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7,534	Centripetal force	Centripetal force (from Latin centrum, "center" and petere, "to seek") is the force that makes a body follow a curved path. The direction of the centripetal force is always orthogonal to the motion of the body and towards the fixed point of the instantaneous center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton described it as "a force by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in any way tend, towards a point as to a centre". In Newtonian mechanics, gravity provides the centripetal force causing astronomical orbits. One common example involving centripetal force is the case in which a body moves with uniform speed along a circular path. The centripetal force is directed at right angles to the motion and also along the radius towards the centre of the circular path. The mathematical description was derived in 1659 by the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens. == Formula == From the kinematics of curved motion it is known that an object moving at tangential speed v along a path with radius of curvature r accelerates toward the center of curvature at a rate \textbf{a}_c = \lim_{\Delta t \to 0} \frac{\Delta \textbf{v}}{\Delta t}, \quad a_c = \frac{v^2}{r} Here, a_c is the centripetal acceleration and \Delta \textbf{v} is the difference between the velocity vectors at t+\Delta{t} and t. By Newton's second law, the cause of acceleration is a net force acting on the object, which is proportional to its mass m and its acceleration. The force, usually referred to as a centripetal force, has a magnitude F_c = ma_c = m\frac{v^2}{r} and is, like centripetal acceleration, directed toward the center of curvature of the object's trajectory. === Derivation === The centripetal acceleration can be inferred from the diagram of the velocity vectors at two instances. In the case of uniform circular motion the velocities have constant magnitude. Because each one is perpendicular to its respective position vector, simple vector subtraction implies two similar isosceles triangles with congruent angles – one comprising a base of \Delta \textbf{v} and a leg length of v, and the other a base of \Delta \textbf{r} (position vector difference) and a leg length of r: \frac{v} = \frac{r} \|\Delta \textbf{v}\| = \frac{v}{r}\|\Delta \textbf{r}\| Therefore, \|\Delta\textbf{v}\| can be substituted with \frac{v}{r} \|\Delta \textbf{r}\|: The speed in the formula is squared, so twice the speed needs four times the force, at a given radius. This force is also sometimes written in terms of the angular velocity ω of the object about the center of the circle, related to the tangential velocity by the formula v = \omega r so that F_c = m r \omega^2 \,. Expressed using the orbital period T for one revolution of the circle, \omega = \frac{2\pi}{T} the equation becomes F_c = m r \left(\frac{2\pi}{T}\right)^2. In particle accelerators, velocity can be very high (close to the speed of light in vacuum) so the same rest mass now exerts greater inertia (relativistic mass) thereby requiring greater force for the same centripetal acceleration, so the equation becomes: F_c = \frac{\gamma m v^2}{r} where \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} is the Lorentz factor. Thus the centripetal force is given by: F_c = \gamma m v \omega which is the rate of change of relativistic momentum \gamma m v.	[ "planet", "Dynamics (physics)", "Kinematics", "Euler force", "Eskimo yo-yo", "velocity", "polar coordinate system", "dot product", "magnetic field", "Centrifugal force", "Lorentz factor", "centripetal acceleration", "Frenet-Serret formulas", "relativistic momentum", "force", "net force", "kinematics", "Isaac Newton", "Kinetics (physics)", "acceleration", "uniform circular motion", "Orthogonal coordinates", "orbital period", "non-uniform circular motion", "Analytical mechanics", "Applied mechanics", "Classical mechanics", "Reactive centrifugal force", "wall of death (motorcycle act)", "vector cross product", "tangential speed", "gravitational acceleration", "Centripetal (disambiguation)", "Chain rule", "Frenet–Serret formulas", "Circular motion", "trajectory", "orbit", "point mass", "Cartesian coordinate system", "Newton's second law", "orthogonality", "coefficient of friction", "central force", "Euclidean vector", "Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies", "History of centrifugal and centripetal forces", "Fictitious force", "gravity", "force of gravity", "Christiaan Huygens", "Statics", "tangent function", "inertia", "Central force", "perpendicular component", "angular velocity", "osculating circle", "right-hand rule", "friction", "Rotor (ride)", "radius of curvature", "tangential component", "Curvature", "unit vectors", "Newtonian mechanics", "Latin", "curvature", "Triple product", "vector addition", "base (geometry)", "Polar coordinate system", "normal force", "unit vector", "Orthogonality", "circular motion", "Bertrand theorem", "Cartesian coordinates", "Time derivative", "isosceles triangle", "Osculating circle", "Coriolis effect", "satellite" ]
7,535	Commodore	Commodore may refer to: ==Ranks== Commodore (rank), a naval rank Commodore (Royal Navy), in the United Kingdom Commodore (India), in India Commodore (United States) Commodore (Canada) Commodore (Finland) Commodore (Germany) or Kommodore Air commodore, a rank in the Royal Air Force and other Commonwealth air forces Commodore (yacht club), an officer of a yacht club Commodore (Sea Scouts), a position in the Boy Scouts of America's Sea Scout program Convoy commodore, a civilian in charge of a shipping convoy during the Second World War ==Fiction== The Commodore, a Horatio Hornblower novel by C. S. Forester The Commodore (book), a novel in the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian ==Music and music venues== Commodore Ballroom, a nightclub and music venue in Vancouver, British Columbia Commodore Records, a jazz and swing music record label Commodores, an American soul/funk band ==People== "The Commodore", the nickname of American entrepreneur Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794–1877) "Commodore Kuehnle", the nickname of American entrepreneur and politician Louis Kuehnle (1857–1934) Aaron Commodore (1819/20 – 1892), African American politician Mike Commodore (born 1979), a Canadian ice hockey player Commodore P. Vedder (1838–1910), New York politician ==Places== Commodore, Pennsylvania, United States Commodore Island, a Canadian island in Hudson Bay Phoenix Park Hotel, hotel built in Washington, D.C., in 1922, known originally as "The Commodore" ==Vehicles== ===Automobiles=== Hudson Commodore, an automobile produced from 1941 to 1952 in the US by Hudson Motor Car Company Opel Commodore, an automobile produced from 1967 to 1982 in Germany by Adam Opel AG Holden Commodore, an automobile produced from 1978 to 2017 in Australia by the Holden division of General Motors ===Ships and boats=== Commodore (shipwreck), an American steamboat shipwrecked off the coast of Florida Commodore 17, an American sailboat design USS Commodore, the name of various United States Navy ships ===Aircraft=== Consolidated Commodore, a flying boat used for passenger travel in the 1930s ==Computers== Commodore International (also named Commodore Business Machines), a computer company that operated from 1954 to 1994 Commodore 64, an 8-bit home computer introduced in January 1982 by Commodore International Commodore USA, a computer company that operated from 2010 to 2013 after purchasing the classic brand name ==Other uses== Several genera or species of brush-footed butterflies, in particular: Precis Auzakia danava Junonia artaxia Vanderbilt Commodores, intercollegiate athletics teams for Vanderbilt University	[ "Commodore (Royal Navy)", "Vanderbilt Commodores", "Commodore Island", "Auzakia danava", "Phoenix Park Hotel", "Commodore 64", "Opel Commodore", "Commodore USA", "Louis Kuehnle", "Holden Commodore", "Commodore (Germany)", "Commodores", "Commodore (India)", "Convoy commodore", "Hudson Commodore", "The Commodore (book)", "USS Commodore", "Commodore (yacht club)", "Commodore Records", "Junonia artaxia", "Commodore, Pennsylvania", "Commodore P. Vedder", "Commodore (United States)", "Commodore (Sea Scouts)", "The Commodore", "Commodore International", "Precis (butterfly)", "Commodore (rank)", "Commodore (Canada)", "Commodore 17", "Consolidated Commodore", "Mike Commodore", "Commodore (Finland)", "Aaron Commodore", "Commodore (shipwreck)", "Commodore Ballroom", "Cornelius Vanderbilt", "Air commodore" ]
7,536	Conditioning	Conditioning may refer to: ==Science, computing, and technology== Air conditioning, the removal of heat from indoor air for thermal comfort Automobile air conditioning, air conditioning in a vehicle Ice storage air conditioning, air conditioning using ice storage Solar air conditioning, air conditioning using solar power Beer conditioning, maturation, clarification, and stabilisation of beer Bottle conditioning, above conditioning after bottling Chemical conditioning, improvement and stabilization chemical components Data conditioning, the use of data management techniques in a computer system Flow conditioning, the study of the movement of fluids in pipes Signal conditioning, manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage ==Biology and physical fitness== Aerobic conditioning, exercise which trains the heart and lungs to pump blood more efficiently Body conditioning via physical exercise ==Learning== Classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning, a behavioral mechanism in which one stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus Eyeblink conditioning, classical conditioning involving pairing of a stimulus with an eyeblink-eliciting stimulus Fear conditioning, classical conditioning involving aversive stimuli Second-order conditioning, a two-step process in classical conditioning Evaluative conditioning, a form of learning in which attitude towards one stimulus is learnt by its pairing with a second stimulus Covert conditioning, classical and operant conditioning in mental health treatment Operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning, a form of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences Social conditioning, operant conditioning training individuals to act in a society ==Mathematics== Condition number also known as Conditioning (numerical analysis), a quantity describing whether or not a numerical problem is well-behaved Conditioning (probability), a concept in probability theory	[ "Eyeblink conditioning", "Bottle conditioning", "Condition number", "Stem cell transplantation", "Ice storage air conditioning", "Second-order conditioning", "Evaluative conditioning", "Social conditioning", "Aerobic conditioning", "Solar air conditioning", "Classical conditioning", "Flow conditioning", "Conditioning (probability)", "Automobile air conditioning", "Fear conditioning", "Covert conditioning", "Beer conditioning", "physical exercise", "Air conditioning", "Chemical conditioning", "Data conditioning", "Signal conditioning", "Operant conditioning" ]
7,538	Checksum	A checksum is a small-sized block of data derived from another block of digital data for the purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during its transmission or storage. By themselves, checksums are often used to verify data integrity but are not relied upon to verify data authenticity. The procedure which generates this checksum is called a checksum function or checksum algorithm. Depending on its design goals, a good checksum algorithm usually outputs a significantly different value, even for small changes made to the input. This is especially true of cryptographic hash functions, which may be used to detect many data corruption errors and verify overall data integrity; if the computed checksum for the current data input matches the stored value of a previously computed checksum, there is a very high probability the data has not been accidentally altered or corrupted. Checksum functions are related to hash functions, fingerprints, randomization functions, and cryptographic hash functions. However, each of those concepts has different applications and therefore different design goals. For instance, a function returning the start of a string can provide a hash appropriate for some applications but will never be a suitable checksum. Checksums are used as cryptographic primitives in larger authentication algorithms. For cryptographic systems with these two specific design goals, see HMAC. Check digits and parity bits are special cases of checksums, appropriate for small blocks of data (such as Social Security numbers, bank account numbers, computer words, single bytes, etc.). Some error-correcting codes are based on special checksums which not only detect common errors but also allow the original data to be recovered in certain cases. ==Algorithms== ===Parity byte or parity word=== The simplest checksum algorithm is the so-called longitudinal parity check, which breaks the data into "words" with a fixed number of bits, and then computes the bitwise exclusive or (XOR) of all those words. The result is appended to the message as an extra word. In simpler terms, for =1 this means adding a bit to the end of the data bits to guarantee that there is an even number of '1's. To check the integrity of a message, the receiver computes the bitwise exclusive or of all its words, including the checksum; if the result is not a word consisting of zeros, the receiver knows a transmission error occurred. With this checksum, any transmission error which flips a single bit of the message, or an odd number of bits, will be detected as an incorrect checksum. However, an error that affects two bits will not be detected if those bits lie at the same position in two distinct words. Also swapping of two or more words will not be detected. If the affected bits are independently chosen at random, the probability of a two-bit error being undetected is . ===Sum complement=== A variant of the previous algorithm is to add all the "words" as unsigned binary numbers, discarding any overflow bits, and append the two's complement of the total as the checksum. To validate a message, the receiver adds all the words in the same manner, including the checksum; if the result is not a word full of zeros, an error must have occurred. This variant, too, detects any single-bit error, but the pro modular sum is used in SAE J1708. ===Position-dependent=== The simple checksums described above fail to detect some common errors which affect many bits at once, such as changing the order of data words, or inserting or deleting words with all bits set to zero. The checksum algorithms most used in practice, such as Fletcher's checksum, Adler-32, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs), address these weaknesses by considering not only the value of each word but also its position in the sequence. This feature generally increases the cost of computing the checksum. ===Fuzzy checksum=== The idea of fuzzy checksum was developed for detection of email spam by building up cooperative databases from multiple ISPs of email suspected to be spam. The content of such spam may often vary in its details, which would render normal checksumming ineffective. By contrast, a "fuzzy checksum" reduces the body text to its characteristic minimum, then generates a checksum in the usual manner. This greatly increases the chances of slightly different spam emails producing the same checksum. The ISP spam detection software, such as SpamAssassin, of co-operating ISPs, submits checksums of all emails to the centralised service such as DCC. If the count of a submitted fuzzy checksum exceeds a certain threshold, the database notes that this probably indicates spam. ISP service users similarly generate a fuzzy checksum on each of their emails and request the service for a spam likelihood. ===General considerations=== A message that is bits long can be viewed as a corner of the -dimensional hypercube. The effect of a checksum algorithm that yields an -bit checksum is to map each -bit message to a corner of a larger hypercube, with dimension . The corners of this hypercube represent all possible received messages. The valid received messages (those that have the correct checksum) comprise a smaller set, with only corners. A single-bit transmission error then corresponds to a displacement from a valid corner (the correct message and checksum) to one of the adjacent corners. An error which affects bits moves the message to a corner which is steps removed from its correct corner. The goal of a good checksum algorithm is to spread the valid corners as far from each other as possible, to increase the likelihood "typical" transmission errors will end up in an invalid corner.	[ "algorithm", "sha1sum", "Parchive", "cryptographic primitive", "Hamming code", "SpamAssassin", "Sum (Unix)", "Analysis of algorithms", "hash function", "File fixity", "HMAC", "Btrfs", "exclusive or", "Fletcher's checksum", "Data rot", "cryptographic hash function", "byte", "Distributed Checksum Clearinghouse", "List of hash functions", "Social Security number", "computer word", "md5sum", "Isopsephy", "Check digit", "telecommunications", "ReFS", "Algorithm", "two's complement", "data authenticity", "Block (data storage)", "data integrity", "cyclic redundancy check", "IPv4 header checksum", "Adler-32", "digital data", "bank account", "error-correcting code", "hypercube", "Rolling checksum", "Luhn algorithm", "ZFS", "longitudinal redundancy check", "computer storage", "Reed–Solomon error correction", "BSD checksum", "Damm algorithm", "SAE J1708", "cksum", "Bcachefs", "Frame check sequence", "Parity bit", "xxHash", "Gematria", "email spam", "File verification", "randomization function", "Verhoeff algorithm", "error detection", "parity bit", "fingerprint (computing)", "SYSV checksum" ]
7,540	Cultural evolution (disambiguation)	Cultural evolution is cultural change viewed from an evolutionary perspective. It may also refer to: Behavioral ecology, the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures Cultural selection theory, studies of cultural change modelled on evolutionary biology Dual-inheritance theory, a specific framework for studying cultural evolution Memetics, neo-Darwinist view of the transmission of cultural traits Sociocultural evolution, the change of cultures and societies over time as studied in anthropology	[ "Memetics", "Cultural selection theory", "Sociocultural evolution", "Behavioral ecology", "Cultural evolution", "Evolution", "evolutionary biology", "anthropology", "Dual inheritance theory", "cultural change" ]
7,541	City University of New York	The City University of New York (CUNY, pronounced , ) is the public university system of New York City. It is the largest urban university system in the United States, comprising 25 campuses: eleven senior colleges, seven community colleges, and seven professional institutions. The university enrolls more than 275,000 students. The oldest constituent college of CUNY, City College of New York, was originally founded in 1847 and became the first free public institution of higher learning in the United States. In 1960, John R. Everett became the first chancellor of the Municipal College System of New York City, later known as the City University of New York (CUNY). CUNY, established by New York state legislation in 1961 and signed into law by governor Nelson Rockefeller, was an amalgamation of existing institutions and a new graduate school. The system was governed by the Board of Higher Education of the City of New York, created in 1926, and later renamed the Board of Trustees of CUNY in 1979. The institutions merged into CUNY included the Free Academy (later City College of New York), the Female Normal and High School (later Hunter College), Brooklyn College, and Queens College. CUNY has historically provided accessible education, especially to those excluded or unable to afford private universities. The first community college in New York City was established in 1955 with shared funding between the state and the city, but unlike the senior colleges, community college students had to pay tuition. The integration of CUNY's colleges into a single university system took place in 1961, under a chancellor and with state funding. The Graduate Center, serving as the principal doctorate-granting institution, was also established that year. In 1964, Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. extended the senior colleges' free tuition policy to community colleges. The 1960s saw student protests demanding more racial diversity and academic representation in CUNY, leading to the establishment of Medgar Evers College and the implementation of the Open Admissions policy in 1970. This policy dramatically increased student diversity but also introduced challenges like low retention rates. The 1976 fiscal crisis ended the free tuition policy, leading to the introduction of tuition fees for all CUNY colleges. ==History== ===Founding=== In 1960, John R. Everett became the first chancellor of the Municipal College System of the City of New York, later renamed CUNY, for a salary of $25,000 ($ in current dollar terms). CUNY was created in 1961, by New York State legislation, signed into law by Governor Nelson Rockefeller. The legislation integrated existing institutions and a new graduate school into a coordinated system of higher education for the city, under the control of the "Board of Higher Education of the City of New York", which had been created by New York State legislation in 1926. By 1979, the Board of Higher Education had become the "Board of Trustees of the CUNY". Brooklyn College – Founded in 1930. Queens College – Founded in 1937. ===Accessible education=== CUNY has served a diverse student body, especially those excluded from or unable to afford private universities. Its four-year colleges offered a high-quality, tuition-free education to the poor, the working class, and the immigrants of New York City who met the grade requirements for matriculated status. During the post-World War I era, when some Ivy League universities, such as Yale and Columbia, discriminated against Jews, many Jewish academics and intellectuals studied and taught at CUNY. The City College of New York developed a reputation of being "the Harvard of the proletariat." As New York City's population and public college enrollment grew during the early 20th century and the city struggled for resources, the municipal colleges slowly began adopting selective tuition, also known as instructional fees, for a handful of courses and programs. During the Great Depression, with funding for public colleges severely constrained, limits were imposed on the size of the colleges' free Day Sessions, and tuition was imposed upon students deemed "competent" but not academically qualified for the day program. Most of these "limited matriculation" students enrolled in the Evening Sessions, and paid tuition. Additionally, as the population of New York grew, CUNY was not able to accommodate the demand for higher education. Higher and higher requirements for admission were imposed; in 1965, a student seeking admission to CUNY needed an average grade of 92 or A−. This helped to ensure that the student population of CUNY remained largely white and middle-class. Undergraduate tuition and other student fees in 1957 comprised 17 percent of the colleges' $46.8 million in revenues, about $7.74 million ($ in current dollar terms). Three community colleges had been established by early 1961 when New York City's public colleges were codified by the state as a single university with a chancellor at the helm and an infusion of state funds. But the city's slowness in creating the community colleges as demand for college seats was intensifying and had resulted in mounting frustration, particularly on the part of minorities, that college opportunities were not available to them. In 1964, as New York City's Board of Higher Education moved to take full responsibility for the community colleges, city officials extended the senior colleges' free tuition policy to them, a change that was included by Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. in his budget plans and took effect with the 1964–65 academic year. Calls for greater access to public higher education from the black and Puerto Rican communities in New York, especially in Brooklyn, led to the founding of "Community College Number 7," later Medgar Evers College, in 1966–1967. ===Student protests=== There is a long tradition of student activism at CUNY. Eastern European Jewish refugees made City College a "hotbed of antifascism" in the early 20th century. On April 13, 1934, City and Hunter Colleges were sites of a National Student Strike Against War, organized by the Student League for Industrial Democracy and the National Student League. At City College, approximately 600 students gathered at the flagpole on campus to protest the war, as well as demand the reinstatement of twenty-one students who had been expelled for refusing to answer Dean Morton Gottschall's questions regarding their actions in a prior protest against a visiting delegation of soldiers from fascist Italy. At Hunter College, the students demonstrated against then-president Dr. Eugene A. Colligan for his refusal to cooperate with the nationwide strike "and especially his attempt to call a halt to an anti-war convention at Hunter College on mere technicalities." In November, 1934, more than 2,000 City College students voted to reinstate the twenty-one students, this time advocating "a 'legal method' of struggle...as opposed to the holding of unauthorized demonstrations." Students at some campuses became increasingly frustrated with the university's and Board of Higher Education's handling of university administration. At Baruch College in 1967, over a thousand students protested the plan to make the college an upper-division school limited to junior, senior, and graduate students. At Brooklyn College in 1968, students attempted a sit-in to demand the admission of more black and Puerto Rican students and additional black studies curriculum. Students at Hunter College also demanded a Black studies program. Members of the SEEK program, which provided academic support for underprepared and underprivileged students, staged a building takeover at Queens College in 1969 to protest the decisions of the program's director, who would later be replaced by a black professor. Puerto Rican students at Bronx Community College filed a report with the New York State Division of Human Rights in 1970, contending that the intellectual level of the college was inferior and discriminatory. Hunter College was crippled for several days by a protest of 2,000 students who had a list of demands focusing on more student representation in college administration. Across CUNY, students boycotted their campuses in 1970 to protest a rise in student fees and other issues, including the proposed (and later implemented) open admissions plan. Like many college campuses in 1970, CUNY faced a number of protests and demonstrations after the Kent State massacre and Cambodian Campaign. The Administrative Council of the City University of New York sent U.S. president Richard Nixon a telegram in 1970 stating, "No nation can long endure the alienation of the best of its young people." Some colleges, including John Jay College of Criminal Justice, historically the "college for cops," held teach-ins in addition to student and faculty protests. In April 2024, CUNY students joined other campuses across the United States in protests against the Israel–Hamas war. The student protestors demanded that CUNY divest from companies with ties to Israel and that CUNY officials cancel any upcoming trips to Israel and protect students involved in the demonstrations. ===Open admissions=== Under pressure from community activists and CUNY Chancellor Albert Bowker, the Board of Higher Education (BHE) approved an open admissions plan in 1966, but it was not scheduled to be fully implemented until 1975. Remedial education, to supplement the training of under-prepared students, became a significant part of CUNY's offerings. Additionally, ethnic and Black Studies programs and centers were instituted on many CUNY campuses, contributing to the growth of similar programs nationwide. Tuition, which had been in place in the State University of New York system since 1963, was instituted at all CUNY colleges. Meanwhile, CUNY students were added to the state's need-based Tuition Assistance Program (TAP), which had been created to help private colleges. Full-time students who met the income eligibility criteria were permitted to receive TAP, ensuring for the first time that financial hardship would deprive no CUNY student of a college education. CUNY at the time was the third-largest university in the United States, with over 180,000 students. By 2011, nearly six of ten full-time undergraduates qualified for a tuition-free education at CUNY due in large measure to state, federal and CUNY financial aid programs. CUNY's enrollment dipped after tuition was re-established, and there were further enrollment declines through the 1980s and into the 1990s. ===Financial crisis of 1995=== In 1995, CUNY suffered another fiscal crisis when Governor George Pataki proposed a drastic cut in state financing. Faculty cancelled classes and students staged protests. By May, CUNY adopted deep cuts to college budgets and class offerings. By June, to save money spent on remedial programs, CUNY adopted a stricter admissions policy for its senior colleges: students deemed unprepared for college would not be admitted, this a departure from the 1970 Open Admissions program. That year's final state budget cut funding by $102 million, which CUNY absorbed by increasing tuition by $750 and offering a retirement incentive plan for faculty. In 1999, a task force appointed by Mayor Rudolph Giuliani issued a report that described CUNY as "an institution adrift" and called for an improved, more cohesive university structure and management, as well as more consistent academic standards. Following the report, Matthew Goldstein, a mathematician and City College graduate who had led CUNY's Baruch College and briefly, Adelphi University, was appointed chancellor. CUNY ended its policy of open admissions to its four-year colleges, raised its admissions standards at its most selective four-year colleges (Baruch, Brooklyn, City, Hunter and Queens), and required new enrollees who needed remediation to begin their studies at a CUNY open-admissions community college. ===2010 onward=== CUNY's enrollment of degree-credit students reached 220,727 in 2005 and 262,321 in 2010 as the university broadened its academic offerings. The university added more than 2,000 full-time faculty positions, opened new schools and programs, and expanded the university's fundraising efforts to help pay for them. By autumn 2013, all CUNY undergraduates were required to take an administration-dictated common core of courses which have been claimed to meet specific "learning outcomes" or standards. Since the courses are accepted university-wide, the administration claims it will be easier for students to transfer course credits between CUNY colleges. It also reduced the number of core courses some CUNY colleges had required, to a level below national norms, particularly in the sciences. The program is the target of several lawsuits by students and faculty, and was the subject of a "no confidence" vote by the faculty, who rejected it by an overwhelming 92% margin. Chancellor Goldstein retired on July 1, 2013, and was replaced on June 1, 2014, by James Milliken, president of the University of Nebraska, and a graduate of the University of Nebraska and New York University School of Law. Milliken retired at the end of the 2018 academic year and moved on to become the chancellor for the University of Texas system. In 2018, CUNY opened its 25th campus, the CUNY School of Labor and Urban Studies, named after former president Joseph S. Murphy and combining some forms and functions of the Murphy Institute that were housed at the CUNY School of Professional Studies. On February 13, 2019, the board of trustees voted to appoint Queens College president Felix V. Matos Rodriguez as the chancellor of the City University of New York. Matos became both the first Latino and minority educator to head the university. He assumed the post May 1. ==Enrollment and demographics== CUNY is the fourth-largest university system in the United States by enrollment, behind the California State University, State University of New York (SUNY), and University of California systems. More than 271,000-degree-credit students, continuing, and professional education students are enrolled at campuses located in all five New York City boroughs. The university has one of the most diverse student bodies in the United States, with students hailing from around the world, although most students live in New York City. The black, white and Hispanic undergraduate populations each comprise more than a quarter of the student body, and Asian undergraduates make up 18 percent. Fifty-eight percent are female, and 28 percent are 25 or older. In the 2017–2018 award year, 144,380 CUNY students received the Federal Pell Grant. === CUNY Citizenship Now! === Founded in 1997 by immigration lawyer Allan Wernick, CUNY Citizenship Now! is an immigration assistance organization that provides free and confidential immigration law services to help individuals and families on their path to U.S. citizenship. In 2021, CUNY launched a College Immigrant Ambassador Program in partnership with the New York City Department of Education. ==Academics== ==Component institutions== ==Management structure== The forerunner of today's City University of New York was governed by the Board of Education of New York City. Members of the Board of Education, chaired by the president of the board, served as ex officio trustees. For the next four decades, the board members continued to serve as ex officio trustees of the College of the City of New York and the city's other municipal college, the Normal College of the City of New York. In 1900, the New York State Legislature created separate boards of trustees for the College of the City of New York and the Normal College, which became Hunter College in 1914. In 1926, the legislature established the Board of Higher Education of the City of New York, which assumed supervision of both municipal colleges. In 1961, the New York State Legislature established the City University of New York, uniting what had become seven municipal colleges at the time: the City College of New York, Hunter College, Brooklyn College, Queens College, Staten Island Community College, Bronx Community College and Queensborough Community College. In 1979, the CUNY Financing and Governance Act was adopted by the State and the Board of Higher Education became the City University of New York board of trustees. Today, the City University is governed by the board of trustees composed of 17 members, ten of whom are appointed by the governor of New York "with the advice and consent of the senate," and five by the mayor of New York City "with the advice and consent of the senate." The final two trustees are ex officio members. One is the chair of the university's student senate, and the other is non-voting and is the chair of the university's faculty senate. Both the mayoral and gubernatorial appointments to the CUNY Board are required to include at least one resident of each of New York City's five boroughs. Trustees serve seven-year terms, which are renewable for another seven years. The chancellor is elected by the board of trustees, and is the "chief educational and administrative officer" of the City University. The administrative offices are in Midtown Manhattan. ==Faculty== CUNY employs 6,700 full-time faculty members and over 10,000 adjunct faculty members. Faculty and staff are represented by the Professional Staff Congress (PSC), a labor union and chapter of the American Federation of Teachers. ===Notable faculty=== André Aciman, writer, Graduate Center Ali Jimale Ahmed, poet and professor of Comparative Literature, Queens College and Graduate Center F. Murray Abraham, actor of stage and screen; professor of theater, winner of the Academy Award for Best Actor, Brooklyn College Chantal Akerman, film director, City College of New York Meena Alexander, poet and writer, Graduate Center and Hunter College Hannah Arendt, philosopher and political theorist; author of The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) and The Human Condition (1958), Brooklyn College Talal Asad, anthropologist, Graduate Center John Ashbery, poet, Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winner, Brooklyn College William Bialek, biophysicist, Graduate Center Edwin G. Burrows, historian and writer, Pulitzer Prize for History winner for co-writing Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 with Mike Wallace, Brooklyn College Ron Carter, jazz bassist, City College Joe Chambers, jazz drummer, City College Dee L. Clayman, classicist, Graduate Center Margaret Clapp, scholar, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography, president of Wellesley College, Brooklyn College Ta-Nehisi Coates, writer, journalist, and activist, CUNY Graduate School of Journalism Billy Collins, poet, U.S. Poet Laureate, Lehman College (retired) Blanche Wiesen Cook, historian, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and Graduate Center John Corigliano, composer, Graduate Center Michael Cunningham, writer, winner of Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and PEN/Faulkner Award for The Hours, Brooklyn College Roy DeCarava, artist and photographer, Hunter College Carolyn Eisele, mathematician, Hunter College Nancy Fraser, philosopher and political scientist, Graduate Center Ruth Wilson Gilmore, geographer, Graduate Center Allen Ginsberg, beat poet, Brooklyn College Aaron Goodelman, sculptor Joel Glucksman, Olympic saber fencer, Brooklyn College Ralph Goldstein, Olympic épée fencer, Brooklyn College Michael Grossman, economist, Graduate Center Kimiko Hahn, poet, winner of PEN/Voelcker Award for Poetry, Queens College David Harvey, geographer, Graduate Center Jimmy Heath, jazz saxophonist, City College bell hooks, educator, writer and critic, City College of New York Karen Brooks Hopkins, president of the Brooklyn Academy of Music, Brooklyn College John Hospers, first presidential candidate of the US Libertarian Party, Brooklyn College Tyehimba Jess, poet, winner of Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, College of Staten Island KC Johnson born (1967), Brooklyn College and Graduate Center Sheila Jordan, jazz vocalist, City College Michio Kaku, physicist, City College Jane Katz, Olympian swimmer, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Alfred Kazin, writer and critic, Hunter College and Graduate Center Saul Kripke, philosopher, Graduate Center Irving Kristol, journalist, City College Paul Krugman, economist, Graduate Center Peter Kwong, journalist, filmmaker, activist, Hunter College and Graduate Center Nathan H. Lents, scientist, author, and science communicator, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Ben Lerner, writer, MacArthur Fellow, Brooklyn College Audre Lorde, poet and activist, City College, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Cate Marvin, poet, Guggenheim Fellowship winner, College of Staten Island Abraham Maslow, psychologist in the school of humanistic psychology, best known for his theory of human motivation which led to a therapeutic technique known as self-actualization, Brooklyn College John Matteson, historian and writer, Pulitzer Prize winner, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Maeve Kennedy McKean, attorney and public health official Stanley Milgram, social psychologist, Graduate Center Charles W. Mills, philosopher, Graduate Center June Nash, anthropologist, Graduate Center Ruth O'Brien, political scientist and disability studies writer, Graduate Center Denise O'Connor, Olympic foil fencer, Brooklyn College John Patitucci, jazz bassist, City College Itzhak Perlman, violinist, Brooklyn College Frances Fox Piven, political scientist, activist, and educator, Graduate Center Roman Popadiuk, US Ambassador to Ukraine, Brooklyn College Graham Priest, philosopher, Graduate Center Inez Smith Reid, Senior Judge of the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, Brooklyn College Adrienne Rich, poet and activist, City College of New York David M. Rosenthal, philosopher, Graduate Center Mark Rothko (born Markus Yakovlevich Rothkowitz), influential abstract expressionist painter, Brooklyn College Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., historian and social critic, Graduate Center Flora Rheta Schreiber, journalist, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, literary critic, Graduate Center Betty Shabazz, educator and activist, Medgar Evers College Mark Strand, United States Poet Laureate, Pulitzer Prize for Poetry-winning poet, essayist, and translator, Brooklyn College Dennis Sullivan, mathematician, Graduate Center Harold Syrett (1913–1984), president of Brooklyn College Katherine Verdery, anthropologist, Graduate Center Michele Wallace, women's studies and film studies, City College and Graduate Center Mike Wallace, historian and writer, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and Graduate Center Ruth Westheimer (better known as Dr. Ruth; born Karola Ruth Siegel), sex therapist, media personality, author, radio, television talk show host, and Holocaust survivor, Brooklyn College Elie Wiesel, novelist, political activist, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, Presidential Medal of Freedom, and Congressional Gold Medal, City College C. K. Williams, poet, won Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, Brooklyn College Andrea Alu, engineer and physicist, Graduate Center Robert Alfano, physicist, discovered the supercontinuum, City College Branko Milanović, economist most known for his work on income distribution and inequality; a visiting presidential professor at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, an affiliated senior scholar at the Luxembourg Income Study and former lead economist in the World Bank's research department. Simi Linton, arts consultant, author, filmmaker, and activist. Focuses on disability in the arts, disability studies, and ways that disability rights and disability justice perspectives can be brought to bear on the arts. ==Public Safety Department== CUNY has a unified public safety department, the City University of New York Public Safety Department, with branches at each of the 26 CUNY campuses. The New York City Police Department is the primary policing and investigation agency within the New York City as per the NYC Charter, which includes all CUNY campuses and facilities. The Public Safety Department came under heavy criticism from student groups, after several students protesting tuition increases tried to occupy the lobby of the Baruch College. The occupiers were forcibly removed from the area and several were arrested on November 21, 2011. === Antisemitism at CUNY === In recent years, there have been a number of antisemitic incidents on CUNY campuses, including: In March 2014, Brooklyn College settled the Title VI complaint that the Zionist Organization of America ("ZOA") had filed against its antisemitic discrimination. In 2017, a CUNY admin was recorded saying that there were too many Jews on campus. In 2020, a CUNY student was arrested for spray-painting antisemitic graffiti on a campus building. In 2021, a survey found that nearly one in four CUNY students had experienced antisemitism on campus. The survey also found that Jewish students were more likely to report feeling unsafe on campus than students of other faiths. In May 2021, a student at John Jay posted a picture of Adolf Hitler on Instagram with a message saying "We need another Hitler today." A group of Jewish students met with Karol Mason, the President of the college, who refused to condemn the action publicly. CUNY has taken steps to address antisemitism on its campuses. In 2020, the university created a task force to combat antisemitism. The task force has developed a number of initiatives, including training for faculty and staff on how to identify and address antisemitism. In June 2024, the United States Department of Education concluded that CUNY has failed to protect Jewish students from discrimination following the October 7 attacks. CUNY's Hunter College also faced scrutiny for incidents dating back to 2021. In response, Chancellor Félix V. Matos Rodríguez stated that CUNY is dedicated to maintaining a discrimination-free and hate-free environment, and that new measures will ensure consistent and transparent investigation and resolution of complaints. ==City University Television (CUNY TV)== CUNY also has a broadcast TV service, CUNY TV (channel 75 on Spectrum, digital HD broadcast channel 25.3), which airs telecourses, classic and foreign films, magazine shows, and panel discussions in foreign languages. ==City University Film Festival (CUNYFF)== The City University Film Festival is CUNY's official film festival. The festival was founded in 2009. ==Notable alumni== CUNY graduates include 13 Nobel laureates, 2 Fields Medalists, 2 U.S. Secretaries of State, a Supreme Court Justice, several New York City mayors, members of Congress, state legislators, scientists, artists, and Olympians.	[ "racial integration", "Barry Salzberg", "income inequality", "University of New Haven", "John Patitucci", "Great Depression", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "New York State Comptroller", "Talal Asad", "New York City Department of Education", "Iris Weinshall", "Puerto Ricans in the United States", "Michael Cunningham", "Demographics of New York City", "Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.", "Pulitzer Prize for Poetry", "abstract expressionist", "Abraham Foxman", "Betty Shabazz", "North Carolina Supreme Court", "Beat Generation", "Wendy Hensel", "Joseph Crowley", "CBS Records International", "Education in New York City", "Rubén Díaz Jr.", "Miguel Martinez (politician)", "Free education", "Marvin Kratter", "April 2024 Israel–Hamas war protests on university campuses in the United States", "Jennings Michael Burch", "KC Johnson", "CUNY Academic Commons", "Jack B. Weinstein", "Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies", "Robert Aumann", "Tarkan (singer)", "United States District Court for the Western District of Texas", "Henry Wittenberg", "Marjorie Magner", "Senior Status", "Smithsonian American Art Museum", "Irwin Shaw", "John R. Everett", "Paul Mazursky", "Billy Collins", "Barry Munitz", "Pittsburgh", "Jonas Salk", "Harvard University", "Queen Latifah", "Guillermo Linares", "Queensborough Community College", "City College of New York", "Judge Judy", "disability studies", "DJ JP", "Bernard Weinraub", "New York (state)", "Columbia University", "Gloria Naylor", "Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography", "Salt (rapper)", "Jimmy Heath", "District of Columbia Court of Appeals", "CBS-TV", "Sweet'N Low", "CUNY School of Professional Studies", "Michele Wallace", "Daniel Schorr", "Felix V. Matos Rodriguez", "National Book Award", "NYPD Blue", "Aesha Waks", "governor of New York", "university system", "Soia Mentschikoff", "The William E. Macaualay Honors College", "Emmy Award", "Elliot Wilson", "Public broadcasting", "David Harvey (geographer)", "United States Secretary of State", "Ruth Wilson Gilmore", "Nathan H. Lents", "Adobe Systems", "Academy Awards", "Jerry Della Femina", "World Bank", "Donna Orender", "Judith Lichtenberg", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Annabel Palma", "Marcia A. Karrow", "WNYC", "Black Liberation Army", "Polo Ralph Lauren", "Student Strike of 1970", "Sidney Harman", "University student retention", "Cumberland Packing Corporation", "Andrea Alu", "Scott Stringer", "Lisa Staiano-Coico", "Peter Nero", "Benjamin Ward", "The Sopranos", "Adrienne Rich", "University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign", "Saul Katz", "New Line Cinema", "Municipal college", "Jason K. Pulliam", "Thomas J. Murphy Jr.", "Bernie Sanders", "Townsend Harris", "doctorate", "Vanguard Records", "Harvey Pitt", "Guide Association", "Public university", "Ivy League", "Joe Chambers", "Stanley Milgram", "Dorothy Uhnak", "Los Angeles Dodgers", "CUNY School of Law", "Yale University", "Ron Carter", "College of Staten Island", "House Foreign Affairs Committee", "Allen Ginsberg", "disability in the arts", "The New York Times", "Hannah Arendt", "Michio Kaku", "Emmy award", "Mark Strand", "Abram Cohen", "William E. Macaulay Honors College", "New York City Police Commissioner", "Kimiko Hahn", "Pauley Perrette", "Africana studies", "CUNY Graduate School of Journalism", "Katherine Verdery", "First Amendment to the United States Constitution", "CBS News", "Charles Wang", "Paul Krugman", "Securities and Exchange Commission", "Motorcycling", "Ralph Goldstein", "Ralph Lauren", "F. Murray Abraham", "Michael K. Williams", "Daniel Bukantz", "Albert Axelrod", "Baruch College", "National Public Radio", "New York City", "Henry Lee (forensic scientist)", "Joel Harvey Slomsky", "Leonard Kleinrock", "New York State Senate", "Sheila Jordan", "Disability rights movement", "Simi Linton", "Mauriel Carty", "Lehman College", "Pulitzer Prize for Fiction", "Edward Thomas Brady", "Hofstra University", "Rudolph Giuliani", "Flora Rheta Schreiber", "World War I", "Open admissions", "self-actualization", "Barbara Levy Boxer", "Marcos Crespo", "Kent State shootings", "CUNY School of Medicine", "CNN", "Petri Hawkins-Byrd", "Edward A. Flynn", "Andy Grove", "Cheryl Lehman", "Richard Carmona", "New York state", "Jerry Seinfeld", "Frank McCourt", "Jeffrey Dinowitz", "Hofstra University School of Medicine", "2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel", "Shirley Chisholm", "Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou", "Joe Santagato", "Hostos Community College", "Barbara A. Cornblatt", "Mark Rothko", "Boston Celtics", "New York State Division of Human Rights", "Grandmaster (chess)", "James Lam", "Audre Lorde", "Stanley Cohen (doctor)", "Gabourey Sidibe", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Bobby Baccalieri", "Adelphi University", "Midtown Manhattan", "Ruby Dee", "Ronald L. Rice", "David M. Rosenthal (philosopher)", "New Jersey General Assembly", "Edwin G. Burrows", "Joel Glucksman", "Arlene Davila", "The Hours (novel)", "Sterling Johnson Jr.", "George Pataki", "Dolly Lenz", "Brooklyn", "campus", "Aaron Goodelman", "Bruce Chizen", "Elly Gross", "Pulitzer Prize", "Puerto Ricans in New York City", "polio vaccine", "Irving Kristol", "Grammy Award", "NBC News", "Branko Milanović", "Chantal Akerman", "humanistic psychology", "Fields Medal", "CUNY School of Public Health", "Tyehimba Jess", "Joy Behar", "Helen M. Marshall", "Nobel laureate", "Larry Seabrook", "Mirko Savone", "John Hospers", "Saul Rogovin", "Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives", "HBO", "Rosemary S. Pooler", "Don Lemon", "Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898", "A. M. Rosenthal", "James Franco", "New York Islanders", "Murphy Institute (CUNY)", "Rochelle Saidel", "Queens College, City University of New York", "Alan Hevesi", "New York City Department of Transportation", "Ruth Westheimer", "Bronx Borough President", "Pentagon Papers", "mayor of New York City", "Harvard Law School", "Inez Smith Reid", "Herman Badillo", "Phillipe Nover", "Colin Powell", "Frank Tarloff", "Letitia James", "Hunter College", "Upper division college", "US Libertarian Party", "Egemen Bağış", "New Jersey", "Graham Priest", "André Aciman", "Karen Brooks Hopkins", "LaGuardia Community College", "Private university", "Richard Nixon", "Pete Falcone", "Bronx Community College", "Martin Garbus", "New York State Court of Appeals", "New York City Council", "Assata Shakur", "income distribution", "Robert A. Daly", "Nayan Padrai", "Kingsborough Community College", "Gannett", "Pauli Murray", "Inwood, Manhattan", "James Milliken (academic administrator)", "Philip Zimbardo", "Roy DeCarava", "Herbert A. Hauptman", "Fernando Ferrer", "Warner Bros.", "Dennis Sullivan", "Barbara Joans", "Dennis Levine", "American Federation of Teachers", "Queens College, New York", "Borough President", "Sandra Feldman", "National Student League", "State University of New York", "Denise Galloway", "United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York", "City University Film Festival", "Lisa Nakamura", "New York City Comptroller", "open admissions", "Brooklyn Academy of Music", "California State University", "Saul Kripke", "Remember the Women", "sex therapist", "Bella Abzug", "Anti-Defamation League", "New York 1970s fiscal crisis", "Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Staten Island", "Jerry Colonna (financier)", "Ta-Nehisi Coates", "Elie Wiesel", "Milwaukee Police Department", "Guttman Community College", "Charles W. Mills", "Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu", "The Kid Mero", "Craig A. Stanley", "Wellesley College", "Pepa (rapper)", "Charles Neider", "Desus & Mero (2019 TV series)", "Jennifer Lopez", "Barnett Newman", "A&M Records", "Robin Byrd", "community college", "racial diversity", "Ariel Rios", "Reby Sky", "African Americans in New York City", "Carmen Beauchamp Ciparick", "Ben Lerner", "Leonard Lopate", "Cambridge University Press", "working class", "Association of American Law Schools", "Itzhak Perlman", "Robert Alfano", "Jerry Moss", "Kenneth Arrow", "public safety department", "Cambodian Campaign", "supercontinuum", "CUNY School of Labor and Urban Studies", "Roman Popadiuk", "Nikki Franke", "Gallaudet University", "James Strauch", "Cardi B", "John Corigliano", "Queens", "City University of New York Athletic Conference", "Adam Saleh", "Nathaniel Lubell", "WNBA", "New York City fiscal crisis of 1975", "William Bialek", "NCIS (TV show)", "Andrew Dice Clay", "Marty Markowitz", "Academy Award for Best Actor", "Golden Globe Award", "Joseph S. Murphy", "Pulitzer Prize for History", "Samuel Lubell", "Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick", "C. K. Williams", "Harold Goldsmith", "insider trading", "Riddick Bowe", "John Jay College of Criminal Justice", "New York's 11th congressional district", "United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit", "Steve Schirripa", "Carl Andrews (politician)", "New York State", "Mauritania", "Albert H. Bowker", "Alfred Kazin", "United States House of Representatives", "Congressional Gold Medal", "National Book Award for Nonfiction", "Jimmy Smits", "York College, City University of New York", "Matthew Goldstein", "United States Poet Laureate", "Denise O'Connor", "List of City University of New York institutions", "Ali Jimale Ahmed", "US House of Representatives", "Normal school", "John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)", "John Lindsay", "Intel Corporation", "Khandi Alexander", "Nancy Fraser", "Queens College", "Professional Staff Congress", "Margaret Clapp", "Brooklyn College", "white people", "Barbara Aronstein Black", "'Tis", "Jeff Koinange", "Florence Howe", "Edward R. Korman", "Frances Fox Piven", "L.A. Law", "Mel Brooks", "New York State Bar Association", "Computer Associates", "New York City Charter", "Dan DiDio", "Borough of Manhattan Community College", "Bill Baird (activist)", "Borough president", "The Human Condition (Arendt book)", "New York City Transit Police", "Robert R. Davila", "Faith Ringgold", "Timothy Shortell", "New York's 9th congressional district", "New York City College of Technology", "DC Comics", "Luxembourg Income Study", "Washington Heights, Manhattan", "List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the City University of New York", "Gata Kamsky", "Murder of Imette St. Guillen", "O. Henry Award", "Blanche Wiesen Cook", "Manhattan", "Jesse Douglas", "Meena Alexander", "Angela's Ashes", "bell hooks", "Maeve Kennedy McKean", "Student League for Industrial Democracy (1946–1959)", "New York University School of Law", "Mike Wallace (historian)", "NYS Assembly", "Maynard Solomon", "Abraham Beame", "Alan M. Dershowitz", "Surgeon General of the United States", "distance learning", "The Origins of Totalitarianism", "Pell Grant", "Jane Katz", "United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania", "New York City Police Department", "Carolyn Eisele", "CUNY TV", "Spectrum (cable service)", "Michael Grossman (economist)", "Postgraduate education", "Benjamin Eisenstadt", "Harold Syrett", "University of Nebraska", "Salt-N-Pepa", "Chancellor (education)", "John Matteson", "Michael Lynne", "Marble Hill, Manhattan", "Harman Kardon", "NYC Council", "World War II", "Graduate Center, CUNY", "University of California", "Dee L. Clayman", "Paul Cohen", "Kid Chaos", "Félix V. Matos Rodríguez", "Holocaust survivor", "New York State Assembly", "Yvette Clarke", "Peter Kwong (academic)", "Robert F. Wagner Jr.", "Medgar Evers College", "CUNY Graduate Center", "Felix Frankfurter", "Mario Puzo", "New Jersey Senate", "Rubén Díaz Sr.", "disability justice", "Henry Kissinger", "Manuel F. Cohen", "Cate Marvin", "June Nash", "Ruth O'Brien (political scientist)", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "New York Mets", "Walter Yetnikoff", "Nelson Rockefeller", "Eva Norvind", "Remedial education", "Abraham Maslow", "Columbia Law School", "New York University", "Eliot Engel", "United States federal judge", "John Ashbery", "Elliott Fitch Shepard" ]
7,543	Computational complexity theory	In theoretical computer science and mathematics, computational complexity theory focuses on classifying computational problems according to their resource usage, and explores the relationships between these classifications. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm. A problem is regarded as inherently difficult if its solution requires significant resources, whatever the algorithm used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing mathematical models of computation to study these problems and quantifying their computational complexity, i.e., the amount of resources needed to solve them, such as time and storage. Other measures of complexity are also used, such as the amount of communication (used in communication complexity), the number of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the number of processors (used in parallel computing). One of the roles of computational complexity theory is to determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do. The P versus NP problem, one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems, is part of the field of computational complexity. Closely related fields in theoretical computer science are analysis of algorithms and computability theory. A key distinction between analysis of algorithms and computational complexity theory is that the former is devoted to analyzing the amount of resources needed by a particular algorithm to solve a problem, whereas the latter asks a more general question about all possible algorithms that could be used to solve the same problem. More precisely, computational complexity theory tries to classify problems that can or cannot be solved with appropriately restricted resources. In turn, imposing restrictions on the available resources is what distinguishes computational complexity from computability theory: the latter theory asks what kinds of problems can, in principle, be solved algorithmically. ==Computational problems== ===Problem instances=== A computational problem can be viewed as an infinite collection of instances together with a set (possibly empty) of solutions for every instance. The input string for a computational problem is referred to as a problem instance, and should not be confused with the problem itself. In computational complexity theory, a problem refers to the abstract question to be solved. In contrast, an instance of this problem is a rather concrete utterance, which can serve as the input for a decision problem. For example, consider the problem of primality testing. The instance is a number (e.g., 15) and the solution is "yes" if the number is prime and "no" otherwise (in this case, 15 is not prime and the answer is "no"). Stated another way, the instance is a particular input to the problem, and the solution is the output corresponding to the given input. To further highlight the difference between a problem and an instance, consider the following instance of the decision version of the travelling salesman problem: Is there a route of at most 2000 kilometres passing through all of Germany's 14 largest cities? The quantitative answer to this particular problem instance is of little use for solving other instances of the problem, such as asking for a round trip through all sites in Milan whose total length is at most 10 km. For this reason, complexity theory addresses computational problems and not particular problem instances. ===Representing problem instances=== When considering computational problems, a problem instance is a string over an alphabet. Usually, the alphabet is taken to be the binary alphabet (i.e., the set {0,1}), and thus the strings are bitstrings. As in a real-world computer, mathematical objects other than bitstrings must be suitably encoded. For example, integers can be represented in binary notation, and graphs can be encoded directly via their adjacency matrices, or by encoding their adjacency lists in binary. Even though some proofs of complexity-theoretic theorems regularly assume some concrete choice of input encoding, one tries to keep the discussion abstract enough to be independent of the choice of encoding. This can be achieved by ensuring that different representations can be transformed into each other efficiently. ===Decision problems as formal languages=== Decision problems are one of the central objects of study in computational complexity theory. A decision problem is a type of computational problem where the answer is either yes or no (alternatively, 1 or 0). A decision problem can be viewed as a formal language, where the members of the language are instances whose output is yes, and the non-members are those instances whose output is no. The objective is to decide, with the aid of an algorithm, whether a given input string is a member of the formal language under consideration. If the algorithm deciding this problem returns the answer yes, the algorithm is said to accept the input string, otherwise it is said to reject the input. An example of a decision problem is the following. The input is an arbitrary graph. The problem consists in deciding whether the given graph is connected or not. The formal language associated with this decision problem is then the set of all connected graphs — to obtain a precise definition of this language, one has to decide how graphs are encoded as binary strings. ===Function problems=== A function problem is a computational problem where a single output (of a total function) is expected for every input, but the output is more complex than that of a decision problem—that is, the output is not just yes or no. Notable examples include the traveling salesman problem and the integer factorization problem. It is tempting to think that the notion of function problems is much richer than the notion of decision problems. However, this is not really the case, since function problems can be recast as decision problems. For example, the multiplication of two integers can be expressed as the set of triples (a, b, c) such that the relation a \times b = c holds. Deciding whether a given triple is a member of this set corresponds to solving the problem of multiplying two numbers. ===Measuring the size of an instance=== To measure the difficulty of solving a computational problem, one may wish to see how much time the best algorithm requires to solve the problem. However, the running time may, in general, depend on the instance. In particular, larger instances will require more time to solve. Thus the time required to solve a problem (or the space required, or any measure of complexity) is calculated as a function of the size of the instance. The input size is typically measured in bits. Complexity theory studies how algorithms scale as input size increases. For instance, in the problem of finding whether a graph is connected, how much more time does it take to solve a problem for a graph with 2n vertices compared to the time taken for a graph with n vertices? If the input size is n, the time taken can be expressed as a function of n. Since the time taken on different inputs of the same size can be different, the worst-case time complexity T(n) is defined to be the maximum time taken over all inputs of size n. If T(n) is a polynomial in n, then the algorithm is said to be a polynomial time algorithm. Cobham's thesis argues that a problem can be solved with a feasible amount of resources if it admits a polynomial-time algorithm. ==Machine models and complexity measures== ===Turing machine=== A Turing machine is a mathematical model of a general computing machine. It is a theoretical device that manipulates symbols contained on a strip of tape. Turing machines are not intended as a practical computing technology, but rather as a general model of a computing machine—anything from an advanced supercomputer to a mathematician with a pencil and paper. It is believed that if a problem can be solved by an algorithm, there exists a Turing machine that solves the problem. Indeed, this is the statement of the Church–Turing thesis. Furthermore, it is known that everything that can be computed on other models of computation known to us today, such as a RAM machine, Conway's Game of Life, cellular automata, lambda calculus or any programming language can be computed on a Turing machine. Since Turing machines are easy to analyze mathematically, and are believed to be as powerful as any other model of computation, the Turing machine is the most commonly used model in complexity theory. Many types of Turing machines are used to define complexity classes, such as deterministic Turing machines, probabilistic Turing machines, non-deterministic Turing machines, quantum Turing machines, symmetric Turing machines and alternating Turing machines. They are all equally powerful in principle, but when resources (such as time or space) are bounded, some of these may be more powerful than others. A deterministic Turing machine is the most basic Turing machine, which uses a fixed set of rules to determine its future actions. A probabilistic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an extra supply of random bits. The ability to make probabilistic decisions often helps algorithms solve problems more efficiently. Algorithms that use random bits are called randomized algorithms. A non-deterministic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an added feature of non-determinism, which allows a Turing machine to have multiple possible future actions from a given state. One way to view non-determinism is that the Turing machine branches into many possible computational paths at each step, and if it solves the problem in any of these branches, it is said to have solved the problem. Clearly, this model is not meant to be a physically realizable model, it is just a theoretically interesting abstract machine that gives rise to particularly interesting complexity classes. For examples, see non-deterministic algorithm. ===Other machine models=== Many machine models different from the standard multi-tape Turing machines have been proposed in the literature, for example random-access machines. Perhaps surprisingly, each of these models can be converted to another without providing any extra computational power. The time and memory consumption of these alternate models may vary. What all these models have in common is that the machines operate deterministically. However, some computational problems are easier to analyze in terms of more unusual resources. For example, a non-deterministic Turing machine is a computational model that is allowed to branch out to check many different possibilities at once. The non-deterministic Turing machine has very little to do with how we physically want to compute algorithms, but its branching exactly captures many of the mathematical models we want to analyze, so that non-deterministic time is a very important resource in analyzing computational problems. ===Complexity measures=== For a precise definition of what it means to solve a problem using a given amount of time and space, a computational model such as the deterministic Turing machine is used. The time required by a deterministic Turing machine M on input x is the total number of state transitions, or steps, the machine makes before it halts and outputs the answer ("yes" or "no"). A Turing machine M is said to operate within time f(n) if the time required by M on each input of length n is at most f(n). A decision problem A can be solved in time f(n) if there exists a Turing machine operating in time f(n) that solves the problem. Since complexity theory is interested in classifying problems based on their difficulty, one defines sets of problems based on some criteria. For instance, the set of problems solvable within time f(n) on a deterministic Turing machine is then denoted by DTIME(f(n)). Analogous definitions can be made for space requirements. Although time and space are the most well-known complexity resources, any complexity measure can be viewed as a computational resource. Complexity measures are very generally defined by the Blum complexity axioms. Other complexity measures used in complexity theory include communication complexity, circuit complexity, and decision tree complexity. The complexity of an algorithm is often expressed using big O notation. ===Best, worst and average case complexity=== The best, worst and average case complexity refer to three different ways of measuring the time complexity (or any other complexity measure) of different inputs of the same size. Since some inputs of size n may be faster to solve than others, we define the following complexities: Best-case complexity: This is the complexity of solving the problem for the best input of size n. Average-case complexity: This is the complexity of solving the problem on an average. This complexity is only defined with respect to a probability distribution over the inputs. For instance, if all inputs of the same size are assumed to be equally likely to appear, the average case complexity can be defined with respect to the uniform distribution over all inputs of size n. Amortized analysis: Amortized analysis considers both the costly and less costly operations together over the whole series of operations of the algorithm. Worst-case complexity: This is the complexity of solving the problem for the worst input of size n. The order from cheap to costly is: Best, average (of discrete uniform distribution), amortized, worst. For example, the deterministic sorting algorithm quicksort addresses the problem of sorting a list of integers. The worst-case is when the pivot is always the largest or smallest value in the list (so the list is never divided). In this case, the algorithm takes time O(n^2). If we assume that all possible permutations of the input list are equally likely, the average time taken for sorting is O(n \log n). The best case occurs when each pivoting divides the list in half, also needing O(n \log n) time. ===Upper and lower bounds on the complexity of problems=== To classify the computation time (or similar resources, such as space consumption), it is helpful to demonstrate upper and lower bounds on the maximum amount of time required by the most efficient algorithm to solve a given problem. The complexity of an algorithm is usually taken to be its worst-case complexity unless specified otherwise. Analyzing a particular algorithm falls under the field of analysis of algorithms. To show an upper bound T(n) on the time complexity of a problem, one needs to show only that there is a particular algorithm with running time at most T(n). However, proving lower bounds is much more difficult, since lower bounds make a statement about all possible algorithms that solve a given problem. The phrase "all possible algorithms" includes not just the algorithms known today, but any algorithm that might be discovered in the future. To show a lower bound of T(n) for a problem requires showing that no algorithm can have time complexity lower than T(n). Upper and lower bounds are usually stated using the big O notation, which hides constant factors and smaller terms. This makes the bounds independent of the specific details of the computational model used. For instance, if T(n) = 7n^2 + 15n + 40, in big O notation one would write T(n) \in O(n^2). ==Complexity classes== ===Defining complexity classes=== A complexity class is a set of problems of related complexity. Simpler complexity classes are defined by the following factors: The type of computational problem: The most commonly used problems are decision problems. However, complexity classes can be defined based on function problems, counting problems, optimization problems, promise problems, etc. The model of computation: The most common model of computation is the deterministic Turing machine, but many complexity classes are based on non-deterministic Turing machines, Boolean circuits, quantum Turing machines, monotone circuits, etc. The resource (or resources) that is being bounded and the bound: These two properties are usually stated together, such as "polynomial time", "logarithmic space", "constant depth", etc. Some complexity classes have complicated definitions that do not fit into this framework. Thus, a typical complexity class has a definition like the following: The set of decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine within time f(n). (This complexity class is known as DTIME(f(n)).) But bounding the computation time above by some concrete function f(n) often yields complexity classes that depend on the chosen machine model. For instance, the language \{xx \mid x \text{ is any binary string}\} can be solved in linear time on a multi-tape Turing machine, but necessarily requires quadratic time in the model of single-tape Turing machines. If we allow polynomial variations in running time, Cobham-Edmonds thesis states that "the time complexities in any two reasonable and general models of computation are polynomially related" . This forms the basis for the complexity class P, which is the set of decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine within polynomial time. The corresponding set of function problems is FP. ===Important complexity classes=== Many important complexity classes can be defined by bounding the time or space used by the algorithm. Some important complexity classes of decision problems defined in this manner are the following: Logarithmic-space classes do not account for the space required to represent the problem. It turns out that PSPACE = NPSPACE and EXPSPACE = NEXPSPACE by Savitch's theorem. Other important complexity classes include BPP, ZPP and RP, which are defined using probabilistic Turing machines; AC and NC, which are defined using Boolean circuits; and BQP and QMA, which are defined using quantum Turing machines. #P is an important complexity class of counting problems (not decision problems). Classes like IP and AM are defined using Interactive proof systems. ALL is the class of all decision problems. ===Hierarchy theorems=== For the complexity classes defined in this way, it is desirable to prove that relaxing the requirements on (say) computation time indeed defines a bigger set of problems. In particular, although DTIME(n) is contained in DTIME(n^2), it would be interesting to know if the inclusion is strict. For time and space requirements, the answer to such questions is given by the time and space hierarchy theorems respectively. They are called hierarchy theorems because they induce a proper hierarchy on the classes defined by constraining the respective resources. Thus there are pairs of complexity classes such that one is properly included in the other. Having deduced such proper set inclusions, we can proceed to make quantitative statements about how much more additional time or space is needed in order to increase the number of problems that can be solved. More precisely, the time hierarchy theorem states that \mathsf{DTIME}\big(o(f(n)) \big) \subsetneq \mathsf{DTIME} \big(f(n) \cdot \log(f(n)) \big). The space hierarchy theorem states that \mathsf{DSPACE}\big(o(f(n))\big) \subsetneq \mathsf{DSPACE} \big(f(n) \big). The time and space hierarchy theorems form the basis for most separation results of complexity classes. For instance, the time hierarchy theorem tells us that P is strictly contained in EXPTIME, and the space hierarchy theorem tells us that L is strictly contained in PSPACE. ===Reduction=== Many complexity classes are defined using the concept of a reduction. A reduction is a transformation of one problem into another problem. It captures the informal notion of a problem being at most as difficult as another problem. For instance, if a problem X can be solved using an algorithm for Y, X is no more difficult than Y, and we say that X reduces to Y. There are many different types of reductions, based on the method of reduction, such as Cook reductions, Karp reductions and Levin reductions, and the bound on the complexity of reductions, such as polynomial-time reductions or log-space reductions. The most commonly used reduction is a polynomial-time reduction. This means that the reduction process takes polynomial time. For example, the problem of squaring an integer can be reduced to the problem of multiplying two integers. This means an algorithm for multiplying two integers can be used to square an integer. Indeed, this can be done by giving the same input to both inputs of the multiplication algorithm. Thus we see that squaring is not more difficult than multiplication, since squaring can be reduced to multiplication. This motivates the concept of a problem being hard for a complexity class. A problem X is hard for a class of problems C if every problem in C can be reduced to X. Thus no problem in C is harder than X, since an algorithm for X allows us to solve any problem in C. The notion of hard problems depends on the type of reduction being used. For complexity classes larger than P, polynomial-time reductions are commonly used. In particular, the set of problems that are hard for NP is the set of NP-hard problems. If a problem X is in C and hard for C, then X is said to be complete for C. This means that X is the hardest problem in C. (Since many problems could be equally hard, one might say that X is one of the hardest problems in C.) Thus the class of NP-complete problems contains the most difficult problems in NP, in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in P. Because the problem P = NP is not solved, being able to reduce a known NP-complete problem, \Pi_2, to another problem, \Pi_1, would indicate that there is no known polynomial-time solution for \Pi_1. This is because a polynomial-time solution to \Pi_1 would yield a polynomial-time solution to \Pi_2. Similarly, because all NP problems can be reduced to the set, finding an NP-complete problem that can be solved in polynomial time would mean that P = NP.]] ===P versus NP problem=== The complexity class P is often seen as a mathematical abstraction modeling those computational tasks that admit an efficient algorithm. This hypothesis is called the Cobham–Edmonds thesis. The complexity class NP, on the other hand, contains many problems that people would like to solve efficiently, but for which no efficient algorithm is known, such as the Boolean satisfiability problem, the Hamiltonian path problem and the vertex cover problem. Since deterministic Turing machines are special non-deterministic Turing machines, it is easily observed that each problem in P is also member of the class NP. The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions. These include various types of integer programming problems in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The P versus NP problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics Institute. There is a US$1,000,000 prize for resolving the problem. ===Problems in NP not known to be in P or NP-complete=== It was shown by Ladner that if \textsf{P} \neq \textsf{NP} then there exist problems in \textsf{NP} that are neither in \textsf{P} nor \textsf{NP}-complete. If graph isomorphism is NP-complete, the polynomial time hierarchy collapses to its second level. Since it is widely believed that the polynomial hierarchy does not collapse to any finite level, it is believed that graph isomorphism is not NP-complete. The best algorithm for this problem, due to László Babai and Eugene Luks has run time O(2^{\sqrt{n \log n}}) for graphs with n vertices, although some recent work by Babai offers some potentially new perspectives on this. The integer factorization problem is the computational problem of determining the prime factorization of a given integer. Phrased as a decision problem, it is the problem of deciding whether the input has a prime factor less than k. No efficient integer factorization algorithm is known, and this fact forms the basis of several modern cryptographic systems, such as the RSA algorithm. The integer factorization problem is in \textsf{NP} and in \textsf{co-NP} (and even in UP and co-UP). If the problem is \textsf{NP}-complete, the polynomial time hierarchy will collapse to its first level (i.e., \textsf{NP} will equal \textsf{co-NP}). The best known algorithm for integer factorization is the general number field sieve, which takes time O(e^{\left(\sqrt[3]{\frac{64}{9}}\right)\sqrt[3]{(\log n)}\sqrt[3]{(\log \log n)^2}}) to factor an odd integer n. However, the best known quantum algorithm for this problem, Shor's algorithm, does run in polynomial time. Unfortunately, this fact doesn't say much about where the problem lies with respect to non-quantum complexity classes. ===Separations between other complexity classes=== Many known complexity classes are suspected to be unequal, but this has not been proved. For instance \textsf{P} \subseteq \textsf{NP} \subseteq \textsf{PP} \subseteq \textsf{PSPACE}, but it is possible that \textsf{P} = \textsf{PSPACE}. If \textsf{P} is not equal to \textsf{NP}, then \textsf{P} is not equal to \textsf{PSPACE} either. Since there are many known complexity classes between \textsf{P} and \textsf{PSPACE}, such as \textsf{RP}, \textsf{BPP}, \textsf{PP}, \textsf{BQP}, \textsf{MA}, \textsf{PH}, etc., it is possible that all these complexity classes collapse to one class. Proving that any of these classes are unequal would be a major breakthrough in complexity theory. Along the same lines, \textsf{co-NP} is the class containing the complement problems (i.e. problems with the yes/no answers reversed) of \textsf{NP} problems. It is believed that \textsf{NP} is not equal to \textsf{co-NP}; however, it has not yet been proven. It is clear that if these two complexity classes are not equal then \textsf{P} is not equal to \textsf{NP}, since \textsf{P} = \textsf{co-P}. Thus if P = NP we would have \textsf{co-P} = \textsf{co-NP} whence \textsf{NP} = \textsf{P} = \textsf{co-P} = \textsf{co-NP}. Similarly, it is not known if \textsf{L} (the set of all problems that can be solved in logarithmic space) is strictly contained in \textsf{P} or equal to \textsf{P}. Again, there are many complexity classes between the two, such as \textsf{NL} and \textsf{NC}, and it is not known if they are distinct or equal classes. It is suspected that \textsf{P} and \textsf{BPP} are equal. However, it is currently open if \textsf{BPP} = \textsf{NEXP}. ==Intractability== A problem that can theoretically be solved, but requires impractical and finite resources (e.g., time) to do so, is known as an . Conversely, a problem that can be solved in practice is called a , literally "a problem that can be handled". The term infeasible (literally "cannot be done") is sometimes used interchangeably with intractable, though this risks confusion with a feasible solution in mathematical optimization. Tractable problems are frequently identified with problems that have polynomial-time solutions (\textsf{P}, \textsf{PTIME}); this is known as the Cobham–Edmonds thesis. Problems that are known to be intractable in this sense include those that are EXPTIME-hard. If \textsf{NP} is not the same as \textsf{P}, then NP-hard problems are also intractable in this sense. However, this identification is inexact: a polynomial-time solution with large degree or large leading coefficient grows quickly, and may be impractical for practical size problems; conversely, an exponential-time solution that grows slowly may be practical on realistic input, or a solution that takes a long time in the worst case may take a short time in most cases or the average case, and thus still be practical. Saying that a problem is not in \textsf{P} does not imply that all large cases of the problem are hard or even that most of them are. For example, the decision problem in Presburger arithmetic has been shown not to be in \textsf{P}, yet algorithms have been written that solve the problem in reasonable times in most cases. Similarly, algorithms can solve the NP-complete knapsack problem over a wide range of sizes in less than quadratic time and SAT solvers routinely handle large instances of the NP-complete Boolean satisfiability problem. To see why exponential-time algorithms are generally unusable in practice, consider a program that makes 2^n operations before halting. For small n, say 100, and assuming for the sake of example that the computer does 10^{12} operations each second, the program would run for about 4 \times 10^{10} years, which is the same order of magnitude as the age of the universe. Even with a much faster computer, the program would only be useful for very small instances and in that sense the intractability of a problem is somewhat independent of technological progress. However, an exponential-time algorithm that takes 1.0001^n operations is practical until n gets relatively large. Similarly, a polynomial time algorithm is not always practical. If its running time is, say, n^{15}, it is unreasonable to consider it efficient and it is still useless except on small instances. Indeed, in practice even n^3 or n^2 algorithms are often impractical on realistic sizes of problems. ==Continuous complexity theory== Continuous complexity theory can refer to complexity theory of problems that involve continuous functions that are approximated by discretizations, as studied in numerical analysis. One approach to complexity theory of numerical analysis is information based complexity. Continuous complexity theory can also refer to complexity theory of the use of analog computation, which uses continuous dynamical systems and differential equations. Control theory can be considered a form of computation and differential equations are used in the modelling of continuous-time and hybrid discrete-continuous-time systems. ==History== An early example of algorithm complexity analysis is the running time analysis of the Euclidean algorithm done by Gabriel Lamé in 1844. Before the actual research explicitly devoted to the complexity of algorithmic problems started off, numerous foundations were laid out by various researchers. Most influential among these was the definition of Turing machines by Alan Turing in 1936, which turned out to be a very robust and flexible simplification of a computer. The beginning of systematic studies in computational complexity is attributed to the seminal 1965 paper "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms" by Juris Hartmanis and Richard E. Stearns, which laid out the definitions of time complexity and space complexity, and proved the hierarchy theorems. In addition, in 1965 Edmonds suggested to consider a "good" algorithm to be one with running time bounded by a polynomial of the input size. Earlier papers studying problems solvable by Turing machines with specific bounded resources include on real-time computations (1962). Somewhat earlier, Boris Trakhtenbrot (1956), a pioneer in the field from the USSR, studied another specific complexity measure. As he remembers: In 1967, Manuel Blum formulated a set of axioms (now known as Blum axioms) specifying desirable properties of complexity measures on the set of computable functions and proved an important result, the so-called speed-up theorem. The field began to flourish in 1971 when Stephen Cook and Leonid Levin proved the existence of practically relevant problems that are NP-complete. In 1972, Richard Karp took this idea a leap forward with his landmark paper, "Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems", in which he showed that 21 diverse combinatorial and graph theoretical problems, each infamous for its computational intractability, are NP-complete.	[ "Proof complexity", "Juris Hartmanis", "John Myhill", "quantum algorithm", "Leonid Levin", "feasible solution", "Church–Turing thesis", "binary notation", "Eugene Luks", "computational problem", "Best, worst and average case", "NP-intermediate", "logistics", "prime factorization", "Richard E. Stearns", "Hisao Yamada", "quantum Turing machine", "promise problem", "NTIME", "L (complexity)", "QMA", "polynomial-time reduction", "Cook–Levin theorem", "Transcomputational problem", "counting problem (complexity)", "László Babai", "randomized algorithm", "log-space reduction", "Blum's speedup theorem", "primality testing", "Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation", "Shor's algorithm", "random-access machine", "general number field sieve", "connectivity (graph theory)", "List of computability and complexity topics", "probability distribution", "DSPACE", "Blum complexity axioms", "graph (discrete mathematics)", "NP-complete", "Clay Mathematics Institute", "Blum axioms", "decision tree complexity", "SAT solver", "theoretical computer science", "IP (complexity)", "lambda calculus", "complete (complexity)", "axiom", "biology", "pure mathematics", "Big O notation", "integer factorization problem", "Gabriel Lamé", "models of computation", "P versus NP problem", "computability theory", "probabilistic Turing machine", "travelling salesman problem", "adjacency matrix", "analysis of algorithms", "Boris Trakhtenbrot", "discrete logarithm problem", "Amortized analysis", "function problem", "Millennium Prize Problems", "RP (complexity)", "deterministic Turing machine", "BQP", "quicksort", "NL (complexity)", "NEXPSPACE", "Boolean circuit", "age of the universe", "FP (complexity)", "P (complexity)", "Richard Karp", "bitstring", "string (computer science)", "combinatorics", "Euclidean algorithm", "NSPACE", "Intractable", "wikt:infeasible", "NPSPACE", "symmetric Turing machine", "optimization problem", "Presburger arithmetic", "Alphabet (computer science)", "best, worst and average case", "Savitch's theorem", "decision problem", "Milan", "Conway's Game of Life", "algorithm", "AC (complexity)", "switching theory", "integer", "Decision problem", "alternating Turing machine", "Manuel Blum", "integer programming", "Computational complexity", "differential equation", "linear bounded automata", "Intractability", "ALL (complexity)", "Parameterized complexity", "EXPTIME", "Hamiltonian path problem", "Leaf language", "Computational complexity of mathematical operations", "mathematical optimization", "Raymond Smullyan", "graph theory", "formal language", "Turing machine equivalents", "AM (complexity)", "Quantum complexity theory", "logic gate", "BPP (complexity)", "List of complexity classes", "total function", "Structural complexity theory", "Stephen Cook", "protein structure prediction", "dynamical system", "computational complexity", "Descriptive complexity theory", "traveling salesman problem", "ZPP (complexity)", "Interactive proof system", "non-deterministic Turing machine", "Jack Edmonds", "Control theory", "PSPACE", "Boolean satisfiability problem", "time complexity", "non-deterministic algorithm", "parallel computing", "polynomial time hierarchy", "operations research", "Minimax", "DTIME", "graph isomorphism problem", "linear time", "wikt:intractable", "communication complexity", "vertex cover problem", "information based complexity", "space complexity", "deterministic algorithm", "graph isomorphism", "Cobham's thesis", "numerical analysis", "analog computation", "List of unsolved problems in computer science", "RAM machine", "NP (complexity)", "Limits of computation", "EXPSPACE", "knapsack problem", "computer", "cellular automata", "big O notation", "NC (complexity)", "non-deterministic time", "Complement (complexity)", "Alan Turing", "adjacency list", "Cobham–Edmonds thesis", "space hierarchy theorem", "NP-hard", "Game complexity", "time hierarchy theorem", "Complexity", "polynomial time", "Sharp-P", "NEXPTIME", "RSA (algorithm)", "circuit complexity", "discrete uniform distribution", "monotone circuit" ]
