spong challenged traditional theological positions and understandings of the Bible; following these developments some have suggested that passages have been mistranslated or that they do not refer to what is in the modern day understood as "homosexuality." Clay Witt, a minister in the Metropolitan Community Church, explains how theologians and commentators like John Shelby Spong, George Edwards and Michael England interpret injunctions against certain sexual acts as being originally intended as a means of distinguishing religious worship between Abrahamic and the surrounding pagan faiths, within which homosexual acts featured as part of idolatrous religious practices: "England argues that these prohibitions should be seen as being directed against sexual practices of fertility cult worship. As with the earlier reference from Strong's, he notes that the word 'abomination' used here is directly related to idolatry and idolatrous practices throughout the Hebrew Testament. Edwards makes a similar suggestion, observing that 'the context of the two prohibitions in Leviticus 18:22 and Leviticus 20:13 suggest that what is opposed is not same-sex activity outside the cult, as in the modern secular sense, but within the cult identified as Canaanite'".
In 1986, the Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus (EEWC), then known as the Evangelical Women's Caucus International, passed a resolution stating: "Whereas homosexual people are children of God, and because of the biblical mandate of Jesus Christ that we are all created equal in God's sight, and in recognition of the presence of the lesbian minority in EWCI, EWCI takes a firm stand in favor of civil rights protection for homosexual persons."
Some Christians believe that Biblical passages have been mistranslated or that these passages do not refer to LGBTQ orientation as currently understood. Liberal Christian scholars, like conservative Christian scholars, accept earlier versions of the texts that make up the Bible in Hebrew or Greek. However, within these early texts there are many terms that modern scholars have interpreted differently from previous generations of scholars. or the inferior treatment of women as not being valid today, and against the will of God present in the context of the Bible. They cite these issues when arguing for a change in theological views on sexual relationships to what they say is an earlier view. They differentiate among various sexual practices, treating rape, prostitution, or temple sex rituals as immoral and those within committed relationships as positive regardless of sexual orientation. They view certain verses, which they believe refer only to homosexual rape, as not relevant to consensual homosexual relationships.
Yale professor John Boswell has argued that a number of Early Christians entered into homosexual relationships, and that certain Biblical figures had homosexual relationships, such as Ruth and her mother-in-law Naomi, Daniel and the court official Ashpenaz, and David and King Saul's son Jonathan. Boswell has also argued that adelphopoiesis, a rite bonding two men, was akin to a religiously sanctioned same-sex union. Having partaken in such a rite, a person was prohibited from entering into marriage or taking monastic vows, and the choreography of the service itself closely parallelled that of the marriage rite. His views have not found wide acceptance, and opponents have argued that this rite sanctified a platonic brotherly bond, not a homosexual union. Boswell's critics point out that many earlier doctrinal sources condemn homosexuality as a sin even if they do not prescribe a specific punishment, and that Boswell's arguments are based on sources which reflected a general trend towards harsher penalties, rather than a change in doctrine, from the 12th century onwards.
Desmond Tutu, the former Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, described homophobia as a "crime against humanity" and "every bit as unjust" as apartheid: "We struggled against apartheid in South Africa, supported by people the world over, because black people were being blamed and made to suffer for something we could do nothing about; our very skins. It is the same with sexual orientation. It is a given.[...] We treat them [gays and lesbians] as pariahs and push them outside our communities. We make them doubt that they too are children of God – and this must be nearly the ultimate blasphemy. We blame them for what they are."
Modern gay Christian leader Justin R. Cannon promotes what he calls "Inclusive Orthodoxy" ('orthodoxy' in this sense is not to be confused with the Eastern Orthodox Church). He explains on his ministry website: "Inclusive Orthodoxy is the belief that the Church can and must be inclusive of LGBTQ individuals without sacrificing the Gospel and the Apostolic teachings of the Christian faith." Cannon's ministry takes a unique and distinct approach from modern liberal Christians while still supporting homosexual relations. His ministry affirms the divine inspiration of the Bible, the authority of Tradition, and says "...that there is a place within the full life and ministry of the Christian Church for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Christians, both those who are called to lifelong celibacy and those who are partnered."
Today, many religious people are becoming more affirming of same-sex relationships, even in denominations with official stances against homosexuality. In the United States, people in denominations who are against same-sex relationships are liberalizing quickly, though not as quickly as those in more affirming groups. This social change is creating tension within many denominations, and even schisms and mass walk-outs among Mormons and other conservative groups.
Pope Francis voiced support for same-sex civil unions during an interview in a documentary film, Francesco, which was premiered at the Rome Film Festival on 21 October 2020.
===Homosexual Christians and organizations===
Studies in the US show more LGBTQ individuals identify as Protestant than Catholic. George Barna, a conservative Christian author and researcher, conducted a survey in the United States in 2009 that found gay and lesbian people having a Christian affiliation were more numerous than had been presumed. He characterized some of his leading conclusions from the data as follows: "People who portray gay adults as godless, hedonistic, Christian bashers are not working with the facts. A substantial majority of gays cite their faith as a central facet of their life, consider themselves to be Christian, and claim to have some type of meaningful personal commitment to Jesus Christ active in their life today." Barna also found that LGBTQ people were more likely to interpret faith as an individual rather than a collective experience.
Candace Chellew-Hodge, liberal Christian lesbian founder of the online magazine Whosoever, responded to the findings: "All in all, I'm grateful for Barna even wandering into the subject of gay and lesbian religious belief. I think his study is important and can go a long way to dispelling the old "gays vs. God" dichotomy that too often gets played out in the media. However, his overall message is still harmful: Gays and lesbians are Christians – they're just not as good as straight ones." She argued that Barna had formulated his report with undue irony and skepticism, and that he had failed to take into account the reasons for the data which enkindled his "arrière pensée." The reason why far fewer homosexuals attend church, she argued, is that there are far fewer churches who will accept them. Equally, gays and lesbians do not see the Bible as unequivocally true because they are forced by its use against them to read it more closely and with less credulity, leading them to note its myriad contradictions. According to founder Justin Lee:
Some organizations cater exclusively to homosexual Christians who do not want to have gay sex, or attraction; the goals of these organizations vary. Some Christian groups focus on simply refraining from gay sex, such as Courage International and North Star. Other groups additionally encourage gay members to reduce or eliminate same-sex attractions. Love Won Out and the now-defunct Exodus International are examples of such ministries. These groups are sometimes referred to as ex-gay organizations, though many no longer use the term. Alan Chambers, the president of Exodus, says the term incorrectly implies a complete change in sexual orientation, though the group Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays and Gays continues to use the term. In addition, individual Christians identifying as gay who want to subscribe to the conservative ethic are becoming more vocal themselves.
Gay Christian writer and actor Peterson Toscano argues that organizations promoting orientation change are a "ruse". An organization he co-founded, Beyond Ex-Gay, supports people who feel they have been wounded by such organizations.
Other groups support or advocate for gay Christians and their relationships. For example, in the United States, IntegrityUSA represents the interests of lesbian and gay Christians in the Episcopal Church, while United Methodists have the Reconciling Ministries Network and evangelical Christians have Evangelicals Concerned. GracePointe Church became one of the first evangelical megachurches in the US to support full equality for LGBTQ people in 2015. In 2014 the United Church of Christ filed a lawsuit challenging North Carolina's ban on same-sex marriage, which is America's first faith-based challenge to same-sex marriage bans; the Alliance of Baptists joined the lawsuit later that year.
In Europe, working within the worldwide Anglican Communion on a range of discrimination issues, including those of LGBTQ clergy and people in the church, is Inclusive Church. The longest standing groups for lesbian and gay Christians in the UK, were Quest (for LGBTQ Catholics) and Metropolitan Community Church (UK) both founded in 1973; followed in 1976 by the non-denominational Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement; specifically aimed to meet the needs of lesbian and gay evangelicals, there is the Evangelical Fellowship for Lesbian and Gay Christians; specifically working within the Church of England is Changing Attitude, which also takes an international focus in working for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender affirmation within the Anglican Communion.
Sociologist Richard N. Pitt argues that these organizations are only available to LGBTQ members of liberal denominations, as opposed to those in conservative denominations. His review of the literature on gay Christians suggests that these organizations not only represent the interests of Christians who attend their churches, but (like gay-friendly and gay-affirming churches) also give these members useful responses to homophobic and heterosexist rhetoric. His research shows that those LGBTQ Christians who stay at homophobic churches "kill the messenger" by attacking the minister's knowledge about homosexuality, personal morality, focus on sin instead of forgiveness, and motivations for preaching against homosexuality.
== Movement of pro-celibacy gay Christians ==
There is a movement of people who call themselves "gay Christians", but choose to practice celibacy. The movement is often positioned against both liberals and conservatives. Recognizing themselves as gay or bisexual, these people believe that their attraction to same-sex people, while present, does not allow them to have homosexual relationships. They often say that their Christian conversion did not instantly change their sexual desires. They insist that the church should always reject homosexual practices, but that it should welcome gay people.
== Ex-gay movement ==
Various Christian organizations have been involved in the ex-gay movement. Love in Action, founded in 1973, was the first in the US. The Catholic organization Courage International was founded in 1980.
Conversion therapies for people wishing to change sexual orientation have been associated with the movement. Conversion therapy has been widely criticized and denounced by many major medical associations as pseudoscientific and harmful. Studies have found that LGBTQ individuals who experienced conversion therapy reported significantly higher rates of depression, suicide attempts, and substance abuse than their peers who did not.
== Criticism ==
In 2005, Baptist Pastor Al Sharpton criticized megachurches for focusing on "bedroom morals", statements against same-sex marriage and abortion, by ignoring issues of social justice, such as the immorality of war and the erosion of affirmative action.
In 2015, American theologian L. Gregory Jones has criticized some Christian churches for their lack of effort to interest young people in the Christian faith in a relevant way, while putting a lot of energy into talking negatively about homosexuality, which is even more boring for young people who want to work with the whole world.
|
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"Church of Greece",
"Christianity and sexual orientation",
"Church Times",
"Evangelicalism",
"Euronews",
"anti-LGBT",
"Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith",
"Episcopal Church (United States)",
"Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement",
"New York City",
"Greek language",
"Major depressive disorder",
"Christian Reformed Church in North America",
"Journal of Religion and Health",
"hedonistic",
"Restorationist",
"ex-gay",
"evangelicalism",
"suicide attempt",
"Brill Publishers",
"churches of Christ",
"Patriarchy",
"Crux (online newspaper)",
"SAGE Publications",
"Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary",
"gay-friendly",
"Pauline epistles",
"Procreation",
"Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada",
"Familialism",
"World Evangelical Alliance",
"Elpidophoros of America",
"Anglican",
"Body of Christ",
"Jürgen Moltmann",
"Rome Film Festival",
"Ellen Barrett",
"Exodus International",
"Fraternidad de Iglesias Bautistas de Cuba",
"Lambeth Conference",
"Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders",
"conservatism",
"Britain Yearly Meeting",
"New England Yearly Meeting",
"Bible",
"United States",
"William Saletan",
"Uniting Church in Australia",
"dichotomy",
"Progressive National Baptist Convention",
"Naomi (Bible)",
"excommunication",
"social justice",
"Oxford University Press",
"slavery",
"IntegrityUSA",
"substance abuse",
"Franz-Josef Bode",
"Platonic love",
"Synodal Path",
"pride flag",
"Internal consistency of the Bible",
"Protestantism",
"Homosexuality and Seventh-day Adventism",
"Christian denominations",
"Baptist Union of Great Britain",
"American Baptist Churches USA",
"Ex-gay movement",
"Homosexual sexual practices",
"Presbyterian Church (USA)",
"human sexual activity",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Linz",
"Reconciling Ministries Network",
"Catholic News Agency",
"Hypocrisy",
"Slate (magazine)",
"LGBTQ rights opposition",
"Christianity and abortion",
"Confessional Lutheran",
"mainline (Protestant)",
"Swiss Reformed Church",
"Routledge",
"United Church of Christ",
"Evangelical Church in Germany",
"Cooperative Baptist Fellowship",
"Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood",
"Anglicanism",
"Heteronormativity",
"Lutheran",
"Boston",
"Stanley Grenz",
"Godlessness",
"blessing of same-sex unions",
"Metropolitan Community Church",
"confession of faith",
"Gay bishops",
"Homosexuality and Judaism",
"orthodoxy",
"GracePointe Church",
"masturbation",
"German Bishops' Conference",
"Eva Brunne",
"Religion",
"Mennonites in the Netherlands",
"Alliance of Baptists",
"Evangelical Lutheran Church in America",
"Lutheranism",
"Love Won Out",
"Catechism of the Catholic Church",
"Greek Reporter",
"Heterosexual intercourse",
"Friends General Conference",
"celibacy",
"Jesus Christ",
"Christian denomination",
"Christianity",
"Church of Iceland",
"Catholic",
"Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America",
"2009 in literature",
"Justin Lee (activist)",
"LGBT-affirming Christian denominations",
"oral sex",
"Pope Francis",
"natural disasters",
"Bloomsbury Academic",
"Early Christians",
"Book of Ruth",
"Christian cross",
"crimes against humanity",
"Priesthood in the Catholic Church",
"Biblical Theology Bulletin",
"Pew Research Center",
"Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod",
"Reformed Church in America",
"Presbyterian Church in America",
"transgender",
"Canadian Association for Baptist Freedoms",
"Oxford",
"Al Sharpton",
"Global Alliance of Affirming Apostolic Pentecostals",
"affirmative action",
"Affirming Pentecostal Church International",
"Ethiopia",
"London",
"Moravian Church",
"Friends United Meeting",
"Justin R. Cannon",
"Baptist",
"Episcopal Conference of Belgium",
"Heinrich Aldegrever",
"Michael Bourke",
"Hans Küng",
"United Protestant Church of France",
"gay agenda",
"sacraments",
"marriage",
"NYU Press",
"David and Jonathan",
"Homosexuality and religion",
"John Boswell",
"Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople",
"Don Cupitt",
"First Things",
"Warren Johansson",
"Springer Verlag",
"Hebrew language",
"Conversion therapy",
"The Bible and homosexuality",
"National Baptist Convention, USA",
"Sin in Christianity",
"adelphopoiesis",
"Mennonite Church Canada",
"Book of Leviticus",
"same-sex marriage",
"George Barna",
"Seventh-day Adventist Church",
"Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ",
"Time (magazine)",
"Non-penetrative sex",
"autoeroticism",
"List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality",
"Day of Dialogue",
"Gene Robinson",
"The Washington Post",
"David Edward Jenkins",
"Judaism",
"gay marriage",
"sodomy",
"Community of Christ",
"Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays and Gays",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Osnabrück",
"Side A, Side B, Side X, Side Y (theological views)",
"Corpus Christi (play)",
"Seventh-Day Adventist",
"Queer theology",
"Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod",
"Disciples of Christ",
"Book of Daniel",
"Courage International",
"ex-gay movement",
"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"human sexuality",
"Christian fundamentalism",
"North Star (organization)",
"history of Christianity and homosexuality",
"Human Rights Campaign",
"Angela Tilby",
"Fiducia supplicans",
"Pietro Parolin",
"LGBTQ rights",
"sinful",
"Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists",
"Church of Denmark",
"Aliança de Batistas do Brasil",
"Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus",
"Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches",
"megachurch",
"John Shelby Spong",
"Atlanta",
"chastity",
"Alan Chambers (Exodus International)"
] |
7,273 |
Chadic languages
|
The Chadic languages form a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken in parts of the Sahel. They include 196 languages spoken across northern Nigeria, southern Niger, southern Chad, and northern Cameroon. By far the most widely spoken Chadic language is Hausa, a lingua franca of much of inland Eastern West Africa, particularly Niger and the northern half of Nigeria. Hausa is the only Chadic language with more than 1 million speakers.
==Composition==
Paul Newman (1977) classified the languages into the four groups which have been accepted in all subsequent literature. Further subbranching, however, has not been as robust; Roger Blench (2006), for example, only accepts the A/B bifurcation of East Chadic. Subsequent work by Joseph Lovestrand argues strongly that Kujarge is a valid member of East Chadic. The placing of Luri as a primary split of West Chadic is erroneous. Bernard Caron (2004) shows that this language is South Bauchi and part of the Polci cluster. A suggestion for including the language isolate Kujargé as an early-diverged member, which subsequently became influenced by East Chadic, has been made by Blench (2008).
Chadic
West Chadic
the Hausa, Ron, Bole, and Angas languages
the Bade, Warji, and Zaar languages
Biu–Mandara (Central Chadic)
the Bura, Kamwe, and Bata languages, among other groups
the Buduma and Musgu languages
Gidar
East Chadic
the Tumak, Nancere, and Kera languages
the Dangaléat, Mukulu, and Sokoro languages
Masa
==Loanwords==
Chadic languages contain many Nilo-Saharan loanwords from either the Songhay or Maban branches, pointing to early contact between Chadic and Nilo-Saharan speakers as Chadic was migrating west.
Although Adamawa languages are spoken adjacently to Chadic languages, interaction between Chadic and Adamawa is limited.
==Pronouns==
Pronouns in Proto-Chadic, as compared to pronouns in Proto-Afroasiatic (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:351):
==Comparative vocabulary==
Sample basic vocabulary in different Chadic branches listed in order from west to east, with reconstructions of other Afroasiatic branches also given for comparison:
|
[
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Dangaléat language",
"Kujargé language",
"Bura language",
"LINCOM EUROPA",
"Kujarge language",
"Kera language",
"Semitic languages",
"Mokilko language",
"Sokoro language",
"lingua franca",
"Niger",
"Paul Newman (linguist)",
"Nancere language",
"Musgu language",
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Polci language",
"Roger Blench",
"West Chadic languages",
"Hausa language",
"Kamwe language",
"Gidar language",
"South Bauchi languages",
"Igor M. Diakonoff",
"Riffian language",
"West Africa",
"Zaar languages",
"Cameroon",
"Proto-Afroasiatic",
"Angas languages",
"Buduma language",
"Songhay languages",
"Maji languages",
"Bole languages",
"Nigeria",
"Herrmann Jungraithmayr",
"Bade languages",
"Tumak language",
"Biu–Mandara languages",
"language isolate",
"Cushitic languages",
"Warji language",
"Coptic language",
"Masa languages",
"Adamawa languages",
"Chad",
"Ron languages",
"Maban languages",
"Sahel",
"Bata language",
"East Chadic languages"
] |
7,274 |
Cushitic languages
|
The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, with minorities speaking Cushitic languages to the north in Egypt and Sudan, and to the south in Kenya and Tanzania. As of 2012, the Cushitic languages with over one million speakers were Oromo, Somali, Beja, Afar, Hadiyya, Kambaata, and Sidama.
==Official status==
The Cushitic languages with the greatest number of total speakers are Oromo (37 million), Somali (22 million), Beja (3.2 million), Sidamo (3 million), and Afar (2 million).
Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region.
Somali is the first of two official languages of Somalia and three official languages of Somaliland. It also serves as a language of instruction in Djibouti, and as the working language of the Somali Region in Ethiopia. The constitution of Eritrea also recognizes the equality of all natively spoken languages. Additionally, Afar is a language of instruction in Djibouti, The expansion of Cushitic languages of the Southern Cushitic branch into the Rift Valley is associated with the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic.
==Typological characteristics==
===Phonology===
Most Cushitic languages have a simple five-vowel system with phonemic length (); a notable exception are the Agaw languages, which do not contrast vowel length, but have one or two additional central vowels. The consonant inventory of many Cushitic languages includes glottalic consonants, e.g. in Oromo, which has the ejectives and the implosive . Less common are pharyngeal consonants , which appear e.g. in Somali or the Saho–Afar languages.
Most Cushitic languages have a system of restrictive tone also known as ‘pitch accent’ in which tonal contours overlaid on the stressed syllable play a prominent role in morphology and syntax.
===Grammar===
====Nouns====
Nouns are inflected for case and number. All nouns are further grouped into two gender categories, masculine gender and feminine gender. In many languages, gender is overtly marked directly on the noun (e.g. in Awngi, where all female nouns carry the suffix -a).
The case system of many Cushitic languages is characterized by marked nominative alignment, which is typologically quite rare and predominantly found in languages of Africa. In marked nominative languages, the noun appears in unmarked "absolutive" case when cited in isolation, or when used as predicative noun and as object of a transitive verb; on the other hand, it is explicitly marked for nominative case when it functions as subject in a transitive or intransitive sentence.
Possession is usually expressed by genitive case marking of the possessor. South Cushitic—which has no case marking for subject and object—follows the opposite strategy: here, the possessed noun is marked for construct case, e.g. Iraqw afé-r mar'i "doors" (lit. "mouths of houses"), where afee "mouth" is marked for construct case.
Most nouns are by default unmarked for number, but can be explicitly marked for singular ("singulative") and plural number. E.g. in Bilin, dəmmu "cat(s)" is number-neutral, from which singular dəmmura "a single cat" and plural dəmmut "several cats" can be formed. Plural formation is very diverse, and employs ablaut (i.e. changes of root vowels or consonants), suffixes and reduplication.
====Verbs====
Verbs are inflected for person/number and tense/aspect. Many languages also have a special form of the verb in negative clauses.
Most Cushitic languages distinguish seven person/number categories: first, second, third person, singular and plural number, with a masculine/feminine gender distinction in third person singular. The most common conjugation type employs suffixes. Some languages also have a prefix conjugation: in Beja and the Saho–Afar languages, the prefix conjugation is still a productive part of the verb paradigm, whereas in most other languages, e.g. Somali, it is restricted to only a few verbs. It is generally assumed that historically, the suffix conjugation developed from the older prefix conjugation, by combining the verb stem with a suffixed auxiliary verb. The following table gives an example for the suffix and prefix conjugations in affirmative present tense in Somali.
====Syntax====
Basic word order is verb final, the most common order being subject–object–verb (SOV). The subject or object can also follow the verb to indicate focus.
==Classification==
===Overview===
The phylum was first designated as Cushitic in 1858. Traditionally, Cushitic has been divided into North Cushitic (consisting solely of Beja), Central Cushitic (the Agaw languages), and the large East Cushitic group. Greenberg (1950) argued for the inclusion of the South Cushitic group. The Omotic languages, once classified as West Cushitic, have almost universally been reclassified as a separate branch of Afroasiatic.
Cushitic
North Cushitic (Beja)
Central Cushitic (Agaw)
East Cushitic
South Cushitic
This classification has not been without contention. For example, it has been argued that Southern Cushitic belongs in the Eastern branch, with its divergence explained by contact with Hadza- and Sandawe-like languages. Hetzron (1980) and Fleming (post-1981) exclude Beja altogether, though this is rejected by other linguists. Some of the classifications that have been proposed over the years are summarized here:
For debate on the placement of the Cushitic branch within Afroasiatic, see Afroasiatic languages.
===Beja===
Beja constitutes the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic). Hetzron (1980) argues that Beja therefore may comprise an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family. However, this suggestion has been rejected by most other scholars. The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are instead generally acknowledged as normal branch variation.
Blemmyan, an early form of Beja – mostly attested through onomastic evidence, but also directly by a small text on an ostracon from Saqqara – was spoken by the Blemmyes, an ancient people of Lower Nubia that appears in the Egyptian historical records from the 6th century BCE onwards. It is also likely that the Medjay spoke a language that was ancestral to Beja.
===Omotic===
Cushitic was formerly seen as also including most or all of the Omotic languages. An early view by Enrico Cerulli proposed a "Sidama" subgroup comprising most of the Omotic languages and the Sidamic group of Highland East Cushitic. Mario Martino Moreno in 1940 divided Cerulli's Sidama, uniting the Sidamic proper and the Lowland Cushitic languages as East Cushitic, the remainder as West Cushitic or ta/ne Cushitic. The Aroid languages were not considered Cushitic by either scholar (thought by Cerulli to be instead Nilotic); they were added to West Cushitic by Joseph Greenberg in 1963. Further work in the 1960s soon led to the putative West Cushitic being seen as typologically divergent and renamed as "Omotic".
Today the inclusion of Omotic as a part of Cushitic has been abandoned. Omotic is most often seen as an independent branch of Afroasiatic, primarily due to the work of Harold C. Fleming (1974) and Lionel Bender (1975); some linguists like Paul Newman (1980) challenge Omotic's classification within the Afroasiatic family itself.
===Other divergent languages===
There are also a few languages of uncertain classification, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kw'adza, Boon, Ongota and the Cushitic component of Mbugu (Ma'a). There is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated.
The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain. They have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic subbranch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node and that its constituents should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic.
The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota has also been broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, because of the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold C. Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Bonny Sands (2009) thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.
Hetzron (1980) and Ehret (1995) have suggested that the South Cushitic languages (Rift languages) are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity.
==Hypothesized Cushitic substrate languages==
Some of the ancient peoples of Nubia are hypothesized to have spoken languages belonging to the Cushitic group, especially the people of the C-Group culture. It has been speculated that these people left a substratum of Cushitic words in the modern Nubian languages. Given the scarcity of data (all omomastic or toponymic), however, it remains unclear if the C-Group culture in fact spoke a Cushitic language.
Christopher Ehret (1998) proposed on the basis of loanwords that South Cushitic languages (called "Tale" and "Bisha" by Ehret) were spoken in an area closer to Lake Victoria than are found today.
Also, historically, the Southern Nilotic languages have undergone extensive contact with a "missing" branch of East Cushitic that Heine (1979) refers to as Baz.
==Reconstruction==
Christopher Ehret proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Cushitic in 1987, but did not base this on individual branch reconstructions. Grover Hudson (1989) has done some preliminary work on Highland East Cushitic, David Appleyard (2006) has proposed a reconstruction of Proto-Agaw, and Roland Kießling and Maarten Mous (2003) have jointly proposed a reconstruction of West Rift Southern Cushitic. No reconstruction has been published for Lowland East Cushitic, though Paul D. Black wrote his (unpublished) dissertation on the topic in 1974. Hans-Jürgen Sasse (1979) proposed a reconstruction of the consonants of Proto-East Cushitic. No comparative work has yet brought these branch reconstructions together.
==Comparative vocabulary==
===Basic vocabulary===
Sample basic vocabulary of Cushitic languages from Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020:318) (with PSC denoting Proto-Southern Cushitic):
===Numerals===
Comparison of numerals in individual Cushitic languages:
|
[
"Qimant language",
"Oromo language",
"Blemmyes",
"Yaaku language",
"Asa language",
"central vowel",
"Medjay",
"Sudan",
"genitive case",
"suffix",
"singulative number",
"ISO 639:wbj",
"ISO 639:byn",
"toponym",
"pharyngeal consonant",
"Saho language",
"Somaliland",
"Djibouti",
"Grammatical number",
"Hadiyya language",
"Aroid languages",
"Lionel Bender (linguist)",
"Bilen language",
"Sandawe language",
"ISO 639:gex",
"Sidama language",
"South Cushitic",
"ISO 639:alw",
"ISO 639:orc",
"ISO 639:aar",
"Awngi language",
"Harold C. Fleming",
"Tone (linguistics)",
"Afar language",
"ISO 639:ktb",
"subject–object–verb",
"ISO 639:gow",
"ISO 639:bji",
"ISO 639:sid",
"Paul Newman (linguist)",
"ISO 639:gwd",
"Grover Hudson",
"ISO 639:elo",
"Afroasiatic languages",
"ablaut",
"ISO 639:liq",
"Sidamo language",
"C-Group culture",
"ISO 639:drs",
"Afar Region",
"Proto-Cushitic language",
"Omotic languages",
"word order",
"ISO 639:dox",
"South Cushitic languages",
"ISO 639:awn",
"ISO 639:rel",
"reduplication",
"Oromia Zone",
"Blemmyan language",
"Egypt",
"Proto-Cushitic",
"Ejective consonants",
"Focus (linguistics)",
"ISO 639:ssy",
"Savanna Pastoral Neolithic",
"Cushitic speaking peoples",
"Linguistic typology",
"Robert Hetzron",
"ostracon",
"Eritrea",
"onomastic",
"Southern Nilotic languages",
"ISO 639:kxc",
"construct case",
"Kw'adza language",
"Harari Region",
"Boon language",
"Oromia",
"Marked nominative language",
"Agaw languages",
"Nilo-Saharan languages",
"Mbugu language",
"East Africa",
"Kambaata language",
"Grammatical case",
"Substratum (linguistics)",
"Iraqw language",
"ISO 639:bsw",
"Nilotic languages",
"Ethiopia",
"ISO 639:arv",
"ISO 639:bob",
"Joseph Greenberg",
"ISO 639:dsh",
"ISO 639:bds",
"Hadza language",
"Pitch-accent language",
"ISO 639:tsb",
"Dahalo language",
"ISO 639:gaz",
"Enrico Cerulli",
"Grammatical gender",
"ISO 639:gdl",
"Somali Region",
"ISO 639:tqq",
"North Cushitic languages",
"Somalia",
"ISO 639:xan",
"ISO 639:ahg",
"Nubia",
"Horn of Africa",
"ISO 639:irk",
"Christopher Ehret",
"Meroitic language",
"glottalic consonant",
"ISO 639:hdy",
"Amhara Region",
"Saqqara",
"ISO 639:som",
"Dire Dawa",
"ISO 639:dal",
"Ongota language",
"ISO 639:bej",
"Somali language",
"East Cushitic languages",
"Beja language",
"Saho–Afar languages",
"Implosive consonants"
] |
7,279 |
Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code
|
Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code (Title 11 of the United States Code) permits reorganization under the bankruptcy laws of the United States. Such reorganization, known as Chapter 11 bankruptcy, is available to every business, whether organized as a corporation, partnership or sole proprietorship, and to individuals, although it is most prominently used by corporate entities. In contrast, Chapter 7 governs the process of a liquidation bankruptcy, though liquidation may also occur under Chapter 11; while Chapter 13 provides a reorganization process for the majority of private individuals.
==Chapter 11 overview==
When a business is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, the business or its creditors can file with a federal bankruptcy court for protection under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 11.
In Chapter 7, the business ceases operations, a trustee sells all of its assets, and then distributes the proceeds to its creditors. Any residual amount is returned to the owners of the company.
In Chapter 11, in most instances the debtor remains in control of its business operations as a debtor in possession, and is subject to the oversight and jurisdiction of the court.
A Chapter 11 bankruptcy will result in one of three outcomes for the debtor: reorganization, conversion to Chapter 7 bankruptcy, or dismissal. In order for a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, the debtor must file (and the court must confirm) a plan of reorganization. In effect, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including the debtor and its creditors. Most Chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible.
If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all agree, then the plan can be confirmed. Section 1129 of the Bankruptcy Code requires the bankruptcy court reach certain conclusions prior to confirming or approving the plan and making it binding on all parties in the case, most notably that the plan complies with applicable law and was proposed in good faith. The court must also find that the reorganization plan is feasible in that, unless the plan provides otherwise, the plan is not likely to be followed by further reorganization or liquidation.
In a Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor corporation is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, a process through which some of the debtor corporation's debts may be discharged. Determinations as to which debts are discharged, and how equity and other entitlements are distributed to various groups of investors, are often based on a
valuation of the reorganized business. Bankruptcy valuation is often highly contentious because it is both subjective and important to case outcomes. The methods of valuation used in bankruptcy have changed over time, generally tracking methods used in investment banking, Delaware corporate law, and corporate and academic finance, but with a significant time lag.
==Features of Chapter 11 reorganization==
Chapter 11 retains many of the features present in all or most bankruptcy proceedings in the United States. It provides additional tools for debtors as well. Most importantly, empowers the trustee to operate the debtor's business. In Chapter 11, unless a separate trustee is appointed for cause, the debtor, as debtor in possession, acts as trustee of the business.
Chapter 11 affords the debtor to possess several mechanisms to restructure its business. A debtor in possession can acquire financing and loans on favorable terms by giving new lenders first priority on the business's earnings. The court may also permit the debtor in possession to reject and cancel contracts. Debtors are also protected from other litigation against the business through the imposition of an automatic stay. While the automatic stay is in place, creditors are stayed from any collection attempts or activities against the debtor in possession, and most litigation against the debtor is stayed, or put on hold, until it can be resolved in bankruptcy court, or resumed in its original venue. An example of proceedings that are not necessarily stayed automatically is family law proceedings against a spouse or parent. Further, creditors may file with the court seeking relief from the automatic stay.
If the business is insolvent, its debts exceed its assets, and the business is unable to pay debts as they come due, the bankruptcy restructuring may result in the company's owners being left with nothing; instead, the owners' rights and interests are ended and the company's creditors are left with ownership of the newly reorganized company.
All creditors are entitled to be heard by the court. The court is ultimately responsible for determining whether the proposed plan of reorganization complies with bankruptcy laws.
One controversy that has broken out in bankruptcy courts concerns the proper amount of disclosure that the court and other parties are entitled to receive from the members of the creditor's committees that play a large role in many proceedings.
=== Chapter 11 plan ===
Chapter 11 usually results in the reorganization of the debtor's business or personal assets and debts, but can also be used as a mechanism for liquidation. Debtors may "emerge" from a Chapter 11 bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy. The Bankruptcy Code accomplishes this objective through the use of a bankruptcy plan. The debtor in possession typically has the first opportunity to propose a plan during the period of exclusivity. This period allows the debtor 120 days from the date of filing for Chapter 11 to propose a plan of reorganization before any other party in interest may propose a plan. If the debtor proposes a plan within the 120-day exclusivity period, a 180-day exclusivity period from the date of filing for Chapter 11 is granted in order to allow the debtor to gain confirmation of the proposed plan. Interested creditors then vote for a plan.
=== Confirmation ===
If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors agree, the plan can be confirmed. If at least one class of creditors objects and votes against the plan, it may nonetheless be confirmed if the requirements of cramdown are met. In order to be confirmed over the creditors' objection, the plan must not discriminate against that class of creditors, and the plan must be found fair and equitable to that class. Upon confirmation, the plan becomes binding and identifies the treatment of debts and operations of the business for the duration of the plan. If a plan cannot be confirmed, the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7 or, if, in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed, resulting in a return to the status quo before bankruptcy. If the case is dismissed, creditors will look to non-bankruptcy law in order to satisfy their claims.
In order to proceed to the confirmation hearing, the bankruptcy court must approve a disclosure statement. Once the disclosure statement is approved, the plan proponent will solicit votes from the classes of creditors. Solicitation is the process by which creditors vote on the proposed confirmation plan. This process can be complicated if creditors fail or refuse to vote. In this case, the plan proponent might tailor his or her efforts to obtain votes, or the plan itself. The plan may be modified before confirmation, so long as the modified plan meets all the requirements of Chapter 11.
A chapter 11 case typically results in one of three outcomes: a reorganization, a conversion into chapter 7 liquidation, or it is dismissed.
For a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, they must file (and the court must confirm) a reorganization plan. Simply put, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including, but not limited to the debtor and its creditors. Most chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible. Section 1121(b) of the Bankruptcy Code provides for an exclusivity period in which only the debtor may file a plan of reorganization. This period lasts 120 days after the date of the order for relief, and if the debtor does file a plan within the first 120 days, the exclusivity period is extended to 180 days after the order for relief for the debtor to seek acceptance of the plan by holders of claims and interests. Most importantly, the bankruptcy court must find the plan (a) complies with applicable law, and (b) has been proposed in good faith. Furthermore, the court must determine whether the plan is "feasible," In other words, the court must safeguard that confirming the plan will not yield to liquidation down the road.
The plan must ensure that the debtor will be able to pay most administrative and priority claims (priority claims over unsecured claims) on the effective date.
=== Automatic stay ===
Like other forms of bankruptcy, petitions filed under Chapter 11 invoke the automatic stay of § 362. The automatic stay requires all creditors to cease collection attempts, making many post-petition debt collection efforts void or voidable. Under some circumstances, some creditors, or the United States Trustee, can request the court convert the case into a liquidation under Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee to manage the debtor's business. The court will grant a motion to convert to Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors. Sometimes, a company will liquidate under Chapter 11 (perhaps in a 363 sale), in which the pre-existing management may be able to help get a higher price for divisions or other assets than a Chapter 7 liquidation would be likely to achieve. Section 362(d) of the Bankruptcy Code allows the court to terminate, annul, or modify the continuation of the automatic stay as may be necessary or appropriate to balance the competing interests of the debtor, its estate, creditors, and other parties in interest and grants the bankruptcy court considerable flexibility to tailor relief to the exigencies of the circumstances. Relief from the automatic stay is generally sought by motion and, if opposed, is treated as a contested matter under Bankruptcy Rule 9014. A party seeking relief from the automatic stay must also pay the filing fee required by 28 U.S.C.A. § 1930(b). Every major US airline has filed for Chapter 11 since 2002. In the space of 2 years (2002–2004) US Airways filed for bankruptcy twice leaving the AFL–CIO, pilot unions and other airline employees claiming the rules of Chapter 11 have helped turn the United States into a corporatocracy. The trustee or debtor-in-possession is given the right, under § 365 of the Bankruptcy Code, subject to court approval, to assume or reject executory contracts and unexpired leases. The trustee or debtor-in-possession must assume or reject an executory contract in its entirety unless some portion of it is severable. The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally assumes a contract or lease if it is needed to operate the reorganized business or if it can be assigned or sold at a profit. The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally rejects a contract or lease to transform damage claims arising from the nonperformance of those obligations into a prepetition claim. In some situations, rejection can limit the damages a contract counterparty can claim against the debtor. Secured creditors—creditors who have a security interest, or collateral, in the debtor's property—will be paid before unsecured creditors. Unsecured creditors' claims are prioritized by § 507. For instance, the claims of suppliers of products or employees of a company may be paid before other unsecured creditors are paid. Each priority level must be paid in full before the next lower priority level may receive payment.
=== Section 1110 ===
Section 1110 () generally provides a secured party with an interest in an aircraft the ability to take possession of the equipment within 60 days after a bankruptcy filing unless the airline cures all defaults. More specifically, the right of the lender to take possession of the secured equipment is not hampered by the automatic stay provisions of the Bankruptcy Code.
=== Subchapter V ===
In August 2019, the Small Business Reorganization Act of 2019 ("SBRA") added Subchapter V to Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code. Subchapter V, which took effect in February 2020, is reserved exclusively for small business debtors to expedite bankruptcy procedures and economically resolve small business bankruptcy cases.
Subchapter V retains many of the advantages of a traditional Chapter 11 case without the unnecessary procedural burdens and costs. It seeks to increase the debtor's ability to negotiate a successful reorganization, retain control of the business, increase oversight, and ensure a quick reorganization.
A Subchapter V case contrasts with a traditional Chapter 11 in several key aspects: it is earmarked only for the "small business debtor" (as defined by the Bankruptcy Code), so only a debtor can file a plan of reorganization. The SBRA requires the U.S. Trustee to appoint a "Subchapter V trustee" to every Subchapter V case to supervise and control estate funds and facilitate the development of a consensual plan. It also eliminates the automatic appointment of an official committee of unsecured creditors and abolishes quarterly fees usually paid to the U.S. Trustee throughout the case. Most notably, Subchapter V allows the small business owner to retain their equity in the business so long as the reorganization plan does not discriminate unfairly and is fair and equitable with respect to each class of claims or interests.
== Considerations ==
The reorganization and court process may take an inordinate amount of time, limiting the chances of a successful outcome and sufficient debtor-in-possession financing may be unavailable during an economic recession. A preplanned, pre-agreed approach between the debtor and its creditors (sometimes called a pre-packaged bankruptcy) may facilitate the desired result. A company undergoing Chapter 11 reorganization is effectively operating under the "protection" of the court until it emerges. An example is the airline industry in the United States; in 2006 over half the industry's seating capacity was on airlines that were in Chapter 11. These airlines were able to stop making debt payments, break their previously agreed upon labor union contracts, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors — all with the bankruptcy court's approval.
Studies on the impact of forestalling the creditors' rights to enforce their security reach different conclusions.
== Statistics ==
=== Frequency ===
Chapter 11 cases dropped by 60% from 1991 to 2003. One 2007 study found this was because businesses were turning to bankruptcy-like proceedings under state law, rather than the federal bankruptcy proceedings, including those under chapter 11. Insolvency proceedings under state law, the study stated, are currently faster, less expensive, and more private, with some states not even requiring court filings. However, a 2005 study
Enron, Lehman Brothers, MF Global and Refco have all ceased operations while others were acquired by other buyers or emerged as a new company with a similar name.
‡ The Enron assets were taken from the 10-Q filed on November 11, 2001. The company announced that the annual financials were under review at the time of filing for Chapter 11.
|
[
"airline industry",
"Pacific Gas and Electric Company",
"UAL Corporation",
"corporation",
"Conseco",
"Secured creditor",
"Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc",
"Penn Central Transportation Company",
"General Motors",
"Delphi Automotive",
"Insolvency law of Canada",
"List of private equity owned companies that have filed for bankruptcy",
"partnership",
"Lehman Brothers",
"Global Crossing",
"Ontario",
"reorganization",
"security interest",
"United States bankruptcy court",
"Enron",
"Administration (law)",
"Examinership",
"Bankruptcy in the United States",
"Delta Air Lines",
"corporatocracy",
"business",
"Subchapter V",
"Title 11 of the United States Code",
"US Airways",
"AFL–CIO",
"722 redemption",
"cramdown",
"MF Global",
"creditors",
"seating capacity",
"BBC News",
"Thomson Reuters",
"Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code",
"Washington Mutual",
"MCI Inc.",
"sole proprietorship",
"Debtor",
"debtor in possession",
"Chrysler",
"prepackaged bankruptcy",
"collateral (finance)",
"United States Trustee",
"debtor-in-possession financing",
"The New York Times",
"Refco",
"Texaco",
"bankruptcy",
"jonesday.com",
"Insolvency",
"CIT Group",
"Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code",
"Cornell University",
"liquidation",
"automatic stay"
] |
7,280 |
Conjugation
|
Conjugation or conjugate may refer to:
==Linguistics==
Grammatical conjugation, the modification of a verb from its basic form
Emotive conjugation or Russell's conjugation, the use of loaded language
==Mathematics==
Complex conjugation, the change of sign of the imaginary part of a complex number
Conjugate (square roots), the change of sign of a square root in an expression
Conjugate element (field theory), a generalization of the preceding conjugations to roots of a polynomial of any degree
Conjugate transpose, the complex conjugate of the transpose of a matrix
Harmonic conjugate in complex analysis
Conjugate (graph theory), an alternative term for a line graph, i.e. a graph representing the edge adjacencies of another graph
In group theory, various notions are called conjugation:
Inner automorphism, a type of conjugation homomorphism
Conjugacy class in group theory, related to matrix similarity in linear algebra
Conjugation (group theory), the image of an element under the conjugation homomorphisms
Conjugate closure, the image of a subgroup under the conjugation homomorphisms
Conjugate words in combinatorics; this operation on strings resembles conjugation in groups
Isogonal conjugate, in geometry
Conjugate gradient method, an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations
Conjugate points, in differential geometry
Topological conjugation, which identifies equivalent dynamical systems
Convex conjugate, the ("dual") lower-semicontinuous convex function resulting from the Legendre–Fenchel transformation of a "primal" function
==Probability and statistics==
Conjugate prior, in Bayesian statistics, a family of probability distributions that contains a prior and the posterior distributions for a particular likelihood function (particularly for one-parameter exponential families)
Conjugate pairing of probability distributions, in the Fourier-analytic theory of characteristic functions and statistical mechanics
==Science==
Sexual conjugation, a type of isogamy in unicellular eukaryotes
Bacterial conjugation, a mechanism of exchange of genetic material between bacteria
Conjugate vaccine, in immunology
Conjugation (biochemistry), covalently linking a biomolecule with another molecule
Conjugate (acid-base theory), a system describing a conjugate acid-base pair
Conjugated system, a system of atoms covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple bonds
Conjugate variables (thermodynamics), pairs of variables that always change simultaneously
Conjugate quantities, observables that are linked by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Conjugate focal plane, in optics
Charge conjugation
|
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"Conjugate prior",
"Bacterial conjugation",
"Dutch conjugation",
"Conjugation (group theory)",
"characteristic function (probability theory)",
"Conjugal (disambiguation)",
"Conjugate (acid-base theory)",
"Conjugated system",
"Complex conjugation",
"Conjugacy class",
"Conjugate focal plane",
"Charge conjugation",
"Conjugate vaccine",
"Grammatical conjugation",
"Conjugate gradient method",
"Convex conjugate",
"Conjugation (biochemistry)",
"Conjugate (graph theory)",
"Conjugate quantities",
"Conjugate variables (thermodynamics)",
"Conjoint",
"Conjugate element (field theory)",
"Isogonal conjugate",
"Sexual conjugation",
"Topological conjugation",
"Free monoid",
"Latin conjugation",
"Conjugate transpose",
"French conjugation",
"Inner automorphism",
"Emotive conjugation",
"Conjugate (square roots)",
"Conjugate closure",
"Conjugate points"
] |
7,283 |
Controversy
|
Controversy (, ) is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus – "turned in an opposite direction", and also means an exercise in rhetoric practiced in Rome.
==Legal==
In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a legal case; while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil, a controversy is a purely civil proceeding.
For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution (Section 2, Clause 1) states that "the judicial Power shall extend ... to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party". This clause has been deemed to impose a requirement that United States federal courts are not permitted to cases that do not pose an actual controversy—that is, an actual dispute between adverse parties which is capable of being resolved by the [court]. In addition to setting out the scope of the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary, it also prohibits courts from issuing advisory opinions, or from hearing cases that are either unripe, meaning that the controversy has not arisen yet, or moot, meaning that the controversy has already been
==Benford's law==
Benford's law of controversy, as expressed by the astrophysicist and science fiction author Gregory Benford in 1980, states: Passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available. In other words, it claims that the less factual information is available on a topic, the more controversy can arise around that topic – and the more facts are available, the less controversy can arise. Thus, for example, controversies in physics would be limited to subject areas where experiments cannot be carried out yet, whereas controversies would be inherent to politics, where communities must frequently decide on courses of action based on insufficient information.
==Psychological bases==
Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants – as implied by Benford's law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information ("passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available"). For example, in analyses of the political controversy over anthropogenic climate change, which is exceptionally virulent in the United States, it has been proposed that those who are opposed to the scientific consensus do so because they don't have enough information about the topic. A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, but not on which side of the debate that they stood.
The puzzling phenomenon of two individuals being able to reach different conclusions after being exposed to the same facts has been frequently explained (particularly by Daniel Kahneman) by reference to a 'bounded rationality' – in other words, that most judgments are made using fast acting heuristics that work well in every day situations, but are not amenable to decision-making about complex subjects such as climate change. Anchoring has been particularly identified as relevant in climate change controversies as individuals are found to be more positively inclined to believe in climate change if the outside temperature is higher, if they have been primed to think about heat, and if they are primed with higher temperatures when thinking about the future temperature increases from climate change.
In other controversies – such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions. Kahan et al. explained this by the cognitive biases of biased assimilation and a credibility heuristic.
Similar effects on reasoning are also seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States. As with other controversies, it has been suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once and for all. In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, based on the mistaken belief of the community's unhindered access to ground truth. However, if there is no access to the ground truth, as there was not in this model, the method will fail.
Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making. Experiments and computational models in multisensory integration have shown that sensory input from different senses is integrated in a statistically optimal way, in addition, it appears that the kind of inferences used to infer single sources for multiple sensory inputs uses a Bayesian inference about the causal origin of the sensory stimuli. As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference.
Brocas and Carrillo propose a model to make decisions based on noisy sensory inputs, beliefs about the state of the world are modified by Bayesian updating, and then decisions are made based on beliefs passing a threshold. They show that this model, when optimized for single-step decision making, produces belief anchoring and polarization of opinions – exactly as described in the global warming controversy context – in spite of identical evidence presented, the pre-existing beliefs (or evidence presented first) has an overwhelming effect on the beliefs formed. In addition, the preferences of the agent (the particular rewards that they value) also cause the beliefs formed to change – this explains the biased assimilation (also known as confirmation bias) shown above. This model allows the production of controversy to be seen as a consequence of a decision maker optimized for single-step decision making, rather than a result of limited reasoning in the bounded rationality of Daniel Kahneman.
|
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"legal case",
"Gun politics in the United States",
"Latin",
"mootness",
"information",
"ProCon.org",
"bounded rationality",
"ripeness",
"global warming controversy",
"heuristic",
"multisensory integration",
"Proportionality (mathematics)",
"civil law (common law)",
"Article Three of the United States Constitution",
"United States",
"Daniel Kahneman",
"Gregory Benford",
"anthropogenic climate change",
"Scandal",
"Third rail (politics)",
"Anchoring",
"confirmation bias",
"Dialectic",
"Bayes estimator",
"Criminal law",
"Criticism",
"advisory opinion",
"Brian Martin (social scientist)",
"opinion",
"Case or Controversy Clause",
"Argument",
"Bipartisanship",
"public opinion on climate change",
"Carl Schleicher",
"machine learning",
"Misinformation",
"rhetoric",
"anchoring",
"HPV vaccine",
"jurisprudence",
"Electronic Frontier Foundation",
"Passion (emotion)",
"wisdom of the crowd",
"controversia"
] |
7,284 |
Centromere
|
The centromere links a pair of sister chromatids together during cell division. This constricted region of chromosome connects the sister chromatids, creating a short arm (p) and a long arm (q) on the chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the centromere via the kinetochore.
The physical role of the centromere is to act as the site of assembly of the kinetochores – a highly complex multiprotein structure that is responsible for the actual events of chromosome segregation – i.e. binding microtubules and signaling to the cell cycle machinery when all chromosomes have adopted correct attachments to the spindle, so that it is safe for cell division to proceed to completion and for cells to enter anaphase.
There are, broadly speaking, two types of centromeres. "Point centromeres" bind to specific proteins that recognize particular DNA sequences with high efficiency. Any piece of DNA with the point centromere DNA sequence on it will typically form a centromere if present in the appropriate species. The best characterized point centromeres are those of the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. "Regional centromeres" is the term coined to describe most centromeres, which typically form on regions of preferred DNA sequence, but which can form on other DNA sequences as well. The signal for formation of a regional centromere appears to be epigenetic. Most organisms, ranging from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe to humans, have regional centromeres.
Regarding mitotic chromosome structure, centromeres represent a constricted region of the chromosome (often referred to as the primary constriction) where two identical sister chromatids are most closely in contact. When cells enter mitosis, the sister chromatids (the two copies of each chromosomal DNA molecule resulting from DNA replication in chromatin form) are linked along their length by the action of the cohesin complex. It is now believed that this complex is mostly released from chromosome arms during prophase, so that by the time the chromosomes line up at the mid-plane of the mitotic spindle (also known as the metaphase plate), the last place where they are linked with one another is in the chromatin in and around the centromere.
== Position ==
In humans, centromere positions define the chromosomal karyotype, in which each chromosome has two arms, p (the shorter of the two) and q (the longer). The short arm 'p' is reportedly named for the French word "petit" meaning 'small'. The position of the centromere relative to any particular linear chromosome is used to classify chromosomes as metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric, or holocentric.
Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the centromere and sometimes the presence of a chromosomal satellite, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups:
== Sequence ==
There are two types of centromeres. In regional centromeres, DNA sequences contribute to but do not define function. Regional centromeres contain large amounts of DNA and are often packaged into heterochromatin. In most eukaryotes, the centromere's DNA sequence consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (e.g. satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical. In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called α-satellite (or alphoid), although a number of other sequence types are found in this region. Centromere satellites are hypothesized to evolve by a process called layered expansion. They evolve rapidly between species, and analyses in wild mice show that satellite copy number and heterogeneity relates to population origins and subspecies. Additionally, satellite sequences may be affected by inbreeding. The daughter chromosomes will assemble centromeres in the same place as the parent chromosome, independent of sequence. It has been proposed that histone H3 variant CENP-A (Centromere Protein A) is the epigenetic mark of the centromere. The question arises whether there must be still some original way in which the centromere is specified, even if it is subsequently propagated epigenetically. If the centromere is inherited epigenetically from one generation to the next, the problem is pushed back to the origin of the first metazoans.
On the other hand, thanks to comparisons of the centromeres in the X chromosomes, epigenetic and structural variations have been seen in these regions. In addition, a recent assembly of the human genome has detected a possible mechanism of how pericentromeric and centromeric structures evolve, through a layered expansion model for αSat sequences. This model proposes that different αSat sequence repeats emerge periodically and expand within an active vector, displacing old sequences, and becoming the site of kinetochore assembly. The αSat can originate from the same, or from different vectors. As this process is repeated over time, the layers that flank the active centromere shrink and deteriorate. This process raises questions about the relationship between this dynamic evolutionary process and the position of the centromere.
== Structure ==
The centromeric DNA is normally in a heterochromatin state, which is essential for the recruitment of the cohesin complex that mediates sister chromatid cohesion after DNA replication as well as coordinating sister chromatid separation during anaphase. In this chromatin, the normal histone H3 is replaced with a centromere-specific variant, CENP-A in humans. The presence of CENP-A is believed to be important for the assembly of the kinetochore on the centromere. CENP-C has been shown to localise almost exclusively to these regions of CENP-A associated chromatin. In human cells, the histones are found to be most enriched for H4K20me3 and H3K9me3 which are known heterochromatic modifications. In Drosophila, Islands of retroelements are major components of the centromeres.
In the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (and probably in other eukaryotes), the formation of centromeric heterochromatin is connected to RNAi. In nematodes such as Caenorhabditis elegans, some plants, and the insect orders Lepidoptera and Hemiptera, chromosomes are "holocentric", indicating that there is not a primary site of microtubule attachments or a primary constriction, and a "diffuse" kinetochore assembles along the entire length of the chromosome.
== Centromeric aberrations ==
In rare cases, neocentromeres can form at new sites on a chromosome as a result of a repositioning of the centromere. This phenomenon is most well known from human clinical studies and there are currently over 90 known human neocentromeres identified on 20 different chromosomes. The formation of a neocentromere must be coupled with the inactivation of the previous centromere, since chromosomes with two functional centromeres (Dicentric chromosome) will result in chromosome breakage during mitosis. In some unusual cases human neocentromeres have been observed to form spontaneously on fragmented chromosomes. Some of these new positions were originally euchromatic and lack alpha satellite DNA altogether. Neocentromeres lack the repetitive structure seen in normal centromeres which suggest that centromere formation is mainly controlled epigenetically. Over time a neocentromere can accumulate repetitive elements and mature into what is known as an evolutionary new centromere. There are several well known examples in primate chromosomes where the centromere position is different from the human centromere of the same chromosome and is thought to be evolutionary new centromeres.
Centromere proteins are also the autoantigenic target for some anti-nuclear antibodies, such as anti-centromere antibodies.
== Dysfunction and disease ==
It has been known that centromere misregulation contributes to mis-segregation of chromosomes, which is strongly related to cancer and miscarriage. Notably, overexpression of many centromere genes have been linked to cancer malignant phenotypes. Overexpression of these centromere genes can increase genomic instability in cancers. Elevated genomic instability on one hand relates to malignant phenotypes; on the other hand, it makes the tumor cells more vulnerable to specific adjuvant therapies such as certain chemotherapies and radiotherapy. Instability of centromere repetitive DNA was recently shown in cancer and aging.
==Repair of centromeric DNA==
When DNA breaks occur at centromeres in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, the cells are able to recruit the homologous recombinational repair machinery to the damaged site, even in the absence of a sister chromatid. It appears that homologous recombinational repair can occur at centromeric breaks throughout the cell cycle in order to prevent the activation of inaccurate mutagenic DNA repair pathways and to preserve centromeric integrity.) uses combining forms of centro- and -mere, yielding "central part", describing the centromere's location at the center of the chromosome.
|
[
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"Chromosome 12 (human)",
"Przewalski's horse",
"nucleolus",
"Chromosome 15 (human)",
"diploid",
"Chromosome 22 (human)",
"Nucleolus organizer region",
"human chromosome 2",
"metazoans",
"Saccharomyces cerevisiae",
"CENPA",
"heterochromatin",
"mitosis",
"Chromosome 4 (human)",
"neocentromere",
"cell division",
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"Diploid",
"chromosome 2",
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"cell cycle",
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"Spindle apparatus",
"protein",
"RNAi",
"histone",
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"Chromosome 21 (human)",
"sister chromatids",
"anti-nuclear antibodies",
"Chromosome 13 (human)",
"meiotic drive",
"anaphase",
"anti-centromere antibodies",
"H4K20me",
"wikt:-mere",
"chromatid",
"ScienceDaily",
"satellite chromosome",
"Chromosome 3 (human)",
"kinetochore",
"G1 phase",
"Telomere",
"Sequence assembly",
"H3K9me3",
"chromosomal satellite",
"ribosomal RNA",
"Base pair",
"Horse",
"Monopolin",
"Telocentric",
"Chromosome 20 (human)",
"classical compound",
"sex chromosome",
"Chromosome 18 (human)",
"Y chromosome",
"Chromatid",
"Neocentromere",
"Robertsonian translocation",
"Homologous chromosome",
"Fluorescent tag",
"Chromosome 11 (human)",
"satellite DNA",
"epigenetic inheritance",
"Chromosome 6 (human)",
"dicentric chromosome",
"speciation",
"Chromosome 5 (human)",
"Chromosome 7 (human)",
"G banding",
"Chromosome 8 (human)",
"Nucleic acid sequence",
"Chromosome 19 (human)",
"human genome",
"Submetacentric",
"DNA damage (naturally occurring)",
"DNA replication",
"kinetochores",
"microtubules",
"Acrocentric"
] |
7,287 |
Castello
|
Castello may refer to:
==Places==
Municipalities of San Marino, known as Castello in Italian
Castello, Venice, the largest of the six sestieri of Venice
Castello, the old town center of Giudicato of Cagliari in Sardinia
Castello, a neighbourhood in Florence
Castello, Hong Kong, a private housing estate in Hong Kong
A locality in the town of Monteggio in Switzerland
Cittadella (Gozo), a citadel in Gozo, Malta
Short name of Castellón de la Plana, a city in the Valencian Community, Spain
Città di Castello, a town in Umbria, Italy
==Other==
Roman Catholic Diocese of Castello, a former diocese based in Venice
Castello (surname)
Castello cheeses
|
[
"Municipalities of San Marino",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Castello",
"Giudicato of Cagliari",
"Città di Castello",
"Castello, Venice",
"Cittadella (Gozo)",
"Castello (surname)",
"Castello cheeses",
"Castell (disambiguation)",
"Castella (disambiguation)",
"Castellón (disambiguation)",
"Castells (disambiguation)",
"Florence",
"Castello, Hong Kong",
"Castelli (disambiguation)",
"Monteggio",
"Castellón de la Plana"
] |
7,288 |
Common preference
|
Common preference is an everyone wins situation in a number of places:
Zero-sum game#Non-zero-sum
Taking Children Seriously
Win-win situation
|
[
"Zero-sum game",
"Taking Children Seriously",
"Win-win situation"
] |
7,291 |
CuteFTP
|
CuteFTP is a series of FTP (file transfer protocol) client applications distributed and supported since 1996 by GlobalSCAPE, who later bought the rights to the software. Both a Windows-based or Mac-based interface were made for both home and professional use.
CuteFTP is used to transfer files between computers and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers to publish web pages, download digital images, music, multi-media files and software, and transfer files of any size or type between home and office. Since 1999, CuteFTP Pro and CuteFTP Mac Pro have also been available alongside CuteFTP Home with free trial periods.
It was originally developed by Alex Kunadze, a Russian programmer.
|
[
"GlobalSCAPE",
"Mac (computer)",
"graphical user interface",
"Microsoft Windows",
"File Transfer Protocol",
"Mac OS X",
"Comparison of FTP clients",
"Comparison of FTP client software",
"file transfer protocol"
] |
7,293 |
Commodore 64
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The Commodore 64, also known as the C64, is an 8-bit home computer introduced in January 1982 by Commodore International (first shown at the Consumer Electronics Show, January 7–10, 1982, in Las Vegas). It has been listed in the Guinness World Records as the highest-selling single computer model of all time, with independent estimates placing the number sold between 12.5 and 17 million units. Volume production started in early 1982, marketing in August for . Preceded by the VIC-20 and Commodore PET, the C64 took its name from its of RAM. With support for multicolor sprites and a custom chip for waveform generation, the C64 could create superior visuals and audio compared to systems without such custom hardware.