7,544	Cadence (disambiguation)	A cadence is a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution. Cadence may also refer to: ==Arts and entertainment== ===Music=== Cadence (vocal group), a Canadian a cappella quartet Cadence rampa a Haitian music genre and origin of Cadence-lypso Drum cadence, played exclusively by the percussion section of a marching band Military cadence, a marching chant Cadence, the high school band of Chris Daughtry ===Record labels=== Cadence Jazz Records, a record label associated with Cadence magazine Cadence Records, a 1940s/1950s American record label during the Cadence Music Group, formerly MapleMusic Recordings, a Canadian record label ===Other uses in arts and entertainment=== Cadence (film), a 1990 film by Martin Sheen Cadence (magazine), a quarterly review of jazz, blues and improvised music Cadence (poetry), the fall in pitch of the intonation of the voice Cadance, a character in My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic ==Businesses== Cadence Bank, an American bank Cadence Bank (1887–2021), a former company merged into this bank Cadence Biomedical, an American medical device company Cadence Design Systems, an American company Cadence Industries, an American conglomerate ==People== Cadence (given name) ==Other uses== Cadence (cycling), a measure of cycling pedalling rate (r/min) Cadence (gait), a measure of athletic performance	[ "Cadence Biomedical", "Cadence Records", "Cadence Jazz Records", "cadence", "Military cadence", "Chris Daughtry", "MapleMusic Recordings", "Cadence Bank (1887–2021)", "Cadence (poetry)", "Cadence (cycling)", "Cadence (vocal group)", "Cadenza (disambiguation)", "Cadence (magazine)", "Cadence Design Systems", "Cadence Bank", "Cadence (film)", "Cadence Industries", "Cadence-lypso", "Drum cadence", "Music of Haiti", "List of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic characters", "Cadence (given name)", "Cadence (gait)", "Cadence rampa" ]
7,546	Camelot	Camelot is a legendary castle and court associated with King Arthur. Absent in the early Arthurian material, Camelot first appeared in 12th-century French romances and, since the Lancelot-Grail cycle, eventually came to be described as the fantastic capital of Arthur's realm and a symbol of the Arthurian world. Medieval texts locate it somewhere in Great Britain and sometimes associate it with real cities, though more usually its precise location is not revealed. Most scholars regard it as being entirely fictional, its unspecified geography being perfect for chivalric romance writers. Nevertheless, arguments about the location of the "real Camelot" have occurred since the 15th century and continue today in popular works and for tourism purposes. == Etymology == The name's derivation is uncertain. It has numerous different spellings in medieval French Arthurian romances, including Camaalot, Camalot, Chamalot, Camehelot (sometimes read as Camchilot), Camaaloth, Caamalot, Camahaloth, Camaelot, Kamaalot, Kamaaloth, Kaamalot, Kamahaloth, Kameloth, Kamaelot, Kamelot, Kaamelot, Cameloth, and Gamalaot. Arthurian scholar Ernst Brugger suggested that it was a corruption of the site of Arthur's final battle, the Battle of Camlann, in Welsh tradition. == Medieval literature == Arthur's court at Camelot is mentioned for the first time in Chrétien's poem Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, dating to the 1170s, though it does not appear in all the manuscripts. In the C manuscript (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, fonds français 794, folio 27r), which might in fact contain the proper reading of Chretien's original text, instead of the place name there is the Old French phrase con lui plot, meaning "as he pleased". The other manuscripts spell the name variously as Chamalot (MS A, f. f. 196r), Camehelot (MS E, f. 1r), Chamaalot (MS G, f. 34f), and Camalot (MS T, f. 41v); the name is missing, along with the rest of the passage containing it, in MS V (Vatican, Biblioteca Vaticana, Regina 1725). Camelot is mentioned only in passing and is not described: Nothing in Chrétien's poem suggests the level of importance Camelot would have in later romances. For Chrétien, Arthur's chief court was in Caerleon in Wales; this was the king's primary base in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae and subsequent literature. however, in Britain, Arthur's court was generally located at Caerleon, or at Carlisle, which is usually identified with the "Carduel" of the French romances. The Lancelot-Grail cycle and the texts it influenced depict the city of Camelot as standing along a river, downstream from Astolat. It is surrounded by plains and forests, and its magnificent cathedral, St. Stephen's, originally established by Josephus, the son of Joseph of Arimathea, is the religious centre for Arthur's Knights of the Round Table. There, Arthur and Guinevere are married and there are the tombs of many kings and knights. In a mighty castle stands the Round Table, created by Merlin and Uther Pendragon; it is here that Galahad conquers the Siege Perilous, and where the knights see a vision of the Holy Grail and swear to find it. Jousts are often held in a meadow outside the city. Its imprecise geography serves the romances well, as Camelot becomes less a literal place than a powerful symbol of Arthur's court and universe. In Palamedes and some other works, including the Post-Vulgate cycle, King Arthur's Camelot is eventually razed to the ground by the treacherous King Mark of Cornwall (who had besieged it earlier) in his invasion of Logres after the Battle of Camlann. Many other places are listed as a location where Arthur holds court in the later romances, Carlisle and London perhaps being the most prominent. In the 15th century, the English writer Thomas Malory created the image of Camelot most familiar today in his Le Morte d'Arthur, a work based mostly on the French romances. He firmly identifies Camelot with Winchester in England, an identification that remained popular over the centuries, though it was rejected by Malory's own editor, William Caxton, who preferred a Welsh location. == Identifications == Arthurian scholar Norris J. Lacy commented that "Camelot, located nowhere in particular, can be anywhere." The romancers' versions of Camelot draw on earlier traditions of Arthur's fabulous court. The Celliwig of Culhwch and Olwen appears in the Welsh Triads as well; this early Welsh material places Wales' greatest leader outside its national boundaries. Geoffrey's description of Caerleon is probably based on his personal familiarity with the town and its Roman ruins; it is less clear that Caerleon was associated with Arthur before Geoffrey. Several French romances (Perlesvaus, the Didot Perceval attributed to Robert de Boron, and even the early romances of Chrétien such as Erec and Enide and Yvain, the Knight of the Lion) have Arthur hold court at "Carduel in Wales", a northern city based on the real Carlisle. Malory's identification of Camelot as Winchester was probably partially inspired by the latter city's history: it had been the capital of Wessex under Alfred the Great, and boasted the Winchester Round Table, an artefact constructed in the 13th century but widely believed to be the original by Malory's time. Caxton rejected the association, saying Camelot was in Wales and that its ruins could still be seen; this is a likely reference to the Roman ruins at Caerwent. in Somerset considered it to be the original Camelot. This theory, which was repeated by later antiquaries, is bolstered, or may have derived from, Cadbury's proximity to the River Cam and the villages of Queen Camel and West Camel, and remained popular enough to help inspire a large-scale archaeological dig in the 20th century. The works were by far the largest known fortification of the period, double the size of comparative caers and with Mediterranean artefacts representing extensive trade and Saxon ones showing possible conquest. Modern archaeologists follow him in rejecting the name, calling it instead Cadbury Castle hill fort. Despite this, Cadbury remains widely associated with Camelot. The name of the Romano-British town of Camulodunum (modern Colchester) was derived from the Celtic god Camulus. However, it was located well within territory usually thought to have been conquered early in the 5th century by Saxons, so it is unlikely to have been the location of any "true" Camelot, as Arthur is traditionally dated to the late 5th and early 6th century. The town was definitely known as Colchester as early as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 917. Even Colchester Museum argues strongly regarding the historical Arthur: "It would be impossible and inconceivable to link him to the Colchester area, or to Essex more generally," pointing out that the connection between the name Camulodunum and Colchester was unknown until the 18th century. Arthurian scholar Peter Field has suggested that another Camulodunum, a former Roman fort, is a likely location of King Arthur's Camelot and that "Slack, on the outskirts of Huddersfield in West Yorkshire," is where Arthur would have held court. This is because of the name, and also regarding its strategic location: it is but a few miles from the extreme south-west of Hen Ogledd (also making close to North Wales), and would have been a flagship point in staving off attacks to the Celtic kingdoms from the Angles and others. Other places in Britain with names related to "Camel" have also been suggested, such as Camelford in Cornwall, located down the River Camel from where Geoffrey places Camlann, the scene of Arthur's final battle. The area's connections with Camelot and Camlann are merely speculative. Further north, Camelon and its connections with Arthur's O'on have been mentioned in relation to Camelot, but Camelon may be an antiquarian neologism coined after the 15th century, with its earlier name being Carmore or Carmure. Graham Phillips rejected the word "Camelot" entirely as just Chrétien's invention and instead proposed the old Roman city of Viroconium (near Shrewsbury in modern England) as Arthur's capital, citing archaeological evidence of a grand palace having been in use around 500 AD. Alistair Moffat identified Camelot with Roxburgh in Scotland. == Modern culture == Camelot has become a permanent fixture in modern interpretations of the Arthurian legend. The symbolism of Camelot so impressed Alfred, Lord Tennyson that he wrote up a prose sketch on the castle as one of his earliest attempts to treat the legend. Modern stories typically retain Camelot's lack of precise location and its status as a symbol of the Arthurian world, though they typically transform the castle itself into romantically lavish visions of a High Middle Ages palace. (a view from Tintagel Castle)\|alt=]] Camelot lends its name to the musical Camelot, which was adapted into a film of the same title, featuring the Castle of Coca, Segovia as Camelot. An Arthurian television series Camelot was also named after the castle, as were some other works including the video game Camelot and the comic book series Camelot 3000. French television series Kaamelott presents a humorous alternative version of the Arthurian legend; Camelot Theme Park is a now-abandoned Arthurian theme park resort located in the English county of Lancashire. The Camelot Group was the first operator of the UK National Lottery with lottery machines named after characters, places, and objects in Arthurian legend. In American contexts, Camelot era refers to the presidency of John F. Kennedy. In a 1963 Life interview, Jacqueline, his widow, referenced a line from the Lerner and Loewe musical to describe the Kennedy era White House: "Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment, that was known as Camelot." She indicated that it was one of Kennedy's favourite lyrics from the musical and added, "there'll be great Presidents again [...] but there'll never be another Camelot again." The cultural impact of Camelot in Anglo-American culture can be understood in the numerous applications in ‘high’ and ‘popular’ culture by artists, filmmakers, public relations specialists, tableware and game makers, youth groups, stamp designers. The 2024 exhibit, Visualizing Camelot, at the University of Rochester Libraries offered an impressive cross-section of these applications.	[ "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart", "Cornwall", "William Caxton", "Round Table", "Coca, Segovia", "River Cam (Somerset)", "Angles (tribe)", "Joseph of Arimathea", "Camulodunum", "Merlin", "River Camel", "Alfred, Lord Tennyson", "Percival", "Caerwent", "Jousting", "caer", "Caerleon", "Perlesvaus", "Le Morte d'Arthur", "Culhwch and Olwen", "Battle of Camlann", "Arthur's O'on", "UK National Lottery", "Mary Stewart (novelist)", "Astolat", "Leslie Alcock", "Tavola Ritonda", "John Leland (antiquary)", "Isca Augusta", "sub-Roman Britain", "Huddersfield", "David Dumville", "History of London", "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", "Locations associated with Arthurian legend", "High Middle Ages", "Chrétien de Troyes", "Urban T. Holmes Jr.", "Natural History (Pliny)", "Viroconium", "John Morris (historian)", "Logres", "Roman Empire", "Brittonic languages", "Mark of Cornwall", "Palamedes (romance)", "White House", "Sub-Roman Britain", "Galahad", "Josephus of Arimathea", "chivalry", "Queen Camel", "Presidency of John F. Kennedy", "Holy Grail", "Camelot (film)", "Arthur's Seat", "King Arthur", "Matter of Britain", "castle", "Winchester", "Camelot Theme Park", "Life (magazine)", "Graham Phillips (writer)", "Great Britain", "Hen Ogledd", "Camelford", "Colchester", "Camelot (TV series)", "Roger Sherman Loomis", "Morgan le Fay", "Siedlęcin Tower", "chivalric romance", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "Louis Rhead", "West Yorkshire", "Roman Britain", "Camelot (video game)", "Gustave Doré", "Geoffrey of Monmouth", "Geoffrey Ashe", "Shrewsbury", "Roxburgh", "Post-Vulgate Cycle", "Welsh Triads", "Somerset", "Alistair Moffat", "Lancelot-Grail", "Avalon", "Wales", "British Iron Age", "Thomas Malory", "Saint Stephen", "West Camel", "Romano-British culture", "Yvain, the Knight of the Lion", "Old French", "Uther Pendragon", "Britannia", "Royal court", "Erec and Enide", "North Wales", "Mabinogion", "Idylls of the King", "Wessex", "Slack Roman Fort", "Winchester Round Table", "Brittany", "Carlisle", "Guinevere", "Celtic Britons", "Colchester Castle", "Cadbury Castle, Somerset", "Camelot 3000", "Lancashire", "Camelot Group", "Camelot (musical)", "Hawes Craven", "Saxons", "Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis", "Camelon", "Camulus", "John F. Kennedy", "List of mythological places", "Knights of the Round Table", "Robert de Boron", "Theodore H. White", "Alfred the Great", "Siege Perilous", "Norris J. Lacy", "Marion Zimmer Bradley", "Kaamelott", "Celliwig", "Camelot era", "Historia Regum Britanniae" ]
7,548	Contras	In the history of Nicaragua, the Contras (Spanish: La contrarrevolución, the counter-revolution) were the right-wing militias who waged anti-communist guerilla warfare (1979–1990) against the Marxist governments of the Sandinista National Liberation Front and the Junta of National Reconstruction, which came to power after the Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979. Months after the political dynasty (1936–1979) of the Somoza family lost the Nicaraguan Revolution to the Sandinistas, the US government sponsored the remaining national-guard soldiers and Somocista politicians of the losing side as la Contra, the right-wing counter-revolution. The American military assistance and financial aid granted the Contras a measure of political credibility and military utility as anti-communist militias useful to U.S. foreign policy in Latin America. In 1986, consequent to complaints of the Contras' regular violation of the human rights of Nicaraguan civilians, the Boland Amendment (1982–1986) ended U.S. financing of the Contras; yet the Reagan government illegally continued financing the anti-communist secret war of the Contras against Sandinista Nicaragua, known in the US as the Iran–Contra affair. By 1987, the CIA had organized most of the Contra militias into the anti-communist Nicaraguan Resistance, within which the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) was the greatest militia. For eleven years, the Contras' counter-revolutionary war against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua featured terrorism and human rights violations against the civilian population of Nicaragua. In defense of the Contras, the Reagan government said that the anti-communist strategy of the US in Latin America did not include attacks upon civilian populations. The CIA said that the Contras' terrorism against Nicaraguan civilians resulted from "the poor discipline characteristic of irregular forces", and that terrorism was not official military doctrine of the Contras, ==History== ===Origins=== The Contras were not a monolithic group, but a combination of three distinct elements of Nicaraguan society:—these later were especially found in the military wing of the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN). Remnants of the Guard later formed groups such as the Fifteenth of September Legion, the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, and the National Army of Liberation. Initially however, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua. Anti-Somozistas who had supported the revolution but felt betrayed by the Sandinista government or José Francisco Cardenal, who had briefly served in the Council of State before leaving Nicaragua out of disagreement with the Sandinista government's policies and founding the Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN), an opposition group of Nicaraguan exiles in Miami. Another example are the MILPAS (Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas), peasant militias led by disillusioned Sandinista veterans from the northern mountains. Founded by Pedro Joaquín González (known as "Dimas"), the Milpistas were also known as (green corn). Even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980–1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of (peasant) highlanders and rural workers. Nicaraguans who had avoided direct involvement in the revolution but opposed the Sandinistas. Although the FDN had its roots in two groups made up of former National Guardsmen (of the Somoza regime), its joint political directorate was led by businessman and former anti-Somoza activist Adolfo Calero Portocarrero. Édgar Chamorro later stated that there was strong opposition within the UDN against working with the Guardsmen and that the merging only took place because of insistence by the CIA. Based in Honduras, Nicaragua's northern neighbor, under the command of former National Guard Colonel Enrique Bermúdez, the new FDN commenced to draw in other smaller insurgent forces in the north. Largely financed, trained, equipped, armed and organized by the U.S., it emerged as the largest and most active contra group. In April 1982, Edén Pastora (Comandante Cero), one of the heroes in the fight against Somoza, organized the Sandinista Revolutionary Front (FRS) – embedded in the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE) – and declared war on the Sandinista government. Himself a former Sandinista who had held several high posts in the government, he had resigned abruptly in 1981 and defected, after a press conference he was holding on 30 May 1984 was bombed, he "voluntarily withdrew" from the contra struggle. The Misurasata movement split in 1983, with the breakaway Misura group of Stedman Fagoth Muller allying itself more closely with the FDN, and the rest accommodating themselves with the Sandinistas: on 8 December 1984 a ceasefire agreement known as the Bogota Accord was signed by Misurasata and the Nicaraguan government. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance. ===Unity efforts=== U.S. officials were active in attempting to unite the Contra groups. In June 1985 most of the groups reorganized as the United Nicaraguan Opposition (UNO), under the leadership of Adolfo Calero, Arturo Cruz and Alfonso Robelo, all originally supporters of the anti-Somoza revolution. After UNO's dissolution early in 1987, the Nicaraguan Resistance (RN) was organized along similar lines in May. ==U.S. military and financial assistance== In front of the International Court of Justice, the Nicaraguan government claimed that the Contras were altogether a creation of the U.S. This claim was rejected The U.S. played a very large role in financing, training, arming, and advising the Contras over a long period, and it is unlikely that the Contras would have been capable of carrying out significant military operations without this support, given the large amount of training and weapons shipments that the Sandinistas had received from Cuba and the Soviet Union. ===Political background=== The US government viewed the leftist Sandinistas as a threat to economic interests of American corporations in Nicaragua and to national security. US President Ronald Reagan stated in 1983 that "The defense of [the USA's] southern frontier" was at stake. "In spite of the Sandinista victory being declared fair, the United States continued to oppose the left-wing Nicaraguan government." and opposed its ties to Cuba and the Soviet Union. Ronald Reagan, who had assumed the American presidency in January 1981, accused the Sandinistas of importing Cuban-style socialism and aiding leftist guerrillas in El Salvador. The Reagan administration continued to view the Sandinistas as undemocratic despite the 1984 Nicaraguan elections being generally declared fair by foreign observers. Throughout the 1980s the Sandinista government was regarded as "Partly Free" by Freedom House, an organization financed by the U.S. government. On 4 January 1982, Reagan signed the top secret National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17), The arming, clothing, feeding and supervision of the Contras became the most ambitious paramilitary and political action operation mounted by the agency in nearly a decade. In the fiscal year 1984, the U.S. Congress approved $24 million in aid to the Contras. the Reagan administration lost much of its support regarding its Contra policy within Congress after disclosure of CIA mining of Nicaraguan ports, and a report of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research commissioned by the State Department found Reagan's allegations about Soviet influence in Nicaragua "exaggerated", Congress cut off all funds for the contras in 1985 by the third Boland Amendment. In October 1984, it was amended to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the Central Intelligence Agency but all U.S. government agencies. Nevertheless, the case for support of the Contras continued to be made in Washington, D.C., by both the Reagan administration and the Heritage Foundation, which argued that support for the Contras would counter Soviet influence in Nicaragua. On 1 May 1985 President Reagan announced that his administration perceived Nicaragua to be "an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States", and declared a "national emergency" and a trade embargo against Nicaragua to "deal with that threat". It "is now a given; it is true", the Washington Post declared in 1986, "the Sandinistas are communists of the Cuban or Soviet school"; that "The Reagan administration is right to take Nicaragua as a serious menace—to civil peace and democracy in Nicaragua and to the stability and security of the region"; that we must "fit Nicaragua back into a Central American mode" and "turn Nicaragua back toward democracy", and with the "Latin American democracies" "demand reasonable conduct by regional standard." Soon after the embargo was established, Managua re-declared "a policy of nonalignment" and sought the aid of Western Europe, who were opposed to U.S. policy, to escape dependency on the Soviet Union. Since 1981 U.S. pressures had curtailed Western credit to and trade with Nicaragua, forcing the government to rely almost totally on the Eastern bloc for credit, other aid, and trade by 1985. In his 1997 study on U.S. low intensity warfare, Kermit D. Johnson, a former Chief of the U.S. Army Chaplains, contends that U.S. hostility toward the revolutionary government was motivated not by any concern for "national security", but rather by what the world relief organization Oxfam termed "the threat of a good example": It was alarming that in just a few months after the Sandinista revolution, Nicaragua received international acclaim for its rapid progress in the fields of literacy and health. It was alarming that a socialist-mixed-economy state could do in a few short months what the Somoza dynasty, a U.S. client state, could not do in 45 years! It was truly alarming that the Sandinistas were intent on providing the very services that establish a government's political and moral legitimacy. The government's program included increased wages, subsidized food prices, and expanded health, welfare, and education services. And though it nationalized Somoza's former properties, it preserved a private sector that accounted for between 50 and 60 percent of GDP. === Atrocities === The United States began to support Contra activities against the Sandinista government by December 1981, with the CIA at the forefront of operations. The CIA supplied the funds and the equipment, coordinated training programs, and provided intelligence and target lists. While the Contras had little military successes, they did prove adept at carrying out CIA guerrilla warfare strategies from training manuals which advised them to incite mob violence, "neutralize" civilian leaders and government officials and attack "soft targets" — including schools, health clinics and cooperatives. The agency added to the Contras' sabotage efforts by blowing up refineries and pipelines, and mining ports. Finally, according to former Contra leader Edgar Chamorro, CIA trainers also gave Contra soldiers large knives. "A commando knife [was given], and our people, everybody wanted to have a knife like that, to kill people, to cut their throats". In 1985 Newsweek published a series of photos taken by Frank Wohl, a conservative student admirer traveling with the Contras, entitled "Execution in the Jungle": The victim dug his own grave, scooping the dirt out with his hands ... He crossed himself. Then a contra executioner knelt and rammed a k-bar knife into his throat. A second enforcer stabbed at his jugular, then his abdomen. When the corpse was finally still, the contras threw dirt over the shallow grave — and walked away. The CIA officer in charge of the covert war, Duane "Dewey" Clarridge, admitted to the House Intelligence Committee staff in a secret briefing in 1984 that the Contras were routinely murdering "civilians and Sandinista officials in the provinces, as well as heads of cooperatives, nurses, doctors and judges". But he claimed that this did not violate President Reagan's executive order prohibiting assassinations because the agency defined it as just 'killing'. "After all, this is war—a paramilitary operation", Clarridge said in conclusion. Edgar Chamorro explained the rationale behind this to a U.S. reporter. "Sometimes terror is very productive. This is the policy, to keep putting pressure until the people cry 'uncle'". The CIA manual for the Contras, Tayacan, states that the Contras should gather the local population for a public tribunal to "shame, ridicule and humiliate" Sandinista officials to "reduce their influence". It also recommends gathering the local population to witness and take part in public executions. These types of activities continued throughout the war. After the signing of the Central American Peace Accord in August 1987, the year war related deaths and economic destruction reached its peak, the Contras eventually entered negotiations with the Sandinista government (1988), and the war began to deescalate. The UNO scored a decisive victory on 25 February 1990. Chamorro won with 55 percent of the presidential vote as compared to Ortega's 41 percent. Of 92 seats in the National Assembly, UNO gained 51, and the FSLN won 39. On 25 April 1990, Chamorro assumed presidency from Daniel Ortega. Between 1984 and 1986, $34 million from third countries and $2.7 million from private sources were raised this way. According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, the military leader of Panama later convicted on drug charges, whom he personally met. The issue of drug money and its importance in funding the Nicaraguan conflict was the subject of various reports and publications. The contras were funded by drug trafficking, of which the United States was aware. Senator John Kerry's 1988 Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems". The Reagan administration's support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, alleging that the contras contributed to the rise of crack cocaine in California. Gary Webb's career as a journalist was subsequently discredited by the leading U.S. papers, The New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times. An internal CIA report, entitled, "Managing a Nightmare", shows the agency used "a ground base of already productive relations with journalists" to help counter what it called "a genuine public relations crisis." In the 1980s, Douglas Farah worked as a journalist, covering the civil wars in Central America for the Washington Post. According to Farah, while it was common knowledge that the Contras were involved in cocaine trafficking, the editors of the Washington Post refused to take it seriously: If you're talking about our intelligence community tolerating — if not promoting — drugs to pay for black ops, it's rather an uncomfortable thing to do when you're an establishment paper like the Post. If you were going to be directly rubbing up against the government, they wanted it more solid than it could probably ever be done. An investigation by the United States Department of Justice also stated that their "review did not substantiate the main allegations stated and implied in the Mercury News articles." Regarding the specific charges towards the CIA, the DOJ wrote "the implication that the drug trafficking by the individuals discussed in the Mercury News articles was connected to the CIA was also not supported by the facts." The CIA also investigated and rejected the allegations. ===Propaganda=== During the time the US Congress blocked funding for the contras, the Reagan government engaged in a campaign to alter public opinion and change the vote in Congress on contra aid. For this purpose, the NSC established an interagency working group, which in turn coordinated the Office of Public Diplomacy for Latin America and the Caribbean (managed by Otto Reich), which conducted the campaign. On top of that, Oliver North helped Carl Channell's tax-exempt organization, the National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty, to raise $10 million, by arranging numerous briefings for groups of potential contributors at the premises of the White House and by facilitating private visits and photo sessions with President Reagan for major contributors. Channell in turn, used part of that money to run a series of television advertisements directed at home districts of Congressmen considered swing votes on contra aid. Nevertheless, the ICJ found that the U.S. encouraged acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law by producing the manual Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare (Operaciones sicológicas en guerra de guerrillas) and disseminating it to the contras. The manual, amongst other things, advised on how to rationalize killings of civilians and recommended to hire professional killers for specific selective tasks. The United States, which did not participate in the merits phase of the proceedings, maintained that the ICJ's power did not supersede the Constitution of the United States and argued that the court did not seriously consider the Nicaraguan role in El Salvador, while it accused Nicaragua of actively supporting armed groups there, specifically in the form of supply of arms. The ICJ had found that evidence of a responsibility of the Nicaraguan government in this matter was insufficient. The U.S. argument was affirmed, however, by the dissenting opinion of ICJ member U.S. Judge Schwebel, who concluded that in supporting the contras, the United States acted lawfully in collective self-defence in El Salvador's support. The U.S. blocked enforcement of the ICJ judgment by the United Nations Security Council and thereby prevented Nicaragua from obtaining any actual compensation. The Nicaraguan government finally withdrew the complaint from the court in September 1992 (under the later, post-FSLN, government of Violeta Chamorro), following a repeal of the law requiring the country to seek compensation. ==Human rights violations== Americas Watch, which subsequently became part of Human Rights Watch, accused the Contras of: targeting health care clinics and health care workers for assassination kidnapping civilians torturing civilians executing civilians, including children, who were captured in combat raping women In his affidavit to the World Court, former contra Edgar Chamorro testified that "The CIA did not discourage such tactics. To the contrary, the Agency severely criticized me when I admitted to the press that the FDN had regularly kidnapped and executed agrarian reform workers and civilians. We were told that the only way to defeat the Sandinistas was to ...kill, kidnap, rob and torture". Contra leader Adolfo Calero denied that his forces deliberately targeted civilians: "What they call a cooperative is also a troop concentration full of armed people. We are not killing civilians. We are fighting armed people and returning fire when fire is directed at us." ===Controversy=== Several articles were published by U.S. press, including by The Wall Street Journal and The New Republic, accusing Americas Watch and other bodies of ideological bias and unreliable reporting. The articles alleged that Americas Watch gave too much credence to alleged Contra abuses and systematically tried to discredit Nicaraguan human rights groups such as the Permanent Commission on Human Rights, which blamed the most human rights abuses on the Sandinistas. In 1985, The Wall Street Journal reported: Human Rights Watch, the umbrella organization of Americas Watch, replied to these allegations: "Almost invariably, U.S. pronouncements on human rights exaggerated and distorted the real human rights violations of the Sandinista regime, and exculpated those of the U.S.-supported insurgents, known as the contras ... The Bush administration is responsible for these abuses, not only because the contras are, for all practical purposes, a U.S. force, but also because the Bush administration has continued to minimize and deny these violations, and has refused to investigate them seriously." A much-vaunted early 1986 offensive never materialized, and Contra forces were largely reduced to isolated acts of terrorism. Then on 21 December 1987, the FDN launched attacks at Bonanza, Siuna, and Rosita in Zelaya province, resulting in heavy fighting. ARDE Frente Sur attacked at El Almendro and along the Rama road. These large-scale raids mainly became possible as the contras were able to use U.S.-provided Redeye missiles against Sandinista Mi-24 helicopter gunships, which had been supplied by the Soviets. Nevertheless, the Contras remained tenuously encamped within Honduras and were not able to hold Nicaraguan territory. There were isolated protests among the population against the draft implemented by the Sandinista government, which even resulted in full-blown street clashes in Masaya in 1988. However, a June 1988 survey in Managua showed the Sandinista government still enjoyed strong support but that support had declined since 1984. Three times as many people identified with the Sandinistas (28%) than with all the opposition parties put together (9%); 59% did not identify with any political party. Of those polled, 85% opposed any further US aid to the Contras; 40% believed the Sandinista government to be democratic, while 48% believed it to be not democratic. People identified the war as the largest problem but were less likely to blame it for economic problems compared to a December 1986 poll; 19% blamed the war and US blockade as the main cause of economic problems while 10% blamed the government. Political opposition groups were splintered and the Contras began to experience defections, although United States aid maintained them as a viable military force. After a cutoff in U.S. military support, and with both sides facing international pressure to bring an end to the conflict, the contras agreed to negotiations with the FSLN. With the help of five Central American presidents, including Ortega, the sides agreed that a voluntary demobilization of the contras should start in early December 1989. They chose this date to facilitate free and fair elections in Nicaragua in February 1990 (even though the Reagan administration had pushed for a delay of contra disbandment). In the resulting February 1990 elections, Violeta Chamorro and her party the UNO won an upset victory of 55% to 41% over Daniel Ortega. Opinion polls leading up to the elections divided along partisan lines, with 10 of 17 polls analyzed in a contemporary study predicting an UNO victory while seven predicted the Sandinistas would retain power. Possible explanations include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government as well as the fact that already in November 1989, the White House had announced that the economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989. Sandinistas were also accused of intimidation and abuses during the election campaign. According to the Puebla Institute, by mid-December 1989, seven opposition leaders had been murdered, 12 had disappeared, 20 had been arrested, and 30 others assaulted. In late January 1990, the OAS observer team reported that "a convoy of troops attacked four truckloads of UNO sympathizers with bayonets and rifle butts, threatening to kill them." This led many commentators to conclude that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation. While it is unclear whether the game was deliberately named after the Nicaraguan Contra rebels, the ending theme of the original game was titled , after the adversaries of the real-life Contras. Contra, the second studio album by the American indie rock band Vampire Weekend, released in January 2010 on XL Recordings. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200. The album title is intended as a thematic allegory and a complex reference to the Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries. The song "I Think Ur a Contra" is from this album. Sandinista!, an album by The Clash, features songs about The Contras in Nicaragua. It was released in 1980. The song "Washington Bullets" is from this album. Student Visas, a song by Corb Lund from the album "Horse Soldier! Horse Soldier!", is about US Clandestine soldiers (such as SFOD-D and CIA Paramilitary) interacting with Contras in El Salvador and Nicaragua. Fragile The song is a tribute to Ben Linder, an American civil engineer who was killed by the Contras in 1987 while working on a hydroelectric project in Nicaragua. Narcos: Mexico features an episode where Felix has to deliver guns to Nicaragua with Amado and a CIA operative for Salvador Nava and Mexico's Minister of Defense The Mighty Quinn involves a CIA operative and a Latino right-wing assassin trying to recover large sums of untraceable US dollars which were to fund anti-communist counter-revolution on the mainland (Nicaragua is not mentioned). Snowfall a TV series following several characters, including an undercover CIA officer facilitating cocaine smuggling into the US on the behalf of the Nicaraguan Contras and his connection to a 20-year-old drug dealer in Los Angeles in the mid-1980s, the early days of the crack cocaine epidemic. The Last Narc, a 2020 documentary about the kidnapping and murder of DEA agent Kiki Camarena by Mexican drug cartels, ends up covering parts of the Iran-Contra scandal.	[ "Honduras", "National Security Archive", "Arturo Cruz", "San Juan River (Nicaragua)", "United States Department of State", "Central America", "Ken Loach", "The Spectator", "counter-revolution", "Oliver North", "United Nicaraguan Opposition", "Reagan Doctrine", "Siuna, Nicaragua", "Role of women in the Nicaraguan Revolution", "Manuel Noriega", "Matagalpa", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Somoza family", "Anti-communism", "National Guard (Nicaragua)", "Alfonso Robelo", "Presidency of Ronald Reagan", "Sandinista!", "Martial Eagle (The Americans)", "FIM-43 Redeye", "Gary Webb", "Fifteenth of September Legion", "Iran–Contra affair", "United Nations Security Council", "Nicaraguan Democratic Union", "Cold War", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Junta of National Reconstruction", "militia", "indiscriminate attack", "Dexter season 3", "The Tico Times", "Indigenous people of the Americas", "United States involvement in regime change in Latin America", "Los Angeles Times", "Operation Charly", "Athan G. 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Horse Soldier!", "Greg Grandin", "civil engineer", "Foreign interventions by the United States", "Lieutenant Colonel", "American Dad!", "The Boys (TV series)", "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare", "United States and state-sponsored terrorism", "congressman", "Somoza", "Mi-24", "Nicaraguan Resistance", "La Penca bombing", "Adolfo Calero", "The Heritage Foundation", "Nicaraguan National Guard", "Guardia Nacional (Nicaragua)", "Rosita, Nicaragua", "Democratic Revolutionary Alliance", "Somocista", "Otto Reich", "Sandinista National Liberation Front", "Amerindian", "United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations", "National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty", "FSLN", "Daniel Ortega", "Global Terrorism Database", "Pedro Joaquín González", "Fragile (Sting song)", "Coco River", "Ziff Davis", "Naval mine", "crack cocaine", "communist state", "Edgar Chamorro", "Jeane Kirkpatrick", "Edén Pastora", "The Last Thing He Wanted (film)", "El Almendro", "Chontales Department", "The Clash", "Corb Lund", "Iran-Contra Affair", "Bonanza, Nicaragua", "Panama", "The New Republic", "Narcos: Mexico", "The Last Narc", "Kiki Camarena", "Amazon Prime", "Right-wing populism", "The Wall Street Journal", "Contra (album)", "the Heritage Foundation", "Eugene Hasenfus", "Ben Linder", "American Made (film)", "Freedom House", "Nationalism", "La Trinidad, Estelí", "Enrique Bermúdez", "Duane Clarridge", "Durham, North Carolina", "The Mighty Quinn (film)", "terrorism", "Édgar Chamorro", "Violeta Chamorro", "United States National Security Council", "United States Department of Justice", "José Francisco Cardenal", "Barry Seal", "Carla's Song", "Snowfall (TV series)", "National Opposition Union (Nicaragua, 1990)", "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "Bureau of Intelligence and Research", "Time (magazine)", "Juan E. Méndez", "American Dad! season 4", "Nueva Guinea", "1984 U.S. Presidential election", "Richard H. Immerman", "South End Press", "Dexter (TV series)", "International Court of Justice", "Latin America–United States relations", "Zelaya Department", "anti-communist", "MILPAS", "Jinotega", "Marxism", "Miskito people", "Cuba", "Ronald Reagan", "George H. W. Bush", "Konami", "Vampire Weekend", "1990 Nicaraguan general election", "John Kerry", "Nicaraguan Revolution", "Carl Channell", "Policy Review", "National Endowment for Democracy", "San Jose Mercury News", "international law", "United States embargo against Nicaragua", "Office of Public Diplomacy", "Managua", "Transaction Publishers", "George Washington University", "Duke University Press" ]
7,550	Craig Venter	John Craig Venter (born October 14, 1946) is an American scientist. He is known for leading one of the first draft sequences of the human genome and led the first team to transfect a cell with a synthetic chromosome. Venter founded Celera Genomics, the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) and the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI). He was the co-founder of Human Longevity Inc. and Synthetic Genomics. He was listed on Time magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. In 2010, the British magazine New Statesman listed Craig Venter at 14th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". In 2012, Venter was honored with Dan David Prize for his contribution to genome research. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2013. He is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's advisory board. ==Early life and education== Venter was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, the son of Elisabeth and John Venter. His family moved to Millbrae, California during his childhood. In his youth, he did not take his education seriously, preferring to spend his time on the water in boats or surfing. He graduated from Mills High School. His father died suddenly at age 59 from cardiac arrest, giving him a lifelong awareness of his own mortality. He quotes a saying: "If you want immortality, do something meaningful with your life." Venter was drafted and enlisted in the United States Navy where he worked as a hospital corpsman in the intensive-care ward of a field hospital. He served from 1967 to 1968 at the Naval Support Activity Danang in Vietnam. While in Vietnam, he attempted suicide by swimming out to sea, but changed his mind more than a mile out. Being confronted with severely injured and dying marines on a daily basis instilled in him a desire to study medicine, although he later switched to biomedical research. Venter began his college education in 1969 at a community college, College of San Mateo in California, and later transferred to the University of California, San Diego, where he studied under biochemist Nathan O. Kaplan. He received a Bachelor of Science in biochemistry in 1972 and a Doctor of Philosophy in physiology and pharmacology in 1975 from UCSD. ==Career== After working as an associate professor, and later as full professor, at the State University of New York at Buffalo, he joined the National Institutes of Health in 1984. ===EST controversy=== While an employee of the NIH, Venter learned how to identify mRNA and began to learn more about those expressed in the human brain. The short cDNA sequence fragments Venter discovered by automated DNA sequencing, he named expressed sequence tags, or ESTs. The NIH Office of Technology Transfer decided to file a patent on the ESTs discovered by Venter, patenting the genes identified based on studies of mRNA expression in the human brain. When Venter disclosed the NIH strategy during a Congressional hearing, a firestorm of controversy erupted. The NIH later stopped the effort and abandoned the patent applications it had filed, following public outcry. ===Human Genome Project=== Venter was passionate about the power of genomics to transform healthcare radically. Venter believed that shotgun sequencing was the fastest and most effective way to get useful human genome data. The method was rejected by the Human Genome Project however, since some geneticists felt it would not be accurate enough for a genome as complicated as that of humans, that it would be logistically more difficult, and that it would cost significantly more. Venter viewed the slow pace of progress in the Human Genome project as an opportunity to continue his interest in trying his shotgun sequencing method to speed up the human genome sequencing so when he was offered funding from a DNA sequencing company to start Celera Genomics. The company planned to profit from their work by creating genomic data to which users could subscribe for a fee. The goal consequently put pressure on the public genome program and spurred several groups to redouble their efforts to produce the full sequence. Venter's effort won him renown as he and his team at Celera Corporation shared credit for sequencing the first draft human genome with the publicly funded Human Genome Project. In 2000, Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institutes of Health and U.S. Public Genome Project jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome, a full three years ahead of the expected end of the Public Genome Program. The announcement was made along with U.S. President Bill Clinton, and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair. Venter and Collins thus shared an award for "Biography of the Year" from A&E Network. On February 15, 2001, the Human Genome Project consortium published the first Human Genome in the journal Nature, followed one day later by a Celera publication in Science. Despite some claims that shotgun sequencing was in some ways less accurate than the clone-by-clone method chosen by the Human Genome Project, the technique became widely accepted by the scientific community. Venter was fired by Celera in early 2002. According to his biography, Venter was fired because of a conflict with the main investor, Tony White, specifically barring him from attending the White House ceremony celebrating the achievement of sequencing the human genome. ===Global Ocean Sampling Expedition=== The Global Ocean Sampling Expedition (GOS) is an ocean exploration genome project with the goal of assessing the genetic diversity in marine microbial communities and to understand their role in nature's fundamental processes. Begun as a Sargasso Sea pilot sampling project in August 2003, the full Expedition was announced by Venter on March 4, 2004. The project, which used Venter's personal yacht, Sorcerer II, started in Halifax, Canada, circumnavigated the globe and returned to the U.S. in January 2006. ===Synthetic Genomics=== In June 2005, Venter co-founded Synthetic Genomics, a firm dedicated to using modified microorganisms to produce clean fuels and biochemicals. In July 2009, ExxonMobil announced a $600 million collaboration with Synthetic Genomics to research and develop next-generation biofuels. Venter continues to work on the creation of engineered diatomic microalgae for the production of biofuels. Venter is seeking to patent the first partially synthetic species possibly to be named Mycoplasma laboratorium. There is speculation that this line of research could lead to producing bacteria that have been engineered to perform specific reactions, for example, produce fuels, make medicines, combat global warming, and so on. In May 2010, a team of scientists led by Venter became the first to create successfully what was described as "synthetic life". This was done by synthesizing a very long DNA molecule containing an entire bacterium genome, and introducing this into another cell, analogous to the accomplishment of Eckard Wimmer's group, who synthesized and ligated an RNA virus genome and "booted" it in cell lysate. The single-celled organism contains four "watermarks" written into its DNA to identify it as synthetic and to help trace its descendants. The watermarks include Code table for entire alphabet with punctuations Names of 46 contributing scientists Three quotations The secret email address for the cell. On March 25, 2016, Venter reported the creation of Syn 3.0, a synthetic genome having the fewest genes of any freely living organism (473 genes). Their aim was to strip away all nonessential genes, leaving only the minimal set necessary to support life. This stripped-down, fast reproducing cell is expected to be a valuable tool for researchers in the field. In August 2018, Venter retired as chairman of the board, saying he wanted to focus on his work at the J. Craig Venter Institute. He will remain as a scientific advisor to the board. ===J. Craig Venter Institute=== In 2006 Venter founded the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), a nonprofit which conducts research in synthetic biology. It has facilities in La Jolla and in Rockville, Maryland and employs over 200 people. In April 2022 Venter sold the La Jolla JCVI facility to the University of California, San Diego for $25 million. Venter will continue to lead a separate nonprofit research group, also known as the J. Craig Venter Institute, and stressed that he is not retiring. The Venter Institute has out grown its current building with multiple new facility hires and will be moving into new space in 2025. ===Individual human genome=== On September 4, 2007, a team led by Sam Levy published one of the first genomes of an individual human—Venter's own DNA sequence. Some of the sequences in Venter's genome are associated with wet earwax, increased risk of antisocial behavior, Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases. At the time of the announcement the company had already raised $70 million in venture financing, which was expected to last 18 months. The lawsuit was ultimately dismissed by a California judge on the basis that Human Longevity were unable to present a case that met the legal threshold required for a company, or individual, to sue when its trade secrets have been stolen. Human Longevity's mission is to extend healthy human lifespan by the use of high-resolution big data diagnostics from genomics, metabolomics, microbiomics, and proteomics, and the use of stem cell therapy. ==Published books== Venter is the author of three books, the first of which is an autobiography titled A Life Decoded. He was applauded for his position on this by futurist Ray Kurzweil. Venter's most recent book, co-authored by David Ewing Duncan, The Voyage of Sorcerer II: The Expedition that Unlocked the Secrets of the Ocean’s Microbiome, details the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition, spanning a 15-year period during which microbes from the world's oceans were collected and their DNA sequenced. ==Personal life== After a 12-year marriage to Barbara Rae-Venter, with whom he had a son, Christopher, he married Claire M. Fraser In late 2008 he married Heather Kowalski. Venter is an atheist. Venter was 75 when he sold his main research building to UCSD in 2022. The institute had out grown the space and will be moving to a new facility in 2025. The Venter Institute campus in Rockville MD also continues to expand. He said he has no intention of retiring. The Economist, Australian science magazine Cosmos, and The Atlantic. Venter appears in the two-hour 2001 NOVA special, "Cracking the code of life". On May 16, 2004, Venter gave the commencement speech at Boston University. On December 4, 2007, Venter gave the Dimbleby lecture for the BBC in London. Venter gave the Distinguished Public Lecture during the 2007 Michaelmas Term at the James Martin 21st Century School at Oxford University. Its title was "Genomics – From humans to the environment". Venter delivered the 2008 convocation speech for Faculty of Science honours and specialization students at the University of Alberta. In February 2008, he gave a speech about his current work at the TED conference. Venter was featured in Time magazine's "The Top 10 Everything of 2008" article. Number three in 2008's Top 10 Scientific Discoveries was a piece outlining his work stitching together the 582,000 base pairs necessary to invent the genetic information for a whole new bacterium. On May 20, 2010, Venter announced the creation of first self-replicating semi-synthetic bacterial cell. In the June 2011 issue of Men's Journal, Venter was featured as the "Survival Skills" celebrity of the month. He shared various anecdotes and advice, including stories of his time in Vietnam, as well as mentioning a bout with melanoma on his back, which subsequently resulted in his "giving a pound of flesh" to surgery. In May 2011, Venter was the commencement speaker at the 157th commencement of Syracuse University. In May 2017, Venter was the guest of honor and keynote speaker at the inauguration ceremony of the Center for Systems Biology Dresden. ==Awards and nominations== 1996: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement 1999: Newcomb Cleveland Prize 2000: Jacob Heskel Gabbay Award in Biotechnology and Medicine 2001: Biotechnology Heritage Award with Francis Collins, from the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) and the Chemical Heritage Foundation 2002: Association for Molecular Pathology Award for Excellence in Molecular Diagnostics 2007: On May 10, 2007, Venter was awarded an honorary doctorate from Arizona State University, and on October 24 of the same year, he received an honorary doctorate from Imperial College London. 2008: Double Helix Medal from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory 2008: Kistler Prize from Foundation For the Future for genome research 2008: ENI award for Research & Environment 2008: National Medal of Science from President Obama 2010: On May 8, 2010, Venter received an honorary doctor of science degree from Clarkson University for his work on the human genome. 2011: On April 21, 2011, Venter received the 2011 Benjamin Rush Medal from William & Mary School of Law. 2011: Dickson Prize in Medicine 2020: Edogawa NICHE Prize for his contribution to research and development pertaining to the Human genome == Works == Venter has authored over 200 publications in scientific journals. editor Roger Highfield editor Roger Highfield	[ "The Sydney Morning Herald", "Chemical Heritage Foundation", "genome project", "microbial communities", "American Philosophical Society", "Marine (ocean)", "University at Buffalo, The State University of New York", "Global Ocean Sampling Expedition", "Boston University", "Seattle Times", "Alzheimer's disease", "La Jolla", "the Institute for Genomic Research", "Gairdner Foundation International Award", "attention deficit hyperactivity disorder", "Richard Dimbleby Lecture", "Venture capital financing", "United States Navy", "PLOS Biology", "Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters", "Borrego Springs, California", "Newcomb Cleveland Prize", "National Institutes of Health", "David Ewing Duncan", "Nierenberg Prize", "Alfred A. Knopf", "synthetic life", "ENI award", "The Scientist (magazine)", "Harper Perennial", "Naval Support Activity Danang", "Tony Blair", "Shylock", "U.S. News & World Report", "Gene Ontology", "associate professor", "scientific journal", "indel", "RNA virus", "Human Longevity", "Genome Research", "ScienceWatch", "Carl Zimmer", "Mutation", "Celera Corporation", "Claire M. Fraser", "insertion (genetics)", "Metagenomics", "ISIHighlyCited.com", "University of Alberta", "clean fuels", "Personal genomics", "Synthetic Organism Designer", "DNA sequencing", "Edogawa NICHE Prize", "point mutation", "biochemistry", "melanoma", "Association for Molecular Pathology", "Nature (journal)", "proteomics", "DNA", "Wired Science", "Imperial College London", "Wired (magazine)", "physiology", "Predictive medicine", "Bloggingheads.tv", "Montgomery County, Maryland", "microorganisms", "Ross Douthat", "American Academy of Achievement", "Viking Adult", "Peter Diamandis", "Barbara Rae-Venter", "Leeuwenhoek Medal", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "Men's Journal", "MIT Technology Review", "Vietnam", "New Statesman", "Cosmos (Australian magazine)", "J. Craig Venter Institute", "National Medal of Science", "genome", "Complementary DNA", "Xconomy", "Roger Highfield", "Cell (biology)", "Transfection", "Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man", "big data", "Eckard Wimmer", "NIH Office of Technology Transfer", "Nova (American TV series)", "Joseph Henry Press", "Mills High School", "synthetic biology", "Genetic testing", "Artificial gene synthesis", "Harvard Law Review", "contig", "community college", "APA", "Rockville, Maryland", "Steve Kroft", "University of California, San Diego", "cardiovascular diseases", "Viridos (company)", "Kistler Prize", "Messenger RNA", "Francis Collins", "The Huffington Post", "The James Martin 21st Century School", "Biologist", "Pharmacogenomics", "Human Genome Project", "Dickson Prize", "State University of New York at Buffalo", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "Dan David Prize", "global warming", "TED (conference)", "The Guardian", "PR Newswire", "Francis Collins (geneticist)", "genetic diversity", "single-nucleotide polymorphism", "Ensembl", "Human Longevity Inc.", "Synthetic Genomics", "shotgun sequencing", "Biotechnology Industry Organization", "The Economist", "impact factor", "Double Helix Medal", "USA Science and Engineering Festival", "Clarkson University", "ExxonMobil", "Shotgun sequencing", "Synthetic genomics", "Foundation For the Future", "A&E Network", "Science (journal)", "Microbiome", "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory", "Time (magazine)", "pharmacology", "Nature Medicine", "chromosome inversion", "College of San Mateo", "Bill Clinton", "hospital corpsman", "Arizona State University", "William & Mary School of Law", "Nathan O. Kaplan", "deletion (genetics)", "biofuel", "copy number variation", "stem cell therapy", "Full genome sequencing", "Metabolome", "human genome", "microfluidic Sanger sequencing", "biomedical research", "genomics", "Biotechnology Heritage Award", "Academy of Achievement", "Syracuse University", "Millbrae, California", "dbSNP", "fuels", "Salt Lake City", "ocean exploration", "Human genome", "haplotype", "Time 100", "Cancer genome sequencing", "Ray Kurzweil", "Mycoplasma laboratorium", "The Atlantic", "Celera Genomics", "expressed sequence tag", "Biological patents in the United States", "Vietnam War" ]
7,552	Chemical evolution	Chemical evolution may refer to: Abiogenesis, the transition from nonliving elements to living systems Astrochemistry, the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation Cosmochemistry, the study of the chemical compositions in the universe and the processes that led to them Evolution of metal ions in biological systems, incorporation of metallic ions into living organisms and how it has changed over time Gas evolution reaction, the process of a gas bubbling out from a solution Molecular evolution, evolution at the scale of molecules Oxygen evolution, the process of generating molecular oxygen through chemical reaction Stellar nucleosynthesis, the creation of chemical elements by stellar thermonuclear fusion or supernovae	[ "Cosmochemistry", "Astrochemistry", "Evolution of metal ions in biological systems", "Oxygen evolution", "Molecular evolution", "Abiogenesis", "Stellar nucleosynthesis", "Gas evolution reaction" ]
7,554	Carl Rogers	Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology and was known especially for his person-centered psychotherapy. Rogers is widely considered one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1956. The person-centered approach, Rogers's approach to understanding personality and human relationships, found wide application in various domains, such as psychotherapy and counseling (client-centered therapy), education (student-centered learning), organizations, and other group settings. For his professional work he received the Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Psychology from the APA in 1972. In a study by Steven J. Haggbloom and colleagues using six criteria such as citations and recognition, Rogers was found to be the sixth most eminent psychologist of the 20th century and second, among clinical psychologists, only to Sigmund Freud. Based on a 1982 survey of 422 respondents of U.S. and Canadian psychologists, he was considered the most influential psychotherapist in history (Freud ranked third). == Biography == Rogers was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. His father, Walter A. Rogers, was a civil engineer and a Congregationalist by religious denomination. His mother, Julia M. Cushing, was a homemaker and devout Baptist. Carl was the fourth of their six children. Rogers was intelligent and could read well before kindergarten. After being raised in a strict religious environment as an altar boy at the vicarage of Jimpley, he became isolated, independent, and disciplined, gaining knowledge and an appreciation for the scientific method in a practical world. At the University of Wisconsin–Madison, he joined the fraternity Alpha Kappa Lambda and initially planned to study agriculture before switching to history and finally settling on religion. At age 20, following his 1922 trip to Beijing, China, for an international Christian conference, Rogers started to doubt his religious convictions. To help him clarify his career choice, he attended a seminar entitled "Why Am I Entering the Ministry?" after which he decided to change careers. In 1924, he graduated from the University of Wisconsin, married fellow Wisconsin student and Oak Park resident Helen Elliott, and enrolled at Union Theological Seminary in New York City. Sometime later, he reportedly became an atheist. Although referred to as an atheist early in his career, Rogers was eventually described as an agnostic. He reportedly spoke about spirituality quite often in his later years. Brian Thorne, who knew and collaborated with Rogers throughout the latter's final decade of life, writes: "In his later years his openness to experience compelled him to acknowledge the existence of a dimension to which he attached such adjectives as mystical, spiritual, and transcendental". Rogers concluded that there is a realm "beyond" scientific psychology—a realm he came to prize as "the indescribable, the spiritual." After two years at Union, Rogers left to attend Teachers College, Columbia University, obtaining an M.A. in 1927 and a Ph.D. in 1931. While completing his doctoral work, he engaged in scientific studies of children. As an intern in 1927–1928 at the now-defunct Institute for Child Guidance in New York, Rogers studied with psychologist Alfred Adler. Later in life, Rogers recalled: {{blockquote\|Accustomed as I was to the rather rigid Freudian approach of the Institute—seventy-five-page case histories, and exhaustive batteries of tests before even thinking of "treating" a child—I was shocked by Dr. Adler's very direct and deceptively simple manner of immediately relating to the child and the parent. It took me some time to realize how much I had learned from him. In 1940, Rogers became professor of clinical psychology at Ohio State University, where he wrote his second book, Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942). In it, Rogers suggests that by establishing a relationship with an understanding, accepting therapist, a client can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure their life. In 1945, Rogers was invited to set up a counseling center at the University of Chicago. While a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago (1945–1957), Rogers helped establish a counseling center connected with the university and conducted studies to determine his methods' effectiveness. His findings and theories appeared in Client-Centered Therapy (1951) and Psychotherapy and Personality Change (1954). One of his graduate students at the University of Chicago, Thomas Gordon, established the Parent Effectiveness Training movement. Another student, Eugene T. Gendlin, who was getting his Ph.D. in philosophy, developed the psychotherapeutic method of focusing based on Rogerian listening. In 1947, he was elected president of the American Psychological Association. In 1956, Rogers became the first president of the American Academy of Psychotherapists. He taught psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1957–1963). During this time, he wrote one of his best-known books, On Becoming a Person (1961). A student of his there, Marshall Rosenberg, went on to develop Nonviolent Communication. Rogers and Abraham Maslow pioneered a movement called humanistic psychology, which reached its peak in the 1960s. In 1961, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Rogers was also one of the people who questioned the rise of McCarthyism in the 1950s. In articles, he criticized society for its backward-looking affinities. Rogers continued teaching at the University of Wisconsin until 1963 when he became a resident at the new Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (WBSI) in La Jolla, California. Rogers left the WBSI to help found the Center for Studies of the Person in 1968. His later books include Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977) and Freedom to Learn for the '80s (1983). He remained a La Jolla resident for the rest of his life, doing therapy, giving speeches, and writing. In his later years, Rogers focused on applying his theories to address political oppression and social conflict globally. He facilitated dialogue between Protestants and Catholics in Belfast, Blacks and Whites in South Africa, and people transitioning to democracy in Brazil. In the U.S., he worked with health consumers and providers. At 85, his final trip was to the Soviet Union, where he conducted workshops that promoted communication and creativity, impressed by the awareness of his work among Russians. Between 1974 and 1984, Rogers, his daughter Natalie Rogers, and psychologists Maria Bowen, Maureen O'Hara, and John K. Wood convened a series of residential programs in the U.S., Europe, Brazil, and Japan: the Person-Centered Approach Workshops. The workshops focused on cross-cultural communications, personal growth, self-empowerment, and learning for social change. In 1987, Rogers suffered a fall that resulted in a fractured pelvis; he had life alert and was able to contact paramedics. He had a successful operation, but his pancreas failed the next night, and he died a few days later after a heart attack. == Theory == Rogers's theory of the self is considered humanistic, existential, and phenomenological. It is based directly on the "phenomenal field" personality theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Rogers's elaboration of his theory is extensive. He wrote 16 books and many more journal articles about it. Prochaska and Norcross (2003) states Rogers "consistently stood for an empirical evaluation of psychotherapy. He and his followers have demonstrated a humanistic approach to conducting therapy and a scientific approach to evaluating therapy need not be incompatible." === Nineteen propositions === Rogers's theory (as of 1951) was based on 19 propositions: All individuals (organisms) exist in a continually changing world of experience (phenomenal field) of which they are the center. The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is "reality" for the individual. The organism reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field. A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the self. As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluative interaction with others, the structure of the self is formed—an organized, fluid but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the "I" or the "me", together with values attached to these concepts. The organism has one basic tendency and striving—to actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism. The best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of reference of the individual. Behavior is basically the goal-directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its needs as experienced, in the field as perceived. Emotion accompanies, and in general facilitates, such goal directed behavior, the kind of emotion being related to the perceived significance of the behavior for the maintenance and enhancement of the organism. The values attached to experiences, and the values that are a part of the self-structure, in some instances, are values experienced directly by the organism, and in some instances are values introjected or taken over from others, but perceived in distorted fashion, as if they had been experienced directly. As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a) symbolized, perceived and organized into some relation to the self, (b) ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self structure, or (c) denied symbolization or given distorted symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the self. Most of the ways of behaving that the organism adopts are those that are consistent with the concept of self. In some instances, behavior may be brought about by organic experiences and needs that have not been symbolized. Such behavior may be inconsistent with the structure of the self, but in such instances the individual does not "own" the behavior. Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is such that all the sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or may be, assimilated on a symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self. Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies awareness of significant sensory and visceral experiences, which consequently are not symbolized and organized into the gestalt of the self structure. When this situation exists, there is a basic or potential psychological tension. Any experience that is inconsistent with the organization of the structure of the self may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions there are, the more rigidly the self structure is organized to maintain itself. Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of threat to the self structure, experiences inconsistent with it may be perceived and examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such experiences. When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, he is necessarily more understanding of others and more accepting of others as separate individuals. As the individual perceives and accepts into his self structure more of his organic experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value system—based extensively on introjections which have been distortedly symbolized—with a continuing organismic valuing process. In relation to No. 17, Rogers is known for practicing "unconditional positive regard", which is defined as accepting a person "without negative judgment of .... [a person's] basic worth". === Development of the personality === With regard to development, Rogers described principles rather than stages. The main issue is the development of a self-concept and the progress from an undifferentiated self to being fully differentiated. In the development of the self-concept, he saw conditional and unconditional positive regard as key. Those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard feel worthy only if they match conditions (what Rogers describes as conditions of worth) that others have laid down for them. === Fully functioning person === Optimal development, as referred to in proposition 14, results in a certain process rather than static state. Rogers calls this the good life, where the organism continually aims to fulfill its potential. He listed the characteristics of a fully functioning person (Rogers 1961): A growing openness to experience: they move away from defensiveness and have no need for subception (a perceptual defense that involves unconsciously applying strategies to prevent a troubling stimulus from entering consciousness). An increasingly existential lifestyle: living each moment fully, not distorting the moment to fit personality or self-concept but allowing personality and self-concept to emanate from the experience. This results in excitement, daring, adaptability, tolerance, spontaneity, and lack of rigidity, and suggests a foundation of trust. "To open one's spirit to what is going on now, and discover in that present process whatever structure it appears to have" (Rogers 1961). documenting the application of person-centered approach to counseling military personnel returning from World War II. The first empirical evidence of the client-centered approach's effectiveness was published in 1941 at the Ohio State University by Elias Porter, using the recordings of therapeutic sessions between Rogers and his clients. Porter used Rogers's transcripts to devise a system to measure the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness a counselor employed. The counselor's attitude and orientation were shown to be instrumental in the decisions the client made. === Learner-centered teaching === The application to education has a large robust research tradition similar to that of therapy, with studies having begun in the late 1930s and continuing today (Cornelius-White, 2007). Rogers described the approach to education in Client-Centered Therapy and wrote Freedom to Learn devoted exclusively to the subject in 1969. Freedom to Learn was revised twice. The new Learner-Centered Model is similar in many regards to this classical person-centered approach to education. Before Rogers's death, he and Harold Lyon began a book, On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon, that Lyon and Reinhard Tausch completed and published in 2013. It contains Rogers's last unpublished writings on person-centered teaching. Rogers had the following five hypotheses regarding learner-centered education: The Rogerian method of argument involves each side restating the other's position to the satisfaction of the other, among other principles. === Cross-cultural relations === The application to cross-cultural relations has involved workshops in highly stressful situations and global locations, including conflicts and challenges in South Africa, Central America, and Ireland. Rogers, Alberto Zucconi, and Charles Devonshire co-founded the Istituto dell'Approccio Centrato sulla Persona (Person-Centered Approach Institute) in Rome, Italy. Rogers's international work for peace culminated in the Rust Peace Workshop, which took place in November 1985 in Rust, Austria. Leaders from 17 nations convened to discuss the topic "The Central America Challenge". The meeting was notable for several reasons: it brought national figures together as people (not as their positions), it was a private event, and was an overwhelming positive experience where members heard one another and established real personal ties, as opposed to stiffly formal and regulated diplomatic meetings. === Person-centered, dialogic politics === Some scholars believe there is a politics implicit in Rogers's approach to psychotherapy. Toward the end of his life, Rogers came to that view himself. The central tenet of Rogerian, person-centered politics is that public life need not consist of an endless series of winner-take-all battles among sworn opponents; rather, it can and should consist of an ongoing dialogue among all parties. Such dialogue is characterized by respect among the parties, authentic speaking by each, and—ultimately—empathic understanding among all parties. Out of such understanding, mutually acceptable solutions will (or at least can) flow. During his last decade, Rogers facilitated or participated in a wide variety of dialogic activities among politicians, activists, and other social leaders, often outside the U.S. and the founding of a "transformational" political organization, the New World Alliance. By the 21st century, interest in dialogic approaches to political engagement and change had become widespread, especially among academics and activists. Theorists of a specifically Rogerian, person-centered approach to politics as dialogue have made substantial contributions to that project. == Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) == From the late 1950s into the '60s, Rogers served on the board of the Human Ecology Fund, a CIA-funded organization that provided grants to researchers looking into personality. In addition, he and other people in the field of personality and psychotherapy were given a lot of information about Khrushchev. "We were asked to figure out what we thought of him and what would be the best way of dealing with him. And that seemed to be an entirely principled and legitimate aspect. I don't think we contributed very much, but, anyway, we tried." == Selected works == Rogers, Carl, and Carmichael, Leonard (1939). The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child. Boston; New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Rogers, Carl. (1942). Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice. Boston; New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Rogers, Carl. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. London: Constable. . Rogers, C.R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 21: 95–103. Rogers, Carl. (1959). A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In (ed.) S. Koch, Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw Hill. Rogers, Carl. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. London: Constable. .Excerpts Rogers, Carl. (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become. (1st ed.) Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merill. Excerpts Rogers, Carl. (1970). On Encounter Groups. New York: Harrow Books, Harper and Row, Rogers, Carl. (1977). On Personal Power: Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact. Rogers, Carl. (nd, @1978). A personal message from Carl Rogers. In: N. J. Raskin. (2004). Contributions to Client-Centered Therapy and the Person-Centered Approach. (pp. v-vi). Herefordshire, United Kingdom: PCCS Books, Ross-on-the-Wye. Rogers, Carl. (1980). A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, Carl. and Stevens, B. (1967). Person to Person: The Problem of Being Human. Lafayette, CA: Real People Press. Rogers, Carl, Lyon, Harold C., & Tausch, Reinhard (2013) On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. London: Routledge, Rogers, C.R., Raskin, N.J., et al. (1949). A coordinated research in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 13, 149–200. Cited in: N.J. Raskin, The first 50 years and the next 10. Person-Centered Review, 5(4), November 1990, 364–372. ==Research on his work == Howard Kirschenbaum has conducted extensive research on the work of Carl Rogers and the person-centered/client centered approach. Kirschenbaum published the first thorough book in English on Rogers’ life and work, titled, On Becoming Carl Rogers in 1979, followed by the biography, The Life and Work of Carl Rogers in 2007.	[ "altar boy", "Republic of China (1912-1949)", "person-centered psychotherapy", "Rogerian rhetoric", "La Jolla", "education", "Russians", "Ethnic groups in South Africa", "Rogerian argument", "M. A.", "cross-cultural", "real self", "Kenneth Pike", "Natalie Rogers", "American Humanist Association", "Oak Park, Illinois", "Teachers College, Columbia University", "University of Chicago", "Journal of Humanistic Psychology", "Client-centered therapy", "Student-centered learning", "Alfred Adler", "Soviet Union", "phenomenology (psychology)", "Beijing", "Northwestern University", "Harcourt, Brace & World", "National Academy of Sciences", "Alpha Kappa Lambda", "pancreas", "Redemocratization in Brazil", "Union Theological Seminary (New York City)", "B. A.", "civil engineer", "Baptists", "Barry Stevens (therapist)", "Human Ecology Fund", "American Psychological Association", "psychotherapy", "Parent Effectiveness Training", "PhD", "Agnosticism", "Belfast", "Nonviolent Communication", "unconditional positive regard", "The Interpersonal Gap", "Elias Porter", "The Troubles", "social work", "Houghton Mifflin", "New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children", "student-centered learning", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Congregational church", "Religious studies", "Western Behavioral Sciences Institute", "Ohio State University", "White South Africans", "Christianity", "Hidden personality", "Focusing (psychotherapy)", "McCarthyism", "agriculture", "New World Alliance", "Marshall Rosenberg", "Person-centered therapy", "American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Psychology", "spirituality", "Association for Psychological Science", "Chicago", "Sigmund Freud", "Thomas Gordon (psychologist)", "humanistic psychology", "pelvis", "Otto Rank", "Harper and Row", "Jessie Taft", "Clergy house", "Life Alert Emergency Response", "Eugene T. Gendlin", "Person-centered psychotherapy", "University of Rochester", "Rust, Austria", "Existential psychology", "scientific method", "Review of General Psychology", "San Diego, California", "Alton L. Becker", "phenomenal field theory", "CIA", "Association for Humanistic Psychology", "Howard Kirschenbaum", "Atheism", "Abraham Maslow", "University of Wisconsin–Madison" ]
7,555	Casimir effect	In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect (or Casimir force) is a physical force acting on the macroscopic boundaries of a confined space which arises from the quantum fluctuations of a field. The term Casimir pressure is sometimes used when it is described in units of force per unit area. It is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir, who predicted the effect for electromagnetic systems in 1948. In the same year Casimir, together with Dirk Polder, described a similar effect experienced by a neutral atom in the vicinity of a macroscopic interface which is called the Casimir–Polder force. In 1997 a direct experiment by Steven K. Lamoreaux quantitatively measured the Casimir force to be within 5% of the value predicted by the theory. Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and positions of the materials, the Casimir effect manifests itself as a force between such objects. Any medium supporting oscillations has an analogue of the Casimir effect. For example, beads on a string as well as plates submerged in turbulent water or gas illustrate the Casimir force. In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the nucleon; in applied physics it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and nanotechnologies. == Physical properties == The typical example is of two uncharged conductive plates in a vacuum, placed a few nanometers apart. In a classical description, the lack of an external field means that no field exists between the plates, and no force connects them. When this field is instead studied using the quantum electrodynamic vacuum, it is seen that the plates do affect the virtual photons that constitute the field, and generate a net force – either an attraction or a repulsion depending on the plates' specific arrangement. Although the Casimir effect can be expressed in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, it is best described and more easily calculated in terms of the zero-point energy of a quantized field in the intervening space between the objects. This force has been measured and is a striking example of an effect captured formally by second quantization. The treatment of boundary conditions in these calculations is controversial. In fact, "Casimir's original goal was to compute the van der Waals force between polarizable molecules" of the conductive plates. Thus it can be interpreted without any reference to the zero-point energy (vacuum energy) of quantum fields. Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is measurable only when the distance between the objects is small. This force becomes so strong that it becomes the dominant force between uncharged conductors at submicron scales. In fact, at separations of 10 nm – about 100 times the typical size of an atom – the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of about 1 atmosphere of pressure (the precise value depends on surface geometry and other factors). this special form is called the Casimir–Polder force. After a conversation with Niels Bohr, who suggested it had something to do with zero-point energy, Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between neutral conducting plates in 1948. polarization in the case of light, energy, and so on. On average, most of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is, after all, "empty" in this sense. One important exception is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or zero-point energy that such an oscillator may have is {E}=\tfrac12 \hbar \omega \, . Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. Since only differences in energy are physically measurable (with the notable exception of gravitation, which remains beyond the scope of quantum field theory), this infinity may be considered a feature of the mathematics rather than of the physics. This argument is the underpinning of the theory of renormalization. Dealing with infinite quantities in this way was a cause of widespread unease among quantum field theorists before the development in the 1970s of the renormalization group, a mathematical formalism for scale transformations that provides a natural basis for the process. When the scope of the physics is widened to include gravity, the interpretation of this formally infinite quantity remains problematic. There is currently no compelling explanation as to why it should not result in a cosmological constant that is many orders of magnitude larger than observed. However, since we do not yet have any fully coherent quantum theory of gravity, there is likewise no compelling reason as to why it should instead actually result in the value of the cosmological constant that we observe. The Casimir effect for fermions can be understood as the spectral asymmetry of the fermion operator , where it is known as the Witten index. === Relativistic van der Waals force === Alternatively, a 2005 paper by Robert Jaffe of MIT states that "Casimir effects can be formulated and Casimir forces can be computed without reference to zero-point energies. They are relativistic, quantum forces between charges and currents. The Casimir force (per unit area) between parallel plates vanishes as alpha, the fine structure constant, goes to zero, and the standard result, which appears to be independent of alpha, corresponds to the alpha approaching infinity limit", and that "The Casimir force is simply the (relativistic, retarded) van der Waals force between the metal plates." More recently, Nikolic proved from first principles of quantum electrodynamics that the Casimir force does not originate from the vacuum energy of the electromagnetic field, and explained in simple terms why the fundamental microscopic origin of Casimir force lies in van der Waals forces. == Effects == Casimir's observation was that the second-quantized quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk bodies such as metals or dielectrics, must obey the same boundary conditions that the classical electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the presence of a conductor or dielectric. Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a metal cavity, such as, for example, a radar cavity or a microwave waveguide. In this case, the correct way to find the zero-point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the standing waves of the cavity. To each and every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the th standing wave is . The vacuum expectation value of the energy of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then \langle E \rangle=\tfrac12 \sum_n E_n with the sum running over all possible values of enumerating the standing waves. The factor of is present because the zero-point energy of the th mode is , where is the energy increment for the th mode. (It is the same as appears in the equation .) Written in this way, this sum is clearly divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions. In particular, one may ask how the zero-point energy depends on the shape of the cavity. Each energy level depends on the shape, and so one should write for the energy level, and for the vacuum expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: The force at point on the wall of the cavity is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by , at . That is, one has F(p) = - \left. \frac{\delta \langle E(s) \rangle } { \delta s } \right\vert_p \,. This value is finite in many practical calculations. Attraction between the plates can be easily understood by focusing on the one-dimensional situation. Suppose that a moveable conductive plate is positioned at a short distance from one of two widely separated plates (distance apart). With , the states within the slot of width are highly constrained so that the energy of any one mode is widely separated from that of the next. This is not the case in the large region where there is a large number of states (about ) with energy evenly spaced between and the next mode in the narrow slot, or in other words, all slightly larger than . Now on shortening by an amount (which is negative), the mode in the narrow slot shrinks in wavelength and therefore increases in energy proportional to , whereas all the states that lie in the large region lengthen and correspondingly decrease their energy by an amount proportional to (note the different denominator). The two effects nearly cancel, but the net change is slightly negative, because the energy of all the modes in the large region are slightly larger than the single mode in the slot. Thus the force is attractive: it tends to make slightly smaller, the plates drawing each other closer, across the thin slot. == Derivation of Casimir effect assuming zeta-regularization == In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal plates at distance apart. In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, because the transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on the surface of a conductor. Assuming the plates lie parallel to the -plane, the standing waves are \psi_n(x,y,z;t)=e^{-i\omega_nt} e^{ik_xx+ik_yy} \sin(k_n z) \,, where stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the polarization and the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, and are the wavenumbers in directions parallel to the plates, and k_n=\frac{n\pi}{a} is the wavenumber perpendicular to the plates. Here, is an integer, resulting from the requirement that vanish on the metal plates. The frequency of this wave is \omega_n=c \sqrt \,, where is the speed of light. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes. Since the area of the plates is large, we may sum by integrating over two of the dimensions in -space. The assumption of periodic boundary conditions yields, \langle E \rangle=\frac{\hbar}{2} \cdot 2 \int \frac{A \,dk_x \,dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=1}^\infty \omega_n \,, where is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of the wave. This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce a regulator (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in the end will be removed. The zeta-regulated version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A}=\hbar \int \frac{dk_x \,dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=1}^\infty \omega_n \left\| \omega_n \right\|^{-s} \,. In the end, the limit is to be taken. Here is just a complex number, not to be confused with the shape discussed previously. This integral sum is finite for real and larger than 3. The sum has a pole at , but may be analytically continued to , where the expression is finite. The above expression simplifies to: \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A}= \frac{\hbar c^{1-s}}{4\pi^2} \sum_n \int_0^\infty 2\pi q \,dq \left \| q^2 + \frac{\pi^2 n^2}{a^2} \right\|^\frac{1-s}{2} \,, where polar coordinates were introduced to turn the double integral into a single integral. The in front is the Jacobian, and the comes from the angular integration. The integral converges if , resulting in \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A}= -\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}} \frac{1}{3-s} \sum_n \left\| n \right\| ^{3-s}= -\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}(3-s)}\sum_n \frac{1}{\left\| n\right\| ^{s-3}} \,. The sum diverges at in the neighborhood of zero, but if the damping of large-frequency excitations corresponding to analytic continuation of the Riemann zeta function to is assumed to make sense physically in some way, then one has \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A}= \lim_{s\to 0} \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A}= -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2}{6a^3} \zeta (-3) \,. But and so one obtains \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A}= -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2}{720 a^3}\,. The analytic continuation has evidently lost an additive positive infinity, somehow exactly accounting for the zero-point energy (not included above) outside the slot between the plates, but which changes upon plate movement within a closed system. The Casimir force per unit area for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them is \frac{F_\mathrm{c}}{A}=-\frac{d}{da} \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2} {240 a^4} where is the reduced Planck constant, is the speed of light, is the distance between the two plates The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the energy is lowered. The presence of shows that the Casimir force per unit area is very small, and that furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin. By integrating the equation above it is possible to calculate the energy required to separate to infinity the two plates as: \begin{align} U_E(a) &= \int F(a) \,da = \int - \hbar c \pi^2 \frac {A} {240 a^4} \,da \\[4pt] &= \hbar c \pi^2 \frac {A} {720 a^3} \end{align} where is the reduced Planck constant, is the speed of light, is the area of one of the plates, is the distance between the two plates In Casimir's original derivation, a moveable conductive plate is positioned at a short distance from one of two widely separated plates (distance apart). The zero-point energy on both sides of the plate is considered. Instead of the above ad hoc analytic continuation assumption, non-convergent sums and integrals are computed using Euler–Maclaurin summation with a regularizing function (e.g., exponential regularization) not so anomalous as in the above. === More recent theory === Casimir's analysis of idealized metal plates was generalized to arbitrary dielectric and realistic metal plates by Evgeny Lifshitz and his students. Using this approach, complications of the bounding surfaces, such as the modifications to the Casimir force due to finite conductivity, can be calculated numerically using the tabulated complex dielectric functions of the bounding materials. Lifshitz's theory for two metal plates reduces to Casimir's idealized force law for large separations much greater than the skin depth of the metal, and conversely reduces to the force law of the London dispersion force (with a coefficient called a Hamaker constant) for small , with a more complicated dependence on for intermediate separations determined by the dispersion of the materials. Lifshitz's result was subsequently generalized to arbitrary multilayer planar geometries as well as to anisotropic and magnetic materials, but for several decades the calculation of Casimir forces for non-planar geometries remained limited to a few idealized cases admitting analytical solutions. However, in the 2010s a number of authors developed and demonstrated a variety of numerical techniques, in many cases adapted from classical computational electromagnetics, that are capable of accurately calculating Casimir forces for arbitrary geometries and materials, from simple finite-size effects of finite plates to more complicated phenomena arising for patterned surfaces or objects of various shapes. == Measurement == One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Sparnaay at Philips in Eindhoven (Netherlands), in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment with parallel plates, obtaining results not in contradiction with the Casimir theory, but with large experimental errors. The Casimir effect was measured more accurately in 1997 by Steve K. Lamoreaux of Los Alamos National Laboratory, and by Umar Mohideen and Anushree Roy of the University of California, Riverside. In practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a sphere with a very large radius. In 2001, a group (Giacomo Bressi, Gianni Carugno, Roberto Onofrio and Giuseppe Ruoso) at the University of Padua (Italy) finally succeeded in measuring the Casimir force between parallel plates using microresonators. Numerous variations of these experiments are summarized in the 2009 review by Klimchitskaya. In 2013, a conglomerate of scientists from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, University of Florida, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory demonstrated a compact integrated silicon chip that can measure the Casimir force. The integrated chip defined by electron-beam lithography does not need extra alignment, making it an ideal platform for measuring Casimir force between complex geometries. In 2017 and 2021, the same group from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology demonstrated the non-monotonic Casimir force and distance-independent Casimir force, respectively, using this on-chip platform. == Regularization == In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a regulator in the summations. This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator. The heat kernel or exponentially regulated sum is \langle E(t) \rangle=\frac12 \sum_n \hbar \|\omega_n \| \exp \bigl(-t \|\omega_n \|\bigr)\,, where the limit is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as \langle E(t) \rangle=\frac{C}{t^3} + \textrm{finite}\, for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant which does not depend on the shape of the cavity. The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-dependent. The Gaussian regulator \langle E(t) \rangle=\frac12 \sum_n \hbar \|\omega_n \| \exp \left(-t^2 \|\omega_n \|^2\right) is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, but is more difficult to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well. The zeta function regulator \langle E(s) \rangle=\frac12 \sum_n \hbar \|\omega_n \| \|\omega_n \|^{-s} is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular, divergences show up as poles in the complex plane, with the bulk divergence at . This sum may be analytically continued past this pole, to obtain a finite part at . Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at ) or shape-independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the plasma frequency), metals become transparent to photons (such as X-rays), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in solid state physics, mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the cutoff frequency comes into explicit play to keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in Landau and Lifshitz, "Theory of Continuous Media".) == Generalities == The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of functional integrals of quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a certain sense summations over so-called "virtual particles". More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the eigenvalues of a Hamiltonian. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the Van der Waals force, to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in configuration space. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can be understood to result in forces acting between the objects. In the chiral bag model of the nucleon, the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the spectral asymmetry is interpreted as a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the baryon number, cancelling the topological winding number of the pion field surrounding the nucleon. A "pseudo-Casimir" effect can be found in liquid crystal systems, where the boundary conditions imposed through anchoring by rigid walls give rise to a long-range force, analogous to the force that arises between conducting plates. == Dynamical Casimir effect == The dynamical Casimir effect is the production of particles and energy from an accelerated moving mirror. This reaction was predicted by certain numerical solutions to quantum mechanics equations made in the 1970s. In May 2011 an announcement was made by researchers at the Chalmers University of Technology, in Gothenburg, Sweden, of the detection of the dynamical Casimir effect. In their experiment, microwave photons were generated out of the vacuum in a superconducting microwave resonator. These researchers used a modified SQUID to change the effective length of the resonator in time, mimicking a mirror moving at the required relativistic velocity. If confirmed this would be the first experimental verification of the dynamical Casimir effect. In March 2013 an article appeared on the PNAS scientific journal describing an experiment that demonstrated the dynamical Casimir effect in a Josephson metamaterial. In July 2019 an article was published describing an experiment providing evidence of optical dynamical Casimir effect in a dispersion-oscillating fibre. In 2020, Frank Wilczek et al., proposed a resolution to the information loss paradox associated with the moving mirror model of the dynamical Casimir effect. Constructed within the framework of quantum field theory in curved spacetime, the dynamical Casimir effect (moving mirror) has been used to help understand the Unruh effect. == Repulsive forces == There are few instances wherein the Casimir effect can give rise to repulsive forces between uncharged objects. Evgeny Lifshitz showed (theoretically) that in certain circumstances (most commonly involving liquids), repulsive forces can arise. This has sparked interest in applications of the Casimir effect toward the development of levitating devices. An experimental demonstration of the Casimir-based repulsion predicted by Lifshitz was carried out by Munday et al. who described it as "quantum levitation". Other scientists have also suggested the use of gain media to achieve a similar levitation effect, though this is controversial because these materials seem to violate fundamental causality constraints and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium (Kramers–Kronig relations). Casimir and Casimir–Polder repulsion can in fact occur for sufficiently anisotropic electrical bodies; for a review of the issues involved with repulsion see Milton et al. A notable recent development on repulsive Casimir forces relies on using chiral materials. Q.-D. Jiang at Stockholm University and Nobel Laureate Frank Wilczek at MIT show that chiral "lubricant" can generate repulsive, enhanced, and tunable Casimir interactions. Timothy Boyer showed in his work published in 1968 that a conductor with spherical symmetry will also show this repulsive force, and the result is independent of radius. Further work shows that the repulsive force can be generated with materials of carefully chosen dielectrics. == Speculative applications == It has been suggested that the Casimir forces have application in nanotechnology, in particular silicon integrated circuit technology based micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems, and so-called Casimir oscillators. In 1995 and 1998 Maclay et al. published the first models of a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) with Casimir forces. While not exploiting the Casimir force for useful work, the papers drew attention from the MEMS community due to the revelation that Casimir effect needs to be considered as a vital factor in the future design of MEMS. In particular, Casimir effect might be the critical factor in the stiction failure of MEMS. In 2001, Capasso et al. showed how the force can be used to control the mechanical motion of a MEMS device, The researchers suspended a polysilicon plate from a torsional rod – a twisting horizontal bar just a few microns in diameter. When they brought a metallized sphere close up to the plate, the attractive Casimir force between the two objects made the plate rotate. They also studied the dynamical behaviour of the MEMS device by making the plate oscillate. The Casimir force reduced the rate of oscillation and led to nonlinear phenomena, such as hysteresis and bistability in the frequency response of the oscillator. According to the team, the system's behaviour agreed well with theoretical calculations. The Casimir effect shows that quantum field theory allows the energy density in very small regions of space to be negative relative to the ordinary vacuum energy, and the energy densities cannot be arbitrarily negative as the theory breaks down at atomic distances. Such prominent physicists such as Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne, have speculated that such effects might make it possible to stabilize a traversable wormhole.	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7,558	Coin	A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. The faces of coins or medals are sometimes called the obverse and the reverse, referring to the front and back sides, respectively. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse is known as tails. The first metal coins – invented in the ancient Greek world and disseminated during the Hellenistic period – were precious metal–based, and were invented in order to simplify and regularize the task of measuring and weighing bullion (bulk metal) carried around for the purpose of transactions. They carried their value within the coins themselves, but the stampings also induced manipulations, such as the clipping of coins to remove some of the precious metal. Most modern coinage metals are base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money — the value of the coin is established by law. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulated coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, primarily due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, possibly issuing new equivalents with a different composition, or the public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Currently coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually, the highest value coin in circulation (excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. Coins are usually more efficient than banknotes because they last longer: banknotes last only about four years, compared with 30 years for a coin. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value currently occur for bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold (and rarely other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. While the Eagle and Sovereign coins have nominal (purely symbolic) face values, the Krugerrand does not. Commemorative coins usually serve as collectors items only, although some countries also issue commemorative coins for regular circulation, such as the 2€ commemorative coins and U.S. America the Beautiful quarters. == History == Early metal coinage came into use about the time of the Axial Age in West Asia, in the Greek world, in India, and in China. ===Bullion and unmarked metals=== Metal ingots, silver bullion or unmarked bars were probably in use for exchange among many of the civilizations that mastered metallurgy. The weight and purity of bullion would be the key determinant of value. In the Achaemenid Empire in the early 6th century BC, coinage was yet unknown. The barter system, as well as silver bullion were used instead for trade. The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century BC. Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, when various cultures used standard-sized ingots and tokens such as knife money to store and transfer value. Phoenician metal ingots had to be stamped with the name of a current ruler to guarantee their worth and value, which is probably how stamping busts and designs began, although political advertising – glorification of a state or of a ruler – may also play a role. ===Tongbei in Bronze Age China (c. 1100 BC)=== In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang. These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named "Bronze Shell". ===China Henan Coin Factory (c. 640 – 550 BC)=== The world's oldest known coin factory has been excavated in the ancient city Guanzhuang in Henan province in China. The factory produced shovel-shaped bronze coins between 640 B.C. and 550 B.C., making it the oldest securely-dated minting-site. === Iron Age === ==== Lydian and Ionian electrum coins (c. 600 BC)==== The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia of the late 7th century BC, and especially with the kingdom of Lydia. Early electrum coins (an alluvial alloy of gold and silver, varying wildly in proportion, and usually about 40–55% gold) were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The unpredictability of the composition of naturally occurring electrum implied that it had a variable value, which greatly hampered its development. Maybe the first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC. In contrast Herodotus mentioned the innovation made by the Lydians:}} Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins, though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues. The earliest inscribed coins are those of Phanes, dated to 625–600 BC from Ephesus in Ionia, with the legend ΦΑΕΝΟΣ ΕΜΙ ΣHΜΑ (or similar) ("I am the badge/sign/mark of Phanes/light") or just bearing the name ΦΑΝΕΟΣ ("of Phanes"). The first electrum coins issued by a monarch are those minted by king Alyattes of Lydia (died ), for which reason this king is sometimes mentioned as the originator of coinage. ====Croesus: Pure gold and silver coins==== The successor of Alyattes, king Croesus (r. c. 560–546 BC), became associated with great wealth in Greek historiography. He is credited with issuing the Croeseid, the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation. ====Achaemenid coinage (546–330 BC)==== When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter and to some extent silver bullion was used instead for trade. According to Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of Greek coinage was Hermodike of Kyme. The most ancient inscribed coin known is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light". The Phanes coins are among the earliest of Greek coins; a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a mercenary mentioned by Herodotus, another that this coin is associated with the primeval god Phanes or "Phanes" might have been an epithet of the local goddess identified with Artemis. Barclay V. Head found these suggestions unlikely and thought it more probably "the name of some prominent citizen of Ephesus". Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted c. 700 BC. Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC. File:LYCIA, Phaselis. Circa 550-530-20 BC.jpg\|Coin of Phaselis, Lycia, c. 550–530/20 BC. File:LYCIA, Uncertain king. Circa 520-470-60 BC.jpg\|Coin of Lycia, c. 520–470/60 BC. File:LYCIA, Uncertain. Circa 520-470-60 BC.jpg\|alt=Lycia coin. Circa 520-470 BCE. Struck with worn obverse die.\|Lycia coin, c. 520-470 BC. Struck with worn obverse die. File:LESBOS, Unattributed Koinon mint. Circa 510-480 BC.jpg\|Coin of Lesbos, Ionia, c. 510–80 BC. === Antiquity === ==== Classical Greek antiquity (480 BC~) ==== The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city. The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachmes (10-drachmes) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity. Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of Southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia") were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550 BC to 510 BC. Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia. File:ISLANDS off ATTICA. Aegina. Circa 456-45-431 BC.jpg\|Aegina coin type, incuse skew pattern, c. 456/45–431 BC File:MACEDON, Akanthos. Circa 470-430 BC.jpg\|Coin of Akanthos, Macedon, c. 470-430 BC. File:PAMPHYLIA, Aspendos. Circa 465-430 BC.jpg\|Coin of Aspendos, Pamphylia, c. 465–430 BC. File:KORKYRA, Korkyra. Circa 350-30-290-70 BC.jpg\|Coin from Korkyra, c. 350/30–290/70 BC. File:CYPRUS, Paphos. Onasi(...). Mid 5th century BC.jpg\|Coin of Cyprus, c. 450 BC. ====Appearance of dynastic portraiture (5th century BC) ==== Although many of the first coins illustrated the images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the 5th century BC. No ruler had dared illustrating his own portrait on coinage until that time. A slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait-coin is Themistocles the Athenian general, who became a Governor of Magnesia on the Meander, c. 465–459 BC, for the Achaemenid Empire, although there is some question as to whether his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynasty who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished. From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage. File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Kherei. Circa 440-30-410 BC.jpg\|Portrait of Lycian ruler Kherei wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 410–390 BC). File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Erbbina. Circa 430-20-400 BC.jpg\|Portrait of Lycian ruler Erbbina wearing the Persian cap on the reverse of his coins (ruled 390–380 BC). File:DYNASTS of LYCIA. Perikles. Circa 380-360 BC.jpg\|Portrait of Lycian ruler Perikles facing (ruled 380–360 BC). ====Indian coins (c. 400 BC – AD 100)==== The Karshapana is the earliest punch-marked coin found in India, produced from at least the mid-4th century BC, and possibly as early as 575 BC, influenced by similar coins produced in Gandhara under the Achaemenid empire, such as those of the Kabul hoard, or other examples found at Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound. ====Chinese round coins (350 BC~) ==== In China, early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC and were adopted for all China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di at the end of 3rd century BC. The round coin, the precursor of the familiar cash coin, circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350 BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the jin and liang units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in hua (化). Although for discussion purposes the Zhou coins are divided up into categories of knives, spades, and round coins, it is apparent from archaeological finds that most of the various kinds circulated together. A hoard found in 1981, near Hebi in north Henan province, consisted of: 3,537 Gong spades, 3 Anyi arched foot spades, 8 Liang Dang Lie spades, 18 Liang square foot spades and 1,180 Yuan round coins, all contained in three clay jars. ==== Hellenistic period (320 BC – AD 30) ==== The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period. Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World"). File:Seleucus Nicator Ai Khanoum mint.jpg\|alt=Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BCE), Ai Khanoum.\|Seleucus Nicator (312–281 BC), Ai Khanoum File:Antiochos I Soter Ai Khanoum mint.jpg\|Antiochus I (281–261 BC), Ai Khanoum File:Coin of Antialkidas.jpg\|Bilingual coin of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas (105–95 BC) File:Coin of the Bactrian King Agathokles.jpg\|Bilingual coin of Agathocles of Bactria with Hindu deities, c. 180 BC ==== Roman period (290 BC~) ==== Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans. Coins came late to the Roman Republic compared with the rest of the Mediterranean, especially Greece and Asia Minor where coins were invented in the 7th century BC. The currency of central Italy was influenced by its natural resources, with bronze being abundant (the Etruscans were famous metal workers in bronze and iron) and silver ore being scarce. The coinage of the Roman Republic started with a few silver coins apparently devised for trade with Celtic in northern Italy and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, and heavy cast bronze pieces for use in Central Italy. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC. Amisano, in a general publication, including the Etruscan coinage, attributing it the beginning to about 550 BC in Populonia, a chronology that would leave out the contribution of the Greeks of Magna Graecia and attribute to the Etruscans the burden of introducing the coin in Italy. In this work, constant reference is made to classical sources, and credit is given to the origin of the Etruscan Lydia, a source supported by Herodotus, and also to the invention of coin in Lydia. consistent with e.g. France. Debasement of coin was widespread. There were periods of significant debasement in 1340–60 and 1417–29, when no small coins were minted, and by the 15th century the issuance of small coin was further restricted by government restrictions and even prohibitions. With the exception of the Great Debasement, England's coins were consistently minted from sterling silver (silver content of 92.5%). A lower quality of silver with more copper mixed in, used in Barcelona, was called billon. Italy has been influential at a coinage point of view: the Florentine florin, one of the most used coinage types in European history and one of the most important coins in Western history, was struck in Florence in the 13th century, while the Venetian sequin, minted from 1284 to 1797, was the most prestigious gold coin in circulation in the commercial centers of the Mediterranean Sea. The Florentine florin was the first European gold coin struck in sufficient quantities since the 7th century to play a significant commercial role. The Florentine florin was used for larger transactions such as those used in dowries, international trade or for tax-related matters. File:Cunincpert tremissis 612190 reverse.jpg\|Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, AD 688–700 File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg\|Silver coin of Borandukht of Persian Sassanian Empire, AD 629 File:Silver Dirham.png\|Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, AD 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework File:Al-Mu'tamid-coin.jpg\|Abbasid coin, c. 1080s File:Almoravid dinar 1138 631905.jpg\|Almoravid coin, 1138–1139 File:Zecchino Antonio Venier 1382.jpg\|Venetian sequin, 1382 === Modern history === Genoese coins became important in the 16th century during the Golden age of Genoese banking, with the Spanish Empire funnelling its massive wealth from Spanish America through the Bank of Saint George. With the decline in the fortunes of the Genoese banks and the Spanish Empire in the 17th century, however, the Genoese lira also depreciated substantially. The silver scudo's value increased to 6.5 lire in 1646, 7.4 lire in 1671, and 8.74 lire just before the Austrian occupation of Genoa in 1746. Variations in the mass of precious metals used in international trade, particularly in imports of spices and textiles into Europe, explain the numerous monetary reforms that occurred in this period. The effect of these transactions on the available reserves of gold and silver was at the origin of the various monetary reforms, which changed the price of silver compared to gold. Faced with the distinct monetary systems developed by Genoa, Venice or Florence, the widespread use in the 15th century of the silver thaler, of constant size and mass, allowed conversion operations to be limited and therefore exchanges facilitated. The thaler was the monetary unit of the Germanic countries until the 19th century and is considered the ancestor of the United States dollar. At the same time, the Mexican Mint was established on May 11, 1535, by order of the Spanish king following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Opened in April 1536, this mint had the right to mint silver Spanish real which became the basis of the monetary system of the Spanish Empire. Louis XIII had the Louis d'or minted in 1640 to compete with these coins. The first attested siege coins appeared at the siege of Pavia in 1524. Auxiliary coins consisted, among the Greeks and Romans as in our modern societies, of coins strongly linked to copper. In particular, the red copper alloy was used for its physical properties, suitable for objects constantly subjected to manipulation: malleability, resistance to impacts, wear and corrosion (only gold has better resistance to corrosion). This alloy was often mixed with a little tin, zinc and especially nickel for their anti-corrosive, ductile and anti-fouling properties. File:Silver Coin of Jalaluddin.jpg\|Silver coin of the 15th-century Bengal Sultanate ruler Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah File:Genova doppia 1639.jpg\|right\|Genoese doppia, 1639 File:France 1640 4 Louis d’or (Louis XIII).jpg\|Louis d'or, 1640 File:Wildermann thaler.jpg\|Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629 File:Genbun Inari Koban Kin.jpg\|Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, –1741 File:Potosì 8 reales 1768 131206.jpg\|1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the "piece of eight" of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire File:TURKEY, SULTAN MAHMUD II 1818 -2 RUMI GOLD b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg\|Ottoman coin, 1818 File:One Rupee East India Company.JPG\|One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835 File:Coins minted at the Royal Mint of Great Britain.jpg\|British coins 15-20 centuries == Value == === Currency === Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is established by law, and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded in the international market. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: their value is usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value. Coins may be in circulation with face values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between face values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realize the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels. Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years. === Collector's items === A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance. Collector catalogs often include information about coins to assists collectors with identifying and grading. Additional resources can be found online for collectors These are collector clubs, collection management tools, marketplaces, trading platforms, and forums, === Media of expression === Coins can be used as creative media of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins. This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while, the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so strict laws against alteration make more sense historically. 31 CFR § 82.2(b) goes on to state that: "The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins." === Debasement and clipping === Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable. The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper. Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce. One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100. Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value. Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally. Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping. === Cutting === Some coins made of precious metals were manufactured with a cross on one side to make it easier to split the coin into halves or quarters. === Other uses === Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts". Some of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia. == Modern features == The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority (see List of people on coins), or a national emblem is called the obverse (colloquially, heads); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the reverse (colloquially, tails). The year of minting is usually shown on the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, the post-1999 American quarter, and all Japanese coins are exceptions. The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation. If the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up and turning the coin left or right on its vertical axis reveals that the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have medallic orientation—typical of the Euro and pound sterling; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have coin orientation, characteristic of the coins of the United States dollar. Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the €1, €2, British £1, £2 and Canadian $2 and several peso coins in Mexico. The exergue is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or contains a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny. Not all coins are round; they come in a variety of shapes. The Australian 50-cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves. Historically, a considerable variety of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion. File:Israelwave.jpg\|Scalloped coin of Israel File:Belizeonecentwave.jpg\|1996 one cent coin from Belize File:Phil2pisodecrev.jpg\|Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990 Some other coins, like the British 20 and 50 pence coins and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognizable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted. A triangular coin with a face value of £5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007. Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin. Some medieval coins, called bracteates, were so thin they were struck on only one side. Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried. Nowadays, holes help to differentiate coins of similar size and metal, such as the Japanese 50 yen and 100 yen coin. File:Frenchholeobv.jpg\|1917 French coin with integrated hole File:Chong Ning Tongbao 1.JPG\|Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106 File:عملة فلسطينية معدنية.jpg\|1941 British Palestine coin File:50 Yen Rückseite.jpg\|Modern-day Japanese 50-yen coin File:1924 East African 1 cent coin reverse.jpg\|1924 East African coin The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image. The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are colored, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a colored poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process. An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values. For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals. == Physics and chemistry == === Flipping === To flip a coin to see whether it lands heads or tails is to use it as a two-sided die in what is known in mathematics as a Bernoulli trial: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair. === Spinning === Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3. ===Odor=== Iron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule 1-octen-3-one. ==Regional examples== ===Philippines=== In the Philippines, small, engraved gold coins called Piloncitos have been excavated, some as lightweight as 0.09 to 2.65 grams. Piloncitos have been unearthed from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas in Mindanao. Large quantities were found in Indonesian archaeological sites, suggesting that they may not have originated in the Philippines, but rather were imported. However, numerous Spanish accounts state that the gold coins were mined and made in the Philippines, such as the following from 1586: The term "Piloncitos" is a contemporary word, used by modern-day antique collectors, who thought that the cone-shaped pieces looked like a pilon of sugar. Piloncitos are presumably an offshoot of silver coinage and may have evolved into the bullet or pod duang coinage of Sukhothai in Thailand. Early historical records document the extensive use of gold throughout the Philippine archipelago before the arrival of European colonists. It was used extensively as currency, and also used in everyday items such as clothing and finery.	[ "Attic helmet", "Twenty pence (British coin)", "Spanish Empire", "13th century", "Sybaris", "Warring States Period", "Chelone (Greek mythology)", "Alamgir II", "Coinage Act of 1965", "Ottoman Empire", "Poland", "Syracuse, Sicily", "Transnistria", "Aegina", "Aristotle", "Hermodike II", "Ten-cent coin", "Afghanistan", "nickel", "Loonie", "Sestertius", "Gresham's law", "satrap", "Tissaphernes", "Code of Federal Regulations", "monetary", "monetary standard", "Bermuda", "public relations", "American Gold Eagle", "Alyattes of Lydia", "Ancient Corinth", "Coin magic", "sterling silver", "cowrie", "Mediterranean Sea", "hoard", "Ancient Olympic Games", "Tudor dynasty", "Erbbina", "Central Asia", "Domitian", "Cash (Chinese coin)", "Metapontum", "bullion", "Magnesia on the Meander", "mint (coin)", "Flavian dynasty", "Quarter (United States coin)", "Henan", "Legal tender", "Indo-Greek", "List of circulating currencies", "Achaemenid Empire", "China", "2 euro coins", "punch-marked coins", "Crete", "palladium", "medallic orientation", "Twenty pence (British decimal coin)", "Isle of Man", "Syria", "Chinese Bronze Age", "Aureus", "Swaziland", "Bataan", "Anyang", "ingot", "Spanish America", "national emblem", "Illyrian coinage", "Canadian coinage", "List of people on coins", "vending machine", "Vespasian", "Charlemagne", "Athena", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "coins of the United States dollar", "Samar", "Antiochus I", "Sovereign (British coin)", "Bullion coin", "Iran", "Florin (Italian coin)", "Florence", "Ionia", "stag", "Cyprus", "List of most expensive coins", "West Asia", "Ancient drachma", "olive", "Pasig River", "Karshapana", "Osmund Bopearachchi", "Siglos", "fiat money", "Taxila", "Batangas", "One pound (British coin)", "Sea turtle", "Mediterranean", "Coins of the Swiss franc", "Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel", "Mughal Emperor", "government", "Ancient Greece", "Cyme (Aeolis)", "Axial Age", "Battle of Pavia", "Coinage shapes", "Seven Wonders of the Ancient World", "Bank of Saint George", "Phanes (mythology)", "Indo-Greeks", "Spanish real", "George IV of Georgia", "nymph", "Alexander the Great", "Louis d'or", "Daric", "National Museum of Australia", "bullion coins", "History of coins in Italy", "Royal Numismatic Society", "Classical Athens", "Bimetallic coins", "Canadian 2 dollar coin", "banknote", "Siege of Genoa (1746)", "Phanes (coin issuer)", "coin orientation", "Thomas Gresham", "Zeus", "Ancient Chinese coinage", "Caulonia (ancient city)", "Nickel (United States coin)", "Aeolis", "500 yen coin", "Julius Pollux", "Indonesia", "Eucratides", "Iron Age Anatolia", "Republic of Cabinda", "Amyntas Nikator", "Roman currency", "Malayer", "Titus", "Pamphylia", "Louis XIII", "Coin collecting", "Magna Graecia", "dodecagon", "Bernoulli trial", "counterfeit", "inflation", "Mandaluyong", "Taranto", "Commemorative coins", "Ancient Greek coinage", "barter", "billon (alloy)", "gold coin", "Tong Bei", "Leyte", "Genoa", "Populonia", "The O2 Arena", "Lesbos", "Pericles, Dynast of Lycia", "finite-time singularity", "Royal Canadian Mint", "currency", "Sassanian Empire", "Debasement", "History of coins", "Akanthos (Greece)", "Gold Dinar", "Encyclopaedia Iranica", "Tutankhamun", "Sigloi", "Georgian alphabet", "Phanes coins", "Antialcidas", "Holy Roman Emperor", "medal", "Europe", "100 yen coin", "Abbasid", "obverse", "Venice", "Chocolate coin", "Reeding", "50 yen coin", "The National Post", "face value", "Nike (mythology)", "Sardis", "Joe Cribb", "Stag", "Sequin (coin)", "Athenians", "List of mints", "Kherei", "mint mark", "Money", "Crotone", "rose", "Ephesus", "bracteate", "Kabul hoard", "Bi-metallic coin", "Achaemenid coinage", "Canadian Maple Leaf coins", "Egypt", "Currency in circulation", "privy mark", "Pound sterling", "Piloncitos", "Token coin", "Roman Republic", "barter ring", "Hanukkah gelt", "Marinduque", "Achaemenid", "Barclay V. Head", "Aspendos", "fiefdom", "electrum", "Euler's Disk", "Hellenistic period", "Paestum", "Late Bronze Age", "Coin base weight", "mint (facility)", "rolling friction", "power law", "Kabul", "Siege money", "Cambridge University Press", "copper", "Cyrus the Great", "Thailand", "Temple of Artemis at Ephesus", "gold", "East India Company", "Mindanao", "Imperial Abbey of St Gall", "knife money", "bimetallism", "Coins of the Hong Kong dollar", "dice", "Great Debasement", "Gandhara", "National Geographic", "Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley", "Fifty cent coin (Australian)", "Croesus", "Pakistan", "Coin standard", "Umayyad Caliphate", "Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah", "Seleucus Nicator", "Uganda", "Currency", "precession", "pound sterling", "rudder", "Philippines", "List of currencies", "Krugerrand", "Ai Khanoum", "Croeseid", "Rhodes", "Phaselis", "Five pounds (British coin)", "Obverse and reverse", "List of Tyrants of Syracuse", "Ionians", "Darius I", "coinage metals", "Coin counterfeiting", "Archive.org", "Casting (metalworking)", "Themistocles", "base metal", "Qin Shi Huang Di", "hemihekte", "precious metal", "Classical Greece", "Coin counter", "Queen Borandukht", "Genoese lira", "Lydia", "Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily", "legal tender", "Korkyra (polis)", "US Treasury", "Potnia Theron", "Arethusa (mythology)", "Cook Islands", "Mint (coin)", "India", "Luzon", "Republic of Genoa", "Tremissis", "Genbun", "chariot", "tetradrachm", "dolphin", "Agathocles of Bactria", "Pushkalavati", "Renminbi", "Coin sorter", "Cent (United States coin)", "Kingdom of the Lombards", "portrait", "Almoravid", "Euro", "Arabic numerals", "Italy", "price control", "The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Numismatic Society", "Curve of constant width", "Bhir Mound", "Macedon", "Herodotus", "silver", "platinum", "quadriga", "Two pounds (British coin)", "1 euro coins", "punch-marked coin", "Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus", "thaler", "Bullet money", "Spanish Dollar", "Parthia", "1-octen-3-one", "bronze", "America the Beautiful quarters", "free market", "Mithridates I of Parthia", "2€ commemorative coins", "Asia Minor", "Fifty pence (British coin)", "Lycia", "Walking Liberty half dollar", "Caria", "Hindu", "United States dollar", "high speed photography", "Thaler", "Greco-Bactrian", "Canadian Gold Maple Leaf", "Seigniorage", "porcelain", "United States Mint", "Etruscans" ]
7,560	College of the City of New York	College of the City of New York may refer to: City University of New York (CUNY), the public university system of New York City College of the City of New York, an old name (1866–1929) for City College of New York, now part of CUNY New York City College of Technology, CUNY's technology college, founded in 1946 University of the City of New York, old name for New York University, a private research university founded in 1831	[ "City College of New York", "University of New York (disambiguation)", "New York University", "New York City College of Technology", "City University of New York" ]
7,561	Classical Kuiper belt object	A classical Kuiper belt object, also called a cubewano ( "QB1-o"), is a low-eccentricity Kuiper belt object (KBO) that orbits beyond Neptune and is not controlled by an orbital resonance with Neptune. Cubewanos have orbits with semi-major axes in the 40–50 AU range and, unlike Pluto, do not cross Neptune's orbit. That is, they have low-eccentricity and sometimes low-inclination orbits like the classical planets. The name "cubewano" derives from the first trans-Neptunian object (TNO) found after Pluto and Charon: 15760 Albion, which until January 2018 had only the provisional designation (15760) . Similar objects found later were often called "QB1-os", or "cubewanos", after this object, though the term "classical" is much more frequently used in the scientific literature. Objects identified as cubewanos include: 15760 Albion but was later found to be in a resonant orbit. == == There are two basic dynamical classes of classical Kuiper-belt bodies: those with relatively unperturbed ('cold') orbits, and those with markedly perturbed ('hot') orbits. Most cubewanos are found between the 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune (populated by plutinos) and the 1:2 resonance. 50000 Quaoar, for example, has a near-circular orbit close to the ecliptic. Plutinos, on the other hand, have more eccentric orbits bringing some of them closer to the Sun than Neptune. The majority of classical objects, the so-called cold population, have low inclinations (< 5°) and near-circular orbits, lying between 42 and 47 AU. A smaller population (the hot population) is characterised by highly inclined, more eccentric orbits. The terms 'hot' and 'cold' has nothing to do with surface or internal temperatures, but rather refer to the orbits of the objects, by analogy to molecules in a gas, which increase their relative velocity as they heat up. The Deep Ecliptic Survey reports the distributions of the two populations; one with the inclination centered at 4.6° (named Core) and another with inclinations extending beyond 30° (Halo). === Distribution === The vast majority of KBOs (more than two-thirds) have inclinations of less than 5° and eccentricities of less than 0.1 . Their semi-major axes show a preference for the middle of the main belt; arguably, smaller objects close to the limiting resonances have been either captured into resonance or have their orbits modified by Neptune. The 'hot' and 'cold' populations are strikingly different: more than 30% of all cubewanos are in low inclination, near-circular orbits. The parameters of the plutinos’ orbits are more evenly distributed, with a local maximum in moderate eccentricities in 0.15–0.2 range, and low inclinations 5–10°. See also the comparison with scattered disk objects. Cubewanos form a clear 'belt' outside Neptune's orbit, whereas the plutinos approach, or even cross Neptune's orbit. When orbital inclinations are compared, 'hot' cubewanos can be easily distinguished by their higher inclinations, as the plutinos typically keep orbits e < 0.240 (to exclude detached objects) Unlike other schemes, this definition includes the objects with major semi-axis less than 39.4 AU (2:3 resonance)—termed inner classical belt, or more than 48.7 (1:2 resonance) – termed outer classical belt, and reserves the term main classical belt for the orbits between these two resonances. It includes Haumea, its moons, and seven smaller bodies. The objects not only follow similar orbits but also share similar physical characteristics. Unlike many other KBO their surface contains large amounts of water ice (H2O) and no or very little tholins. The surface composition is inferred from their neutral (as opposed to red) colour and deep absorption at 1.5 and 2. μm in infrared spectrum. Several other collisional families might reside in the classical Kuiper belt. == Exploration == As of January 2019, only one classical Kuiper belt object has been observed up close by spacecraft. Both Voyager spacecraft have passed through the region before the discovery of the Kuiper belt. New Horizons was the first mission to visit a classical KBO. After its successful exploration of the Pluto system in 2015, the NASA spacecraft has visited the small KBO 486958 Arrokoth at a distance of on 1 January 2019. == List == Here is a very generic list of classical Kuiper belt objects. , there are about 870 objects with and . 15760 Albion 20000 Varuna 120347 Salacia 148780 Altjira 174567 Varda 19521 Chaos 486958 Arrokoth 50000 Quaoar 53311 Deucalion 58534 Logos 66652 Borasisi 79360 Sila–Nunam 88611 Teharonhiawako	[ "Degree (angle)", "Neptune", "Springer (publisher)", "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Brett J. Gladman", "collisional family", "Charon (moon)", "Pluto", "dwarf planet", "Semi-major axis", "120347 Salacia", "Nature (journal)", "List of minor planets visited by spacecraft", "Brian G. Marsden", "ecliptic", "79360 Sila–Nunam", "20000 Varuna", "Scattered disk object", "Perturbation (astronomy)", "infrared", "electromagnetic spectrum", "174567 Varda", "Voyager program", "Resonant trans-Neptunian object", "resonant trans-Neptunian object", "15760 Albion", "trans-Neptunian object", "NASA", "88611 Teharonhiawako", "New Horizons", "orbital inclination", "Kuiper belt", "53311 Deucalion", "astronomical unit", "Deep Ecliptic Survey", "Tisserand's parameter", "sednoid", "tholin", "The Astrophysical Journal", "Orbital eccentricity", "scattered disk", "micrometre", "Lists of astronomical objects", "Praxis Publishing", "50000 Quaoar", "66652 Borasisi", "orbit", "58534 Logos", "Orbital inclination", "486958 Arrokoth", "Makemake", "Minor Planet Center", "Astronomical Journal", "orbital resonance", "plutino", "19521 Chaos", "Haumea", "148780 Altjira", "Haumea family", "binary asteroid" ]
7,564	Foreign policy of the United States	The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States of America, including all the bureaus and offices in the United States Department of State, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the Department of State, are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community". Liberalism has been a key component of US foreign policy since its independence from Britain. Since the end of World War II, the United States has had a grand strategy which has been characterized as being oriented around primacy, "deep engagement", and/or liberal hegemony. This strategy entails that the United States maintains military predominance; builds and maintains an extensive network of allies (exemplified by NATO, bilateral alliances and foreign US military bases); integrates other states into US-designed international institutions (such as the IMF, WTO/GATT, and World Bank); and limits the spread of nuclear weapons. U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate and criticism, both domestically and abroad. ==Foreign policy development== Article Two of the United States Constitution grants power of foreign policy to the President of the United States, including powers to command the military, negotiate treaties, and appoint ambassadors. The Department of State carries out the president's foreign policy. The State Department is usually pulled between the wishes of Congress, and the wishes of the residing president. The Department of Defense carries out the president's military policy. The Central Intelligence Agency is an independent agency responsible for gathering intelligence on foreign activity. Some checks and balances are applied to the president's powers of foreign policy. Treaties negotiated by the president require ratification by the Senate to take force as United States law. The president's ambassadorial nominations also require Senate approval before taking office. Military actions must first be approved by both chambers of Congress. The Constitution grants Congress the power to approve the president's picks for ambassadors and the power to declare war. The president is commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. He appoints a Secretary of State and ambassadors with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Secretary acts similarly to a foreign minister, because they are the primary conductor of foreign affairs. While foreign policy has varied slightly from president to president, there have generally been consistently similar goals throughout different administrations. Generally speaking there are 4 schools of thought regarding foreign policy. First is Neo-Isolationists, who believe the United States should maintain a very narrow focus and avoid all involvement in the rest of the world. Second is selective-engagement which avoids all conflicts with other nations, and is semi-restrictive on its foreign policy. Third is cooperative security, which requires more involvement throughout the world, occasionally countering threats to the country. Finally is the idea of primacy which seeks to advance the United States well beyond all other nations of the world, placing it first in all matters. In Missouri v. Holland, the Supreme Court ruled that the power to make treaties under the U.S. Constitution is a power separate from the other enumerated powers of the federal government, and hence the federal government can use treaties to legislate in areas which would otherwise fall within the exclusive authority of the states. Between 1789 and 1990, the Senate approved more than 1,500 treaties, rejected 21 and withdrew 85 without further action. As of 2019, 37 treaties were pending Senate approval. International agreements, sometimes also collectively referred to as treaties, can also be entered into by other mechanisms, though they have different legal implications than Senate-ratified treaties. The president can unilaterally make executive agreements. Under the Supreme Court decisions United States v. Pink (1942) and Reid v. Covert (1957), these have the force of law only to the degree they were made by exercising a power in the scope of the president's authority. Congressional-executive agreements are commonly used to enshrine the provisions of an international compact into federal law. Under this procedure, the executive branch negotiates the language, which is then approved by Congress and signed by the President as a regular piece of legislation, only requiring a simple majority of both houses. This procedure has been upheld by federal courts, though some scholars question its constitutionality because it bypasses the explicit Senate ratification procedure spelled out for treaties. The State Department has taken the position that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties represents established law. Following ratification, the United States incorporates treaty law into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties after they are ratified. This can overrule an agreed-upon treaty obligation even if that is seen as a violation of the treaty under international law. Several U.S. court rulings confirmed this understanding, including Supreme Court decisions in Paquete Habana v. the United States (1900), and Reid v. Covert (1957), as well as a lower court ruling in Garcia-Mir v. Meese (1986). As a result of the Reid v. Covert decision, the United States adds a reservation to the text of every treaty that says in effect that the United States intends to abide by the treaty but that if the treaty is found to be in violation of the Constitution, the United States legally is then unable to abide by the treaty since the American signature would be ultra vires. ==Historical overview== The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the American Revolution is the shift from non-interventionism before and after World War I, to its growth as a world power and global hegemon during World War II and throughout the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, U.S. foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by presidential 'doctrines'. ===18th century=== Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably in George Washington's farewell address; these included, among other things, observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others", "steer[ing] clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world", and advocating trade with all nations. Foreign policy in the first years of American independence constituted the balancing of relations with Great Britain and France. The Federalist Party supported Washington's foreign policy and sought close ties with Britain, but the Democratic-Republican Party favored France. Under the Federalist government of John Adams, the United States engaged in conflict with France in the Quasi-War, but the rival Jeffersonians feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. Jeffersonians vigorously opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a navy, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801. ===19th century=== American foreign policy was mostly peaceful and marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade during the 19th century. As the Jeffersonians took power in the 1800s, they opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801. After the War of 1812, there were disagreements between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton as to whether the United States should be isolated or be more involved in global activities. In the 1820s, the Monroe Doctrine was established as the primary foreign policy doctrine of the United States, establishing Latin America as an American sphere of influence and rejecting European colonization in the region. The 1830s and 1840s were marked by increasing conflict with Mexico, exacerbated by the Texas annexation and culminating in the Mexican–American War in 1846. Following the war, the United States claimed much of what is now the Southwestern United States, and the Gadsden Purchase further expanded this territory. Relations with Britain continued to be strained as a result of border conflicts until they were resolved by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842. The Perry Expedition of 1853 led to Japan establishing relations with the United States. The Diplomacy of the American Civil War emphasized preventing European involvement in the war. During the Civil War, Spain and France defied the Monroe Doctrine and expanded their colonial influence in the Dominican Republic and Mexico, respectively. The Alaska Purchase was negotiated with Russia in 1867 and the Newlands Resolution annexed Hawaii in 1898. The Spanish–American War took place during 1898, resulting in the United States claiming Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and causing Spain to retract claims upon Cuba. President Wilson's Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism to prevent future wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (which amounted to a military surrender) and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to European allies' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity with these points, and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries; due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was established as a result of Wilson's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, and refunding the German economy. Operating outside the League it became a dominant player in diplomatic affairs. New York became the financial capital of the world, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the Western industrialized world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s. Post WWI, the United States entered back into isolation from world events. This was largely due to the Great Depression of 1929. The invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union contributed directly to fueling tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. This began with President Carter announcing the United States interests in maintaining the status quo within the Persian Gulf region, resulting in the Carter Doctrine. The Regan administration escalated the tensions by supporting freedom fighters around the world, most notably in Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion. The Soviet Union and the United States did not engage in direct conflict, but rather supported small proxies that opposed the other. Meanwhile, down to 1952 the Republican Party was split between an isolationist wing, based in the Midwest and led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and an internationalist wing based in the East and led by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 nomination largely on foreign policy grounds. Since then the Republicans have been characterized by American nationalism, strong opposition to Communism, and strong support for Israel. ===21st century=== Following the end of the Cold War, the United States entered the 21st century as the sole superpower, though this status has been challenged by China, India, Russia, and the European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of international terrorism. The September 11 attacks in 2001 caused a policy shift, in which America declared a "war on terror". The United States invaded Afghanistan in 2001 and invaded Iraq in 2003, emphasizing nation-building and the neutralization of terrorist threats in the Middle East. During the war on terror, the United States significantly expanded its military and intelligence capacities while also pursuing economic methods of targeting opposing governments. After a phased withdrawal from Iraq, In 2014, the Islamic State emerged as a major hostile power in the Middle East, and the United States led a military intervention in Iraq and Syria to combat it. The extended nature of American involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan has resulted in support for isolationism and reduced involvement in foreign conflicts. In 2011, the United States led a NATO intervention in Libya. In 2013, disclosures of American surveillance programs revealed that United States intelligence policy included extensive global surveillance activities against foreign governments and citizens. In 2017, diplomats from other countries developed new tactics to engage with President Donald Trump's brand of American nationalism. Peter Baker of The New York Times reported on the eve of his first foreign trip as president that the global diplomatic community had devised a strategy of keeping interactions brief, complimenting him, and giving him something he can consider a victory. Before the Trump presidency, foreign policy in the U.S. was the result of bipartisan consensus on an agenda of strengthening its position as the number one power. That consensus has since fractured, with Republican and Democratic politicians increasingly calling for a more restrained approach. Foreign policy under the Trump administration involved heightened tensions with Iran, a trade war through increased tariffs, and a reduced role in international organizations. Advancing a "Free and Open Indo-Pacific" has become the core of the U.S. national security strategy and has been embraced by both Democratic and Republican administrations. The United States ended its wars in the Greater Middle East with the withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021. In early 2023, when China brokered the long-awaited reconciliation of Saudi-Arabia Iran relations, the U.S. found itself on the sidelines of political developments in the Middle East. The JCPOA, which attempted to control the nuclear capabilities of Iran, was not fully reinstated after the Trump administration abandoned the international agreement supported by European powers in 2018. As China attempted to fill this vacuum, the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine further tested the international alliances with the U.S. Iran and other larger powers such as India as well as Arab nations did not adopt any of the economic sanctions imposed on Russia but to the contrary, increased their economic and strategic alliances with Russia or China. As China is focussing primarily on the global expansion of its economy, Russia was able to maintain its military and energy-related influence not only in Asia but also in Africa and South America. With regard to the Middle East, trade from these nations with China is three times greater than the trade with the U.S. As China is extending its mid-East reach, Russia despite its battered economy from sanctions still remains influential in South America with trade relations that are difficult to deconstruct through U.S. American influence. While China's influence in the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Africa is still hindered by commercial and currency-related U.S. trade policies, it is perceived more and more as a peace negotiator than a communist aggressor, particularly outside of Europe and North America. While the U.S. still upholds its moral dominance by advocating for democracy, its foreign policies are increasingly marked by a perceived inability to defend its image as an exporter of peace and prosperity. ==Diplomatic policy== The diplomatic policy of the United States is created by the president and carried out by the Department of State. The department's stated mission is to "protect and promote U.S. security, prosperity, and democratic values and shape an international environment in which all Americans can thrive." Its objectives during the 2022-2026 period include renewing U.S. leadership, promoting global prosperity, strengthening democratic institutions, revitalizing the diplomatic workforce and institutions, and serving U.S. citizens abroad. As of 2022, the United States has bilateral relations with all but four United Nations members. The United States government emphasizes human rights in foreign policy. Annual reports produced by the Department of State, such as "Advancing Freedom and Democracy" and the "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices", track the status of human rights around the world. The National Endowment for Democracy provides financial aid to promote democracy internationally. ===International agreements=== The United States is party to thousands of international agreements with other countries, territories, and international organizations. These include arms control agreements, human rights treaties, environmental protocols, and free trade agreements. Under the Compact of Free Association, the United States also maintains a relationship of free association with the countries of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, grants the United States military access to the countries in exchange for military protection, foreign aid, and access domestic American agencies. The United States is a member of many international organizations. It is a founding member of the United Nations and holds a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. The United States is also a member of other global organizations, including the World Trade Organization. Regional organizations in which the United States is a member include NATO, Organization of American States, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. As the largest economy in the world, the United States is also a member of organizations for the most developed nations, including the OECD, the Group of Seven, and the G20. ====Non-participation in multi-lateral agreements==== The United States notably does not participate in various international agreements adhered to by almost all other industrialized countries, by almost all the countries of the Americas, or by almost all other countries in the world. With a large population and economy, on a practical level this can undermine the effect of certain agreements, or give other countries a precedent to cite for non-participation in various agreements. In some cases the arguments against participation include that the United States should maximize its sovereignty and freedom of action, or that ratification would create a basis for lawsuits that would treat American citizens unfairly. In other cases, the debate became involved in domestic political issues, such as gun control, climate change, and the death penalty. Examples include: Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations covenant (in force 1920–45, signed but not ratified) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (took effect in 1976, ratified with substantial reservations) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (took effect in 1976, signed but not ratified) American Convention on Human Rights (took effect in 1978) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (took effect in 1981, signed but not ratified) Convention on the Rights of the Child (took effect in 1990, signed but not ratified) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (took effect in 1994) Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (signed in 1996 but never ratified and never took effect) Mine Ban Treaty (took effect in 1999) International Criminal Court (took effect in 2002) Kyoto Protocol (in force 2005–12, signed but not ratified) Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (took effect in 2006) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (took effect in 2008, signed but not ratified) Convention on Cluster Munitions (took effect in 2010) International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (took effect in 2010) Arms Trade Treaty (took effect in 2014) Other human rights treaties Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (took effect in 2016 as part of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231. Signed by the U.S., France, Germany, European Union, UK, Russia, China and Iran, but abandoned by the U.S. in 2018) ===Foreign aid=== Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department's international affairs budget, and aid is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (for example, contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund). In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor. Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do. The United States first began distributing regular foreign aid in the aftermath of World War II and the onset of the Cold War. Foreign aid has been used to foster closer relations with foreign nations, strengthen countries that could potentially become future allies and trading partners, and provide assistance for people of countries most in need. American foreign aid contributed to the Green Revolution in the 1960s and the democratization of Taiwan and Colombia. Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy, and several acts of Congress served to restrict foreign aid from governments that "engage in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights". In 2011, President Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. In the 2019 fiscal year, the United States spent $39.2 billion in foreign aid, constituting less than one percent of the federal budget. ===War on drugs=== United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to control imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and cannabis. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. These foreign policy efforts date back to at least the 1900s, when the U.S. banned the importation of non-medical opium and participated in the 1909 International Opium Commission, one of the first international drug conferences. Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug-producing countries. In September 2005, the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous 12 months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large-scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian-grown cannabis continues. The U.S. believes that the Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S. In 2011, overdose deaths in the U.S. were on a decline mostly due to interdiction efforts and international cooperation to reduce the production of illicit drugs. Since about 2014, a reversal of this trend could be clearly seen as legal semi-synthetic opioids and cocaine stimulants were replaced by the fully synthetic fentanyl and methamphetamine. By 2022, overdose deaths caused by illicit fentanyl led to the worst drug crisis the U.S. has ever experienced in its history, with 1,500 people dying every week of overdose-related cases. By 2022, deaths caused by fentanyl significantly reduced the life expectancy in the U.S. and were also seen as a major drag on the U.S. economy. Despite efforts to control the trade of chemicals used in the synthesis of fentanyl, the tide of fentanyl-related deaths continues to be a major threat to U.S. national security. ===Regional diplomacy=== ====Africa==== American involvement with Africa has historically been limited. During the war on terror, the United States increased its activities in Africa to fight terrorism in conjunction with African countries as well as to support democracy in Africa through the Millennium Challenge Corporation. Africa has also been the subject of competition between American and Chinese investment strategies. In 2007 the U.S. was sub-Saharan Africa's largest single export market accounting for 28% of exports (second in total to the EU at 31%). 81% of U.S. imports from this region were petroleum products. ====Asia==== America's relations with Asia have tended to be based on a "hub and spoke" model instead of multilateral relations, using a series of bilateral relationships where states coordinate with the United States instead of through a unified bloc. On May 30, 2009, at the Shangri-La Dialogue, Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates urged the nations of Asia to build on this hub and spoke model as they established and grew multilateral institutions such as ASEAN, APEC and the ad hoc arrangements in the area. In 2011, Gates said the United States must serve as the "indispensable nation", for building multilateral cooperation. As of 2022, the Department of Defense considers China to be the greatest threat to the policy goals of the United States. Almost all of Canada's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports; Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports. Trade between the United States and Canada as well as Mexico is facilitated through the USMCA. ====Europe==== The United States has close ties with the European Union, and it is a member of NATO along with several European countries. The United States has close relations with most countries of Europe. Much of American foreign policy has involved combating the Soviet Union in the 20th century and Russia in the 21st century. ====Latin America==== The Monroe Doctrine has historically made up the foreign policy of the United States in regard to Latin America. Under this policy, the United States would consider Latin America to be under its sphere of influence and defend Latin American countries from European hostilities. The United States was heavily involved in the politics of Panama during the early 20th century in order to construct the Panama Canal. Cuba was an ally of the United States following its independence, but it was identified as a major national security threat following the Cuban Revolution; Cuba–United States relations remain poor. ====Middle East==== The Middle East region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II, and relations were secured with Saudi Arabia to secure additional oil supplies. The Middle East continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War, and American containment policy emphasized preventing Soviet influence from taking hold in the Middle East. The Truman, Eisenhower, and Nixon Doctrines all played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region. Carter's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with the Reagan Doctrine, which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War. During the so-called war on terror, the United States increased its involvement in the region; some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Doctrine also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War. Two-thirds of the world's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf, and the United States imports oil from several Middle Eastern countries. While its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s, new hydraulic fracturing techniques and discovery of shale oil deposits in Canada and the American Dakotas offer the potential for increased energy independence from oil exporting countries such as OPEC. ====Oceania==== Australia and New Zealand are close allies of the United States. Together, the three countries compose the ANZUS collective security agreement. The United States and the United Kingdom also have a separate agreement, AUKUS, with Australia. After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 (1994 for Palau). The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory (part of the United States), while Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau became independent countries. Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs (except the declaration of war) and a few billion dollars of aid. These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses (and vice versa), and provide for largely free trade. The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Weather Service, the United States Postal Service, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union. ==Defense policy== Defense policy of the United States is established by the president under the role of commander-in-chief, and it is carried out by the Department of Defense and the Department of Homeland Security. As of 2022, the stated objective of the Department of Defense is to deter attacks against the United States and its allies in order to protect the American people, expand America's prosperity, and defend democratic values. The department recognizes China as the greatest foreign threat to the United States, with Russia, North Korea, Iran, and violent extremist organizations recognized as other major foreign threats. Most American troops stationed in foreign countries operate in non-combat roles. As of 2021, about 173,000 troops are deployed in 159 countries. Japan, Germany, and South Korea are host to the largest numbers of American troops due to continued military cooperation following World War II and the Korean War. The United States has not been involved in a major war since the conclusion of the War in Afghanistan in 2021, though American forces continue to operate against terrorist groups in the Middle East and Africa through the Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001. The United States also provides billions of dollars of military aid to allied countries each year. Since 2001, the Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001 (AUMF) has granted the president the power to engage in military conflict with any country, organization, or person that was involved in carrying out the September 11 attacks. American presidents have since interpreted the AUMF to authorize military campaigns against terrorist groups associated with al-Qaeda in several countries. ===Alliances and partnerships=== The Department of Defense considers cooperation with American allies and partners to be "critical" to achieving American defense objectives. The United States military works in cooperation with many national governments, and the United States has approximately 750 military bases in at least 80 different countries. Under the Compact of Free Association, the United States is responsible for the defense of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. Since it became a superpower in the mid-20th century, the United States has primarily carried out defense operations by leading and participating in multilateral coalitions. These coalitions may be constructed around existing defensive alliances, such as NATO, or through separate coalitions constructed through diplomatic negotiations and acting in a common interest. The United States has not engaged in unilateral military action since the invasion of Panama in 1989. United States military action may take place in accordance with or in opposition to the wishes of the United Nations. The United States has opposed the expansion of United Nations peacekeeping beyond its previous scope, instead supporting the use of multilateral coalitions in hostile countries and territories. ===Military aid=== The U.S. provides military aid through many channels, including direct funding, support for training, or distribution of military equipment. Military aid spending has varied over time, with spending reaching as high as $35 billion in 1952, adjusted for inflation. In 2020, the United States distributed $11.6 billion in military aid, the lowest since 2004. Military aid is one of the main forms of foreign aid, with 23% of American foreign aid in 2020 taking the form of military aid. Afghanistan was the primary recipient of American military aid in the 2010s. In 2022, military aid policy in the United States shifted from Afghanistan to Ukraine following the end of the War in Afghanistan and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. As of 2021, the United States has military bases in at least 80 countries. to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, later dubbed "Star Wars". The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today. In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system (in April 2007, 57% of Poles opposed the plan). According to press reports, the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67% Czechs disagree) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland. Russia threatened to place short-range nuclear missiles on the Russia's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under an Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States. On August 14, 2008, the United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia", Dmitry Rogozin, Russia's NATO envoy, said. Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, argue in Foreign Affairs that U.S. missile defenses are designed to secure Washington's nuclear primacy and are chiefly directed at potential rivals, such as Russia and China. The authors note that Washington continues to eschew nuclear first strike and contend that deploying missile defenses "would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one; as an adjunct to a US First Strike capability, not as a stand-alone shield": If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes. This analysis is corroborated by the Pentagon's 1992 Defense Planning Guidance (DPG), prepared by then Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney and his deputies. The DPG declares that the United States should use its power to "prevent the reemergence of a new rival" either on former Soviet territory or elsewhere. The authors of the Guidance determined that the United States had to "Field a missile defense system as a shield against accidental missile launches or limited missile strikes by 'international outlaws'" and also must "Find ways to integrate the 'new democracies' of the former Soviet bloc into the U.S.-led system". The National Archive notes that Document 10 of the DPG includes wording about "disarming capabilities to destroy" which is followed by several blacked out words. "This suggests that some of the heavily excised pages in the still-classified DPG drafts may include some discussion of preventive action against threatening nuclear and other WMD programs." Robert David English, writing in Foreign Affairs, observes that the DPG's second recommendation has also been proceeding on course. "Washington has pursued policies that have ignored Russian interests (and sometimes international law as well) in order to encircle Moscow with military alliances and trade blocs conducive to U.S. interests." On September 12, 2024, the U.S. disclosed that Russia obtained ballistic missiles from Iran for its war in Ukraine, leading to new sanctions on Russian entities involved. The U.S. also targeted Iran Air and other organizations linked to Iran’s missile activities, though Iran denies supplying the weapons. Secretary of State Antony Blinken is set to visit Ukraine and Poland to discuss further support, as Ukraine urges stronger actions. ===Exporting democracy=== Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive". Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, ==Intelligence policy== Intelligence policy is developed by the president and carried out by the United States Intelligence Community, led by the Director of National Intelligence. The Intelligence Community includes 17 offices and bureaus within various executive departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency. Its stated purpose is to utilize insights, protected information, and understanding of adversaries to advance national security, economic strength, and technological superiority. The Intelligence Community provides support for all diplomatic and military action undertaken by the United States and serves to inform government and military decision-making, as well as collecting and analyzing global economic and environmental information. The primary functions of the Intelligence Community are the collection and analysis of information, and it is responsible for collecting information on foreign subjects that is not available publicly or through diplomatic channels. Collection of information typically takes the form of signals intelligence, imagery intelligence, and human intelligence. Information collected by American intelligence is used to counter foreign intelligence, terrorism, narcotics trafficking, WMD proliferation, and international organized crime. ===Counterintelligence=== The Intelligence Community is responsible for counterintelligence to protect the United States from foreign intelligence services. The Central Intelligence Agency is responsible for counterintelligence activities abroad, while the Federal Bureau of Investigation is responsible for combating foreign intelligence operations in the United States. The goal of American counterintelligence is to protect classified government information as well as trade secrets of American industry. Offensive counterintelligence operations undertaken by the United States include recruiting foreign intelligence agents, monitoring suspected foreign agents, and collecting information on the intentions of foreign intelligence services, while defensive counterintelligence operations include investigating suspected cases of espionage and producing analyses of foreign intelligence threats. ===Covert action=== In addition to intelligence gathering, the Central Intelligence Agency is authorized by the National Security Act of 1947 to engage in covert action. Covert action is undertaken to influence conditions in foreign countries without evidence of American involvement. This may include enacting propaganda campaigns, offering support to factions within a country, providing logistical assistance to foreign governments, or disrupting illegal activities. The use of covert action is controversial within the Intelligence Community due to the potential harm to foreign relations and public image, but most individuals involved in American intelligence cite it as an "essential" option to prevent terrorism, drug trafficking, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In 1953 the CIA, working with the British government, initiated Operation Ajax against the Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh who had attempted to nationalize Iran's oil, threatening the interests of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. This had the effect of restoring and strengthening the authoritarian monarchical reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1957, the CIA and Israeli Mossad aided the Iranian government in establishing its intelligence service, SAVAK, later blamed for the torture and execution of the regime's opponents. A year later, in Operation PBSuccess, the CIA assisted the local military in toppling the democratically elected left-wing government of Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala and installing the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. The United Fruit Company lobbied for Árbenz's overthrow as his land reforms jeopardized their land holdings in Guatemala, and painted these reforms as a communist threat. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of an estimated 200,000 people (42,275 individual cases have been documented), mostly through 626 massacres against the Maya population perpetrated by the U.S.-backed Guatemalan military. An independent Historical Clarification Commission found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country's archaic and unjust socio-economic structure", During the massacre of at least 500,000 alleged communists in 1960s Indonesia, U.S. government officials encouraged and applauded the mass killings while providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military which helped facilitate them. This included the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5,000 names of suspected members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), who were subsequently killed in the massacres. In 2001, the CIA attempted to prevent the publication of the State Department volume Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, which documents the U.S. role in providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military for the express purpose of the extirpation of the PKI. In July 2016, an international panel of judges ruled the killings constitute crimes against humanity, and that the US, along with other Western governments, were complicit in these crimes. In 1970, the CIA worked with coup-plotters in Chile in the attempted kidnapping of General René Schneider, who was targeted for refusing to participate in a military coup upon the election of Salvador Allende. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. The CIA later paid the group $35,000 for the failed kidnapping. According to one peer-reviewed study, the U.S. intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000. The failed 1961 CIA Bay of Pigs Invasion in Cuba was an attempt by the U.S. government to overthrow a regime. Not only did this cause a diplomatic embarrassment, it also damaged the CIA's credibility internationally. ==Public image== United States foreign policy has been the subject of debate, receiving praise and criticism domestically and abroad. As of 2019, public opinion in the United States is closely divided on American involvement in world affairs. 53% of Americans wish for the United States to be active in world affairs, while 46% of Americans wish for less involvement overseas. American involvement in the global economy is received more positively by the American people, with 73% considering it to be a "good thing". ===Global opinion=== Overall, the United States is viewed positively by the rest of the world. The Eurasia Group Foundation reported that as of 2021, 85% of respondents from 10 countries have a favorable opinion of the United States and 81% favor American hegemony over Chinese hegemony. Those with an unfavorable view of the United States most commonly cited interventionism, and in particular the War in Afghanistan, as their reason. It was also found that the exercise of soft power increased favorable opinions while the exercise of hard power decreased favorable opinions. Citizens of Brazil, Nigeria, and India were found to have more favorable opinions of the United States, while citizens of China and Germany were found to have less favorable opinions of the United States. International opinion about the US has often changed with different executive administrations. For example, in 2009, the French public favored the United States when President Barack Obama (75% favorable) replaced President George W. Bush (42%). After President Donald Trump took the helm in 2017, French public opinion about the US fell from 63% to 46%. These trends were also seen in other European countries. Many democracies have voluntary military ties with the United States. See NATO, ANZUS, U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations. A 2013 global poll in 65 countries found that the United States is perceived as the biggest threat to world peace, with 24% of respondents identifying it as such. A majority of Russian respondents named the United States as the greatest threat, as well as significant minorities in China, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Argentina, Greece, Turkey, and Pakistan. ===Foreign intervention=== Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, inflict significantly fewer civilian casualties than dictatorships. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media. Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US-led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. In early 2017, the U.S. faced criticism from some scholars, activists and media outlets for dropping 26,171 bombs on seven countries throughout 2016: Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Yemen, Somalia and Pakistan. Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders. Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U.S. presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics also point to declassified records which indicate that the CIA under Allen Dulles and the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1,000 Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health." According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other." In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States' relations with the world". The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools. The "Human Rights and Democracy Achievement Award" recognizes the exceptional achievement of officers of foreign affairs agencies posted abroad. The "Ambassadorial Roundtable Series", created in 2006, are informal discussions between newly confirmed U.S. Ambassadors and human rights and democracy non-governmental organizations. The National Endowment for Democracy, a private non-profit created by Congress in 1983 (and signed into law by President Ronald Reagan), which is mostly funded by the U.S. Government and gives cash grants to strengthen democratic institutions around the world. ===Support for authoritarian governments=== Both currently and historically, the United States has been willing to cooperate with authoritarian governments to pursue its geopolitical goals. The U.S. has faced criticism for backing right-wing dictators that systematically violated human rights, such as Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay, Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala, Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, Hissène Habré of Chad Yahya Khan of Pakistan, and Suharto of Indonesia. Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center (though not in South Korea), while the 'realist' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories. Some critical scholars and journalists, including Jason Hickel and Vincent Bevins, argue that the U.S. backed such dictators in order to reinforce Western business interests and to expand capitalism into countries of the Global South who were attempting to pursue alternative paths. The U.S. has been accused of complicity in war crimes for backing the Saudi Arabian-led intervention into the Yemeni Civil War, which has triggered a humanitarian catastrophe, including a cholera outbreak and millions facing starvation. Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all of the human rights violations perpetrated by U.S.-supported governments. Ferguson writes that there is general agreement that Guatemala was the worst of the U.S.-backed regimes during the Cold War, but the U.S. cannot be credibly blamed for all of the estimated 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War. ===Human rights=== Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy. Congress took the lead in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Representative Donald M. Fraser (D, MN), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy", human rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy: Subsection (a) of the International Financial Assistance Act of 1977: ensured assistance through international financial institutions would be limited to countries "other than those whose governments engage in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights". John Henry Coatsworth, a historian of Latin America and the provost of Columbia University, suggests the number of repression victims in Latin America alone far surpassed that of the USSR and its East European satellites during the period 1960 to 1990. W. John Green contends that the United States was an "essential enabler" of "Latin America's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region's worst tendencies". On December 6, 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. He also criticized Russia's law discriminating against gays, joining other western leaders in the boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia. In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both American citizens, shortly after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état.	[ "George Washington", "Robert A. Taft", "Gun politics in the United States", "Great Depression", "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe", "Marshall Islands", "International Studies Quarterly", "Anti-communism", "List of treaties unsigned or unratified by the United States", "United States Navy", "Mobutu Sese Seko", "United States Foreign Military Financing", "Supreme Court of the United States", "United Nations Security Council", "Central Intelligence Agency", "ABC News (United States)", "Guatemalan Civil War", "illegal drug trade", "Brazil", "United States sanctions", "Southern Cone", "Afghanistan", "anti-ballistic missile", "Millennium Challenge Corporation", "Southwestern United States", "Torture and the United States", "executive agreement", "national interest", "National Weather Service", "September 11 attacks", "Anglo-Persian Oil Company", "Partnership for Peace", "The Intercept", "List of United States treaties", "Dawes Plan", "Third Worldism", "Vincent Bevins", "Arsenal of Democracy", "boycott", "Wall Street Crash of 1929", "ballistic missile", "Federal Emergency Management Agency", "San Francisco System", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Extraordinary rendition", "Special Activities Division", "Associated state", "Czech Republic", "Garcia-Mir v. 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Holland", "Jacobo Árbenz", "Princeton University Press", "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", "Operation Mongoose", "Federation of American Scientists", "Communist Party of Indonesia", "SAVAK", "Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration", "Checks and Balances", "American entry into World War I", "List of designated terrorist groups", "great power", "Foreign Military Sales", "Israel", "cocaine", "Los Angeles Times", "Soviet Union", "Marshall Plan", "National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)", "Allen Dulles", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "democratic peace theory", "War Powers Resolution", "Three Ds of foreign policy", "1973 Chilean coup d'état", "American Convention on Human Rights", "Treaty Clause", "Samantha Power", "Common Security and Defense Policy", "advice and consent", "The Paquete Habana", "World War I", "Organization of American States", "United States and state-sponsored terrorism", "The Daily Telegraph", "Cornell University Press", "Tehran Conference", "CNN", "Criticism of United States foreign policy", "ANZUS", "Simon & Schuster", "United Fruit Company", "OECD", "Vietnam", "Free and Open Indo-Pacific", "UKUSA Agreement", "Salvador Allende", "Peter Baker (journalist)", "War on drugs", "International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance", "Roosevelt Corollary", "National Security Agency", "non-interventionism", "Cuban Revolution", "Wilsonianism", "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women", "Burma", "AUKUS", "al-Qaeda", "Islamic State", "People's Republic of China", "United States intervention in Chile", "Jimmy Carter", "Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities", "Liberal international order", "Noam Chomsky", "Espionage Act of 1917", "Exercise Talisman Sabre", "JCPOA", "Truman Doctrine", "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea", "Jason Hickel", "Panama", "United States Postal Service", "Foreign Policy", "PRISM (surveillance program)", "Convention on the Rights of the Child", "defense pact", "foreign minister", "Foreign trade of the United States", "1954 Guatemalan coup d'état", "Carter Doctrine", "Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)", "United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China", "The Guardian", "Donald M. Fraser", "Barbary pirates", "OPEC", "Famine in Yemen (2016–present)", "Charles Horman", "Special Relationship", "Mohammad Reza Pahlavi", "Decree 900", "Cowboy diplomacy", "Korean War", "Benjamin Schwarz (writer)", "Haiti", "Suharto", "National Security Act of 1947", "Capital punishment in the United States", "Georgia (country)", "The New Press", "Windmill Books", "Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification", "Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)", "Russo-Ukrainian War", "Palau", "Ronald Reagan", "United States energy independence", "second presidency of Donald Trump", "Major non-NATO ally", "Gerald Ford", "American nationalism", "Venezuela", "2003 invasion of Iraq", "Kirkpatrick Doctrine", "international law", "Mike Pompeo", "Hviezdoslavovo námestie (Bratislava)", "Vietnam War", "NORAD", "Reagan Doctrine", "United States Intelligence Community", "The Times", "Hegemony or Survival", "University of Chicago Press", "United States foreign adversaries", "United States presidential doctrines", "Operation Condor", "Cold War", "International relations, 1648–1814", "Iran–Iraq War", "Frank Teruggi", "First presidency of Donald Trump", "Democratic-Republican Party", "Northern Mariana Islands", "United States and the United Nations", "United States Armed Forces", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Panama Canal Zone", "Donald Trump", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231", "League of Nations", "nuclear weapon", "United States invasion of Afghanistan", "United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement", "Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation", "climate change", "Polish people", "Exercise RIMPAC", "mutual assured destruction", "Jeremy Scahill", "sub-Saharan Africa", "North Atlantic Treaty", "Ambassador", "Amnesty International", "United States", "Foreign relations of the United States", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Oxford University Press", "United States Agency for International Development", "hegemony", "Jorge Rafael Videla", "The New York Times Magazine", "United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations", "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices", "Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)", "Prime Minister of Iran", "International Telecommunication Union", "Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–South Korea)", "Foreign Affairs", "Nuclear weapons delivery", "Mikuláš Dzurinda", "René Schneider", "Realism (international relations)", "Federal Communications Commission", "J. Edgar Hoover", "University Press of America", "Open Door Policy", "The New Yorker", "Carlos Castillo Armas", "Powell Doctrine", "Group of Seven", "Human rights in the United States", "Ground-Based Midcourse Defense", "imagery intelligence", "United Nations peacekeeping", "Patrice Lumumba", "Reservation (law)", "International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)", "Federal Aviation Administration", "Cambridge University Press", "Mohammad Mosaddegh", "Thailand", "free trade agreement", "United States missile defense complex in Poland", "John Adams", "Council on Foreign Relations", "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty", "Human Rights Record of the United States", "capitalism", "Anti-Americanism", "Niall Ferguson", "Time (magazine)", "Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen", "International relations (1919–1939)", "First Barbary War", "Yahya Khan", "South America", "Reid v. Covert", "Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty", "Texas annexation", "arms control", "Alfredo Stroessner", "Peru", "Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons", "LGBT rights by country or territory", "Non-Aligned Movement", "PublicAffairs", "Congressional Research Service", "Nationalization", "Peter Kornbluh", "Arms Trade Treaty", "International Opium Commission", "U.S. economy", "1953 Iranian coup d'état", "Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands", "Daniel Goldhagen", "Article Two of the United States Constitution", "ASEAN", "Mexican–American War", "United States Department of State", "Paraguay", "King Abdulaziz", "Newlands Resolution", "Joseph Stalin", "Compact of Free Association", "Defense pact", "soft power", "nation-building", "SUNY Press", "Diplomacy of the American Civil War", "Mahathir Mohamad", "Jerusalem", "ultra vires", "Energy policy of Canada", "George W. Bush", "sphere of influence", "Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Cannabis (drug)", "Middle East", "United States v. Pink", "Climate change in the United States", "Kyoto Protocol", "United States Senate", "The New York Review of Books", "2011 military intervention in Libya", "Yale University Press", "World Trade Organization", "Treaty of Versailles", "Ottawa Treaty", "Bratislava", "Global South", "United States invasion of Panama", "Houston Chronicle", "Timeline of United States military operations", "Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)", "Lend-Lease", "War of 1812", "Saudi Arabia", "Nicaragua", "Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action", "counterintelligence", "NATO", "Greg Grandin", "Hissène Habré", "MDMA", "collateral damage", "Webster–Ashburton Treaty", "Panama Canal", "Spencer R. Weart", "United States and the International Criminal Court", "The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability", "Atlantic Charter", "democide", "Latin America", "European Union", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "targeted killing", "White House", "Puritans", "CIA activities in Indonesia", "Bush Doctrine", "Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)", "attack on Pearl Harbor", "Routledge", "A Problem from Hell", "Winston Churchill", "Strategic Defense Initiative", "Indonesian invasion of East Timor", "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights", "Guatemalan genocide", "South Korea", "trade secret", "Stephen Schlesinger", "John Dinges", "Harvard Law Review", "Federated States of Micronesia", "Efraín Ríos Montt", "First Trump tariffs", "Federalist Party", "Presidency of Richard Nixon", "national security", "The New Republic", "Separation of Panama from Colombia", "Bay of Pigs Invasion", "Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001", "Neoconservatism", "1964 Brazilian coup d'état", "Shangri-La Dialogue", "Fourteen Points", "Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance", "Allies of World War II", "List of diplomatic missions in the United States", "March 1949 Syrian coup d'état", "World War II", "Martinus Nijhoff Publishers", "hydraulic fracturing", "Dominican Republic", "United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs", "2014 Winter Olympics", "Monroe Doctrine", "Perry Expedition", "George Washington's Farewell Address", "Mossad", "South Africa", "signals intelligence", "Alaska Purchase", "heroin", "life expectancy", "Quasi-War", "hard power", "Commander-in-chief", "Woodrow Wilson", "Media bias in the United States", "Détente", "State Council Information Office", "Bill Clinton", "Emperor Haile Selassie I", "Unmanned combat aerial vehicle", "Bahamas", "Persian Gulf", "Exercise Red Flag", "anti-Communist", "Ecuador", "opium", "counterterrorism", "Reuters", "The Nation", "Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan", "List of diplomatic missions of the United States", "Convention on Cluster Munitions", "National Endowment for Democracy", "methamphetamine", "Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations", "Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)" ]
7,565	Christmas in Poland	Christmas in Poland, known in the Polish language as Boże Narodzenie (God's Birth) or Gwiazdka (Little Star), is a major annual celebration, as in most countries of the Christian world. The observance of Christmas in Poland developed gradually over the centuries, beginning in ancient times; combining old Polish pagan customs with the religious practice introduced after the Christianization of Poland by the Catholic Church. Later influences include the mutual permeating of local traditions, lore, and folk culture. It is one of the most important religious holidays for Poles, who follow strict traditional customs, some of which are not found elsewhere in Europe. The Day of Saint Nicholas on 6 December is the unofficial beginning of the festive season in Poland. Well-behaved children receive small gifts on the day, whereas naughty children receive a lump of coal or a rózga twig. The highlight of the holiday is Christmas Eve on 24 December; Christmas trees are traditionally decorated and lit in family rooms on the morning of Christmas Eve. The Polish Wigilia supper begins with the appearance of the first star, which corresponds to the Star of Bethlehem. During preparation, hay is spread beneath the tablecloth as a reminder that Jesus Christ was born in a manger. An empty place setting is left symbolically at the table for the Lord or lost wanderer. They are lit on Christmas Eve before Wigilia. At the top of each tree there is a star or a glittering tree topper. In many homes, sparklers are hung on the branches of the trees for wintery ambiance. Sometimes the trees are left standing until February 2, the feast day of St. Mary of the Candle of Lighting. The next day (December 25) begins with the early morning mass followed by daytime masses. According to scripture, the Christmas Day masses are interchangeable allowing for greater flexibility in choosing the religious services by individual parishioners. ==Kolędy, the Christmas carols== Christmas carols are not celebrated in Poland until during-and-after the Christmas Vigil Mass called "Pasterka" held between 24 and 25 of December. The Christmas season often runs until February 2. The early hymns sung in the Catholic church were brought to Poland by the Franciscan Brothers in the Middle Ages. The early Christmas music was Latin in origin. When the Polish words and melodies started to become popular, including many new secular pastorals (, or shepherd's songs), they were not written down originally, but rather taught among people by heart. Notably, the song "God Is Born" (Bóg się rodzi) with lyrics written by Franciszek Karpiński in 1792 became the Christmas hymn of Poland already in the court of King Stefan Batory. Many of the early Polish carols were collected in 1838 by in a book called Pastorałki i Kolędy z Melodiami (Pastorals and Carols with Melodies), including "Midst Quiet Night". ==Polish hand-made Christmas ornaments== Poland produces some of the finest hand blown glass Christmas ornaments in Europe. Families and collectors value these ornaments for high quality, traditional artwork, and unique decorations.	[ "Catholic Church", "Star of Bethlehem", "gefilte fish", "Christmas Eve", "Christianization of Poland", "Midst Quiet Night", "Nativity scene", "carp", "Vegetarianism", "uszka", "Baby Jesus", "Polish language", "Jesus Christ", "Christmas ornament", "Christmas carols", "Polish people", "Franciscan Brothers of Peace", "feast day", "manger", "Twelve Apostles", "St. Nicholas", "Easter in Poland", "Christmas worldwide", "Poland", "Decorative arts", "Turoń", "God Is Born", "Pasterka", "Franciszek Karpiński", "compote", "Paganism", "Europe", "borscht", "UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage", "Advent", "Nativity of Jesus", "baptism of Jesus", "szopka", "tree topper", "Sanok", "Kraków szopka", "5th century", "fasting", "pastoral", "carols", "Christmas wafer", "Christmas carol", "nativity scene", "Christmas", "aspic", "Wigilia", "Epiphany (holiday)", "bigos", "Saint Nicholas Day", "Pierniki", "Bronisław Pięcik", "consommé", "Christian world", "Stefan Batory", "Christmas tree", "opłatek", "sparkler", "Kraków", "Kulig", "midnight mass", "makowiec (pastry)", "pierogi", "Middle Ages", "herring", "Christmas Day" ]
7,566	Carousel (musical)	Carousel is the second musical by the team of Richard Rodgers (music) and Oscar Hammerstein II (book and lyrics). The 1945 work was adapted from Ferenc Molnár's 1909 play Liliom, transplanting its Budapest setting to the Maine coastline. The story revolves around carousel barker Billy Bigelow, whose romance with millworker Julie Jordan comes at the price of both their jobs. He participates in a robbery to provide for Julie and their unborn child; after it goes tragically wrong, he is given a chance to make things right. A secondary plot line deals with millworker Carrie Pipperidge and her romance with ambitious fisherman Enoch Snow. The show includes the songs "If I Loved You", "June Is Bustin' Out All Over" and "You'll Never Walk Alone". Richard Rodgers later wrote that Carousel was his favorite of all his musicals. Following the spectacular success of the first Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, Oklahoma! (1943), the pair sought to collaborate on another piece, knowing that any resulting work would be compared with Oklahoma!, most likely unfavorably. They were initially reluctant to seek the rights to Liliom; Molnár had refused permission for the work to be adapted in the past, and the original ending was considered too depressing for the musical theatre. After acquiring the rights, the team created a work with lengthy sequences of music and made the ending more hopeful. The musical required considerable modification during out-of-town tryouts, but once it opened on Broadway on April 19, 1945, it was an immediate hit with both critics and audiences. Carousel initially ran for 890 performances and duplicated its success in the West End in 1950. Though it has never achieved as much commercial success as Oklahoma!, the piece has been repeatedly revived, recorded several times and was filmed in 1956. A production by Nicholas Hytner enjoyed success in 1992 in London, in 1994 in New York and on tour. Another Broadway revival opened in 2018. In 1999, Time magazine named Carousel the best musical of the 20th century. == Background == === Liliom === Ferenc Molnár's Hungarian-language drama, Liliom, premiered in Budapest in 1909. The audience was puzzled by the work, and it lasted only thirty-odd performances before being withdrawn, the first shadow on Molnár's successful career as a playwright. Liliom was not presented again until after World War I. When it reappeared on the Budapest stage, it was a tremendous hit. Except for the ending, the plots of Liliom and Carousel are very similar. Andreas Zavocky (nicknamed Liliom, the Hungarian word for "lily", a slang term for "tough guy"), a carnival barker, falls in love with Julie Zeller, a servant girl, and they begin living together. With both discharged from their jobs, Liliom is discontented and contemplates leaving Julie, but decides not to do so on learning that she is pregnant. A subplot involves Julie's friend Marie, who has fallen in love with Wolf Biefeld, a hotel porter—after the two marry, he becomes the owner of the hotel. Desperate to make money so that he, Julie and their child can escape to America and a better life, Liliom conspires with lowlife Ficsur to commit a robbery, but it goes badly, and Liliom stabs himself. He dies, and his spirit is taken to heaven's police court. As Ficsur suggested while the two waited to commit the crime, would-be robbers like them do not come before God Himself. Liliom is told by the magistrate that he may go back to Earth for one day to attempt to redeem the wrongs he has done to his family, but must first spend sixteen years in a fiery purgatory. An English translation of Liliom was credited to Benjamin "Barney" Glazer, though there is a story that the actual translator, uncredited, was Rodgers' first major partner Lorenz Hart. A 1940 revival with Burgess Meredith and Ingrid Bergman was seen by both Hammerstein and Rodgers. Glazer, in introducing the English translation of Liliom, wrote of the play's appeal: And where in modern dramatic literature can such pearls be matched—Julie incoherently confessing to her dead lover the love she had always been ashamed to tell; Liliom crying out to the distant carousel the glad news that he is to be a father; the two thieves gambling for the spoils of their prospective robbery; Marie and Wolf posing for their portrait while the broken-hearted Julie stands looking after the vanishing Liliom, the thieves' song ringing in her ears; the two policemen grousing about pay and pensions while Liliom lies bleeding to death; Liliom furtively proffering his daughter the star he has stolen for her in heaven. ... The temptation to count the whole scintillating string is difficult to resist. === Inception === In the 1920s and 1930s, Rodgers and Hammerstein both became well known for creating Broadway hits with other partners. Rodgers, with Lorenz Hart, had produced a string of over two dozen musicals, including such popular successes as Babes in Arms (1937), The Boys from Syracuse (1938) and Pal Joey (1940). Some of Rodgers' work with Hart broke new ground in musical theatre: On Your Toes was the first use of ballet to sustain the plot (in the "Slaughter on Tenth Avenue" scene), while Pal Joey flouted Broadway tradition by presenting a knave as its hero. Hammerstein had written or co-written the words for such hits as Rose-Marie (1924), The Desert Song (1926), The New Moon (1927) and Show Boat (1927). Though less productive in the 1930s, he wrote material for musicals and films, sharing an Oscar for his song with Jerome Kern, "The Last Time I Saw Paris", which was included in the 1941 film Lady Be Good. By the early 1940s, Hart had sunk into alcoholism and emotional turmoil, becoming unreliable and prompting Rodgers to approach Hammerstein to ask if he would consider working with him. Hammerstein was eager to do so, and their first collaboration was Oklahoma! (1943). Thomas Hischak states, in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, that Oklahoma! is "the single most influential work in the American musical theatre. In fact, the history of the Broadway musical can accurately be divided into what came before Oklahoma! and what came after it." An innovation for its time in integrating song, character, plot and dance, Oklahoma! would serve, according to Hischak, as "the model for Broadway shows for decades", As they considered new projects, Hammerstein wrote, "We're such fools. No matter what we do, everyone is bound to say, 'This is not another Oklahoma!' " Oklahoma! had been a struggle to finance and produce. Hammerstein and Rodgers met weekly in 1943 with Theresa Helburn and Lawrence Langner of the Theatre Guild, producers of the blockbuster musical, who together formed what they termed "the Gloat Club". At one such luncheon, Helburn and Langner proposed to Rodgers and Hammerstein that they turn Molnár's Liliom into a musical. Both men refused—they had no feeling for the Budapest setting and thought that the unhappy ending was unsuitable for musical theatre. At the next luncheon, Helburn and Langner again proposed Liliom, suggesting that they move the setting to Louisiana and make Liliom a Creole. Rodgers and Hammerstein played with the idea over the next few weeks, but decided that Creole dialect, filled with "zis" and "zose", would sound corny and would make it difficult to write effective lyrics. Hammerstein wrote of this suggestion in 1945, I began to see an attractive ensemble—sailors, whalers, girls who worked in the mills up the river, clambakes on near-by islands, an amusement park on the seaboard, things people could do in crowds, people who were strong and alive and lusty, people who had always been depicted on the stage as thin-lipped puritans—a libel I was anxious to refute ... as for the two leading characters, Julie with her courage and inner strength and outward simplicity seemed more indigenous to Maine than to Budapest. Liliom is, of course, an international character, indigenous to nowhere. Rodgers and Hammerstein were also concerned about what they termed "the tunnel" of Molnár's second act—a series of gloomy scenes leading up to Liliom's suicide—followed by a dark ending. They also felt it would be difficult to set Liliom's motivation for the robbery to music. and producing I Remember Mama on Broadway. Meanwhile, the Theatre Guild took Molnár to see Oklahoma! Molnár stated that if Rodgers and Hammerstein could adapt Liliom as beautifully as they had modified Green Grow the Lilacs into Oklahoma!, he would be pleased to have them do it. The Guild obtained the rights from Molnár in October 1943. The playwright received one percent of the gross and $2,500 for "personal services". The duo insisted, as part of the contract, that Molnár permit them to make changes in the plot. At first, the playwright refused, but eventually yielded. Hammerstein later stated that if this point had not been won, "we could never have made Carousel." In seeking to establish through song Liliom's motivation for the robbery, Rodgers remembered that he and Hart had a similar problem in Pal Joey. Rodgers and Hart had overcome the problem with a song that Joey sings to himself, "I'm Talking to My Pal". This inspired "Soliloquy". Both partners later told a story that "Soliloquy" was only intended to be a song about Liliom's dreams of a son, but that Rodgers, who had two daughters, insisted that Liliom consider that Julie might have a girl. However, the notes taken at their meeting of December 7, 1943, state: "Mr. Rodgers suggested a fine musical number for the end of the scene where Liliom discovers he is to be a father, in which he sings first with pride of the growth of a boy, and then suddenly realizes it might be a girl and changes completely." Hammerstein and Rodgers returned to the Liliom project in mid-1944. Hammerstein was uneasy as he worked, fearing that no matter what they did, Molnár would disapprove of the results. "This Was a Real Nice Clambake" was repurposed from a song, "A Real Nice Hayride", written for Oklahoma! but not used. Molnár's ending was unsuitable, and after a couple of false starts, Hammerstein conceived the graduation scene that ends the musical. According to Frederick Nolan in his book on the team's works: "From that scene the song "You'll Never Walk Alone" sprang almost naturally." In spite of Hammerstein's simple lyrics for "You'll Never Walk Alone", Rodgers had great difficulty in setting it to music. Rodgers explained his rationale for the changed ending, Liliom was a tragedy about a man who cannot learn to live with other people. The way Molnár wrote it, the man ends up hitting his daughter and then having to go back to purgatory, leaving his daughter helpless and hopeless. We couldn't accept that. The way we ended Carousel it may still be a tragedy but it's a hopeful one because in the final scene it is clear that the child has at last learned how to express herself and communicate with others. When the pair decided to make "This Was a Real Nice Clambake" into an ensemble number, Hammerstein realized he had no idea what a clambake was like, and researched the matter. Based on his initial findings, he wrote the line, "First came codfish chowder". However, further research convinced him the proper term was "codhead chowder", a term unfamiliar to many playgoers. He decided to keep it as "codfish". When the song proceeded to discuss the lobsters consumed at the feast, Hammerstein wrote the line "We slit 'em down the back/And peppered 'em good". He was grieved to hear from a friend that lobsters are always slit down the front. The lyricist sent a researcher to a seafood restaurant and heard back that lobsters are always slit down the back. Hammerstein concluded that there is disagreement about which side of a lobster is the back. One error not caught involved the song "June Is Bustin' Out All Over", in which sheep are depicted as seeking to mate in late spring—they actually do so in the winter. Whenever this was brought to Hammerstein's attention, he told his informant that 1873 was a special year, in which sheep mated in the spring. Rodgers early decided to dispense with an overture, feeling that the music was hard to hear over the banging of seats as latecomers settled themselves. In his autobiography, Rodgers complained that only the brass section can be heard during an overture because there are never enough strings in a musical's small orchestra. He determined to force the audience to concentrate from the beginning by opening with a pantomime scene accompanied by what became known as "The Carousel Waltz". The pantomime paralleled one in the Molnár play, which was also used to introduce the characters and situation to the audience. === Casting and out-of-town tryouts === The casting for Carousel began when Oklahoma!'s production team, including Rodgers and Hammerstein, was seeking a replacement for the part of Curly (the male lead in Oklahoma!). Lawrence Langner had heard, through a relative, of a California singer named John Raitt, who might be suitable for the part. Langner went to hear Raitt, then urged the others to bring Raitt to New York for an audition. Raitt asked to sing "Largo al factotum", Figaro's aria from The Barber of Seville, to warm up. The warmup was sufficient to convince the producers that not only had they found a Curly, they had found a Liliom (or Billy Bigelow, as the part was renamed). Theresa Helburn made another California discovery, Jan Clayton, a singer/actress who had made a few minor films for MGM. She was brought east and successfully auditioned for the part of Julie. Rodgers and Hammerstein reassembled much of the creative team that had made Oklahoma! a success, including director Rouben Mamoulian and choreographer Agnes de Mille. Miles White was the costume designer while Jo Mielziner (who had not worked on Oklahoma!) was the scenic and lighting designer. Even though Oklahoma! orchestrator Russell Bennett had informed Rodgers that he was unavailable to work on Carousel due to a radio contract, Rodgers insisted he do the work in his spare time. He orchestrated "The Carousel Waltz" and "(When I Marry) Mister Snow" before finally being replaced by Don Walker. A new member of the creative team was Trude Rittmann, who arranged the dance music. Rittmann initially felt that Rodgers mistrusted her because she was a woman, and found him difficult to work with, but the two worked together on Rodgers' shows until the 1970s. Rehearsals began in January 1945; Raitt was presented with the lyrics for "Soliloquy" on a five-foot long sheet of paper—the piece ran nearly eight minutes. Staging such a long solo number presented problems, and Raitt later stated that he felt that they were never fully addressed. At some point during rehearsals, Molnár came to see what they had done to his play. There are a number of variations on the story. As Rodgers told it, while watching rehearsals with Hammerstein, the composer spotted Molnár in the rear of the theatre and whispered the news to his partner. Both sweated through an afternoon of rehearsal in which nothing seemed to go right. At the end, the two walked to the back of the theatre, expecting an angry reaction from Molnár. Instead, the playwright said enthusiastically, "What you have done is so beautiful. And you know what I like best? The ending!" Hammerstein wrote that Molnár became a regular attendee at rehearsals after that. in the second act, as Billy looks down to the Earth from "Up There" and observes his daughter. In the original production the ballet was choreographed by de Mille. It began with Billy looking down from heaven at his wife in labor, with the village women gathered for a "birthing". The ballet involved every character in the play, some of whom spoke lines of dialogue, and contained a number of subplots. The focus was on Louise, played by Bambi Linn, who at first almost soars in her dance, expressing the innocence of childhood. She is teased and mocked by her schoolmates, and Louise becomes attracted to the rough carnival people, who symbolize Billy's world. A youth from the carnival attempts to seduce Louise, as she discovers her own sexuality, but he decides she is more girl than woman, and he leaves her. After Julie comforts her, Louise goes to a children's party, where she is shunned. The carnival people reappear and form a ring around the children's party, with Louise lost between the two groups. At the end, the performers form a huge carousel with their bodies. The play opened for tryouts in New Haven, Connecticut, on March 22, 1945. The first act was well-received; the second act was not. Casto recalled that the second act finished about 1:30 a.m. By the time the company left New Haven, de Mille's ballet was down to forty minutes. before whom Billy appeared after his death. Mr. and Mrs. God were depicted as a New England minister and his wife, seen in their parlor. The couple was still part of the show at the Boston opening. and Mrs. God was removed from the show. Three weeks of tryouts in Boston followed the brief New Haven run, and the audience there gave the musical a warm reception. "The Carousel Waltz" – Orchestra "You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan" – Carrie Pipperidge and Julie Jordan "(When I Marry) Mister Snow" – Carrie "If I Loved You" – Billy Bigelow and Julie "June Is Bustin' Out All Over" – Nettie Fowler and Chorus "(When I Marry) Mister Snow" (reprise) – Carrie, Enoch Snow and Female Chorus "When the Children Are Asleep" – Enoch and Carrie "Blow High, Blow Low" – Jigger Craigin, Billy and Male Chorus "Soliloquy" – Billy Act II Bambi Linn, who played Louise, was so enthusiastically received by the audience during her ballet that she was forced to break character, when she next appeared, and bow. Rodgers' daughter Mary caught sight of her friend, Stephen Sondheim, both teenagers then, across several rows; both had eyes wet with tears. After closing on Broadway, the show went on a national tour for two years. It played for five months in Chicago alone, visited twenty states and two Canadian cities, covered and played to nearly two million people. The touring company had a four-week run at New York City Center in January 1949. Following the City Center run, the show was moved back to the Majestic Theatre starring Stephen Douglass (Billy) and Iva Withers (Julie), in the hopes of filling the theatre until South Pacific opened in early April. Ticket sales were mediocre, however, and the show closed almost a month early. The musical premiered in the West End, London, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, on June 7, 1950. The production was restaged by Jerome Whyte, with a cast that included Douglass and Withers reprising their roles as Billy and Julie, and Margot Moser as Carrie. Carousel ran in London for 566 performances, remaining there for over a year and a half. === Subsequent productions === Carousel was revived in 1954 and 1957 at City Center, presented by the New York City Center Light Opera Company. Both times, the production featured Barbara Cook, though she played Carrie in 1954 and Julie in 1957 (playing alongside Howard Keel as Billy). The production was then taken to Belgium to be performed at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair, with David Atkinson as Billy, Ruth Kobart as Nettie, and Clayton reprising the role of Julie, which she had originated. The following year, New York City Center Light Opera Company brought Carousel back to City Center for 22 performances, with Bruce Yarnell as Billy and Constance Towers as Julie. As they proceed on a revolving stage, carnival characters appear, and at last the carousel is assembled onstage for the girls to ride. Louise is seduced by the ruffian boy during her Act 2 ballet, set around the ruins of a carousel. Clive Rowe, as Enoch, was nominated for an Olivier Award. Enoch and Carrie were cast as an interracial couple whose eight children, according to the review in The New York Times, looked like "a walking United Colors of Benetton ad". It re-opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London in September 1993, presented by Cameron Mackintosh, where it continued until May 1994. The Hytner production moved to New York's Vivian Beaumont Theater, where it opened on March 24, 1994, and ran for 322 performances. Replacements for Billy included Marcus Lovett and James Barbour. One change made from the London to the New York production was to have Billy strike Louise across the face, rather than on the hand. According to Hayden, "He does the one unpardonable thing, the thing we can't forgive. It's a challenge for the audience to like him after that." The Hytner Carousel was presented in Japan in May 1995. A U.S. national tour with a scaled-down production began in February 1996 in Houston and closed in May 1997 in Providence, Rhode Island. Producers sought to feature young talent on the tour, and later Jennifer Laura Thompson, as Julie. A revival opened at London's Savoy Theatre on December 2, 2008, after a week of previews, starring Jeremiah James (Billy), Alexandra Silber (Julie) and Lesley Garrett (Nettie). The production received warm to mixed reviews. It closed in June 2009, a month early. Michael Coveney, writing in The Independent, admired Rodgers' music but stated, "Lindsay Posner's efficient revival doesn't hold a candle to the National Theatre 1992 version". A semi-staged revival by the English National Opera opened at the London Coliseum in 2017. The production was directed by Lonny Price, conducted by David Charles Abell, and starred Alfie Boe as Billy, Katherine Jenkins as Julie and Nicholas Lyndhurst as the Starkeeper. The production received mixed to positive reviews. The third Broadway revival began previews on February 28, 2018, at the Imperial Theatre and officially opened on April 12. It closed on September 16, 2018. The production starred Jessie Mueller, Joshua Henry, Renée Fleming, Lindsay Mendez and Alexander Gemignani. The production was directed by Jack O'Brien and choreographed by Justin Peck. The songs "Geraniums in the Winder" and "There's Nothin' So Bad for a Woman" were cut from this revival. Ben Brantley wrote in The New York Times, "The tragic inevitability of Carousel has seldom come across as warmly or as chillingly as it does in this vividly reimagined revival. ... [W]ith thoughtful and powerful performances by Mr. Henry and Ms. Mueller, the love story at the show's center has never seemed quite as ill-starred or, at the same time, as sexy. ... [T]he Starkeeper ... assumes new visibility throughout, taking on the role of Billy's angelic supervisor." Brantley strongly praised the choreography, all the performances and the designers. He was unconvinced, however, by the "mother-daughter dialogue that falls so abrasively on contemporary ears", where Julie tries to justify loving an abusive man, and other scenes in Act 2, particularly those set in heaven, and the optimism of the final scene. Most of the reviewers agreed that while the choreography and performances (especially the singing) were excellent, characterizing the production as sexy and sumptuous, O'Brien's direction did little to help the show deal with modern sensibilities about men's treatment of women, instead indulging in nostalgia. From July to September 2021 the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre in London is presenting a staging by its artistic director Timothy Sheader, with choreography by Drew McOnie. The cast included Carly Bawden as Julie, Declan Bennett as Billy and Joanna Riding as Nettie. === Film, television and concert versions === A film version of the musical was made in 1956, starring Gordon MacRae and Shirley Jones. It follows the musical's story fairly closely, although a prologue, set in the Starkeeper's heaven, was added. The film was released only a few months after the release of the film version of Oklahoma! It garnered some good reviews, and the soundtrack recording was a best seller. As the same stars appeared in both pictures, however, the two films were often compared, generally to the disadvantage of Carousel. Thomas Hischak, in The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, later wondered "if the smaller number of Carousel stage revivals is the product of this often-lumbering [film] musical". There was also an abridged (100 minute) 1967 network television version that starred Robert Goulet, with choreography by Edward Villella. In 2002, Carnegie Hall presented a concert of the musical starring Hugh Jackman and Audra McDonald as Billy and Julie, directed by Walter Bobbie. Other cast members included Jason Danieley, Judy Kaye, Lauren Ward, Norbert Leo Butz, Philip Bosco and Blythe Danner. The New York Philharmonic presented a staged concert version of the musical from February 28 to March 2, 2013, at Avery Fisher Hall. Kelli O'Hara played Julie, with Nathan Gunn as Billy, Stephanie Blythe as Nettie, Jessie Mueller as Carrie, Danieley as Enoch, Shuler Hensley as Jigger, John Cullum as the Starkeeper, and Kate Burton as Mrs. Mullin. Tiler Peck danced the role of Louise to choreography by Warren Carlyle. The production was directed by John Rando and conducted by Rob Fisher. Charles Isherwood of The New York Times wrote, "this is as gorgeously sung a production of this sublime 1945 Broadway musical as you are ever likely to hear." It was broadcast as part of the PBS Live from Lincoln Center series, premiering on April 26, 2013. == Music and recordings == === Musical treatment === Rodgers designed Carousel to be an almost continuous stream of music, especially in Act 1. In later years, Rodgers was asked if he had considered writing an opera. He stated that he had been sorely tempted to, but saw Carousel in operatic terms. He remembered, "We came very close to opera in the Majestic Theatre. ... There's much that is operatic in the music." Rodgers uses music in Carousel in subtle ways to differentiate characters and tell the audience of their emotional state. In "You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan", the music for the placid Carrie is characterized by even eighth-note rhythms, whereas the emotionally restless Julie's music is marked by dotted eighths and sixteenths; this rhythm will characterize her throughout the show. When Billy whistles a snatch of the song, he selects Julie's dotted notes rather than Carrie's. Reflecting the close association in the music between Julie and the as-yet unborn Louise, when Billy sings in "Soliloquy" of his daughter, who "gets hungry every night", he uses Julie's dotted rhythms. Such rhythms also characterize Julie's Act 2 song, "What's the Use of Wond'rin'". The stable love between Enoch and Carrie is strengthened by her willingness to let Enoch not only plan his entire life, but hers as well. This is reflected in "When the Children Are Asleep", where the two sing in close harmony, but Enoch musically interrupts his intended's turn at the chorus with the words "Dreams that won't be interrupted". Rodgers biographer Geoffrey Block, in his book on the Broadway musical, points out that though Billy may strike his wife, he allows her musical themes to become a part of him and never interrupts her music. Block suggests that, as reprehensible as Billy may be for his actions, Enoch requiring Carrie to act as "the little woman", and his having nine children with her (more than she had found acceptable in "When the Children are Asleep") can be considered to be even more abusive. The twelve-minute "bench scene", in which Billy and Julie get to know each other and which culminates with "If I Loved You", according to Hischak, "is considered the most completely integrated piece of music-drama in the American musical theatre". "If I Loved You" has been recorded many times, by such diverse artists as Frank Sinatra, Barbra Streisand, Sammy Davis Jr., Mario Lanza and Chad and Jeremy. When the pair discussed the song that would become "Soliloquy", Rodgers improvised at the piano to give Hammerstein an idea of how he envisioned the song. When Hammerstein presented his collaborator with the lyrics after two weeks of work (Hammerstein always wrote the words first, then Rodgers would write the melodies), Rodgers wrote the music for the eight-minute song in two hours. "What's the Use of Wond'rin' ", one of Julie's songs, worked well in the show but was never as popular on the radio or for recording, and Hammerstein believed that the lack of popularity was because he had concluded the final line, "And all the rest is talk" with a hard consonant, which does not allow the singer a vocal climax. When singer Mel Tormé told Rodgers that "You'll Never Walk Alone" had made him cry, Rodgers nodded impatiently. "You're supposed to." The frequently recorded song has become a widely accepted hymn. The cast recording of Carousel proved popular in Liverpool, like many Broadway albums, and in 1963, the Brian Epstein-managed band, Gerry and the Pacemakers had a number-one hit with the song. At the time, the top ten hits were played before Liverpool F.C. home matches; even after "You'll Never Walk Alone" dropped out of the top ten, fans continued to sing it, and it has become closely associated with the soccer team and the city of Liverpool. A BBC program, Soul Music, ranked it alongside "Silent Night" and "Abide With Me" in terms of its emotional impact and iconic status. A number of songs were cut for the 1956 film, but two of the deleted numbers had been recorded and were ultimately retained on the soundtrack album. The expanded CD version of the soundtrack, issued in 2001, contains all of the singing recorded for the film, including the cut portions, and nearly all of the dance music. The recording of the 1965 Lincoln Center revival featured Raitt reprising the role of Billy. Studio recordings of Carousel's songs were released in 1956 (with Robert Merrill as Billy, Patrice Munsel as Julie, and Florence Henderson as Carrie), 1962 and 1987. The 1987 version featured a mix of opera and musical stars, including Samuel Ramey, Barbara Cook and Sarah Brightman. Kenrick judges the 1994 recording the best all-around performance of Carousel on disc, despite uneven singing by Hayden, due to Sally Murphy's Julie and the strong supporting cast (calling Audra McDonald the best Carrie he has heard). == Critical reception and legacy == The musical received almost unanimous rave reviews after its opening in 1945. According to Hischak, reviews were not as exuberant as for Oklahoma! as the critics were not taken by surprise this time. John Chapman of the Daily News termed it "one of the finest musical plays I have ever seen and I shall remember it always". The New York Times's reviewer, Lewis Nichols, stated that "Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein 2d, who can do no wrong, have continued doing no wrong in adapting Liliom into a musical play. Their Carousel is on the whole delightful." Wilella Waldorf of the New York Post, however, complained, "Carousel seemed to us a rather long evening. The Oklahoma! formula is becoming a bit monotonous and so are Miss de Mille's ballets. All right, go ahead and shoot!" Dance Magazine gave Linn plaudits for her role as Louise, stating, "Bambi doesn't come on until twenty minutes before eleven, and for the next forty minutes, she practically holds the audience in her hand". In 1954, when Carousel was revived at City Center, Atkinson discussed the musical in his review: Carousel has no comment to make on anything of topical importance. The theme is timeless and universal: the devotion of two people who love each other through thick and thin, complicated in this case by the wayward personality of the man, who cannot fulfill the responsibilities he has assumed. ... Billy is a bum, but Carousel recognizes the decency of his motives and admires his independence. There are no slick solutions in Carousel. Stephen Sondheim noted the duo's ability to take the innovations of Oklahoma! and apply them to a serious setting: "Oklahoma! is about a picnic, Carousel is about life and death." Critic Eric Bentley, on the other hand, wrote that "the last scene of Carousel is an impertinence: I refuse to be lectured to by a musical comedy scriptwriter on the education of children, the nature of the good life, and the contribution of the American small town to the salvation of souls." New York Times critic Frank Rich said of the 1992 London production: "What is remarkable about Mr. Hytner's direction, aside from its unorthodox faith in the virtues of simplicity and stillness, is its ability to make a 1992 audience believe in Hammerstein's vision of redemption, which has it that a dead sinner can return to Earth to do godly good." The Hytner production in New York was hailed by many critics as a grittier Carousel, which they deemed more appropriate for the 1990s. Clive Barnes of the New York Post called it a "defining Carousel—hard-nosed, imaginative, and exciting." BroadwayWorld.com stated in 2013 that Carousel is now "considered somewhat controversial in terms of its attitudes on domestic violence" because Julie chooses to stay with Billy despite the abuse; actress Kelli O'Hara noted that the domestic violence that Julie "chooses to deal with – is a real, existing and very complicated thing. And exploring it is an important part of healing it." Rodgers considered Carousel his favorite of all his musicals and wrote, "it affects me deeply every time I see it performed". Hammerstein's grandson, Oscar Andrew Hammerstein, in his book about his family, suggested that the wartime situation made Carousel's ending especially poignant to its original viewers, "Every American grieved the loss of a brother, son, father, or friend ... the audience empathized with [Billy's] all-too-human efforts to offer advice, to seek forgiveness, to complete an unfinished life, and to bid a proper good-bye from beyond the grave." Author and composer Ethan Mordden agreed with that perspective: If Oklahoma! developed the moral argument for sending American boys overseas, Carousel offered consolation to those wives and mothers whose boys would only return in spirit. The meaning lay not in the tragedy of the present, but in the hope for a future where no one walks alone. == Awards and nominations == === Original 1945 Broadway production=== Note: The Tony Awards were not established until 1947, and so Carousel was not eligible to win any Tonys for the original Broadway production. === 1957 revival === === 1992 London revival === === 1994 Broadway revival === ===2018 Broadway revival===	[ "Hugh Jackman", "Agnes de Mille", "Jason Danieley", "Blythe Danner", "Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical", "Dance Magazine", "Shirley Verrett", "Edward Everett Horton", "Bob Crowley", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Orchestrations", "New England", "Philip Bosco", "Barbra Streisand", "Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical", "Don Walker (orchestrator)", "Avery Fisher Hall", "Mario Lanza", "The Barber of Seville", "Stephanie Blythe", "Jean Darling", "Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical", "Jonathan Tunick", "Barbara Cook", "Stephen Douglass", "Walter Bobbie", "You'll Never Walk Alone", "Clive Rowe", "Meryle Secrest", "Mandy Patinkin", "Theatre Guild", "New Haven, Connecticut", "Justin Peck", "Kate Burton (actress)", "Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival", "Patrice Munsel", "Frederick Nolan (writer)", "Regent's Park Open Air Theatre", "Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical", "Lonny Price", "Ben Brantley", "Ethan Mordden", "Theatre World Award", "Royal National Theatre", "Amar Ramasar", "David Charles Abell", "Budapest", "Shuler Hensley", "Liliom", "You'll Never Walk Alone (song)", "Cameron Mackintosh", "BBC Radio Theatre", "Norman Treigle", "John Raitt", "The Independent", "Lorenz Hart", "Burgess Meredith", "Norbert Leo Butz", "Charles Isherwood", "Fisher Stevens", "Jack O'Brien (director)", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreography", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lighting Design for a Musical", "Abide With Me", "Brian Epstein", "Clive Barnes (critic)", "72nd Tony Awards", "close harmony", "BBC", "Ruth Kobart", "Michael Billington (critic)", "Rose-Marie", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Set Design", "Lesley Garrett", "Russell Bennett", "Nicholas Hytner", "Gordon MacRae", "Mime artist", "On Your Toes", "New York Drama Critics Circle Award", "David Atkinson (baritone)", "Jerome Kern", "Samuel Ramey", "Oklahoma!", "New York City Center", "Green Grow the Lilacs (play)", "New York Philharmonic", "World War I", "Patrick Wilson", "Dotted note", "Wilella Waldorf", "Katherine Jenkins", "Edward Villella", "Ian Bradley", "Laurence Olivier Award", "Tony Award for Best Orchestrations", "Theater Basel", "Ingrid Bergman", "Joanna Riding", "Liverpool F.C.", "Brooks Atkinson", "Shirley Jones", "Sammy Davis Jr.", "Slaughter on Tenth Avenue", "I Remember Mama (play)", "Ann Crowley (singer)", "Agnes DeMille", "Oklahoma! (film)", "Judy Kaye", "Eric Bentley", "Tony Award for Best Scenic Design of a Musical", "Howard Keel", "Frank Sinatra", "revival (theatre)", "Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical", "Louisiana Creole people", "Imperial Theatre", "Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical", "Drama Desk Award", "Chad and Jeremy", "Vivian Beaumont Theater", "Mel Tormé", "Michael Hayden (actor)", "Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical", "New York Post", "Bruce Yarnell", "Jane Elliot", "Brian MacDevitt", "Oliver Smith (designer)", "Olivier Award for Best Theatre Choreographer", "Tony Award for Best Sound Design", "The Boys from Syracuse", "Tiler Peck", "Carousel (film)", "Paul Pyant", "Frank Rich", "American Broadcasting Company", "Lauren Ward", "Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical", "Tony Award for Best Costume Design in a Musical", "John Fearnley", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival", "Mary Rodgers", "Nathan Gunn", "Largo al factotum", "If I Loved You", "West End theatre", "Silent Night", "London Coliseum", "John Cullum", "Rob Fisher (conductor)", "Florence Henderson", "New York Herald Tribune", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Scenic Design of a Musical", "Lawrence Langner", "Robert Goulet", "Show Boat", "Murvyn Vye", "State Fair (1945 film)", "Rotary International", "Jennifer Laura Thompson", "Jerry Orbach", "Renée Fleming", "Richard Rodgers", "Alfie Boe", "dress rehearsal", "Theatre Royal, Drury Lane", "Lincoln Center", "Sixteenth note", "Academy Awards", "The New Republic", "Babes in Arms", "Miles White", "Marcus Lovett", "eighth-note", "Tony Award for Best Scenic Design", "Russell Collins", "Daily News (New York)", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical", "Declan Bennett", "Soliloquy (song)", "carousel", "Jessie Mueller", "The Stage", "Christine Johnson (actress)", "Pal Joey (musical)", "Brittany Pollack", "Geoffrey Block", "Robert Merrill", "Benjamin Glazer", "Timothy Sheader", "Roberta Peters", "Claramae Turner", "John Rando", "Connecticut", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical", "Gramophone record", "Warren Carlyle", "Tony Award", "Broadway theatre", "Tony Award for Best Choreography", "Stanley Green (historian)", "Patricia Routledge", "MGM", "Providence, Rhode Island", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Musical", "Maine", "Theresa Helburn", "English National Opera", "John Kenrick (theatre writer)", "Sarah Uriarte Berry", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Costume Design", "cast album", "Janie Dee", "Bambi Linn", "Barker (occupation)", "Olivier Award", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical", "Lee Venora", "Nicholas Lyndhurst", "Majestic Theatre (Broadway)", "Alexandra Silber", "Carnegie Hall", "New York Drama Critics' Circle Award", "Trude Rittmann", "barker (occupation)", "Psalm 23", "Time (magazine)", "Rodgers and Hammerstein", "James Barbour (singer)", "Joseph Schildkraut", "Ferenc Molnár", "Lindsay Mendez", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director of a Musical", "Rouben Mamoulian", "Cheryl Studer", "Stratford Festival", "Savoy Theatre", "Kenneth MacMillan", "PBS", "1958 Brussels World's Fair", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical", "Joshua Henry", "Live from Lincoln Center", "Stephen Sondheim", "Alfred Drake", "Lady Be Good (1941 film)", "musical theatre", "Eddie Korbich", "Gerry and the Pacemakers", "Alexander Gemignani", "Donaldson Awards", "Jo Mielziner", "Reid Shelton", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Sound Design in a Musical", "Kelli O'Hara", "The New Moon", "Rhode Island", "Iva Withers", "Irving Berlin", "The New York Times", "Oscar Hammerstein II", "Ann Roth", "Olivier Award for Best Set Designer", "Constance Towers", "South Pacific (musical)", "Tony Award for Best Lighting Design in a Musical", "Shaftesbury Theatre", "Sarah Brightman", "Giacomo Puccini", "Jan Clayton", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical", "John Douglas Thompson", "The Desert Song", "Kurt Weill", "Audra McDonald", "Samuel Goldwyn", "The Last Time I Saw Paris (song)" ]
7,572	Christian alternative rock	Christian alternative rock is a form of alternative rock music that is lyrically grounded in a Christian worldview. Some critics have suggested that unlike CCM and older Christian rock, Christian alternative rock generally emphasizes musical style over lyrical content as a defining genre characteristic, though the degree to which the faith appears in the music varies from artist to artist. ==History== Christian alternative music has its roots in the early 1980s, as the earliest efforts at Christian punk and new wave were recorded by artists like Andy McCarroll and Moral Support, Undercover, the 77s, Steve Scott, Adam Again, Quickflight, Daniel Amos, Youth Choir (later renamed the Choir), Lifesavers Underground, Michael Knott, the Prayer Chain, Altar Boys, Breakfast with Amy, Steve Taylor, 4-4-1, David Edwards and Vector. Early labels, most now-defunct, included Blonde Vinyl, Frontline, Exit, and Refuge. By the 1990s, many of these bands and artists had disbanded, were no longer performing, or were being carried by independent labels because their music tended to be more lyrically complex (and often more controversial) than mainstream Christian pop. The modern market is currently supported by labels such as Tooth & Nail, Gotee and Floodgate. These companies are often children of, or partially owned, by general market labels such as Warner, EMI, and Capitol Records, giving successful artists an opportunity to "cross over" into mainstream markets.	[ "Tooth & Nail Records", "Altar Boys", "Breakfast with Amy", "4-4-1", "new wave music", "alternative rock", "Quickflight", "Lifesavers Underground", "Blonde Vinyl", "7ball", "Vector (band)", "HM: The Hard Music Magazine", "Alternative rock", "Christianity", "Exit Records", "Christian punk", "The Choir (alternative rock band)", "Capitol Records", "the 77s", "Michael Knott", "EMI", "the Prayer Chain", "Adam Again", "Floodgate Records", "True Tunes News", "Frontline Records", "Steve Taylor", "The Village Voice", "Warner Music Group", "Connecticut", "Steve Scott (poet)", "Contemporary Christian music", "Westport, Connecticut", "Christian rock", "Undercover (band)", "Gotee Records", "contemporary Christian music", "Refuge Records", "Daniel Amos" ]