The C64 dominated the low-end computer market (except in the UK, France and Japan, lasting only about six months in Japan) for most of the later years of the 1980s. For a substantial period (1983–1986), the C64 had between 30% and 40% share of the US market and two million units sold per year, outselling IBM PC compatibles, the Apple II, and Atari 8-bit computers. Sam Tramiel, a later Atari president and the son of Commodore's founder, said in a 1989 interview, "When I was at Commodore we were building C64s a month for a couple of years." In the UK market, the C64 faced competition from the BBC Micro, the ZX Spectrum, and later the Amstrad CPC 464, but the C64 was still the second-most-popular computer in the UK after the ZX Spectrum. The Commodore 64 failed to make any impact in Japan, as their market was dominated by Japanese computers, such as the NEC PC-8801, Sharp X1, Fujitsu FM-7 and MSX, and in France, where the ZX Spectrum, Thomson MO5 and TO7, and Amstrad CPC 464 dominated the market.
Part of the Commodore 64's success was its sale in regular retail stores instead of only electronics or computer hobbyist specialty stores. Commodore produced many of its parts in-house to control costs, including custom integrated circuit chips from MOS Technology. In the United States, it has been compared to the Ford Model T automobile for its role in bringing a new technology to middle-class households via creative and affordable mass-production. Approximately 10,000 commercial software titles have been made for the Commodore 64, including development tools, office productivity applications, and video games. C64 emulators allow anyone with a modern computer, or a compatible video game console, to run these programs today. The C64 is also credited with popularizing the computer demoscene and is still used today by some computer hobbyists. In 2011, 17 years after it was taken off the market, research showed that brand recognition for the model was still at 87%.
== History ==
In January 1981, MOS Technology, Inc., Commodore's integrated circuit design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next-generation video game console. Design work for the chips, named MOS Technology VIC-II (Video Integrated Circuit for graphics) and MOS Technology SID (Sound Interface Device for audio), was completed in November 1981. Commodore then began a game console project that would use the new chips—called the Ultimax or the MAX Machine, engineered by Yash Terakura from Commodore Japan. This project was eventually cancelled after just a few machines were manufactured for the Japanese market. At the same time, Robert "Bob" Russell (system programmer and architect on the VIC-20) and Robert "Bob" Yannes (engineer of the SID) were critical of the current product line-up at Commodore, which was a continuation of the Commodore PET line aimed at business users. With the support of Al Charpentier (engineer of the VIC-II) and Charles Winterble (manager of MOS Technology), they proposed to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel a low-cost sequel to the VIC-20. Tramiel dictated that the machine should have of random-access memory (RAM). Although 64-Kbit dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) chips cost over at the time, he knew that 64K DRAM prices were falling and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached. The team was able to quickly design the computer because, unlike most other home-computer companies, Commodore had its own semiconductor fab to produce test chips; because the fab was not running at full capacity, development costs were part of existing corporate overhead. The chips were complete by November, by which time Charpentier, Winterble, and Tramiel had decided to proceed with the new computer; the latter set a final deadline for the first weekend of January, to coincide with the 1982 Consumer Electronics Show (CES).
The product was code named the VIC-40 as the successor to the popular VIC-20. The team that constructed it consisted of Yash Terakura, Shiraz Shivji, Bob Russell, Bob Yannes, and David A. Ziembicki. The design, prototypes, and some sample software were finished in time for the show, after the team had worked tirelessly over both Thanksgiving and Christmas weekends. The machine used the same case, same-sized motherboard, and same Commodore BASIC 2.0 in ROM as the VIC-20. BASIC also served as the user interface shell and was available immediately on startup at the READY prompt. When the product was to be presented, the VIC-40 product was renamed C64. The C64 made an impressive debut at the January 1982 Consumer Electronics Show, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595? The answer was vertical integration; due to Commodore's ownership of MOS Technology's semiconductor fabrication facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of (equivalent to $350 in 2022).
=== Reception ===
In July 1983, BYTE magazine stated that "the 64 retails for . At that price it promises to be one of the hottest contenders in the under- personal computer market." It described the SID as "a true music synthesizer ... the quality of the sound has to be heard to be believed", while criticizing the use of Commodore BASIC 2.0, the floppy disk performance which is "even slower than the Atari 810 drive", and Commodore's quality control. BYTE gave more details, saying the C64 had "inadequate Commodore BASIC 2.0. An 8K-byte interpreted BASIC" which they assumed was because "Obviously, Commodore feels that most home users will be running prepackaged software - there is no provision for using graphics (or sound as mentioned above) from within a BASIC program except by means of POKE commands." This was one of very few warnings about C64 BASIC published in any computer magazines. Creative Computing said in December 1984 that the C64 was "the overwhelming winner" in the category of home computers under . Despite criticizing its "slow disk drive, only two cursor directional keys, zero manufacturer support, non-standard interfaces, etc.", the magazine said that at the C64's price of less than "you can't get another system with the same features: 64K, color, sprite graphics, and barrels of available software". The Tandy Color Computer was the runner up. The Apple II was the winner in the category of home computer over , which was the category the Commodore 64 was in when it was first released at the price of .
=== Market war: 1982–1983 ===
Commodore had a reputation for announcing products that never appeared, so the company sought to ship the C64 quickly. Production began in the spring of 1982, and volume shipments began in August. The C64 faced a wide range of competing home computers, but, with a lower price and more flexible hardware, it quickly outsold many of its competitors.
In the United States, the greatest competitors were the Atari 8-bit computers, the Apple II, and the TI-99/4A. The Atari 400 and 800 had been designed to accommodate previously stringent FCC emissions requirements and so were expensive to manufacture. Though similar in specifications, the C64 and Apple II represented differing design philosophies; as an open architecture system, upgrade capability for the Apple II was granted by internal expansion slots, whereas the C64's comparatively closed architecture had only a single external ROM cartridge port for bus expansion. However, the Apple II used its expansion slots for interfacing with common peripherals like disk drives, printers, and modems; the C64 had a variety of ports integrated into its motherboard, which were used for these purposes, usually leaving the cartridge port free. Commodore's was not a completely closed system, however; the company had published detailed specifications for most of their models since the Commodore PET and VIC-20 days, and the C64 was no exception. This was in contrast to the TI-99/4A, as Texas Instruments focused less on hobbyists and more towards unsophisticated users. C64 sales were relatively slow due to a lack of software, reliability issues with early production models, particularly high failure rates of the PLA chip, which used a new production process, and a shortage of 1541 disk drives, which also suffered rather severe reliability issues. During 1983, however, a trickle of software turned into a flood and sales began rapidly climbing.
Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers but also through department stores, discount stores, toy stores and college bookstores. The C64 had a built-in RF modulator and thus could be plugged into any television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the Atari 2600. Like the Apple IIe, the C64 could also output a composite video signal, avoiding the RF modulator altogether. This allowed the C64 to be plugged into a specialized monitor for a sharper picture. Unlike the IIe, the C64's NTSC output capability also included separate luminance/chroma signal output equivalent to (and electrically compatible with) S-Video, for connection to the Commodore 1702 monitor, providing even better video quality than a composite signal.
Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to have been a major catalyst in the video game crash of 1983. In January 1983, Commodore offered a $100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 to anyone that traded in another video game console or computer. To take advantage of this rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a Timex Sinclair 1000 (TS1000) for as little as with the purchase of a C64. This deal meant that the consumer could send the TS1000 to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference; Timex Corporation departed the computer market within a year. Commodore's tactics soon led to a price war with the major home computer manufacturers. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 contributed significantly to Texas Instruments and other smaller competitors exiting the field.
The price war with Texas Instruments was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel. Commodore dropped the C64's list price by within two months of its release. In June 1983 the company lowered the price to (equivalent to $ in ), and some stores sold the computer for . At one point, the company was selling as many C64s as all computers sold by the rest of the industry combined. Meanwhile, TI lost money by selling the TI-99/4A for . TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid-1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI.
All four machines had similar memory configurations which were standard in 1982–83: for the Apple II+ (upgraded within months of C64's release to with the Apple IIe) and for the Atari 800. At upwards of , the Apple II was about twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost $899. One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics, and they were quick to exploit the relative price/performance divisions between its competitors with a series of television commercials after the C64's launch in late 1982. The company also published detailed documentation to help developers, while Atari initially kept technical information secret.
Although many early C64 games were inferior Atari 8-bit ports, by late 1983, the growing installed base caused developers to create new software with better graphics and sound. Rumors spread in late 1983 that Commodore would discontinue the C64, but it was the only non-discontinued, widely available home computer in the US by then, with more than 500,000 sold during the Christmas season; because of production problems in Atari's supply chain, by the start of 1984 "the Commodore 64 largely has [the low-end] market to itself right now", The Washington Post reported.
=== 1984–1987 ===
With sales booming and the early reliability issues with the hardware addressed, software for the C64 began to grow in size and ambition during 1984. This growth shifted to the primary focus of most US game developers. The two holdouts were Sierra, who largely skipped over the C64 in favor of Apple and PC-compatible machines, and Broderbund, who were heavily invested in educational software and developed primarily around the Apple II. In the North American market, the disk format had become nearly universal while cassette and cartridge-based software all but disappeared. Most US-developed games by this point grew large enough to require multi-loading from disk.
At a mid-1984 conference of game developers and experts at Origins Game Fair, Dan Bunten, Sid Meier, and a representative of Avalon Hill said that they were developing games for the C64 first as the most promising market. By 1985, games were an estimated 60 to 70% of Commodore 64 software. Computer Gaming World stated in January 1985 that companies such as Epyx that survived the video game crash did so because they "jumped on the Commodore bandwagon early". Over 35% of SSI's 1986 sales were for the C64, ten points higher than for the Apple II. The C64 was even more important for other companies, which often found that more than half the sales for a title ported to six platforms came from the C64 version. That year, Computer Gaming World published a survey of ten game publishers that found that they planned to release forty-three Commodore 64 games that year, compared to nineteen for Atari and forty-eight for Apple II, and Alan Miller stated that Accolade developed first for the C64 because "it will sell the most on that system".
In Europe, the primary competitors to the C64 were British-built computers: the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, the BBC Micro, and the Amstrad CPC 464. In the UK, the 48K Spectrum had not only been released a few months ahead of the C64's early 1983 debut, but it was also selling for £175, less than half the C64's £399 price. The Spectrum quickly became the market leader and Commodore had an uphill struggle against it in the marketplace. The C64 did however go on to rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s. Adjusted to the population size, the popularity of Commodore 64 was the highest in Finland at roughly 3 units per 100 inhabitants, where it was subsequently marketed as "the Computer of the Republic".
By early 1985 the C64's price was ; with an estimated production cost of , its profitability was still within the industry-standard markup of two to three times. Commodore sold about one million C64s in 1985 and a total of 3.5 million by mid-1986. Although the company reportedly attempted to discontinue the C64 more than once in favor of more expensive computers such as the Commodore 128, demand remained strong. In 1986, Commodore introduced the 64C, a redesigned 64, which Compute! saw as evidence that—contrary to C64 owners' fears that the company would abandon them in favor of the Amiga and 128—"the 64 refuses to die". Its introduction also meant that Commodore raised the price of the C64 for the first time, which the magazine cited as the end of the home-computer price war. Software sales also remained strong; MicroProse, for example, in 1987 cited the Commodore and IBM PC markets as its top priorities.
=== 1988–1994 ===
By 1988, PC compatibles were the largest and fastest-growing home and entertainment software markets, displacing former leader Commodore. Commodore 64 software sales were almost unchanged in the third quarter of 1988 year over year while the overall market grew 42%, but the company was still selling 1 to 1.5 million units worldwide each year of what Computer Chronicles that year called "the Model T of personal computers". Epyx CEO Dave Morse cautioned that "there are no new 64 buyers, or very few. It's a consistent group that's not growing... it's going to shrink as part of our business." One computer gaming executive stated that the Nintendo Entertainment System's enormous popularityseven million sold in 1988, almost as many as the number of C64s sold in its first five yearshad stopped the C64's growth. Trip Hawkins reinforced that sentiment, stating that Nintendo was "the last hurrah of the 8-bit world".
SSI exited the Commodore 64 market in 1991, after most competitors. Ultima VI, released in 1991, was the last major C64 game release from a North American developer, and The Simpsons, published by Ultra Games, was the last arcade conversion. The latter was a somewhat uncommon example of a US-developed arcade port as after the early years of the C64, most arcade conversions were produced by UK developers and converted to NTSC and disk format for the US market, American developers instead focusing on more computer-centered game genres such as RPGs and simulations. In the European market, disk software was rarer and cassettes were the most common distribution method; this led to a higher prevalence of arcade titles and smaller, lower-budget games that could fit entirely in the computer's memory without requiring multiloads. European programmers also tended to exploit advanced features of the C64's hardware more than their US counterparts.
The Commodore 64 Light Fantastic pack was release in time for the 1989 Christmas holiday season. The package included a C64C, a Cheetah Defender 64 Light gun and 3D-glasses. This pack included several games compatible with the light gun, including some developed purely for the packs release (Mindscape.)
In the United States, demand for 8-bit computers all but ceased as the 1990s began and PC compatibles completely dominated the computer market. However, the C64 continued to be popular in the UK and other European countries. The machine's eventual demise was not due to lack of demand or the cost of the C64 itself (still profitable at a retail price point between £44 and £50), but rather because of the cost of producing the disk drive. In March 1994, at CeBIT in Hanover, Germany, Commodore announced that the C64 would be finally discontinued in 1995, noting that the Commodore 1541 cost more than the C64 itself.
However, only one month later in April 1994, the company filed for bankruptcy. When Commodore went bankrupt, all production on their inventory, including the C64, was discontinued, thus ending the C64's -year production. Claims of sales of 17, 22 and 30 million of C64 units sold worldwide have been made. Company sales records, however, indicate that the total number was about 12.5 million. Based on that figure, the Commodore 64 was still the third most popular computing platform into the 21st century until 2017 when the Raspberry Pi family replaced it.
While 360,000 C64s were sold in 1982, about 1.3 million were sold in 1983, followed by a large spike in 1984 when 2.6 million were sold. After that, sales held steady at between 1.3 and 1.6 million a year for the remainder of the decade and then dropped off after 1989. North American sales peaked between 1983 and 1985 and gradually tapered off afterward, while European sales remained quite strong into the early 1990s. Commodore itself reported a robust sales figure of over 800,000 units during the 1991 fiscal year, but sales during the 1993 fiscal year had declined to fewer than 200,000 units. Throughout the early 1990s, European sales had accounted for more than 80% of Commodore's total sales revenue.
== C64 family ==
=== Commodore MAX ===
In 1982, Commodore released the MAX Machine in Japan. It was called the Ultimax in the United States and VC-10 in Germany. The MAX was intended to be a game console with limited computing capability and was based on a cut-down version of the hardware family later used in the C64. The MAX was discontinued months after its introduction because of poor sales in Japan.
=== Commodore Educator 64 ===
1983 saw Commodore attempt to compete with the Apple II's hold on the US education market with the Educator 64, essentially a C64 and "green" monochrome monitor in a PET case. Schools preferred the all-in-one metal construction of the PET over the standard C64's separate components, which could be easily damaged, vandalized, or stolen. Schools did not prefer the Educator 64 to the wide range of software and hardware options the Apple IIe was able to offer, and it was produced in limited quantities.
=== SX-64 ===
Also in 1983, Commodore released the SX-64, a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first commercial full-color portable computer. While earlier computers using this form factor only incorporate monochrome ("green screen") displays, the base SX-64 unit features a color cathode-ray tube (CRT) and one integrated 1541 floppy disk drive. Even though Commodore claimed in advertisements that it would have dual 1541 drives, when the SX-64 was released there was only one and the other became a floppy disk storage slot. Also, unlike most other C64s, the SX-64 does not have a datasette connector so an external cassette was not an option.
=== Commodore 128 ===
Two designers at Commodore, Fred Bowen and Bil Herd, were determined to rectify the problems of the Plus/4. They intended that the eventual successors to the C64—the Commodore 128 and 128D computers (1985)—were to build upon the C64, avoiding the Plus/4's flaws. The successors had many improvements such as a BASIC with graphics and sound commands (like almost all home computers not made by Commodore), 80-column display ability, and full CP/M compatibility. The decision to make the Commodore 128 plug compatible with the C64 was made quietly by Bowen and Herd, software and hardware designers respectively, without the knowledge or approval by the management in the post Jack Tramiel era. The designers were careful not to reveal their decision until the project was too far along to be challenged or changed and still make the impending Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas. Upon learning that the C128 was designed to be compatible with the C64, Commodore's marketing department independently announced that the C128 would be 100% compatible with the C64, thereby raising the bar for C64 support. In a case of malicious compliance, the 128 design was altered to include a separate "64 mode" using a complete C64 environment to try to ensure total compatibility.
=== Commodore 64C ===
The C64's designers intended the computer to have a new, wedge-shaped case within a year of release, but the change did not occur. In 1986, Commodore released the 64C computer, which is functionally identical to the original. The exterior design was remodeled in the sleeker style of the Commodore 128. The 64C uses new versions of the SID, VIC-II, and I/O chips being deployed. Models with the C64E board had the graphic symbols printed on the top of the keys, instead of the normal location on the front. The sound chip (SID) was changed to use the MOS 8580 chip, with the core voltage reduced from 12V to 9V. The most significant changes include different behavior in the filters and in the volume control, which result in some music/sound effects sounding differently than intended, and in digitally-sampled audio being almost inaudible, respectively (though both of these can mostly be corrected-for in software). The 64 KB RAM memory went from eight chips to two chips. BASIC and the KERNAL went from two separate chips into one 16 KB ROM chip. The PLA chip and some TTL chips were integrated into a DIL 64-pin chip. The "252535-01" PLA integrated the color RAM as well into the same chip. The smaller physical space made it impossible to put in some internal expansions like a floppy-speeder. In the United States, the 64C was often bundled with the third-party GEOS graphical user interface (GUI)-based operating system, as well as the software needed to access Quantum Link. The 1541 drive received a matching face-lift, resulting in the 1541C. Later, a smaller, sleeker 1541-II model was introduced, along with the 3.5-inch microfloppy 1581.
=== Commodore 64 Games System ===
In 1990, the C64 was repackaged in the form of a game console, called the C64 Games System (C64GS), with most external connectivity removed. A simple modification to the 64C's motherboard was made to allow cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. Designed to compete with the Nintendo Entertainment System and Sega's Master System, it suffered from very low sales compared to its rivals. It was another commercial failure for Commodore, and it was never released outside Europe. The Commodore game system lacked a keyboard, so any software that required a keyboard could not be used.
=== Commodore 65 ===
In 1990, an advanced successor to the C64, the Commodore 65 (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but the project was canceled by Commodore's chairman Irving Gould in 1991. The C65's specifications were impressive for an 8-bit computer, bringing specs comparable to the 16-bit Apple IIGS. For example, it could display 256 colors on the screen, while OCS based Amigas could only display 64 in HalfBrite mode (32 colors and half-bright transformations). Although no specific reason was given for the C65's cancellation, it would have competed in the marketplace with Commodore's lower-end Amigas and the Commodore CDTV.
== Software ==
In 1982, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the Atari 8-bit computers and appeared exceptional when compared with the popular Apple II. The C64 is often credited with starting the demoscene subculture (see Commodore 64 demos). It is still being actively used in the demoscene, especially for music (its SID sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs, and the Elektron SidStation synthesizer). Even though other computers quickly caught up with it, the C64 remained a strong competitor to the later video game consoles Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Master System, thanks in part to its by-then established software base, especially outside North America, where it comprehensively outsold the NES.
Because of lower incomes and the domination of the ZX Spectrum in the UK, almost all British C64 software used cassette tapes. Few cassette C64 programs were released in the US after 1983 and, in North America, the diskette was the principal method of software distribution. The cartridge slot on the C64 was also mainly a feature used in the computer's first two years on the US market and became rapidly obsolete once the price and reliability of 1541 drives improved. A handful of PAL region games used bank switched cartridges to get around the 16 KB memory limit.
=== BASIC ===
As is common for home computers of the early 1980s, the C64 comes with a BASIC interpreter, in ROM. KERNAL, I/O, and tape/disk drive operations are accessed via custom BASIC language commands. The disk drive has its own interfacing microprocessor and ROM (firmware) I/O routines, much like the earlier CBM/PET systems and the Atari 400 and Atari 800. This means that no memory space is dedicated to running a disk operating system, as was the case with earlier systems such as the Apple II and TRS-80.
Commodore BASIC 2.0 is used instead of the more advanced BASIC 4.0 from the PET series, since C64 users were not expected to need the disk-oriented enhancements of BASIC 4.0. The company did not expect many to buy a disk drive, and using BASIC 2.0 simplified VIC-20 owners' transition to the 64. "The choice of BASIC 2.0 instead of 4.0 was made with some soul-searching, not just at random. The typical user of a C64 is not expected to need the direct disk commands as much as other extensions, and the amount of memory to be committed to BASIC were to be limited. We chose to leave expansion space for color and sound extensions instead of the disk features. As a result, you will have to handle the disk in the more cumbersome manner of the 'old days'."
The version of Microsoft BASIC is not very comprehensive and does not include specific commands for sound or graphics manipulation, instead requiring users to use the "PEEK and POKE" commands to access the graphics and sound chip registers directly. To provide extended commands, including graphics and sound, Commodore produced two different cartridge-based extensions to BASIC 2.0: Simons' BASIC and Super Expander 64. Other languages available for the C64 include Pascal, C, Logo, Forth, and FORTRAN. Compilers for BASIC 2.0 such as Petspeed 2 (from Commodore), Blitz (from Jason Ranheim), and Turbo Lightning (from Ocean Software) were produced. Most commercial C64 software was written in assembly language, either cross-developed on a larger computer, or directly on the C64 using a machine code monitor or an assembler. This maximized speed and minimized memory use. Some games, particularly adventures, used high-level scripting languages and sometimes mixed BASIC and machine language.
=== Alternative operating systems ===
Many third-party operating systems have been developed for the C64. As well as the original GEOS, two third-party GEOS-compatible systems have been written: Wheels and GEOS megapatch. Both of these require hardware upgrades to the original C64. Several other operating systems are or have been available, including WiNGS OS, the Unix-like LUnix, operated from a command-line, and the embedded systems OS Contiki, with full GUI. Other less well-known OSes include ACE, Asterix, DOS/65, and GeckOS. C64 OS is commercially available today and under active development. It features a full GUI in character mode, and many other modern features. A version of CP/M was released, but this requires the addition of an external Z80 processor to the expansion bus. Furthermore, the Z80 processor is underclocked to be compatible with the C64's memory bus, so performance is poor compared to other CP/M implementations. C64 CP/M and C128 CP/M both suffer a lack of software; although most commercial CP/M software can run on these systems, software media is incompatible between platforms. The low usage of CP/M on Commodores means that software houses saw no need to invest in mastering versions for the Commodore disk format. The C64 CP/M cartridge is also not compatible with anything except the early 326298 motherboards.
=== Networking software ===
During the 1980s, the Commodore 64 was used to run bulletin board systems using software packages such as Punter BBS, Bizarre 64, Blue Board, C-Net, Color 64, CMBBS, C-Base, DMBBS, Image BBS, EBBS, and The Deadlock Deluxe BBS Construction Kit, often with sysop-made modifications. These boards sometimes were used to distribute cracked software. As late as December 2013, there were 25 such Bulletin Board Systems in operation, reachable via the Telnet protocol. There were major commercial online services, such as Compunet (UK), CompuServe (US later bought by America Online), The Source (US), and Minitel (France) among many others. These services usually required custom software which was often bundled with a modem and included free online time as they were billed by the minute. Quantum Link (or Q-Link) was a US and Canadian online service for Commodore 64 and 128 personal computers that operated from November 5, 1985, to November 1, 1994. It was operated by Quantum Computer Services of Vienna, Virginia, which in October 1991 changed its name to America Online and continued to operate its AOL service for the IBM PC compatible and Apple Macintosh. Q-Link was a modified version of the PlayNET system, which Control Video Corporation (CVC, later renamed Quantum Computer Services) licensed.
=== Online gaming ===
The first graphical character-based interactive environment is Club Caribe. First released as Habitat in 1988, Club Caribe was introduced by LucasArts for Q-Link customers on their Commodore 64 computers. Users could interact with one another, chat and exchange items. Although the game's open world was very basic, its use of online avatars and the combination of chat and graphics was revolutionary. Online graphics in the late 1980s were severely restricted by the need to support modem data transfer rates as low as 300 bits per second. Habitat's graphics were stored locally on floppy disk, eliminating the need for network transfer.
== Hardware ==
=== CPU and memory ===
The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor that is almost identical to the 6502 but has three-state buses, a different pinout, slightly different clock signals and other minor changes for this application. It also has six I/O lines on otherwise-unused legs on the 40-pin IC package. These are used for two purposes in the C64: to bank-switch the machine's read-only memory (ROM) in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the datasette tape recorder. The C64 has of 8-bit-wide dynamic RAM, of 4-bit-wide static color RAM for text mode, and are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0 on startup. There is of ROM, made up of the BASIC interpreter, the KERNAL, and the character ROM. Because the processor can only address at a time, the ROM was mapped into memory and only of RAM (plus between the ROMs) were available at startup. Most "breadbin" Commodore 64s used 4164 DRAM with eight chips totaling 64K of system RAM. Later models, featuring Assy 250466 and Assy 250469 motherboards, used 41464 DRAM (64K×4) chips which stored per chip (so only two were required). Because 4164 DRAMs are 64K×1, eight chips are needed to make an entire byte; the computer will not function without all of them present. The first chip contains Bit 0 for the memory space, the second chip contains Bit 1, and so forth.
The C64 performs a RAM test on power-up and if a RAM error is detected, the amount of free BASIC memory will be lower than the normal 38,911. If the faulty chip is in lower memory, then an ?OUT OF MEMORY IN 0 error is displayed rather than the usual BASIC startup banner.
The C64 uses a complicated memory-banking scheme; the normal power-on default is the BASIC ROM mapped in at -, and the screen editor (KERNAL) ROM at –. RAM under the system ROMs can be written to, but not read back, without swapping out the ROMs. Memory location contains a register with control bits for enabling or disabling the system ROMs and the I/O area at . If the KERNAL ROM is swapped out, BASIC will be removed at the same time. BASIC is not active without the KERNAL; BASIC often calls KERNAL routines, and part of the ROM code for BASIC is in the KERNAL ROM.
The character ROM is normally invisible to the CPU. The character ROM may be mapped into –, where it is then visible to the CPU. Because doing so necessitates swapping out the I/O registers, interrupts must first be disabled. By removing I/O from the memory map, – becomes free RAM.
C64 cartridges map into assigned ranges in the CPU's address space. The most common cartridge auto-starting requires a string at which contains "" followed by the address where program execution begins. A few C64 cartridges released in 1982 use Ultimax mode (or MAX mode), a leftover feature of the unsuccessful MAX Machine. These cartridges map into and displace the KERNAL ROM. If Ultimax mode is used, the programmer will have to provide code for handling system interrupts. The cartridge port has 16 address lines, which grants access to the computer's entire address space if needed. Disk and tape software normally load at the start of BASIC memory ($0801), and use a small BASIC stub (such as 10 SYS(2064)) to jump to the start of the program. Although no Commodore 8-bit machine except the C128 can automatically boot from a floppy disk, some software intentionally overwrites certain BASIC vectors in the process of loading so execution begins automatically (instead of requiring the user to type RUN at the BASIC prompt after loading).
About 300 cartridges were released for the C64, primarily during the machine's first years on the market, after which most software outgrew the cartridge limit. Larger software companies, such as Ocean Software, began releasing games on bank-switched cartridges to overcome the cartridge limit during the C64's final years.
Commodore did not include a reset button on its computers until the CBM-II line, but third-party cartridges had a reset button. A soft reset can be triggered by jumping to the CPU reset routine at (64738). A few programs use this as an exit feature, although it does not clear memory.
The KERNAL ROM underwent three revisions, mainly designed to fix bugs. The initial version is only found on 326298 motherboards (used in the first production models), and cannot detect whether an NTSC or PAL VIC-II is present. The second revision is found on all C64s made from late 1982 through 1985. The final KERNAL ROM revision was introduced on the 250466 motherboard (late breadbin models with 41464 RAM), and is found in all C64Cs. The 6510 CPU is clocked at (NTSC) and (PAL), lower than some competing systems; the Atari 800, for example, is clocked at ). Performance can be boosted slightly by disabling the VIC-II's video output via a register write. This feature is often used by tape and disk fast loaders and the KERNAL cassette routine to keep a standard CPU cycle timing not modified by the VIC-II's sharing of the bus.
The restore key is gated directly to the CPU's NMI line, and will generate an NMI if pressed. The KERNAL handler for the NMI checks if run/stop is also pressed; if not, it ignores the NMI and exits. Run/stop-restore is normally a soft reset in BASIC which restores all I/O registers to their power-on default state, but does not clear memory or reset pointers; any BASIC programs in memory will be left untouched. Machine-language software usually disables run/stop-restore by remapping the NMI vector to a dummy RTI instruction. The NMI can also be used for an extra interrupt thread by programs, but risks a system lockup or other undesirable side effects if the restore key is accidentally pressed (which activates the NMI thread).
=== Joysticks, mice, and paddles ===
The C64 retained the VIC-20's DE-9 Atari joystick port and added another; any Atari-specification game controller can be used on a C64. The joysticks are read from the registers at and , and most software is designed to use a joystick in port 2 for control rather than port 1; the upper bits of are used by the keyboard, and an I/O conflict can result. Although it is possible to use Sega gamepads on a C64, it is not recommended; their slightly different signal can damage the CIA chip. The SID chip's register , used to control paddles, is an analog input. A handful of games, primarily released early in the computer's life cycle, can use paddles. In 1986, Commodore released two mice for the C64 and C128: the 1350 and 1351. The 1350 is a digital device read from the joystick registers, and can be used with any program supporting joystick input. The 1351 is an analog potentiometer-based mouse, read with the SID's analog-to-digital converter.
=== Graphics ===
The VIC-II graphics chip features a new palette, eight hardware sprites per scanline (enabling up to 112 sprites per PAL screen), scrolling capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes.