7,573	Clive Barker	Clive Barker (born 5 October 1952) is an English writer, filmmaker, and visual artist. He came to prominence in the 1980s with a series of short stories collectively named the Books of Blood, which established him as a leading horror author. His work has been adapted into films, notably the Hellraiser series (the first installment of which he also wrote and directed) and the Candyman series. Barker's paintings and illustrations have been shown in galleries in the United States, and have appeared in his books. He has also created characters and series for comic books, and some of his more popular horror stories have been featured in ongoing comics series. ==Early life== Barker was born in Liverpool on 5 October 1952. His mother, Joan Ruby (née Revill), was a painter and school welfare officer; his father, Leonard Barker, worked as the personnel director for an industrial relations firm. He was educated at Dovedale Primary School and Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool before joining the University of Liverpool, where he studied English and philosophy. At the age of three, he witnessed the infamous death of French skydiver Léo Valentin, who plummeted to the ground during a performance at an air show in Liverpool. He would later allude to Valentin in many of his stories. == Theatrical work == Barker's involvement in live theatre began while still in school with productions of Voodoo and Inferno in 1967. He collaborated on six plays with Theatre of the Imagination in 1974 and two more that he was the sole writer of, A Clowns' Sodom and Day of the Dog, for The Mute Pantomime Theatre in 1976 and 1977. Barker co-founded the avant-garde theatrical troupe The Dog Company in 1978 with former schoolmates and up-and-coming actors, many of whom would go on to become key collaborators in his film work; Doug Bradley, his long-time friend and former classmate at Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool, took on the now-iconic role of Pinhead in the Hellraiser series while Peter Atkins wrote the scripts for the first three Hellraiser sequels. Over the next five years Barker wrote nine plays, often serving as director, including some of his best-known stage productions, The History of The Devil, Frankenstein in Love, and The Secret Life of Cartoons. He began writing early in his career, mostly in the form of short stories (collected in Books of Blood 1–6) and the Faustian novel The Damnation Game (1985). Later he moved toward modern-day fantasy and urban fantasy with horror elements in Weaveworld (1987), The Great and Secret Show (1989), the world-spanning Imajica (1991), and Sacrament (1996). When Books of Blood was first published in the United States in paperback, Stephen King was quoted on the book covers: "I have seen the future of horror and his name is Clive Barker." As influences on his writing, Barker lists Herman Melville, Edgar Allan Poe, Ray Bradbury, William S. Burroughs, William Blake, and Jean Cocteau, among others. He is the writer of the best-selling Abarat series. In early 2024, he announced he would stop attending conventions and public events so he could focus more on his writing, as he was working on the manuscripts for 31 different projects, some closer to completion than others. ==Personal life== Barker stated on Loveline in 1996 that he had several relationships with older women during his teenage years, but realised he was gay when he was around 18 or 19 years old. He dated John Gregson from 1975 to 1986, and was later in a relationship from 1996 to 2009 with photographer David Armstrong, who was described as his husband in the introduction to Coldheart Canyon. During his early years as a writer, Barker occasionally worked as an escort when his writing did not provide sufficient income. He has been open about his experiences with sadomasochism, calling himself a "six" on its "sliding scale". In 2003, Barker received the Davidson/Valentini Award at the 15th GLAAD Media Awards. Barker is critical of organized religion, but has said that the Bible influences his work and spirituality. In 2017, he clarified on Facebook that he did not identify as a Christian. Barker said in a December 2008 online interview (published in March 2009) that he had throat polyps which were so severe that a doctor told him he was taking in only 10% of the air he was supposed to. He has had two surgical procedures to remove them and believes his voice has improved as a result. He said he did not have cancer and has given up cigars. In 2012, Barker fell into a coma for several days after contracting toxic shock syndrome, triggered by a visit to a dentist where a spillage of poisonous bacteria entered his bloodstream and almost killed him. Realising he might have just a short time to live, he decided to put his personal concerns about the world and society into the novel Deep Hill, which he thought could be his final book. As of 2015, Barker is a member of the board of advisers for the Hollywood Horror Museum. ==Film work== Barker wrote the screenplays for Underworld (1985) and Rawhead Rex (1986), both directed by George Pavlou. Displeased by how his material was handled, he moved to directing with Hellraiser (1987), based on his novella The Hellbound Heart. After his film Nightbreed (1990) flopped, Barker returned to write and direct Lord of Illusions (1995). The short story "The Forbidden", from Barker's Books of Blood, provided the basis for the 1992 film Candyman and its three sequels. He had been working on a series of film adaptations of his The Abarat Quintet books under The Walt Disney Company's management, but due to creative differences, the project was cancelled. He served as an executive producer for the 1998 film Gods and Monsters, a semi-fictional tale of Frankenstein director James Whale's later years, which won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Barker said of his interest in the project: "Whale was gay, I'm gay; Whale was English, I'm English…Whale made some horror movies, and I've made some horror movies. It seemed as if I should be helping to tell this story." Barker also provided the foreword on the published shooting script. In 2005, Barker and horror film producer Jorge Saralegui created the film production company Midnight Picture Show with the intent of producing two horror films per year. In October 2006, Barker announced through his website that he will be writing the script to a forthcoming remake of the original Hellraiser film. He was developing a film based on his Tortured Souls line of toys from McFarlane Toys. In 2020, Barker regained control of the Hellraiser franchise, and served as executive producer on a 2022 reboot film for the streaming service Hulu. ==Television work== In May 2015, Variety reported that Clive Barker was developing a television series adaptation of various creepypastas in partnership with Warner Brothers, to be called Clive Barker's Creepypastas, a feature arc based on Slender Man and Ben Drowned. Barker was involved in a streaming service film adaptation of The Books of Blood in 2020, and is developing a Nightbreed television series directed by Michael Dougherty and written by Josh Stolberg for SyFy. In April 2020, HBO was announced to be developing a Hellraiser television series that would serve as "an elevated continuation and expansion" of its mythology with Mark Verheiden and Michael Dougherty writing the series and David Gordon Green directing several episodes. Verheiden, Dougherty and Green will also be executive producing the series with Danny McBride, Jody Hill, Brandon James and Roy Lee of Vertigo Entertainment. ==Visual art== Barker is a prolific visual artist, often illustrating his own books. His paintings have been seen first on the covers of his official fan club magazine, Dread, published by Fantaco in the early '90s; on the covers of the collections of his plays, Incarnations (1995) and Forms of Heaven (1996); and on the second printing of the original British publications of his Books of Blood series. Barker also provided the artwork for his young adult novel The Thief of Always and for the Abarat series. His artwork has been exhibited at Bert Green Fine Art in Los Angeles and Chicago, at the Bess Cutler Gallery in New York and La Luz De Jesus in Los Angeles. Many of his sketches and paintings can be found in the collection Clive Barker, Illustrator, published in 1990 by Arcane/Eclipse Books, and in Visions of Heaven and Hell, published in 2005 by Rizzoli Books. He worked on the horror video game Clive Barker's Undying, providing the voice for the character Ambrose. Undying was developed by DreamWorks Interactive and released in 2001. He worked on Clive Barker's Jericho for Codemasters, which was released in late 2007. Barker created Halloween costume designs for Disguise Costumes. Around 150 art works by Barker were used in the set of the Academy of the Unseen Arts for the Netflix TV series Chilling Adventures of Sabrina. ==Comic books== Barker published his Razorline imprint via Marvel Comics in 1993. Barker horror adaptations and spin-offs in comics include the Marvel/Epic Comics series Hellraiser, Nightbreed, Pinhead, The Harrowers, Book of the Damned, and Jihad; Eclipse Books' series and graphic novels Tapping The Vein, Dread, Son of Celluloid, Revelations, The Life of Death, Rawhead Rex and The Yattering and Jack, and Dark Horse Comics' Primal, among others. Barker served as a consultant and wrote issues of the Hellraiser anthology comic book. In 2005, IDW published a three-issue adaptation of Barker's children's fantasy novel The Thief of Always, written and painted by Kris Oprisko and Gabriel Hernandez. IDW is publishing a 12 issue adaptation of Barker's novel The Great and Secret Show. In December 2007, Chris Ryall and Clive Barker announced an upcoming collaboration of an original comic book series, Torakator, to be published by IDW. In 2008, Barker authored a foreword for the first volume of the DEMONICSEX comic series by Chuck Conner and Sean Platter. In October 2009, IDW published Seduth, co-written by Barker. The work was released with three variant covers. In 2011, Boom! Studios began publishing an original Hellraiser comic book series. In 2013, Boom! Studios announced Next Testament, the first original story by Barker to be published in comic book format. == Works == === Novels === The Damnation Game (1985) Weaveworld (1987) Cabal (1988) (Novella) The Great and Secret Show (1989) Imajica (1991) The Thief of Always (1992) Everville (1994) Sacrament (1996) Galilee (1998) Coldheart Canyon (2001) Tortured Souls (2001). Novelette starring the characters of the series of first six action figures of Tortured Souls. In 2015 it was published with title Tortured Souls: The Legend of Primordium. The Infernal Parade (2004). Novelette detailing the backstories of the characters of the series of six action figures of The Infernal Parade. In 2017 it was published with title Infernal Parade. Mister B. Gone (2007) Mr. Maximillian Bacchus And His Travelling Circus (2009) Chiliad: A Meditation (2014) ==== Hellraiser series ==== The Hellbound Heart (1986), novella The Scarlet Gospels (2015) Hellraiser: The Toll (2018) (Story credit; Barker's unfinished short story "Heaven's Reply" served as a basis for the novella, which was authored by Mark Alan Miller) ==== Books of the Art series ==== The Great and Secret Show (1989) Everville (1994) ==== The Books of Abarat ==== Abarat (2002) Days of Magic, Nights of War (2004) Absolute Midnight (2011) === Short stories === Collections: Books of Blood: Books of Blood: Volume One (1984), , collection of 1 short story and 5 novelettes: "The Book of Blood", "The Midnight Meat Train" (novelette), "The Yattering and Jack" (novelette), "Pig Blood Blues" (novelette), "Sex, Death and Starshine" (novelette), "In the Hills, the Cities" (novelette) Books of Blood, Volume Two, or Books of Blood, Volume II (1984), , collection of 5 novelettes: "Dread", "Hell's Event", "Jacqueline Ess: Her Will And Testament", "The Skins of the Fathers", "New Murders in the Rue Morgue" Books of Blood, Volume Three, or Books of Blood 3 (1984), , collection of 5 novelettes: "Son of Celluloid", "Rawhead Rex", "Confessions of a (Pornographer's) Shroud", "Scape-Goats", "Human Remains" Books of Blood: Volume IV, or The Inhuman Condition (1985), , collection of 1 short story and 4 novelettes/novellas: "The Body Politic" (novelette), "The Inhuman Condition" (novelette), "Revelations" (novella), "Down, Satan!", "The Age of Desire" (novella) Books of Blood: Volume V, or In the Flesh (1985), , collection of 4 novelettes/novellas: "The Forbidden" (novelette), "The Madonna" (novelette), "Babel's Children" (novelette), "In the Flesh" (novella) Books of Blood: Volume VI, or Books of Blood 6 (1985), , collection of 1 short story and 4 novelettes/novellas: "The Life of Death" (novelette), "How Spoilers Bleed" (novelette), "Twilight at the Towers" (novelette), "The Last Illusion" (novella), "On Jerusalem Street" The Essential Clive Barker: Selected Fiction (1999), , collection of more than seventy excerpts from novels and plays and four full-length stories (1 short story and 3 novelettes): "The Departed", "The Forbidden" (novelette), "In the Hills, the Cities" (novelette), "Jacqueline Ess: Her Will and Testament" (novelette) Clive Barker's First Tales (2013), , collection of 1 short story and 1 novella: "The Wood on the Hill", "The Candle in the Cloud" (novella) Tonight, Again: Tales of Love, Lust and Everything in Between (2015), , collection of 24 short stories and 7 poems: "Tonight, Again", "I Love You" (poem), "Craw: A Fable", "Afraid", "Moved", "I Imagine You", "If the Pen Is the Penis" (poem), "Touch the Rod" (poem), "Martha", "Tit", "The Freaks", "Cruelty" (poem), "Dollie", "The Collection", "What May Not Be Shown", "Two Views from a Window", "Men in the Aisles of Supermarkets" (poem), "A Blessing", "Unrequited", "Another Genesis", "Inside Out (Wasteland)", "I Have My Art" (poem), "Aurora", "Whistling in the Dark", "The Common Flesh", "Mr. Fred Coady Professes His Undying Love for His Little Sylvia", "The Phone Call", "The Multitude", "A Monster Lies in Wait" (poem), "An Incident at the Nunnery", "The Genius of Denny Dan" Fear Eternal (TBA) Uncollected short stories: "Lost Souls" (1986) "Coming to Grief" (1988), novelette "The Rhapsodist" (1988) "Nightbreed" (1990), screenplay for the film, based on novel Cabal "Pidgin and Theresa" (1993) "Animal Life" (1994) "Sacrament" (1996), novelette "Haeckel's Tale" (2005) "How Mr. Maximillian Bacchus' Travelling Circus Reached Cathay, and Entertained the Court of the Khan Called Kublai In Xanadu, How They Sought the Bearded Bird, and How, At Last, Angelo Was Lost" (2009) "How the Clown Domingo de Y Barrondo Fell Over the Edge of the World" (2009) "The Face of the Flying Fish and Why Docor Jozabiah Bentham's Theatre of Tears Sailed North" (2009) "The Wedding of Indigo Murphy To the Duke Lorenzo de Medici and How Angelo Was Discovered in an Orchard" (2009) "And So with Cries" (2009) "A Night's Work" (2013) === Plays === Collections: Incarnations: Three Plays (1995), collection of 3 plays: "Colossus", "Frankenstein in love or The Life of death", "The History of the Devil or Scenes from a Pretended Life" Forms of Heaven: Three Plays (1996), collection of 3 plays: "Crazyface", "Paradise Street", "Subtle Bodies" All plays: A Clowns' Sodom (The Mute Pantomime Theatre, 1976) Day of the Dog (The Mute Pantomime Theatre, 1977) The Sack (The Dog Company, 1978) The Magician (The Dog Company, 1978) Dog (The Dog Company, 1979) Nightlives (The Dog Company, 1979) History of the Devil (The Dog Company, 1980) Dangerous World (The Dog Company, 1981) Paradise Street (The Dog Company, 1981) Frankenstein in Love (The Dog Company, 1982) The Secret Life of Cartoons (The Dog Company, 1982) Crazyface (Cockpit Youth Theatre, 1982) Subtle Bodies (Cockpit Youth Theatre, 1983) Colossus (Cockpit Youth Theatre, 1983) === Poems === Uncollected poems: "Six Commonplaces (from Weaveworld)" (1987), published in Fantasy Tales, V9n17, Summer 1987 "There Was A Time" (2010), published in Multiverses by Preston Grassmann, ed. "The Hour" (2021), published in Out of the Ruins by Preston Grassmann, ed. "The Presence of This Breath" (TBA) "Upon A Warm Milk Dawn" (2024), published in The Mad Butterfly's Ball by Preston Grassmann and Chris Kelso, ed. === Non-fiction === Art: Clive Barker, Illustrator series: Clive Barker, Illustrator (1990) Illustrator II: The Art of Clive Barker (1992) Visions of Heaven and Hell (2005) Clive Barker: Imaginer series: Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 1 (2014) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 2 (2015) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 3 (2016) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 4 (2017) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 5 (2018) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 6 (2018) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 7 (2020) Clive Barker: Imaginer Volume 8 (2020) Essays: The Painter, The Creature and The Father of Lies (2011) === Toys === Tortured Souls (2001–2002). Series of 12 action figures (six designed in 2001 and six in 2002) and a novelette starring the characters of the first six action figures The Infernal Parade (2004) Co-created with Todd McFarlane, series of six action figures and a novelette detailing the backstories of the characters. ==Literary Awards== ==Filmography== == Adaptations == Rawhead Rex (1986), film directed by George Pavlou, based on novelette "Rawhead Rex" Hellraiser (1987), film directed by Clive Barker, based on novella The Hellbound Heart Hellbound: Hellraiser II (1988), film directed by Tony Randel, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Nightbreed (1990), film directed by Clive Barker, based on novella Cabal Hellraiser III: Hell on Earth (1992), film directed by Anthony Hickox, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Candyman (1992), film directed by Bernard Rose, based on novelette "The Forbidden" Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh (1995), film directed by Bill Condon, based on characters from the novelette "The Forbidden" Lord of Illusions (1995), film directed by Clive Barker, based on novella "The Last Illusion" Hellraiser: Bloodline (1996), film directed by Kevin Yagher and Joe Chapelle, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart "The Body Politic", first story of the TV movie Quicksilver Highway (1997) directed by Mick Garris, based on novelette "The Body Politic" Candyman 3: Day of the Dead (1999), film directed by Turi Meyer, based on characters from the novelette "The Forbidden" Hellraiser: Inferno (2000), film directed by Scott Derrickson, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Hellraiser: Hellseeker (2002), film directed by Rick Bota, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Hellraiser: Deader (2005), film directed by Rick Bota, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Hellraiser: Hellworld (2005), film directed by Rick Bota, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Hellraiser: Prophecy (2006), fan film directed by Jonathan S. Kui, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart "Haeckel's Tale" (2006), episode from Masters of Horror, based on short story "Haeckel's Tale" The Midnight Meat Train (2008), film directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, based on novelette "The Midnight Meat Train" Hellraiser: Deader – Winter's Lament (2009), fan film directed by Jonathan S. Kui, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Dread (2009), film directed by Anthony DiBlasi, based on novelette "Dread" Book of Blood (2009), film directed by John Harrison, based on short stories "The Book of Blood" and "On Jerusalem Street" Hellraiser: Revelations (2011), film directed by Víctor Garcia, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Hellraiser: Judgment (2018), film directed by Gary J. Tunnicliffe, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart Chatterer: A Hellraiser Fan Film (2020), fan film directed by Nicholas Michael Jacobs, based on characters from the novella The Hellbound Heart "Miles", second story of the TV movie Books of Blood (2020) directed by Brannon Braga, based on short story "The Book of Blood" "Bennett", third story of the TV movie Books of Blood (2020) directed by Brannon Braga, based on short story "On Jerusalem Street" Candyman (2021), film directed by Nia DaCosta, based on characters from the novelette "The Forbidden" Hellraiser (2022), film directed by David Bruckner, based on novella The Hellbound Heart == Video games ==	[ "Dread (film)", "Todd McFarlane", "15th GLAAD Media Awards", "Douglas E. Winter", "The Books of Abarat", "Hellraiser: Judgment", "Kevin Yagher", "Stephen King", "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (TV series)", "Hulu", "Víctor Garcia (Spanish director)", "Dovedale Primary School", "Mick Garris", "Locus Award", "Liverpool", "The Damnation Game (novel)", "Hellraiser", "Nightbreed", "Underworld (1985 film)", "The Scarlet Gospels", "Quicksilver Highway", "Calderstones School", "The Great and Secret Show (comics)", "The Plague (2006 film)", "Books of Blood (film)", "Eclipse Comics", "George Pavlou", "Clive Barker's unrealized projects", "BBC News", "Imajica", "William Blake", "Marvel Comics", "Mark Verheiden", "Boom studios", "Vertigo Entertainment", "Haeckel's Tale", "Hellraiser (franchise)", "Nightbreed (comics)", "Jean Cocteau", "Warner Bros.", "Escort agency", "Hellraiser: The Toll", "David Bruckner", "MercurySteam", "Bernard Rose (director)", "Joe Chapelle", "Rawhead Rex (film)", "Michael Dougherty", "Richard Bleiler", "Absolute Midnight", "Hellraiser: Revelations", "Ryuhei Kitamura", "Danny McBride", "The Forbidden (short story)", "Edgar Allan Poe", "Hellraiser III: Hell on Earth", "sadomasochism", "Tony Randel", "Halloween", "Bill Condon", "Turi Meyer", "Sorcha Ní Fhlainn", "International Horror Guild Award", "CNN", "Nightbreed (TV series)", "Valerie on the Stairs", "Josh Stolberg", "creepypasta", "University of Liverpool", "Sacrament (novel)", "Herman Melville", "Terminal Reality", "Hellraiser: Hellworld", "The Midnight Meat Train", "Doug Bradley", "Candyman (film series)", "The Painter, The Creature and The Father of Lies", "Tortured Souls", "EA Los Angeles", "Pinhead (Hellraiser)", "fantasy fiction", "Books of Blood", "urban fantasy", "Night of the Zoopocalypse", "The Great and Secret Show", "Candyman (2021 film)", "Candyman 3: Day of the Dead", "British Fantasy Award", "Léo Valentin", "Inkpot Award", "Bram Stoker Award", "Clive Barker, Illustrator", "Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire", "Nia DaCosta", "Illustrator II: The Art of Clive Barker", "Walt Disney Studios (division)", "Anthony DiBlasi", "Days of Magic, Nights of War", "Polyp (medicine)", "Coldheart Canyon", "Gary J. Tunnicliffe", "Galilee (novel)", "Variety (magazine)", "Razorline", "Tortured Souls: Animae Damnatae", "Rick Bota", "S. T. Joshi", "Hellbound: Hellraiser II", "Hellraiser: Hellseeker", "Hellraiser: Inferno", "The Hellbound Heart", "Book of Blood", "IndieWire", "World Horror Convention Grand Master Award", "Scott Derrickson", "Codemasters", "World Fantasy Award", "Gods and Monsters (film)", "William S. Burroughs", "Abarat", "Saint Sinner (film)", "Candyman (1992 film)", "Roy Lee", "Hellraiser: Deader", "McFarlane Toys", "SyFy", "List of horror fiction writers", "Ben Drowned", "Facebook", "Mister B. Gone", "Brannon Braga", "Harmony Books", "John Harrison (director)", "The Thief of Always (comics)", "Lambda Literary Award for Speculative Fiction", "Cenobite (Hellraiser)", "Lemarchand's box", "HBO", "Masters of Horror", "Jorge Saralegui", "Clive Barker's Nightbreed: The Interactive Movie", "Ray Bradbury", "Everville", "Clive Barker's Jericho", "Splatterpunk", "Fantaco", "David Pringle", "Hellraiser (comics)", "The Thief of Always", "Anthony Hickox", "DreamWorks Interactive", "Hellraiser: Bloodline", "Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh", "Salome (1973 film)", "Epic Comics", "Sleepwalkers (1992 film)", "Jody Hill", "Lord of Illusions", "David Gordon Green", "Faustian", "Loveline", "Brandon James", "Weaveworld", "Mr. Maximillian Bacchus And His Travelling Circus", "Hellraiser (2022 film)", "Dark Horse Comics", "toxic shock syndrome", "Slender Man", "Frankenstein (1931 film)", "Clive Barker's Undying", "graphic novels", "Goodreads Choice Awards", "Cabal (novella)", "Pinhead (comics)", "James Whale", "Tales From The Darkside" ]
7,574	Fantasy comedy	Fantasy comedy or comic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy that is primarily humorous in intent and tone. Typically set in imaginary worlds, fantasy comedy often involves puns on, and parodies of, other works of fantasy. ==Literature== The subgenre rose in the nineteenth century. Elements of fantasy comedy can be found in such nineteenth century works as some of Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales, Charles Dickens' "Christmas Books", and Lewis Carroll's Alice books. The first writer to specialize in the subgenre was "F. Anstey" in novels such as Vice Versa (1882), where magic disrupts Victorian society with humorous results. Another American writer in a similar vein was Thorne Smith, whose works (such as Topper and The Night Life of the Gods) were popular and influential, and often adapted for film and television. Humorous fantasies narrated in a "gentleman's club" setting are common; they include John Kendrick Bangs' A Houseboat on the Styx (1895), Lord Dunsany's "Jorkens" stories, and Maurice Richardson's The Exploits of Englebrecht (1950). According to Lin Carter, T. H. White's works exemplify fantasy comedy, L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt's Harold Shea stories are early exemplars. The overwhelming bulk of de Camp's fantasy was comic. Pratt and de Camp were among several contributors to Unknown Worlds, a pulp magazine which emphasized fantasy with a comedic element. The work of Fritz Leiber also appeared in Unknown Worlds, including his Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, a jocose take on the sword and sorcery subgenre. In more modern times, Terry Pratchett's Discworld books, Piers Anthony's Xanth books, Robert Asprin's MythAdventures of Skeeve and Aahz books, and Tom Holt's books provide good examples, as do many of the works by Christopher Moore. There are also comic-strips/graphic novels in the humorous fantasy genre, including Chuck Whelon's Pewfell series and the webcomics 8-Bit Theater and The Order of the Stick. Other authors of the genre in modern times include C.K. McDonnell, Jasper Fforde, Neil Gaiman, Robert Rankin, John Brosnan, Craig Shaw Gardner, David Lee Stone and Esther Freisner, as well as countless independent authors. ==Other media== The subgenre has also been represented in television, such as in the television series I Dream of Jeannie, Kröd Mändoon. Examples on radio are the BBC's Hordes of the Things and ElvenQuest. Fantasy comedy films can either be parodies (Monty Python and the Holy Grail), comedies with fantastical elements (Being John Malkovich, Barbie) or animated (Shrek). It has also been used with fantasy as the primary genre and comedy as the secondary, as in the case of Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and its 2019 sequel.	[ "Lewis Carroll", "Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)", "Lin Carter", "E. Nesbit", "Craig Shaw Gardner", "Discworld", "Piers Anthony", "Fantasy television", "Vice Versa (novel)", "Monty Python and the Holy Grail", "Charles Dickens", "James Branch Cabell", "Thorne Smith", "The Story of the Amulet", "T. H. White", "Doubleday (publisher)", "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle", "Fritz Leiber", "Esther Freisner", "Chuck Whelon", "The Order of the Stick", "David Pringle", "Terry Pratchett", "Hans Christian Andersen", "L. Sprague de Camp", "David Langford", "Thomas Anstey Guthrie", "Kingdoms of Sorcery", "8-Bit Theater", "Barbie (film)", "Shrek", "Robert Asprin", "Topper (novel series)", "ElvenQuest", "Fletcher Pratt", "Being John Malkovich", "Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice", "sword and sorcery", "The Phoenix and the Carpet", "Robert Rankin", "MythAdventures", "fantasy", "Tom Holt", "subgenre", "Christopher Moore (author)", "Neil Gaiman", "Hordes of the Things (radio series)", "Lord Dunsany", "Caimh McDonnell", "Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser", "Joseph Jorkens", "Maurice Richardson", "pulp magazine", "I Dream of Jeannie", "Jumanji: The Next Level", "Xanth", "Unknown (magazine)", "John Brosnan", "Harold Shea", "John Kendrick Bangs", "Jasper Fforde", "Kröd Mändoon", "BBC", "E. F. Bleiler", "David Lee Stone" ]
7,575	CLU (programming language)	CLU is a programming language created at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) by Barbara Liskov and her students starting in 1973. While it did not find extensive use, it introduced many features that are used widely now, and is seen as a step in the development of object-oriented programming (OOP). Key contributions include abstract data types, call-by-sharing, iterators, multiple return values (a form of parallel assignment), type-safe parameterized types, and type-safe variant types. It is also notable for its use of classes with constructors and methods, but without inheritance. == Clusters == The syntax of CLU was based on ALGOL, then the starting point for most new language designs. The key addition was the concept of a cluster, CLU's type extension system and the root of the language's name (CLUster). Clusters correspond generally to the concept of a "class" in an OO language. For instance, here is the CLU syntax for a cluster that implements complex numbers: complex_number = cluster is add, subtract, multiply, ... rep = record [ real_part: real, imag_part: real ] add = proc ... end add; subtract = proc ... end subtract; multiply = proc ... end multiply; ... end complex_number; A cluster is a module that encapsulates all of its components except for those explicitly named in the "is" clause. These correspond to the public components of a class in recent OO languages. A cluster also defines a type that can be named outside the cluster (in this case, "complex_number"), but its representation type (rep) is hidden from external clients. Cluster names are global, and no namespace mechanism was provided to group clusters or allow them to be created "locally" inside other clusters. In a cluster, the explicit type conversions up and down change between the abstract type and the representation; implicit conversions between these types are signified using the special type cvt. CLU does not otherwise perform implicit type conversions. There is a universal type any, and a procedure force[] to check that an object is a certain type. Objects may be mutable or immutable, the latter being base types such as integers, booleans, characters and strings. but CLU popularized it and is often credited as the direct influence leading to parallel assignment in later languages. All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic. CLU supports type-parameterized user-defined data abstractions. It was the first language to offer type-safe bounded parameterized types, using where clauses to express constraints on actual type arguments. Unlike in languages with template-based generics, a use of such a data abstraction can be type-checked without access to the implementation of the abstraction. == Influence == CLU and Ada were major inspirations for C++ templates. Python and Ruby borrowed call by sharing, the yield statement, and multiple assignment.	[ "Procedural programming", "Communications of the ACM", "programming language", "variant type", "Java (programming language)", "Argus (programming language)", "iterator", "ALGOL", "syntax", "ML (programming language)", "Assignment (computer science)", "C (programming language)", "Lisp (programming language)", "Lua (programming language)", "Multi-paradigm programming language", "parallel assignment", "Inheritance (object-oriented programming)", "call by sharing", "CPL (programming language)", "ALGOL 60", "Ruby (programming language)", "Perl", "Template (C++)", "Python (programming language)", "abstract data type", "Constructor (object-oriented programming)", "C++", "implicit type conversion", "Barbara Liskov", "application programming interface", "parameterized type", "exception handling", "Simula", "call-by-sharing", "generic programming", "SPARC", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "object-oriented programming", "Ada (programming language)", "Sather", "VAX", "Strong typing", "Object-oriented programming", "Alphard (programming language)", "complex number", "C Sharp (programming language)", "Swift (programming language)", "Class (computer programming)" ]
7,577	History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)	The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991 spans the period from the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev's death until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Due to the years of Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development, and complex systemic problems in the command economy, Soviet output stagnated. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the proxies of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the war in Afghanistan led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe (including the Baltic states). Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, created an atmosphere of open criticism of the communist regime, and also perestroika. The dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986 profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership. Nikolai Tikhonov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, was succeeded by Nikolai Ryzhkov, and Vasili Kuznetsov, the acting Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, was succeeded by Andrei Gromyko, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Several republics began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The Soviet Union finally collapsed in 1991 when Boris Yeltsin seized power in the aftermath of a failed coup that had attempted to topple the reform-minded Gorbachev. ==Leadership transition== By 1982, the stagnation of the Soviet economy was obvious, as evidenced by the fact that the Soviet Union had been importing grain from the U.S. throughout the 1970s, but the system was so firmly entrenched that any real change seemed impossible. A huge rate of defense spending consumed large parts of the economy. The transition period that separated the Brezhnev and Gorbachev eras resembled the former much more than the latter, although hints of reform emerged as early as 1983. ===Andropov interregnum=== Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982. After a two-day power struggle Yuri Andropov became the new General Secretary. He maneuvered his way into power both through his KGB connections and by gaining the support of the military by promising not to cut defense spending. For comparison, some of his rivals such as Konstantin Chernenko were skeptical of a continued high military budget. Aged 68, Andropov was the oldest person ever appointed as General Secretary. Andropov began a thorough house-cleaning throughout the party and state bureaucracy, a decision made easy by the fact that the Central Committee had an average age of 69. He replaced more than one-fifth of the Soviet ministers and regional party first secretaries and more than one-third of the department heads within the Central Committee apparatus. As a result, he replaced the aging leadership with younger, more vigorous administrators. But Andropov's ability to reshape the top leadership was constrained by his own age and poor health and the influence of Chernenko, his rival and longtime ally of Brezhnev who had previously supervised personnel matters in the Central Committee. The transition of power from Brezhnev to Andropov was notably the first one in Soviet history to occur completely peacefully with no one being imprisoned, killed, or forced from office. ====Domestic policies==== Andropov's domestic policy leaned heavily towards restoring discipline and order to Soviet society. He eschewed radical political and economic reforms, promoting instead a small degree of candor in politics and mild economic experiments similar to those that had been associated with the late Premier Alexei Kosygin's initiatives in the mid-1960s. In tandem with such economic experiments, Andropov launched an anti-corruption drive that reached high into the government and party ranks. Unlike Brezhnev, who possessed several mansions and a fleet of luxury cars, he lived quite simply. While visiting Budapest in early 1983, he expressed interest in Hungary's Goulash Communism and that the sheer size of the Soviet economy made strict top-down planning impractical. Changes were needed in a hurry for 1982 had witnessed the country's worst economic performance, with real GDP growth at almost zero percent. ====Foreign policies==== Andropov faced a series of foreign policy crises: the hopeless situation of the Soviet army in Afghanistan, threatened revolt in Poland, growing animosity with China, the polarization threat of war in the Middle East, and troubles in Ethiopia and South Africa. The most critical threat was the "Second Cold War" launched by American President Ronald Reagan and a specific attack on rolling back what he denounced as the "Evil Empire". Reagan was using American economic power, and Soviet economic weakness, to escalate massive spending on the Cold War, emphasizing high technology that Moscow lacked. The main response was raising the military budget to 70 percent of the national budget, and supplying billions of dollars worth of military aid to Syria, Iraq, Libya, South Yemen, the PLO, Cuba, and North Korea. That included tanks and armored troop carriers, hundreds of fighter planes, as well as anti-aircraft systems, artillery systems, and all sorts of high tech equipment for which the USSR was the main supplier for its allies. Andropov's main goal was to avoid an open war. In foreign policy, the conflict in Afghanistan continued even though Andropov—who now felt the invasion was a mistake—half-heartedly explored options for a negotiated withdrawal. Andropov's rule was also marked by deterioration of relations with the United States. During a much-publicized "walk in the woods" with Soviet dignitary Yuli Kvitsinsky, American diplomat Paul Nitze suggested a compromise for reducing nuclear missiles in Europe on both sides that was ultimately ignored by the Politburo. Kvitsinsky would later write that, despite his own efforts, the Soviet leadership was not interested in compromise, instead calculating that peace movements in the West would force the Americans to capitulate. On 8 March 1983, during Andropov's reign as General Secretary, U.S. President Ronald Reagan famously labeled the Soviet Union an "evil empire". The same month, on 23 March, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative. Reagan claimed this research program into ballistic missile defense would be "consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". However, Andropov was dismissive of this claim, and said that "It is time they [Washington] stopped ... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war. ... Engaging in this is not just irresponsible. It is insane". In August 1983, Andropov announced that the country was stopping all work on space-based weapons. Meanwhile, Soviet–U.S. arms control talks on intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe were suspended by the Soviet Union in November 1983 and by the end of the year, the Soviets had broken off all arms control negotiations. Massive bad publicity worldwide came when Soviet fighters shot down a civilian jet liner, Korean Air Flight KAL-007, which carried 269 passengers and crew. It had strayed over the Soviet Union on 1 September 1983 on its scheduled route from Anchorage, Alaska, to Seoul, South Korea. The Soviet system was unprepared to deal with a civilian airliner, and the shooting down was a matter of following orders without question. Instead of admitting an accident, Soviet media proclaimed a brave decision to meet a Western provocation. Together with its low credibility explanation in 1986 of the meltdown of the nuclear reactor at Chernobyl, the episode demonstrated an inability to deal with public relations crises; the propaganda system was only aimed at people who already were committed friends of the Soviet Union. Both crises were escalated by technological and organizational failures, compounded by human error. US−Soviet relations deteriorated rapidly especially after March 1983, when Reagan dubbed the Soviet Union an "evil empire". The official press agency TASS accused Reagan of "thinking only in terms of confrontation and bellicose, lunatic anti-communism". Further Soviet outrage was directed at Reagan's stationing of intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Western Europe. In Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua and elsewhere, under the Reagan Doctrine, the US began undermining Soviet-supported governments by supplying arms to anti-communist resistance movements in these countries. President Reagan's decision to deploy medium-range Pershing II missiles in Western Europe met with mass protests in countries such as France and West Germany, sometimes numbering 1 million people at a time. Many Europeans became convinced that the US and not the Soviet Union was the more aggressive country, and there was fear over the prospect of a war, especially since there was a widespread conviction in Europe that the US, being separated from the Red Army by two oceans as opposed to a short land border, was insensitive to the people of Germany and other countries. Moreover, the memory of World War II was still strong and many Germans could not forget the destruction and mass rapes committed by Soviet troops in the closing days of that conflict. This attitude was helped along by the Reagan Administration's comments that a war between NATO and the Warsaw Pact would not necessarily result in the use of nuclear weapons. Andropov's health declined rapidly during the tense summer and fall of 1983, and he became the first Soviet leader to miss the anniversary celebrations of the 1917 revolution that November. He died in February 1984 of kidney failure after disappearing from public view for several months. His most significant legacy to the Soviet Union was his discovery and promotion of Mikhail Gorbachev. Beginning in 1978, Gorbachev advanced in two years through the Kremlin hierarchy to full membership in the Politburo. His responsibilities for the appointment of personnel allowed him to make the contacts and distribute the favors necessary for a future bid to become general secretary. At this point, Western experts believed that Andropov was grooming Gorbachev as his successor. However, although Gorbachev acted as a deputy to the general secretary throughout Andropov's illness, Gorbachev's time had not yet arrived when his patron died early in 1984. ===Chernenko interregnum=== At 73, Konstantin Chernenko was in poor health, suffering from emphysema, and unable to play an active role in policy making when he was chosen, after lengthy discussion, to succeed Andropov. But Chernenko's short time in office did bring some significant policy changes. The personnel changes and investigations into corruption undertaken under Andropov's tutelage came to an end. Chernenko advocated more investment in consumer goods and services and in agriculture. He also called for a reduction in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's (CPSU) micromanagement of the economy and greater attention to public opinion. However, KGB repression of Soviet dissidents also increased. In February 1983, Soviet representatives withdrew from the World Psychiatric Organization in protest of that group's continued complaints about the use of psychiatry to suppress dissent. This policy was underlined in June when Vladimir Danchev, a broadcaster for Radio Moscow, referred to the Soviet troops in Afghanistan as "invaders" while conducting English-language broadcasts. After refusing to retract this statement, he was sent to a mental institution for several months. Valery Senderov, a leader of an unofficial union of professional workers, was sentenced to seven years in a labor camp early in the year for speaking out on discrimination practiced against Jews in education and the professions. Although Chernenko had called for renewed détente with the West, little progress was made towards closing the rift in East−West relations during his rule. The Soviet Union boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, retaliating for the United States-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. In September 1984, the Soviet Union also prevented a visit to West Germany by East German leader Erich Honecker. Fighting in the Afghan Democratic Republic also intensified, but in the late autumn of 1984 the United States and the Soviet Union did agree to resume arms control talks in early 1985. ==Rise of Gorbachev== In addition to the failing economy, the prolonged war in Afghanistan, often referred to as the Soviet Union's "Vietnam War", led to increased public dissatisfaction with the Communist regime. Also, the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 added motive force to Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika reforms, which eventually spiraled out of control and caused the Soviet system to collapse. == Ousting the old guard == After years of stagnation, the "new thinking" of younger Communist apparatchik began to emerge. Following the death of terminally ill Konstantin Chernenko, the Politburo elected Mikhail Gorbachev to the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985. At 54, Gorbachev was the youngest person since Joseph Stalin to become General Secretary and the country's first head of state born a Soviet citizen instead of a subject of the tsar. During his official confirmation on 11 March, Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko spoke of how the new Soviet leader had filled in for Chernenko as CC Secretariat, and praised his intelligence and flexible, pragmatic ideas instead of rigid adherence to party ideology. Gorbachev was aided by a lack of serious competition in the Politburo. He immediately began appointing younger men of his generation to important party posts, including Nikolai Ryzhkov, Secretary of Economics, Viktor Cherbrikov, KGB Chief, Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze (replacing the 75-year-old Gromyko), Secretary of Defense Industries , and Secretary of Construction Boris Yeltsin. Removed from the Politburo and Secretariat was Grigory Romanov, who had been Gorbachev's most significant rival for the position of General Secretary. Gromyko's removal as Foreign Minister was the most unexpected change given his decades of unflinching, faithful service compared to the unknown, inexperienced Shevardnadze. More predictably, the 80-year-old Nikolai Tikhonov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, was succeeded by Nikolai Ryzhkov, and Vasili Kuznetsov, the acting Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, was succeeded by Andrei Gromyko, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Further down the chain, up to 40% of the first secretaries of the oblasts (provinces) were replaced with younger, better educated, and more competent men. The defense establishment was also given a thorough shakeup with the commanders of all 16 military districts replaced along with all theaters of military operation, as well as the three Soviet fleets. Not since World War II had the Soviet military had such a rapid turnover of officers. Sixty-eight-year-old Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov was fully rehabilitated after having fallen from favor in 1983–84 due to his handling of the KAL 007 shootdown and his ideas about improving Soviet strategic and tactical doctrines were made into an official part of defense policy, although some of his other ambitions such as developing the military into a smaller, tighter force based on advanced technology were not considered feasible for the time being. Many, but not all, of the younger army officers appointed during 1985 were proteges of Ogarkov. Gorbachev got off to an excellent start during his first months in power. He projected an aura of youth and dynamism compared to his aged predecessors and made frequent walks in the streets of the major cities answering questions from ordinary citizens. He became the first leader that spoke with the Soviet people in person. When he made public speeches, he made clear that he was interested in constructive exchanges of ideas instead of merely reciting lengthy platitudes about the excellence of the Soviet system. He also spoke candidly about the slackness and run-down condition of Soviet society in recent years, blaming alcohol abuse, poor workplace discipline, and other factors for these situations. Alcohol was a particular nag of Gorbachev's, especially as he himself did not drink, and he made one of his major policy aims curbing the consumption of it. ===Foreign policy=== In terms of foreign policy, the most important one, relations with the United States, remained twitchy through 1985. In October, Gorbachev made his first visit to a non-communist country when he traveled to France and was warmly received. The fashion-conscious French were also captivated by his wife Raisa and political pundits widely believed that the comparatively young Soviet leader would have a PR advantage over President Reagan, who was 20 years his senior. Reagan and Gorbachev met for the first time in Geneva in November. The three weeks preceding the summit meeting were marked by an unprecedented Soviet media campaign against the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), taking advantage of opposition at home in the US to the program. When it finally took place, the two superpower leaders established a solid rapport that boded well for the future despite Reagan's refusal to compromise on abandonment of SDI. A joint communique by both parties stated that they were in agreement that nuclear war could not be won by either side and must never be allowed to happen. It was also agreed that Reagan and Gorbachev would carry out two more summit meetings in 1986–87. Jimmy Carter had decisively ended the policy of détente, by financially aiding the Mujahideen movement in neighboring Socialist Afghanistan, which served as a pretext for the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan six months later, with the aims of supporting the Afghan government, controlled by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. Tensions between the superpowers increased during this time, when Carter placed trade embargoes on the Soviet Union and stated that the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War." ===Economy=== East-West tensions increased during the first term of US President Ronald Reagan (1981–85), reaching levels not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis as Reagan increased US military spending to 7% of the GDP. To match the military buildup, the Soviet Union increased its own military spending to 27% of its GDP and froze production of civilian goods at 1980 levels, causing a sharp economic decline in the already failing Soviet economy. The US financed the training for the Mujahideen warlords such as Jalaluddin Haqqani, Gulbudin Hekmatyar and Burhanuddin Rabbani eventually culminated to the fall of the Soviet satellite the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. While the CIA and MI6 and the People's Liberation Army of China financed the operation along with the Pakistan government against the Soviet Union, eventually the Soviet Union began looking for a withdrawal route and in 1988 the Geneva Accords were signed between Communist-Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan; under the terms Soviet troops were to withdraw. Once the withdrawal was complete the Pakistan ISI continued to support the Mujahideen against the Communist Government and by 1992, the government collapsed. US President Reagan also actively hindered the Soviet Union's ability to sell natural gas to Europe whilst simultaneously actively working to keep gas prices low, which kept the price of Soviet oil low and further starved the Soviet Union of foreign capital. This "long-term strategic offensive," which "contrasts with the essentially reactive and defensive strategy of "containment", accelerated the fall of the Soviet Union by encouraging it to overextend its economic base. The proposition that special operations by the CIA in Saudi Arabia affected the prices of Soviet oil was refuted by Marshall Goldman—one of the leading experts on the economy of the Soviet Union—in his latest book. He pointed out that the Saudis decreased their production of oil in 1985 (it reached a 16-year low), whereas the peak of oil production was reached in 1980. They increased the production of oil in 1986, reduced it in 1987 with a subsequent increase in 1988, but not to the levels of 1980 when production reached its highest level. The real increase happened in 1990, by which time the Cold War was almost over. In his book he asked why, if Saudi Arabia had such an effect on Soviet oil prices, did prices not fall in 1980 when the production of oil by Saudi Arabia reached its highest level—three times as much oil as in the mid-eighties—and why did the Saudis wait till 1990 to increase their production, five years after the CIA's supposed intervention? Why didn't the Soviet Union collapse in 1980 then? By the time Gorbachev ushered in the process that would lead to the dismantling of the Soviet administrative command economy through his programs of uskoreniye (speed-up of economic development) and perestroika (political and economic restructuring) announced in 1986, the Soviet economy suffered from both hidden inflation and pervasive supply shortages aggravated by an increasingly open black market that undermined the official economy. Additionally, the costs of superpower status—the military, space program, subsidies to client states—were out of proportion to the Soviet economy. The new wave of industrialization based upon information technology had left the Soviet Union desperate for Western technology and credits in order to counter its increasing backwardness. ===Reforms=== The Law on Cooperatives enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy, the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. Glasnost resulted in greater freedom of speech and the press becoming far less controlled. Thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were also released. Soviet social science became free to explore and publish on many subjects that had previously been off limits, including conducting public opinion polls. The All−Union Center for Public Opinion Research (VCIOM)—the most prominent of several polling organizations that were started then— was opened. State archives became more accessible, and some social statistics that had been kept secret became open for research and publication on sensitive subjects such as income disparities, crime, suicide, abortion, and infant mortality. The first center for gender studies was opened within a newly formed Institute for the Socio−Economic Study of Human Population. In January 1987, Gorbachev called for democratization: the infusion of democratic elements such as multi-candidate elections into the Soviet political process. A 1987 conference convened by Soviet economist and Gorbachev adviser Leonid Abalkin, concluded: "Deep transformations in the management of the economy cannot be realized without corresponding changes in the political system." In June 1988, at the CPSU's Nineteenth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. On 1 December 1988, the Supreme Soviet amended the Soviet constitution to allow for the establishment of a Congress of People's Deputies as the Soviet Union's new supreme legislative body. Elections to the new Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the USSR in March and April 1989. Gorbachev, as General Secretary of the Communist Party, could be forced to resign at any moment if the communist elite became dissatisfied with him. To proceed with reforms opposed by the majority of the communist party, Gorbachev aimed to consolidate power in a new position, President of the Soviet Union, which was independent from the CPSU and the soviets (councils) and whose holder could be impeached only in case of direct violation of the law. On 15 March 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive president. At the same time, Article 6 of the constitution was changed to deprive the CPSU of a monopoly on political power. ===Unintended consequences=== Gorbachev's efforts to streamline the Communist system offered promise, but ultimately proved uncontrollable and resulted in a cascade of events that eventually concluded with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Initially intended as tools to bolster the Soviet economy, the policies of perestroika and glasnost soon led to unintended consequences. Relaxation under glasnost resulted in the Communist Party losing its absolute grip on the media. Before long, and much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems the Soviet government had long denied and actively concealed. Problems receiving increased attention included poor housing, alcoholism, drug abuse, pollution, outdated Stalin-era factories, and petty to large-scale corruption, all of which the official media had ignored. Media reports also exposed crimes committed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet regime, such as the gulags, his treaty with Adolf Hitler, and the Great Purges, which had been ignored by the official media. Moreover, the ongoing war in Afghanistan, and the mishandling of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, further damaged the credibility of the Soviet government at a time when dissatisfaction was increasing. In all, the positive view of Soviet lifelong presented to the public by the official media was rapidly fading, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This undermined the faith of the public in the Soviet system and eroded the Communist Party's social power base, threatening the identity and integrity of the Soviet Union itself. Fraying amongst the members of the Warsaw Pact countries and instability of its western allies, first indicated by Lech Wałęsa's 1980 rise to leadership of the trade union Solidarity, accelerated, leaving the Soviet Union unable to depend upon its Eastern European satellite states for protection as a buffer zone. By 1989, following his doctrine of "new political thinking", Gorbachev had repudiated the Brezhnev Doctrine in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its Warsaw Pact allies ("Sinatra Doctrine"). Gradually, each of the Warsaw Pact countries saw their communist governments fall to popular elections and, in the case of Romania, a violent uprising. By 1990, the governments of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania, all of which had been imposed after World War II, were brought down as revolutions swept Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union also began experiencing upheaval as the political consequences of glasnost reverberated throughout the country. Despite efforts at containment, the upheaval in Eastern Europe inevitably spread to nationalities within the USSR. In elections to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's constituent republics, nationalists as well as radical reformers swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. Massive peaceful protests in the Baltic republics such as the Baltic Way and the Singing Revolution drew international attention and bolstered independence movements in various other regions. The rise of nationalism under freedom of speech soon re-awakened simmering ethnic tensions in various Soviet republics, further discrediting the ideal of a unified Soviet people. One instance occurred in February 1988, when the government in Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the Armenian SSR. Violence against local Azerbaijanis was reported on Soviet television, provoking massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of Sumgait. Emboldened by the liberalized atmosphere of glasnost, public dissatisfaction with economic conditions was much more overt than ever before in the Soviet period. Although perestroika was considered bold in the context of Soviet history, Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not radical enough to restart the country's chronically sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms made some inroads in decentralization, but Gorbachev and his team left intact most of the fundamental elements of the Stalinist system, including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production. The value of all consumer goods manufactured in 1990 in retail prices was about 459 billion rubles ($2.1 trillion). Nevertheless, the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Tax revenues declined as republic and local governments withheld tax revenues from the central government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy. The anti−alcohol campaign reduced tax revenues as well, which in 1982 accounted for about 12% of all state revenue. The elimination of central control over production decisions, especially in the consumer goods sector, led to the breakdown in traditional supplier−producer relationships without contributing to the formation of new ones. Thus, instead of streamlining the system, Gorbachev's decentralization caused new production bottlenecks. ==Dissolution of the Soviet Union== The dissolution of the Soviet Union' was a process of systematic disintegration, which occurred in the economy, social structure and political structure. It resulted in the abolition of the Soviet Federal Government ("the Union center") and independence of the USSR's republics on 26 December 1991. The process was caused by a weakening of the Soviet government, which led to disintegration and took place from about 19 January 1990 to 26 December 1991. The process was characterized by many of the republics of the Soviet Union declaring their independence and being recognized as sovereign nation-states. Andrei Grachev, the Deputy Head of the Intelligence Department of the Central Committee, summed up the denouement of the downfall quite cogently: ==Post-Soviet restructuring== To restructure the Soviet administrative command system and implement a transition to a market economy, Yeltsin's shock program was employed within days of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The subsidies to money-losing farms and industries were cut, price controls abolished, and the ruble moved towards convertibility. New opportunities for Yeltsin's circle and other entrepreneurs to seize former state property were created, thus restructuring the old state-owned economy within a few months. After obtaining power, the vast majority of "idealistic" reformers gained huge possessions of state property using their positions in the government and became business oligarchs in a manner that appeared antithetical to an emerging democracy. Existing institutions were conspicuously abandoned prior to the establishment of new legal structures of the market economy such as those governing private property, overseeing financial markets, and enforcing taxation. Market economists believed that the dismantling of the administrative command system in Russia would raise GDP and living standards by allocating resources more efficiently. They also thought the collapse would create new production possibilities by eliminating central planning, substituting a decentralized market system, eliminating huge macroeconomic and structural distortions through liberalization, and providing incentives through privatization. Since the USSR's collapse, Russia faced many problems that free market proponents in 1992 did not expect. Among other things, 25% of the population lived below the poverty line, life expectancy had fallen, birthrates were low, and the GDP was halved. There was a sharp increase in economic inequality between 1988/1989 and 1993/1995, with the Gini ratio increasing by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. These problems led to a series of crises in the 1990s, which nearly led to the election of Yeltsin's Communist challenger, Gennady Zyuganov, in the 1996 presidential election. After the turn of the century, the economy of Russia has begun to improve greatly, due to major investments and business development and also due to high prices of natural resources. ==Historiography== According to Boris N. Mironov, by 2020 Russian scholars had produced over 300 books, 3000 articles, and 20 dissertations trying to explain the collapse. Two approaches were taken. The first is to look at the short term, 1985–1991, emphasizing personalities. external causes and policy mistakes. The second looks at long-term economic, political, cultural, and social structures.	[ "Substance abuse", "uskoreniye", "Sumgait pogrom", "Declaration of Independence of Ukraine", "Joseph Stalin", "Mujahideen", "Government of the Soviet Union", "Konstantin Chernenko", "1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt", "General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Reagan Doctrine", "Premier of the Soviet Union", "Cold War (1985–91)", "Parade of sovereignties", "Eduard Shevardnadze", "David Remnick", "Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic", "convertibility", "Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union", "Singing Revolution", "Kiron Skinner", "Malta Summit", "alcohol abuse", "Cold War", "Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan", "Iran–Iraq War", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)", "business oligarch", "Leonid Brezhnev", "Central and Eastern Europe", "Gulbudin Hekmatyar", "republics of the Soviet Union", "administrative command economy", "Predictions of the dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Soviet Union", "Polish People's Republic", "List of heads of state of the Soviet Union", "Democratic Republic of Afghanistan", "Lech Wałęsa", "Romania", "Warsaw Pact", "War of Laws", "Glasnost", "Presidium of the Supreme Soviet", "List of leaders of the Soviet Union", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Soviet people", "1980 Summer Olympics boycott", "Yuri Andropov", "History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)", "dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)", "Gulf War", "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic", "Index of Soviet Union-related articles", "Socialist Republic of Romania", "Evil Empire speech", "Russian ruble", "Hungarian People's Republic", "The Barricades", "Economy of the Soviet Union", "Occupation of the Baltic states", "Gennady Zyuganov", "détente", "Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact", "List of Premiers of the Soviet Union", "Islamic Republic of Pakistan", "Law on Cooperatives", "Communist state", "Gini ratio", "Republics of the Soviet Union", "Leonid Abalkin", "President of the Soviet Union", "January Events (Lithuania)", "1984 Summer Olympics", "Alma-Ata Protocol", "Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union", "Fall of the Berlin Wall", "Perestroika", "Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union", "Baltic states", "Afghan Democratic Republic", "People's Republic of Angola", "Jimmy Carter", "Sumqayit", "Strategic Defense Initiative", "Goulash Communism", "Jack F. Matlock, Jr.", "1989 Polish legislative election", "Nagorno-Karabakh", "Chernobyl disaster", "New Economic Policy", "Societal collapse", "Jalaluddin Haqqani", "Soviet–Afghan War", "Afghan mujahideen", "Andrei Gromyko", "Cambodian–Vietnamese War", "Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union", "History of Russia (1991–present)", "Velvet Revolution", "Geneva Accords (1988)", "Soviet Armed Forces", "Gross domestic product", "Vladimir Lenin", "market economy", "Nikolai Ryzhkov", "perestroika", "Paul Nitze", "Boris Yeltsin", "Stalinism", "Erich Honecker", "Vladimir Bukovsky", "World War II", "Great Purges", "Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Nikolai Tikhonov", "People's Republic of Bulgaria", "1996 Russian presidential election", "Baltic Way", "1965 Soviet economic reform", "Shock therapy (economics)", "Korean Airlines Flight 007", "1980 Summer Olympics", "Sinatra Doctrine", "Democratization (Soviet Union)", "East Germany", "Black January", "Burhanuddin Rabbani", "Korean Air Flight KAL-007", "1989 Soviet Union legislative election", "People's Liberation Army", "1980s oil glut", "Time (magazine)", "People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan", "Ronald Grigor Suny", "Solidarity (Polish trade union)", "free market", "Brezhnev Doctrine", "Korean Air Lines Flight 007", "Dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Revolutions of 1989", "containment", "Cuban Missile Crisis", "1989 Sino-Soviet Summit", "Nikolai Ogarkov", "economic inequality", "Grigory Romanov", "Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution", "Pan-European Picnic", "Socialist Afghanistan", "April 9 tragedy", "Politics of the Soviet Union", "Post-Soviet states", "Hélène Carrère d'Encausse", "Russian Public Opinion Research Center", "gulag", "Marshall Goldman", "Jeltoqsan", "Pershing II", "Pravda", "History of the Russian Federation", "Ronald Reagan", "Alexei Kosygin", "The New York Times", "Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic", "Belovezha Accords", "Random House", "new political thinking", "Romanian Revolution", "Princeton University Press" ]
7,578	Corsican language	Corsican (, , or , ) is a Romance language consisting of the continuum of the Tuscan Italo-Dalmatian dialects spoken on the Mediterranean island of Corsica, a territory of France, and in the northern regions of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Corsica is situated approximately 123.9 km (77.0 miles; 66 nautical miles) off the western coast of Tuscany; and with historical connections, the Corsican language is considered a part of Tuscan varieties, from that part of the Italian peninsula, and thus is closely related to Florentine-based standard Italian. Under the long-standing influence of Tuscany's Pisa, and the historic Republic of Genoa, over Corsica, the Corsican language once filled the role of a vernacular, with Italian functioning as the island's official language until France acquired the island from the Republic of Genoa (1768); by 1859, French had replaced Italian as Corsica's first language so much so that, by the time of the Liberation of France (1945), nearly every islander had at least a working-knowledge of French. The 20th century saw a vast language shift, with the islanders adapting and changing their communications to the extent that there were no monolingual Corsican-speakers left by the 1960s. By 1995, an estimated 65% of islanders had some degree of proficiency in Corsican, and a minority of around 10% used Corsican as a first language. == Classification == Corsican is classed as a regional language under French law. It is almost universally agreed that Corsican is typologically and traditionally Italo-Romance, but its specific position therein is more controversial. Some scholars argue that Corsican belongs to the Centro-Southern Italian dialects, while others are of the opinion that it is closely related to, or as part of, Italy's Tuscan dialect varieties. Italian and the dialects of Corsican (especially Northern Corsican) are in fact very mutually intelligible. Southern Corsican, in spite of the geographical proximity, has as its closest linguistic neighbour not Sardinian (a separate group with which it is not mutually intelligible), but rather the Extreme Southern Italian dialects like Siculo-Calabrian. It has been theorised, on the other hand, that a Sardinian variety, or a variety very similar to Sardo-Romance, might have been originally spoken in Corsica prior to the island's Tuscanisation under Pisan and Genoese rule. The matter is controversial in light of the historical, cultural and particularly strong linguistic bonds that Corsica had traditionally formed with the Italian Mainland from the Middle Ages until the 19th century: in contrast to the neighbouring Sardinia, Corsica's installment into a diglossic system with Italian as the island's prestige language ran so deep that both Corsican and Italian might be even, and in fact were, perceived as two sociolinguistic levels of a single language. Corsican and Italian traditionally existed on a spectrum, and the dividing lines between them were blurred enough that the locals needed little else but a change of register to communicate in an official setting. "Tuscanising" their tongue, or as the Corsican elites would have once said, parlà in crusca ("speaking in crusca", from the name of the Academy dedicated to the standardisation of the Italian language), allowed for a practice not of code-switching, but rather of code-mixing which is quite typical of the Mainland Italian dialects. Italian was perceived as different from Corsican, but not as much as the differences between the two main isoglosses of Northern and Southern Corsican, as spoken by their respective native speakers. When Pasquale Paoli found himself exiled in London, he replied to Samuel Johnson's query on the peculiar existence of a "rustic language" very different from Italian that such a language existed only in Sardinia; in fact, the existence of Corsican as the island's native vernacular did not take anything away from Paoli's claims that Corsica's official language was Italian. Today's Corsican is the result of these historical vicissitudes, which have morphed the language to an idiom that bears a strong resemblance to the medieval Tuscan once spoken at the time of Dante and Boccaccio, and still existing in peripheral Tuscany (Lucca, Garfagnana, Elba, Capraia). The correspondence of modern Corsican to ancient Tuscan can be seen from almost any aspect of the language, ranging from the phonetics, morphology, lexicon to the syntax. One of the characteristics of standard Italian is the retention of the -re infinitive ending, as in Latin mittere "send"; such infinitival ending is lost in Tuscan as well as Corsican, resulting in the outcome mette / metta, "to put". Whereas the relative pronoun in Italian for "who" is chi and "what" is che/(che) cosa, it is an uninflected chì in Corsican. The only unifying, as well as distinctive, feature which separates the Corsican dialects from the mainland Tuscan ones, with the exception of Amiatino, Pitiglianese, and Capraiese, is the retention of word-final o-u. For example, the Italian demonstrative pronouns questo "this" and quello "that" become in Corsican questu or quistu and quellu or quiddu: this feature was also typical of the early Italian texts during the Middle Ages. Even after the acquisition of Corsica by Louis XV, Italian continued to be the island's language of education, literature, religion and local affairs. The affluent youth still went to Italy to pursue higher studies. (It has been estimated that Corsican presence in Pisa amounted to a fourth of the University's total student body in 1830.) Local civil registers continued to be written in Italian until 1855; it was on 9 May 1859, that Italian was replaced by French as the island's official language, although the latter would start to take root among the islanders from 1882 onwards, through the Jules Ferry laws aimed at spreading literacy across the French provinces. Even so, a specifically homegrown Corsican (rather than Italian) literature in Corsica only developed belatedly and, in its earliest phase, there were no autonomous cultural instances; Corsican writers, such as Salvatore Viale, even prided themselves on their affiliation to the broader Italian sphere, considering Corsican "one of the lowest, impure dialects of Italy". It was the Italian Fascist aggressive claims to the island in the 20th century, followed by their invasion, that provoked a popular backlash, estranging the native islanders from standard Italian and, if anything, only accelerated their shifting to the French even further. By the Liberation of France, any previously existing link between the two linguistic varieties and with Italy altogether had been severed; any promotion of Corsican, which had been politicized by the local collaborators with the regime, would be met with popular criticism and even suspicion of potentially harboring irredentist sentiments. From then on, Corsican would grow independently of Italian to become, later in the 1970s, a centerpiece of the Riacquistu ("reacquisition") movement for the rediscovery of Corsican culture. Nationalist calls for Corsican to be put on the same footing as French led the French National Assembly, in 1974, to extend the 1951 Deixonne Law, which initially recognized only a few languages (Breton, Basque, Catalan and Occitan), to including Corsican as well, among others, not as a dialect of Italian, but as one of France's full-fledged regional languages. (See governmental support.) == Origins == The common relationship between Corsica and central Italy can be traced from as far back as the Etruscans, who asserted their presence on the island in as early as 500 BC. In 40 AD, the natives of Corsica reportedly did not speak Latin. The Roman exile, Seneca the Younger, reported that both coast and interior were occupied by natives whose language he was not able to understand. More specifically, Seneca claimed that the island's population was the result of the stratification of different ethnic groups, such as the Greeks, the Ligures (see the Ligurian hypothesis) and the Iberians, whose language had long since stopped being recognizable among the population due to the intermixing of the other two groups. The occupation of the island by the Vandals around the year 469 marked the end of authoritative influence by Latin speakers. (See Medieval Corsica.) If the natives of that time spoke Latin, they must have acquired it during the late empire. Modern Corsican has been influenced by the languages of the major powers taking an interest in Corsican affairs; earlier by those of the medieval Italian powers, such as the Papal States (828–1077), the Republic of Pisa (1077–1282) and the Republic of Genoa (1282–1768), and finally by France which, since 1859, has promulgated the official Parisian French. The term "gallicised Corsican" refers to the evolution of Corsican starting from about the year 1950, whereas "distanciated Corsican" refers to an idealized variety of Corsican following linguistic purism, by means of removing any French-derived elements. == Dialects == === Corsica === The two most widely spoken forms of the Corsican language are the groups spoken in the Bastia and Corte area (generally throughout the northern half of the island, known as Haute-Corse, Cismonte or Corsica suprana), and the groups spoken around Sartène and Porto-Vecchio (generally throughout the southern half of the island, known as Corse-du-Sud, Pumonti or ). The dialect of Ajaccio has been described as in transition. The dialects spoken at Calvi and Bonifacio (Bonifacino) are dialects of the Ligurian language. This division along the Girolata-Porto Vecchio line was due to the massive immigration from Tuscany which took place in Corsica during the lower Middle Ages: as a result, the northern Corsican dialects became very close to a central Italian dialect like Tuscan, while the southern Corsican varieties could keep the original characteristics of the language which make it much more similar to Sicilian and, only to some extent, Sardinian. ==== Northern Corsican ==== The Northern Corsican macro variety (Supranacciu, Supranu, Cismuntincu or Cismontano) is the most widespread on the island and standardised as well, and is spoken in North-West Corsica around the districts of Bastia and Corte. The dialects of Bastia and Cap Corse belong to the Western Tuscan dialects; they being, with the exception of Florentine, the closest to standard Italian. All the dialects presenting, in addition to what has already been stated, the conditional formed in (e.g. "she would love") are generally considered Cismontani dialects, situated north of a line uniting the villages of Piana, Vico, Vizzavona, Ghisoni and Ghisonaccia, and also covering the subgroups from the Cap Corse (which, unlike the rest of the island and similarly to Italian, uses lu, li, la, le as definite articles), Bastia (besides i > e and a > e, u > o: , , , ; a > o: , , ), Balagna, Niolo and Corte (which retain the general Corsican traits: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). ==== Transitional area ==== Across the Northern and Southern borders of the line separating the Northern dialects from the Southern ones, there is a transitional area picking up linguistic phenomena associated with either of the two groups, with some local peculiarities. Along the Northern line are the dialects around Piana and Calcatoggio, from Cinarca with Vizzavona (which form the conditional as in the South), and Fiumorbo through Ghisonaccia and Ghisoni, which have the retroflex sound (written -dd-) for historical ; along the Southern line, the dialects of Ajaccio (retroflex -dd-, realized as -ghj-, feminine plurals ending in i, some Northern words like cane and accattà instead of ghjacaru and cumprà, as well as ellu/ella and not eddu/edda; minor variations: sabbatu > sabbitu, u li dà > ghi lu dà; final syllables often stressed and truncated: marinari > marinà, > panattè, castellu > castè, cuchjari > cuchjà), the Gravona area, Bastelica (which would be classified as Southern, but is also noted for its typical rhotacism: Basterga) and Solenzara, which did not preserve the Latin short vowels: seccu, peru, rossu, croci, pozzu. ==== Southern Corsican ==== The Southern Corsican macro variety (Suttanacciu, Suttanu, Pumuntincu or Oltramontano) is the most archaic and conservative group, spoken in the districts of Sartène and Porto-Vecchio. Unlike the Northern varieties and similarly to Sardinian, the group retains the distinction of the Latin short vowels ĭ and ŭ (e.g. pilu, bucca). It is also strongly marked by the presence of the voiced retroflex stop, like Sicilian (e.g. aceddu, beddu, quiddu, ziteddu, famidda), and the conditional mood formed in -ìa (e.g. (idda) amarìa "she would love"). All the Oltramontani dialects are from an area located to the South of Porticcio, Bastelica, Col di Verde and Solenzara. Notable dialects are those from around Taravo (retroflex -dd- only for historical : frateddu, suredda, beddu; preservation of the palatal lateral approximant: piglià, famiglia, figliolu, ; does not preserve the Latin short vowels: seccu, peru, rossu, croci, pozzu), Sartène (preserving the Latin short vowels: siccu, piru, russu, cruci, puzzu; changing historical -rn- to -rr-: forru, carri, corru; substituting the stop for the palatal lateral approximant: piddà, famidda, fiddolu, voddu; imperfect tense like cantàvami, cantàvani; masculine plurals ending in a: l'ochja, i poma; having eddu/edda/eddi as personal pronouns), the Alta Rocca (the most conservative area in Corsica, being very close to the varieties spoken in Northern Sardinia), and the Southern region located between the hinterlands of Porto-Vecchio and Bonifacio (masculine singulars always ending in u: fiumu, paesu, patronu; masculine plurals always ending in a: i letta, i solda, i ponta, i foca, i mura, i loca, i balcona; imperfect tense like cantàiami, cantàiani). === Sardinia === Some Italo-Romance languages that might have originated from Southern Corsican, but are also heavily influenced by the Sardinian language, are spoken in the neighbouring island of Sardinia. Gallurese is spoken in the extreme north of the island, including the region of Gallura, while Sassarese is spoken in Sassari and in its neighbourhood, in the northwest of Sardinia. Their geographical position in Sardinia has been theorised to be the result of different migration waves from the already tuscanized Corsicans and the Tuscans, who then proceeded to settle in Sardinia and slowly displace the indigenous Logudorese Sardinian varieties spoken therein (at present, Luras is the only town in the middle of Gallura that has retained the original language). On the Maddalena archipelago, which was culturally Corsican but had been annexed to the Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia a short while before Corsica was ceded by Genoa to France in 1767, the local dialect (called isulanu or maddaleninu) was brought by fishermen and shepherds from Bonifacio over a long period of immigration in the 17th and 18th centuries. Though influenced by Gallurese, it has maintained the original characteristics of Southern Corsican. In the dialect of maddalenino, as it is known in Italian, there are also numerous words of Genoese and Ponzese origin. Although Gallurese and Sassarese both belong to Italo-Dalmatian, which is a group typologically different from Sardinian, it has long been a subject of debate whether the two should be included as dialects either of Corsican or of Sardinian or, in light of their historical development, even considered languages of their own. It has been argued that all these varieties should be placed in a single category, Southern Romance, but such classification has not garnered universal support among linguists. On 14 October 1997, Article 2 Item 4 of Law Number 26 of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia granted "the Sassarese and Gallurese dialects" («al dialetto sassarese e a quello gallurese») equal legal status with the other languages indigenous to Sardinia. Thus, even though they would technically not be covered by the national law pertaining to the historical linguistic minorities, among which is Sardinian, Sassarese and Gallurese are nonetheless recognized by the Sardinian government on a regional level. === Examples of the main Corsican varieties compared with standard Italian and Elba's Tuscan dialect === == Number of speakers == The situation of Corsican with regard to French as the country's national language is analogous to that of many other French regions and provinces, which have or used to have a traditional language of their own, even though the islanders' switch from their local idiom to regional French has happened relatively later and the presence of Corsican, albeit declining, is still strongly felt among the population. In 1980, about 70 percent of the island's population "had some command of the Corsican language." In 1990, out of a total population of about 254,000, the percentage had declined to 50 percent, with 10 percent of the island's residents using it as a first language. 28% of the overall population was able to speak Corsican well, while an additional 14% had a capacity to speak it "quite well." The percentage of those who had a solid oral understanding of the language varies between a minimum of 25 percent in the 25–34 age group and the maximum of 65 percent in the over-65 age group: almost a quarter of the former age group reported that they were not able to understand Corsican, while only a small minority of the older people did not understand it. The Corsican language is a key vehicle for Corsican culture, which is notably rich in proverbs and in polyphonic song. == Governmental support == When the French Assembly passed the Deixonne Law in 1951, which made it possible for regional languages to be taught at school, Alsatian, Flemish and Corsican were not included on the ground of being classified as dialectes allogènes of German, Dutch and Italian respectively, i.e. dialects of foreign languages and not languages in themselves. Only in 1974 were they too politically recognized as regional languages for their teaching on a voluntary basis. The 1991 Joxe Statute, in setting up the Collectivité Territoriale de Corse, also provided for the Corsican Assembly, and charged it with developing a plan for the optional teaching of Corsican. The University of Corsica Pasquale Paoli at Corte, Haute-Corse took a central role in the planning. At the primary school level Corsican is taught up to a fixed number of hours per week (three in the year 2000) and is a voluntary subject at the secondary school level, but is required at the University of Corsica. It is available through adult education. It can be spoken in court or in the conduct of other government business if the officials concerned speak it. The Cultural Council of the Corsican Assembly advocates for its use, for example, on public signs. In 2023, in a judgement initiated by local prefect and going in opposite direction of recent trends, usage of the Corsican language in French public offices and the regional parliament was legally banned, the existence of the "Corsican people" was also deemed unconstitutional. == Literature == According to the anthropologist Dumenica Verdoni, writing new literature in modern Corsican, known as the Riacquistu, is an integral part of affirming Corsican identity. Some individuals have returned from careers in continental France to write in Corsican, including Dumenicu Togniotti, director of the Teatru Paisanu, which produced polyphonic musicals, 1973–1982, followed in 1980 by Michel Raffaelli's Teatru di a Testa Mora, and Saveriu Valentini's Teatru Cupabbia in 1984. Modern prose writers include Alanu di Meglio, Ghjacumu Fusina, Lucia Santucci, and Marcu Biancarelli. There were writers working in Corsican in the 1700s and 1800s. Ferdinand Gregorovius, a 19th-century traveller and enthusiast of Corsican culture, reported that the preferred form of the literary tradition of his time was the vocero, a type of polyphonic ballad originating from funeral obsequies. These laments were similar in form to the chorales of Greek drama except that the leader could improvise. Some performers were noted at this, such as the 1700s Mariola della Piazzole and Clorinda Franseschi. However, the trail of written popular literature of known date in Corsican currently goes no further back than the 17th century. An undated corpus of proverbs from communes may well precede it (see under External links below). Corsican has also left a trail of legal documents ending in the late 12th century. At that time the monasteries held considerable land on Corsica and many of the churchmen were notaries. Between 1200 and 1425 the monastery of Gorgona, which belonged to the Order of Saint Benedict for much of that time and was in the territory of Pisa, acquired about 40 legal papers of various sorts related to Corsica. As the church was replacing Pisan prelates with Corsican ones there, the legal language shows a transition from entirely Latin through partially Latin and partially Corsican to entirely Corsican. The first known surviving document containing some Corsican is a bill of sale from Patrimonio dated to 1220. These documents were moved to Pisa before the monastery closed its doors and were published there. Research into earlier evidence of Corsican is ongoing. == Alphabet and spelling == Corsican is written in the standard Latin script, using 21 of the letters for native words. The letters j, k, w, x, and y are found only in foreign names and French vocabulary. The digraphs and trigraphs chj, ghj, sc and sg are also defined as "letters" of the alphabet in its modern scholarly form (compare the presence of ch or ll in the old Spanish alphabet) and appear respectively after c, g and s. The primary diacritic used is the grave accent, indicating word stress when it is not penultimate. In scholarly contexts, disyllables may be distinguished from diphthongs by use of the diaeresis on the former vowel (as in Italian and distinct from French and English). In older writing, the acute accent is sometimes found on stressed , the circumflex on stressed , indicating respectively () and () phonemes. Corsican has been regarded as a dialect of Italian historically, similar to the Romance lects developed on the Italian peninsula, and in writing, it also resembles Italian (with the generalised substitution of -u for final -o and the articles u and a for il/lo and la respectively; however, both the dialect of Cap Corse and Gallurese retain the original articles lu and la). On the other hand, the phonemes of the modern Corsican dialects have undergone complex and sometimes irregular phenomena depending on phonological context, so the pronunciation of the language for foreigners familiar with other Romance languages is not straightforward. == Phonology == === Vowels === As in Italian, the grapheme appears in some digraphs and trigraphs in which it does not represent the phonemic vowel. All vowels are pronounced except in a few well-defined instances. is not pronounced between and : sciarpa ; or initially in some words: istu Vowels may be nasalized before (which is assimilated to before or ) and the palatal nasal consonant represented by . The nasal vowels are represented by the vowel plus , or . The combination is a digraph or trigraph indicating the nasalized vowel. The consonant is pronounced in weakened form. The same combination of letters might not be the digraph or trigraph but might be just the non-nasal vowel followed by the consonant at full weight. The speaker must know the difference. Example of nasal: is pronounced and not . The Northern and central dialects in the vicinity of the Taravo river adopt the Italian seven-vowel system (the Italo-Western type and a unique type where the short high vowels of Latin are uniquely reflected as mid-low vowels), whereas all the Southern ones around the so-called "archaic zone" with its centre being the town of Sartène (including the Gallurese dialect spoken in Northern Sardinia) resort to a five-vowel system without length differentiation, like Sardinian. The vowel inventory, or collection of phonemic vowels (and the major allophones), transcribed in IPA symbols, is: === Consonants ===	[ "Basque language", "Languages of France", "Logudorese Sardinian", "acute accent", "Calvi, Haute-Corse", "lateral consonant", "penult", "France", "Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)", "Tuscany", "Papal States", "nautical mile", "Corte, Haute-Corse", "diphthong", "Tuscan dialect", "Ghisoni", "voice (phonetics)", "Approximant consonant", "Ligures", "Gallurese", "Mediterranean", "Language shift", "palatal lateral approximant", "Breton language", "Paleo-Corsican language", "voiced retroflex stop", "Southern Romance languages", "diaeresis (diacritic)", "Gallura", "French Flemish", "Italian irredentism", "Corsican alphabet", "University of Pisa", "Gallurese dialect", "Italian language", "Vandals", "Italic languages", "Allophone", "Sassarese language", "Vico, Corse-du-Sud", "Territorial Collectivity of Corsica", "Elba", "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger", "Prehistory of Corsica", "Labiodental consonant", "Vizzavona", "Nasal consonant", "code-switch", "Louis XV", "Lower case", "Seneca the Younger", "Florentine dialect", "Italo-Western languages", "UNESCO", "Palato-alveolar consonant", "Alsatian dialect", "Samuel Johnson", "Bastia", "Languages of Calabria", "Sardinian language", "Dental consonant", "Latin script", "Lucca", "Latino-Faliscan languages", "Medieval Corsica", "Corsica", "House of Savoy", "Bastelica", "Maddalena archipelago", "Bilabial consonant", "Capraia", "Fiumorbo", "Republic of Genoa", "Diglossia", "Grapheme", "Luras", "Monolingualism", "Corsican language", "national language", "Ligurian language", "Taravo", "Labialization", "Genoese dialect", "Fricative consonant", "Italo-Dalmatian", "Catalan language", "University of Corsica Pasquale Paoli", "Phoneme", "Castellanese", "Francization", "Bonifacino dialect", "Notary", "Italian irredentism in Corsica", "Italo-Romance", "Pisa", "Bonifacio, Corse-du-Sud", "vernacular", "Varieties of French", "syllable", "Stop consonant", "Italian Fascism", "Cap Corse", "Italian occupation of Corsica", "Italy", "Gravona", "Extreme Southern Italian", "Trill consonant", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "circumflex", "Phonetics", "Palatal consonant", "Accademia della Crusca", "Haute-Corse", "Greek people", "Calcatoggio", "Dialect continuum", "Sardinia", "Single territorial collectivity", "Dante", "proverb", "Mutual intelligibility", "Latin", "prestige language", "voicelessness", "code-switching", "Romance languages", "Sassari", "central Italy", "Order of Saint Benedict", "Affricate consonant", "Corsican nationalism", "Italian peninsula", "polyphony", "code-mixing", "trigraph (orthography)", "Ponza", "Sartène", "Ajaccio", "Ghisonaccia", "Republic of Pisa", "Register (sociolinguistics)", "Genoa", "linguistic purism", "Velar consonant", "grave accent", "Piana, Corsica", "Digraph (orthography)", "Gorgona, Italy", "Sicilian language", "Corsican Wikipedia", "Ferdinand Gregorovius", "Alveolar consonant", "language shift", "Corsicans", "Patrimonio", "Garfagnana", "Italo-Dalmatian languages", "Regions of Italy", "central consonant", "Liberation of France", "Pasquale Paoli", "Jules Ferry", "Occitan language", "Porto-Vecchio", "Corse-du-Sud", "Boccaccio", "Capraiese (semi-corsican dialect)", "Etruscans", "Corsican Assembly" ]
7,580	Commodore International	Commodore International Corporation was a home computer and electronics manufacturer with its head office in The Bahamas and its executive office in the United States founded in 1976 by Jack Tramiel and Irving Gould. It was the successor company to Commodore Business Machines (Canada) Ltd., established in 1958 by Tramiel and Manfred Kapp. Commodore International (CI), along with its U.S. subsidiary Commodore Business Machines, Inc. (CBM), was a significant participant in the development of the home computer industry, and at one point in the 1980s was the world's largest in the industry. The company released its first home computer, the Commodore PET, in 1977; it was followed by the VIC-20, the first ever computer to reach one million units of sales. In 1982, the company developed and marketed the world's best selling computer, the Commodore 64; its success made Commodore one of the world's largest personal computer manufacturers, with sales peaking in the last quarter of 1983 at $ (equivalent to $ in ). However an internal struggle led to co-founder Tramiel quitting, then rivalling Commodore under Atari Corporation joined by a number of other employees. Commodore in 1985 launched the Amiga 1000 personal computer — running on AmigaOS featuring a full color graphical interface and preemptive multitasking — which would initially become a popular platform for computer games and creative software. The company did particularly well in European markets; in West Germany, Commodore machines were ubiquitous as of 1989. The company's position started declining in the late 1980s amid internal conflicts and mismanagement, and while the Amiga line was popular, newer models failed to keep pace against competing IBM PC-compatibles and Apple Macintosh. By 1992, MS-DOS and 16-bit video game consoles offered by Nintendo and Sega had eroded Amiga's status as a solid gaming platform. Under co-founding chairman Irving Gould and president Mehdi Ali, Commodore filed for bankruptcy on April 29, 1994 and was soon liquidated, with its assets purchased by German company Escom. The Amiga line was revitalized and continued to be developed by Escom until it too went bankrupt, in July 1996. Commodore's computer systems, mainly the C64 and Amiga series, retain a cult following decades after its demise. Commodore's assets have been passed through various companies since then. After Escom's demise and liquidation, its core assets were sold to Gateway 2000 while the Commodore brand name was eventually passed to Tulip Computers of the Netherlands, and remains under ownership of a Dutch company today. Gateway 2000 attempted but failed to market a modern Amiga, and eventually sold the copyrights, Amiga trademark and other intellectual properties to Amiga, Inc., while retaining the Commodore patents, which are now under Acer since its acquisition of Gateway. Amiga Corp., a sister company of Cloanto, owns the Amiga properties since 2019. Hyperion Entertainment of Belgium has continued development of AmigaOS (version 4) to this day under license, and have released AmigaOne computers based on PowerPC. ==History== ===Commodore Business Machines (Canada) Ltd. (1954–1976)=== Jack Tramiel and Manfred Kapp met in the early 1950s while both employed by the Ace Typewriter Repair Company in New York City. In 1954, they partnered to sell used and reconditioned typewriters and used their profits to purchase the Singer Typewriter Company. After acquiring a local dealership selling Everest adding machines, Tramiel convinced Everest to give him and Kapp exclusive Canadian rights to its products and established Everest Office Machines in Toronto in 1955. By 1958, the adding machine business was slowing. Tramiel made a connection with an Everest agent in England who alerted him to a business opportunity to import portable typewriters manufactured by a Czechoslovakian company into Canada. On October 10, 1958, Tramiel and Kapp incorporated Commodore Portable Typewriter, Ltd. in Toronto to sell the imported typewriters., allegedly taking the name from a Hudson Commodore car that Tramiel spotted in Berlin. Commodore funded its operations through factoring over its first two years but faced a continual cash crunch. To bolster the company's financial condition, Tramiel and Kapp sold a portion of the company to Atlantic Acceptance Corporation, one of Canada's largest financing companies, and Atlantic President C. Powell Morgan became the chairman of Commodore. In 1962, the company went public on the Montreal Stock Exchange, under the name of Commodore Business Machines (Canada), Ltd. With the financial backing of Atlantic Acceptance, Commodore expanded rapidly in the early 1960s. It purchased a factory in West Germany to manufacture its typewriters, began distributing office furniture for a Canadian manufacturer, and sold Pearlsound radio and stereo equipment. In 1965, it purchased the furniture company for which it served as the distributor and moved its headquarters to its facilities on Warden Avenue in the Scarborough district of Toronto. That same year, the company made a deal with a Japanese manufacturer to produce adding machines for Commodore, and purchased the office supply retailer Wilson Stationers to serve as an outlet for its typewriters. In 1965, Atlantic Acceptance collapsed when it failed to make a routine payment. A subsequent investigation by a royal commission revealed a massive fraud scheme in which the company falsified financial records to acquire loans funneled into a web of subsidiaries where C. Powell Morgan held a personal stake. Morgan then pocketed the money or invested it in several unsuccessful ventures. Commodore was one of the Atlantic subsidiaries directly implicated in this scheme. Despite heavy suspicion, the commission could not find evidence of wrongdoing by Tramiel or Kapp. The scandal left Commodore in a worse financial position as it had borrowed heavily from Atlantic to purchase Wilson, and the loan was called in. Due to the financial scandal, Tramiel could only secure a bridge loan by paying interest well above the prime rate and putting the German factory up as collateral. Tramiel worked with a financier named Irving Gould to extricate himself, who brokered a deal to sell Wilson Stationers to an American company. Commodore now owed Gould money and still did not have sufficient capital to meet its payments, so Tramiel sold 17.9% of the company to Gould in 1966 for $ (equivalent to $ in ). As part of the deal, Gould became the company's new chairman. Tramiel saw some of the first electronic calculators through his Japanese contacts in the late 1960s. He pivoted from adding machines to marketing calculators produced by companies like Casio under the Commodore brand name. In 1969, Commodore began manufacturing its electronic calculators. Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the more popular brands in the early 1970s, producing both consumer and scientific/programmable calculators. However, in 1975, Texas Instruments, the leading supplier of calculator parts, entered the market directly and put out a line of machines priced at less than Commodore's cost for the parts. Commodore obtained an infusion of cash from Gould, which Tramiel used beginning in 1976 to purchase several second-source chip suppliers, including MOS Technology, Inc., to assure his supply. He agreed to buy MOS, which was having troubles of its own, on the condition that its chip designer Chuck Peddle join Commodore directly as head of engineering. In 1976, Commodore Business Machines (Canada) Ltd. was dissolved and replaced by the newly formed Bahamanian corporation Commodore International, which became the new parent of the Commodore group of companies. ===Entry into the computer market and success (1977–1984)=== Chuck Peddle convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were a dead end business and that they should turn their attention to home computers. Peddle packaged his single-board computer design in a metal case, initially with a keyboard using calculator keys, later with a full-travel QWERTY keyboard, monochrome monitor, and tape recorder for program and data storage, to produce the Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor). From PET's 1977 debut, Commodore was primarily a computer company. Commodore had been reorganized the year before into Commodore International, Ltd., moving its financial headquarters to the Bahamas and its operational base to West Chester, Pennsylvania, near the MOS Technology site. The operational headquarters, where research and development of new products occurred, retained the name Commodore Business Machines, Inc. In 1980, Commodore launched production for the European market in Braunschweig, Germany. This site once employed up to 2000 employees, and in February 2017 an exhibition room for about 200 Commodore products was opened here to commemorate its past. By 1980, Commodore was one of the three largest microcomputer companies and the largest in the Common Market. The company had lost its early domestic-market sales leadership, however by mid-1981 its US market share was less than 5% and US computer magazines rarely discussed Commodore products. BYTE stated "the lack of a marketing strategy by Commodore, as well as its past nonchalant attitude toward the encouragement and development of good software, has hurt its credibility, especially in comparison to the other systems on the market". Writing for Programming the PET/CBM, Raeto Collin West wrote "CBM's product manuals are widely recognized to be unhelpful; this is one of the reasons for the existence of this book." Commodore re-emphasized the US market with the VIC-20. The PET computer line was used primarily in schools, where its tough all-metal construction and ability to share printers and disk drives on a simple local area network were advantages, but PETs did not compete well in the home setting where graphics and sound were important. This was addressed with the VIC-20 in 1981, which was introduced at a cost of (equivalent to $ in ) and sold in retail stores. Commodore bought aggressive advertisements featuring William Shatner asking consumers, "Why buy just a video game?" The strategy worked, and the VIC-20 became the first computer to ship more than one million units, with 2.5 million units sold over the machine's lifetime, which helped Commodore's sales in Canadian schools. In promotions aimed at schools and to reduce unsold inventory, PET models labeled 'Teacher's PET' were given away as part of a "buy 2 get 1 free" promotion. As of calendar year 1980, Commodore sales were $40 million, behind Apple Computer and Tandy Corporation in the market. In 1982, Commodore introduced the Commodore 64 (C64) as the successor to the VIC-20. Due to its chips designed by MOS Technology, the C64 possessed advanced sound and graphics for its time, and is often credited with starting the computer demo scene. Its (equivalent to $ in ) price was high compared to that of the VIC-20 but was much less expensive than any other 64K computer. Early C64 advertisements boasted that "You can't buy a better computer at twice the price", with Australian adverts in the mid-1980s using the slogan "Are you keeping up with the Commodore? Because the Commodore is keeping up with you." In 1983, Tramiel decided to focus on market share and cut the price of the VIC-20 and C64 dramatically, starting the home computer war. TI responded by cutting prices on its 1981 TI-99/4A, leading to a price war involving most vendors other than Apple Computer, including Commodore, TI and Atari. Commodore began selling the VIC-20 and C64 through mass-market retailers such as K-Mart, in addition to traditional computer stores. By the end of this conflict, Commodore had shipped around 22 million C64s, making the C64 the best-selling computer, until the Raspberry Pi overtook it in 2019. At the June 1983 Consumer Electronics Show, Commodore lowered the retail price of the C64 to , and stores sold it for as little as . At one point, the company was selling as many computers as the rest of the industry combined. Prices for the VIC-20 and C64 were $50 lower than Atari's prices for the 600XL and 800XL. Commodore's strategy was to, according to a spokesman, devote 50% of its efforts to the under- market, 30% on the market, and 20% on the over- market. Its vertical integration and Tramiel's focus on cost control helped Commodore do well during the price war, with in 1983 sales. Although the company and Tramiel's focus on cost cutting over product testing caused hardware defects in the initial C64, some resolved in later iterations. By early 1984, Synapse Software, the largest provider of third-party Atari 8-bit software, received 65% of sales from the Commodore market, and Commodore sold almost three times as many computers as Atari that year. Despite its focus on the lower end of the market, Commodore's computers were also sold in upmarket department stores such as Harrods. The company also attracted several high-profile customers. In 1984, the company's British branch became the first manufacturer to receive a royal warrant for computer business systems. NASA's Kennedy Space Center was another noted customer, with over 60 Commodore systems processing documentation, tracking equipment and employees, costing jobs, and ensuring the safety of hazardous waste. ===Departure of Tramiel, acquisition of Amiga and competition with Atari (1984–1987)=== By early 1984, Commodore was the most successful home computer company, with more than (equivalent to $ in ) in annual revenue and (equivalent to $ in ) in net income, whilst competitors had large losses. The company's revenue of $425 million in the fourth calendar quarter of 1983 more than doubled its revenue of a year earlier. Although Creative Computing compared the company to "a well-armed battleship [which] rules the micro waves" and threatened to destroy rivals like Atari and Coleco, Commodore's board of directors, affected by the price spiral, decided to exit the company. In January 1984, an internal power struggle resulted after Tramiel resigned due to disagreements with the board chairman, Irving Gould. Gould replaced Tramiel with Marshall F. Smith, a steel executive without a computer or consumer marketing experience. Tramiel's departure at the moment of Commodore's greatest financial success surprised the industry. In May 1984, Tramiel founded a new company, Tramel Technology, and hired several Commodore engineers to begin work on a next-generation computer design. That same year, Tramiel discovered Warner Communications wanted to sell Atari, which was rumored to be losing about a day. Interested in Atari's overseas manufacturing and worldwide distribution network for a new computer, he approached Atari and entered negotiations. After several talks with Atari in May and June 1984, Tramiel had secured funding and bought Atari's Consumer Division (which included the console and home computer departments) in July. In July 1984 Tramiel bought the consumer side of Atari Inc. from Warner Communications and released the Atari ST earlier in 1985 for about . As more executives and researchers left Commodore after the announcement to join Tramiel's new company Atari Corp., Commodore followed by filing lawsuits against four former engineers for theft of trade secrets in late July. This was intended, in effect, to bar Tramiel from releasing his new computer. One of Tramiel's first acts after forming Atari Corp. was to fire most of Atari's remaining staff and to cancel almost all ongoing projects to review their continued viability. In late July to early August, Tramiel representatives discovered the original Amiga contract from the previous fall. Seeing a chance to gain some leverage, Tramiel immediately used the agreement to counter-sue Commodore on August 13. The remaining Commodore management sought to salvage the company's fortunes and plan for the future, and did so by buying a small startup company called Amiga Corporation in August 1984 for ( in cash and $550,000 in common shares). Amiga became a subsidiary of Commodore, called Commodore-Amiga, Inc. During development in 1981, Amiga had exhausted venture capital and needed more financing. Jay Miner and his company had approached their former employer, the Warner-owned Atari, who paid Amiga to continue development work. In return, Atari received the exclusive use of the design as a video game console for one year, after which Atari would have the right to add a keyboard and market it as a complete Amiga computer. The Atari-Amiga contract and engineering logs identify the Atari-Amiga product was designated as the 1850XLD. As Atari was heavily involved with Disney at the time, it was later code-named "Mickey", and the 256K memory expansion board was codenamed "Minnie". Still suffering serious financial problems, Amiga sought more monetary support from investors that entire spring. At around the same time that Tramiel was negotiating with Atari, Amiga entered into discussions with Commodore. The discussions ultimately led to Commodore's intentions to purchase Amiga outright, which Commodore viewed would cancel any outstanding contracts including Atari Inc.'s. Tramiel counter-sued on the basis of this interpretation, and sought damages and an injunction to bar Amiga and effectively Commodore from producing any resembling technology, to render Commodore's new acquisition and the source for its next generation of computers useless. The resulting court case lasted several years. Commodore introduced a new 32-bit computer design to market in the fall of 1985 named the Amiga 1000 for , first demonstrated at the CES in 1984. An Atari-Commodore rivalry continued throughout the life of the ST and Amiga platforms. While the rivalry was a holdover from the competition between the C64 and Atari 800, the events leading to the launch of the ST and Amiga served to further alienate fans of each computer, who disagreed as to which platform was superior. This was reflected in sales numbers for the two platforms until the release of the Amiga 500 in 1987, which led the Amiga sales to exceed the ST by about 1.5 to 1, despite reaching the market later. However, neither platform captured a significant share of the world computer market, with only the Apple Macintosh surviving the industry-wide shift to Intel-based x86 computers using Microsoft Windows. Commodore and Atari both sought to compete in the workstation market, with Commodore announcing in 1988 a Transputer-driven system based on the Amiga 2000 in response to the Atari Transputer Workstation. Similarly, a Unix workstation based on the Amiga 2000, featuring the 68020 CPU, was detailed as Atari announced developer shipments of its own 68030-based Unix workstation within a claimed "to or three months". Atari's workstation, the TT030, eventually arrived in 1990 without a version of Unix available, this only eventually becoming available to developers in late 1991. Commodore's workstation arrived in 1990 in the form of the Amiga 3000UX. ===Decline and later years (1987–1994)=== Commodore suffered a poor reputation with its dealers and customers, and upon the 1987 introduction of the Amiga 2000, Commodore retreated from its earlier strategy of selling its computers to discount outlets and toy stores and favored authorized dealers. Adam Osborne stated in April 1981 that "the microcomputer industry abounds with horror stories describing the way Commodore treats its dealers and its customers." Commodore under Tramiel had a reputation for cannibalizing its own products with newer ones; Doug Carlston and others in the industry believed rumors in late 1983 that Commodore would discontinue the C64 despite its success because they disliked the company's business practices, including its poor treatment of dealers and introducing new computers incompatible with existing ones. A Boston reseller said, "It's too unsettling to be one of their dealers and not know where you stand with them." After Tramiel's departure, another journalist wrote that he "had never been able to establish excellent relations with computer dealers ... computer retailers have accused Commodore of treating them as harshly as if they were suppliers or competitors, and as a result, many have become disenchanted with Commodore and dropped the product line". Software developers also disliked the company, with one stating that "Dealing with Commodore was like dealing with Attila the Hun." At the 1987 Comdex, an informal InfoWorld survey found that none of the developers present planned to write for Commodore platforms. Commodore's software had a poor reputation; InfoWorld in 1984, for example, stated that "so far, the normal standard for Commodore software is mediocrity". Tramiel's successor, Marshall F. Smith, left the company in 1986, as did his successor Thomas Rattigan in 1987 after a failed boardroom coup. The head of Blue Chip Electronics, a former Commodore employee, described the company as "a well-known revolving door". Commodore faced the problem when marketing the Amiga of still being seen as the company that made cheap computers like the C64 and VIC. The C64 remained the company's cash cow but its technology was aging. By the late 1980s, the personal computer market had become dominated by the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh platforms. Commodore's marketing efforts for the Amiga were less successful in breaking the new computer into an established market compared to the success of its 8-bit line. The company put effort into developing and promoting consumer products that would not be in demand for years, such as an Amiga 500-based HTPC called CDTV. As early as 1986, the mainstream press was predicting Commodore's demise, and in 1990 Computer Gaming World wrote of its "abysmal record of customer and technical support in the past". Nevertheless, as profits and the stock price began to slide, The Philadelphia Inquirer's Top 100 Businesses Annual continued to list several Commodore executives among the highest-paid in the region and the paper documented the company's questionable hiring practices and large bonuses paid to executives amid shareholder discontent. Commodore failed to update the Amiga to keep pace as the PC platform advanced. CBM continued selling the Amiga 2000 with 7.14 MHz 68000 CPUs, even though the Amiga 3000 with its 25 MHz 68030 was on the market. Apple, by this time, was using the 68040 and had relegated the 68000 to its lowest-end model, the black and white Macintosh Classic. The 68000 was used in the Sega Genesis, one of the leading game consoles of the era, Computers fitted with high-color VGA graphics cards and SoundBlaster (or compatible) sound cards had also caught up with the Amiga's performance, and Commodore began to fade from the consumer market. Although the Amiga was originally conceived as a gaming machine, Commodore had always emphasized the Amiga's potential for professional applications, but the Amiga's high-performance sound and graphics were irrelevant to MS-DOS-based routine business word-processing and data-processing requirements, and the machine could not successfully compete with computers in a business market that was rapidly undergoing commoditization. Commodore introduced a range of PC compatible systems designed by its German division, and while the Commodore name was better known in the US than some of its competition, the systems' price and specifications were only average. Sales of the PC range were strong in Germany, however, seeing Commodore acquire a 28% share of this market segment in 1990, second only to IBM. Things were less rosy in the United States, where Commodore had a 6% share in the market segment as of 1989, down from 26% in 1984. Forbes's Evan McGlinn wrote regarding the firm's decline, citing management as the source cause: "the absentee-landlord management style of globe-trotting chairman and chief executive Irving Gould." Commodore attempted to develop new chipsets during the early 1990s, first the Advanced Amiga Architecture and later the Hombre. Funding problems meant that they did not materialize as ultimately the company would go bust. In 1992, the Amiga 600 replaced the Amiga 500, which removed the numeric keypad, Zorro expansion slot, and other functionality, but added IDE, PCMCIA, and intended as a cost-reduced design. Designed as the Amiga 300, a non-expandable model to sell for less than the Amiga 500, the 600 became a replacement for the 500 due to the unexpectedly higher cost of manufacture. Productivity developers increasingly moved to PC and Macintosh, while the console wars took over the gaming market. David Pleasance, managing director of Commodore UK, described the Amiga 600 as a "complete and utter screw-up". In the same year, Commodore released the Amiga 1200 and Amiga 4000 computers, which featured an improved graphics chipset, the AGA. The advent of PC games using 3D graphics such as Doom and Wolfenstein 3D spelled the end of Amiga as a gaming platform. In 1993, Commodore launched a 32-bit CD-ROM-based game console called the Amiga CD32, described as a 'make or break' system, according to Pleasance. The Amiga CD32 was not sufficiently profitable to return Commodore to solvency, however this was not a universal opinion at Commodore, with Commodore Germany hardware expert Rainer Benda stating "The CD32 was a year late for Commodore. In other words, here, too, it might have been better to focus on the core business than jump on a console and hope to sell 300,000 or more units quickly to avoid bankruptcy." In 1992, all UK servicing and warranty repairs were outsourced to Wang Laboratories, which was replaced by ICL after failing to meet repair demand during the Christmas rush in 1992. Commodore International's Canadian subsidiary authorized 3D Microcomputers of Ontario to manufacture IBM PC clones with the Commodore brand in late 1993. Commodore exited the IBM PC clone market entirely during the 1993 fiscal year, citing the low profitability of this market. PC sales had remained relatively stable and, accounting for 37% of revenue from sales in 1993, had grown modestly as declines in both unit sales and revenues were recorded for the Amiga and Commodore 64 product lines. By 1994, only Commodore's operations in Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom were still profitable. Commodore announced voluntary bankruptcy and liquidation on April 29, 1994, causing the board of directors to "authorize the transfer of its assets to trustees for the benefit of its creditors", according to an official statement. With Commodore International having reported a quarterly loss in the US, hopes were expressed that European divisions might be able to continue trading and even survive the demise of the parent company, with a management buyout considered a possibility. Other possibilities included the sale of profitable parts of the company to other parties, with Philips and Samsung considered "likely choices". However, no sale was ever completed. == After Commodore (1994–present) == === Sale to Escom and bankruptcy === Commodore's former assets went separate ways following liquidation, with none of the descendant companies repeating Commodore's early success. Subsidiaries Commodore UK and Commodore B.V. (Netherlands) survived bankruptcy. The UK division filed a buyout proposal to the Supreme Court in the Bahamas and was considered the front runner in the bid due to press exposure at the time; the other initial bidders were Samsung, Philips and Amstrad in mid-1994. Commodore UK and Commodore BV stayed in business by selling old inventory and making computer speakers and other types of computer peripherals, however Commodore BV dissolved in early 1995. Commodore UK withdrew its bid at the start of the auction process after several larger companies, including Gateway Computers and Dell Inc., became interested, primarily for Commodore's patents relating to the Amiga. The only companies who entered bids at the end were Dell and Escom; Escom paid US$14 million for the assets of Commodore International. Commodore UK went into liquidation on August 30, 1995. Escom separated the Commodore and Amiga operations into separate divisions, the latter becoming Amiga Technologies GmbH, and quickly started using the Commodore brand name on a line of PCs sold in Europe while concepting and developing new Amiga computers. They also debuted a brand new logo for Amiga. Escom's Dutch arm, Escom B.V., survived bankruptcy and went on to purchase the Commodore brand from its bankrupt parent. The company then renamed itself to Commodore B.V. ==== Brand name ==== In September 1997, although it did not find much success. providing legal music downloads in the Netherlands, for €22 million, to be paid in instalments over several years until 2010. The sale was completed in March 2005 after months of negotiations; YMV would not become the sole owner until 2010 after buying the remaining shares from Tulip (by then renamed to Nedfield Holding B.V.) which had gone bankrupt. YMV soon renamed itself to Commodore International Corporation (CIC) — its operational office was in the Netherlands but had headquarters in California — and started an operation intended to relaunch the Commodore brand in the video gaming field. The company then launched its Gravel line of products: Gravel in Pocket personal multimedia players equipped with Wi-Fi and the Gravel in Home, hoping the Commodore brand would help them take off, introduced at CeBIT 2007 with a media "entertainment platform" called CommodoreWorld, and also launched gaming PCs running Windows Vista 64-bit. However the company did not find success with these products. On June 24, 2009, CIC in the United States renamed itself to Reunite Investments, Inc., with the Commodore brand retaining under ownership by its subsidiary CIC Europe Holding B.V. (which would later be renamed into C= Holdings B.V.), trading as Commodore Consumer Electronics (CCE). CIC's founder, Ben van Wijhe, bought a Hong Kong-based company called Asiarim. Reunite Investments then sold the brand to Commodore Licensing B.V., a subsidiary of Asiarim, later in 2010. ==== Copyrights and patents ==== Ownership of the remaining assets of Commodore International, including the copyrights and patents, and the Amiga trademarks, passed from bankrupt Escom to Gateway 2000 in 1997. Jim Collas became director of Amiga Technologies and he assembled a new team to work on a new generation of Amiga computers and other products on a new platform, prototyping one called the Amiga MCC and planning a potential tablet computer. However when Jeffrey Weitzen was chosen to become CEO of Gateway, who was not convinced of Collas's plans, he informed that Amiga Technologies division will be sold. Gateway itself was acquired by Taiwanese Acer in 2007. On March 15, 2004, Amiga, Inc. announced that on April 23, 2003, it had transferred its rights over past and future versions of the AmigaOS (but not yet over other intellectual property) to Itec, LLC, later acquired by KMOS, Inc., a Delaware-based company. Shortly afterwards, based on loans and security agreements between Amiga, Inc. and Itec, LLC, the remaining intellectual property assets were transferred from Amiga, Inc. to KMOS, Inc. On March 16, 2005, KMOS, Inc. announced that it had completed all registrations with the State of Delaware to change its corporate name to Amiga, Inc. The Commodore/Amiga copyrights, including all their works up to 1993, were later sold to Cloanto in 2015. A number of legal challenges and lawsuits have involved these companies and Hyperion Entertainment, the Belgian software company that continues development of AmigaOS. ==== Semiconductor subsidiary ==== The Commodore Semiconductor Group (formerly MOS Technology, Inc.), the silicon wafer foundry and integrated circuit manufacturing unit of Commodore International, was bought by its former management in January 1995 and resumed operations under the name GMT Microelectronics, utilizing a troubled facility in Norristown, Pennsylvania that Commodore had closed in 1992. In 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency shut the plant down, and GMT ceased operations and was liquidated. === Current and recent developments === AmigaOS (as well as spin-offs MorphOS and AROS) is still maintained and updated by Hyperion Entertainment. The brand was acquired under license in 2010 by two young entrepreneurs to become Commodore USA in Florida, until 2013. On December 26, 2014, two Italian entrepreneurs licensed the brand and founded Commodore Business Machines Ltd. in London, to manufacture smartphones. ==Product line== The product line consists of original Commodore products. ===Calculators=== 774D, 776M, 796M, 9R23, C108, C110, F4146R, F4902, MM3, Minuteman 6, P50, PR100, SR1800, SR4120D, SR4120R, SR4148D, SR4148R, SR4190R, SR4212, SR4912, SR4921RPN, SR5120D, SR5120R, SR5148D, SR5148R, SR5190R, SR59, SR7919, SR7949, SR9150R, SR9190R, US3, US8 and The Specialist series: M55 (The Mathematician), N60 (The Navigator), S61 (The Statistician). === 6502-based computers === (listed chronologically) KIM-1 single-board computer (1976); was produced by MOS Technology, which was bought by Commodore Commodore PET/CBM range (1977) VIC-20 a.k.a. VIC-1001 (1980 [VIC-1001] – 1984) (CBM); Commodore CBM-II range a.k.a. B-range a.k.a. 600/700 range (1982–1984) MAX Machine Predecessor to C64 (1982) Commodore 64 including C64C (1982–1994) Commodore Educator 64 64 in a PET 40xx case (1983) Commodore SX-64 all-in-one portable C64 including screen and disk drive (1984–1986) Commodore 16 including C116, incompatible with C64 (1984) Commodore Plus/4 compatible with C16 (1984–1985) Commodore LCD LCD-equipped laptop (never released) Commodore 128 including 128D and 128DCR (1985–1989) Commodore 65 C64 successor (never released, an unofficial recreation was released as MEGA65) === Z8000 Based === Commodore 900 workstation (never released) === Amiga === Amiga 1000 (1985–1987) Amiga 500 incl. A500+ (1987–1991) Amiga 2000 incl. A2000HD (1987–1991) Amiga 2500 (1988–1991) Amiga 1500 (1987–1991) Commodore CDTV (1990) Amiga 3000 incl. Amiga 3000UX & Amiga 3000T (1990–1992) Amiga 4000 incl. A4000T (1992–1994), rereleased by Escom (1995–1997) Amiga 600 (1992–1993) Amiga 1200 (1992–1994), rereleased by Escom (1995–1996) ===x86 IBM PC compatibles=== Commodore PC compatible systems Commodore Colt, PC1, PC10, PC20, PC30, PC40 (1987–1993) Commodore PC laptops Commodore 286LT, 386SX-LT, 486SX-LTC, 486SX-LTF, (–1993) Pentium P120i Ultramedia, P166i Ultramedia and the P200i Ultramedia (1996–1997) ===Game consoles=== Commodore TV Game 2000K/3000H (1975–1977) (, 1st-gen home consoles list) MAX Machine predecessor to C64 (1982) Commodore 64 Games System (1990) Amiga CD32 (1993) ===Monitors=== 1000, 1024, 1070, 1080, 1081, 1083S, 1084, 1084S, 1084ST, 1085S, 1201, 1402, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1407, 1428, 1428x, 1432D, 1432V, 1701, 1702, 1703, 1801, 1802, 1803, 1900M/DM602, 1901/75BM13/M1, 1902, 1902A, 1930, 1930-II, 1930-III, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1936ALR, 1940, 1942, 1950, 1960, 1962, 2002, A2024, 2080, 76M13, CM-141, DM-14, DM602 ===Printers=== ====VIC 1520 plotter==== The VIC 1520 plotter used the ALPS mechanicals and four-color rotary pen setup that scrolled a 4¼" roll of paper. The ALPS mechanism was shared with several other 8 bit computers of the era, including Tandy, Atari, and Apple. ===Software=== AmigaOS 32-bit operating system for the Amiga range; multitasking, micro kernel, with GUI Amiga Unix Operating system for the Amiga, based on Unix System V Release 4 Commodore BASIC BASIC interpreter for the 8-bit range, ROM resident; based on Microsoft BASIC Commodore DOS Disk operating system for the 8-bit range; embedded in disk drive ROMs KERNAL Core OS routines for the 8-bit range; ROM resident Magic Desk Planned series of productivity software for the C64; only the first entry was released Simons' BASIC BASIC extension for the C64; cartridge-based Super Expander BASIC and memory extension for the VIC-20; cartridge-based Super Expander 64 BASIC extension for the C64	[ "Pennsylvania", "Amiga Unix", "Texas Instruments", "cannibalization (marketing)", "Atari, Inc.", "Commodore Datasette", "Hong Kong", "liquid crystal display", "IBM", "x86", "InfoWorld", "Advanced Amiga Architecture chipset", "Casio", "AROS", "Sega Genesis", "Commodore BASIC", "Apple Macintosh", "Europe", "History of personal computers", "Scarborough, Toronto", "Attila", "boardroom coup", "United States District Court for the Southern District of New York", "Magic Desk", "Byte Magazine", "game console", "GmbH", "video game consoles", "Toronto", "Commodore SX-64", "Braunschweig", "Microsoft Windows", "Super Expander 64", "integrated circuit", "Commodore 128", "William Shatner", "local area network", "3D Microcomputers", "New York City", "Royal Warrant of Appointment (United Kingdom)", "VIC-20", "Nassau, The Bahamas", "Public company", "graphics card", "Motorola 68040", "Amiga 600", "home computer", "Motorola 68000", "Commodore Educator 64", "Atlantic Acceptance Corporation", "Germany", "Kmart (United States)", "Tandy Corporation", "Wafer (electronics)", "Tulip Computers", "Advanced Graphics Architecture", "Adam Osborne", "tablet computer", "monochrome monitor", "HTPC", "Commodore CDTV", "Transputer", "Blue Chip Electronics", "Kennedy Space Center", "Netherlands Authority for the Financial Markets", "Creative Computing", "Doug Carlston", "Gateway, Inc.", "KIM-1", "Transactor Publishing", "Printed circuit board", "Amiga 3000UX", "Amiga 500 Plus", "Coleco", "AmigaOS 4", "Graphical user interface", "cash cow", "laptop computer", "Apple Computer", "Computer software", "Harrods", "C64 Direct-to-TV", "Integrated circuit", "John C. Dvorak", "England", "Computer hardware", "Time Warner", "liquidation", "Commodore LCD", "Forbes", "Commodore DOS", "International Computers Limited", "IBM PC–compatible", "Fictioneer Books", "Jack Tramiel", "Nintendo", "Commodore 64", "demo scene", "game consoles", "startup company", "Portable media player", "Philips", "liquidated", "The Transactor", "Microsoft BASIC", "Amiga 4000T", "California", "Amiga 1000", "Besloten vennootschap", "International Data Group", "commoditization", "Bil Herd", "USB flash drive", "Intel", "Amiga 2000", "Electronics", "CeBIT", "GamePro", "Atari ST", "West Chester, Pennsylvania", "Irving Gould", "Amiga 4000", "MS-DOS", "Chapter 11 bankruptcy", "Wang Laboratories", "Commodore 64 Games System", "Amiga Corporation", "preemptive multitasking", "Commodore PC compatible systems", "CD-ROM", "video gaming", "Doom (1993 video game)", "Chicago", "Synapse Software", "London", "Atari Corporation", "Liquidation", "Amiga Hombre chipset", "Amiga 1200", "typewriter", "factoring (finance)", "patents", "Raspberry Pi", "console wars", "Samsung", "TheGuardian.com", "Comdex", "portable computer", "Apple Inc.", "Thomas Rattigan", "PowerPC", "Delaware", "TI-99/4A", "Norristown, Pennsylvania", "68030", "List of first generation home video game consoles", "Wintel", "Naamloze vennootschap", "The Bahamas", "Atari Transputer Workstation", "Commodore PET", "Czechoslovakia", "Amiga 500", "SoundBlaster", "PCMCIA", "West Germany", "royal commission", "Warner Communications", "Comics Interview", "Macintosh Classic", "Hyperion Entertainment", "Sega", "MOS Technology", "Commodore USA", "AmigaOne", "Amiga", "single-board computer", "MorphOS", "Kickstarter", "Hudson Commodore", "Atari", "Simons' BASIC", "TT030", "Super Expander", "Dell", "adding machine", "European Economic Community", "Amiga, Inc.", "Montreal Stock Exchange", "NASA", "NYSE American", "Consumer Electronics Show", "CDTV", "Amstrad", "sound card", "Escom AG", "Wolfenstein 3D", "Commodore CBM-II", "Commodore 65", "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "Commodore Plus/4", "Alps Electric", "Acer Inc.", "Video Graphics Array", "KERNAL", "Amiga 3000", "computer games", "The New York Times", "MAX Machine", "Unix System V", "Windows Vista", "Chuck Peddle", "Amiga CD32", "32-bit", "Commodore 16", "AmigaOS", "Gateway 2000", "QWERTY", "Integrated Drive Electronics", "Commodore 900" ]
7,581	Commodore (rank)	Commodore is a senior naval rank used in many navies which is equivalent to brigadier or brigadier general and air commodore. It is superior to a navy captain, but below a rear admiral. It is either regarded as the most junior of the flag officers rank or may not hold the jurisdiction of a flag officer at all depending on the officer's appointment. Non-English-speaking nations commonly use the rank of flotilla admiral, counter admiral, or senior captain as an equivalent, although counter admiral may also correspond to rear admiral lower half abbreviated as RDML. Traditionally, "commodore" is the title for any officer assigned to command more than one ship, even temporarily, much as "captain" is the traditional title for the commanding officer of a single ship even if the officer's official title in the service is a lower rank. As an official rank, a commodore typically commands a flotilla or squadron of ships as part of a larger task force or naval fleet commanded by an admiral. A commodore's ship is typically designated by the flying of a broad pennant, as compared to an admiral's flag. "Commodore" is typically regarded as a one-star rank with a NATO code of OF-6, known in the U.S. as "rear admiral (lower half)", but whether it is regarded as a flag rank varies among countries. It is sometimes abbreviated as "Cdre" in British Royal Navy, "CDRE" in the US Navy, "Cmdre" in the Royal Canadian Navy, "COMO" in the Spanish Navy and in some navies speaking the Spanish language, or "CMDE" as used in the Indian Navy and in navies of several other countries. ==Etymology== The rank of commodore derives from the French commandeur, which was the second highest rank in the orders of knighthood, and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a commandery. ==History== The Dutch Navy also used the rank of commandeur from the end of the 16th century for a variety of temporary positions, until it became a conventional permanent rank in 1955. The Royal Netherlands Air Force has adopted the English spelling of "commodore" for an equivalent rank. In the Royal Navy, the position was introduced in the 17th century to combat the cost of appointing more admirals—a costly business with a fleet as large as the Royal Navy's at that time. The rank of commodore was at first a position created as a temporary title to be bestowed upon captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel. In many navies, the rank of commodore was merely viewed as a senior captain position, whereas other naval services bestowed upon the rank of commodore the prestige of flag officer status. === United States === In 1899, the substantive rank of commodore was discontinued in the United States Navy, but revived during World War II in both the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard. It was discontinued as a rank in these services during the postwar period, but as an appointment, the title "commodore" was then used to identify senior U.S. Navy captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel or functional air wings or air groups that were not part of a carrier air wing or carrier air group. Concurrently, until the early 1980s, U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard captains selected for promotion to the rank of rear admiral (lower half), would wear the same insignia as rear admiral (upper half), i.e., two silver stars for collar insignia or sleeve braid of one wide and one narrow gold stripe, even though they were actually only equivalent to one-star officers and paid at the one-star rate. To correct this inequity, the rank of commodore as a single-star flag officer was reinstated by both services in the early 1980s. This immediately caused confusion with those senior U.S. Navy captains commanding destroyer squadrons, submarine squadrons, functional air wings and air groups, and so on, who held the temporary "title" of commodore while in their major command billet. As a result of this confusion, the services soon renamed the new one-star rank commodore admiral (CADM) within the first six months following the rank's reintroduction. However, this was considered an awkward title and the one-star flag rank was renamed a few months later, giving it its current title of rear admiral (lower half), later abbreviated by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard as RDML. The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and NOAA Commissioned Corps, whose rank structures follow the naval pattern, also use this title and abbreviation. The "title" of commodore continues to be used in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard for those senior captains in command of organizations consisting of groups of ships or submarines organized into squadrons; air wings or air groups of multiple aviation squadrons other than carrier air wings (the latter whose commanders still use the title "CAG"); explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), mine warfare and special warfare (SEAL) groups; Mobile Inshore Underwater Warfare (MIUW) groups; and construction (SeaBee) regiments. Although not flag officers, modern day commodores in the U.S. Navy rate a blue and white command pennant, also known as a broad pennant, that is normally flown at their headquarters facilities ashore or from ships that they are embarked aboard when they are the Senior Officer Present Afloat (SOPA). ===Argentina=== In the Argentine Navy, the position of commodore was created in the late 1990s, and is usually, but not always, issued to senior captains holding rear-admirals' positions. It is not a rank but a distinction and, as such, can be issued by the chief of staff without congressional approval. Its equivalents are colonel-major in the Army and commodore-major in the Air Force. It is usually—but incorrectly—referred to as "navy commodore", to avoid confusion with the "air force commodore", which is equivalent to the navy's captain and army's colonel. The sleeve lace is identical to that of the Royal Navy, and wears one star on the epaulette. ==Naval rank== Commodore (Canada) Commodore (Finland) Commodore (India) Commodore (Sri Lanka) Commodore (Royal Navy) Commodore (United States) Commodore (Pakistan) Kommodore ===Gallery=== File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|(Argentine Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Royal Australian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Royal Bahamas Defence Force) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Bangladesh Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore(Barbados Coast Guard) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Royal Canadian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-(star)-O8.svg\|(Chilean Navy) File:Croatia-Navy-OF-6.svg\|(Croatian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|(Estonian Navy) File:Ethiopia-Navy-OF-6.svg\|(Ethiopian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore(Republic of Fiji Navy) File:Finland-Navy-OF-5.svg\|(Finnish Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Gambian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Ghana Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Guyana Coast Guard) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Indian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-(star)-O8.svg\|Commodore(Irish Naval Service) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Jamaican Coast Guard) File:Montenegro-Navy-OF-6.svg\|(Montenegrin Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Royal New Zealand Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore(Nigerian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Pakistan Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore(Papua New Guinea Maritime Element) File:PN CDRE BlkDr-Slv.svg\|Commodore(Philippine Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|(Portuguese Navy) File:Generic-Navy-(star)-O9.svg\|(Serbian River Flotilla) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Sierra Leone Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Sri Lanka Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore(Tanzania Naval Command) File:Generic-Navy-9.svg\|Commodore(Tongan Maritime Force) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard) File:Ukraine-Navy-OF-6.svg\|(Ukrainian Navy) File:Generic-Navy-9b.svg\|Commodore(Royal Navy) File:13. Myanmar Navy BG.png\|ဗိုလ်မှူးချုပ် (Myanmar) ==Air force ranks== Commodore, in Spanish comodoro, is a rank in the Argentine Air Force. This rank is the equivalent of a colonel in the Argentine Army, and a colonel or group captain in other air forces of the world. The Argentine rank below commodore is the rank of vice-commodore (Spanish vicecomodoro) equivalent to a lieutenant-colonel in the Argentine Army, and a lieutenant-colonel or wing commander in other air forces. Commodore is a rank in the Royal Netherlands Air Force. It is a one-star rank and has essentially the same rank insignia as the British air commodore. Many air forces use the rank of air commodore. This rank was first used by the Royal Air Force and is now used in many countries such as Australia, Bangladesh, Greece, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Thailand and Zimbabwe. It is the equivalent rank to the navy rank of "commodore", and the army ranks of brigadier and brigadier general. The German air force used the concept of a unit commodore for the commander of a wing, usually in the rank of colonel (OF-5). ==Merchant Service (Merchant Marine) rank and Yacht Club chief directors== Commodore is also a title held by many captains as recognition of exceptional navigation ability and seagoing seniority in the Merchant Service, and by the directors of a few yacht clubs and boating associations. Commodores 'in command' as Master aboard Merchant Marine ships wear distinctive rank and cap insignia denoting their honorific high rank position. In a few country the honorific high position of commodore it is indicated with the high rank denomination of senior captain. Traditionally, commodore is the title of the president of a yacht club. ==Convoy commodore== During wartime, a shipping convoy will have a ranking officer—sometimes an active-duty naval officer, at other times a civilian master or retired naval officer—designated as the convoy commodore. This title is not related to the individuals military rank (if any), but instead is the title of the senior individual responsible for the overall operation of the merchant ships and naval auxiliary ships that make up the convoy. The convoy commodore does not command the convoy escort forces (if any), which are commanded by a naval officer who serves as escort commander. ==Civilian use== ===Commodore in Yachting Leadership=== Civilian yacht clubs, yachting associations and fellowships with formal hierarchical structures, began to use the title "commodore" in countries around the world for their presidents in the early twentieth century along with "vice commodore" in the same manner as "vice president,"and "rear-commodore" and "port captain' or "international bridge member" in the same manner as board members. Commodores, vice-commodores and rear-commodores are also known as civilian flag officers because they have an epaulettes, regalia and maritime flags with designated symbols and number of stars for their ranks. Many of the clubs that are more than a century old, such as the Los Angeles Yacht Club have formal ceremonies, where commodores from more than 100 surrounding yacht clubs, flag officers of the US Navy and Coast Guard attend a ceremony at the beginning of the year. The ceremony includes a bagpipe entrance, a presentation of the country flag by commissioned officers of the country's navy and a cannon shot upon the raising of each individual officer's flags on a flag staff, (also known as flagpoles) for each flag officer (commodore, vice commodore, rear commodore) as their term of office officially begins. Sometimes a trumpet fanfare is also include for special occasions like ribbon cutting in 2019 for the 50th Transpacific Yacht Race. Salutes are given to commodores for special ceremonies, including opening days of the racing season. ==Other uses== The U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary also employs variants of the title of commodore. Members of the Auxiliary serve in the Coast Guard's uniformed auxiliary service and they do not have military rank, but who do wear modified U.S. Coast Guard uniforms and U.S. military-style officer rank insignia to indicate office. Auxiliary members who have been elected or appointed to positions in the highest levels of the organization, similar in nature to active and reserve rear admirals and vice admirals use the term commodore (e.g., district commodore, assistant national commodore, deputy national commodore, national commodore, etc.). These Coast Guard auxiliarists may permanently append the title commodore, sometimes abbreviated COMO, to their names (e.g., Commodore James A. Smith, National Commodore; or COMO Jim Smith, (NACO)). In the Philippine Coast Guard Auxiliary—PCGA—each of the directors in command of the ten Coast Guard Auxiliary districts are commodores, as well as most of the Deputy National Directors (some may be rear admirals). Commodore is abbreviated to COMMO in the PCGA. Vanderbilt University's intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the "Commodores", a reference to Cornelius Vanderbilt's self-appointed title (he was the master of a large shipping fleet). In the U.S. Sea Scouting program (which is part of the Boy Scouts of America), all National, Regional, Area, and Council committee chairs are titled as commodore, while senior committee members are addressed as vice commodore. Ship committee chairs do not hold this recognition.	[ "epaulette", "Tanzania Naval Command", "Finnish Navy", "French language", "Commodore (Pakistan)", "orders of knighthood", "SeaBee", "Wing Commander (rank)", "Comparative military ranks", "United States Navy", "Pakistan Navy", "Royal Australian Navy", "flag officer", "brigadier", "regalia", "Jamaica Defence Force", "Serbian River Flotilla", "Chilean Navy", "RMS Titanic", "Squadron (naval)", "Commodore (United States)", "Sea Scouts (Boy Scouts of America)", "Los Angeles Yacht Club", "Royal Thames Yacht Club", "Kommodore", "maritime flag", "Cornelius Vanderbilt", "OF-6", "Senior Officer Present Afloat", "Montenegrin Navy", "flag rank", "NATO", "Bangladesh Navy", "Royal Bahamas Defence Force", "Military order (monastic society)", "commander", "Royal Cork Yacht Club", "counter admiral", "Commodore (India)", "Commodore (Sri Lanka)", "Nigerian Navy", "commissioned officer", "yacht club", "Golden Gate Yacht Club", "military rank", "Boy Scouts of America", "one-star rank", "Sri Lanka Navy", "air commodore", "merchant ship", "flotilla admiral", "NOAA Commissioned Corps", "group captain", "Republic of Fiji Navy", "United States Navy SEALs", "U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary", "Gambian Navy", "Commander, Air Group", "Royal Natal Yacht Club", "Ethiopian Navy", "Squadron (aviation)", "brigadier general", "task force", "Argentine Air Force", "Philippine Navy", "Commodore (Royal Navy)", "Vanderbilt University", "Barbados Coast Guard", "naval fleet", "navy", "Spanish language", "Ukrainian Navy", "Royal Canadian Navy", "List of yacht clubs", "civilian", "United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps", "Royal Navy", "Croatian Navy", "Commodore-in-Chief", "commandeur", "Portuguese Navy", "Tongan Maritime Force", "rear admiral", "Argentine Navy", "Transpacific Yacht Race", "Philippine Coast Guard Auxiliary", "squadron (naval)", "commodore admiral", "Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard", "Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club", "broad pennant", "Commodore (Canada)", "Explosive Ordnance Disposal", "Argentine Army", "flotilla", "Guyana Defence Force", "Royal Malta Yacht Club", "flagpoles", "Vanderbilt Commodores", "Estonian Navy", "Royal New Zealand Navy", "United States Coast Guard", "convoy", "admiral", "United States Coast Guard Auxiliary", "lieutenant-colonel", "senior captain", "Indian Navy", "Master Mariner", "colonel", "Ghana Navy", "Sierra Leone Navy", "Rear admiral", "Irish Naval Service", "Captain (Navy)", "auxiliary ship", "New York Yacht Club", "Auxiliaries", "commandery", "commodore (Royal Navy)", "Papua New Guinea Defence Force", "Royal Netherlands Air Force", "Royal Air Force", "captain (U.S. Navy)", "Commodore (Finland)", "Rear admiral (United States)", "Dutch Navy" ]
7,583	Cauchy–Riemann equations	In the field of complex analysis in mathematics, the Cauchy–Riemann equations, named after Augustin Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann, consist of a system of two partial differential equations which form a necessary and sufficient condition for a complex function of a complex variable to be complex differentiable. These equations are and where and are real bivariate differentiable functions. Typically, and are respectively the real and imaginary parts of a complex-valued function of a single complex variable where and are real variables; and are real differentiable functions of the real variables. Then is complex differentiable at a complex point if and only if the partial derivatives of and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations at that point. A holomorphic function is a complex function that is differentiable at every point of some open subset of the complex plane \mathbb{C}. It has been proved that holomorphic functions are analytic and analytic complex functions are complex-differentiable. In particular, holomorphic functions are infinitely complex-differentiable. This equivalence between differentiability and analyticity is the starting point of all complex analysis. == History == The Cauchy–Riemann equations first appeared in the work of Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Later, Leonhard Euler connected this system to the analytic functions. Cauchy then used these equations to construct his theory of functions. Riemann's dissertation on the theory of functions appeared in 1851. == Simple example == Suppose that z = x + iy. The complex-valued function f(z) = z^2 is differentiable at any point in the complex plane. f(z) = (x + iy)^2 = x^2 - y^2 + 2ixy The real part u(x,y) and the imaginary part v(x, y) are \begin{align} u(x, y) &= x^2 - y^2 \\ v(x, y) &= 2xy \end{align} and their partial derivatives are u_x = 2x;\quad u_y = -2y;\quad v_x = 2y;\quad v_y = 2x We see that indeed the Cauchy–Riemann equations are satisfied, u_x = v_y and u_y = -v_x. == Interpretation and reformulation == The Cauchy-Riemann equations are one way of looking at the condition for a function to be differentiable in the sense of complex analysis: in other words, they encapsulate the notion of function of a complex variable by means of conventional differential calculus. In the theory there are several other major ways of looking at this notion, and the translation of the condition into other language is often needed. === Conformal mappings === First, the Cauchy–Riemann equations may be written in complex form In this form, the equations correspond structurally to the condition that the Jacobian matrix is of the form \begin{pmatrix} a & -b \\ b & a \end{pmatrix}, where a = \partial u/\partial x = \partial v/\partial y and b = \partial v/\partial x = -\partial u/\partial y. A matrix of this form is the matrix representation of a complex number. Geometrically, such a matrix is always the composition of a rotation with a scaling, and in particular preserves angles. The Jacobian of a function takes infinitesimal line segments at the intersection of two curves in and rotates them to the corresponding segments in . Consequently, a function satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations, with a nonzero derivative, preserves the angle between curves in the plane. That is, the Cauchy–Riemann equations are the conditions for a function to be conformal. Moreover, because the composition of a conformal transformation with another conformal transformation is also conformal, the composition of a solution of the Cauchy–Riemann equations with a conformal map must itself solve the Cauchy–Riemann equations. Thus the Cauchy–Riemann equations are conformally invariant. === Complex differentiability === Let f(z) = u(z) + i \cdot v(z) where u and v are real-valued functions, be a complex-valued function of a complex variable z = x + i y where x and y are real variables. f(z) = f(x + iy) = f(x,y) so the function can also be regarded as a function of real variables x and y. Then, the complex-derivative of f at a point z_0=x_0+iy_0 is defined by f'(z_0) =\lim_{\underset{h\in\Complex}{h\to 0}} \frac{f(z_0+h)-f(z_0)}{h} provided this limit exists (that is, the limit exists along every path approaching z_{0} , and does not depend on the chosen path). A fundamental result of complex analysis is that f is complex differentiable at z_0 (that is, it has a complex-derivative), if and only if the bivariate real functions u(x+iy) and v(x+iy) are differentiable at (x_0,y_0), and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations at this point. In fact, if the complex derivative exists at z_0, then it may be computed by taking the limit at z_0 along the real axis and the imaginary axis, and the two limits must be equal. Along the real axis, the limit is \lim_{\underset{h\in\Reals}{h\to 0}} \frac{f(z_0+h)-f(z_0)}{h} = \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} \right \vert_{z_0} and along the imaginary axis, the limit is \lim_{\underset{h\in \Reals}{h\to 0}} \frac{f(z_0+ih)-f(z_0)}{ih} = \left. \frac{1}{i}\frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right \vert _{z_0}. So, the equality of the derivatives implies i \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} \right \vert _{z_0} = \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right \vert _{z_0} which is the complex form of Cauchy–Riemann equations () at z_0. (Note that if f is complex differentiable at z_0, it is also real differentiable and the Jacobian of f at z_0 is the complex scalar f'(z_0), regarded as a real-linear map of \mathbb C, since the limit \|f(z)-f(z_0)-f'(z_0)(z-z_0)\|/\|z-z_0\|\to 0 as z\to z_0.) Conversely, if is differentiable at z_{0} (in the real sense) and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations there, then it is complex-differentiable at this point. Assume that as a function of two real variables and is differentiable at (real differentiable). This is equivalent to the existence of the following linear approximation \Delta f(z_0) = f(z_0 + \Delta z) - f(z_0) = f_x \,\Delta x + f_y \,\Delta y + \eta(\Delta z)where f_x = \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial x}\right \vert _{z_0} , f_y = \left. \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} \right \vert _{z_0} , , and \eta(\Delta z) / \|\Delta z\| \to 0 as . Since \Delta z + \Delta \bar{z}= 2 \, \Delta x and \Delta z - \Delta \bar{z}=2i \, \Delta y , the above can be re-written as \Delta f(z_0) = \frac{f_x - if_y}{2} \, \Delta z + \frac{f_x + if_y}{2} \, \Delta \bar{z} + \eta(\Delta z)\, \frac{\Delta f}{\Delta z} = \frac{f_x -i f_y}{2}+ \frac{f_x + i f_y}{2}\cdot \frac{\Delta\bar{z}}{\Delta z} + \frac{\eta(\Delta z)}{\Delta z}, \;\;\;\;(\Delta z \neq 0). Now, if \Delta z is real, \Delta\bar z/\Delta z = 1, while if it is imaginary, then \Delta\bar z/\Delta z=-1. Therefore, the second term is independent of the path of the limit \Delta z\to 0 when (and only when) it vanishes identically: f_x + i f_y=0, which is precisely the Cauchy–Riemann equations in the complex form. This proof also shows that, in that case, \left.\frac{df}{dz}\right\|_{z_0} = \lim_{\Delta z\to 0}\frac{\Delta f}{\Delta z} = \frac{f_x - i f_y}{2}. Note that the hypothesis of real differentiability at the point z_0 is essential and cannot be dispensed with. For example, the function f(x,y) = \sqrt, regarded as a complex function with imaginary part identically zero, has both partial derivatives at (x_0,y_0)=(0,0), and it moreover satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations at that point, but it is not differentiable in the sense of real functions (of several variables), and so the first condition, that of real differentiability, is not met. Therefore, this function is not complex differentiable. Some sources state a sufficient condition for the complex differentiability at a point z_0 as, in addition to the Cauchy–Riemann equations, the partial derivatives of u and v be continuous at the point because this continuity condition ensures the existence of the aforementioned linear approximation. Note that it is not a necessary condition for the complex differentiability. For example, the function f(z) = z^2e^{i/\|z\|} is complex differentiable at 0, but its real and imaginary parts have discontinuous partial derivatives there. Since complex differentiability is usually considered in an open set, where it in fact implies continuity of all partial derivatives (see below), this distinction is often elided in the literature. === Independence of the complex conjugate === The above proof suggests another interpretation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations. The complex conjugate of z, denoted \bar{z}, is defined by \overline{x + iy} := x - iy for real variables x and y. Defining the two Wirtinger derivatives as \frac{\partial}{\partial z} = \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial x} - i \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \right), \;\;\; \frac{\partial}{\partial\bar{z}} = \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + i \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \right), the Cauchy–Riemann equations can then be written as a single equation \frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}} = 0, and the complex derivative of f in that case is \frac{df}{dz}=\frac{\partial f}{\partial z}. In this form, the Cauchy–Riemann equations can be interpreted as the statement that a complex function f of a complex variable z is independent of the variable \bar{z}. As such, we can view analytic functions as true functions of one complex variable (z) instead of complex functions of two real variables (x and y). === Physical interpretation === A standard physical interpretation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations going back to Riemann's work on function theory is that u represents a velocity potential of an incompressible steady fluid flow in the plane, and v is its stream function. Suppose that the pair of (twice continuously differentiable) functions u and v satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations. We will take u to be a velocity potential, meaning that we imagine a flow of fluid in the plane such that the velocity vector of the fluid at each point of the plane is equal to the gradient of u, defined by \nabla u = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x}\mathbf i + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y}\mathbf j. By differentiating the Cauchy–Riemann equations for the functions u and v, with the symmetry of second derivatives, one shows that u solves Laplace's equation: \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial y^2} = 0. That is, u is a harmonic function. This means that the divergence of the gradient is zero, and so the fluid is incompressible. The function v also satisfies the Laplace equation, by a similar analysis. Also, the Cauchy–Riemann equations imply that the dot product \nabla u\cdot\nabla v = 0 (\nabla u\cdot\nabla v = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} = 0), i.e., the direction of the maximum slope of u and that of v are orthogonal to each other. This implies that the gradient of u must point along the v = \text{const} curves; so these are the streamlines of the flow. The u = \text{const} curves are the equipotential curves of the flow. A holomorphic function can therefore be visualized by plotting the two families of level curves u=\text{const} and v=\text{const}. Near points where the gradient of u (or, equivalently, v) is not zero, these families form an orthogonal family of curves. At the points where \nabla u=0, the stationary points of the flow, the equipotential curves of u=\text{const} intersect. The streamlines also intersect at the same point, bisecting the angles formed by the equipotential curves. === Harmonic vector field === Another interpretation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations can be found in Pólya & Szegő. Suppose that u and v satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations in an open subset of R2, and consider the vector field \bar{f} = \begin{bmatrix} u\\ -v \end{bmatrix} regarded as a (real) two-component vector. Then the second Cauchy–Riemann equation () asserts that \bar{f} is irrotational (its curl is 0): \frac{\partial (-v)}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} = 0. The first Cauchy–Riemann equation () asserts that the vector field is solenoidal (or divergence-free): \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial (-v)}{\partial y}=0. Owing respectively to Green's theorem and the divergence theorem, such a field is necessarily a conservative one, and it is free from sources or sinks, having net flux equal to zero through any open domain without holes. (These two observations combine as real and imaginary parts in Cauchy's integral theorem.) In fluid dynamics, such a vector field is a potential flow. In magnetostatics, such vector fields model static magnetic fields on a region of the plane containing no current. In electrostatics, they model static electric fields in a region of the plane containing no electric charge. This interpretation can equivalently be restated in the language of differential forms. The pair u and v satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations if and only if the one-form v\,dx + u\, dy is both closed and coclosed (a harmonic differential form). === Preservation of complex structure === Another formulation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations involves the complex structure in the plane, given by J = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}. This is a complex structure in the sense that the square of J is the negative of the 2×2 identity matrix: J^2 = -I. As above, if u(x,y) and v(x,y) are two functions in the plane, put f(x,y) = \begin{bmatrix}u(x,y)\\v(x,y)\end{bmatrix}. The Jacobian matrix of f is the matrix of partial derivatives Df(x,y) = \begin{bmatrix} \dfrac{\partial u}{\partial x} & \dfrac{\partial u}{\partial y} \\[5pt] \dfrac{\partial v}{\partial x} & \dfrac{\partial v}{\partial y} \end{bmatrix} Then the pair of functions u, v satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations if and only if the 2×2 matrix Df commutes with J. This interpretation is useful in symplectic geometry, where it is the starting point for the study of pseudoholomorphic curves. === Other representations === Other representations of the Cauchy–Riemann equations occasionally arise in other coordinate systems. If () and () hold for a differentiable pair of functions u and v, then so do \frac{\partial u}{\partial n} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial s},\quad \frac{\partial v}{\partial n} = -\frac{\partial u}{\partial s} for any coordinate system such that the pair (\nabla n,\nabla s) is orthonormal and positively oriented. As a consequence, in particular, in the system of coordinates given by the polar representation z = r e^{i\theta}, the equations then take the form {\partial u \over \partial r} = {1 \over r}{\partial v \over \partial\theta},\quad {\partial v \over \partial r} = -{1 \over r}{\partial u \over \partial\theta}. Combining these into one equation for gives {\partial f \over \partial r} = {1 \over ir}{\partial f \over \partial\theta}. The inhomogeneous Cauchy–Riemann equations consist of the two equations for a pair of unknown functions and of two real variables \begin{align} \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} &= \alpha(x, y) \\[4pt] \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} &= \beta(x, y) \end{align} for some given functions and defined in an open subset of R2. These equations are usually combined into a single equation \frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}} = \varphi(z,\bar{z}) where f = u + iv and 𝜑 = (α + iβ)/2. If 𝜑 is Ck, then the inhomogeneous equation is explicitly solvable in any bounded domain D, provided 𝜑 is continuous on the closure of D. Indeed, by the Cauchy integral formula, f\left(\zeta, \bar{\zeta}\right) = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \iint_D \varphi\left(z, \bar{z}\right) \, \frac{dz\wedge d\bar{z}}{z - \zeta} for all ζ ∈ D. ==Generalizations== === Goursat's theorem and its generalizations === Suppose that is a complex-valued function which is differentiable as a function f : \mathbb{R}^2 \rarr \mathbb{R}^2. Then Goursat's theorem asserts that f is analytic in an open complex domain Ω if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equation in the domain. In particular, continuous differentiability of f need not be assumed. The hypotheses of Goursat's theorem can be weakened significantly. If is continuous in an open set Ω and the partial derivatives of f with respect to x and y exist in Ω, and satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations throughout Ω, then f is holomorphic (and thus analytic). This result is the Looman–Menchoff theorem. The hypothesis that f obey the Cauchy–Riemann equations throughout the domain Ω is essential. It is possible to construct a continuous function satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations at a point, but which is not analytic at the point (e.g., . Similarly, some additional assumption is needed besides the Cauchy–Riemann equations (such as continuity), as the following example illustrates f(z) = \begin{cases} \exp\left(-z^{-4}\right) & \text{if }z \not= 0\\ 0 & \text{if }z = 0 \end{cases} which satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations everywhere, but fails to be continuous at z = 0. Nevertheless, if a function satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations in an open set in a weak sense, then the function is analytic. More precisely: If is locally integrable in an open domain \Omega \isin \mathbb{C}, and satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations weakly, then agrees almost everywhere with an analytic function in . This is in fact a special case of a more general result on the regularity of solutions of hypoelliptic partial differential equations. ===Several variables=== There are Cauchy–Riemann equations, appropriately generalized, in the theory of several complex variables. They form a significant overdetermined system of PDEs. This is done using a straightforward generalization of the Wirtinger derivative, where the function in question is required to have the (partial) Wirtinger derivative with respect to each complex variable vanish. ===Complex differential forms=== As often formulated, the d-bar operator \bar{\partial} annihilates holomorphic functions. This generalizes most directly the formulation {\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = 0, where {\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} + i{\partial f \over \partial y}\right). === Bäcklund transform === Viewed as conjugate harmonic functions, the Cauchy–Riemann equations are a simple example of a Bäcklund transform. More complicated, generally non-linear Bäcklund transforms, such as in the sine-Gordon equation, are of great interest in the theory of solitons and integrable systems. === Definition in Clifford algebra === In the Clifford algebra C\ell(2), the complex number z = x+iy is represented as z \equiv x + J y where J \equiv \sigma_1 \sigma_2, (\sigma_1^2=\sigma_2^2=1, \sigma_1 \sigma_2 + \sigma_2 \sigma_1 = 0, so J^2=-1). The Dirac operator in this Clifford algebra is defined as \nabla \equiv \sigma_1 \partial_x + \sigma_2\partial_y. The function f=u + J v is considered analytic if and only if \nabla f = 0, which can be calculated in the following way: \begin{align} 0 & =\nabla f= ( \sigma_1 \partial_x + \sigma_2 \partial_y )(u + \sigma_1 \sigma_2 v) \\[4pt] & =\sigma_1 \partial_x u + \underbrace{\sigma_1 \sigma_1 \sigma_2}_{=\sigma_2} \partial_x v + \sigma_2 \partial_y u + \underbrace{\sigma_2 \sigma_1 \sigma_2}_{=-\sigma_1} \partial_y v =0 \end{align} Grouping by \sigma_1 and \sigma_2: \nabla f = \sigma_1 ( \partial_x u - \partial_y v) + \sigma_2 ( \partial_x v + \partial_y u) = 0 \Leftrightarrow \begin{cases} \partial_x u - \partial_y v = 0\\[4pt] \partial_x v + \partial_y u = 0 \end{cases} Hence, in traditional notation: \begin{cases} \dfrac{ \partial u }{ \partial x } = \dfrac{ \partial v }{ \partial y }\\[12pt] \dfrac{ \partial u }{ \partial y } = -\dfrac{ \partial v }{ \partial x } \end{cases} === Conformal mappings in higher dimensions === Let Ω be an open set in the Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^n. The equation for an orientation-preserving mapping f:\Omega\to\mathbb{R}^n to be a conformal mapping (that is, angle-preserving) is that Df^\mathsf{T} Df = (\det(Df))^{2/n}I where Df is the Jacobian matrix, with transpose Df^\mathsf{T}, and I denotes the identity matrix. For , this system is equivalent to the standard Cauchy–Riemann equations of complex variables, and the solutions are holomorphic functions. In dimension , this is still sometimes called the Cauchy–Riemann system, and Liouville's theorem implies, under suitable smoothness assumptions, that any such mapping is a Möbius transformation. === Lie pseudogroups === One might seek to generalize the Cauchy-Riemann equations instead by asking more generally when are the solutions of a system of PDEs closed under composition. The theory of Lie Pseudogroups addresses these kinds of questions.	[ "Critical point (mathematics)", "orthogonal", "irrotational vector field", "pseudoholomorphic curve", "harmonic function", "symmetry of second derivatives", "fluid dynamics", "Cauchy integral theorem", "Real-valued function", "dot product", "magnetic field", "divergence theorem", "differential calculus", "analytic functions", "complex analysis", "orthonormal", "conjugate harmonic functions", "orientation (space)", "holomorphic function", "complex differentiable", "Dirac operator", "Jacobian", "soliton", "if and only if", "electrostatics", "conservative vector field", "velocity potential", "imaginary part", "sine-Gordon equation", "one-form", "Clifford algebra", "Complex number", "Leonhard Euler", "stream function", "real part", "Jacobian matrix", "Édouard Goursat", "vector field", "differentiable", "Hodge theory", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy", "differential form", "closure (topology)", "magnetostatics", "Cauchy's integral theorem", "velocity vector", "List of complex analysis topics", "Morera's theorem", "Möbius transformation", "complex number", "angle", "holomorphic functions are analytic", "Wirtinger derivatives", "Streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines", "potential flow", "real function", "Fréchet derivative", "Bernhard Riemann", "continuously differentiable", "system of differential equations", "complex-valued function", "symplectic geometry", "integrable system", "Jean le Rond d'Alembert", "divergence", "function of a complex variable", "Problems and Theorems in Analysis", "Wirtinger derivative", "codifferential", "almost everywhere", "conformal map", "partial differential equation", "partial derivative", "Cauchy integral formula", "Curl (mathematics)", "Differentiable function", "function composition", "solenoidal vector field", "complex conjugate", "overdetermined system", "linear complex structure", "Homothetic transformation", "Looman–Menchoff theorem", "hypoelliptic operator", "Bäcklund transform", "Laplace's equation", "Liouville's theorem (conformal mappings)", "rotation", "complex function", "coordinate system", "weak derivative", "level curve", "Green's theorem", "conformal mapping", "Closed and exact differential forms", "gradient", "differentiable function", "Function of several complex variables", "analytic function", "equipotential curve", "mathematics" ]
7,585	Chaim Topol	Chaim Topol (; 9 September 1935 – 8 March 2023), mononymously known as Topol, Topol began acting during his Israeli army service as a member of the Nahal entertainment troupe. He later toured Israel with kibbutz theatre and satirical theatre companies. He was a co-founder of the Haifa Theatre. His breakthrough film role came in 1964 as the title character in Sallah Shabati, by Israeli writer Ephraim Kishon, for which he won a Golden Globe for Most Promising Newcomer—Male. Topol went on to appear in more than 30 films in Israel and the United States, including Galileo (1975), Flash Gordon (1980), and For Your Eyes Only (1981). He was described as Israel's only internationally recognized entertainer from the 1960s through the 1980s. He won a Golden Globe for Best Actor and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his 1971 film portrayal of Tevye, and was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor for a 1991 Broadway revival of Fiddler on the Roof. Topol was a founder of Variety Israel, an organization serving children with special needs, and Jordan River Village, a year-round camp for Arab and Jewish children with life-threatening illnesses, for which he served as chairman of the board. In 2015 he was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement. ==Biography== Chaim Topol was born on September 9, 1935, in Tel Aviv, in what was then Mandatory Palestine. His father Jacob Topol was born in Russia and in the early 1930s immigrated to Mandatory Palestine, where he worked as a plasterer; he also served in the Haganah paramilitary organization. His mother Imrela "Rel" (née Goldman) Topol was a seamstress. Topol's parents had been members of the Betar Zionist youth movement in Warsaw. His father had Hasidic roots, with a mother coming from a family of Gerrer Hasidim and a father from Aleksander Hasidim. Topol and his two younger sisters grew up in the South Tel Aviv working-class neighborhood of Florentin. As a young child, although he wanted to become a commercial artist, his elementary school teacher, the writer Yemima Avidar-Tchernovitz, saw a theatrical side to him, and encouraged him to act in school plays and read stories to the class. On March 8, 2023, Topol's family notified the press that he was near death and "living his final hours", and asked the public to respect the family's privacy. He died overnight at the age of 87. The day before his burial at Kvutzat Shiller on March 10, a memorial was held at the Cameri Theater in Tel Aviv. ==Singing and acting career== Between 1960 and 1964, Topol performed with the Batzal Yarok ("Green Onion") satirical theatre company, which also toured Israel. Adapted for the screen by Ephraim Kishon from his original play, the social satire depicts the hardships of a Sephardic immigrant family in the rough conditions of ma'abarot, immigrant absorption camps in Israel in the 1950s, satirizing "just about every pillar of Israeli society: the Ashkenazi establishment, the pedantic bureaucracy, corrupt political parties, rigid kibbutz ideologues and ... the Jewish National Fund's tree-planting program". Topol, who was 29 during the filming, was familiar playing the role of the family patriarch, having performed skits from the play with his Nahal entertainment troupe during his army years. and the 1972 David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor, sharing the latter with Elizabeth Taylor. He was also nominated for the 1971 Academy Award for Best Actor, losing to Gene Hackman in The French Connection. As he was by then the approximate age of the character, he commented, "I didn't have to spend the energy playing the age". followed by an April 2006 production at the Lyric Theatre in Brisbane, and a June 2006 production at Her Majesty's Theatre in Melbourne. In May 2007, he starred in a production at the Auckland Civic Theatre. In 2009, Topol began a farewell tour of Fiddler on the Roof as Tevye, opening in Wilmington, Delaware. He was forced to withdraw from the tour in Boston owing to a shoulder injury, and was replaced by Theodore Bikel and Harvey Fierstein, both of whom had portrayed Tevye on Broadway. ===Other stage and film roles=== In 1976, Topol played the lead role of the baker, Amiable, in the new musical The Baker's Wife, but was fired after eight months by producer David Merrick. In her autobiography, Patti LuPone, his co-star in the production, claimed that Topol had behaved unprofessionally on stage and had a strained relationship with her off-stage. The show's composer, Stephen Schwartz, claimed that Topol's behavior greatly disturbed the cast and directors and resulted in the production not reaching Broadway as planned. In 1988, Topol starred in the title role in Ziegfeld at the London Palladium. He returned to the London stage in 2008 in the role of Honoré, played by Maurice Chevalier in the 1958 film Gigi. He was said to be Israel's "only internationally-recognized entertainer" from the 1960s through to the 1980s. A Hebrew-language documentary of his life, Chaim Topol – Life as a Film, aired on Israel's Channel 1 in 2011, featuring interviews with his longtime actor friends in Israel and abroad. ==Mossad missions== After Topol's death, the family revealed that he had been involved in Mossad missions in the 1960s and 1970s. They said he went on unexplained trips abroad while equipped with a miniature state-of-the-art camera and tape recorder, and that he was in regular contact with Mossad officer Peter Malkin, who came on visits to the family home through the backyard in disguise. On several occasions, Topol carried out wiretapping and other operations with Malkin, using his international acclaim to divert attention from Malkin. ==Literary and art career== His autobiography, Topol by Topol, was published in London by Weindenfel and Nicholson (1981). ==Philanthropy== In 1967, Topol founded Variety Israel, an organization serving children with special needs. It was inspired by Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Gang Camp. The village is operated almost entirely by volunteers. Topol described it as the project he was "most connected to." ==Awards and recognition== Topol was a recipient of Israel's Kinor David award in arts and entertainment in 1964. He received a Best Actor award from the San Sebastián International Film Festival for his performance in the 1972 film Follow Me! In 2014, the University of Haifa conferred upon Topol an honorary degree in recognition of his 50 years of activity in Israel's cultural and public life. In 2015, Chaim Topol was honoured by the Chief Rabbi of Ukraine, Rabbi Moshe Reuven Azman and the Ukrainian Jewish Community. Topol's portrayal of Tevye in Fiddler on the Roof led to the inspiration for the Anatevka Refugee Village which was named in commemoration of the fictional village. ==Legacy== Shortly after Topol's death, President Isaac Herzog issued a statement honouring "one of the most prominent Israeli stage artists, a gifted actor who conquered many stages in Israel and overseas, filled the cinema screens with his presence and, above all, deeply entered our hearts". Prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated "his wide smile, warm voice, and unique sense of humour made him a folk hero who won the hearts of the people" and former prime minister Yair Lapid remarked "He and his smile will continue to accompany Israeli culture, his rich legacy will forever remain a part of Israel". == Filmography ==	[ "Suez Crisis", "For Your Eyes Only (film)", "Rosalind Harris", "Brisbane", "Civic Theatre (Auckland)", "Haim", "Kvutzat Shiller", "Saadia (given name)", "Warsaw", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical", "Alzheimer's disease", "Jonathan Pryce", "Culture of Israel", "Bagheera", "title character", "Primary school", "The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles", "Golan Heights", "kibbutz", "Scoop (website)", "Uri Zohar", "Russian Empire", "i24news", "Tevye", "Batzal Yarok", "Jerome Robbins", "National Yiddish Theatre", "Peter Malkin", "honorary degree", "News1", "Tales of the Unexpected (TV series)", "David Merrick", "Israel Prize", "Fiddler on the Roof", "SeaQuest DSV", "Left Luggage (film)", "Sallah Shabati", "Dr. Hans Zarkov", "Israel Festival", "David di Donatello", "Arutz Sheva", "Brecht", "Six-Day War", "Theater of Israel", "Follow Me! (film)", "Harvey Fierstein", "George Segal", "Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actor", "Yemima Avidar-Tchernovitz", "The French Connection (film)", "The National Photo Collection (Israel)", "Geva", "Joshua Bell", "Cinema of Israel", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy", "Cicely Berry", "Zero Mostel", "Chita Rivera", "Tel Aviv", "The Jerusalem Post", "Sydney", "Before Winter Comes", "Channel 1 (Israel)", "Sheldon Harnick", "Mishpacha", "mononym", "Arik Einstein", "El Dorado (1963 film)", "The Times of Israel", "Danny Kaye", "The House on Garibaldi Street", "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (film)", "Richard Burton", "The Age", "Harve Presnell", "Walter Matthau", "Sant Jordi Award", "Zaharira Harifai", "Harry Potter (film series)", "London Palladium", "Fiddler: A Miracle of Miracles", "War and Remembrance (miniseries)", "Ashkenazi Jews", "University of Haifa", "List of James Bond allies in For Your Eyes Only", "Hans Zarkov", "Fiddler on the Roof (film)", "San Francisco International Film Festival", "Gene Hackman", "Public Radio International", "Oded Kotler", "The Forward", "Theodore Bikel", "Rod Steiger", "Boston", "Life (magazine)", "List of James Bond allies", "Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne", "Galileo (1975 film)", "Queenie (miniseries)", "Yemenite Jews", "West End theatre", "Gershwin Theatre", "Yali Topol Margalith", "Academy Award for Best International Feature Film", "San Sebastián International Film Festival", "Paul Newman", "commemorative stamp", "aliyah", "The Baker's Wife", "Anatevka Refugee Village", "President of Israel", "baritone", "ABC Radio Brisbane", "Jewish National Fund", "Elizabeth Taylor", "Holtuncensored.com", "Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow", "Jerry Zaks", "David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor", "Postage stamps and postal history of Israel", "Israel Defense Forces", "Haifa Theatre", "Mizrahi Jew", "Follow Me! (1972 film)", "Yair Lapid", "Nahal", "Hasidic Jews", "Erik Liberman", "List of Tales of the Unexpected episodes", "I Like Mike (film)", "Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty)", "Milos Columbo", "Mickey Marcus", "London", "Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film", "Kinor David", "Capitol Theatre, Sydney", "Every Bastard a King", "Mandatory Palestine", "Benjamin Netanyahu", "Moroccan Jews", "Cast a Giant Shadow", "Shmuel Rodensky", "Broadway theatre", "Herschel Bernardi", "The Jungle Book (1967 film)", "Haganah", "Betar", "Eugène Ionesco", "English language", "Miss Saigon", "Gigi (1958 film)", "Kibbutz", "Galileo Galilei", "Harold Prince", "Davar", "Cast recording", "Pebble Mill Studios", "ma'abarot", "Maurice Chevalier", "Ynetnews", "Hebrew language", "Mossad", "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)", "phonetically", "Lyric Theatre, Brisbane", "Florentin, Tel Aviv", "Andrea Martin", "voiceless uvular fricative", "Reserve duty (Israel)", "Rubeus Hagrid", "Heth", "Cameri Theatre", "Flash Gordon (film)", "Ger (Hasidic dynasty)", "Haaretz", "The Jungle Book 2", "Academy Award for Best Actor", "Hole in the Wall Gang Camp", "Cameri Theater", "Stephen Schwartz (composer)", "The Winds of War (miniseries)", "Wilmington, Delaware", "Ephraim Kishon", "Nechama Hendel", "BBC One", "Sephardic", "Ervinka", "Regent Theatre, Melbourne", "Melbourne", "A Talent for Loving (film)", "History of the Jews in Iraq", "Nikki: Wild Dog of the North", "Mishmar David", "The New York Times", "Jordan River Village", "Ynet", "Jerusalem Post", "Moshe Reuven Azman", "Her Majesty's Theatre", "Isaac Herzog", "Shakespeare", "Danny Thomas", "Frank Sinatra", "Patti LuPone", "Norman Jewison" ]