=== Text modes ===
The standard text mode features 40 columns, like most Commodore PET models; the built-in character encoding is not standard ASCII but PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. The KERNAL ROM sets the VIC-II to a dark-blue background on power-up, with a light-blue border and text. Unlike the PET and VIC-20, the C64 uses double-width text; some early VIC-IIs had poor video quality which resulted in a fuzzy picture. Most screenshots show borders around the screen, a feature of the VIC-II chip. By utilizing interrupts to reset hardware registers with precise timing, it was possible to place graphics within the borders and use the full screen.
The C64 has a resolution of 320×200 pixels, consisting of a 40×25 grid of 8×8 character blocks. It has 255 predefined character blocks, known as PETSCII. The character set can be copied into RAM and modified by a programmer.
There are two color modes: high resolution, with two colours available per character block (one foreground and one background), and multicolour (four colors per character blockthree foreground and one background). In multicolor mode, attributes are shared between pixel pairs so the effective visible resolution is 160×200 pixels; only 16 KB of memory is available for the VIC-II video processor.
Since the C64 has a bitmapped screen, it is possible (but slow) to draw each pixel individually. Most programmers used techniques developed for earlier, non-bitmapped systems like the Commodore PET and TRS-80. A programmer redraws the character set, and the video processor fills the screen block by block from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. Two types of animation are used: character block animation and hardware sprites.
====Character block animation====
The user draws a series of characters of a person walking, possibly two in the middle of the block and another two walking in and out of the block. Then the user sequences them so the character walks into the block and out again. Drawing a series of these gets a person walking across the screen. By timing the redraw to occur when the television screen blanks out to restart drawing the screen, there will be no flicker. For this to happen, a user programs the VIC-II that it generates a raster interrupt when video flyback occurs. This technique is used in the Space Invaders arcade game.
Horizontal and vertical pixel scrolling of up to one character block is supported by two hardware scroll registers. Depending on timing, hardware scrolling affects the entire screen or selected lines of character blocks. On a non-emulated C64, scrolling is glass-like and blur-free.
====Hardware sprites====
A sprite is a character which moves over an area of the screen, draws over the background, and redraws it after it moves. This differs from character block animation, where the user flips character blocks. On the C64, the VIC-II video controller handles most sprite emulation; the programmer defines the sprite and where it goes.
The C64 has two types of sprites, respecting their color-mode limitations. Hi-res sprites have one color (one background and one foreground), and multi-color sprites have three (one background and three foreground). Color modes can be split or windowed on a single screen. Sprites can be doubled in size vertically and horizontally up to four times their size, but the pixel attributes are the same – the pixels become "fatter". There are eight sprites, and all eight can be shown in each horizontal line concurrently. Sprites can move with glassy smoothness in front of, and behind, screen characters and other sprites.
The hardware sprites of a C64 can be displayed on a bitmapped (high-resolution) screen or a text-mode screen in conjunction with fast and smooth character block animation. Software-emulated sprites on systems without support for hardware sprites, such as the Apple II and ZX Spectrum, required a bitmapped screen. Sprite-sprite and sprite-background collisions are detected in hardware, and the VIC-II can be programmed to trigger an interrupt accordingly.
=== Sound ===
The SID chip has three channels, each with its own ADSR envelope generator and filter capabilities. Ring modulation makes use of channel three to work with the other two channels. Bob Yannes developed the SID chip and, later, co-founded the synthesizer company Ensoniq. Composers and programmers of game music on the C64 include Rob Hubbard, Jeroen Tel, Tim Follin, David Whittaker, Chris Hülsbeck, Ben Daglish, Martin Galway, Kjell Nordbø and David Dunn. Due to the chip's three channels, chords are often played as arpeggios. It was also possible to continuously update the master volume with sampled data to enable the playback of 4-bit digitized audio. By 2008, it was possible to play four-channel 8-bit audio samples and two SID channels and still use filtering.
There are two versions of the SID chip: the 6581 and the 8580. The MOS Technology 6581 was used in the original ("breadbin") C64s, the early versions of the 64C, and the Commodore 128. The 6581 was replaced with the MOS Technology 8580 in 1987. Although the 6581 sound quality is a little crisper, it lacks the 8580's versatility; the 8580 can mix all available waveforms on each channel, but the 6581 can only mix waveforms in a channel in a limited fashion. The main difference between the 6581 and the 8580 is the supply voltage; the 6581 requires , and the 8580 . A modification can be made to use the 6581 in a newer 64C board (which uses the chip).
In 1986, the Sound Expander was released for the Commodore 64. It was a sound module with a Yamaha YM3526 chip capable of FM synthesis, primarily intended for professional music production.
=== Revisions ===
Commodore made many changes to the C64's hardware, sometimes introducing compatibility issues. The computer's rapid development and Commodore and Jack Tramiel's focus on cost-cutting instead of product testing resulted in several defects which caused developers like Epyx to complain and required many revisions; Charpentier said that "not coming a little close to quality" was one of the company's mistakes.
Cost reduction was the reason for most of the revisions. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and lean years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original (NMOS-based) motherboard went through two major redesigns and a number of revisions, exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and PLA chips. Much of the cost was initially eliminated by reducing the number of discrete components, such as diodes and resistors, which enabled a smaller printed circuit board. There were 16 C64 motherboard revisions to simplify production and reduce manufacturing costs. Some board revisions were exclusive to PAL regions. All C64 motherboards were manufactured in Hong Kong.
IC locations changed frequently with each motherboard revision, as did the presence (or lack) of the metal RF shield around the VIC-II; PAL boards often had aluminized cardboard instead of a metal shield. The SID and VIC-II are socketed on all boards, but the other ICs may be socketed or soldered. The first production C64s, made from 1982 to early 1983, are known as "silver label" models due to the case having a silver-colored "Commodore" logo. The power LED had a silver badge reading "64" around it. These machines have only a five-pin video cable, and cannot produce S-Video. Commodore introduced the familiar "rainbow badge" case in late 1982, but many machines produced into early 1983 also used silver-label cases until the existing stock was used up. The original 326298 board was replaced in spring 1983 by the 250407 motherboard, which had an eight-pin video connector and added S-Video support. This case design was used until the C64C appeared in 1986. All ICs switched to plastic shells, but the silver-label C64s (notably the VIC-II) had some ceramic ICs. The case is made from ABS plastic, which may become brown with time; this can be reversed with retrobright.
==== ICs ====
The VIC-II was manufactured with 5-micrometer NMOS technology, and was clocked at (PAL) or (NTSC). Internally, the clock was divided to generate the dot clock (about 8 MHz) and the two-phase system clocks (about 1 MHz; the pixel and system clock speeds differ slightly on NTSC and PAL machines). At such high clock rates the chip generated considerable heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic dual in-line package known as a CERDIP. The ceramic package was more expensive, but dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.
After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic dual in-line package; this reduced costs substantially, but did not eliminate the heat problem. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required a heat sink. To avoid extra cost, the metal RF shielding doubled as the VIC's heat sink; not all units shipped with this type of shielding, however. Most C64s in Europe shipped with a cardboard RF shield coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was questionable; it acted instead as an insulator, blocking airflow and trapping heat generated by the SID, VIC, and PLA chips. The SID was originally manufactured using NMOS at 7 micrometers and, in some areas, 6 micrometers. The prototype SID and some early production models had a ceramic dual in-line package, but (unlike the VIC-II) are very rare; the SID was encased in plastic when production began in early 1982.
==== Motherboard ====
In 1986, Commodore released the last revision of the classic C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except for two 64-kilobit × 4-bit DRAM chips which replaced the original eight 64-kilobit × 1-bit ICs. After the release of the Commodore 64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the original C64's chipset to use HMOS technology. The main benefit of HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, generating less heat. This enhanced the reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was renumbered 85xx to reflect the change to HMOS.
In 1987, Commodore released a 64C variant with a redesigned motherboard known as a "short board". The new board used the HMOS chipset, with a new 64-pin PLA chip. The "SuperPLA", as it was called, integrated discrete components and transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips. In the last revision of the 64C motherboard, the 2114 4-bit-wide color RAM was integrated into the SuperPLA.
=== Power supply ===
The C64 used an external power supply, a linear transformer with multiple taps differing from switch mode (presently used on PC power supplies). It was encased in epoxy resin gel, which discouraged tampering but increased the heat level during use. The design saved space in the computer's case, and allowed international versions to be more easily manufactured. The 1541-II and 1581 disk drives and third-party clones also have external power-supply "bricks", like most peripherals.
Commodore power supplies often failed sooner than expected. The computer reportedly had a 30-percent return rate in late 1983, compared to the 5–7 percent rate considered acceptable by the industry; Creative Computing reported four working C64s, out of seven. Malfunctioning power bricks were notorious for damaging the RAM chips. Due to their higher density and single supply (+5V), they had less tolerance for over-voltage. The usually-failing voltage regulator could be replaced by piggybacking a new regulator on the board and fitting a heat sink on top.
The original PSU on early-1982 and 1983 machines had a 5-pin connector which could accidentally be plugged into the computer's video output. Commodore later changed the design, omitting the resin gel to reduce costs. The following model, the Commodore 128, used a larger, improved power supply which included a fuse. The power supply for the Commodore REU was similar to that of the Commodore 128, providing an upgrade for customers purchasing the accessory.
=== Specifications ===
==== Internal hardware ====
Microprocessor CPU:
MOS Technology 6510/8500 (the 6510/8500 is a modified 6502 with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
Clock speed: or
Video: MOS Technology VIC-II 6567/8562 (NTSC), 6569/8565 (PAL)
16 colors
Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 pixels, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); or extended background color; 64 user-defined chars with 4 background colors, 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color
Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 unique colors in each 8×8 pixel block), 160×200 (3 unique colors + 1 common color in each 4×8 block)
16 bit interval timers
RAM:
64 KB, of which 38 KB were available for BASIC programs
1024 nybbles color RAM (memory allocated for screen color data storage)
Expandable to 320 KB with Commodore 1764 256 KB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 KB directly accessible; REU used mostly for the GEOS. REUs of 128 KB and 512 KB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included.
Creative Micro Designs also produced a 2 MB REU for the C64 and C128, called the 1750 XL. The technology actually supported up to 16 MB, but 2 MB was the biggest one officially made. Expansions of up to 16 MB were also possible via the CMD SuperCPU.
ROM:
( Commodore BASIC 2.0; KERNAL; character generator, providing two character sets)
==== Input/output (I/O) ports and power supply ====
I/O ports:
ROM cartridge expansion slot (44-pin slot for edge connector with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
Integrated RF modulator television antenna output via an RCA connector. The used channel could be adjusted from number 36 with the potentiometer to the left.
8-pin DIN connector containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs and sound input/output. This is a 262° horseshoe version of the plug, rather than the 270° circular version. Early C64 units (with motherboard Assy 326298) use a 5-pin DIN connector that carries composite video and luminance signals, but lacks a chroma signal.
Serial bus (proprietary serial version of IEEE-488, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives
PET-type Commodore Datasette 300 baud tape interface (edge connector with digital cassette motor/read/write/key-sense signals), Ground and +5V DC lines. The cassette motor is controlled by a +5V DC signal from the 6510 CPU. The 9V AC input is transformed into unregulated 6.36V DC which is used to actually power the cassette motor.
User port (edge connector with TTL-level signals, for modems and so on; byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things, 17 logic signals, 7 Ground and voltage pins, including 9V AC)
2 × screwless DE9M game controller ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital joysticks, analog paddles, a light pen, the Commodore 1351 mouse, and graphics tablets such as the KoalaPad.
Power supply:
5V DC and 9V AC from an external "power brick", attached to a 7-pin female DIN-connector on the computer.
The is used to supply power via a charge pump to the SID sound generator chip, provide via a rectifier to the cassette motor, a "0" pulse for every positive half wave to the time-of-day (TOD) input on the CIA chips, and directly to the user-port. Thus, as a minimum, a square wave is required. But a sine wave is preferred.
==== Memory map ====
Note that even if an I/O chip like the VIC-II only uses 64 positions in the memory address space, it will occupy 1,024 addresses because some address bits are left undecoded.
==== Peripherals ====
Commodore-64-1541-Floppy-Drive-01.jpg|Commodore 1541 floppy drive
Commodore 1541 white.jpg|Commodore 1541C floppy drive
C64-IMG 5372.jpg|Commodore 1541-II floppy drive
Commodore-Datasette-C2N-Mk1-Front.jpg|Commodore 1530 Datasette
Commodore Matrixdrucker MPS-802 (weißen hintergrund).jpg|Commodore MPS-802 dot matrix printer
CommodoreVICModem.jpg|Commodore VIC-Modem
Commodore blockomaus.jpg|Commodore 1351 mouse
Commodore 1702 (made by JVC) front.jpg|Commodore 1702 video monitor
Commodore 1581 Disk Drive Front.jpg|Commodore 1581 3.5" double-sided floppy drive
=== Manufacturing cost ===
Vertical integration was the key to keeping Commodore 64 production costs low. At the introduction in 1982, the production cost was US$135 and the retail price US$595. In 1985, the retail price went down to US$149 (US$ today) and the production costs were believed to be somewhere between US$35–50 ( Commodore would not confirm this cost figure. Dougherty of the Berkeley Softworks estimated the costs of the Commodore 64 parts based on his experience at Mattel and Imagic.
To lower costs, TTL chips were replaced with less expensive custom chips and ways to increase the yields on the sound and graphics chips were found. The video chip 6567 had the ceramic package replaced with plastic but heat dissipation demanded a redesign of the chip and the development of a plastic package that can dissipate heat as well as ceramic.
=== Clones ===
Clones are computers which imitate C64 functions. In mid-2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer Tulip Computers (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the C64 Direct-to-TV (C64DTV): a joystick-based TV game based on the C64, with 30 games in its ROM. Designed by Jeri Ellsworth, a self-taught computer designer who had designed the C-One C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar to other mini-consoles based on the modestly-successful Atari 2600 and Intellivision. The C64DTV was advertised on QVC in the United States for the 2004 holiday season.
In 2015, a Commodore 64-compatible motherboard was produced by Individual Computers. Called the C64 Reloaded, it is a redesign of Commodore 64 motherboard revision 250466 with several new features. The motherboard is designed to be placed in an existing, empty C64 or C64C case. Produced in limited quantities, models of this Commodore 64 clone have machined or ZIF sockets in which custom C64 chips are placed. The board contains jumpers to accept revisions of the VIC-II and SID chips and the ability to switch between the PAL and NTSC video systems. It has several innovations, including selection (via the restore key) of KERNAL and character ROMs, built-in reset toggle on the power switch, and an S-Video socket to replace the original TV modulator. The motherboard is powered by a DC-to-DC converter which uses from a mains adapter, rather than the original (and failure-prone) Commodore 64 power-supply brick.
=== Compatible hardware ===
C64 enthusiasts were developing new hardware in 2008, including Ethernet cards, specially-adapted hard disks and flash card interfaces (sd2iec). A-SID, which gives the C-64 a wah-wah effect, was introduced in 2022.
=== Brand reuse ===
The C64 brand was reused in 1998 for the Web.it Internet Computer, a low-powered, Internet-oriented, all-in-one x86 PC running MS-DOS and Windows 3.1. It uses an AMD Élan SC400 SoC with 16 MB of RAM, a 3.5-inch floppy disk drive, 56k modem and PC Card. Despite its Commodore 64 nameplate, the C64 Web.it looks different and is only directly compatible with the original via included emulation software. PC clones branded C64x sold by Commodore USA, a company licensing the Commodore trademark, began shipping in June 2011. The C64x's case resembles the original C64 computer, but – like the Web.it – it is based on x86 architecture and is not compatible with the Commodore 64.
=== Virtual Console ===
Several Commodore 64 games were released on the Nintendo Wii's Virtual Console service in Europe and North America. They were delisted from the service in August 2013.
=== THEC64 and THEC64 Mini ===
THEC64 Mini, an unofficial Linux-based console emulating the Commodore 64, was released in 2018. It was designed and released by British company Retro Games, who licensed the name from Dutch based Commodore Corporation B.V. who own the Commodore marque. The console is a decorative, half-scale Commodore 64 with two USB and one HDMI port, and a mini USB connection to power the system. The console's keyboard is non-functional; the system is controlled by an included THEC64 joystick or a separate USB keyboard. New software ROMs can be loaded into the console, which uses emulator x64 (as part of VICE) to run software and has a built-in graphical operating system.
The full-size THEC64 was released in 2019 in Europe and Australia, and was scheduled for release in November 2020 in North America. The console and built-in keyboard are built to scale with the original Commodore 64, including a functional keyboard. Enhancements include VIC-20 emulation, four USB ports, and an upgraded joystick. Neither product has a Commodore trademark. The Commodore key on the original keyboard is replaced with a THEC64 key; Retro Games can call neither product a C64, although the system ROMs are licensed from Cloanto Corporation. The consoles can be switched between carousel mode (to access the built-in game library) and classic mode, in which they operate similarly to a traditional Commodore 64. USB storage can be used to hold disk, cartridge and tape images for use with the machine.
== Emulators ==
Commodore 64 emulators include the open source VICE, Hoxs64, and CCS64. An iPhone app was also released with a compilation of C64 ports.
|
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"Simons' BASIC",
"retrocomputing",
"SD Times",
"TRS-80 Color Computer",
"fast loader",
"kilobyte",
"epoxy",
"MAX Machine",
"PC Card",
"sine wave",
"Hanover",
"MSX",
"MOS Technology 6510",
"Pascal (programming language)",
"clock signal",
"game controller",
"Trip Hawkins",
"Microsoft BASIC",
"Ocean Software",
"Sawtooth wave",
"high-pass filter",
"RF modulator",
"semiconductor fabrication plant",
"jumper (computing)",
"Commodore 64 demos",
"Wah-wah (music)",
"Thomson MO5",
"waveform",
"BBC News",
"integrated circuit",
"Commodore 128",
"mini USB",
"raster interrupt",
"Consumer electronics",
"Commodore International",
"micrometre",
"paddle (game controller)",
"Read-only memory",
"Jeroen Tel",
"online services",
"dynamic random-access memory",
"Dual in-line package",
"Apple IIGS",
"Germany",
"breadbin",
"C-One",
"Origins Game Fair",
"MOS Technology CIA",
"synthesizer",
"Vaporware",
"GeckOS",
"COMPUTE!",
"Commodore CDTV",
"Thomson TO7",
"Commodore 1581",
"Logo (programming language)",
"Raster graphics",
"plug compatible",
"composite video",
"USB",
"resistor",
"C64 Direct-to-TV",
"IBM PC compatible",
"Attack-decay-sustain-release envelope",
"Amiga Halfbrite mode",
"Creative Micro Designs",
"Jack Tramiel",
"motherboard",
"Contiki",
"Home computer",
"Amiga Format",
"Mattel",
"Emulator",
"Alternating current",
"pinout",
"The Register",
"MOS Technology VIC-II",
"Ensoniq",
"AMD Élan",
"Nintendo Entertainment System",
"portable computer",
"scrolling",
"DC-to-DC converter",
"hard disk",
"potentiometer",
"Programmable logic array",
"Triangle wave",
"Wii",
"Space Invaders",
"ring modulation",
"Keyboard computer",
"joystick",
"Amiga",
"78xx",
"rebate (marketing)",
"byte",
"Commodore 64 peripherals",
"electromagnetic shielding",
"ASCII",
"Finland",
"United States dollar",
"Vertical integration",
"Sharp X1",
"list of computer system emulators",
"Ben Daglish",
"Control Video Corporation",
"Commodore 65",
"CondéNet, Inc.",
"microprocessor",
"Mean time between failures",
"Zero insertion force",
"Switched-mode power supply",
"Commodore bus",
"CCS64",
"Bob Yannes",
"Accolade, Inc."
] |
7,294 |
Cartography
|
Cartography (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.
The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are to:
Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.
Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.
Eliminate the mapped object's characteristics that are irrelevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.
Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.
Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information science (GISc).
==History==
===Ancient times===
What is the earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the term "map" is not well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük) has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. Among the prehistoric alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego (France) and Valcamonica (Italy), dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles and lines are widely interpreted in archaeological literature as depicting cultivated plots. Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from , showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th12th centuries BCE). The oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus). Another depicts Babylon as being north of the center of the world. In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemy's world map – the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. Roads were essential in the Roman world, motivating the creation of maps, called itinerarium, that portrayed the world as experienced via the roads. The is the only surviving example.
In ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, during the Warring States period. In the book Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even before this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form.
Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and surrounding constellations.
===Middle Ages and Renaissance===
('maps of the world') are the medieval European maps of the world. About 1,100 of these are known to have survived: of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts, and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents.
The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana (Book of Roger) in 1154. By combining the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean, Europe, and the Far East (which he learned through contemporary accounts from Arab merchants and explorers) with the information he inherited from the classical geographers, he was able to write detailed descriptions of a multitude of countries. Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple Arab geographers. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries. The map was divided into seven climatic zones, with detailed descriptions of each zone. As part of this work, a smaller, circular map depicting the south on top and Arabia in the center was made. Al-Idrisi also made an estimate of the circumference of the world, accurate to within 10%.
In the Age of Discovery, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer and advisor to the king John II of Portugal, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.
In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America." Portuguese cartographer Diogo Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). Italian cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts. Johannes Werner refined and promoted the Werner projection. This was an equal-area, heart-shaped world map projection (generally called a cordiform projection) that was used in the 16th and 17th centuries. Over time, other iterations of this map type arose; most notable are the sinusoidal projection and the Bonne projection. The Werner projection places its standard parallel at the North Pole; a sinusoidal projection places its standard parallel at the equator; and the Bonne projection is intermediate between the two.
In 1569, mapmaker Gerardus Mercator first published a map based on his Mercator projection, which uses equally-spaced parallel vertical lines of longitude and parallel latitude lines spaced farther apart as they get farther away from the equator. By this construction, courses of constant bearing are conveniently represented as straight lines for navigation. The same property limits its value as a general-purpose world map because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from the equator they are. Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word "atlas" to describe a collection of maps. In the later years of his life, Mercator resolved to create his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568. He was unable to complete it to his satisfaction before he died. Still, some additions were made to the Atlas after his death, and new editions were published after his death.
In 1570, the Brabantian cartographer Abraham Ortelius, strongly encouraged by Gillis Hooftman, created the first true modern atlas, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. In a rare move, Ortelius credited mapmakers who contributed to the atlas, the list of which grew to 183 individuals by 1603.
In the Renaissance, maps were used to impress viewers and establish the owner's reputation as sophisticated, educated, and worldly. Because of this, towards the end of the Renaissance, maps were displayed with equal importance of painting, sculptures, and other pieces of art. In the sixteenth century, maps were becoming increasingly available to consumers through the introduction of printmaking, with about 10% of Venetian homes having some sort of map by the late 1500s.
There were three main functions of maps in the Renaissance:
General descriptions of the world
Navigation and wayfinding
Land surveying and property management
In medieval times, written directions of how to get somewhere were more common than the use of maps. With the Renaissance, cartography began to be seen as a metaphor for power. Map publishing in Venice was completed with humanities and book publishing in mind, rather than just informational use.
====Printing technology====
There were two main printmaking technologies in the Renaissance: woodcut and copper-plate intaglio, referring to the medium used to transfer the image onto paper.
In woodcut, the map image is created as a relief chiseled from medium-grain hardwood. The areas intended to be printed are inked and pressed against the sheet. Being raised from the rest of the block, the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map. There are advantages to using relief to make maps. For one, a printmaker doesn't need a press because the maps could be developed as rubbings. Woodblock is durable enough to be used many times before defects appear. Existing printing presses can be used to create the prints rather than having to create a new one. On the other hand, it is hard to achieve fine detail with the relief technique. Inconsistencies in linework are more apparent in woodcut than in intaglio. To improve quality in the late fifteenth century, a style of relief craftsmanship developed using fine chisels to carve the wood, rather than the more commonly used knife.
In intaglio, lines are engraved into workable metals, typically copper but sometimes brass. The engraver spreads a thin sheet of wax over the metal plate and uses ink to draw the details. Then, the engraver traces the lines with a stylus to etch them into the plate beneath. The engraver can also use styli to prick holes along the drawn lines, trace along them with colored chalk, and then engrave the map. Lines going in the same direction are carved at the same time, and then the plate is turned to carve lines going in a different direction. To print from the finished plate, ink is spread over the metal surface and scraped off such that it remains only in the etched channels. Then the plate is pressed forcibly against the paper so that the ink in the channels is transferred to the paper. The pressing is so forceful that it leaves a "plate mark" around the border of the map at the edge of the plate, within which the paper is depressed compared to the margins. Copper and other metals were expensive at the time, so the plate was often reused for new maps or melted down for other purposes.
In the early seventeenth century, the Selden map was created by a Chinese cartographer. Historians have put its date of creation around 1620, but there is debate in this regard. This map's significance draws from historical misconceptions of East Asian cartography, the main one being that East Asians did not do cartography until Europeans arrived. The map's depiction of trading routes, a compass rose, and scale bar points to the culmination of many map-making techniques incorporated into Chinese mercantile cartography.
In 1689, representatives of the Russian tsar and Qing Dynasty met near the border town of Nerchinsk, which was near the disputed border of the two powers, in eastern Siberia. The two parties, with the Qing negotiation party bringing Jesuits as intermediaries, managed to work a treaty which placed the Amur River as the border between the Eurasian powers, and opened up trading relations between the two. This treaty's significance draws from the interaction between the two sides, and the intermediaries who were drawn from a wide variety of nationalities.
===Age of Enlightenment===
Maps of the Enlightenment period practically universally used copper plate intaglio, having abandoned the fragile, coarse woodcut technology. Use of map projections evolved, with the double hemisphere being very common and Mercator's prestigious navigational projection gradually making more appearances.
Due to the paucity of information and the immense difficulty of surveying during the period, mapmakers frequently plagiarized material without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, a famous map of North America known as the "Beaver Map" was published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This map is a close reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer, in turn, had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. By the late 18th century, mapmakers often credited the original publisher with something along the lines of, "After [the original cartographer]" in the map's title or cartouche.
===Modern period===
In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were produced manually, with brushes and parchment; so they varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.
Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant, and vernier allowed the mass production of maps and the creation of accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Hartmann Schedel was one of the first cartographers to use the printing press to make maps more widely available. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices that use telescopes, allowed accurate land surveys and allowed mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the Sun at noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, make possible maps with fine details, which do not distort in shape and which resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further speeded up map production.
In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient, precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and topography. The United States Geological Survey has devised multiple new map projections, notably the Space Oblique Mercator for interpreting satellite ground tracks for mapping the surface. The use of satellites and space telescopes now allows researchers to map other planets and moons in outer space. Advances in electronic technology ushered in another revolution in cartography: ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps has created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic.
In the early years of the new millennium, three key technological advances transformed cartography: the removal of Selective Availability in the Global Positioning System (GPS) in May 2000, which improved locational accuracy for consumer-grade GPS receivers to within a few metres; the invention of OpenStreetMap in 2004, a global digital counter-map that allowed anyone to contribute and use new spatial data without complex licensing agreements; and the launch of Google Earth in 2005 as a development of the virtual globe EarthViewer 3D (2004), which revolutionised accessibility of accurate world maps, as well as access to satellite and aerial imagery. These advances brought more accuracy to geographical and location-based data and widened the range of applications for cartography, for example in the development of satnav devices.
Today most commercial-quality maps are made using software of three main types: CAD, GIS and specialized illustration software. Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.
On the other hand, we can observe a reverse trend. In contemporary times, there is a resurgence of interest in the most beautiful periods of cartography, with various maps being created using, for example, Renaissance-style aesthetics. We encounter imitators or continuators of Renaissance traditions that merge the realms of science and art. Among them are figures such as Luther Phillips (1891–1960) and Ruth Rhoads Lepper Gardner (1905–2011), who still operated using traditional cartographic methods, as well as creators utilizing modern developments based on GIS solutions and those employing techniques that combine advanced GIS/CAD methods with traditional artistic forms.
Field-rugged computers, GPS, and laser rangefinders make it possible to create maps directly from measurements made on site.
==Deconstruction==
There are technical and cultural aspects to producing maps. In this sense, maps can sometimes be said to be biased. The study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a map is what comprise a map's deconstruction. A central tenet of deconstructionism is that maps have power. Other assertions are that maps are inherently biased and that we search for metaphor and rhetoric in maps. An example of this understanding is that "[European reproduction of terrain on maps] reality can be expressed in mathematical terms; that systematic observation and measurement offer the only route to cartographic truth…". According to deconstructionist models, cartography was used for strategic purposes associated with imperialism and as instruments and representations of power during the conquest of Africa. The depiction of Africa and the low latitudes in general on the Mercator projection has been interpreted as imperialistic and as symbolic of subjugation due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to higher latitudes where the European powers were concentrated.
Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa in practical ways by showing basic information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities. Through this, maps made European commerce in Africa possible by showing potential commercial routes and made natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources. Such maps also enabled military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put their conquests on display. These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885.
===Topographic vs. topological===
A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use of contour lines showing elevation. Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction). In the present era, one of the most widespread and advanced methods used to form topographic maps is to use computer software to generate digital elevation models which show shaded relief. Before such software existed, cartographers had to draw shaded relief by hand. One cartographer who is respected as a master of hand-drawn shaded relief is the Swiss professor Eduard Imhof whose efforts in hill shading were so influential that his method became used around the world despite it being so labor-intensive.
A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind one might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information. Beck's London Underground map is an iconic example. Although the most widely used map of "The Tube," it preserves little of reality: it varies scale constantly and abruptly, it straightens curved tracks, and it contorts directions. The only topography on it is the River Thames, letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the river. That and the topology of station order and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space. Yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfills its purpose.
==Map design==
Modern technology, including advances in printing, the advent of geographic information systems and graphics software, and the Internet, has vastly simplified the process of map creation and increased the palette of design options available to cartographers. This has led to a decreased focus on production skill, and an increased focus on quality design, the attempt to craft maps that are both aesthetically pleasing and practically useful for their intended purposes.
===Map purpose and audience===
A map has a purpose and an audience. Its purpose may be as broad as teaching the major physical and political features of the entire world, or as narrow as convincing a neighbor to move a fence. The audience may be as broad as the general public or as narrow as a single person. Mapmakers use design principles to guide them in constructing a map that is effective for its purpose and audience.
====Cartographic process====
The cartographic process spans many stages, starting from conceiving the need for a map and extending all the way through its consumption by an audience. Conception begins with a real or imagined environment. As the cartographer gathers information about the subject, they consider how that information is structured and how that structure should inform the map's design. Next, the cartographers experiment with generalization, symbolization, typography, and other map elements to find ways to portray the information so that the map reader can interpret the map as intended. Guided by these experiments, the cartographer settles on a design and creates the map, whether in physical or electronic form. Once finished, the map is delivered to its audience. The map reader interprets the symbols and patterns on the map to draw conclusions and perhaps to take action. By the spatial perspectives they provide, maps help shape how we view the world.
===Aspects of map design===
Designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions. The elements of design fall into several broad topics, each of which has its own theory, its own research agenda, and its own best practices. That said, there are synergistic effects between these elements, meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time, but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt.
Map projections: The foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests (whether paper or screen), but projections are required to flatten the surface of the Earth or other celestial bodies. While all projections distort the surface, cartographers strategically control how and where distortion occurs For example, the popular Mercator projection does not distort angles on the surface, but it makes regions near the poles appear larger than they are.
Layout: The map image must be placed on the page (whether paper, web, or other media), along with related elements, such as the title, legend, additional maps, text, images, and so on. Each of these elements have their own design considerations, as does their integration, which largely follows the principles of graphic design.
Map type-specific design: Different kinds of maps, especially thematic maps, have their own design needs and best practices.
==Deliberate cartographic errors==
Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either as propaganda or as a "watermark" to help the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps. The latter often come in the form of nonexistent, misnamed, or misspelled "trap streets". Other names and forms for this are paper towns, fictitious entries, and copyright easter eggs.
Another motive for deliberate errors is cartographic "vandalism": a mapmaker wishing to leave their mark on the work. Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on the Rocky Mountains' continental divide that appeared on a Boulder County, Colorado map in the early 1970s. It is believed to be the work of draftsman Richard Ciacci. The fiction was not discovered until two years later.
Sandy Island in New Caledonia is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly survives, reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions.
With the emergence of the internet and Web mapping, technologies allow for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training are readily available. This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading.
==Professional and learned societies==
Professional and learned societies include:
International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals, as well as the ICA member organizations
British Cartographic Society (BCS) a registered charity in the UK dedicated to exploring and developing the world of maps
Society of Cartographers supports in the UK the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration
Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), promotes in the U.S. research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies.
North American Cartographic Information Society (NACIS), A North American-based cartography society that is aimed at improving communication, coordination and cooperation among the producers, disseminators, curators, and users of cartographic information. Their members are located worldwide and the meetings are on an annual basis
Canadian Cartographic Association (CCA)
===Academic journals===
Journals related to cartography, as well as GIS, GISc, include:
International Journal of Cartography
The Cartographic Journal
Cartographica
Cartography and Geographic Information Science
Cartographic Perspectives
KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information
Journal of Maps
Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis
Transactions in GIS
Journal of Spatial Science
Geocarto International
GIScience & Remote Sensing
International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation
International Journal of Digital Earth
Geoinformatica
ISPRS International Journal of Geo-information
Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science
Geo-spatial Information Science
ACM Transactions on Spatial Algorithms and Systems
Imago Mundi
Revista Cartográfica
Terrae Incognitae
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"Warring States period",
"Earth",
"International Cartographic Association",
"John Wiley & Sons",
"Sebastian Münster",
"ancient Greeks",
"topological map",
"star map",
"Princeton University Press"
] |
7,295 |
Consumption
|
Consumption may refer to:
Eating
Resource consumption
Tuberculosis, an infectious disease, historically known as consumption
Consumer (food chain), receipt of energy by consuming other organisms
Consumption (economics), the purchasing of newly produced goods for current use also defined as the consuming of products
Consumption function, an economic formula
Consumption (sociology) of resources, associated with social class, identity, group membership, and age
|
[
"Tuberculosis",
"Consumerism",
"Eating",
"Consumption (economics)",
"Consumption (sociology)",
"Resource consumption",
"Eating (disambiguation)",
"Consumption function",
"Consumer (food chain)"
] |
7,296 |
Cardiac glycoside
|
Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used. Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants and milkweed plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment.
== Classification ==
=== General structure ===
The general structure of a cardiac glycoside consists of a steroid molecule attached to a sugar (glycoside) and an R group. The steroid nucleus consists of four fused rings to which other functional groups such as methyl, hydroxyl, and aldehyde groups can be attached to influence the overall molecule's biological activity.
In particular, the structure of the ring attached at the R end of the molecule allows it to be classified as either a cardenolide or bufadienolide. Cardenolides differ from bufadienolides due to the presence of an "enolide," a five-membered ring with a single double bond, at the lactone end. Bufadienolides, on the other hand, contain a "dienolide," a six-membered ring with two double bonds, at the lactone end. Below is a list of organisms from which cardiac glycosides can be derived.
==== Plant cardenolides ====
Convallaria majalis (Lily of the Valley): convallatoxin
Antiaris toxicaria (upas tree): antiarin
Strophanthus kombe (Strophanthus vine): ouabain (g-strophanthin) and other strophanthins
Digitalis lanata and Digitalis purpurea (Woolly and purple foxglove): digoxin, digitoxin
Nerium oleander (oleander tree): oleandrin
Asclepias sp. (milkweed): asclepin, calotropin, uzarin, calactin, coroglucigenin, uzarigenin, oleandrin
Adonis vernalis (Spring pheasant's eye): adonitoxin
Kalanchoe daigremontiana and other Kalanchoe species: daigremontianin
Erysimum cheiranthoides (wormseed wallflower) and other Erysimum species
Cerbera odollam (suicide tree): cerberin
''Periploca sepium: periplocin
==== Other cardenolides ====
some species of Chrysolina beetles, including Chrysolina coerulans, have cardiac glycosides (including Xylose) in their defensive glands.
==== Bufadienolides ====
Leonurus cardiaca (motherwort): scillarenin
== Mechanism of action ==
Cardiac glycosides affect the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in cardiac muscle cells to alter their function. Nevertheless, by carefully controlling the dosage, such adverse effects can be avoided. Continuing on with the mechanism, raised intracellular sodium levels inhibit the function of a second membrane ion exchanger, NCX, which is responsible for pumping calcium ions out of the cell and sodium ions in at a ratio of /. Thus, calcium ions are also not extruded and will begin to build up inside the cell as well.
The disrupted calcium homeostasis and increased cytoplasmic calcium concentrations cause increased calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via the SERCA2 transporter. Raised calcium stores in the SR allow for greater calcium release on stimulation, so the myocyte can achieve faster and more powerful contraction by cross-bridge cycling.
== Clinical significance ==
Cardiac glycosides have long served as the main medical treatment to congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia, due to their effects of increasing the force of muscle contraction while reducing heart rate. Heart failure is characterized by an inability to pump enough blood to support the body, possibly due to a decrease in the volume of the blood or its contractile force. Treatments for the condition thus focus on lowering blood pressure, so that the heart does not have to exert as much force to pump the blood, or directly increasing the heart's contractile force, so that the heart can overcome the higher blood pressure. Cardiac glycosides, such as the commonly used digoxin and digitoxin, deal with the latter, due to their positive inotropic activity. On the other hand, cardiac arrhythmia are changes in heart rate, whether faster (tachycardia) or slower (bradycardia). Medicinal treatments for this condition work primarily to counteract tachycardia or atrial fibrillation by slowing down heart rate, as done by cardiac glycosides. Because cardiac glycosides affect the cardiovascular, neurologic, and gastrointestinal systems, these three systems can be used to determine the effects of toxicity. The effect of these compounds on the cardiovascular system presents a reason for concern, as they can directly affect the function of the heart through their inotropic and chronotropic effects. In terms of inotropic activity, excessive cardiac glycoside dosage results in cardiac contractions with greater force, as further calcium is released from the SR of cardiac muscle cells. Toxicity also results in changes to heart chronotropic activity, resulting in multiple kinds of dysrhythmia and potentially fatal ventricular tachycardia. These dysrhythmias are an effect of an influx of sodium and decrease of resting membrane potential threshold in cardiac muscle cells. When taken beyond a narrow dosage range specific to each particular cardiac glycoside, these compounds can rapidly become dangerous. In sum, they interfere with fundamental processes that regulate membrane potential. They are toxic to the heart, the brain, and the gut at doses that are not difficult to reach. In the heart, the most common negative effect is premature ventricular contraction.
|
[
"Erysimum",
"Congestive heart failure",
"scillarenin",
"Chrysolina",
"Lily of the valley",
"Atrioventricular node",
"premature ventricular contraction",
"lactone",
"Kalanchoe daigremontiana",
"ouabain",
"senolytic",
"hellebore",
"senescent",
"tachycardia",
"cerberin",
"Xylose",
"Strophanthus kombe",
"Digitalis purpurea",
"cardiac muscle cell",
"Sodium-calcium exchanger",
"Myocardial contractility",
"aldehyde",
"Hydroxy group",
"organic compound",
"Kalanchoe",
"steroid",
"atrial fibrillation",
"secondary metabolite",
"Periploca (plant)",
"blood pressure",
"Erysimum cheiranthoides",
"Hellebore",
"Antiaris toxicaria",
"oleandrin",
"Nerium oleander",
"periplocin",
"Asclepias",
"Oleander",
"Drimia maritima",
"sarcoplasmic reticulum",
"bufadienolide",
"convallatoxin",
"Na+/K+-ATPase",
"antiarin",
"digitoxin",
"Inotrope",
"cane toad",
"glycoside",
"Heart failure",
"bradycardia",
"daigremontianin",
"ACE inhibitor",
"proscillaridine A",
"Digitalis lanata",
"adonitoxin",
"Leonurus cardiaca",
"Adonis vernalis",
"Cardenolide",
"digoxin toxicity",
"toad venom",
"beta blocker",
"Digitalis",
"cardiac arrhythmia",
"membrane potential",
"Cane toad",
"strophanthin",
"Methyl group",
"digoxin",
"Cerbera odollam",
"ventricular tachycardia"
] |
7,299 |
Colonialism
|
Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory.
Colonialism developed as a concept describing European colonial empires of the modern era, which spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I. European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies, and established coloniality, which keeps the colonized socio-economically othered and subaltern through modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability and class, among others, resulting in intersectional violence and discrimination. Colonialism has been justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission.
Because of this broad impact different instances of colonialism have been identified from around the world and in history, starting with when colonization was developed by developing colonies and metropoles, the base colonial separation and characteristic.
Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975. Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development, regime types, and state capacity. Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period.
== Etymology ==
Colonialism is etymologically rooted in the Latin word "Colonus", which was used to describe tenant farmers in the Roman Empire. The term expanded its meaning in the early 20th century to primarily refer to European imperial expansion and the imperial subjection of Asian and African peoples. Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as "the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories". The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by one power over a dependent area or people".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy uses the term "to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia". It discusses the distinction between colonialism, imperialism and conquest and states that "[t]he difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism. Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically," and continues "given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism broadly to refer to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s".
In his preface to Jürgen Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Roger Tignor says "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence." In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can 'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony? He settles on a three-sentence definition:
According to Julian Go, "Colonialism refers to the direct political control of a society and its people by a foreign ruling state... The ruling state monopolizes political power and keeps the subordinated society and its people in a legally inferior position." He also writes, "colonialism depends first and foremost upon the declaration of sovereignty and/or territorial seizure by a core state over another territory and its inhabitants who are classified as inferior subjects rather than equal citizens."
According to David Strang, decolonization is achieved through the attainment of sovereign statehood with de jure recognition by the international community or through full incorporation into an existing sovereign state.
== Types of colonialism ==
The Times once quipped that there were three types of colonial empire: "The English, which consists in making colonies with colonists; the German, which collects colonists without colonies; the French, which sets up colonies without colonists." Modern studies of colonialism have often distinguished between various overlapping categories of colonialism, broadly classified into four types: settler colonialism, exploitation colonialism, surrogate colonialism, and internal colonialism. Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism, including national and trade forms.
Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration by settlers to colonies, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons. This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one, and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of establishing settlements.
Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the metropole. This form consists of trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration. The European colonization of Africa and Asia was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism.
Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power, as it has been (controversially) argued was the case of Mandatory Palestine and the Colony of Liberia.
Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state. This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country.
National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism, in which nation-building and colonization are symbiotically connected, with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image. The goal is to integrate them into the state, but only as reflections of the state's preferred culture. The Republic of China in Taiwan is the archetypal example of a national-colonialist society.
Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants. This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th-century Asia, where previously isolationist states were forced to open their ports to Western powers. Examples of this include the Opium Wars and the opening of Japan.
== Socio-cultural evolution ==
When colonists settled in pre-populated areas, the societies and cultures of the people in those areas permanently changed. Colonial practices directly and indirectly forced the colonized peoples to abandon their traditional cultures. For example, European colonizers in the United States implemented the residential schools program to force native children to assimilate into the hegemonic culture.
Cultural colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed.
Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang, and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) the vast majority of "Dutch" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony.
== History ==
=== Antiquity ===
Activity that could be called colonialism has a long history, starting at least as early as the ancient Egyptians. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans founded colonies in antiquity. Phoenicia had an enterprising maritime trading-culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC; later the Persian Empire and various Greek city-states continued on this line of setting up colonies. The Romans would soon follow, setting up coloniae throughout the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and in Western Asia.
=== Medieval ===
Beginning in the 7th century, Arabs colonized a substantial portion of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia and Europe. From the 9th century Vikings (Norsemen) such as Leif Erikson established colonies in Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, North America, present-day Russia and Ukraine, France (Normandy) and Sicily. In the 9th century a new wave of Mediterranean colonisation began, with competitors such as the Venetians, Genovese and Amalfians infiltrating the wealthy previously Byzantine or Eastern Roman islands and lands. European Crusaders set up colonial regimes in Outremer (in the Levant, 1097–1291) and in the Baltic littoral (12th century onwards). Venice began to dominate Dalmatia and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, with the declaration of the acquisition of three octaves of the Byzantine Empire.
=== Modern ===
The European early modern period began with the Turkish colonization of Anatolia. After the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, the sea routes discovered by Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) became central to trade, and helped fuel the Age of Discovery.
The Crown of Castile encountered the Americas in 1492 through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extents of land. The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the areas of these "new" lands between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire in 1494.
A first wave of separatism started with the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), initiating the Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815). The Spanish Empire largely collapsed in the Americas with the Spanish American wars of independence (1808–1833). Empire-builders established several new colonies after this time, including in the German colonial empire and Belgian colonial empire. Starting with the end of the French Revolution European authors such as Johann Gottfried Herder, August von Kotzebue, and Heinrich von Kleist prolifically published so as to conjure up sympathy for the oppressed native peoples and the slaves of the new world, thereby starting the idealization of native humans.
The Habsburg monarchy, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire existed at the same time but did not expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the conquest of neighbouring territories. There was, though, some Russian colonization of North America across the Bering Strait. From the 1860s onwards the Empire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires and expanded its territories in the Pacific and on the Asian mainland. The Empire of Brazil fought for hegemony in South America. The United States gained overseas territories after the 1898 Spanish–American War, hence, the coining of the term "American imperialism".
In the late 19th century, many European powers became involved in the Scramble for Africa. Outside Europe, few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship – and even Siam, China, Japan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Persia, and Abyssinia had felt varying degrees of Western colonial-style influenceconcessions, unequal treaties, extraterritoriality and the like.
Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark (1891–1938) argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies, outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations. The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved. In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits. In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes.
After World War I (1914–1918), the victorious Allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as League of Nations mandates, grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence. The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917–1918, and the Soviet empire started. Nazi Germany set up short-lived colonial systems (Reichskommissariate, Generalgouvernement) in Eastern Europe in the early 1940s.
In the aftermath of World War II (1939–1945), decolonisation progressed rapidly. The tumultuous upheaval of the war significantly weakened the major colonial powers, and they quickly lost control of colonies such as Singapore, India, and Libya. In addition, the United Nations shows support for decolonisation in its 1945 charter. In 1960, the UN issued the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which affirmed its stance (though notably, colonial empires such as France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States abstained).
The word "neocolonialism" originated from Jean-Paul Sartre in 1956, to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after World War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisationrather to colonialism or colonial-style exploitation by other means. Specifically, neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, or the operations of companies (such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria and Brunei) fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period.
The term "neocolonialism" became popular in ex-colonies in the late 20th century.
=== Contemporary ===
While colonies of contiguous empires have been historically excluded, they can be seen as colonies.
Contemporary expansion of colonies is seen by some in case of Russian imperialism and Chinese imperialism. There is also ongoing debate in academia about Zionism as settler colonialism.
== Impact ==
The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive. Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, detribalization, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism, improved infrastructure, and technological progress. Colonial practices also spur the spread of conquerors' languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of Indigenous peoples. The cultures of the colonised peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country.
With respect to international borders, Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's international boundaries.
=== Economy, trade and commerce ===
Economic expansion, sometimes described as the colonial surplus, has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times. Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole. According to Strabo, by the time of emperor Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire,
Aztec civilisation developed into an extensive empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals.
On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly.
Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly. In "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-run Growth", economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies, for example, between West African colonies like Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore.
According to the paper, economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources. At the same time, these institutions are also consequences of political institutions – especially how de facto and de jure political power is allocated. To explain the different colonial cases, we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions.
Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems. When working to improve productivity, Europeans focused mostly on male workers. Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to speed up development, but were only allocated to men. In a more European fashion, women were expected to serve on a more domestic level. The result was a technologic, economic, and class-based gender gap that widened over time.
Within a colony, the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development, institutions and infrastructure of these areas.
=== Slavery and indentured servitude ===
European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles. Exploitation of non-Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.
European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail. Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe, and then in Latin America, by the 16th century. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! European empire !! Colonial destination !! Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870
British colonising activity in New Zealand from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave-taking and slave-keeping among the indigenous Māori.
On the other hand, British colonial administration in Southern Africa, when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s, caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the Boer Republics and fed into the philosophy of apartheid.
The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland, British Guaiana and Fiji (for example) to develop new sources of labour, re-adopting a system of indentured servitude. Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonisers. Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employees became "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony.
India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.
Following the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of de facto servility despite legislative prohibition. Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests.
The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others. The use of gunpowder weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere.
=== End of empire ===
The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority. Minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalisation and resented colonial practices. Francophone residents of Quebec, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917. Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion of 1857.
The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators.
The Partition of British India in August 1947 led to the Independence of India and the creation of Pakistan. These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries. Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for.
=== Post-independence population movement ===
In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as the Pied-Noirs) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent. 800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended.
After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous, or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies.
In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands.
Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian.
=== Introduced diseases ===
Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.
Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity.
Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation. It also killed many New Zealand Māori. As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island. In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population. The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part
to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.
Conversely, researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to syphilis may have been carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe. The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance. The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home. Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist.
According to a 2021 study by Jörg Baten and Laura Maravall on the anthropometric influence of colonialism on Africans, the average height of Africans decreased by 1.1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule. The authors attributed the decrease to diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness, forced labor during the early decades of colonial rule, conflicts, land grabbing, and widespread cattle deaths from the rinderpest viral disease.
==== Countering disease ====
As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India. From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances. The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today.
== Botany ==
Colonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study, cultivation, marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism. Notable examples of these plants included sugar, nutmeg, tobacco, cloves, cinnamon, Peruvian bark, peppers, Sassafras albidum, and tea. This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions, supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors. Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus were seeking to establish routes to trade spices, dyes and silk from the Moluccas, India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants. Naturalists like Hendrik van Rheede, Georg Eberhard Rumphius, and Jacobus Bontius compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans. Though Sweden did not possess an extensive colonial network, botanical research based on Carl Linnaeus identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon, tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports.
== Geography ==
Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony, thus bridging the geographical, ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised. While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious, geographical tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion. Colonisers' awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power.
Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that "empire was 'quintessentially a geographical project. Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped, which created notions of skewed evolution.
Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, therefore creating a visual separation between "them" and "us". Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism.
Maps played an extensive role in colonialism, as Bassett would put it "by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format, cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and colonisation". Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era. Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps. During colonialism map-makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art. The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non-European was instantly regarded as inaccurate. Furthermore, European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism; portraying one's own ethnicity in the centre of the map. As J.B. Harley put it, "The steps in making a mapselection, omission, simplification, classification, the creation of hierarchies, and 'symbolisation'are all inherently rhetorical."
A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as "blank spaces". This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions. Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries. The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography was used to empty 'undiscovered' lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of "Western place-names and borders, [therefore] priming 'virgin' (putatively empty land, 'wilderness') for colonisation (thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration), reconfiguring alien space as absolute, quantifiable and separable (as property)."
David Livingstone stresses "that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places" and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries.
=== Ocean and space ===
With contemporary advances in deep sea and outer space technologies, colonization of the seabed and the Moon have become an object of non-terrestrial colonialism.
== Versus imperialism ==
== Marxism ==
Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change. Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency". Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation. Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination" as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who contended that "The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation." Non-Russian Marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered the Soviet regime a renewed version of Russian imperialism and colonialism.
In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states:The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power. Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary to impose one's will by any means available ... When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment ... During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans. That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism. Colonialism went much further than trade. It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa. Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society. Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards ... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called 'mother country'. From an African view-point, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped. Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector. As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place.According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from free trade to a stage of monopoly capitalism to finance capital. He states it is, "connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world". As free trade thrives on exports of commodities, monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry. This, to Lenin, was the highest stage of capitalism. He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing. War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism. As a continuation of this thought, G.N. Uzoigwe states, "But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses."
== Liberalism and capitalism ==
Classical liberals were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H.R. Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W.J. Fox and William Ewart Gladstone. Their philosophies found the colonial enterprise, particularly mercantilism, in opposition to the principles of free trade and liberal policies. Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out.
== Race and gender ==
During the colonial era, the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the "mother-countries" which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother-country. Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the "mother-countries" themselves. Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female. This particular belief was often pre-existing amongst the pre-colonial societies, prior to their colonisation.
Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European (and/ or Japanese) male authority, and also legitimising female and non-mother-country race inferiority through studies of craniology, comparative anatomy, and phrenology. Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women, as in the case of Georges Cuvier's study of Sarah Baartman.
Within the former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro-colonial scientific ideology of the day. Othering is the creation of those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm. Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the "other" as an epistemological concept in social theory.
== Colonistics ==
The field of colonistics studies colonialism from such viewpoints as those of economics, sociology and psychology.
== Migrations ==
Nations and regions outside Northern China with significant populations of Han Chinese ancestry:
Xinjiang: 42.24% Han settlers, 44.96% Indigenous
Tibet: disputed. 12.2% Han Chinese in the Tibet Autonomous Region.
Taiwan: 95–97% Han Taiwanese, 2.3% Indigenous
Manchuria: 80%+ Han Chinese, <20% Indigenous Manchurians.
Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of European ancestry
Africa (see Europeans in Africa)
South Africa (European South African): 5.8% of the population
Namibia (European Namibians): 6.5% of the population, of which most are Afrikaans-speaking, in addition to a German-speaking minority.
Réunion: estimated to be approximately 25% of the population
Zimbabwe (Europeans in Zimbabwe)
Algeria (Pied-noir)
Botswana: 3% of the population
Kenya (Europeans in Kenya)
Mauritius (Franco-Mauritian)
Morocco (European Moroccans)
Ivory Coast (French people)
Senegal
Canary Islands (Spaniards), known as Canarians.
Seychelles (Franco-Seychellois)
Somalia (Italian Somalis)
Eritrea (Italian Eritreans)
Saint Helena (UK) including Tristan da Cunha (UK): predominantly European.
Eswatini: 3% of the population
Tunisia (European Tunisians)
Asia
Siberia (Russians, Germans and Ukrainians)
Kazakhstan (Russians in Kazakhstan, Germans of Kazakhstan): 30% of the population
Kyrgyzstan (Russians and other Slavs): 14% of the population
Turkmenistan (Russians and other Slavs): 4% of the population
Tajikistan (Russians and other Slavs): 1% of the population
Hong Kong
Philippines (Spanish Ancestry): 3% of the population
China (Russians in China)
Indian subcontinent (Anglo-Indians)
Latin America (see White Latin American)
Argentina (European Immigration to Argentina): 97% European and mestizo of the population
Bolivia: 15% of the population
Brazil (White Brazilian): 47% of the population
Chile (White Chilean): 60–70% of the population.
Colombia (White Colombian): 37% of the population
Costa Rica: 83% of the population
Cuba (White Cuban): 65% of the population
Dominican Republic: 16% of the population
Ecuador: 7% of the population
Honduras: 1% of the population
El Salvador: 12% of the population
Mexico (White Mexican): 9% or ~17% of the population. and 70–80% more as Mestizos.
Panama: 10% of the population
Puerto Rico: approx. 80% of the population
Peru (European Peruvian): 15% of the population
Paraguay: approx. 20% of the population
Uruguay (White Uruguayan): 88% of the population
Venezuela (White Venezuelan): 42% of the population
Rest of the Americas
Bahamas: 12% of the population
Barbados (White Barbadian): 4% of the population
Bermuda: 34% of the population
Canada (European Canadians): 80% of the population
Falkland Islands: mostly of British descent.
French Guiana: 12% of the population
Greenland: 12% of the population
Martinique: 5% of the population
Saint Barthélemy
Trinidad and Tobago: 1% of the population
United States (European American): 72% of the population, including Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Whites.
Oceania (see Europeans in Oceania)
Australia (European Australians): 90% of the population
New Zealand (European New Zealanders): 78% of the population
New Caledonia (Caldoche): 35% of the population
French Polynesia: (Zoreilles) 10% of the population
Hawaii: 25% of the population
Christmas Island: approx. 20% of the population.
Guam: 7% of the population
Norfolk Island: 9→5% of the population
|
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] |
7,300 |
Colonial
|
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
==Architecture==
American colonial architecture
French colonial architecture
Spanish colonial architecture
==Automobiles==
Colonial (1920 automobile), the first American automobile with four-wheel brakes
Colonial (Shaw automobile), a rebranded Shaw sold from 1921 until 1922
Colonial (1921 automobile), a car from Boston which was sold from 1921 until 1922
==Commerce==
Colonial Pipeline, the largest oil pipeline network in the U.S.
Inmobiliaria Colonial, a Spanish corporation, which includes companies in the domains of real estate
==Places==
The Colonial (Indianapolis, Indiana)
The Colonial (Mansfield, Ohio), a National Register of Historic Places listing in Richland County, Ohio
Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo), a historic central neighborhood of Santo Domingo
Colonial Country Club (Memphis), a golf course in Tennessee
Colonial Country Club (Fort Worth), a golf course in Texas
Fort Worth Invitational or The Colonial, a PGA golf tournament
==Trains==
Colonial (PRR train), a Pennsylvania Railroad run between Washington, DC and New York City, last operated in 1973 by Amtrak
Colonial (Amtrak train), an Amtrak train that ran between Newport News, Virginia and Boston from 1976 to 1992, and between Richmond, Virginia and New York City from 1997 to 1999
|
[
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"Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)",
"Colonialism",
"Colonial troops",
"The Colonial (Mansfield, Ohio)",
"Inmobiliaria Colonial",
"Colonial history of the United States",
"The Colonial (Indianapolis, Indiana)",
"Colonial Pipeline",
"Colonials (disambiguation)",
"colony (biology)",
"Colonial Country Club (Fort Worth)",
"Fort Worth Invitational",
"Colonial Revival architecture",
"Colonial (1920 automobile)",
"Spanish colonial architecture",
"Colonial Theatre (disambiguation)",
"National Register of Historic Places listings in Richland County, Ohio",
"American colonial architecture",
"Colonial (Shaw automobile)",
"Colonial (Amtrak train)"
] |
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Casablanca
|
Casablanca (, ) is the largest city in Morocco and the country's economic and business centre. Located on the Atlantic coast of the Chaouia plain in the central-western part of Morocco, the city has a population of about 3.22 million in the urban area, and over 4.27 million in Greater Casablanca, making it the most populous city in the Maghreb region, and the eighth-largest in the Arab world.
Casablanca is Morocco's chief port, with the Port of Casablanca being one of the largest artificial ports in Africa, and the third-largest port in North Africa, after Tanger-Med ( east of Tangier) and Port Said. Casablanca also hosts the primary naval base for the Royal Moroccan Navy.
Casablanca is a significant financial centre, ranking 54th globally in the September 2023 Global Financial Centres Index rankings, between Brussels and Rome. The Casablanca Stock Exchange is Africa's third-largest in terms of market capitalization, as of December 2022.
Major Moroccan companies and many of the largest American and European companies operating in the country have their headquarters and main industrial facilities in Casablanca. Recent industrial statistics show that Casablanca is the main industrial zone in the country.
== Etymology ==
=== Anfa ===
Before the 15th century, the settlement at what is now Casablanca had been called Anfa, rendered in European sources variously as El-Anfa, Anafa or Anaffa, Anafe, Anife, Anafee, Nafe, and Nafee. Ibn Khaldun ascribed the name to the Anfaça, a branch of the tribe of the Maghreb, though the sociologist André Adam refuted this claim due to the absence of the third syllable.
=== Casablanca ===
French control of Casablanca was formalized March 1912 when the Treaty of Fes established the French Protectorat. Under French imperial control, Casablanca became a port of colonial extraction.
Right at the beginning of the twentieth century when Morocco was officially declared a French protectorate, the French decided to shift power to Morocco's coastal areas (i.e. Rabat and Casablanca) at the expense of its interior areas (i.e. Fez and Marrakech). Rabat was made the administrative capital of the country and Casablanca its economic capital.
General Hubert Lyautey assigned the planning of the new colonial port city to Henri Prost. As he did in other Moroccan cities, Prost designed a European ville nouvelle outside the walls of the medina. In Casablanca, he also designed a new "ville indigène" to house Moroccans arriving from other cities.
Europeans formed almost half the population of Casablanca.
A 1937-1938 typhoid fever outbreak was exploited by colonial authorities to justify the appropriation of urban spaces in Casablanca. Moroccans residing in informal housing were cleared out of the center and displaced, notably to . French colonists in Morocco generally supported Pétain, while Moroccans tended to favour de Gaulle and the Allies.