7,586	Christadelphians	The Christadelphians () are a restorationist and nontrinitarian (Biblical Unitarian) Christian denomination. The name means 'brothers and sisters in Christ', from the Greek words for Christ (Christos) and brothers (adelphoi). Christadelphians believe in the inspiration of the Bible, the Virgin Birth, the status of Jesus as the son of God, believer's baptism, the resurrection of the dead, the second coming of Christ, and the future kingdom of God on earth. However, they reject a number of mainstream Christian doctrines, for example the Trinity and the immortality of the soul, believing these to be corruptions of original Christian teaching. The movement developed in the United Kingdom and North America in the 19th century around the teachings of John Thomas and they were initially found predominantly in the developed English-speaking world, expanding in developing countries after the Second World War. In 2009, the BBC estimated there were approximately 50,000 Christadelphians in around 120 countries. Congregations are traditionally referred to as "ecclesias". == History == === Background === === 19th century === The Christadelphian movement traces its origins to John Thomas (1805–1871). He initially associated with emerging Restoration Movement in the United States but later separated from them. The Christadelphian community in the United Kingdom effectively dates from Thomas's first lecturing tour of Britain (May 1848 – October 1850). During this period, he wrote Elpis Israel in which he laid out his understanding of the main doctrines of the Bible. Since his medium for bringing change was print and debate, it was natural for the origins of the Christadelphian body to be associated with books and journals, such as Thomas's Herald of the Kingdom. His message was particularly welcomed in Scotland, and Campbellite, Unitarian and Adventist friends separated to form groups of "Baptised Believers". He was not alone in his desire to establish Biblical truth and test orthodox Christian beliefs through independent scriptural study. Among other churches, he had links with the Adventist movement and with Benjamin Wilson (who later set up the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith in the 1860s). Although the Christadelphian movement originated through the activities of John Thomas, he never saw himself as making his own disciples. He believed rather that he had rediscovered 1st-century beliefs from the Bible alone, and sought to prove that through a process of challenge and debate and writing journals. Through that process a number of people became convinced and set up various fellowships that had sympathy with that position. Groups associated with John Thomas met under multiple names, including Believers, Baptised Believers, the Royal Association of Believers, Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God, Nazarines (or Nazarenes), and The Antipas which he did in 1869. His editorship of the magazine continued with some assistance until his death in 1898. In church matters, Roberts was prominent in the period following the death of John Thomas in 1871 and helped craft the structures of the Christadelphian body. Initially, the denomination grew in the English-speaking world, particularly in the English Midlands and parts of North America. Two-thirds of ecclesias and members in Britain before 1864 were in Scotland. In the early days after the death of John Thomas, the group could have moved in a number of directions. Doctrinal issues arose, debates took place, and statements of faith were created and amended as other issues arose. These attempts were felt necessary by many to both settle and define a doctrinal stance for the newly emerging denomination and to keep out error. As a result of these debates, several groups separated from the main body of Christadelphians, most notably the Suffolk Street fellowship in 1885 (with members believing that the whole of the Bible was not inspired) and the Unamended fellowship. === 20th century === The Christadelphian position on conscientious objection came to the fore with the introduction of conscription during the First World War. Varying degrees of exemption from military service were granted to Christadelphians in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Second World War, this frequently required the person seeking exemption to undertake civilian work under the direction of the authorities. During the Second World War, the Christadelphians in Britain assisted in the Kindertransport, helping to relocate several hundred Jewish children away from Nazi persecution by founding a hostel, Elpis Lodge, for that purpose. In Germany, the small Christadelphian community founded by Albert Maier went underground from 1940 to 1945, and a leading brother, Albert Merz, was imprisoned as a conscientious objector and later executed. After the Second World War, moves were made to try to reunite various earlier divisions. By the end of the 1950s, most Christadelphians had united into one community, but a number of small groups remained separate. === Today === The post-war and post-reunions periods saw an increase in co-operation and interaction between ecclesias, resulting in the establishment of a number of week-long Bible schools and the formation of national and international organisations such as the Christadelphian Bible Mission (for preaching and pastoral support overseas), the Christadelphian Support Network (for counselling), and the Christadelphian Meal-A-Day Fund (for charity and humanitarian work). The period following the reunions was accompanied by expansion in the developing world, which now accounts for around 40% of Christadelphians. == Beliefs == The Christadelphian body has no central authority or co-ordinating organisation to establish and maintain a standardised set of beliefs, but there are core doctrines accepted by most Christadelphians. In the formal statements of faith a more complete list is found; for instance, the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith has 30 doctrines to be accepted and 35 to be rejected. === The Bible === Christadelphians state that their beliefs are based wholly on the Bible, and they do not see other works as inspired by God. They regard the Bible as inspired by God and, therefore, believe that in its original form, it is error-free apart from errors in later copies due to errors of transcription or translation. === God === Christadelphians believe that God, Jehovah, is the creator of all things and the father of true believers, and that he is a separate being from his son, Jesus (who is subordinate to him). They reject the doctrine of the Trinity. === Jesus === Christadelphians believe that Jesus was the promised Jewish Messiah in whom the prophecies and promises of the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) find their fulfilment. They believe he is the Son of Man—in that he inherited human nature (with its inclination to sin) from his mother—and the Son of God by virtue of his miraculous conception by the power of God. Christadelphians reject the doctrine of Pre-existence of Christ. They teach that he was part of God's plans from the beginning and was foreshadowed in the Old Testament, but was not an independent being prior to his human birth. The faith posits that, though he was tempted, Jesus committed no sin, and was, therefore, a perfect representative sacrifice to bring salvation to sinful humankind. They also believe that the phrase Holy Spirit sometimes refers to God's character/mind, depending on the context in which the phrase appears, but reject the view that people need strength, guidance and power from the Holy Spirit to live a Christian life, believing instead that the spirit a believer needs within themselves is the mind/character of God, which is developed in a believer by their reading of the Bible (which, they believe, contains words God gave by his Spirit) and trying to live by what it says during the events of their lives which God uses to help shape their character. Christadelphians deny the personhood of the Holy Spirit This includes the belief that the coming Kingdom will be the restoration of God's first Kingdom of Israel, which was under David and Solomon. For Christadelphians, this is the focal point of the gospel taught by Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. They believe that the Kingdom will be centred upon Israel, but Jesus will also reign over all the other nations on the Earth. Old Paths Christadelphians continue to believe that the Kingdom of God is to be restored to the land of Israel promised to Abraham and ruled over in the past by David, with a worldwide empire. === The Devil === Christadelphians believe that the word devil is a reference in the scriptures to sin and human nature in opposition to God, while the word satan is merely a reference to an adversary or opponent (be it good or bad) and is frequently applied to human beings. According to Christadelphians, these terms are used in reference to specific political systems or individuals in opposition or conflict and not to an independent spiritual being or fallen angel. Accordingly, they do not define Hell as a place of eternal torment for sinners, but as a state of eternal death and non-existence due to annihilation of body and mind. === Salvation === Christadelphians believe that people are separated from God because of their sins but that humankind can be reconciled to him by becoming disciples of Jesus. This is by belief in the Gospel, through repentance, and through baptism by total immersion in water. They reject assurance of salvation, believing instead that salvation comes as a result of remaining "in Christ". After death, believers are in a state of non-existence, knowing nothing until the Resurrection at the return of Jesus. Following the judgement, the "accepted" receive the gift of immortality and live with Jesus on a restored Earth, assisting his establishment of the Kingdom of God and rule over the remaining population for a millennium. Christadelphians deny the immortality of the soul. === Life in Christ === The Commandments of Christ demonstrates the community's recognition of the importance of biblical teaching on morality. Marriage and family life are important. Most Christadelphians believe that sexual relationships should be limited to heterosexual marriage, ideally between baptised believers. == Organisation == === General organisation === In the absence of centralised organisation, some differences exist amongst Christadelphians on matters of belief and practice. This is because each congregation (commonly styled 'ecclesias') is organised autonomously, typically following common practices which have altered little since the 19th century. Many avoid the word "church" due to its association with mainstream Christianity, and its focus on the building as opposed to the congregation. Most ecclesias have a constitution, which includes a 'Statement of Faith', a list of 'Doctrines to be Rejected' and a formalised list of 'The Commandments of Christ'. With no central authority, individual congregations are responsible for maintaining orthodoxy in belief and practice, and the statement of faith is seen by many as useful to this end. The statement of faith acts as the official standard of most ecclesias to determine fellowship within and between ecclesias, and as the basis for co-operation between ecclesias. Congregational discipline and conflict resolution are applied using various forms of consultation, mediation, and discussion, with disfellowship (similar to excommunication) being the final response to those with unorthodox practices or beliefs. The relative uniformity of organisation and practice is undoubtedly due to the influence of a booklet, written early in Christadelphian history by Robert Roberts, called A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias. It recommends a basically democratic arrangement by which congregational members elect 'brothers' to do arranging and serving duties, and includes guidelines for the organisation of committees, as well as conflict resolution between congregational members and between congregations. Christadelphians do not have paid ministers. Male members (and increasingly female in some places) are assessed by the congregation for their eligibility to teach and perform other duties, which are usually assigned on a rotation basis, as opposed to having a permanently appointed preacher. Congregational polity typically follows a democratic model, with an elected arranging committee for each individual ecclesia. This unpaid committee is responsible for the day-to-day running of the ecclesia and is answerable to the rest of the ecclesia's members. Inter-ecclesial organisations co-ordinate the running of, among other things, Christadelphian schools and elderly care homes, the Christadelphian Isolation League (which cares for those prevented by distance or infirmity from attending an ecclesia regularly) and the publication of Christadelphian magazines. === Adherents === No official membership figures are published, but the Columbia Encyclopaedia gives an estimated figure of 50,000 Christadelphians, spread across approximately 120 countries. Estimates for the main centers of Christadelphian population are as follows: Mozambique (17,800), Australia (9,734), the United Kingdom (8,200), Malawi (7,000), United States (6,500), Canada (3,000), Kenya (2,700), India (2,300) and New Zealand (1,785),. Figures from Christadelphian mission organisations are as follows: Africa (32,500), Asia (4,000), the Caribbean (400), Europe (including Russia) (700), Latin America (275), The term "Central" came into use around 1933 to identify ecclesias worldwide who were in fellowship with the Birmingham (Central) Ecclesia. These were previously known as the "Temperance Hall Fellowship". The "Suffolk Street Fellowship" arose in 1885 over disagreements surrounding the inspiration of the Bible. Meanwhile, in Australia, division concerning the nature of Jesus Christ resulted in the formation of the "Shield Fellowship". Discussions in 1957–1958 resulted in a worldwide reunion between the Central, Suffolk Street and Shield Fellowships. The Unamended Fellowship, consisting of around 1,850 members, is found in the East Coast and Midwest USA and Ontario, Canada. This group separated in 1898 as a result of differing views on who would be raised to judgement at the return of Christ. The majority of Christadelphians believe that the judgement will include anyone who had sufficient knowledge of the gospel message, and is not limited to baptised believers. The majority in England, Australia and North America amended their statement of faith accordingly. Those who opposed the amendment became known as the "Unamended Fellowship" and allowed the teaching that God either could not or would not raise those who had no covenant relationship with him. Opinions vary as to what the established position was on this subject prior to the controversy. Prominent in the formation of the Unamended Fellowship was Thomas Williams, editor of the Christadelphian Advocate magazine. The majority of the Unamended Fellowship outside North America joined the Suffolk Street Fellowship before its eventual incorporation into Central Fellowship. There is also some co-operation between the Central (Amended) and Unamended Fellowships in North America – most recently in the Great Lakes region, where numerous Amended and Unamended ecclesias are working together to unify their ecclesias. The Central Fellowship in North America is still often referred to today as the Amended Fellowship. The Berean Fellowship was formed in 1923 as a result of varying views on military service in England, and on the atonement in North America. The majority of the North American Bereans re-joined the main body of Christadelphians in 1952. A number continue as a separate community, numbering around 200 in Texas, 100 in Kenya and 30 in Wales. Most of the divisions still in existence within the Christadelphian community today stem from further divisions of the Berean Fellowship. The Dawn Fellowship are the result of an issue which arose in 1942 among the Berean Fellowship regarding divorce and remarriage. The stricter party formed the Dawn Fellowship who, following re-union on the basis of unity of belief with the Lightstand Fellowship in Australia in 2007 increased in number. There are now thought to be around 800 members in England, Australia, Canada, India, Jamaica, Poland, the Philippines, Russia and Kenya. The Old Paths Fellowship was formed in 1957 in response to the reunion of the Central and Suffolk Street Fellowships. A minority from the Central Fellowship held that the reasons for separation remained and that full unity of belief on all fundamental principles of Bible teaching was necessary; thus reunion was only possible with the full agreement and understanding of all members rather than a decision by majority vote. Ecclesias forming the Old Paths Fellowship arose in England, Australia, New Zealand and Canada numbering around 500 members in total. They now number around 250 members in total, with members in Australia, England, Mexico and New Zealand. They maintain that they hold to the original Central Fellowship position held prior to the 1957 Reunion. Other fellowships (ranging in numbers from as few as 10 to over 200 members) include the Watchman Fellowship, the Companion Fellowship and the Pioneer Fellowship. According to Bryan Wilson, functionally the definition of a "fellowship" within Christadelphian history has been mutual or unilateral exclusion of groupings of ecclesias from the breaking of bread. This functional definition still holds true in North America, where the Unamended Fellowship and the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith are not received by most North American Amended ecclesias. But outside North America this functional definition no longer holds. Many articles and books on the doctrine and practice of fellowship now reject the notion itself of separate "fellowships" among those who recognise the same baptism, viewing such separations as schismatic. Many ecclesias in the Central fellowship would not refuse a baptised Christadelphian from a minority fellowship from breaking bread; the exclusion is more usually the other way. They tend to operate organisationally fairly similarly, although there are different emphases. Despite their differences, the Central, Old Paths, Dawn and Berean fellowships generally subscribe to the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith (BASF), though the latter two have additional clauses or supporting documents to explain their position. Most Unamended ecclesias use the Birmingham Unamended Statement of Faith (BUSF) with one clause being different. Within the Central fellowship individual ecclesias also may have their own statement of faith, whilst still accepting the statement of faith of the larger community. Some ecclesias have statements around their positions, especially on divorce and re-marriage, making clear that offence would be caused by anyone in that position seeking to join them at the 'Breaking of Bread' service. Others tolerate a degree of divergence from commonly held Christadelphian views. While some communities of Christadelphian origin have viewed previous statements of faith as set in stone, others have felt it necessary to revise them in order to meet contemporary issues, update language or add supporting Biblical quotations. For each fellowship, anyone who publicly assents to the doctrines described in the statement and is in good standing in their "home ecclesia" is generally welcome to participate in the activities of any other ecclesia. ===Related groups=== There are a number of groups who, while sharing a common heritage and many Christadelphian teachings, have adopted alternative names in order to dissociate themselves from what they believe to be false teachings and/or practice within the main Christadelphian body. Ranging in size from two or three members in size to around 50, each group restricts fellowship to its own members. These include the Nazarene Fellowship, the Ecclesia of Christ, the Remnant of Christ's Ecclesia, the Apostolic Fellowship of Christ and the Apostolic Ecclesia. The Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith (CGAF) also has common origins with Christadelphians and shares Christadelphian beliefs. Numbering around 400 (primarily Ohio and Florida, USA), they are welcomed into fellowship by some "Central" Christadelphians and are currently involved in unity talks. ==Historical antecedents== One criticism of the Christadelphian movement has been over the claim of John Thomas and Robert Roberts to have "re-discovered" scriptural truth. However one might argue that all Protestant groups make the same claims to some extent. Although both men believed that they had "recovered" the true doctrines for themselves and contemporaries, they also believed there had always existed a group of true believers throughout the ages, albeit marred by the apostasy. The most notable Christadelphian attempts to find a continuity of those with doctrinal similarities since that point have been geographer Alan Eyre's two books The Protesters (1975) and Brethren in Christ (1982) in which he shows that many individual Christadelphian doctrines had been previously believed. Eyre focused in particular on the Radical Reformation, and also among the Socinians and other early Unitarians and the English Dissenters. In this way, Eyre was able to demonstrate substantial historical precedents for individual Christadelphian teachings and practices, and believed that the Christadelphian community was the 'inheritor of a noble tradition, by which elements of the Truth were from century to century hammered out on the anvil of controversy, affliction and even anguish'. Although noting in the introduction to 'The Protestors' that 'Some recorded herein perhaps did not have "all the truth" — so the writer has been reminded', and that 'In faith and outlook they were far closer to the early springing shoots of first-century Christianity and the penetrating spiritual challenge of Jesus himself than much that has passed for the religion of the Nazarene in the last nineteen centuries'. Eyre's research has been criticized by some of his Christadelphian peers, and as a result Christadelphian commentary on the subject has subsequently been more cautious and circumspect, with caveats being issued concerning Eyre's claims, and the two books less used and publicised than in previous years. Nevertheless, even with most source writings of those later considered heretics destroyed, evidence can be provided that since the first century BC there have been various groups and individuals who have held certain individual Christadelphian beliefs or similar ones. For example, all the distinctive Christadelphian doctrines (with the exception of the non-literal devil), down to interpretations of specific verses, can be found particularly among sixteenth century Socinian writers (e.g. the rejection of the doctrines of the trinity, pre-existence of Christ, immortal souls, a literal hell of fire, original sin). Early English Unitarian writings also correspond closely to those of Christadelphians. Also, recent discoveries and research have shown a large similarity between Christadelphian beliefs and those held by Isaac Newton who, among other things, rejected the doctrines of the trinity, immortal souls, a personal devil and literal demons. Further examples are as follows: The typical Old Testament belief in unconsciousness until resurrection, instead of the immortality of the soul, has been held marginally throughout the history of both Judaism and Christianity; such sources include certain Jewish pseudepigraphal works, rabbinical works, Clement of Rome, Arnobius in the third to fourth century, a succession of Arabic and Syrian Christians from the third to the eighth century including Aphrahat, Ephrem, Narsai, Isaac of Nineveh (d.700), and Jacob of Sarug, Jewish commentators such as Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092–1167), Maimonides (1135–1204), and Joseph Albo (1380–1444), and later Christians such as John Wycliffe, Michael Sattler, and many Anabaptists, long before Martin Luther challenged Roman Catholic views on heaven and hell with his teaching of "soul sleep". The Christadelphian denial of the pre-existence of Christ, and interpretation of verses such as "I came down from heaven" (John 6:38) as relating to the virgin birth and Christ's mission only, are found in the teachings of: the early Jewish Christians, the Ebionites, the Nazoreans (or Nazarenes), the Theodotians of Theodotus the Cobbler (who believed Jesus was supernaturally begotten but a man nonetheless), Artemon, Paul of Samosata, the Pseudo-Clementines, naturally however, given that non-Trinitarian beliefs were punishable with death from the fourth century to the seventeenth, it would be foolish to expect to discover any consistent line of people or groups holding such beliefs. Such attempts become possible only after the Protestant Reformation. Christadelphian Christology is found from the publication of Lelio Sozzini's commentary on John (1561) through to the increasing resistance to the miraculous among English Unitarians after 1800. Affinities with the Christadelphian concept of the devil and/or demons are found in a range of early Jewish and later Christian sources such as: Jonathan ben Uzziel (100s AD); Joshua Ben Karha (135–160); Levi ben Gershon (d. 1344); David Kimhi (1160); Saadia ben Joseph (892–942); Shimon ben Lakish (230–270), David Joris (1501-1556), Lelio Sozzini (1525-1562), Fausto Sozzini (1539-1604), Gerrard Winstanley (1609-1676), Joseph Mede (1640), Jacob Bauthumley (1650), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Lodowick Muggleton (1669), Dr. Anthonie van Dale (1685), Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), Balthasar Bekker (1695), Isaac Newton; Christian Thomasius (1704), Arthur Ashley Sykes (1737), Nathaniel Lardner (1742), The New-Light Quakers of Lynn and New Bedford (1800s), Elias Hicks (1748-1830), Dr. Richard Mead (1755), Hugh Farmer (at least in the account of Christ's temptation; 1761), William Ashdowne (1791), John Simpson (1804), John Epps (1842) and Primitive Baptist Universalists also known No-Hellers (1907 to present) Organised worship in England for those whose beliefs anticipated those of Christadelphians only truly became possible in 1779 when the Act of Toleration 1689 was amended to permit denial of the Trinity, and only fully when property penalties were removed in the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813. This is only 35 years before John Thomas' 1849 lecture tour in Britain which attracted significant support from an existing non-Trinitarian Adventist base, particularly, initially, in Scotland where Arian, Socinian, and unitarian (with a small 'u' as distinct from the Unitarian Church of Theophilus Lindsey) views were prevalent. == Practices and worship == Christadelphians are organised into local congregations, that commonly call themselves ecclesias, which is taken from usage in the New Testament and is Greek for gathering of those summoned. Congregational worship, which usually takes place on Sunday, centres on the remembrance of the death and celebration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ by the taking part in the "memorial service". Additional meetings are often organised for worship, prayer, preaching and Bible study. Ecclesias are typically involved in preaching the gospel (evangelism) in the form of public lectures on Bible teaching, college-style seminars on reading the Bible, and Bible Reading Groups. Correspondence courses are also used widely, particularly in areas where there is no established Christadelphian presence. Some ecclesias, organisations or individuals also preach through other media like video, and internet forums. There are also a number of Bible Education/Learning Centres around the world. Only baptised (by complete immersion in water) believers are considered members of the ecclesia. Ordinarily, baptism follows someone making a "good confession" (cf. 1 Tim. 6:12) of their faith before two or three nominated elders of the ecclesia they are seeking to join. The good confession has to demonstrate a basic understanding of the main elements – "first principles" – of the faith of the community. The children of members are encouraged to attend Christadelphian Sunday schools and youth groups. Interaction between youth from different ecclesias is encouraged through regional and national youth gatherings, conferences and camping holidays. Christadelphians understand the Bible to teach that male and female believers are equal in God's sight, and also that there is a distinction between the roles of male and female members. Women are typically not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the ecclesia when male believers are present, are expected to cover their heads (using hat or scarf, etc.) during formal services, and do not sit on the main ecclesial arranging (organising) committees. They do, however: participate in other ecclesial and inter-ecclesial committees; participate in discussions; teach children in Sunday schools as well as at home, teach other women and non-members; perform music; discuss and vote on business matters; and engage in the majority of other activities. Generally, at formal ecclesial and inter-ecclesial meetings the women wear head coverings when there are acts of worship and prayer. There are ecclesially accountable committees for co-ordinated preaching, youth and Sunday school work, conscientious objection issues, care of the elderly, and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority, and are wholly dependent upon ecclesial support. Ecclesias in an area may regularly hold joint activities combining youth groups, fellowship, preaching, and Bible study. Christadelphians refuse to participate in any military or police force because they are conscientious objectors (not to be confused with pacifists). There is a strong emphasis on personal Bible reading and study and many Christadelphians use the Bible Companion to help them systematically read the Bible each year. === Hymnody and music === Christadelphian hymnody makes considerable use of the hymns of the Anglican and English Protestant traditions (even in US ecclesias the hymnody is typically more English than American). In many Christadelphian hymn books a sizeable proportion of hymns are drawn from the Scottish Psalter and non-Christadelphian hymn-writers including Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, William Cowper and John Newton. Despite incorporating non-Christadelphian hymns however, Christadelphian hymnody preserves the essential teachings of the community. The earliest hymn book published was the "Sacred Melodist" which was published by Benjamin Wilson in Geneva, Illinois in 1860. The next was the hymn book published for the use of Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God (an early name for Christadelphians) by George Dowie in Edinburgh in 1864. In 1865 Robert Roberts published a collection of Scottish psalms and hymns called The Golden Harp (which was subtitled "Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs, compiled for the use of Immersed Believers in 'The Things concerning the Kingdom of God and the Name of Jesus Christ). This was replaced only five years later by the first "Christadelphian Hymn Book" (1869), compiled by J. J. and A. Andrew, and this was revised and expanded in 1874, 1932 and 1964. A thorough revision by the Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association resulted in the latest (2002) edition which is almost universally used by English-speaking Christadelphian ecclesias. In addition some Christadelphian fellowships have published their own hymn books. Some ecclesias use the Praise the Lord songbook. It was produced with the aim of making contemporary songs which are consistent with Christadelphian theology more widely available. Another publication, the "Worship" book is a compilation of songs and hymns that have been composed only by members of the Christadelphian community. This book was produced with the aim of providing extra music for non-congregational music items within services (e.g. voluntaries, meditations, et cetera) but has been adopted by congregations worldwide and is now used to supplement congregational repertoire. In the English-speaking world, worship is typically accompanied by organ or piano, though in recent years a few ecclesias have promoted the use of other instruments (e.g. strings, wind and brass as mentioned in the Psalms). This trend has also seen the emergence of some Christadelphian bands and the establishment of the Christadelphian Art Trust to support performing, visual and dramatic arts within the Christadelphian community. In other countries, hymn books have been produced in local languages, sometimes resulting in styles of worship which reflect the local culture. It has been noted that Christadelphian hymnody has historically been a consistent witness to Christadelphian beliefs, and that hymnody occupies a significant role in the community.	[ "William Cowper", "English Dissenters", "Bibliography of Christadelphians", "Son of God", "David (biblical king)", "John Wycliffe", "Columbia Encyclopedia", "Hebrew Bible", "Durban", "Narsai", "Christian eschatology", "Albert Maier", "Psychopannychism", "devil", "Confederate States of America", "Elias Hicks", "Fisher's Tale", "Pre-existence of Christ", "Campbellite", "Heritage Colleges (Australia)", "Messiah", "Theodotus the Cobbler", "Joseph Mede", "Biblical unitarianism", "Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland", "Roman Catholic", "Nathaniel Lardner", "Resurrection", "Unamended Christadelphians", "Alan Eyre", "Immersion baptism", "Trinity", "Lelio Sozzini", "immortality", "Isaac Newton", "Sunday school", "Amended Christadelphians", "Nazoreans", "Isaac of Nineveh", "Arnobius", "Kingdom of God", "Annihilationism", "Unitarianism", "Martin Luther", "theologian", "Lodowick Muggleton", "John McClintock (theologian)", "John Gill (theologian)", "Sydney", "World War I", "Socinianism", "Jonathan ben Uzziel", "excommunication", "Isaac Watts", "Charles Wesley", "Artemon", "Microsoft Excel", "conscientious objection", "Pacifism", "satan", "Heaven", "Clement of Rome", "Arthur Ashley Sykes", "Robert Roberts (Christadelphian)", "cessationism", "Emanuel Swedenborg", "Socinian", "Balthasar Bekker", "Urbana, Illinois", "Anabaptists", "Hell in Christianity", "believer's baptism", "Category:Christadelphian magazines", "Abraham Ibn Ezra", "Biblical inspiration", "Michael Sattler", "democracy", "Radical Reformation", "Castle Hill, New South Wales", "The Christadelphian Magazine", "Shimon ben Lakish", "The Christadelphian", "Fausto Sozzini", "Complementarianism", "baptism", "Nontrinitarianism", "Bryan R. Wilson", "Jewish Christians", "Benjamin Wilson (Biblical scholar)", "Joshua Ben Karha", "Bible Companion", "Elpis Israel", "Primitive Baptist Universalists", "Christian head covering", "Restorationism", "repentance", "Old Testament", "Statistics Canada", "Aphrahat", "Arian", "gospel", "Virgin birth of Jesus", "Christian denomination", "Holy Spirit", "Twelve Apostles", "David Joris", "Protestant", "John Newton", "James Strong (theologian)", "Jacob of Sarug", "Christadelphian Isolation League", "Ebionites", "Niketas Stethatos", "Lightfoot Professor of Divinity", "Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813", "fallen angel", "Lewiston, New York", "Jesus", "Saadia Gaon", "Protestant Reformation", "William Ashdowne", "Ephrem the Syrian", "Thomas Williams (Christadelphian)", "Photinus", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Baptist", "John Epps", "Jehovah", "World War II", "English Midlands", "Levi ben Gershon", "Thomas Hobbes", "Second Coming", "Anthonie van Dale", "Jacob Bauthumley", "Champaign County, Illinois", "Son of Man", "Subordinationism", "Socinians", "conscientious objectors", "John Thomas (Christadelphian)", "the Gospel", "Albert Merz", "immortality of the soul", "Joseph Albo", "Act of Toleration 1689", "Theophilus Lindsey", "Second World War", "salvation", "Millennialism", "Adventism", "Christian Thomasius", "Paul of Samosata", "non-Trinitarian", "conscientious objector", "David Kimhi", "Judaism", "Solihull", "John Simpson (Unitarian)", "Scotland", "Edwin Mellen Press", "Testimony Magazine", "English-speaking world", "pre-existence of Christ", "Meal-a-Day Fund", "Elpis Lodge", "Gerrard Winstanley", "Restoration Movement", "Hugh Farmer", "Church of the Blessed Hope", "American Civil War", "Kindertransport", "assurance of salvation", "minister of religion", "Berean Christadelphians", "evangelism", "soul sleep", "Richard Mead", "Pseudo-Clementines", "Maimonides", "Abraham" ]
7,587	Cable television	Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves and received by a television antenna, or satellite television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves from a communications satellite and received by a satellite dish on the roof. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. Analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel (sometimes known as a cable network) is a television network available via cable television. Many of the same channels are distributed through satellite television. Alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. The abbreviation CATV is used in the US for cable television and originally stood for community antenna television, from cable television's origins in 1948; in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. In 1968, 6.4% of Americans had cable television. The number increased to 7.5% in 1978. By 1988, 52.8% of all households were using cable. The number further increased to 62.4% in 1994. ==Distribution== To receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be available on the local utility poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal to the customer's building through a service drop, an overhead or underground cable. If the subscriber's building does not have a cable service drop, the cable company will install one. The standard cable used in the U.S. is RG-6, which has a 75 ohm impedance, and connects with a type F connector. The cable company's portion of the wiring usually ends at a distribution box on the building exterior, and built-in cable wiring in the walls usually distributes the signal to jacks in different rooms to which televisions are connected. Multiple cables to different rooms are split off the incoming cable with a small device called a splitter. There are two standards for cable television; older analog cable, and newer digital cable which can carry data signals used by digital television receivers such as high-definition television (HDTV) equipment. All cable companies in the United States have switched to or are in the course of switching to digital cable television since it was first introduced in the late 1990s. Most cable companies require a set-top box (cable converter box) or a slot on one's TV set for conditional access module cards to view their cable channels, even on newer televisions with digital cable QAM tuners, because most digital cable channels are now encrypted, or scrambled, to reduce cable service theft. A cable from the jack in the wall is attached to the input of the box, and an output cable from the box is attached to the television, usually the RF-IN or composite input on older TVs. Since the set-top box only decodes the single channel that is being watched, each television in the house requires a separate box. Some unencrypted channels, usually traditional over-the-air broadcast networks, can be displayed without a receiver box. The cable company will provide set-top boxes based on the level of service a customer purchases, from basic set-top boxes with a standard-definition picture connected through the standard coaxial connection on the TV, to high-definition wireless digital video recorder (DVR) receivers connected via HDMI or component. Older analog television sets are cable ready and can receive the old analog cable without a set-top box. To receive digital cable channels on an analog television set, even unencrypted ones, requires a different type of box, a digital television adapter supplied by the cable company or purchased by the subscriber. Another new distribution method that takes advantage of the low cost high quality DVB distribution to residential areas, uses TV gateways to convert the DVB-C, DVB-C2 stream to IP for distribution of TV over IP network in the home. Many cable companies offer internet access through DOCSIS. ==Principle of operation== In the most common system, multiple television channels (as many as 500, although this varies depending on the provider's available channel capacity) are distributed to subscriber residences through a coaxial cable, which comes from a trunkline supported on utility poles originating at the cable company's local distribution facility, called the headend. Many channels can be transmitted through one coaxial cable by a technique called frequency division multiplexing. At the headend, each television channel is translated to a different frequency. By giving each channel a different frequency slot on the cable, the separate television signals do not interfere with each other. At an outdoor cable box on the subscriber's residence, the company's service drop cable is connected to cables distributing the signal to different rooms in the building. At each television, the subscriber's television or a set-top box provided by the cable company translates the desired channel back to its original frequency (baseband), and it is displayed onscreen. Due to widespread cable theft in earlier analog systems, the signals are typically encrypted on modern digital cable systems, and the set-top box must be activated by an activation code sent by the cable company before it will function, which is only sent after the subscriber signs up. If the subscriber fails to pay their bill, the cable company can send a signal to deactivate the subscriber's box, preventing reception. There are also usually upstream channels on the cable to send data from the customer box to the cable headend, for advanced features such as requesting pay-per-view shows or movies, cable internet access, and cable telephone service. The downstream channels occupy a band of frequencies from approximately 50 MHz to 1 GHz, while the upstream channels occupy frequencies of 5 to 42 MHz. Subscribers pay with a monthly fee. Subscribers can choose from several levels of service, with premium packages including more channels but costing a higher rate. At the local headend, the feed signals from the individual television channels are received by dish antennas from communication satellites. Additional local channels, such as local broadcast television stations, educational channels from local colleges, and community access channels devoted to local governments (PEG channels) are usually included on the cable service. Commercial advertisements for local business are also inserted in the programming at the headend (the individual channels, which are distributed nationally, also have their own nationally oriented commercials). ===Hybrid fiber-coaxial=== Modern cable systems are large, with a single network and headend often serving an entire metropolitan area. Most systems use hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) distribution; this means the trunklines that carry the signal from the headend to local neighborhoods are optical fiber to provide greater bandwidth and also extra capacity for future expansion. At the headend, the electrical signal is translated into an optical signal and sent through the fiber. The fiber trunkline goes to several distribution hubs, from which multiple fibers fan out to carry the signal to boxes called optical nodes in local communities. At the optical node, the optical signal is translated back into an electrical signal and carried by coaxial cable distribution lines on utility poles, from which cables branch out to a series of signal amplifiers and line extenders. These devices carry the signal to customers via passive RF devices called taps. == History == The very first cable networks were operated locally, notably in 1936 by Rediffusion in London in the United Kingdom and the same year in Berlin in Germany, notably for the Olympic Games, and from 1948 onwards in the United States and Switzerland. This type of local cable network was mainly used to relay terrestrial channels in geographical areas poorly served by terrestrial television signals. === In the United States === Cable television began in the United States as a commercial business in 1950s. The early systems simply received weak (broadcast) channels, amplified them, and sent them over unshielded wires to the subscribers, limited to a community or to adjacent communities. The receiving antenna would be taller than any individual subscriber could afford, thus bringing in stronger signals; in hilly or mountainous terrain it would be placed at a high elevation. At the outset, cable systems only served smaller communities without television stations of their own, and which could not easily receive signals from stations in cities because of distance or hilly terrain. In Canada, however, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Rarely, as in the college town of Alfred, New York, U.S. cable systems retransmitted Canadian channels. Although early (VHF) television receivers could receive 12 channels (2–13), the maximum number of channels that could be broadcast in one city was 7: channels 2, 4, either 5 or 6, 7, 9, 11 and 13, as receivers at the time were unable to receive strong (local) signals on adjacent channels without distortion. (There were frequency gaps between 4 and 5, and between 6 and 7, which allowed both to be used in the same city). As equipment improved, all twelve channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be a priority, but technology allowed low-priority signals to be placed on such channels by synchronizing their blanking intervals. TVs were unable to reconcile these blanking intervals and the slight changes due to travel through a medium, causing ghosting. The bandwidth of the amplifiers also was limited, meaning frequencies over 250 MHz were difficult to transmit to distant portions of the coaxial network, and UHF channels could not be used at all. To expand beyond 12 channels, non-standard midband channels had to be used, located between the FM band and Channel 7, or superband beyond Channel 13 up to about 300 MHz; these channels initially were only accessible using separate tuner boxes that sent the chosen channel into the TV set on Channel 2, 3 or 4. Initially, UHF broadcast stations were at a disadvantage because the standard TV sets in use at the time were unable to receive their channels. With the passage of the All-Channel Receiver Act in 1964, all new television sets were required to include a UHF tuner, nonetheless, it would still take a few years for UHF stations to become competitive. Before being added to the cable box itself, these midband channels were used for early incarnations of pay TV, e.g. The Z Channel (Los Angeles) and HBO but transmitted in the clear i.e. not scrambled as standard TV sets of the period could not pick up the signal nor could the average consumer de-tune the normal stations to be able to receive it. Once tuners that could receive select mid-band and super-band channels began to be incorporated into standard television sets, broadcasters were forced to either install scrambling circuitry or move these signals further out of the range of reception for early cable-ready TVs and VCRs. However, once consumer sets had the ability to receive all 181 FCC allocated channels, premium broadcasters were left with no choice but to scramble. The descrambling circuitry was often published in electronics hobby magazines such as Popular Science and Popular Electronics allowing anybody with anything more than a rudimentary knowledge of broadcast electronics to be able to build their own and receive the programming without cost. Later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups. About this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7–13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2–13 on each of the two cables. During the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access (PEG) created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. As cable penetration increased, numerous cable-only TV stations were launched, many with their own news bureaus that could provide more immediate and more localized content than that provided by the nearest network newscast. Such stations may use similar on-air branding as that used by the nearby broadcast network affiliate, but the fact that these stations do not broadcast over the air and are not regulated by the FCC, their call signs are meaningless. These stations evolved partially into today's over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e.g. NBC 37* would – in the case of no local CBS or ABC station being available – rebroadcast the programming from a nearby affiliate but fill in with its own news and other community programming to suit its own locale. Many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into today's many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries. Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, some of which by this time had expanded beyond 35 channels. By the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulators to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection. By subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels. Large cable companies used addressable descramblers to limit access to premium channels for customers not subscribing to higher tiers, however the above magazines often published workarounds for that technology as well. During the 1990s, the pressure to accommodate the growing array of offerings resulted in digital transmission that made more efficient use of the VHF signal capacity; fibre optics was common to carry signals into areas near the home, where coax could carry higher frequencies over the short remaining distance. Although for a time in the 1980s and 1990s, television receivers and VCRs were equipped to receive the mid-band and super-band channels. Because the descrambling circuitry was for a time present in these tuners, depriving the cable operator of much of their revenue, such cable-ready tuners are rarely used now – requiring a return to the set-top boxes used from the 1970s onward. The digital television transition in the United States has put all signals, broadcast and cable, into digital form, rendering analog cable television service a rarity, found in an ever-dwindling number of markets. Analog television sets are accommodated, their tuners mostly obsolete and dependent entirely on the set-top box. ==Deployments by continent== Cable television is mostly available in North America, Europe, Australia, Asia and South America. Cable television has had little success in Africa, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas. Multichannel multipoint distribution service, a microwave-based system, may be used instead. ==Other cable-based services== Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as cable internet, cable telephony and wireless services, using both unlicensed and licensed spectra. Broadband internet access is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog telephone modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 31.2 Kbp/s and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive. In North America, Australia and Europe, many cable operators have already introduced cable telephone service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop (replacing the analog last mile, or plain old telephone service (POTS) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems to be the most promising and able to work with the quality of service (QOS) demands of traditional analog plain old telephone service (POTS) service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. In many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on Internet Protocol (IP) traffic or the Internet. Traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies increasingly compete in providing voice, video and data services to residences. The combination of television, telephone and Internet access is commonly called triple play, regardless of whether CATV or telcos offer it.	[ "encrypted", "HDMI", "Multichannel television", "cable-ready", "F connector", "educational television", "set-top box", "baseband", "Popular Electronics", "Europe", "frequency", "Last mile (telecommunications)", "RG-6", "Cable television piracy", "optical fiber", "cable modem", "Africa", "PacketCable", "Satellite television", "Ghosting (television)", "Voice over Internet Protocol", "broadcast", "Cable box (outside)", "Tru2way", "Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers", "analog television", "cable telephone service", "cable telephone", "Internet Protocol", "miniseries", "high-speed Internet", "characteristic impedance", "specialty channel", "local program", "digital television transition in the United States", "Triple play (telecommunications)", "community access channel", "public, educational, and government access", "digital television", "parabolic dish", "VHF", "television market", "Multichannel television sound", "Analog television", "broadcast programming", "Telephony", "All-Channel Receiver Act", "terrestrial television", "activation code", "Broadband internet access", "television antenna", "Alfred, New York", "European cable television frequencies", "Closed-circuit television", "communications satellite", "Switched video", "utility pole", "data", "cable internet access", "cable internet", "hybrid fiber-coaxial", "PSTN", "cable television headend", "digital television adapter", "television network", "Coaxial cable", "List of cable television companies", "premium channel", "metropolitan area", "Asia", "Z Channel", "pay TV", "frequencies", "satellite television", "Cable news", "cable television piracy", "high-definition television", "1936 Olympics", "upstream (networking)", "quality of service", "satellite dish", "power dividers and directional couplers", "digital cable", "cable converter box", "AllVid", "Cornwall, Ontario", "DOCSIS", "fibre-optic cable", "television", "standard-definition", "QAM (television)", "plain old telephone service", "Harvard Business School", "Multichannel multipoint distribution service", "component video", "HBO", "Popular Science", "Australia", "Private cable operator", "communication satellite", "Telephone company", "TV gateway", "South America", "cable telephony", "Rediffusion", "television advertisement", "blanking interval", "frequency division multiplexing", "service drop", "live television", "narrowcasting", "radio frequency", "North American television frequencies", "CableCARD", "Local insertion", "The Nation", "Terrestrial television", "FM radio", "downstream (networking)", "local loop", "digital video recorder", "coaxial cable", "DVB-C2", "pay-per-view", "North America", "Cisco", "television movie", "radio wave", "DVB-C" ]
7,591	Cholera	{{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Cholera \| synonyms = Asiatic cholera, epidemic cholera The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea lasting a few days. Dehydration can cause the skin to turn bluish. Symptoms start two hours to five days after exposure. Humans are the only known host for the bacteria. or a rapid dipstick test, although the dipstick test is less accurate. Prevention methods against cholera include improved sanitation and access to clean water. In 2017, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a single-dose, live, oral cholera vaccine called Vaxchora for adults aged 18–64 who are travelling to an area of active cholera transmission. It offers limited protection to young children. People who survive an episode of cholera have long-lasting immunity for at least three years (the period tested). The primary treatment for affected individuals is oral rehydration salts (ORS), the replacement of fluids and electrolytes by using slightly sweet and salty solutions. In severe cases, intravenous fluids, such as Ringer's lactate, may be required, and antibiotics may be beneficial. To date, seven cholera pandemics have occurred, with the most recent beginning in 1961, and continuing today. The illness is rare in high-income countries, and affects children most severely. Cholera occurs as both outbreaks and chronically in certain areas. == Signs and symptoms == The primary symptoms of cholera are profuse diarrhea and vomiting of clear fluid. These symptoms usually start suddenly, half a day to five days after ingestion of the bacteria. The diarrhea is frequently described as "rice water" in nature and may have a fishy odor. Cholera has been nicknamed the "blue death" because a person's skin may turn bluish-gray from extreme loss of fluids. Fever is rare and should raise suspicion for secondary infection. Patients can be lethargic and might have sunken eyes, dry mouth, cold clammy skin, or wrinkled hands and feet. Kussmaul breathing, a deep and labored breathing pattern, can occur because of acidosis from stool bicarbonate losses and lactic acidosis associated with poor perfusion. Blood pressure drops due to dehydration, peripheral pulse is rapid and thready, and urine output decreases with time. Muscle cramping and weakness, altered consciousness, seizures, or even coma due to electrolyte imbalances are common, especially in children. People infected with cholera often have diarrhea, and disease transmission may occur if this highly liquid stool, colloquially referred to as "rice-water", contaminates water used by others. A single diarrheal event can cause a one-million fold increase in numbers of V. cholerae in the environment. The source of the contamination is typically other people with cholera when their untreated diarrheal discharge is allowed to get into waterways, groundwater or drinking water supplies. Drinking any contaminated water and eating any foods washed in the water, as well as shellfish living in the affected waterway, can cause a person to contract an infection. Cholera is rarely spread directly from person to person. V. cholerae also exists outside the human body in natural water sources, either by itself or through interacting with phytoplankton, zooplankton, or biotic and abiotic detritus. Drinking such water can also result in the disease, even without prior contamination through fecal matter. Selective pressures exist however in the aquatic environment that may reduce the virulence of V. cholerae. Both toxic and non-toxic strains exist. Non-toxic strains can acquire toxicity through a temperate bacteriophage. === Susceptibility === About 100million bacteria must typically be ingested to cause cholera in a normal healthy adult. Any individual, even a healthy adult in middle age, can undergo a severe case, and each person's case should be measured by the loss of fluids, preferably in consultation with a professional health care provider. The cystic fibrosis genetic mutation known as delta-F508 in humans has been said to maintain a selective heterozygous advantage: heterozygous carriers of the mutation (who are not affected by cystic fibrosis) are more resistant to V. cholerae infections. In this model, the genetic deficiency in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator channel proteins interferes with bacteria binding to the intestinal epithelium, thus reducing the effects of an infection. == Mechanism == When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they no longer need the flagella to move. The bacteria stop producing the protein flagellin to conserve energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they express in response to the changed chemical surroundings. On reaching the intestinal wall, V. cholerae start producing the toxic proteins that give the infected person a watery diarrhea. This carries the multiplying new generations of V. cholerae bacteria out into the drinking water of the next host if proper sanitation measures are not in place. The cholera toxin (CTX or CT) is an oligomeric complex made up of six protein subunits: a single copy of the A subunit (part A), and five copies of the B subunit (part B), connected by a disulfide bond. The five B subunits form a five-membered ring that binds to GM1 gangliosides on the surface of the intestinal epithelium cells. The A1 portion of the A subunit is an enzyme that ADP-ribosylates G proteins, while the A2 chain fits into the central pore of the B subunit ring. Upon binding, the complex is taken into the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Once inside the cell, the disulfide bond is reduced, and the A1 subunit is freed to bind with a human partner protein called ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6). Binding exposes its active site, allowing it to permanently ribosylate the Gs alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein. This results in constitutive cAMP production, which in turn leads to the secretion of water, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate into the lumen of the small intestine and rapid dehydration. The gene encoding the cholera toxin was introduced into V. cholerae by horizontal gene transfer. Virulent strains of V. cholerae carry a variant of a temperate bacteriophage called CTXφ. Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the V. cholerae bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the intestinal wall. Of particular interest have been the genetic mechanisms by which cholera bacteria turn on the protein production of the toxins that interact with host cell mechanisms to pump chloride ions into the small intestine, creating an ionic pressure which prevents sodium ions from entering the cell. The chloride and sodium ions create a salt-water environment in the small intestines, which through osmosis can pull up to six liters of water per day through the intestinal cells, creating the massive amounts of diarrhea. The host can become rapidly dehydrated unless treated properly. By inserting separate, successive sections of V. cholerae DNA into the DNA of other bacteria, such as E. coli that would not naturally produce the protein toxins, researchers have investigated the mechanisms by which V. cholerae responds to the changing chemical environments of the stomach, mucous layers, and intestinal wall. Researchers have discovered a complex cascade of regulatory proteins controls expression of V. cholerae virulence determinants. In responding to the chemical environment at the intestinal wall, the V. cholerae bacteria produce the TcpP/TcpH proteins, which, together with the ToxR/ToxS proteins, activate the expression of the ToxT regulatory protein. ToxT then directly activates expression of virulence genes that produce the toxins, causing diarrhea in the infected person and allowing the bacteria to colonize the intestine. === Antibiotic resistance === In many areas of the world, antibiotic resistance is increasing within cholera bacteria. In Bangladesh, for example, most cases are resistant to tetracycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and erythromycin. New generation antimicrobials have been discovered which are effective against cholera bacteria in in vitro studies. == Diagnosis == A rapid dipstick test is available to determine the presence of V. cholerae. Stool and swab samples collected in the acute stage of the disease, before antibiotics have been administered, are the most useful specimens for laboratory diagnosis. If an epidemic of cholera is suspected, the most common causative agent is V. cholerae O1. If V. cholerae serogroup O1 is not isolated, the laboratory should test for V. cholerae O139. However, if neither of these organisms is isolated, it is necessary to send stool specimens to a reference laboratory. Infection with V. cholerae O139 should be reported and handled in the same manner as that caused by V. cholerae O1. The associated diarrheal illness should be referred to as cholera and must be reported in the United States. == Prevention == The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends focusing on prevention, preparedness, and response to combat the spread of cholera. Cholera is mainly a risk in developing countries in those areas where access to WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) infrastructure is still inadequate. Effective sanitation practices, if instituted and adhered to in time, are usually sufficient to stop an epidemic. There are several points along the cholera transmission path at which its spread may be halted: Sterilization: Proper disposal and treatment of all materials that may have come into contact with the feces of other people with cholera (e.g., clothing, bedding, etc.) are essential. These should be sanitized by washing in hot water, using chlorine bleach if possible. Hands that touch cholera patients or their clothing, bedding, etc., should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with chlorinated water or other effective antimicrobial agents. Sewage and fecal sludge management: In cholera-affected areas, sewage and fecal sludge need to be treated and managed carefully in order to stop the spread of this disease via human excreta. Provision of sanitation and hygiene is an important preventative measure. In many cholera affected zones, there is a low degree of sewage treatment. Therefore, the implementation of dry toilets that do not contribute to water pollution, as they do not flush with water, may be an interesting alternative to flush toilets. Sources: Warnings about possible cholera contamination should be posted around contaminated water sources with directions on how to decontaminate the water (boiling, chlorination etc.) for possible use. Water purification: All water used for drinking, washing, or cooking should be sterilized by either boiling, chlorination, ozone water treatment, ultraviolet light sterilization (e.g., by solar water disinfection), or antimicrobial filtration in any area where cholera may be present. Chlorination and boiling are often the least expensive and most effective means of halting transmission. Cloth filters or sari filtration, though very basic, have significantly reduced the occurrence of cholera when used in poor villages in Bangladesh that rely on untreated surface water. Better antimicrobial filters, like those present in advanced individual water treatment hiking kits, are most effective. Public health education and adherence to appropriate sanitation practices are of primary importance to help prevent and control transmission of cholera and other diseases. Handwashing with soap or ash after using a toilet and before handling food or eating is also recommended for cholera prevention by WHO Africa. File:Unsafe disposal of faecal sludge or sewage in Haiti (6458176073).jpg\|Dumping of sewage or fecal sludge from a UN camp into a lake in the surroundings of Port-au-Prince is thought to have contributed to the spread of cholera after the Haiti earthquake in 2010, killing thousands. File:A SOIL EkoLakay toilet customer. (15921409131).jpg\|Example of a urine-diverting dry toilet in a cholera-affected area in Haiti. This type of toilet stops transmission of disease via the fecal-oral route due to water pollution. File:Cholera hospital in Dhaka.jpg\|Cholera hospital in Dhaka, showing typical "cholera beds" === Surveillance === Surveillance and prompt reporting allow for containing cholera epidemics rapidly. Cholera exists as a seasonal disease in many endemic countries, occurring annually mostly during rainy seasons. Surveillance systems can provide early alerts to outbreaks, therefore leading to coordinated response and assist in preparation of preparedness plans. Efficient surveillance systems can also improve the risk assessment for potential cholera outbreaks. Understanding the seasonality and location of outbreaks provides guidance for improving cholera control activities for the most vulnerable. For prevention to be effective, it is important that cases be reported to national health authorities. His vaccine and inoculation was rather controversial and was rejected by his peers and several investigation commissions but it ended up demonstrating its effectiveness and being recognized for it: out of the 30 thousand people he vaccinated only 54 died. Russian-Jewish bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine also developed a human cholera vaccine in July 1892. He conducted a massive inoculation program in British India. Persons who survive an episode of cholera have long-lasting immunity for at least 3 years (the period tested). The World Health Organization (WHO) has three prequalified oral cholera vaccines (OCVs): Dukoral, Sanchol, and Euvichol. Dukoral, an orally administered, inactivated whole-cell vaccine, has an overall efficacy of about 52% during the first year after being given and 62% in the second year, with minimal side effects. The vaccine that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends, Vaxchora, is an oral attenuated live vaccine, that is effective for adults aged 18–64 as a single dose. One injectable vaccine was found to be effective for two to three years. The protective efficacy was 28% lower in children less than five years old. However, , it has limited availability. The WHO recommends immunization of high-risk groups, such as children and people with HIV, in countries where this disease is endemic. OCV has been recognized as an adjunct tool for prevention and control of cholera. The WHO has prequalified three bivalent cholera vaccines—Dukoral (SBL Vaccines), containing a non-toxic B-subunit of cholera toxin and providing protection against V. cholerae O1; and two vaccines developed using the same transfer of technology—ShanChol (Shantha Biotec) and Euvichol (EuBiologics Co.), which have bivalent O1 and O139 oral killed cholera vaccines. Oral cholera vaccination could be deployed in a diverse range of situations from cholera-endemic areas and locations of humanitarian crises, but no clear consensus exists. === Sari filtration === Developed for use in Bangladesh, the "sari filter" is a simple and cost-effective appropriate technology method for reducing the contamination of drinking water. Used sari cloth is preferable but other types of used cloth can be used with some effect, though the effectiveness will vary significantly. Used cloth is more effective than new cloth, as the repeated washing reduces the space between the fibers. Water collected in this way has a greatly reduced pathogen count—though it will not necessarily be perfectly safe, it is an improvement for poor people with limited options. In Bangladesh this practice was found to decrease rates of cholera by nearly half. It involves folding a sari four to eight times. A nylon cloth appears to work as well but is not as affordable. === Fluids === The most common error in caring for patients with cholera is to underestimate the speed and volume of fluids required. In most cases, cholera can be successfully treated with oral rehydration therapy (ORT), which is highly effective, safe, and simple to administer. Large volumes and continued replacement until diarrhea has subsided may be needed. Despite widespread beliefs, fruit juices and commercial fizzy drinks like cola are not ideal for rehydration of people with serious infections of the intestines, and their excessive sugar content may even harm water uptake. If commercially produced oral rehydration solutions are too expensive or difficult to obtain, solutions can be made. One such recipe calls for 1 liter of boiled water, 1/2 teaspoon of salt, 6 teaspoons of sugar, and added mashed banana for potassium and to improve taste. === Electrolytes === As there frequently is initially acidosis, the potassium level may be normal, even though large losses have occurred. People will recover without them, however, if sufficient hydration is maintained. Doxycycline is typically used first line, although some strains of V. cholerae have shown resistance. Fluoroquinolones, such as ciprofloxacin, also may be used, but resistance has been reported. Antibiotics improve outcomes in those who are both severely and not severely dehydrated. Azithromycin and tetracycline may work better than doxycycline or ciprofloxacin. Supplementation appears to be also effective in both treating and preventing infectious diarrhea due to other causes among children in the developing world. == Prognosis == If people with cholera are treated quickly and properly, the mortality rate is less than 1%; however, with untreated cholera, the mortality rate rises to 50–60%. For certain genetic strains of cholera, such as the one present during the 2010 epidemic in Haiti and the 2004 outbreak in India, death can occur within two hours of becoming ill. == Epidemiology == Cholera affects an estimated 2.8 million people worldwide, and causes approximately 95,000 deaths a year (uncertainty range: 21,000–143,000) . This occurs mainly in the developing world. In the early 1980s, death rates are believed to have still been higher than three million a year. As of 2004, cholera remained both epidemic and endemic in many areas of the world. WHO called it "the worst cholera outbreak in the world". In 2019, 93% of the reported 923,037 cholera cases were from Yemen (with 1911 deaths reported). This was followed by the 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak and another outbreak of cholera in Haiti amid the 2018–2023 Haitian crisis. the disease is endemic in Africa and some areas of eastern and western Asia (Bangladesh, India and Yemen). (The "Indorum" of the title refers to the East Indies. He also gave first European descriptions of other diseases.) But at the time, the word "cholera" was historically used by European physicians to refer to any gastrointestinal upset resulting in yellow diarrhea. De Bondt thus used a common word already in regular use to describe the new disease. This was a frequent practice of the time. It was not until the 1830s that the name for severe yellow diarrhea changed in English from "cholera" to "cholera morbus" to differentiate it from what was then known as "Asiatic cholera", or that associated with origins in India and the East. Early outbreaks in the Indian subcontinent are believed to have been the result of crowded, poor living conditions, as well as the presence of pools of still water, both of which provide ideal conditions for cholera to thrive. The first cholera pandemic occurred in the Bengal region of India, near Calcutta starting in 1817 through 1824. The disease dispersed from India to Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and Eastern Africa. The movement of British Army and Navy ships and personnel is believed to have contributed to the range of the pandemic, since the ships carried people with the disease to the shores of the Indian Ocean, from Africa to Indonesia, and north to China and Japan. The second pandemic lasted from 1826 to 1837 and particularly affected North America and Europe. Advancements in transport and global trade, and increased human migration, including soldiers, meant that more people were carrying the disease more widely. The third pandemic erupted in 1846, persisted until 1860, extended to North Africa, and reached North and South America. It was introduced to North America at Quebec, Canada, via Irish immigrants from the Great Famine. In this pandemic, Brazil was affected for the first time. The fourth pandemic lasted from 1863 to 1875, spreading from India to Naples and Spain, and reaching the United States at New Orleans, Louisiana in 1873. It spread throughout the Mississippi River system on the continent. The fifth pandemic was from 1881 to 1896. It started in India and spread to Europe, Asia, and South America. The sixth pandemic ran from 1899 to 1923. These epidemics had a lower number of fatalities because physicians and researchers had a greater understanding of the cholera bacteria. Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, Persia, India, and the Philippines were hit hardest during these epidemics. Other areas, such as Germany in 1892 (primarily the city of Hamburg, where more than 8.600 people died) and Naples from 1910 to 1911, also had severe outbreaks. The seventh pandemic originated in 1961 in Indonesia and is marked by the emergence of a new strain, nicknamed El Tor, which still persists () in developing countries. This pandemic had initially subsided about 1975 and was thought to have ended, but, as noted, it has persisted. There were a rise in cases in the 1990s and since. Cholera became widespread in the 19th century. Since then it has killed tens of millions of people. In Russia alone, between 1847 and 1851, more than one million people died from the disease. It killed 150,000 Americans during the second pandemic. Between 1900 and 1920, perhaps eight million people died of cholera in India. Cholera officially became the first reportable disease in the United States due to the significant effects it had on health. Historically many different claimed remedies have existed in folklore. Many of the older remedies were based on the miasma theory, that the disease was transmitted by bad air. Some believed that abdominal chilling made one more susceptible, and flannel and cholera belts were included in army kits. In the 1854–1855 outbreak in Naples, homeopathic camphor was used according to Hahnemann. Dr. Hahnemann laid down three main remedies that would be curative in that disease; in early and simple cases camphor; in later stages with excessive cramping, cuprum or with excessive evacuations and profuse cold sweat, veratrum album. These are the Trio Cholera remedies used by homoeopaths around the world. T. J. Ritter's Mother's Remedies book lists tomato syrup as a home remedy from northern America. Elecampane was recommended in the United Kingdom, according to William Thomas Fernie. The first effective human vaccine was developed in 1885, and the first effective antibiotic was developed in 1948. Cholera cases are much less frequent in developed countries where governments have helped to establish water sanitation practices and effective medical treatments. In the 19th century the United States, for example, had a severe cholera problem similar to those in some developing countries. It had three large cholera outbreaks in the 1800s, which can be attributed to Vibrio cholerae spread through interior waterways such as the Erie Canal and the extensive Mississippi River valley system, as well as the major ports along the Eastern Seaboard and their cities upriver. The island of Manhattan in New York City touches the Atlantic Ocean, where cholera collected from river waters and ship discharges just off the coast. At this time, New York City did not have as effective a sanitation system as it developed in the later 20th century, so cholera spread through the city's water supply. Cholera morbus is a historical term that was used to refer to gastroenteritis rather than specifically to what is now defined as the disease of cholera. File:Cholera.jpg\|Drawing of Death bringing cholera, in Le Petit Journal (1912) File:Pedro II of Brazil and ministers of state.JPG\|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil visiting people with cholera in 1855 File:Cholera 395.1.jpg\|Hand bill from the New York City Board of Health, 1832—the outdated public health advice demonstrates the lack of understanding of the disease and its causative factors. === Research === One of the major contributions to fighting cholera was made by the physician and pioneer medical scientist John Snow (1813–1858), who in 1854 found a link between cholera and contaminated drinking water. Dr. Snow proposed a microbial origin for epidemic cholera in 1849. In his major "state of the art" review of 1855, he proposed a substantially complete and correct model for the cause of the disease. In two pioneering epidemiological field studies, he was able to demonstrate human sewage contamination was the most probable disease vector in two major epidemics in London in 1854. His model was not immediately accepted, but it was increasingly seen as plausible as medical microbiology developed over the next 30 years or so. For his work on cholera, John Snow is often regarded as the "Father of Epidemiology". The bacterium was isolated in 1854 by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini, but its exact nature and his results were not widely known. In the same year, the Catalan Joaquim Balcells i Pascual discovered the bacterium. In 1856 António Augusto da Costa Simões and José Ferreira de Macedo Pinto, two Portuguese researchers, are believed to have done the same. Between the mid-1850s and the 1900s, cities in developed nations made massive investment in clean water supply and well-separated sewage treatment infrastructures. This eliminated the threat of cholera epidemics from the major developed cities in the world. In 1883, Robert Koch identified V. cholerae with a microscope as the bacillus causing the disease. Hemendra Nath Chatterjee, a Bengali scientist, was the first to formulate and demonstrate the effectiveness of oral rehydration salt (ORS) to treat diarrhea. In his 1953 paper, published in The Lancet, he states that promethazine can stop vomiting during cholera and then oral rehydration is possible. The formulation of the fluid replacement solution was 4 g of sodium chloride, 25 g of glucose and 1000 ml of water. Indian medical scientist Sambhu Nath De discovered the cholera toxin, the animal model of cholera, and successfully demonstrated the method of transmission of cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae. Robert Allan Phillips, working at US Naval Medical Research Unit Two in Southeast Asia, evaluated the pathophysiology of the disease using modern laboratory chemistry techniques. He developed a protocol for rehydration. His research led the Lasker Foundation to award him its prize in 1967. More recently, in 2002, Alam, et al., studied stool samples from patients at the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease in Dhaka, Bangladesh. From the various experiments they conducted, the researchers found a correlation between the passage of V. cholerae through the human digestive system and an increased infectivity state. Furthermore, the researchers found the bacterium creates a hyperinfected state where genes that control biosynthesis of amino acids, iron uptake systems, and formation of periplasmic nitrate reductase complexes were induced just before defecation. These induced characteristics allow the cholera vibrios to survive in the "rice water" stools, an environment of limited oxygen and iron, of patients with a cholera infection. === Global Strategy === In 2017, the WHO launched the "Ending Cholera: a global roadmap to 2030" strategy which aims to reduce cholera deaths by 90% by 2030. The strategy was developed by the Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC) which develops country-specific plans and monitors progress. The approach to achieve this goal combines surveillance, water sanitation, rehydration treatment and oral vaccines. Even though humans are the only host of cholera, the bacterium can persist in the environment without a human host. While global eradication is not possible, elimination of human to human transmission may be possible. The GTFCC targets 47 countries, 13 of which have established vaccination campaigns. == Society and culture == === Health policy === In many developing countries, cholera still reaches its victims through contaminated water sources, and countries without proper sanitation techniques have greater incidence of the disease. Governments can play a role in this. In 2008, for example, the Zimbabwean cholera outbreak was due partly to the government's role, according to a report from the James Baker Institute. Similarly, South Africa's cholera outbreak was exacerbated by the government's policy of privatizing water programs. The wealthy elite of the country were able to afford safe water while others had to use water from cholera-infected rivers. According to Rita R. Colwell of the James Baker Institute, if cholera does begin to spread, government preparedness is crucial. A government's ability to contain the disease before it extends to other areas can prevent a high death toll and the development of an epidemic or even pandemic. Effective disease surveillance can ensure that cholera outbreaks are recognized as soon as possible and dealt with appropriately. Oftentimes, this will allow public health programs to determine and control the cause of the cases, whether it is unsanitary water or seafood that have accumulated a lot of Vibrio cholerae specimens. These task forces promoted the boiling of water to obtain safe water, and provided chlorine and oral rehydration salts. According to Colwell, the quality and inclusiveness of a country's health care system affects the control of cholera, as it did in the Zimbabwean cholera outbreak. The speed with which government leaders respond to cholera outbreaks is important. Besides contributing to an effective or declining public health care system and water sanitation treatments, government can have indirect effects on cholera control and the effectiveness of a response to cholera. A country's government can impact its ability to prevent disease and control its spread. A speedy government response backed by a fully functioning health care system and financial resources can prevent cholera's spread. This limits cholera's ability to cause death, or at the very least a decline in education, as children are kept out of school to minimize the risk of infection. === Notable cases === Tchaikovsky's death has traditionally been attributed to cholera, most probably contracted through drinking contaminated water several days earlier. Tchaikovsky's mother died of cholera, and his father became sick with cholera at this time but made a full recovery. Some scholars, however, including English musicologist and Tchaikovsky authority David Brown and biographer Anthony Holden, have theorized that his death was a suicide. 2010s Haiti cholera outbreak. Ten months after the 2010 earthquake, an outbreak swept over Haiti, traced to a United Nations base of peacekeepers from Nepal. This marks the worst cholera outbreak in recent history, as well as the best documented cholera outbreak in modern public health. Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and novelist, is thought to have died of cholera in Istanbul in 1855. Sadi Carnot, physicist, a pioneer of thermodynamics (d. 1832) Charles X, King of France (d. 1836) James K. Polk, eleventh president of the United States (d. 1849) Carl von Clausewitz, Prussian soldier and German military theorist (d. 1831) Elliot Bovill, Chief Justice of the Straits Settlements (1893) Nikola Tesla, Serbian-American inventor, engineer and futurist known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system, contracted cholera in 1873 at the age of 17. He was bedridden for nine months, and near death multiple times, but survived and fully recovered. ===In popular culture=== Unlike tuberculosis ("consumption") which in literature and the arts was often romanticized as a disease of denizens of the demimonde or those with an artistic temperament, cholera is a disease which almost entirely affects the poor living in unsanitary conditions. This, and the unpleasant course of the disease – which includes voluminous "rice-water" diarrhea, the hemorrhaging of liquids from the mouth, and violent muscle contractions which continue even after death – has discouraged the disease from being romanticized, or even being factually presented in popular culture. In Gabriel Garcia Márquez's 1985 novel Love in the Time of Cholera, cholera is "a looming background presence rather than a central figure requiring vile description." The novel was adapted in 2007 for the film of the same name directed by Mike Newell. In The Secret Garden, Mary Lennox's parents die from cholera. == Country examples == === Zambia === In Zambia, widespread cholera outbreaks have occurred since 1977, most commonly in the capital city of Lusaka. In 2017, an outbreak of cholera was declared in Zambia after laboratory confirmation of Vibrio cholerae O1, biotype El Tor, serotype Ogawa, from stool samples from two patients with acute watery diarrhea. There was a rapid increase in the number of cases from several hundred cases in early December 2017 to approximately 2,000 by early January 2018. With intensification of the rains, new cases increased on a daily basis reaching a peak on the first week of January 2018 with over 700 cases reported. In collaboration with partners, the Zambia Ministry of Health (MoH) launched a multifaceted public health response that included increased chlorination of the Lusaka municipal water supply, provision of emergency water supplies, water quality monitoring and testing, enhanced surveillance, epidemiologic investigations, a cholera vaccination campaign, aggressive case management and health care worker training, and laboratory testing of clinical samples. Nigeria In June 2024, the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (NCDC) announced a total of 1,141 suspected and 65 confirmed cases of cholera with 30 deaths from 96 Local Government Areas (LGAs) in 30 states of the country. NCDC, in its public health advisory, said Abia, Bayelsa, Bauchi, Cross River, Delta, Imo, Katsina, Lagos, Nasarawa and Zamfara states were the 10 states that contributed 90 percent of the burden of cholera in the country at the time. === India === The city of Kolkata, India, in the state of West Bengal in the Ganges delta, has been described as the "homeland of cholera", with regular outbreaks and pronounced seasonality. In India, where the disease is endemic, cholera outbreaks occur every year between dry seasons and rainy seasons. India is also characterized by high population density, unsafe drinking water, open drains, and poor sanitation, which provide an optimal niche for survival, sustenance, and transmission of Vibrio cholerae. === Democratic Republic of Congo === In Goma in the Democratic Republic of Congo, cholera has left an enduring mark on human and medical history. Cholera pandemics in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the growth of epidemiology as a science and in recent years it has continued to press advances in the concepts of disease ecology, basic membrane biology, and transmembrane signaling and in the use of scientific information and treatment design. == Explanatory notes ==	[ "infection", "Enophthalmia", "Kelley Lee", "WHO", "Waterborne diseases", "oligomer", "oral rehydration therapy", "Jaume Ferran i Clua", "Zimbabwean cholera outbreak", "chloride", "1826–1837 cholera pandemic", "active but non-culturable", "Death in Venice (opera)", "eradication of infectious diseases", "Africa", "small intestine", "zinc", "2018–2023 Haitian crisis", "2016–2022 Yemen cholera outbreak", "Epidemic", "water filtration", "Erie Canal", "Lasker Foundation", "cholera toxin", "viable but non-culturable", "inventor", "Fecal sludge management", "chlorine", "Hamburg Ballet", "blood type", "protein", "The Painted Veil (novel)", "toilet", "British India", "water pollution", "AIDS and Its Metaphors", "Love in the Time of Cholera (film)", "David Brown (musicologist)", "multiple drug resistance", "vomiting", "intestinal epithelium", "Personifications of death", "sodium chloride", "Sanskrit literature", "futurist", "pit latrine", "plankton", "nylon", "Robert Allan Phillips", "groundwater", "Dukoral", "Transmission (medicine)", "bicarbonate", "developed countries", "United Nations", "Luchino Visconti", "feces", "Cholera vaccine", "Le Petit Journal (newspaper)", "tuberculosis", "Vaxchora", "Russia", "urine-diverting dry toilet", "Sixth cholera pandemic", "Mucus", "Vibrio cholerae", "stool test", "seizures", "New Orleans, Louisiana", "Catalonia", "John Snow (physician)", "virulence", "trade route", "West Bengal", "The Washington Post", "History of cholera", "Nepal", "hussars", "epidemiology", "assay", "human feces", "Dipstick", "SMS Moltke (1877)", "heterozygous advantage", "Death in Venice (film)", "Bangladesh Liberation War", "Joaquim Balcells i Pascual", "dry toilet", "The Horseman on the Roof", "Open defecation", "bacteria", "Infectious disease (medical specialty)", "G protein", "sari", "Jean Giono", "Ringer's lactate", "serotype", "cholera vaccine", "Russian Empire", "asymptomatic", "Risk factors", "gene", "Kolkata", "iron", "Pedro II of Brazil", "Cloth filter", "coma", "Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky", "James Baker Institute", "perfusion", "Gs alpha subunit", "zooplankton", "Ganges delta", "appropriate technology", "HIV", "electricity supply", "Adam Mickiewicz", "fecal-oral route", "Love in the Time of Cholera", "electrolyte imbalance", "Strain (biology)", "Filippo Pacini", "Foodborne illness", "intravenous fluids", "first cholera pandemic", "quarantine", "antibiotic", "Blood pressure", "potassium", "disease ecology", "sanitation", "Charles X of France", "demimondaine", "Dhaka", "Waldemar Haffkine", "doxycycline", "Water chlorination", "Vibriosis", "muscle cramps", "Serbian-American", "Third cholera pandemic", "Dhaka, Bangladesh", "Oral rehydration therapy", "Vomiting", "human excreta", "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "nutrient", "Indonesia", "José Ferreira de Macedo Pinto", "2010 Haiti cholera outbreak", "promethazine", "Developing country", "Hemendra Nath Chatterjee", "Stool test", "Drawing", "flagellum", "chloramphenicol", "Antibiotic resistance", "cholera pandemic", "Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot", "dry season", "Fluoroquinolone", "shellfish", "Human feces", "Cyanosis", "cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator", "Haiti", "Lusaka", "Southeast Asia", "contagious disease", "Jacobus Bontius", "engineer", "medical history", "Robert Koch", "camphor", "Elliot Bovill", "water treatment", "Gabriel Garcia Márquez", "cholera belt", "trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole", "Military theory", "delta-F508", "miasma theory", "North America", "Port-au-Prince", "Fifth cholera pandemic", "oyster", "Thomas Mann", "W. Somerset Maugham", "Fourth cholera pandemic", "Yemen", "Zambia", "ciprofloxacin", "whole-cell vaccine", "Kussmaul breathing", "Goma", "fecal–oral route", "cholera riots", "Europe", "malnutrition", "flagellin", "proton pump inhibitors", "Death in Venice", "cotrimoxazole", "pandemic", "waterway", "Chief Justice of Singapore", "Dehydration", "2017 Yemen cholera outbreak", "phytoplankton", "Giovanni Verga", "protein subunit", "gene cluster", "Cyclic adenosine monophosphate", "East Coast of the United States", "Second cholera pandemic", "heterotrimeric G protein", "Mike Newell (director)", "ganglioside", "List of French monarchs", "alternating current", "sub-Saharan Africa", "Doxycycline", "Sambhu Nath De", "carbonari", "2010s Haiti cholera outbreak", "ca:Col·legi Oficial de Metges de Barcelona", "Mastro-don Gesualdo", "High-income country", "electrolyte", "gene expression", "Antibiotic", "Drinking water", "Samuel Hahnemann", "Endemism", "oral rehydration salt", "mutation", "Egypt", "The Secret Garden", "England", "herd immunity", "bacteriophage", "drinking water", "Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention", "gastroenteritis", "Anthony Holden", "Seventh cholera pandemic", "The Lancet", "GM1", "antibiotic sensitivity testing", "heterozygous", "Bangladesh", "Quebec, Canada", "hygiene", "Azithromycin", "lactic acidosis", "Amplified fragment length polymorphism", "reportable disease", "Nikola Tesla", "Illness as Metaphor", "António Augusto da Costa Simões", "amino acid", "John Neumeier", "erythromycin", "Benjamin Britten", "Rita Colwell", "stomach", "toxicity", "Water pollution", "stagnant water", "Gastric acid", "horizontal gene transfer", "novella", "Susan Sontag", "Serotype", "epidemic", "Biotic material", "Disinfection", "poverty", "The Horseman on the Roof (novel)", "Democratic Republic of Congo", "CTXφ Bacteriophage", "abiotic", "International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh", "Carl von Clausewitz", "flush toilet", "developing countries", "pathogen", "gastric acid", "endocytosis", "solar water disinfection", "Food and Drug Administration", "zinc supplementation", "cystic fibrosis", "sewage treatment", "acidosis", "diarrhea", "Americas", "disulfide bond", "Bacteria", "antibiotic resistance", "Peacekeeping", "fecal sludge management", "hand washing", "president of the United States", "Elecampane", "antibiotics", "tetracycline", "Kalasha", "India", "Indian people", "intravenous fluid", "1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak", "exotoxin", "Naval Medical Research Unit Two", "intravenous", "ABC-CLIO", "ADP-ribosylation factor 6", "dehydration", "Rita R. Colwell", "immunodeficiency", "septic tank", "HIV/AIDS", "James K. Polk", "health care provider", "World Health Organization", "bleach", "Hand washing", "Sicily", "copepod", "Real Academia de la Historia", "Escherichia coli", "US Food and Drug Administration", "Wet season", "Water purification", "Developed country", "sewage", "genetic isolate", "type O blood", "Sewage", "Provence", "Prussia", "Swinburne Island", "Fecal–oral route", "Endemic", "furazolidone", "water", "animal model", "glucose", "ADP-ribosylation", "Indian subcontinent", "decontamination", "WASH", "Temperateness (virology)", "DNA profiling", "Metropolitan Board of Health", "Jean-Paul Rappeneau", "Natural reservoir", "dipstick" ]