Operation Torch, which started on 8 November 1942, was the British-American invasion of French North Africa during the North African campaign of World War II. The Western Task Force, composed of American units led by Major General George S. Patton and Rear Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt, carried out the invasions of Mehdia, Fedhala, and Asfi. American forces captured Casablanca from Vichy control when France surrendered 11 November 1942, but the Naval Battle of Casablanca continued until American forces sank German submarine U-173 on 16 November.
Casablanca was the site of the Berrechid Airfield, a large American air base used as the staging area for all American aircraft for the European Theatre of Operations during World War II. The airfield has since become Mohammed V International Airport.
==== Anfa Conference ====
Casablanca hosted the Anfa Conference (also called the Casablanca Conference) in January 1943. Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed the progress of the war. Also in attendance were the Free France generals Charles de Gaulle and Henri Giraud, though they played minor roles and didn't participate in the military planning.
It was at this conference that the Allies adopted the doctrine of "unconditional surrender", meaning that the Axis powers would be fought until their defeat. Roosevelt also met privately with Sultan Muhammad V and expressed his support for Moroccan independence after the war. This became a turning point, as Moroccan nationalists were emboldened to openly seek complete independence.
Riots in Casablanca took place from 7–8 December 1952, in response to the assassination of the Tunisian labor unionist Farhat Hached by La Main Rouge—the clandestine militant wing of French intelligence. Then, on 25 December 1953 (Christmas Day), Muhammad Zarqtuni orchestrated a bombing of Casablanca's Central Market in response to the forced exile of Sultan Muhammad V and the royal family on 20 August (Eid al-Adha) of that year.
=== Since independence ===
Morocco gained independence from France in 1956. The post-independence era witnessed significant urban transformations and socio-economic shifts, particularly in neighborhoods like Hay Mohammadi, which were deeply impacted by neoliberal policies and state-led urban redevelopment projects.
==== Casablanca Group ====
On 4–7 January 1961, the city hosted an ensemble of progressive African leaders during the Casablanca Conference of 1961. Among those received by King Muhammad V were Gamal Abd An-Nasser, Kwame Nkrumah, Modibo Keïta, and Ahmed Sékou Touré, Ferhat Abbas.
==== Jewish emigration ====
Casablanca was a major departure point for Jews leaving Morocco through Operation Yachin, an operation conducted by Mossad to secretly migrate Moroccan Jews to Israel between November 1961 and spring 1964.
==== 1965 riots ====
The 1965 student protests organized by the National Union of Popular Forces-affiliated National Union of Moroccan Students, which spread to cities around the country and devolved into riots, started on 22 March 1965, in front of Lycée Mohammed V in Casablanca. The protests started as a peaceful march to demand the right to public higher education for Morocco, but expanded to include concerns of labourers, the unemployed, and other marginalized segments of society, and devolved into vandalism and rioting. The riots were violently repressed by security forces with tanks and armoured vehicles; Moroccan authorities reported a dozen deaths while the UNFP reported more than 1,000.
==== 1981 riots ====
On 6 June 1981, the Casablanca Bread Riots took place, Hassan II appointed the French-trained interior minister Driss Basri as hardliner, who would later become a symbol of the Years of Lead, with quelling the protests. The government stated that 66 people were killed and 100 were injured, while opposition leaders put the number of dead at 637, saying that many of these were killed by police and army gunfire.
==== Mudawana ====
In March 2000, more than 60 women's groups organized demonstrations in Casablanca proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country. About 40,000 women attended, calling for a ban on polygamy and the introduction of divorce law (divorce being a purely religious procedure at that time). Although the counter-demonstration attracted half a million participants, the movement for change started in 2000 was influential on King Mohammed VI, and he enacted a new mudawana, or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists.
====Further history====
On 16 May 2003, 33 civilians were killed and more than 100 people were injured when Casablanca was hit by a multiple suicide bomb attack carried out by Moroccans and claimed by some to have been linked to al-Qaeda. Twelve suicide bombers struck five locations in the city.
Another series of suicide bombings struck the city in early 2007. These events illustrated some of the persistent challenges the city faces in addressing poverty and integrating disadvantaged neighborhoods and populations. One initiative to improve conditions in the city's disadvantaged neighborhoods was the creation of the Sidi Moumen Cultural Center.
== Geography ==
Casablanca is located on the Atlantic coast of the Chaouia Plains, which have historically been the breadbasket of Morocco. Apart from the Atlantic coast, the Bouskoura forest is the only natural attraction in the city. The forest was planted in the 20th century and consists mostly of eucalyptus, palm, and pine trees. It is located halfway to the city's international airport.
The only watercourse in Casablanca is oued Bouskoura, a small seasonal creek that until 1912 reached the Atlantic Ocean near the actual port. Most of oued Bouskoura's bed has been covered due to urbanization and only the part south of El Jadida road can now be seen. The closest permanent river to Casablanca is Oum Rabia, to the south-east.
=== Neighborhood ===
The list of neighborhoods is indicative and not complete:
2 Mars
Ain Chock
Ain Diab
Ain Sebaa
Attacharouk
Belvédère
Beauséjour
Bouchentouf
Bouskoura
Bourgogne
Californie
Centre Ville
C.I.L.
La Colline
Derb Ghallef
Derb Sultan
Derb Tazi
Gauthier
Ghandi
Habous
El Hank
Hay Dakhla
Hay El Baraka
Hay El Hanaa
Hay El Hassani
Hay El Mohammadi
Hay Farah
Hay Moulay Rachid
Hay Salama
Hubous
Inara
Laimoun (Hay Hassani)
Lamkansa
Lissasfa
Maârif
Mers Sultan
Nassim
Oasis
Old Madina
Oulfa
Palmiers
Polo
Racine
Riviera
Roches Noires
Salmia 2
Sbata
Sidi Bernoussi
Sidi Maârouf
Sidi Moumen
Sidi Othmane
=== Climate ===
Casablanca has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). The cool Canary Current off the Atlantic coast moderates temperature variation, which results in a climate remarkably similar to that of coastal Los Angeles, with similar temperature ranges. The city has an annual average of 72 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to per year. The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city are and , respectively. The highest amount of rainfall recorded in a single day is on 30 November 2010.
==== Climate change ====
A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Casablanca in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Tripoli, Libya. The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the warmest month by , while the temperature of the coldest month would actually decrease by .
Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Casablanca is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.
== Economy ==
The Grand Casablanca region is considered the locomotive of the development of the Moroccan economy. It attracts 32% of the country's production units and 56% of industrial labor. The region uses 30% of the national electricity production. With MAD 93 billion, the region contributes to 44% of the industrial production of the kingdom. About 33% of national industrial exports, MAD 27 billion, comes from the Grand Casablanca; 30% of the Moroccan banking network is concentrated in Casablanca.
One of the most important exports of Casablanca is phosphate. Other industries include fishing, fish canning, sawmills, furniture production, building materials, glass, textiles, electronics, leather work, processed food, spirits, soft drinks, and cigarettes.
The Casablanca and Mohammedia seaports activity represent 50% of the international commercial flows of Morocco. Almost the entire Casablanca waterfront is under development, mainly the construction of huge entertainment centres between the port and Hassan II Mosque, the Anfa Resort project near the business, entertainment and living centre of Megarama, the shopping and entertainment complex of Morocco Mall, as well as a complete renovation of the coastal walkway. The Sindbad park was also renewed with rides, games and entertainment services.
Casablanca is a significant financial centre, ranking 54th globally in the September 2023 Global Financial Centres Index rankings, between Brussels and Rome. In 2004, it announced that it was moving its head office from Casablanca to a location in Province of Nouaceur, close to Mohammed V International Airport. The agreement to build the head office in Nouaceur was signed in 2009 but was never implemented.
== Administration and Politics ==
Casablanca is a munipality that is part of the Casablanca-Settat region.
The municipality is divided into 16 districts (arrondissements).
=== Municipality ===
The responsibilities of the Casablanca municipality include :
Economic and social development
Traffic, Roads, Sidewalks, Bike Lanes
Parking
Public Transit
The environment
Parks
Beaches
Public Safety
Hygiene
Libraries
Museums
Cultural Events
Kindergartens
Cemeteries
==== Mayor ====
The Mayor of Casablanca is the head of the Casablanca municipality. He controls the Casablanca municipality administration.
The Mayor :
Represents the city
Sits on the board of public development societies (SDL) About 98% live in urban areas. Around 25% of the population are under 15 years old, and 9% are over 60 years old. The population of the city is about 11% of the total population of Morocco. Grand Casablanca is the largest urban area in the Maghreb. 99.9% of the population of Morocco are Arab and Berber Muslims. During the French protectorate in Morocco, European Christians formed almost half the population of Casablanca.
=== Judaism in Casablanca ===
Jews have a long history in Casablanca. A Sephardic Jewish community was in Anfa up to the destruction of the city by the Portuguese in 1468. Jews were slow to return to the town, but by 1750, the Rabbi Elijah synagogue was built as the first Jewish synagogue in Casablanca. It was destroyed along with much of the town in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Moroccan Jews started migrating from the interior to coastal cities such as Essaouira, Mazagan, Asfi, and later Casablanca for economic opportunity, participating in trade with Europeans and the development of those cities.
Casablanca's mellah was ravaged in the bombardment of Casablanca of 1907, the beginning of the French invasion of Morocco from the West.
Jean-Louis Cohen highlights the role of Jewish patrons in the architecture and urban development of Casablanca, particularly in construction of the overwhelming majority of the city's tallest buildings during the interwar period. One notable example of this trend is the Lévy-Bendayan Building designed by Marius Boyer.'' Casablanca then became a departure point in Operation Yachin, the covert Mossad-organized migration operation from 1961 to 1964. In 2018 it was estimated that there were only 2,500 Moroccan Jews living in Casablanca,
Today, the Jewish cemetery of Casablanca is one of the major cemeteries of the city, and many synagogues remain in service, but the city's Jewish community has dwindled. The Moroccan Jewish Museum is a museum established in the city in 1997.
== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
Public:
École Centrale Casablanca
University of Hassan II Casablanca
Private:
HEM Business School
Université Mundiapolis
Université Internationale de Casablanca
=== Primary and secondary schools ===
International schools:
Belgium: École Belge de Casablanca
French:
Collège Anatole France
Lycée Lyautey
Groupe Scolaire Louis Massignon
Lycée La Résidence
Lycée Maïmonide
Lycée Léon l'Africain
École Normale Hébraïque
École Al Jabr
Italian: Scuola "Enrico Mattei"
Spanish: Instituto Español Juan Ramón Jiménez
American:
Casablanca American School
American Academy Casablanca
George Washington Academy
Montessori:
École Montessori Casablanca
=== Libraries ===
King Abdul Aziz Foundation for Human Sciences and Islamic Studies
Dar America
Institut Français
Instituto Cervantes
== Places of worship ==
Most of the city's places of worship are Muslim mosques. Some of the city's synagogues, such as Ettedgui Synagogue, also remain. There are also Christian churches; some remain in use — particularly by the West African migrant community — while many of the churches built during the colonial period have been repurposed, such as Church of the Sacred Heart.
== Sports ==
=== Association football ===
Casablanca is home to two popular football clubs: Wydad Casablanca and Raja Casablanca—which are rivals. Raja's symbol is an eagle and Wydad's symbol is a star and crescent, a symbol of Islam. These two popular clubs have produced some of Morocco's best players, such as: Salaheddine Bassir, Abdelmajid Dolmy, Baddou Zaki, Aziz Bouderbala, and Noureddine Naybet. Other football teams on top of these two major teams based in the city of Casablanca include Rachad Bernoussi, TAS de Casablanca, Majd Al Madina, and Racing Casablanca.
Raja CA, founded in 1949, compete in Botola and play their home games at the Stade Mohammed V. The club is known for their supporters and is one of the most supported teams in Africa. Wydad AC, founded in 1937, also compete in Botola and play their home games at the Stade Mohammed V. Both have a strong reputation on continental competitions, having both won the CAF Champions League three times.
Casablanca hosted eight African Champions League finals, all eight at the Stade Mohammed V. The Stade also hosted the 2018 CHAN Final (which Morocco won) and 1988 African Cup of Nations final. It could potentially host matches for the 2030 FIFA World Cup including the final.
=== Tennis ===
Casablanca hosts The Grand Prix Hassan II, a professional men's tennis tournament of the ATP tour. It first began in 1986, and is played on clay courts type at Complexe Al Amal.
Notable winners of the Hassan II Grand-Prix are Thomas Muster in 1990, Hicham Arazi in 1997, Younes El Aynaoui in 2002, and Stanislas Wawrinka in 2010.
=== Hosting ===
Casablanca staged the 1961 Pan Arab Games, the 1983 Mediterranean Games, and games during the 1988 Africa Cup of Nations. Morocco was scheduled to host the 2015 African Nations Cup, but decided to decline due to Ebola fears. Morocco was expelled and the tournament was held in Equatorial Guinea. However, Morocco will host the 2025 edition after original host Guinea was stripped from hosting rights due to lack of readiness and preparation delays.
==== Venues ====
Stade Larbi Zaouli
Stade Mohamed V
Stade Sidi Bernoussi
Complexe Al Amal de Casablanca
The Hassan II Stadium is the planned football stadium to be built in the city. Once completed in 2025, it will be used mostly for football matches and will serve as the home of Raja Casablanca, Wydad Casablanca, and the Morocco national football team. The stadium was designed with a capacity of 93,000 spectators, making it one of the highest-capacity stadiums in Africa. Once completed, it will replace the Stade Mohamed V. The initial idea of the stadium was for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, for which Morocco lost their bid to South Africa. Nevertheless, the Moroccan government supported the decision to go ahead with the plans. It will be completed in 2025. The idea of the stadium was also for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, for which Morocco lost their bid to Canada, Mexico and United States. It will now host the 2030 FIFA World Cup which Morocco will co-host with two European nations Spain and Portugal. It is expected to be complete by 2028.
=== Road Racing ===
The city is host to the International Casablanca Marathon, a 26.2-mile road race that draws international competition. The race was founded in 2008 and is a member of the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races .
== Culture ==
=== Music ===
Haja El Hamdaouia, one of the most iconic figures in aita music, was born in Casablanca. Nass El Ghiwane, led by Larbi Batma, came out of Hay Mohammadi in Casablanca. Naima Samih of Derb Sultan gained prominence through the program Mawahib (). Abdelhadi Belkhayat and Abdelwahab Doukkali are musicians specializing in traditional Moroccan Arabic popular music. Zina Daoudia, Abdelaziz Stati, Abdellah Daoudi, and Said Senhaji are notable Moroccan chaabi musicians.
Abdelakabir Faradjallah founded Attarazat Addahabia, a Moroccan funk band, in 1968. Fadoul, another funk band, formed in the 1970s.
Hoba Hoba Spirit also formed in Casablanca, and is still based there. Casablanca has a thriving hiphop scene, with artists such as El Grande Toto, Don Big, 7liwa, and Issam Harris.
Casablanca hosts numerous music festivals, such as Jazzablanca and L'Boulevard, as well as a museum dedicated to Andalusi music, Dar ul-Aala.
=== Literature ===
Francesco Cavalli's L'Ormindo is a 17th-century Venetian opera set between Anfa and Fes.
The French writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry is associated with Casablanca.
Driss Chraïbi's novel The Simple Past takes place in Casablanca. Mohamed Zafzaf lived in Maarif while writing and teaching at a high school.
Lamalif, a radical leftist political and cultural magazine, was based in Casablanca.
Casablanca's International Book Fair is held at the fair grounds opposite Hassan II Mosque annually in February.
==== Theater ====
Tayeb Saddiki, described as the father of Moroccan theater, grew up in Casablanca and made his career there. Hanane el-Fadili and Hassan El Fad are popular comedians from Casablanca. Gad Elmaleh is another comedian from Casablanca, though he has made his career abroad.
=== Visual art ===
The École des Beaux-Arts of Casablanca was founded in 1919 by a French Orientalist painter named Édouard Brindeau de Jarny, who started his career teaching drawing at Lycée Lyautey. The Casablanca School—a Modernist art movement and collective including artists such as Farid Belkahia, Mohamed Melehi, and Mohammed Chabâa—developed out of the École des Beaux-Arts of Casablanca in the late 1960s.
The Academy of Traditional Arts, part of the Hassan II Mosque complex, was founded 31 October 2012.
L'Uzine is a community-based art and culture space in Casablanca.
Rebel Spirit published The Casablanca Guide (, ) a comic book about life in Casablanca.
Sbagha Bagha is a street art festival during which murals are created on the sides of apartment buildings.
=== Photography ===
Postcard companies such as Léon & Lévy were active in Casablanca. Gabriel Veyre also worked and eventually died in Casablanca.
Marcelin Flandrin (1889–1957), a French military photographer, settled in Casablanca and recorded much of the early colonial period in Morocco with his photography. With his staged nude postcard photos taken in Casablanca's colonial brothel quarter, Flandrin was also responsible for disseminating the orientalist image of Moroccan women as sexual objects.
Casablanca has a thriving street photography scene. Yoriyas is prominent among photographers capturing the economic capital's street scenes, and has attracted international attention.
=== Film ===
In the first half of the 20th century, Casablanca had many movie theaters, such as Cinema Rialto, Cinema Lynx and Cinema Vox, the largest in Africa when it was built.
The 1942 American film Casablanca is set in Casablanca and has had a lasting impact on the city's image although it was filmed in the United States. Salut Casa! was a propaganda film brandishing France's purported colonial triumph in its mission civilisatrice in the city.
Mostafa Derkaoui's revolutionary independent film About Some Meaningless Events (1974) took place in Casablanca. It was the main subject of Ali Essafi's documentary Before the Dying of the Light. The films Ali Zaoua (2000), Horses of God (2012), and Razzia (2017) of Nabil Ayouch, a French director of Moroccan heritage, deal with street crime, terrorism and social issues in Casablanca, respectively. The events in Meryem Benm'Barek-Aloïsi's 2018 film Sofia revolve around an illegitimate pregnancy in Casablanca. Ahmed El Maanouni, Hicham Lasri and Said Naciri are also from Casablanca.
=== Architecture ===
Casablanca's architecture and urban development are historically significant. The city is home to many notable buildings in a variety of styles, including traditional Moroccan architecture, various colonial architectural styles, Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Neo-Mauresque, Streamline Moderne, Modernism, Brutalism, and more. During the French Protectorate, the French government described Casablanca as a "laboratory of urbanism".
The work of the Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains (GAMMA) on public housing projects—such as Carrières Centrales in Hay Mohammadi—in a style described as vernacular modernism influenced modernist architecture around the world.
Casamémoire and MAMMA. are two organizations dedicated to the preservation and appreciation of the city's architectural heritage.
== Transport ==
=== Rapid transit ===
The Casablanca Tramway is the rapid transit tram system in Casablanca. As of 2019, the network consists of two lines covering , with 71 stops; further lines (T3 and T4) are under construction.
Casablanca is also planning to introduce a rapid bus network called the Casablanca Busway. The network will consist of two lines, BW1 and BW2. As of October 2023, the system was operating in a testing phase and its public opening, initially planned for July 2023, was delayed due to technical problems.
Since the 1970s, Casablanca had planned to build a metro system to offer some relief to the problems of traffic congestion and poor air quality. However, the city council voted to abandon the metro project in 2014 due to high costs, and decided to continue expanding the already operating tram system instead.
=== Air ===
Casablanca's main airport is Mohammed V International Airport, Morocco's busiest airport. Regular domestic flights serve Marrakech, Rabat, Agadir, Oujda, Tangier, Al Hoceima, and Laayoune, as well as other cities.
Casablanca is well-served by international flights to Europe, especially French and Spanish airports, and has regular connections to North American, Middle Eastern and sub-Saharan African destinations. New York City, Montreal, Paris, Washington D.C., London and Dubai are important primary destinations.
The older, smaller Casablanca-Anfa Airport to the west of the city, served certain destinations including Damascus and Tunis, and was largely closed to international civilian traffic in 2006. It was eventually demolished to make way for construction of the "Casablanca Finance City", the new heart of the city of Casablanca. Casablanca Tit Mellil Airport is located in the nearby community of Tit Mellil.
=== Coach buses ===
Compagnie de Transports au Maroc (CTM) offers private intercity coach buses on various lines run servicing most notable Moroccan towns, as well as a number of European cities. These run from the CTM Bus Station on Leo Africanus Street near the Central Market in downtown Casablanca. Supratours, an affiliate of ONCF, also offers coach bus service at a slightly lower cost, departing from a station on Wilad Zian Street. There is another bus station farther down on the same street called the Wilad Zian Bus Station; this station is the country's largest bus station, serving over 800 buses daily, catering more to Morocco's lower income population.
=== Taxis ===
Registered taxis in Casablanca are coloured red and known as petits taxis (small taxis), or coloured white and known as grands taxis (big taxis). As is standard Moroccan practice, petits taxis, typically small-four door Dacia Logan, Peugeot 207, or similar cars, provide metered cab service in the central metropolitan areas. Grands taxis, generally older Mercedes-Benz sedans, provide shared mini-bus like service within the city on predefined routes, or shared intercity service. Grands taxis may also be hired for private service by the hour or day.
=== Trains ===
Casablanca is served by three main railway stations run by the national rail service, the ONCF.
is the main intercity station, from which trains run south to Marrakech or El Jadida and north to Mohammedia and Rabat, and then on either to Tangier or Meknes, Fes, Taza and Oujda/Nador. It also serves as the southern terminus of the Al-Boraq high speed line from Tangier. A dedicated airport shuttle service to Mohammed V International Airport also has its primary in-city stop at this station, for connections on to further destinations.
serves primarily commuter trains such as the Train Navette Rapide (TNR or Aouita) operating on the Casablanca – Kenitra rail corridor, with some connecting trains running on to Gare de Casa-Voyageurs. The station provides a direct interchange between train and shipping services, and is located near several port-area hotels. It is the nearest station to the old town of Casablanca, and to the modern city centre, around the landmark Casablanca Twin Center. Casa-Port station is being rebuilt in a modern and enlarged configuration. During the construction, the station is still operational. From 2013, it will provide a close connection from the rail network to the city's new tram network.
Casa-Oasis was originally a suburban commuter station which was fully redesigned and rebuilt in the early 21st century, and officially reopened in 2005 as a primary city rail station. Owing to its new status, all southern intercity train services to and from Casa-Voyageurs now call at Casa-Oasis. ONCF stated in 2005 that the refurbishment and upgrading of Casa-Oasis to intercity standards was intended to relieve passenger congestion at Casa-Voyageurs station.
== Tourism ==
Although Mohammed V International Airport receives most international flights into Morocco, international tourism in Casablanca is not as developed as it is in cities such as Fes and Marrakech.
The Hassan II Mosque, which is the second largest mosque in Africa and the seventh-largest in the world, is the city's main tourist attraction. Visitors also come to see the city's rich architectural heritage.
Popular sites for national tourism include shopping centers such as Morocco Mall, Anfa Place, the Marina Shopping Center, and the Tachfine Center. Additional sites include the Corniche and the beach of Ain Diab, and parks such as the Arab League Park or the Sindibad theme park.
غسق الليل في رمضان من على شاطئ عين الذئاب في مدينة الدار البيضاء المغربية.jpg|Sunset at Ain Diab
Касабланка - panoramio (3).jpg|Casablanca Beach
مبنى بأسلوب استعماري فرنسي شارع الحسن الثان.jpeg|Colonial architecture near UN Square
Hassan 2 Mosque (cropped).jpeg|Hassan II Mosque
Parc de la Ligue Arabe Avenue.JPG|Arab League Park
== Notable people ==
Lahcen Abrami – former Moroccan footballer
Amine Atouchi – Moroccan footballer
Khalil Azmi – former Moroccan goalkeeper
Amal Ayouch – Moroccan stage and film actress
Wissam Baraka – Moroccan footballer
Salaheddine Bassir – Moroccan footballer
Laarbi Batma – Moroccan musician and artist, founding member of Nas El Ghiwan
Larbi Benbarek – Moroccan footballer
Badr Benoun – Moroccan footballer
Miriem Bensalah-Chaqroun – Moroccan businesswoman
Jean-Paul Bertrand-Demanes – French footballer
Frida Boccara – French singer, winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 1969
Aziz Bouderbala – former Moroccan footballer
Merieme Chadid – Moroccan astronomer
Mustapha Chadili – former goalkeeper
Achraf Dari – Moroccan footballer
Jean-Charles de Castelbajac – Moroccan/French fashion designer
Nabil Dirar – Moroccan footballer
Abdelmajid Dolmy – former Moroccan footballer
Don Bigg – Moroccan rapper and songwriter
Dizzy DROS – Moroccan rapper and producer
Issam El Adoua – Moroccan footballer
Badr El Kaddouri – former Moroccan footballer
Talal El Karkouri – former Moroccan footballer
Gad Elmaleh – French/Canadian/Moroccan comedian
Bouchaib El Moubarki – former Moroccan footballer
Youssef Fertout – Moroccan manager
La Fouine – Moroccan/French rapper
Khalid Fouhami – former Moroccan goalkeeper
Mohamed Fouzair – Moroccan footballer
Divina Frau-Meigs – Moroccan sociologist and professor
El Haqed – Moroccan rapper
Serge Haroche – French physicist, awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize for Physics
Shatha Hassoun – Moroccan/Iraqi singer and actress
Lydia Hatuel-Czuckermann – Israeli Olympic fencer
Mouhcine Iajour – Moroccan footballer
Driss Joumad – former Morocco international footballer
Nadir Lamyaghri – former Moroccan goalkeeper
Hamza Mendyl – Moroccan footballer
Hicham Mesbahi – Moroccan boxer
French Montana – Moroccan/American rapper
Nawal El Moutawakel – Moroccan Olympic champion
Hakim Mouzaki – Moroccan footballer
Abderrahim Najah – Moroccan international basketball player
Noureddine Naybet – Moroccan footballer
Mostafa Nissaboury – Moroccan poet
Hakim Noury – Moroccan film director
Maurice Ohana – French composer
Faouzia Ouihya – Moroccan-Canadian singer
Azzedine Ounahi- Moroccan footballer
Jean Reno – Hollywood actor
Youssef Rossi – former Moroccan footballer
Abdelilah Saber – Moroccan former footballer
Youssef Safri – Moroccan football manager
Jamal Sellami – Moroccan football manager
Daniel Sivan – Israeli professor
Alain Souchon – French songwriter
Frank Stephenson – Moroccan/British/American award-winning automobile designer
Hassan Saada – Moroccan boxer arrested for alleged rape before Olympic match
Tagne – rapper
Sidney Taurel – naturalized American CEO of Eli Lilly and Company from 1998 to 2008
Richard Virenque – French cyclist
Muhammad Zarqtuni – Moroccan nationalist and resistance leader
Abdallah Zrika – Moroccan poet
== In popular culture ==
The 1942 film Casablanca (starring Ingrid Bergman and Humphrey Bogart) is supposed to have been set in Casablanca, although it was filmed entirely in Los Angeles and does not feature a single Arab or North African character with a speaking role. The film depicts Casablanca as the scene of power struggle between various foreign powers, which had much more to do with the Tangier of the time. The film has achieved worldwide popularity since its release. Nominated for eight Academy Awards, it won three, including Best Picture.
A Night in Casablanca (1946) was the 12th Marx Brothers' movie. The film stars Groucho Marx, Chico Marx, and Harpo Marx. It was directed by Archie Mayo and written by Joseph Fields and Roland Kibbee. The film contains the song "Who's Sorry Now?", with music by Ted Snyder and lyrics by Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby. It is sung in French by Lisette Verea playing the part of Beatrice Rheiner, and then later sung in English. Liszt's "Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2" is played twice, once by Chico on piano as an introduction to the "Beer Barrel Polka", and again by Harpo on the harp.
The city is featured in The Mysterious Caravan (1975), volume 54 in the original Hardy Boys series.
Casablanca is the setting for several chapters in Doubleshot, a 2000 James Bond novel by Raymond Benson. In the novel, one of the characters mentions that the 1942 film was shot in Hollywood and not on location.
Casablanca is one of the key locations in the 2006 video game Dreamfall, as it is where the primary protagonist of the game, Zoë Castillo, lives. Although the city is imagined in the year 2219, much of the present-day architecture is used for inspiration.
Casablanca is the setting for the first act of the 2016 World War II romantic thriller film Allied starring Brad Pitt and Marion Cotillard.
==Twin towns – sister cities==
Casablanca is twinned with:
Bordeaux, France
Busan, South Korea
Chicago, United States
Dakar, Senegal
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Jakarta, Indonesia
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Muscat, Oman
Nouadhibou, Mauritania
Shanghai, China
Casablanca also has cooperation agreements with:
Madrid, Spain
London, United Kingdom
San Sebastián, Spain
Bucharest, Romania
|
[
"George Washington",
"Hakim Mouzaki",
"Wissam Baraka",
"Merinid",
"Port Said",
"Rabat",
"Raja CA",
"Nass El Ghiwane",
"Nabil Dirar",
"Moulay Ismail",
"privateers",
"Eurovision Song Contest 1969",
"Gauthier, Casablanca",
"Casablanca-Anfa Airport",
"Jazzablanca",
"Madrid",
"Compagnie de Transports au Maroc",
"Alain Souchon",
"Before the Dying of the Light",
"Abdelaziz Stati",
"Moorish Revival architecture",
"Nawal El Moutawakel",
"Lamalif",
"École Normale Hébraïque",
"port of Casablanca",
"CAF Champions League",
"Raymond Benson",
"George Washington Academy",
"Sufism",
"Banu Hilal",
"Lomé",
"Centre Ville, Casablanca",
"Moroccan Arabic",
"Serge Haroche",
"Roman Catholic",
"Africa",
"Hassan II Mosque",
"Senegalese Tirailleurs",
"Nabila Rmili",
"Younes El Aynaoui",
"Royal Palace of Casablanca",
"Republic of Venice",
"Mellah",
"7liwa",
"typhoid fever",
"Christians",
"Andalusian classical music",
"Bousbir",
"Said Naciri",
"Canada",
"Global Financial Centres Index",
"World Jewish Congress",
"Baddou Zaki",
"breadbasket",
"El Grande Toto",
"L'Uzine",
"Sidi Moumen",
"Mostafa Derkaoui",
"Raja Casablanca",
"Ted Snyder",
"Divina Frau-Meigs",
"Zawiya (institution)",
"Hay El Hanaa",
"Maghreb",
"Brad Pitt",
"Moroni, Comoros",
"Tit Mellil",
"2 Mars",
"Dar es Salaam",
"Chico Marx",
"Stanislas Wawrinka",
"Abderrahim Najah",
"Achraf Dari",
"Ouarzazate",
"Dacia Logan",
"Casablanca Metro",
"Lahcen Abrami",
"Shatha Hassoun",
"Muscat",
"French Third Republic",
"Lycée Mohammed V",
"Peugeot 207",
"mass grave",
"Mohammed V of Morocco",
"French cruiser Galilée",
"El Hank, Casablanca",
"Academy Awards",
"Casablanca tramway",
"Hamza Mendyl",
"Major general (United States)",
"Nouadhibou",
"List of cities in Morocco",
"Franz Liszt",
"Alexandria",
"ONCF",
"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",
"Fes",
"London",
"French colonial empires",
"Abdallah Zrika",
"Édouard Brindeau de Jarny",
"Wordmark",
"gunpowder tea",
"Modern architecture",
"Luanda",
"Casablanca Tramway",
"2018 African Nations Championship Final",
"Ettedgui Synagogue",
"École Centrale Casablanca",
"Maârif",
"Hebrew language",
"Hanane el-Fadili",
"Meknes",
"Jean-Louis Cohen",
"Description of Africa (1550 book)",
"Aïn Chock",
"Henri Giraud",
"Issam El Adoua",
"Axis powers",
"Casablanca Clock Tower",
"Bouchaib El Moubarki",
"Faouzia",
"Leo Africanus",
"A Night in Casablanca",
"Stade Mohamed V",
"Lycée Léon l'Africain (Casablanca)",
"Wilhelm Gesenius",
"2026 FIFA World Cup",
"Ain Sebaa",
"The New York Times",
"Stade Sidi Bernoussi",
"Algiers",
"Tayeb Saddiki",
"Bert Kalmar",
"Sultan",
"synagogue",
"industrial labor",
"Arecaceae",
"Polo, Casablanca",
"Dar ul-Aala",
"Regions of Morocco",
"Hay Mohammadi",
"Casablanca derby",
"Cinema Lynx",
"places of worship",
"1965 Moroccan riots",
"German submarine U-173",
"Qaid",
"École Belge de Casablanca",
"eucalyptus",
"Istanbul",
"Hubert Lyautey",
"About Some Meaningless Events",
"Abdellah Daoudi",
"Sbata",
"Tachfine Center",
"Free France",
"Palmiers",
"Hassan El Fad",
"Driss Chraïbi",
"Laarbi Batma",
"Guinea",
"Sister city",
"Lissasfa",
"Arabization",
"Israel",
"New York City",
"La Main Rouge",
"Frank Stephenson",
"Carrières Centrales",
"Attarazat Addahabia",
"Larbi Batma",
"Arab world",
"French conquest of Morocco",
"Ibn Khaldun",
"Mohammedia",
"European Theatre of Operations",
"Telquel (magazine marocain)",
"naval base",
"Los Angeles",
"Spain",
"Joseph Fields",
"Jakarta",
"mudawana",
"Chaabi (Morocco)",
"Tanger-Med",
"Casablanca Stock Exchange",
"2003 Casablanca bombings",
"RSSSF",
"Mercedes-Benz",
"Creative Cities Network",
"Operation Yachin",
"Hicham Lasri",
"Racine (Casablanca)",
"Dreamfall",
"El-Jadida",
"Khalil Azmi",
"Hoba Hoba Spirit",
"Abdelakabir Faradjallah",
"CNN",
"Mostafa Nissaboury",
"Economy of Morocco",
"Nadir Lamyaghri",
"2025 Africa Cup of Nations",
"Amsterdam",
"Damascus",
"Eid al-Adha",
"Sbagha Bagha",
"Henri Prost",
"Noureddine Naybet",
"Years of Lead (Morocco)",
"Yoriyas",
"Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2",
"Talal El Karkouri",
"Gabriel Veyre",
"Hakim Noury",
"Oum Er-Rbia River",
"al-Qaeda",
"Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains",
"informal housing",
"Sofia (2018 film)",
"Modernism",
"Taxicab",
"Hebron",
"Architecture of Casablanca",
"Morocco Mall",
"Khalid Fouhami",
"Medina quarter",
"bombardment of Casablanca",
"Issam Harris",
"Ben M'Sick",
"Duarte Pacheco Pereira",
"Derb Sultan",
"King Abdul Aziz Foundation for Human Sciences and Islamic Studies (Casablanca)",
"Christianity",
"Casablanca Finance City",
"Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnage",
"Mers Sultan",
"Complexe Al Amal",
"El Haqed",
"Muna Fettou",
"Majd Al Madina",
"French Protectorate in Morocco",
"Al-Boraq",
"Lycée La Résidence (Casablanca)",
"Christianity in Morocco",
"Muhammad Zarqtuni",
"L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui",
"Anfa Place",
"2030 FIFA World Cup",
"Groucho Marx",
"Port of Casablanca",
"Kajiado",
"Essaouira",
"Moulay Rachid (district)",
"Kwame Nkrumah",
"Casablanca Busway",
"Collège Anatole France (Casablanca)",
"Hubous",
"Riviera, Morocco",
"Ain Chock",
"ruins of Anfa",
"Buenos Aires",
"Sidi Maârouf",
"Cape Town",
"Horses of God",
"TAS de Casablanca",
"Léon & Lévy",
"Royal Moroccan Navy",
"2014 Moroccan census",
"Razzia (2017 film)",
"Abdelmajid Dolmy",
"Academy of Traditional Arts",
"Streamline Moderne",
"Sidi Bernoussi (arrondissement)",
"Marcelin Flandrin",
"Arabic language",
"2015 Africa Cup of Nations",
"La Fouine",
"1465 Moroccan revolt",
"Daniel Sivan",
"Driss Basri",
"Salmia 2 (Casablanca)",
"Arab",
"La Colline",
"Morocco national football team",
"Oujda",
"PLOS One",
"Sephardic Jews",
"urban area",
"North Africa",
"Portuguese language",
"Decauville",
"French colonial empire",
"Stade Larbi Zaouli",
"Municipality",
"Tripoli, Libya",
"Casablanca (film)",
"Badr El Kaddouri",
"Rome",
"El Jadida",
"Rear Admiral",
"Lydia Hatuel-Czuckermann",
"Hay Hassani",
"Treaty of Fez",
"Air Transport World",
"The Hardy Boys",
"Mustapha Chadili",
"American Academy Casablanca",
"Oulfa",
"Köppen climate classification",
"Meryem Benm'Barek-Aloïsi",
"Art Nouveau",
"Hicham Arazi",
"calque",
"French cruiser Gloire (1900)",
"Naval Battle of Casablanca",
"financial centre",
"Casablanca International Book Fair",
"Amine Atouchi",
"Francesco Cavalli",
"Instituto Español Juan Ramón Jiménez",
"1755 Meknes earthquake",
"Hay Dakhla",
"Franklin D. Roosevelt",
"Mexico",
"Nazi Germany",
"mellah",
"Maputo",
"United Nations Square (Casablanca)",
"Abdelkarim Derqaoui",
"Hay El Hassani",
"Hay El Baraka",
"Ain Diab",
"Amal Ayouch",
"BBC",
"civilizing mission",
"Casablanca Bread Riots",
"Tunisia",
"Habous, Casablanca",
"Mazagan",
"Lycée Maïmonide (Casablanca)",
"Farid Belkahia",
"Sidi Moumen Cultural Center",
"Rachad Bernoussi",
"Tunis",
"Deutscher Wetterdienst",
"Casablanca Guide",
"climate change",
"Wilad Zian Bus Station",
"Casanegra (film)",
"Hay Farah",
"Hassan II Stadium",
"Casablanca Cathedral",
"United States",
"Hay Salama",
"Naima Samih",
"Ingrid Bergman",
"Arab League Park",
"Merieme Chadid",
"L'Économiste",
"Maurice Ohana",
"Morocco",
"Mohammed Chabâa",
"National Union of Popular Forces",
"Jean-Paul Bertrand-Demanes",
"Archie Mayo",
"André Adam (academic)",
"Flag carrier",
"Train Navette Rapide",
"Ghandi (Casablanca)",
"Grand Casablanca",
"Lycée Lyautey (Casablanca)",
"white-washed",
"Botola",
"United Kingdom",
"Marion Cotillard",
"Sidi Belyout",
"French North Africa",
"Lisette Verea",
"Barghawata",
"pine",
"Sidney Taurel",
"Armistice of 22 June 1940",
"Bouskoura",
"1988 African Cup of Nations final",
"Oasis railway station",
"Richard Virenque",
"Casablanca Tit Mellil Airport",
"Alawi dynasty",
"Zoë Castillo",
"Said Senhaji",
"Dakar",
"1961 Pan Arab Games",
"shanty town",
"Philippe Pétain",
"Driss Joumad",
"Gamal Abdel Nasser",
"Youssef Rossi",
"French protectorate in Morocco",
"Chaouia (Morocco)",
"Kenitra",
"Derb Ghallef",
"Protestant",
"Hassan Saada",
"Wydad Casablanca",
"Hicham Mesbahi",
"Abuja",
"George S. Patton",
"municipality",
"Love in Casablanca",
"Ahmed El Maanouni",
"Aujourd'hui le Maroc",
"Massacre of April 7, 1947",
"Humphrey Bogart",
"Chicago",
"Californie, Casablanca",
"Bordeaux",
"Lagos",
"Central European Time",
"Province of Nouaceur",
"City of Brussels",
"Laayoune",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Don Big",
"2010 FIFA World Cup",
"Migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel",
"Allal al-Qairawani",
"sea level rise",
"Mohamed Fouzair",
"Abu Bakr Ibn Abi Zaid as-Slawi",
"artificial",
"Casamémoire",
"1755 Lisbon earthquake",
"Henry Kent Hewitt",
"Sidi Bernoussi",
"Abdelhadi Belkhayat",
"L'Boulevard",
"Ramallah",
"Compagnie Marocaine",
"Algeciras Conference",
"Nour-Eddine Lakhmari",
"Asfi",
"Rotterdam",
"Brutalist architecture",
"Dubai",
"Talaq (Nikah)",
"Berber languages",
"Salaheddine Bassir",
"Bombardment of Casablanca (1907)",
"Koudougou",
"Operation Torch",
"University of Hassan II Casablanca",
"Mohammed ben Abdallah",
"The Mysterious Caravan",
"Agadir",
"Marina Shopping Center",
"Barcelona",
"Tagne (rapper)",
"Old Madina",
"Art Deco",
"Youssef Safri",
"Hubous (Casablanca)",
"Stade Mohammed V",
"Banu Sulaym",
"Farhat Hached",
"Haja El Hamdaouia",
"Dizzy DROS",
"Central Market (Casablanca)",
"Kuala Lumpur",
"Bouchentouf",
"Montreal",
"Tangier",
"Mohamed Zafzaf",
"Cinema Vox (Casablanca)",
"Université Mundiapolis",
"Durban",
"Modibo Keïta",
"Airline hub",
"Who's Sorry Now? (song)",
"Islam",
"Marrakech",
"Casablanca American School",
"Charles de Gaulle",
"Mouhcine Iajour",
"Mohammed VI of Morocco",
"Mohammed V International Airport",
"Abdelilah Saber",
"Zina Daoudia",
"rapid transit",
"Marx Brothers",
"Oasis (Casablanca)",
"vernacular modernism",
"Berber people",
"Royal Air Maroc",
"Frida Boccara",
"Harry Ruby",
"Moroccan independence",
"CIL (Casablanca)",
"Aziz Bouderbala",
"Badr Benoun",
"Academy Award for Best Picture",
"Roches Noires, Morocco",
"Shanghai",
"marine ice sheet instability",
"1983 Mediterranean Games",
"Abdelwahab Doukkali",
"Sidi Othmane",
"Belvedere (Casablanca)",
"Ebola virus disease",
"Fadoul",
"Allied (film)",
"École des Beaux-Arts of Casablanca",
"Rabat Zoo",
"HEM Business School",
"IPCC Sixth Assessment Report",
"Iberian Union",
"RAC Casablanca",
"Safi, Morocco",
"Groupe Scolaire Louis Massignon",
"Nador",
"Beauséjour, Casablanca",
"Portugal",
"Aita (Morocco)",
"Inara (Casablanca)",
"narrow-gauge railway",
"École Al Jabr",
"Azzedine Ounahi",
"Mediouna, Morocco",
"Bucharest",
"Demographics of Morocco",
"Casablanca-Settat",
"Salut Casa!",
"Ferhat Abbas",
"Nassim, Morocco",
"Berber Jews",
"Casablanca Twin Center",
"James Bond",
"Abidjan",
"Youssef Fertout",
"List of largest cities in the Arab world",
"Nouakchott",
"Don Bigg",
"Moroccan Jewish Museum",
"Maghrebi mint tea",
"Jean Reno",
"Winston Churchill",
"Miriem Bensalah-Chaqroun",
"Université Internationale de Casablanca",
"History of Moroccan Jews",
"Ahmed Sékou Touré",
"Fes, Morocco",
"Greater Casablanca",
"Cinema Rialto",
"Larbi Benbarek",
"Mohamed Melehi",
"Ogimet",
"Almoravid",
"Equatorial Guinea",
"Nabil Ayouch",
"Anfa (arrondissement)",
"polygamy",
"Lévy-Bendayan Building",
"mini-bus",
"1988 Africa Cup of Nations",
"Canary Current",
"Lamkansa, Casablanca-Settat",
"Arabic music",
"Brussels",
"Wydad AC",
"Derb Tazi",
"Nahum Slouschz",
"Allies of World War II",
"hot-summer Mediterranean climate",
"Scuola \"Enrico Mattei\" (Morocco)",
"Moroccan Jews",
"Ali Zaoua",
"World War II",
"Gad Elmaleh",
"Laimoun",
"Orientalism",
"Arabic",
"Representative Concentration Pathway",
"Jamal Sellami",
"Hassan II of Morocco",
"Anfa",
"Mossad",
"South Africa",
"Harpo Marx",
"Thomas Muster",
"market capitalization",
"street photography",
"French Montana",
"Standard Arabic",
"Moroccan hip hop",
"Beer Barrel Polka",
"Antoine de Saint-Exupéry",
"Amman",
"Bourgogne, Casablanca",
"Casablanca School",
"Washington D.C.",
"Jewish cemetery of Casablanca",
"Grand Prix Hassan II",
"Doubleshot",
"Casablanca Conference (1943)",
"Troupes coloniales",
"Casablanca Group",
"Attacharouk",
"Casablanca Conference",
"Ali Essafi",
"Hay Moulay Rachid",
"European Moroccans",
"Paris",
"Rebel Spirit (artist)",
"Busan",
"Jean-Charles de Castelbajac",
"San Sebastián",
"Casablanca Uprisings of 1952",
"L'Ormindo",
"MAMMA.",
"Aïn Sebaâ"
] |
7,303 |
Cross
|
A cross is a compound geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is termed a saltire in heraldic terminology.
The cross has been widely recognized as an absolute symbol of Christianity exclusively from an early period in that religion's history. Before then, it was used as a religious or cultural symbol throughout Europe, in western and south Asia (the latter, in the form of the original Swastika); and in Egypt, where the Ankh was a hieroglyph that represented "life" and was used in the worship of the god Aten. It often appeared in conjunction with the female-genital circle or oval, to signify the sacred marriage, as in Egyptian amulet Nefer with male cross and female orb, considered as an amulet of blessedness, a charm of sexual harmony.
== Name ==
The word cross is recorded in 11th-century Old English as cros, exclusively for the instrument of Christ's crucifixion, replacing the native Old English word rood. The word's history is complicated; it appears to have entered English from Old Irish, possibly via Old Norse, ultimately from the Latin (or its accusative and its genitive ), "stake, cross". The English verb to cross arises from the noun , first in the sense "to make the sign of the cross"; the generic meaning "to intersect" develops in the 15th century. The Latin word was influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as *krukjo (English crook, Old English , Old Norse , Old High German ). This word, by conflation with Latin , gave rise to Old French (modern French ), the term for a shepherd's crook, adopted in English as crosier.
Latin referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, with or without , on which the condemned were impaled or hanged, but more particularly a cross or the pole of a carriage. The derived verb means "to put to death on the cross" or, more frequently, "to put to the rack, to torture, torment", especially in reference to mental troubles.
In the Roman world, replaced as the name of some cross-like instruments for lethal and temporary punishment, ranging from a forked cross to a gibbet or gallows.
The field of etymology is of no help in any effort to trace a supposed original meaning of crux. A crux can be of various shapes: from a single beam used for impaling or suspending () to the various composite kinds of cross () made from more beams than one. The latter shapes include not only the traditional †-shaped cross (the ), but also the T-shaped cross (the or tau cross), which the descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross indicate as the normal form in use at that time, and the X-shaped cross (the crux decussata or saltire).
The Greek equivalent of Latin crux "stake, gibbet" is , found in texts of four centuries or more before the gospels and always in the plural number to indicate a stake or pole. From the first century BC, it is used to indicate an instrument used in executions. The Greek word is used in descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross, which indicate that its normal shape was similar to the Greek letter tau (Τ).
== History ==
===Pre-Christian===
Due to the simplicity of the design (two intersecting lines), cross-shaped incisions make their appearance from deep prehistory; as petroglyphs in European cult caves, dating back to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, and throughout prehistory to the Iron Age.
Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the simple cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines, and the Egyptian crux ansata with a loop.
Speculation has associated the cross symbol – even in the prehistoric period – with astronomical or cosmological symbology involving
"four elements" (Chevalier, 1997) or the cardinal points, or the unity of a vertical axis mundi or celestial pole with the horizontal world (Koch, 1955). Speculation of this kind became especially popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths. Influential works in this vein included
G. de Mortillet (1866), L. Müller (1865), W. W. Blake (1888), Ansault (1891), etc.
In the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial.
The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks, and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals (X "ten"), the Chinese rod numerals (十 "ten") and the Brahmi numerals ("four", whence the numeral 4).
In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts, the cross symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i.e. the letter taw, which is the historical predecessor of Latin T. The letter name taw means "mark", presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph "two crossed sticks" (Gardiner Z9).
===Post-Christian===
The shape of the cross (crux, stauros "stake, gibbet"), as represented by the Latin letter T, came to be used as a new symbol (seal) or emblem of Christianity since the 2nd century AD to succeeding Ichthys in aftermaths of that new religion's separation from Judaism. Clement of Alexandria in the early 3rd century calls it ("the Lord's sign") he repeats the idea, current as early as the Epistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 (in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ) in Genesis 14:14 was a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (the letter Tau) and of Jesus (the letters Iota Eta). Clement's contemporary Tertullian rejects the accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi (i.e. "adorers of the gibbet"), and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes.
In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross.
While early Christians used the T-shape to represent the cross in writing and gesture, the use of the Greek cross and Latin cross, i.e. crosses with intersecting beams, appears in Christian art towards the end of Late Antiquity. An early example of the cruciform halo, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (6th century). The Patriarchal cross, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century. A wide variation of cross symbols is introduced for the purposes of heraldry beginning in the age of the Crusades.
== Marks and graphemes ==
The cross mark is used to mark a position, or as a check mark, but also to mark deletion.
Derived from Greek Chi are the Latin letter X, Cyrillic Kha and possibly runic Gyfu.
Egyptian hieroglyphs involving cross shapes include ankh "life", ndj "protect" and nfr "good; pleasant, beautiful".
Sumerian cuneiform had a simple cross-shaped character, consisting of a horizontal and a vertical wedge (𒈦), read as maš "tax, yield, interest"; the superposition of two diagonal wedges results in a decussate cross (𒉽), read as pap "first, pre-eminent" (the superposition of these two types of crosses results in the eight-pointed star used as the sign for "sky" or "deity" (𒀭), DINGIR). The cuneiform script has other, more complex, cruciform characters, consisting of an arrangement of boxes or the fourfold arrangement of other characters, including the archaic cuneiform characters LAK-210, LAK-276, LAK-278, LAK-617 and the classical sign EZEN (𒂡).
Phoenician tāw is still cross-shaped in Paleo-Hebrew alphabet and in some Old Italic scripts (Raetic and Lepontic), and its descendant T becomes again cross-shaped in the Latin minuscule t. The plus sign (+) is derived from Latin t via a simplification of a ligature for et "and" (introduced by Johannes Widmann in the late 15th century).
The letter Aleph is cross-shaped in Aramaic and paleo-Hebrew.
Egyptian hieroglyphs with cross-shapes include Gardiner Z9 – Z11 ("crossed sticks", "crossed planks").
Other, unrelated cross-shaped letters include Brahmi ka (predecessor of the Devanagari letter क) and Old Turkic (Orkhon) d² and Old Hungarian b, and Katakana ナ na and メme.
The multiplication sign (×), often attributed to William Oughtred (who first used it in an appendix to the 1618 edition of John Napier's Descriptio) apparently had been in occasional use since the mid 16th century.
Other typographical symbols resembling crosses include the dagger or obelus (†), the Chinese (十, Kangxi radical 24) and Roman (X ten).
Unicode has a variety of cross symbols in the "Dingbat" block (U+2700–U+27BF):
✕ ✖ ✗ ✘ ✙ ✚ ✛ ✜ ✝ ✞ ✟ ✠ ✢ ✣ ✤ ✥
The Miscellaneous Symbols block (U+2626 to U+262F) adds three specific Christian cross variants, viz. the Patriarchal cross (☦), Cross of Lorraine (☨) and Cross potent (☩, mistakenly labeled a "Cross of Jerusalem").
== Emblems ==
The following is a list of cross symbols, except for variants of the Christian cross and Heraldic crosses, for which see the dedicated lists at Christian cross variants and Crosses in heraldry, respectively.
As a design element
== Physical gestures ==
Cross shapes are made by a variety of physical gestures. Crossing the fingers of one hand is a common invocation of the symbol. The sign of the cross associated with Christian genuflection is made with one hand: in Eastern Orthodox tradition the sequence is head-heart-right shoulder-left shoulder, while in Oriental Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican tradition the sequence is head-heart-left-right.
Crossing the index fingers of both hands represents and a charm against evil in European folklore. Other gestures involving more than one hand include the "cross my heart" movement associated with making a promise and the Tau shape of the referee's "time out" hand signal.
Crossed index fingers represent the number 10 (十) in Chinese number gestures.
==Unicode==
Unicode provides various cross symbols:
|
[
"wikt:cross",
"Patriarchal cross",
"wikt:𒉽",
"Latin Cross",
"Unicode",
"cross mark",
"Gyfu",
"t",
"Nazism",
"Epistle of Barnabas",
"ankh",
"tau",
"Lepontic",
"Christian cross variants",
"solar symbol",
"European Bronze Age",
"Maltese Cross",
"number symbol",
"Aleph",
"Counting rods",
"Catholic Encyclopedia",
"world",
"cardinal directions",
"Chinese number gestures",
"wikt:𒈦",
"Leontios",
"Cult (religious practice)",
"Egyptian hieroglyphs",
"Clement of Alexandria",
"Sun chariot",
"saltire",
"4 (number)",
"Sant'Apollinare Nuovo",
"Radical 24",
"gesture",
"Iron Age",
"Cross-ndj (hieroglyph)",
"Latin cross",
"archaic cuneiform",
"Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen",
"Cross of Jerusalem",
"Aramaic script",
"Brahmi",
"Devanagari",
"Rhaetic alphabets",
"Ankh",
"Iota Eta",
"Jerusalem Cross",
"Cross potent",
"Lower case",
"Upper Paleolithic",
"Basque cross",
"check mark",
"Nefer",
"Roman numerals",
"Τ",
"Me (kana)",
"Hinduism",
"solidus (coin)",
"gibbet",
"Prehistoric religion",
"List of hieroglyphs/Z",
"Old Turkic script",
"taw",
"Justinian",
"Plus and minus signs",
"tau cross",
"Skull and crossbones (Spanish cemetery)",
"Four-leaf clover",
"Western use of the swastika in the early 20th century",
"paleo-Hebrew",
"DINGIR",
"Aten",
"comparative mythology",
"Line (geometry)",
"Pauly-Wissowa",
"fylfot",
"Crossed swords (disambiguation)",
"Tau",
"Sun cross",
"axis mundi",
"Intersection (set theory)",
"Old Norse",
"descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross",
"Katakana",
"Crossed fingers",
"Christianity",
"rood",
"Latin alphabet",
"referee",
"Unicode cuneiform",
"petroglyph",
"Tau (letter)",
"shepherd's crook",
"wikt:十",
"Christian cross",
"Crucifixion of Jesus",
"Phoenician alphabet",
"Old Italic scripts",
"Crusades",
"Religious cosmology",
"stauros",
"genuflection",
"X",
"Gardiner's sign list",
"Swastika",
"Brahmi numerals",
"Jewish Encyclopaedia",
"Semitic abjad",
"Late Antiquity",
"Johannes Widmann",
"gallows",
"Old English",
"wikt:deletion",
"2nd century AD",
"Greek numerals",
"Miscellaneous Symbols",
"William Oughtred",
"Constantine the Great",
"Schism",
"Old Irish",
"sign of the cross",
"Christian mythology",
"classical element",
"Paleo-Hebrew alphabet",
"tally marks",
"Jainism",
"Ichthys",
"wikt:𒀭",
"Old Hungarian alphabet",
"forked cross",
"Judaism",
"Tertullian",
"dagger (mark)",
"Greek cross",
"Kha (Cyrillic)",
"amulet",
"popular etymology",
"Taylor & Francis",
"T",
"Papal regalia and insignia",
"A Latin Dictionary",
"geometrical figure",
"symbology",
"Chi (letter)",
"Dingbat",
"Buddhism",
"crosier",
"crux simplex",
"Na (kana)",
"cruciform halo",
"wikt:crook",
"Urnfield culture",
"multiplication sign",
"Chinese numerals",
"Egyptian hieroglyph",
"Crosses in heraldry",
"Cross of Lorraine",
"Sumerian cuneiform",
"swastika"
] |
7,304 |
Coordination complex
|
A coordination complex is a chemical compound consisting of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the coordination centre, and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ligands or complexing agents. Many metal-containing compounds, especially those that include transition metals (elements like titanium that belong to the periodic table's d-block), are coordination complexes.
==Nomenclature and terminology==
Coordination complexes are so pervasive that their structures and reactions are described in many ways, sometimes confusingly. The atom within a ligand that is bonded to the central metal atom or ion is called the donor atom. In a typical complex, a metal ion is bonded to several donor atoms, which can be the same or different. A polydentate (multiple bonded) ligand is a molecule or ion that bonds to the central atom through several of the ligand's atoms; ligands with 2, 3, 4 or even 6 bonds to the central atom are common. These complexes are called chelate complexes; the formation of such complexes is called chelation, complexation, and coordination.
The central atom or ion, together with all ligands, comprise the coordination sphere. The central atoms or ion and the donor atoms comprise the first coordination sphere.
Coordination refers to the "coordinate covalent bonds" (dipolar bonds) between the ligands and the central atom. Originally, a complex implied a reversible association of molecules, atoms, or ions through such weak chemical bonds. As applied to coordination chemistry, this meaning has evolved. Some metal complexes are formed virtually irreversibly and many are bound together by bonds that are quite strong.
The number of donor atoms attached to the central atom or ion is called the coordination number. The most common coordination numbers are 2, 4, and especially 6. A hydrated ion is one kind of a complex ion (or simply a complex), a species formed between a central metal ion and one or more surrounding ligands, molecules or ions that contain at least one lone pair of electrons.
If all the ligands are monodentate, then the number of donor atoms equals the number of ligands. For example, the cobalt(II) hexahydrate ion or the hexaaquacobalt(II) ion [Co(H2O)6]2+ is a hydrated-complex ion that consists of six water molecules attached to a metal ion Co. The oxidation state and the coordination number reflect the number of bonds formed between the metal ion and the ligands in the complex ion. However, the coordination number of Pt(en) is 4 (rather than 2) since it has two bidentate ligands, which contain four donor atoms in total.
Any donor atom will give a pair of electrons. There are some donor atoms or groups which can offer more than one pair of electrons. Such are called bidentate (offers two pairs of electrons) or polydentate (offers more than two pairs of electrons). In some cases an atom or a group offers a pair of electrons to two similar or different central metal atoms or acceptors—by division of the electron pair—into a three-center two-electron bond. These are called bridging ligands.
==History==
Coordination complexes have been known since the beginning of modern chemistry. Early well-known coordination complexes include dyes such as Prussian blue. Their properties were first well understood in the late 1800s, following the 1869 work of Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand. Blomstrand developed what has come to be known as the complex ion chain theory. In considering metal amine complexes, he theorized that the ammonia molecules compensated for the charge of the ion by forming chains of the type [(NH3)X]X+, where X is the coordination number of the metal ion. He compared his theoretical ammonia chains to hydrocarbons of the form (CH2)X.
Following this theory, Danish scientist Sophus Mads Jørgensen made improvements to it. In his version of the theory, Jørgensen claimed that when a molecule dissociates in a solution there were two possible outcomes: the ions would bind via the ammonia chains Blomstrand had described or the ions would bind directly to the metal.
It was not until 1893 that the most widely accepted version of the theory today was published by Alfred Werner. Werner's work included two important changes to the Blomstrand theory. The first was that Werner described the two possibilities in terms of location in the coordination sphere. He claimed that if the ions were to form a chain, this would occur outside of the coordination sphere while the ions that bound directly to the metal would do so within the coordination sphere. In one of his most important discoveries however Werner disproved the majority of the chain theory. Werner discovered the spatial arrangements of the ligands that were involved in the formation of the complex hexacoordinate cobalt. His theory allows one to understand the difference between a coordinated ligand and a charge balancing ion in a compound, for example the chloride ion in the cobaltammine chlorides and to explain many of the previously inexplicable isomers.
In 1911, Werner first resolved the coordination complex hexol into optical isomers, overthrowing the theory that only carbon compounds could possess chirality.
==Structures==
The ions or molecules surrounding the central atom are called ligands. Ligands are classified as L or X (or a combination thereof), depending on how many electrons they provide for the bond between ligand and central atom. L ligands provide two electrons from a lone electron pair, resulting in a coordinate covalent bond. X ligands provide one electron, with the central atom providing the other electron, thus forming a regular covalent bond. The ligands are said to be coordinated to the atom. For alkenes, the pi bonds can coordinate to metal atoms. An example is ethylene in the complex (Zeise's salt).
===Geometry===
In coordination chemistry, a structure is first described by its coordination number, the number of ligands attached to the metal (more specifically, the number of donor atoms). Usually one can count the ligands attached, but sometimes even the counting can become ambiguous. Coordination numbers are normally between two and nine, but large numbers of ligands are not uncommon for the lanthanides and actinides. The number of bonds depends on the size, charge, and electron configuration of the metal ion and the ligands. Metal ions may have more than one coordination number.
Typically the chemistry of transition metal complexes is dominated by interactions between s and p molecular orbitals of the donor-atoms in the ligands and the d orbitals of the metal ions. The s, p, and d orbitals of the metal can accommodate 18 electrons (see 18-Electron rule). The maximum coordination number for a certain metal is thus related to the electronic configuration of the metal ion (to be more specific, the number of empty orbitals) and to the ratio of the size of the ligands and the metal ion. Large metals and small ligands lead to high coordination numbers, e.g. . Small metals with large ligands lead to low coordination numbers, e.g. . Due to their large size, lanthanides, actinides, and early transition metals tend to have high coordination numbers.
Most structures follow the points-on-a-sphere pattern (or, as if the central atom were in the middle of a polyhedron where the corners of that shape are the locations of the ligands), where orbital overlap (between ligand and metal orbitals) and ligand-ligand repulsions tend to lead to certain regular geometries. The most observed geometries are listed below, but there are many cases that deviate from a regular geometry, e.g. due to the use of ligands of diverse types (which results in irregular bond lengths; the coordination atoms do not follow a points-on-a-sphere pattern), due to the size of ligands, or due to electronic effects (see, e.g., Jahn–Teller distortion):
Linear for two-coordination
Trigonal planar for three-coordination
Tetrahedral or square planar for four-coordination
Trigonal bipyramidal for five-coordination
Octahedral for six-coordination
Pentagonal bipyramidal for seven-coordination
Square antiprismatic for eight-coordination
Tricapped trigonal prismatic for nine-coordination
The idealized descriptions of 5-, 7-, 8-, and 9- coordination are often indistinct geometrically from alternative structures with slightly differing L-M-L (ligand-metal-ligand) angles, e.g. the difference between square pyramidal and trigonal bipyramidal structures.
Square pyramidal for five-coordination
Capped octahedral or capped trigonal prismatic for seven-coordination
Dodecahedral or bicapped trigonal prismatic for eight-coordination
Capped square antiprismatic for nine-coordination
To distinguish between the alternative coordinations for five-coordinated complexes, the τ geometry index was invented by Addison et al. This index depends on angles by the coordination center and changes between 0 for the square pyramidal to 1 for trigonal bipyramidal structures, allowing to classify the cases in between. This system was later extended to four-coordinated complexes by Houser et al. and also Okuniewski et al.
In systems with low d electron count, due to special electronic effects such as (second-order) Jahn–Teller stabilization, certain geometries (in which the coordination atoms do not follow a points-on-a-sphere pattern) are stabilized relative to the other possibilities, e.g. for some compounds the trigonal prismatic geometry is stabilized relative to octahedral structures for six-coordination.
Bent for two-coordination
Trigonal pyramidal for three-coordination
Trigonal prismatic for six-coordination
===Isomerism===
The arrangement of the ligands is fixed for a given complex, but in some cases it is mutable by a reaction that forms another stable isomer.
There exist many kinds of isomerism in coordination complexes, just as in many other compounds.
====Stereoisomerism====
Stereoisomerism occurs with the same bonds in distinct orientations. Stereoisomerism can be further classified into:
=====Cis–trans isomerism and facial–meridional isomerism=====
Cis–trans isomerism occurs in octahedral and square planar complexes (but not tetrahedral). When two ligands are adjacent they are said to be cis, when
opposite each other, trans. When three identical ligands occupy one face of an octahedron, the isomer is said to be facial, or fac. In a fac isomer, any two identical ligands are adjacent or cis to each other. If these three ligands and the metal ion are in one plane, the isomer is said to be meridional, or mer. A mer isomer can be considered as a combination of a trans and a cis, since it contains both trans and cis pairs of identical ligands.
Image:Cis-dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III).png|
Image:Trans-dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III).png|
Image:Fac-trichlorotriamminecobalt(III).png|
Image:Mer-trichlorotriamminecobalt(III).png|
=====Optical isomerism=====
Optical isomerism occurs when a complex is not superimposable with its mirror image. It is so called because the two isomers are each optically active, that is, they rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions. In the first molecule shown, the symbol Λ (lambda) is used as a prefix to describe the left-handed propeller twist formed by three bidentate ligands. The second molecule is the mirror image of the first, with the symbol Δ (delta) as a prefix for the right-handed propeller twist. The third and fourth molecules are a similar pair of Λ and Δ isomers, in this case with two bidentate ligands and two identical monodentate ligands.
Image:Delta-tris(oxalato)ferrate(III)-3D-balls.png|Potassium ferrioxalate|
Image:Lambda-tris(oxalato)ferrate(III)-3D-balls.png|
Image:Delta-cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).png|cis-Dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride|
Image:Lambda-cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).png|
====Structural isomerism====
Structural isomerism occurs when the bonds are themselves different. Four types of structural isomerism are recognized: ionisation isomerism, solvate or hydrate isomerism, linkage isomerism and coordination isomerism.
Ionisation isomerism – the isomers give different ions in solution although they have the same composition. This type of isomerism occurs when the counter ion of the complex is also a potential ligand. For example, pentaamminebromocobalt(III) sulphate is red violet and in solution gives a precipitate with barium chloride, confirming the presence of sulphate ion, while pentaamminesulphatecobalt(III) bromide is red and tests negative for sulphate ion in solution, but instead gives a precipitate of AgBr with silver nitrate.
Solvate or hydrate isomerism – the isomers have the same composition but differ with respect to the number of molecules of solvent that serve as ligand vs simply occupying sites in the crystal. Examples: is violet colored, is blue-green, and is dark green. See water of crystallization. For example, nitrite can coordinate through O or N. One pair of nitrite linkage isomers have structures (nitro isomer) and (nitrito isomer). For simple compounds with high symmetry, the d–d transitions can be assigned using Tanabe–Sugano diagrams. These assignments are gaining increased support with computational chemistry.
===Colors of lanthanide complexes===
Superficially lanthanide complexes are similar to those of the transition metals in that some are colored. However, for the common Ln3+ ions (Ln = lanthanide) the colors are all pale, and hardly influenced by the nature of the ligand. The colors are due to 4f electron transitions. As the 4f orbitals in lanthanides are "buried" in the xenon core and shielded from the ligand by the 5s and 5p orbitals they are therefore not influenced by the ligands to any great extent leading to a much smaller crystal field splitting than in the transition metals. The absorption spectra of an Ln3+ ion approximates to that of the free ion where the electronic states are described by spin-orbit coupling. This contrasts to the transition metals where the ground state is split by the crystal field. Absorptions for Ln3+ are weak as electric dipole transitions are parity forbidden (Laporte forbidden) but can gain intensity due to the effect of a low-symmetry ligand field or mixing with higher electronic states (e.g. d orbitals). f-f absorption bands are extremely sharp which contrasts with those observed for transition metals which generally have broad bands. This can lead to extremely unusual effects, such as significant color changes under different forms of lighting.
===Magnetism===
Metal complexes that have unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. This can be due to an odd number of electrons overall, or to incomplete electron-pairing. Thus, monomeric Ti(III) species have one "d-electron" and must be (para)magnetic, regardless of the geometry or the nature of the ligands. Ti(II), with two d-electrons, forms some complexes that have two unpaired electrons and others with none. This effect is illustrated by the compounds TiX2[(CH3)2PCH2CH2P(CH3)2]2: when X = Cl, the complex is paramagnetic (high-spin configuration), whereas when X = CH3, it is diamagnetic (low-spin configuration). Ligands provide an important means of adjusting the ground state properties.
In bi- and polymetallic complexes, in which the individual centres have an odd number of electrons or that are high-spin, the situation is more complicated. If there is interaction (either direct or through ligand) between the two (or more) metal centres, the electrons may couple (antiferromagnetic coupling, resulting in a diamagnetic compound), or they may enhance each other (ferromagnetic coupling). When there is no interaction, the two (or more) individual metal centers behave as if in two separate molecules.
===Reactivity===
Complexes show a variety of possible reactivities:
Electron transfers
Electron transfer (ET) between metal ions can occur via two distinct mechanisms, inner and outer sphere electron transfers. In an inner sphere reaction, a bridging ligand serves as a conduit for ET.
(Degenerate) ligand exchange
One important indicator of reactivity is the rate of degenerate exchange of ligands. For example, the rate of interchange of coordinate water in [M(H2O)6]n+ complexes varies over 20 orders of magnitude. Complexes where the ligands are released and rebound rapidly are classified as labile. Such labile complexes can be quite stable thermodynamically. Typical labile metal complexes either have low-charge (Na+), electrons in d-orbitals that are antibonding with respect to the ligands (Zn2+), or lack covalency (Ln3+, where Ln is any lanthanide). The lability of a metal complex also depends on the high-spin vs. low-spin configurations when such is possible. Thus, high-spin Fe(II) and Co(III) form labile complexes, whereas low-spin analogues are inert. Cr(III) can exist only in the low-spin state (quartet), which is inert because of its high formal oxidation state, absence of electrons in orbitals that are M–L antibonding, plus some "ligand field stabilization" associated with the d3 configuration.
Associative processes
Complexes that have unfilled or half-filled orbitals are often capable of reacting with substrates. Most substrates have a singlet ground-state; that is, they have lone electron pairs (e.g., water, amines, ethers), so these substrates need an empty orbital to be able to react with a metal centre. Some substrates (e.g., molecular oxygen) have a triplet ground state, which results that metals with half-filled orbitals have a tendency to react with such substrates (it must be said that the dioxygen molecule also has lone pairs, so it is also capable to react as a 'normal' Lewis base).
If the ligands around the metal are carefully chosen, the metal can aid in (stoichiometric or catalytic) transformations of molecules or be used as a sensor.
==Classification==
Metal complexes, also known as coordination compounds, include virtually all metal compounds. The study of "coordination chemistry" is the study of "inorganic chemistry" of all alkali and alkaline earth metals, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides, and metalloids. Thus, coordination chemistry is the chemistry of the majority of the periodic table. Metals and metal ions exist, in the condensed phases at least, only surrounded by ligands.
The areas of coordination chemistry can be classified according to the nature of the ligands, in broad terms:
Classical (or "Werner Complexes"): Ligands in classical coordination chemistry bind to metals, almost exclusively, via their lone pairs of electrons residing on the main-group atoms of the ligand. Typical ligands are H2O, NH3, Cl−, CN−, en. Some of the simplest members of such complexes are described in metal aquo complexes, metal ammine complexes,
Examples: [Co(EDTA)]−, [[Cobalt(III) hexammine chloride|[Co(NH3)6]3+]], [[Potassium ferrioxalate|[Fe(C2O4)3]3-]]
Organometallic chemistry: Ligands are organic (alkenes, alkynes, alkyls) as well as "organic-like" ligands such as phosphines, hydride, and CO.
Example: (C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3
Bioinorganic chemistry: Ligands are those provided by nature, especially including the side chains of amino acids, and many cofactors such as porphyrins.
Example: hemoglobin contains heme, a porphyrin complex of iron
Example: chlorophyll contains a porphyrin complex of magnesium
Many natural ligands are "classical" especially including water.
Cluster chemistry: Ligands include all of the above as well as other metal ions or atoms as well.
Example Ru3(CO)12
In some cases there are combinations of different fields:
Example: [[Iron–sulfur protein|[Fe4S4(Scysteinyl)4]2−]], in which a cluster is embedded in a biologically active species.
Mineralogy, materials science, and solid state chemistry – as they apply to metal ions – are subsets of coordination chemistry in the sense that the metals are surrounded by ligands. In many cases these ligands are oxides or sulfides, but the metals are coordinated nonetheless, and the principles and guidelines discussed below apply. In hydrates, at least some of the ligands are water molecules. It is true that the focus of mineralogy, materials science, and solid state chemistry differs from the usual focus of coordination or inorganic chemistry. The former are concerned primarily with polymeric structures, properties arising from a collective effects of many highly interconnected metals. In contrast, coordination chemistry focuses on reactivity and properties of complexes containing individual metal atoms or small ensembles of metal atoms.
==Nomenclature of coordination complexes==
The basic procedure for naming a complex is:
When naming a complex ion, the ligands are named before the metal ion.
The ligands' names are given in alphabetical order. Numerical prefixes do not affect the order.
Multiple occurring monodentate ligands receive a prefix according to the number of occurrences: di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, or hexa-.
Multiple occurring polydentate ligands (e.g., ethylenediamine, oxalate) receive bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, etc.
Anions end in o. This replaces the final 'e' when the anion ends with '-ide', '-ate' or '-ite', e.g. chloride becomes chlorido and sulfate becomes sulfato. Formerly, '-ide' was changed to '-o' (e.g. chloro and cyano), but this rule has been modified in the 2005 IUPAC recommendations and the correct forms for these ligands are now chlorido and cyanido.
Neutral ligands are given their usual name, with some exceptions: NH3 becomes ammine; H2O becomes aqua or aquo; CO becomes carbonyl; NO becomes nitrosyl.
Write the name of the central atom/ion. If the complex is an anion, the central atom's name will end in -ate, and its Latin name will be used if available (except for mercury).
The oxidation state of the central atom is to be specified (when it is one of several possible, or zero), and should be written as a Roman numeral (or 0) enclosed in parentheses.
Name of the cation should be preceded by the name of anion. (if applicable, as in last example)
Examples:
[Cd(CN)2(en)2] → dicyanidobis(ethylenediamine)cadmium(II)
[CoCl(NH3)5]SO4 → pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) sulfate
[Cu(H2O)6] 2+ → hexaaquacopper(II) ion
[CuCl5NH3]3− → amminepentachloridocuprate(II) ion
K4[Fe(CN)6] → potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II)
[NiCl4]2− → tetrachloridonickelate(II) ion (The use of chloro- was removed from IUPAC naming convention)
Sometimes the stability constant will be in a different form known as the constant of destability. This constant is expressed as the inverse of the constant of formation and is denoted as Kd = 1/Kf . This constant represents the reverse reaction for the decomposition of a complex ion into its individual metal and ligand components. When comparing the values for Kd, the larger the value, the more unstable the complex ion is.
As a result of these complex ions forming in solutions they also can play a key role in solubility of other compounds. When a complex ion is formed it can alter the concentrations of its components in the solution. For example:
Ag + 2NH3 Ag(NH3)
AgCl(s) + H2O(l) Ag + Cl
If these reactions both occurred in the same reaction vessel, the solubility of the silver chloride would be increased by the presence of NH4OH because formation of the Diammine argentum(I) complex consumes a significant portion of the free silver ions from the solution. By Le Chatelier's principle, this causes the equilibrium reaction for the dissolving of the silver chloride, which has silver ion as a product, to shift to the right.
This new solubility can be calculated given the values of Kf and Ksp for the original reactions. The solubility is found essentially by combining the two separate equilibria into one combined equilibrium reaction and this combined reaction is the one that determines the new solubility. So Kc, the new solubility constant, is denoted by:
K_c = K_{sp} K_f
==Application of coordination compounds==
As metals only exist in solution as coordination complexes, it follows then that this class of compounds is useful in a wide variety of ways.
===Bioinorganic chemistry===
In bioinorganic chemistry and bioorganometallic chemistry, coordination complexes serve either structural or catalytic functions. An estimated 30% of proteins contain metal ions. Examples include the intensely colored vitamin B12, the heme group in hemoglobin, the cytochromes, the chlorin group in chlorophyll, and carboxypeptidase, a hydrolytic enzyme important in digestion. Another complex ion enzyme is catalase, which decomposes the cell's waste hydrogen peroxide. Synthetic coordination compounds are also used to bind to proteins and especially nucleic acids (e.g. anticancer drug cisplatin).
===Industry===
Homogeneous catalysis is a major application of coordination compounds for the production of organic substances. Processes include hydrogenation, hydroformylation, oxidation. In one example, a combination of titanium trichloride and triethylaluminium gives rise to Ziegler–Natta catalysts, used for the polymerization of ethylene and propylene to give polymers of great commercial importance as fibers, films, and plastics.
Nickel, cobalt, and copper can be extracted using hydrometallurgical processes involving complex ions. They are extracted from their ores as ammine complexes. Metals can also be separated using the selective precipitation and solubility of complex ions. Cyanide is used chiefly for extraction of gold and silver from their ores.
Phthalocyanine complexes are an important class of pigments.
===Analysis===
At one time, coordination compounds were used to identify the presence of metals in a sample. Qualitative inorganic analysis has largely been superseded by instrumental methods of analysis such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).
|
[
"Jahn–Teller effect",
"ethylenediamine",
"Ligand",
"Octahedral molecular geometry",
"Electron transfer",
"porphyrin",
"Atom cluster",
"transition metal",
"outer sphere electron transfer",
"Coordination cage",
"bioinorganic chemistry",
"metal",
"Mercury (element)",
"stoichiometric",
"Trigonal bipyramid molecular geometry",
"Mineralogy",
"ammine",
"Trigonal prismatic molecular geometry",
"actinide",
"Geometry index",
"solid state chemistry",
"coordination sphere",
"catalase",
"square planar molecular geometry",
"UV-Vis",
"plasma (physics)",
"Ziegler–Natta catalyst",
"isomer",
"chloride",
"chemical bond",
"copper(II) acetate monohydrate",
"d-block",
"Linear molecular geometry",
"Trigonal planar molecular geometry",
"molecular orbital",
"stability constants of complexes",
"bioorganometallic chemistry",
"lone pair",
"Chlorin",
"Jahn–Teller distortion",
"Dimer (chemistry)",
"atom",
"water of crystallization",
"Square pyramidal molecular geometry",
"coordinate covalent bond",
"three-center two-electron bond",
"triplet oxygen",
"polyhedron",
"polymerization",
"Zeise's salt",
"Cis–trans isomerism",
"Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand",
"aluminium trichloride",
"Cyanide",
"alloy",
"molecules",
"pi bond",
"ground state",
"alkene",
"hydrogenation",
"hydrometallurgy",
"Bioinorganic chemistry",
"EDTA",
"aqueous geochemistry",
"Tetrahedral molecular geometry",
"Metal ions in aqueous solution",
"metalloid",
"Dodecahedral molecular geometry",
"Qualitative inorganic analysis",
"Organometallic chemistry",
"Capped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry",
"metal aquo complex",
"electron configuration",
"optically active",
"Inner sphere electron transfer",
"ion",
"Bent molecular geometry",
"IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry",
"alkaline earth metal",
"actinides",
"hemoglobin",
"mu (letter)",
"Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer",
"Inclusion compound",
"electronic effect",
"Hans Bethe",
"mercury sulfide",
"metal ammine complex",
"cisplatin",
"Trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry",
"Capped square antiprismatic molecular geometry",
"materials science",
"Ethylenediamine",
"bridging ligand",
"Chirality (chemistry)",
"Coordination polymers",
"atomic absorption spectroscopy",
"Laporte rule",
"Tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry",
"Crystal field theory",
"Square antiprismatic molecular geometry",
"polarized light",
"catalytic",
"equilibrium constant",
"lambda",
"Tanabe–Sugano diagram",
"Linkage isomerism",
"Capped octahedral molecular geometry",
"ligands",
"Pentagonal bipyramidal molecular geometry",
"low spin",
"inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy",
"titanium",
"Optical isomerism",
"ethylene",
"Sophus Mads Jørgensen",
"cytochrome",
"chemical compound",
"Coordination geometry",
"chlorophyll",
"group theory",
"heme",
"oxidation",
"covalent bond",
"Pigment",
"Denticity",
"nitrite",
"hydroformylation",
"methyl group",
"Le Chatelier's principle",
"carboxypeptidase",
"Angular momentum coupling",
"alkali metal",
"Prussian blue",
"high spin",
"Vitamin B12",
"Angewandte Chemie",
"ligand",
"Molecular orbital theory",
"cofactor (biochemistry)",
"delta (letter)",
"isomerism",
"ambidentate ligand",
"crystal field theory",
"ligand field theory",
"Activated complex",
"ligand exchange",
"d electron count",
"dioxygen",
"chelate complex",
"Alfred Werner",
"Chlorine",
"quantum mechanics",
"IUPAC",
"charge transfer band",
"Structural isomerism",
"inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry",
"Phthalocyanine",
"dissolved organic matter",
"covalent",
"Inorganic Chemistry (journal)",
"computational chemistry",
"Coordination isomerism",
"hexol",
"paramagnetism",
"antibonding",
"coordination number",
"Chemical Reaction",
"square planar",
"molecule",
"hydrogen peroxide",
"Metal ammine complex",
"Charge transfer complex",
"Antiferromagnetism",
"paramagnetic",
"lanthanide",
"Homogeneous catalysis",
"Hydration isomerism",
"18-Electron rule",
"Enantiomer",
"dipolar bond",
"Bicapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry",
"Heme",
"Ferromagnetism",
"Stereoisomerism"
] |
7,305 |
Coleco
|
Coleco Industries, Inc. ( ) was an American company founded in 1932 by Maurice Greenberg as The Connecticut Leather Company. The name "COLECO" is an abbreviation derived from the company's original name which combines the first two letters of "Connecticut," "Leather," and "Company." It was a successful toy company in the 1980s, mass-producing versions of Cabbage Patch Kids dolls and its video game consoles, the Coleco Telstar dedicated consoles and ColecoVision. While the company ceased operations in 1988 as a result of bankruptcy, the Coleco brand was revived in 2005, and remains active to this day.
==Overview==
=== 1932: origins as The Connecticut Leather Company ===
Coleco Industries, Inc. began in 1932 as The Connecticut Leather Company. The business supplied leather and "shoe findings" (the supplies and paraphernalia of a shoe repair shop) to shoe repairers. In 1938, the company began selling rubber footwear. During World War II demand for the company's supplies increased and by the end of the war, the company was larger and had expanded into new and used shoe machinery, hat cleaning equipment and marble shoeshine stands.
=== 1950s: leather diversification ===
By the early 1950s, and thanks to Maurice Greenberg's son, Leonard Greenberg, the company had diversified further and was making leather lacing and leathercraft kits. In 1954, at the New York Toy Fair, their leather moccasin kit was selected as a Child Guidance Prestige Toy, and Connecticut Leather Company decided to commit to the toy business. In 1956, Leonard read about the emerging technology of vacuum formed plastic; the company adopted this and it became increasingly successful, producing a wide variety of plastic toys and wading pools.
=== 1961: Coleco Industries, Inc. ===
In 1961, the leather and shoe findings portion of the business was sold, and Connecticut Leather Company became Coleco Industries, Inc, An abbreviation of "Connecticut Leather Company". On January 9, 1962, Coleco went public, offering 120,000 shares of stock at $5.00 a share.
=== 1960s: acquisitions ===
In 1963, the company acquired the Kestral Corporation of Springfield, Massachusetts, a manufacturer of inflatable vinyl pools and toys. This led to Coleco becoming the largest manufacturer of above-ground swimming pools in the world.
In 1966, Leonard persuaded his brother Arnold Greenberg to join the company. Further acquisitions included Playtime Products (1966) and Eagle Toys of Canada (1968). By the end of the 1960s, Coleco operated ten manufacturing facilities and occupied a new corporate headquarters in Hartford, Connecticut.
=== 1970s: financial difficulties and further diversification ===
Coleco experienced financial difficulty during the 1970s, even though sales had grown to $48.6 million in 1971. In 1972, Coleco entered the snowmobile market through acquisition. Lower than expected snowfall that year and market conditions led to very reduced sales and poor profits.
Dozens of companies rushed to introduce game systems after the release of Atari's successful Pong console and the company entered the video game console business with the Telstar. Nearly all of the new game systems were based on General Instrument's "Pong-on-a-chip". General Instrument had underestimated demand, resulting in severe shortages. However, Coleco was one of the first to place an order and therefore one of the few companies to receive the full order. Though dedicated game consoles did not last long on the market, their early order enabled Coleco to break even.
=== Late 1970s: handheld electronic games ===
Coleco continued to perform well in electronics. The company transitioned into handheld electronic games, a market popularized by Mattel. An early success was Electronic Quarterback. Coleco produced two popular lines of games, the "head to head" series of two player sports games (Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer, Hockey, Boxing) and the Mini-Arcade series of licensed video arcade titles such as Donkey Kong and Ms. Pac-Man. A third line of educational handhelds was also produced and included the Electronic Learning Machine, Lil Genius, Digits, and a trivia game called Quiz Wiz. Launched in 1982, their first four tabletop Mini-Arcades, for Pac-Man, Galaxian, Donkey Kong, and Frogger, sold approximately three million units within a year. Among these, 1.5 million units were sold for Pac-Man alone. In 1983, it released three more Mini-Arcades: Ms. Pac-Man, Donkey Kong Junior, and Zaxxon. The system was quite popular and more powerful than the Atari 2600, and came bundled with a copy of Donkey Kong. The console sold 560,000 units in 1982. Coleco also hedged its bet on video games by introducing a line of ROM cartridges for the Atari 2600 and Intellivision, selling six million cartridges for both systems, along with two million sold for the ColecoVision for a total of eight million cartridges sold in 1982. It also introduced the Coleco Gemini, a clone of the popular Atari 2600, which came bundled with a copy of Donkey Kong.
When the video game business began to implode in 1983, it seemed clear that video game consoles were being supplanted by home computers. Bob Greenberg, son of Leonard Greenberg and nephew of Arnold Greenberg, left Microsoft where he had been working as a program developer at the time to assist in Coleco's entry into this market. Coleco's strategy was to introduce the Coleco Adam home computer, both as a stand-alone system and as an expansion module to the ColecoVision. The effort failed, in part because Adams were often unreliable due to being released with critical bugs, and in part because the computer's release coincided with the home computer industry crashing. In the same year, Dr. Seuss signed a deal with Coleco to design a line of toys, including home video games based on his characters. Flush with success, Coleco purchased Leisure Dynamics (manufacturer of the board games Aggravation and Perfection) and beleaguered Selchow and Righter, manufacturers of Scrabble, Parcheesi, and Trivial Pursuit, in 1986. Sales of Selchow & Righter games had plummeted, leaving them with warehouses full of unsold games. The purchase price for Selchow & Righter was $75 million. That same year, Coleco introduced an ALF plush, based on the furry alien character who had his own television series at the time, as well as a talking version and a cassette-playing "Storytelling ALF" doll.
=== 1988: bankruptcy and sale ===
The combination of the purchase of Selchow & Righter, the disastrous Adam computer, and the public's waning infatuation with Cabbage Patch Dolls all contributed to Coleco's financial decline. In 1988, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
The reorganized Coleco sold off all of its North American assets and outsourced thousands of jobs to foreign countries, closing plants in Amsterdam, New York and other cities.
In 1988, Canada-based SLM Action Sports Inc. purchased Coleco's swimming pool and snow goods divisions.
In 1989, Hasbro purchased most of Coleco's remaining product lines.
== Brand ==
Coleco as a brand name has been owned by several entities since it was created in 1961 by Coleco Industries, Inc.
In 2005, River West Brands, now Dormitus Brands, a Chicago-based brand revitalization company, re-introduced the Coleco brand to the marketplace. In late 2006, the company introduced the Coleco Sonic, a handheld system containing twenty Master System and Game Gear games, including two from the Sonic the Hedgehog series. In 2014, River West Brands established the subsidiary Coleco Holdings for their Coleco-branded projects.
In December 2015, Coleco Holdings announced the development of the Coleco Chameleon, a new cartridge-based video game system; in actuality, a re-branding of the controversial Retro VGS console, whose Indiegogo campaign failed to secure funding when it ended in early November 2015, with only $63,546 raised of its $1.95 million goal. In the press release, it was established that the system would be able to play new and classic games in the 8, 16, and 32-bit styles. The release for the system was announced to be sometime in early 2016, with a demonstration at Toy Fair New York in February. However, some critics suggested that the prototype fell short of its developmental goals and was nothing more than the motherboard of a Super NES model SNS-101 inside an Atari Jaguar case. Later mock images of a prototype posted by AtariAge showed the device utilizing a CCTV capture card in place of a motherboard. After Retro VGS failed to produce a fully working prototype, Coleco Holdings pulled out of involvement with Retro VGS, terminating the project.
|
[
"handheld electronic game",
"video game console",
"New-Style Super NES",
"Master System",
"Starcom: The U.S. Space Force",
"Scrabble",
"Video game",
"Toy",
"Coleco Telstar series",
"Donkey Kong Jr.",
"home computer",
"Hasbro",
"Aggravation (board game)",
"Coleco Telstar",
"Arcade game",
"Galaxian",
"Selchow and Righter",
"Amsterdam, New York",
"Pac-Man",
"Zaxxon",
"Electronic Games",
"Coleco Adam",
"Coleco Chameleon",
"Perfection (board game)",
"Atari",
"Leather",
"Donkey Kong (1981 video game)",
"Cabbage Patch Kids",
"Mattel",
"Sonic the Hedgehog",
"United States",
"Atari Jaguar",
"Atari 2600",
"Parcheesi",
"Next Generation (magazine)",
"Intellivision",
"Indiegogo",
"break-even",
"Ms. Pac-Man",
"Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code",
"Chameleon (console)",
"Frogger",
"ALF (TV series)",
"ColecoVision",
"Telstar (game console)",
"Sectaurs",
"Video game industry",
"Toy industry",
"Chicago",
"Consumer electronics",
"Pong",
"Coleco Gemini",
"Nintendo Life",
"ROM cartridge",
"Swimming pool",
"World War II",
"Electronic Quarterback",
"Video game crash of 1983",
"Arnold Greenberg (Coleco)",
"Dr. Seuss",
"West Hartford, Connecticut",
"General Instrument",
"Game Gear",
"swimming pool",
"Imagine Media",
"Springfield, Massachusetts",
"Coleco ADAM",
"leathercraft",
"brand",
"Trivial Pursuit"
] |