7,592	Caldera	A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter). Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea, Hawaii in 2018. Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes". == Etymology == The term caldera comes from Spanish ', and Latin ', meaning "cooking pot". In some texts the English term cauldron is also used, in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007) or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers. One of the world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario, Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era about 2.7 billion years ago. In the San Juan volcanic field, ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera. == Types of caldera == ===Explosive caldera eruptions=== Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica. Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases. The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column. However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows. Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts. Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where the Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago. The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks. The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow sheet). If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera, Lake Toba, the San Juan volcanic field, Cerro Galán, Yellowstone, and many other calderas. or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia. At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland, ====Valles==== For their 1968 paper and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera. ====Toba==== About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about dense-rock equivalent of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck. More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people. There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species. There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption. ===Non-explosive calderas=== Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii, form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt, which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped . ==Extraterrestrial calderas== Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon, and Io, a satellite of Jupiter. None of these worlds have plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is . The average caldera diameter on Io is close to , and the mode is ; Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of . The average caldera diameter on Mars is , smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from as a maximum. ===The Moon=== The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. ===Mars=== The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas. ===Venus=== Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from in diameter and high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging across. Lvinaya Past (Kuril Islands) Tao-Rusyr Caldera (Kuril Islands) Uzon (Kamchatka Peninsula) Zavaritski Caldera (Kuril Islands) Yankicha/Ushishir (Kuril Islands) Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, North Caucasus) ===Europe=== Georgia Bakuriani/Didveli Caldera Samsari Germany Laacher See Greece Santorini Nisyros Iceland Askja Grímsvötn Bárðarbunga Katla Krafla Italy Phlegraean Fields Lake Bracciano Lake Bolsena Mount Somma which contains Mount Vesuvius Portugal Lagoa das Sete Cidades & Furnas (São Miguel, the Azores) Caldeira do Faial (Faial) Caldeirão do Corvo (Corvo) United Kingdom Glen Coe (Scotland) Scafell Caldera (Lake District, England) Slovakia Banská Štiavnica Spain Las Cañadas (Tenerife, Canary Islands) ===North and Central America=== Canada Silverthrone Caldera (British Columbia) Mount Edziza (British Columbia) Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex (British Columbia/Yukon) Mount Pleasant Caldera (New Brunswick) Sturgeon Lake Caldera (Ontario) Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex (Yukon) Blake River Megacaldera Complex (Quebec/Ontario) New Senator Caldera (Quebec) Misema Caldera (Ontario/Quebec) Noranda Caldera (Quebec) Mexico La primavera Caldera (Jalisco) Amealco Caldera (Querétaro) Las Cumbres Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla) Los Azufres Caldera (Michoacán) Los Humeros Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla) Mazahua Caldera (Mexico State) El Salvador Lake Ilopango Lake Coatepeque Guatemala Lake Amatitlán Lake Atitlán Xela Barahona Nicaragua Masaya (Nicaragua) United States Mount Aniakchak (Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve) (Alaska) Cochetopa Caldera (Colorado) Crater Lake on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake National Park, Oregon) Mount Katmai (Alaska) Kīlauea (Hawaii) Mauna Loa (Hawaii) La Garita Caldera (Colorado) Long Valley (California) Henry's Fork Caldera (Idaho) Island Park Caldera (Idaho, Wyoming) Newberry Volcano (Oregon) McDermitt Caldera (Oregon) Medicine Lake Volcano (California) Mount Okmok (Alaska) Valles Caldera (New Mexico) Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming) ===Indian Ocean=== Cirque de Cilaos (Réunion) Cirque de Mafate (Réunion) Cirque de Salazie (Réunion) Enclos Fouqué (Réunion) ===Oceania=== Australia Cerberean Cauldron Mount Warning Prospect Hill Hawaii Kilauea (Hawaii, US) Moku‘āweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa (Hawaii, US) New Zealand Kapenga Lake Ohakuri Lake Okataina Lake Rotorua Lake Taupō Maroa Otago Harbour Reporoa caldera Papua New Guinea Dakataua Polynesia Rano Kau (Easter Island, Chile) ===South America=== Argentina Aguas Calientes, Salta Province Caldera del Atuel, Mendoza Province Galán, Catamarca Province Bolivia Pastos Grandes Colombia Arenas crater caldera, Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Caldas Department Laguna Verde caldera, Azufral volcano, Narino Department Chile Chaitén Cordillera Nevada Caldera Laguna del Maule Pacana Caldera Sollipulli Ecuador Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve Cuicocha Quilotoa Fernandina Island, Galápagos Islands Sierra Negra (Galápagos) Chacana Caldera ==Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas== Mars Olympus Mons caldera Venus Maat Mons caldera ==Erosion calderas== Americas Guaichane-Mamuta (Chile) Mount Tehama (California, US) Europe Caldera de Taburiente (Spain) Oceania Tweed Valley (New South Wales, Queensland, Australia) Asia Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Northern Caucasus Region, Russia) Taal volcano (Philippines) Batangas Province	[ "Olympus Mons", "Lake Bolsena", "Canary Islands", "Quilotoa", "McDermitt Caldera", "Askja", "Querétaro", "Hokkaido", "Fish Canyon Tuff", "Kanagawa Prefecture", "Galápagos Islands", "Eocene", "Lagoa das Sete Cidades", "Academic Press", "Mount Aso", "Hawaii", "Compton–Belkovich Thorium Anomaly", "Lake Maninjau", "magma chamber", "Kīlauea", "Cerberean Cauldron", "Tenerife", "volcanic ash", "Catamarca Province", "Canada", "Volcanic winter", "New Zealand", "San Juan Mountains", "Island Park Caldera", "population bottleneck", "Jeju Province", "Medicine Lake Volcano", "Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve", "Menengai", "El Salvador", "Lake Amatitlán", "Nisyros", "Samosir", "Bolivia", "Lake Rotorua", "San Juan volcanic field", "Tvashtar Paterae", "Polynesia", "Mount Rinjani", "Michoacán", "geological time", "Ngorongoro Crater", "Mardin", "shield volcano", "Santa Catarina Barahona", "Quebec", "Kikai Caldera", "Azufral", "China", "Elements (journal)", "plate tectonics", "Cirque de Mafate", "Ushishir", "Colorado", "Lake Tazawa", "Mount Katmai", "Iceland", "Mount Edziza", "Russia", "Tharsis", "Kamchatka Peninsula", "the Azores", "Alaska", "Australia", "Lake Mashū", "Lake District", "Apolaki Caldera", "pyroclastic flows", "Oregon", "Colombia", "Crater Lake", "British Columbia", "Santorini", "subsidence", "Guatemala", "Erta Ale", "Sulawesi", "Pyroclastic flow", "wt%", "Pastos Grandes", "Batangas Province", "Elysium (volcanic province)", "Volcanic crater", "Mount Elgon", "Mount Warning", "Phlegraean Fields", "volcano", "Silverthrone Caldera", "Lake Coatepeque", "United States Geological Survey", "Kuril Islands", "Furnas", "Veracruz", "Fernandina Island", "Heaven Lake", "Pingnan County, Fujian", "Valles Caldera", "tephra", "Spain", "Geology (journal)", "New Senator Caldera", "Leopold von Buch", "Maat Mons", "Lynn Jorde", "Nabro Volcano", "Mount Vesuvius", "Chile", "Jalisco", "Kumamoto Prefecture", "Papua New Guinea", "Estreitinho", "Tweed Volcano", "Aguas Calientes caldera", "Mount Somma", "Krafla", "Oligocene", "Akita Prefecture", "intrusion", "Wyoming", "Crater Lake National Park", "Mount Pinatubo", "Scafells", "1815 eruption of Mount Tambora", "La Garita Caldera", "Zavaritski Caldera", "Cirque de Cilaos", "Mount Pleasant Caldera", "Ontario", "Bakuriani", "Corregidor Caldera", "Idaho", "Indonesia", "Sumbawa", "Lake Ōkataina", "Cochetopa Dome", "Lake Bracciano", "volcanic eruption", "viscosity", "silica", "Karymshina", "resurgent dome", "Venus", "Georgia (country)", "Fracture (geology)", "Java Island", "Katla volcano", "volcanic winter", "Salta Province", "Henry Harpending", "Chacana", "São Miguel Island", "Laguna del Maule (volcano)", "North America", "Japan", "Mount Tondano", "Nemrut (volcano)", "Lvinaya Past", "Lake Ilopango", "Xiuying District", "Krakatoa", "Bandelier Tuff", "Laacher See", "New South Wales", "Sunda Strait", "Kilauea", "Voyager 2", "Sturgeon Lake Caldera", "Blake River Megacaldera Complex", "Sentinel-2", "Hotspot (geology)", "Pacana Caldera", "Taal volcano", "Dakataua", "Entrainment (hydrodynamics)", "Jupiter", "Mexico", "New Brunswick", "Cirque de Salazie", "Mount Hakone", "Glen Coe", "Derik", "Naples", "Argentina", "Mount Mazama", "Aomori Prefecture", "Kurile Lake", "Nevado del Ruiz", "Khangar", "United States", "Tao-Rusyr Caldera", "flood basalt", "magma", "Yellowstone Caldera", "Missouri", "Prospect Hill (New South Wales)", "Enclos Fouqué", "Otago Harbour", "Mount Longonot", "Lake Kuttara", "hotspot (geology)", "United Kingdom", "Yukon", "eruption column", "Masaya Volcano", "Kemp Caldera", "tuff", "Mount Aniakchak", "Teide", "Samsari", "Queensland", "Rano Kau", "basalt", "Galán", "La Palma", "Corvo Island", "Lake Kussharo", "dense-rock equivalent", "Europa (moon)", "Mount Batur", "Miocene", "Sumatra", "Easter Island", "Mount Meru (Tanzania)", "Linhai", "Mendoza Province", "North Caucasus", "Mallahle", "Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex", "Mount Tambora", "Noranda Caldera", "Mauna Loa", "Caldas Department", "Pauzhetka caldera", "Banská Štiavnica", "Faial Island", "Ksudach", "Saint Francois Mountain Range", "Quetzaltenango", "Sollipulli", "Uzon", "Bárðarbunga", "Mineralization (geology)", "Voyager 1", "State of Mexico", "Kagoshima Prefecture", "Deception Island", "Caldera de Taburiente", "orbital resonance", "Viscosity", "Io (moon)", "Caldera del Atuel", "archipelago", "Kabardino-Balkarian Republic", "Quaternary", "ring dike", "Philippines", "Taal Volcano", "confining pressure", "Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve", "Lake Atitlán", "Mars", "Blackwell Publishing", "Narino Department", "Greece", "Mount Halla", "Newberry Volcano", "Germany", "cauldron", "Nicaragua", "Puyehue-Cordón Caulle", "BBC2", "Pliocene", "far side of the Moon", "Mount Okmok", "Portugal", "Moon", "Neoarchean", "Benham Rise", "Lombok", "Proterozoic", "Mount Bulusan", "Korean Peninsula", "Turkey", "lithosphere", "orbital eccentricity", "igneous rock", "India", "Slovakia", "Mount Fogo", "Luzon", "sinkhole", "Solar System", "New Mexico", "Guaichane-Mamuta", "Henry's Fork Caldera", "Baekdu Mountain", "Hawaii (island)", "aerial view", "Changbai Mountains", "Azores", "California", "Spanish language", "northwestern Ontario", "Ganymede (moon)", "Bali", "Mount Bromo", "anthropologist", "Chaitén (volcano)", "Italy", "Piton de la Fournaise", "Lake Ohakuri", "Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex", "Tidal force", "Aira Caldera", "Misema Caldera", "Cuicocha", "Reporoa caldera", "Rùm", "Lake Towada", "Grímsvötn", "Akademia Nauk (volcano)", "Golovnin", "Latin", "Aso Caldera", "Puebla", "ore deposit", "Sierra Negra (Galápagos)", "Lake Taupō", "Mount Tehama", "Karymsky (volcano)", "Ecuador", "Lake Toba", "Laguna Caldera", "Era (geology)", "rhyolite", "Long Valley Caldera" ]
7,593	Calculator	An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, was developed by Intel for the Japanese calculator company Busicom. Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of integrated circuits reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators, which include trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional Euclidean space. , basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and interactive BASIC could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s home computers. Calculator functions are included in most smartphones, tablets, and personal digital assistant (PDA) type devices. With the very wide availability of smartphones and the like, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%. ==Design== ===Input=== Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations; some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. ===Display output=== Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output in place of historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent displays (VFD); details are provided in the section Technical improvements. Large-sized figures are often used to improve readability; while using decimal separator (usually a point rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display. Fractions such as are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to . Also, some fractions (such as , which is ; to 14 significant figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or mixed numbers. ===Memory=== Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into computer memory. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in variables. Usually these variables are named ans or ans(0). The variables can also be used for constructing formulas. Some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers; the extended memory address is termed an array index. ===Power source=== Power sources of calculators are batteries, solar cells or mains electricity (for old models), turning on with a switch or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering solar cell exposure, or closing their lid). Crank-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era. ===Key layout=== The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example. The arrangement of digits on calculator and other numeric keypads with the -- keys two rows above the -- keys is derived from calculators and cash registers. It is notably different from the layout of telephone Touch-Tone keypads which have the -- keys on top and -- keys on the third row. ==Internal workings== In general, a basic electronic calculator consists of the following components: Power source (mains electricity, battery and/or solar cell) Keypad (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands (addition, multiplication, square root, etc.) Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. Liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), and light-emitting diode (LED) displays use seven segments to represent each digit in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use dot matrix displays. A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism. Processor chip (microprocessor or central processing unit). Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in clock cycles per second or hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range. ===Example=== A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator: To perform the calculation , one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: . When is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register; Next, when the key is pressed, the "addition" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the status register; The second number is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register; When the key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or status register tells the permanent or non-volatile memory that the operation to be done is "addition"; The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the ALU and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory; The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted by the binary decoder unit into a decimal number (usually binary-coded decimal), and then shown on the display panel. Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions. ====Numeric representation==== Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in binary-coded decimal (BCD) rather than binary. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. (For example, CDs keep the track number in BCD, limiting them to 99 tracks.) The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities. Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or trigonometric functions), software algorithms are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator chip, with acceptable calculation time. ==History== ===Precursors to the electronic calculator=== The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus, known to have been used by Sumerians and Egyptians before 2000 BC. Except for the Antikythera mechanism (an "out of the time" astronomical device), development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century: the geometric-military compass (by Galileo), logarithms and Napier bones (by Napier), and the slide rule (by Edmund Gunter). The Renaissance saw the invention of the mechanical calculator by Wilhelm Schickard in 1623, and later by Blaise Pascal in 1642. A device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four arithmetic operations with minimal human intervention. Pascal's calculator could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known inventor of a calculating machine due to the differences (like the different aims) of both inventions. Schickard and Pascal were followed by Gottfried Leibniz who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the stepped reckoner, inventing in the process his leibniz wheel, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine. There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century. The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by Poleni with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always one of a kind. Luigi Torchi invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822). It was not until the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern units possible. The Arithmometer, invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers. It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the United States. In 1921, Edith Clarke invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graph-based calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for inductance and capacitance in power transmission lines. The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable item. ===Development of electronic calculators=== The first mainframe computers, initially using vacuum tubes and later transistors in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. Electronic circuits developed for computers also had application to electronic calculators. The Casio Computer Company, in Japan, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on relay technology, and was built into a desk. The IBM 608 plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957; this was a console type system, with input and output on punched cards, and replaced the earlier, larger, vacuum-tube IBM 603. In October 1961, the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator, the British Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA (A New Inspiration To Arithmetic/Accounting) was announced. This machine used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie" tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical comptometers of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later Sharp CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly due to its large tube system. Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British Pilot ACE computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a cathode-ray tube (CRT), and introduced Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: Sharp introduced the CS-10A, which weighed and cost 500,000 yen ($), and Industria Macchine Elettroniche of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The Victor 3900 was the first to use integrated circuits in place of individual transistors, but production problems delayed sales until 1966. There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including Canon, Mathatronics, Olivetti, SCM (Smith-Corona-Marchant), Sony, Toshiba, and Wang. The early calculators used hundreds of germanium transistors, which were cheaper than silicon transistors, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were CRT, cold-cathode Nixie tubes, and filament lamps. Memory technology was usually based on the delay-line memory or the magnetic-core memory, though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of dynamic RAM built from discrete components. Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines. Bulgaria's ELKA 6521, introduced in 1965, was developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika factory in Sofia. The name derives from ELektronen KAlkulator, and it weighed around . It is the first calculator in the world which includes the square root function. Later that same year were released the ELKA 22 (with a luminescent display) and the ELKA 25, with an built-in printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, the ELKA 101, was released in 1974. The writing on it was in Roman script, and it was exported to western countries. ====Programmable calculators==== The first desktop programmable calculators were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the Mathatronics Mathatron (1964) and the Olivetti Programma 101 (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators. Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards. The Monroe Epic programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it could be programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only branch instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any conditional branch (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer. The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator ISKRA 123, powered by the power grid, was released at the start of the 1970s. ===1970s to mid-1980s=== The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of transistors on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer integrated circuits (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of semiconductor development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in large scale integration (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. semiconductor companies: Canon Inc. with Texas Instruments, Hayakawa Electric (later renamed Sharp Corporation) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed Rockwell International), Busicom with Mostek and Intel, and General Instrument with Sanyo. ===Pocket calculators=== alt=A person's hand is holding a small, metallic cylinder with a crank sticking out. \|thumb\|[[curta\|The first pocket calculator used a crank instead of electronics. The Curta remained the finest pocket calculator available for a quarter of a century. By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called Cal Tech, whose development was led by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators. The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development from the "Cal-Tech" project. It had no traditional display; numerical output was on thermal paper tape. Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed 1.59 pounds (721 grams), had a vacuum fluorescent display, rechargeable NiCad batteries, and initially sold for US$395. However, integrated circuit development efforts culminated in early 1971 with the introduction of the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 by Mostek, followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very costly, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the vacuum fluorescent display, LED, and LCD), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. In 1971, Pico Electronics and General Instrument also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a full single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning handheld calculator market. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971. Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the Mostek MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures . The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800 was made in May 1971 by Digitron in Buje, Croatia (former Yugoslavia) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed The Bowmar Brain), measuring , came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for , while in August 1972 the four-function Sinclair Executive became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring and weighing . It retailed for around £79 ( at the time). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($). Following protracted development over the course of two years including a botched partnership with Texas Instruments, Eldorado Electrodata released five pocket calculators in 1972. One called the Touch Magic was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" according to Administrative Management. The first Soviet Union made pocket-sized calculator, the Elektronika B3-04 was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974. One of the first low-cost calculators was the Sinclair Cambridge, launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95 ($), or £5 ($) less in kit form, and later models included some scientific functions. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design led to slow and less accurate computations of transcendental functions (maximum three decimal places of accuracy). ===Scientific pocket calculators=== Meanwhile, Hewlett-Packard (HP) had been developing a pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972, it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with scientific functions that could replace a slide rule. The $395 HP-35, along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, uses reverse Polish notation (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing , , , and ; instead of the algebraic infix notation: , , , . It had 35 buttons and was based on Mostek Mk6020 chip. The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975. In 1973, Texas Instruments (TI) introduced the SR-10, (SR signifying slide rule) an algebraic entry pocket calculator using scientific notation for $150. Shortly after the SR-11 featured an added key for entering pi (π). It was followed the next year by the SR-50 which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed TI-30 line which is still produced. In 1978, a new company, Calculated Industries arose which focused on specialized markets. Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called the Construction Master which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators. File:Calculator Adler 81S.jpg\|Adler 81S pocket calculator with vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) from the mid-1970s. File:Casio cm602.jpg\|The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s. File:SinclairExecutive-01.jpg\|The 1972 Sinclair Executive pocket calculator. File:Hp-35 1972.jpg\|The HP-35, the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972). File:Canon Pocketronic.jpg\|Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971). ====Programmable pocket calculators==== The first programmable pocket calculator was the HP-65, in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later the HP-25C introduced continuous memory, i.e., programs and data were retained in CMOS memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable calculator, the HP-41C. It could be expanded with random-access memory (RAM, for memory) and read-only memory (ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals like bar code readers, microcassette and floppy disk drives, paper-roll thermal printers, and miscellaneous communication interfaces (RS-232, HP-IL, HP-IB). The first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, Elektronika B3-21, was developed by the end of 1976 and released at the start of 1977. The successor of B3-21, the Elektronika B3-34 wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the reverse Polish notation (RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators. Despite very limited abilities (98 bytes of instruction memory and about 19 stack and addressable registers), people managed to write all kinds of programs for them, including adventure games and libraries of calculus-related functions for engineers. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of programs were written for these machines, from practical scientific and business software, which were used in real-life offices and labs, to fun games for children. The Elektronika MK-52 calculator (using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal EEPROM memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery) was used in Soviet spacecraft program (for Soyuz TM-7 flight) as a backup of the board computer. This series of calculators was also noted for a large number of highly counter-intuitive mysterious undocumented features, somewhat similar to "synthetic programming" of the American HP-41, which were exploited by applying normal arithmetic operations to error messages, jumping to nonexistent addresses and other methods. A number of respected monthly publications, including the popular science magazine Nauka i Zhizn (Наука и жизнь, Science and Life), featured special columns, dedicated to optimization methods for calculator programmers and updates on undocumented features for hackers, which grew into a whole esoteric science with many branches, named "yeggogology" ("еггогология"). The error messages on those calculators appear as a Russian word "YEGGOG" ("ЕГГОГ") which, unsurprisingly, is translated to "Error". A similar hacker culture in the US revolved around the HP-41, which was also noted for a large number of undocumented features and was much more powerful than B3-34. ====Technical improvements==== Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development. The red LED and blue/green vacuum fluorescent displays consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an LED display, and announced the Busicom LC with LCD. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by Rockwell International and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking LC-800, Harden DT/12, Ibico 086, Lloyds 40, Lloyds 100, Prismatic 500 (a.k.a. P500), Rapid Data Rapidman 1208LC. The LCDs were an early form using the Dynamic Scattering Mode DSM with the numbers appearing as bright against a dark background. To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or two. A more successful series of calculators using a reflective DSM-LCD was launched in 1972 by Sharp Inc with the Sharp EL-805, which was a slim pocket calculator. This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology. An extension of one glass plate needed for the liquid crystal display was used as a substrate to mount the needed chips based on a new hybrid technology. The COS technology may have been too costly since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards. In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with field-effect, twisted nematic (TN) LCDs with dark numerals against a grey background, though the early ones often had a yellow filter over them to cut out damaging ultraviolet rays. The advantage of LCDs is that they are passive light modulators reflecting light, which require much less power than light-emitting displays such as LEDs or VFDs. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the Casio Mini Card LC-78 of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells. There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first "calculator on a chip" integrated circuits (ICs) in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s. The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of CMOS technology. Appearing in the Sharp "EL-801" in 1972, the transistors in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any appreciable power when they changed state. The LED and VFD displays often required added driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCDs were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself. With this low power consumption came the possibility of using solar cells as the power source, realised around 1978 by calculators such as the Royal Solar 1, Sharp EL-8026, and Teal Photon. File:CasioFX20-inside.jpg\|The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by NEC (marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like capacitors and resistors and the IC are mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source. File:Sharp el-323 ic 1ae.jpg\|The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two button cells. File:Casio fx-992VB interior both aa1.JPG\|Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the chip. File:Citizen se-733 int 1ac.jpg\|The interior of a newer () pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark epoxy. ====Mass-market phase==== At the start of the 1970s, hand-held electronic calculators were very costly, at two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item. The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were costly to produce, and production runs that were too small to exploit economies of scale. Many firms saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on such high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production methods improved, and the effect of economies of scale was felt. By 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20 of the cost five years before. The results of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit from calculators, leading to many firms dropping out of the business or closing. The firms that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators. ===Mid-1980s to present=== The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the HP-28C, released in 1987. It could, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first graphing calculator was the Casio fx-7000G released in 1985. The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a handheld computer was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the TI-89, the Voyage 200 and HP-49G could differentiate and integrate functions, solve differential equations, run word processing and PIM software, and connect by wire or IR to other calculators/computers. The HP 12c financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the reverse Polish notation mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry. Calculated Industries competed with the HP 12c in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the "I", "PV", "FV" to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the reverse Polish notation. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman, a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present. ==Use in education== In most countries, students use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or elementary arithmetic skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations in the head, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching estimation methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Others have argued that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. In December 2011 the UK's Minister of State for Schools, Nick Gibb, voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators. As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the Curriculum. ==Personal computers== Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the graphical user interface to portray a calculator. Examples include the Windows Calculator, Apple's Calculator, and KDE's KCalc. Most personal data assistants (PDAs) and smartphones also have such a feature. ==Calculators compared to computers== The fundamental difference between a calculator and computer is that a computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take different branches according to intermediate results, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as addition, multiplication, and logarithms) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as programmable calculators have programming functions, sometimes with support for programming languages (such as RPL or TI-BASIC). For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point mathematics with code in read-only memory (ROM), and compute trigonometric functions with the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market.	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R. Stibitz", "scientific notation", "Sharp Inc", "TI-92 series", "Instruction (computer science)", "operating system", "UK", "Comparison of HP graphing calculators", "elementary arithmetic", "Reverse Polish Notation", "Galileo", "Polling (computer science)", "TI SR-11", "transistor", "Nauka i Zhizn", "Software calculator", "binary code", "counting board", "personal data assistant", "Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators", "Arithmometer", "multiplication", "printed circuit board", "Nick Gibb", "ISO/IEC 7810", "numeric keypad", "personal digital assistant", "Binary decoder", "trigonometric functions", "computer memory", "power transmission lines", "magnetic-core memory", "Soviet Union", "General Instrument", "TI-89", "Mathatronics Mathatron", "programming language", "Victor 3900", "tablet computer", "Serial communication", "RS-232", "IBM 603", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "non-volatile memory", "computer algebra", "Napier bones", "Roman script", "percentage", "mainframe computer", "vulgar fraction", "Elektronika B3-34", "HP calculators", "relay", "Sharp QT-8B", "HP-41", "Calculator (Apple)", "NiCad", "Friden, Inc.", "Dekatron", "filament lamp", "Bipolar junction transistor", "HP-IB", "Sony", "Photomath", "The Guardian", "Intel 4004", "abacus", "Mostek", "Function (mathematics)", "Personal information manager", "Graphing calculator", "Science (journal)", "Hayakawa Electric", "Industria Macchine Elettroniche", "HP-49G", "infrared", "Chipset", "Z80", "trigonometric", "addition", "Giovanni Poleni", "electric battery", "KCalc", "memory address", "Computer program", "Japan", "History of computing hardware", "Calculator spelling", "smartphone", "Battery (electricity)", "Texas Instruments", "economies of scale", "British Computer Society", "binary-coded decimal", "vacuum fluorescent display", "mixed number", "Seven-segment display", "Curta", "ARM architecture family", "Mathatronics", "seven-segment display", "random-access memory", "Approximation", "mechanical calculator", "USSR", "Programma 101", "Scientific calculator", "Canon (company)", "semiconductor", "word processing", "Addition", "Antikythera mechanism", "Hewlett-Packard", "BASIC", "Sofia", "Monroe Epic", "adventure game", "Bell Laboratories", "Olivetti", "Eldorado Electrodata", "Luigi Torchi", "Industrial Revolution", "Push-button", "Flag register", "ISKRA 123", "solid-state electronic", "United States", "Practical Electronics", "nickel-cadmium batteries", "decimal separator", "Arithmetic logic unit", "light-emitting diode", "Euclidean space", "Hertz", "thermal printer", "Slide rule", "examinations", "Croatia", "comma", "HP 12c", "National Council of Teachers of Mathematics", "Digitron (company)", "comptometer", "Electronics", "conditional branch", "Texas Monthly", "statistical", "Computer memory", "switch", "handheld computer", "Vacuum fluorescent display", "dot matrix", "Computer keyboard", "Operation (mathematics)", "infix notation", "Percent", "calculating machine", "trigonometry", "slide rule", "number", "National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)", "status register", "Binary number", "Fractions", "Boolean algebra", "hertz", "Telephone keypad", "Decimal point", "SCM Corporation", "liquid-crystal display", "Sanyo", "epoxy", "IEEE", "graphing calculator", "solar cell", "John Napier", "mains electricity", "Windows Calculator", "Pascal's calculator", "approximation", "dynamic RAM", "synthetic programming", "RAM", "Command (computing)", "Pico Electronics", "formula", "Multiplication", "Casio", "delay-line memory", "Binary-coded decimal", "ultraviolet", "pi", "Mechanical calculator", "integrated circuit", "Canon Inc.", "Sinclair Executive", "NEC", "leibniz wheel", "calculation", "trigonometric function", "variable (mathematics)", "Sharp EL-8", "Square root", "New Scientist", "kilohertz", "nixie tube", "Processor register", "HP-IL", "Joint Council for Qualifications", "array data structure", "Department for Education", "Elektronika", "Edith Clarke", "decimal", "cash register", "keypad", "resistor", "TI SR-10", "HP-35", "Toshiba", "HP-25C", "Google Books", "Sumlock ANITA calculator", "algorithm", "bit parallel", "Ancient UNIX", "lid", "Ohio State University", "differential equation", "American Heritage of Invention & Technology", "Intel", "Edmund Gunter", "Computer programming", "Division (mathematics)", "IBM 608", "student", "ELKA 101", "derivative", "Pilot ACE", "Subtraction", "floating point", "TI-30", "Keypad", "Blaise Pascal", "square root", "Branch (computer science)", "vacuum tube", "capacitance", "microcassette", "computer", "TI SR-50", "Ancient Egypt", "Liquid-crystal display", "scientific calculator", "stepped reckoner", "Crank (mechanism)", "transcendental function", "central processing unit", "microprocessor", "Elektronika MK-52", "CMOS", "function (mathematics)", "Numerical digit", "mathematics", "MC68000" ]
7,594	Cash register	A cash register, sometimes called a till or automated money handling system, is a mechanical or electronic device for registering and calculating transactions at a point of sale. It is usually attached to a drawer for storing cash and other valuables. A modern cash register is usually attached to a printer that can print out receipts for record-keeping purposes. ==History== An early mechanical cash register was invented by James Ritty and John Birch following the American Civil War. James was the owner of a saloon in Dayton, Ohio, US, and wanted to stop employees from pilfering his profits. The Ritty Model I was invented in 1879 after seeing a tool that counted the revolutions of the propeller on a steamship. With the help of James' brother John Ritty, they patented it in 1879. It was called Ritty's Incorruptible Cashier and it was invented to stop cashiers from pilfering and eliminate employee theft and embezzlement. Early mechanical registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the total key was pushed, the drawer opened and a bell would ring, alerting the manager to a sale taking place. Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines. For example, the Rittys’ patent application filed in 1879 for their “improved cash register” describes the device as follows: “The machine consists, essentially, of an inclosed case or frame provided with an index dial and indicator operated by a system of levers or keys and connected with a series of co-operating disks marked with numbers on their peripheries, a row of which numbers are disclosed by a transverse opening or openings in the case to show at a glance the sum-total of cash receipts.” Since the registration is done with the process of returning change, according to Bill Bryson odd pricing came about because by charging odd amounts like 49 and 99 cents (or 45 and 95 cents when nickels are more used than pennies), the cashier very probably had to open the till for the penny change and thus announce the sale. Shortly after the patent, Ritty became overwhelmed with the responsibilities of running two businesses, so he sold all of his interests in the cash register business to Jacob H. Eckert of Cincinnati, a china and glassware salesman, who formed the National Manufacturing Company. In 1884 Eckert sold the company to John H. Patterson, who renamed the company the National Cash Register Company and improved the cash register by adding a paper roll to record sales transactions, thereby creating the journal for internal bookkeeping purposes, and the receipt for external bookkeeping purposes. The original purpose of the receipt was enhanced fraud protection. The business owner could read the receipts to ensure that cashiers charged customers the correct amount for each transaction and did not embezzle the cash drawer. It also prevents a customer from defrauding the business by falsely claiming receipt of a lesser amount of change or a transaction that never happened in the first place. The first evidence of an actual cash register was used in Coalton, Ohio, at the old mining company. In 1906, while working at the National Cash Register company, inventor Charles F. Kettering designed a cash register with an electric motor. A leading designer, builder, manufacturer, seller and exporter of cash registers from the 1950s until the 1970s was London-based (and later Brighton-based) Gross Cash Registers Ltd., founded by brothers Sam and Henry Gross. Their cash registers were particularly popular around the time of decimalisation in Britain in early 1971, Henry having designed one of the few known models of cash register which could switch currencies from £sd to £p so that retailers could easily change from one to the other on or after Decimal Day. Sweda also had decimal-ready registers where the retailer used a special key on Decimal Day for the conversion. ==In current use== In some jurisdictions the law also requires customers to collect the receipt and keep it at least for a short while after leaving the shop, again to check that the shop records sales, so that it cannot evade sales taxes. Often cash registers are attached to scales, barcode scanners, checkstands, and debit card or credit card terminals. Increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose computers with POS software. Today, point of sale systems scan the barcode (usually EAN or UPC) for each item, retrieve the price from a database, calculate deductions for items on sale (or, in British retail terminology, "special offer", "multibuy" or "buy one, get one free"), calculate the sales tax or VAT, calculate differential rates for preferred customers, actualize inventory, time and date stamp the transaction, record the transaction in detail including each item purchased, record the method of payment, keep totals for each product or type of product sold as well as total sales for specified periods, and do other tasks as well. These POS terminals will often also identify the cashier on the receipt, and carry additional information or offers. Currently, many cash registers are individual computers. They may be running traditionally in-house software or general purpose software such as DOS. Many of the newer ones have touch screens. They may be connected to computerized point of sale networks using any type of protocol. Such systems may be accessed remotely for the purpose of obtaining records or troubleshooting. Many businesses also use tablet computers as cash registers, utilizing the sale system as downloadable app-software. ===Cash drawer=== A cash drawer is usually a compartment underneath a cash register in which the cash from transactions is kept. The drawer typically contains a removable till. The till is usually a plastic or wooden tray divided into compartments used to store each denomination of bank notes and coins separately in order to make counting easier. The removable till allows money to be removed from the sales floor to a more secure location for counting and creating bank deposits. Some modern cash drawers are individual units separate from the rest of the cash register. A cash drawer is usually of strong construction and may be integral with the register or a separate piece that the register sits atop. It slides in and out of its lockable box and is secured by a spring-loaded catch. When a transaction that involves cash is completed, the register sends an electrical impulse to a solenoid to release the catch and open the drawer. Cash drawers that are integral to a stand-alone register often have a manual release catch underneath to open the drawer in the event of a power failure. More advanced cash drawers have eliminated the manual release in favor of a cylinder lock, requiring a key to manually open the drawer. The cylinder lock usually has several positions: locked, unlocked, online (will open if an impulse is given), and release. The release position is an intermittent position with a spring to push the cylinder back to the unlocked position. In the "locked" position, the drawer will remain latched even when an electric impulse is sent to the solenoid. Some cash drawers are designed to store notes upright & facing forward, instead of the traditional flat and front to back position. This allows more varieties of notes to be stored. Some cash drawers are flip top in design, where they flip open instead of sliding out like an ordinary drawer, resembling a cashbox instead. A cash register's drawer can only be opened by an instruction from the cash register except when using special keys, generally held by the owner and some employees (e.g. manager). This reduces the amount of contact most employees have with cash and other valuables. It also reduces risks of an employee taking money from the drawer without a record and the owner's consent, such as when a customer does not expressly ask for a receipt but still has to be given change (cash is more easily checked against recorded sales than inventory). Cash registers include a key labeled "No Sale", abbreviated "NS" on many modern electronic cash registers. Its function is to open the drawer, printing a receipt stating "No Sale" and recording in the register log that the register was opened. Some cash registers require a numeric password or physical key to be used when attempting to open the till. ===Management functions=== An often used non-sale function is the aforementioned "no sale". In case of needing to correct change given to the customer, or to make change from a neighboring register, this function will open the cash drawer of the register. Where non-management staff are given access, management can scrutinize the count of "no sales" in the log to look for suspicious patterns. Generally requiring a management key, besides programming prices into the register, are the report functions. An X-report will read the current sales figures from memory and produce a paper printout. A Z-report will act like an "X" report, except that counters will be reset to zero. ===Manual input=== Registers will typically feature a numerical pad, QWERTY or custom keyboard, touch screen interface, or a combination of these input methods for the cashier to enter products and fees by hand and access information necessary to complete the sale. For older registers as well as at restaurants and other establishments that do not sell barcoded items, the manual input may be the only method of interacting with the register. While customization was previously limited to larger chains that could afford to have physical keyboards custom-built for their needs, the customization of register inputs is now more widespread with the use of touch screens that can display a variety of point of sale software. ===Scanner=== Modern cash registers may be connected to a handheld or stationary barcode reader so that a customer's purchases can be more rapidly scanned than would be possible by keying numbers into the register by hand. The use of scanners should also help prevent errors that result from manually entering the product's barcode or pricing. At grocers, the register's scanner may be combined with a scale for measuring product that is sold by weight. ===Receipt printer=== Cashiers are often required to provide a receipt to the customer after a purchase has been made. Registers typically use thermal printers to print receipts, although older dot matrix printers are still in use at some retailers. Alternatively, retailers can forgo issuing paper receipts in some jurisdictions by instead asking the customer for an email to which their receipt can be sent. The receipts of larger retailers tend to include unique barcodes or other information identifying the transaction so that the receipt can be scanned to facilitate returns or other customer services. ===Security deactivation=== In stores that use electronic article surveillance, a pad or other surface will be attached to the register that deactivates security devices embedded in or attached to the items being purchased. This will prevent a customer's purchase from setting off security alarms at the store's exit. ===Remote peripherals=== In settings like a restaurant, remote pheripherals are sometimes used to speed up processing of orders. These include printers or screens in the kitchen to show staff the incoming orders. Waiters often use mobile devices like phones or tablets connected to a central cash register to takes orders and can use small, mobile bluetooth printers to print receipts directly at the table. ==Self-service cash register== Some corporations and supermarkets have introduced self-checkout machines, where the customer is trusted to scan the barcodes (or manually identify uncoded items like fruit), and place the items into a bagging area. The bag is weighed, and the machine halts the checkout when the weight of something in the bag does not match the weight in the inventory database. Normally, an employee is watching over several such checkouts to prevent theft or exploitation of the machines' weaknesses (for example, intentional misidentification of expensive produce or dry goods). Payment on these machines is accepted by debit card/credit card, or cash via coin slot and bank note scanner. Store employees are also needed to authorize "age-restricted" purchases, such as alcohol, solvents or knives, which can either be done remotely by the employee observing the self-checkout, or by means of a "store login" which the operator has to enter. ==Gallery==	[ "Nové Město nad Metují", "Russia", "phones", "Bill Bryson", "thermal printing", "National Museum of American History", "Nickel (United States coin)", "Ohio", "Houston", "key (lock)", "centime", "Z-report", "barcode", "VAT", "Bar (establishment)", "inventory", "IBM", "Cash register", "weighing scale", "tablet computer", "Dot matrix printing", "Theft", "Kota Damansara", "Brighton", "NCR Corporation", "Malaysia", "computer", "barcode reader", "electronic article surveillance", "supermarket", "embezzlement", "Charles F. Kettering", "receipts", "decimal day", "buy one, get one free", "point of sale", "sales tax", "Texas", "The Wall Street Journal", "Waiters", "Universal Product Code", "database", "Bill validator", "Point of sale display", "BBC", "debit card", "pennies", "British Columbia", "National Cash Register", "tax evasion", "restaurant", "odd pricing", "London", "£sd", "European Article Number", "American Civil War", "DOS", "Credit card terminal", "bluetooth", "EFTPOS", "decimalisation", "James Ritty", "Tablet computer", "Severodvinsk", "cash", "checkstand", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "credit card", "Point of sale", "receipt", "QWERTY", "barcode scanner", "General journal", "X-report", "bookkeeping", "Dayton, Ohio" ]
7,595	Chronometer	Chronometer is a name for certain types of clock. It may refer to: Chronomètre of Loulié, a precursor to the metronome Chronometer watch, a highly accurate watch Marine chronometer, a timekeeper used for marine navigation, as in Longitude by chronometer Observatory chronometer, a device certified by an observatory to be extremely accurate Railroad chronometer, a specialized timepiece once used for safe operation of trains	[ "Chronograph", "Longitude by chronometer", "Observatory chronometer", "Chronoscope", "Hydrochronometer", "Chronometer watch", "clock", "Marine chronometer", "Railroad chronometer", "Chronomètre of Loulié", "Chronometry" ]
7,597	Processor design	Processor design is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering (fabrication) that deals with creating a processor, a key component of computer hardware. The design process involves choosing an instruction set and a certain execution paradigm (e.g. VLIW or RISC) and results in a microarchitecture, which might be described in e.g. VHDL or Verilog. For microprocessor design, this description is then manufactured employing some of the various semiconductor device fabrication processes, resulting in a die which is bonded onto a chip carrier. This chip carrier is then soldered onto, or inserted into a socket on, a printed circuit board (PCB). The mode of operation of any processor is the execution of lists of instructions. Instructions typically include those to compute or manipulate data values using registers, change or retrieve values in read/write memory, perform relational tests between data values and to control program flow. Processor designs are often tested and validated on one or several FPGAs before sending the design of the processor to a foundry for semiconductor fabrication. == Details == === Basics === CPU design is divided into multiple components. Information is transferred through datapaths (such as ALUs and pipelines). These datapaths are controlled through logic by control units. Memory components include register files and caches to retain information, or certain actions. Clock circuitry maintains internal rhythms and timing through clock drivers, PLLs, and clock distribution networks. Pad transceiver circuitry with allows signals to be received and sent and a logic gate cell library which is used to implement the logic. Logic gates are the foundation for processor design as they are used to implement most of the processor's components. CPUs designed for high-performance markets might require custom (optimized or application specific (see below)) designs for each of these items to achieve frequency, power-dissipation, and chip-area goals whereas CPUs designed for lower performance markets might lessen the implementation burden by acquiring some of these items by purchasing them as intellectual property. Control logic implementation techniques (logic synthesis using CAD tools) can be used to implement datapaths, register files, and clocks. Common logic styles used in CPU design include unstructured random logic, finite-state machines, microprogramming (common from 1965 to 1985), and Programmable logic arrays (common in the 1980s, no longer common). === Implementation logic === Device types used to implement the logic include: Individual vacuum tubes, individual transistors and semiconductor diodes, and transistor-transistor logic small-scale integration logic chips – no longer used for CPUs Programmable array logic and programmable logic devices – no longer used for CPUs Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) gate arrays – no longer common CMOS gate arrays – no longer used for CPUs CMOS mass-produced ICs – the vast majority of CPUs by volume CMOS ASICs – only for a minority of special applications due to expense Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) – common for soft microprocessors, and more or less required for reconfigurable computing A CPU design project generally has these major tasks: Programmer-visible instruction set architecture, which can be implemented by a variety of microarchitectures Architectural study and performance modeling in ANSI C/C++ or SystemC High-level synthesis (HLS) or register transfer level (RTL, e.g. logic) implementation RTL verification Circuit design of speed critical components (caches, registers, ALUs) Logic synthesis or logic-gate-level design Timing analysis to confirm that all logic and circuits will run at the specified operating frequency Physical design including floorplanning, place and route of logic gates Checking that RTL, gate-level, transistor-level and physical-level representations are equivalent Checks for signal integrity, chip manufacturability Re-designing a CPU core to a smaller die area helps to shrink everything (a "photomask shrink"), resulting in the same number of transistors on a smaller die. It improves performance (smaller transistors switch faster), reduces power (smaller wires have less parasitic capacitance) and reduces cost (more CPUs fit on the same wafer of silicon). Releasing a CPU on the same size die, but with a smaller CPU core, keeps the cost about the same but allows higher levels of integration within one very-large-scale integration chip (additional cache, multiple CPUs or other components), improving performance and reducing overall system cost. As with most complex electronic designs, the logic verification effort (proving that the design does not have bugs) now dominates the project schedule of a CPU. Key CPU architectural innovations include index register, cache, virtual memory, instruction pipelining, superscalar, CISC, RISC, virtual machine, emulators, microprogram, and stack. === Microarchitectural concepts === === Research topics === A variety of new CPU design ideas have been proposed, including reconfigurable logic, clockless CPUs, computational RAM, and optical computing. ===Performance analysis and benchmarking=== Benchmarking is a way of testing CPU speed. Examples include SPECint and SPECfp, developed by Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation, and ConsumerMark developed by the Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark Consortium EEMBC. Some of the commonly used metrics include: Instructions per second - Most consumers pick a computer architecture (normally Intel IA32 architecture) to be able to run a large base of pre-existing pre-compiled software. Being relatively uninformed on computer benchmarks, some of them pick a particular CPU based on operating frequency (see Megahertz Myth). FLOPS - The number of floating point operations per second is often important in selecting computers for scientific computations. Performance per watt - System designers building parallel computers, such as Google, pick CPUs based on their speed per watt of power, because the cost of powering the CPU outweighs the cost of the CPU itself. Some system designers building parallel computers pick CPUs based on the speed per dollar. System designers building real-time computing systems want to guarantee worst-case response. That is easier to do when the CPU has low interrupt latency and when it has deterministic response. (DSP) Computer programmers who program directly in assembly language want a CPU to support a full featured instruction set. Low power - For systems with limited power sources (e.g. solar, batteries, human power). Small size or low weight - for portable embedded systems, systems for spacecraft. Environmental impact - Minimizing environmental impact of computers during manufacturing and recycling as well during use. Reducing waste, reducing hazardous materials. (see Green computing). There may be tradeoffs in optimizing some of these metrics. In particular, many design techniques that make a CPU run faster make the "performance per watt", "performance per dollar", and "deterministic response" much worse, and vice versa. ==Markets== There are several different markets in which CPUs are used. Since each of these markets differ in their requirements for CPUs, the devices designed for one market are in most cases inappropriate for the other markets. ===General-purpose computing=== , in the general-purpose computing market, that is, desktop, laptop, and server computers commonly used in businesses and homes, the Intel IA-32 and the 64-bit version x86-64 architecture dominate the market, with its rivals PowerPC and SPARC maintaining much smaller customer bases. Yearly, hundreds of millions of IA-32 architecture CPUs are used by this market. A growing percentage of these processors are for mobile implementations such as netbooks and laptops. Since these devices are used to run countless different types of programs, these CPU designs are not specifically targeted at one type of application or one function. The demands of being able to run a wide range of programs efficiently has made these CPU designs among the more advanced technically, along with some disadvantages of being relatively costly, and having high power consumption. ====High-end processor economics==== In 1984, most high-performance CPUs required four to five years to develop. ===Scientific computing=== Scientific computing is a much smaller niche market (in revenue and units shipped). It is used in government research labs and universities. Before 1990, CPU design was often done for this market, but mass market CPUs organized into large clusters have proven to be more affordable. The main remaining area of active hardware design and research for scientific computing is for high-speed data transmission systems to connect mass market CPUs. ===Embedded design=== As measured by units shipped, most CPUs are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. Embedded processors sell in the volume of many billions of units per year, however, mostly at much lower price points than that of the general purpose processors. These single-function devices differ from the more familiar general-purpose CPUs in several ways: Low cost is of high importance. It is important to maintain a low power dissipation as embedded devices often have a limited battery life and it is often impractical to include cooling fans. To give lower system cost, peripherals are integrated with the processor on the same silicon chip. Keeping peripherals on-chip also reduces power consumption as external GPIO ports typically require buffering so that they can source or sink the relatively high current loads that are required to maintain a strong signal outside of the chip. Many embedded applications have a limited amount of physical space for circuitry; keeping peripherals on-chip will reduce the space required for the circuit board. The program and data memories are often integrated on the same chip. When the only allowed program memory is ROM, the device is known as a microcontroller. For many embedded applications, interrupt latency will be more critical than in some general-purpose processors. ====Embedded processor economics==== The embedded CPU family with the largest number of total units shipped is the 8051, averaging nearly a billion units per year. The 8051 is widely used because it is very inexpensive. The design time is now roughly zero, because it is widely available as commercial intellectual property. It is now often embedded as a small part of a larger system on a chip. The silicon cost of an 8051 is now as low as US$0.001, because some implementations use as few as 2,200 logic gates and take 0.4730 square millimeters of silicon. As of 2009, more CPUs are produced using the ARM architecture family instruction sets than any other 32-bit instruction set. The ARM architecture and the first ARM chip were designed in about one and a half years and 5 human years of work time. The 32-bit Parallax Propeller microcontroller architecture and the first chip were designed by two people in about 10 human years of work time. The 8-bit AVR architecture and first AVR microcontroller was conceived and designed by two students at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. The 8-bit 6502 architecture and the first MOS Technology 6502 chip were designed in 13 months by a group of about 9 people. ====Research and educational CPU design==== The 32-bit Berkeley RISC I and RISC II processors were mostly designed by a series of students as part of a four quarter sequence of graduate courses. This design became the basis of the commercial SPARC processor design. For about a decade, every student taking the 6.004 class at MIT was part of a team—each team had one semester to design and build a simple 8 bit CPU out of 7400 series integrated circuits. One team of 4 students designed and built a simple 32 bit CPU during that semester. Some undergraduate courses require a team of 2 to 5 students to design, implement, and test a simple CPU in a FPGA in a single 15-week semester. The MultiTitan CPU was designed with 2.5 man years of effort, which was considered "relatively little design effort" at the time. 24 people contributed to the 3.5 year MultiTitan research project, which included designing and building a prototype CPU. ==== Soft microprocessor cores ==== For embedded systems, the highest performance levels are often not needed or desired due to the power consumption requirements. This allows for the use of processors which can be totally implemented by logic synthesis techniques. These synthesized processors can be implemented in a much shorter amount of time, giving quicker time-to-market.	[ "IA32", "parasitic capacitance", "Die (integrated circuit)", "VHDL", "optical computing", "functional verification", "Library (electronics)", "gate array", "time-to-market", "Uncore", "reconfigurable computing", "place and route", "benchmark (computing)", "ARM architecture family", "printed circuit board", "very-large-scale integration", "Performance per watt", "Emitter-coupled logic", "Phase-locked loop", "Register transfer language", "integrated circuit", "Megahertz Myth", "microcontroller", "Digital signal processor", "C++", "Floorplan (microelectronics)", "Logic synthesis", "processor (computing)", "ANSI C", "Read-only memory", "Moore's law", "8051", "Complex instruction set computer", "Microprocessor", "Stack (data structure)", "interrupt latency", "System on a chip", "computational RAM", "Reduced instruction set computer", "Reduced instruction set computing", "computer hardware", "Google search technology", "instruction set architecture", "computer engineering", "Processor register", "programmable logic device", "computer science", "intellectual property", "ZDNet", "SystemC", "Parallax Propeller", "Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation", "Central processing unit", "Arithmetic logic unit", "Verilog", "soft microprocessor", "power consumption", "Integrated circuit", "Computer architecture", "Atmel AVR", "IA-32", "Berkeley RISC", "Minimal instruction set computer", "Static timing analysis", "Green computing", "Programmable array logic", "design rule checking", "History of general-purpose CPUs", "instruction set", "Heterogeneous computing", "x86-64", "semiconductor device fabrication", "datapath", "real-time computing", "Process design kit", "Intel", "logic gate", "EEMBC", "Electronic design automation", "Memory (computing)", "index register", "clock distribution network", "Cache (computing)", "AnandTech", "FLOPS", "Circuit design", "superscalar", "Field-programmable gate array", "Clock signal", "diode", "emulator", "microprogramming", "parallel computing", "PowerPC", "CPU socket", "SPECfp", "Programmable logic array", "High-level synthesis", "Pipeline (computing)", "clockless CPU", "Microarchitecture", "MOS Technology 6502", "Application-specific integrated circuit", "signal integrity", "small-scale integration", "vacuum tube", "Very long instruction word", "NonStop (server computers)", "Amdahl's law", "microprogram", "logic synthesis", "reconfigurable logic", "transistor-transistor logic", "virtual machine", "semiconductor fabrication", "chip carrier", "finite-state machine", "CPU cache", "instruction pipelining", "register file", "register transfer level", "Network on a chip", "microarchitecture", "microprocessor", "CMOS", "Instructions per second", "SPARC", "transistor", "Comparison of instruction set architectures", "virtual memory", "photomask", "control unit", "Integrated circuit design", "7400 series" ]
7,598	Carinatae	Carinatae is the group of all birds and their extinct relatives to possess a keel, or "carina", on the underside of the breastbone used to anchor large flight muscles. ==Definition== Traditionally, Carinatae were defined as all birds whose sternum (breast bone) has a keel (carina). The keel is a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum. This is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles. Thus, all flying birds have a pronounced keel. Ratites, all of which are flightless, lack a strong keel. Thus, living birds were divided into carinatae (keeled) and ratites (from ratis, "raft", referring to the flatness of the sternum). The difficulty with this scheme phylogenetically was that some flightless birds, without strong keels, are descended directly from ordinary flying birds possessing one. Examples include the kākāpō, a flightless parrot, and the dodo, a columbiform (the pigeon family). Neither of these birds are a ratite. Thus, this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use, but had nothing to do with actual phylogenetic relationship. Beginning in the 1980s, Carinatae was given several phylogenetic definitions. The first was as a node-based clade uniting Ichthyornis with modern birds. However, in many analyses, this definition would be synonymous with the more widely used name Ornithurae. An alternate definition was provided in 2001, naming Carinatae an apomorphy-based clade defined by the presence of a keeled sternum. The most primitive known bird relative with a keeled breastbone is Confuciusornis. While some specimens of this stem-bird have flat breastbones, some show a small ridge that could have supported a cartilaginous keel.	[ "kākāpō", "Keel (bird anatomy)", "clade", "parrot", "phylogenetics", "keel (bird)", "dodo", "breastbone", "pigeon", "apomorphy", "Confuciusornis", "Ratite", "sternum", "phylogenetic", "Ichthyornis", "bird", "Paleobiology (journal)", "Ornithurae" ]
7,599	Cocktail	A cocktail is a mixed drink, usually alcoholic. Most commonly, a cocktail is a combination of one or more spirits mixed with other ingredients, such as juices, flavored syrups, tonic water, shrubs, and bitters. Cocktails vary widely across regions of the world, and many websites publish both original recipes and their own interpretations of older and more famous cocktails. == History == A well-known 'cocktail' in ancient Greece was named kykeon. It is mentioned in the Homeric texts and was used in the Eleusinian Mysteries. 'Cocktail' accessories are exposed in the Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Greece). They were used in the court of Philip II of Macedon to prepare and serve mixtures of wine, water, honey as well as extracts of aromatic herbs and flowers, during the banquets. In the United States, a written mention of 'cocktail' as a beverage appeared in The Farmers Cabinet, 1803. The first definition of a cocktail as an alcoholic beverage appeared three years later in The Balance and Columbian Repository (Hudson, New York) May 13, 1806. Traditionally, cocktail ingredients included spirits, sugar, water and bitters; By 2023, the so-called "cocktail in a can" had proliferated (at least in the United States) to become a common item in liquor stores. In the modern world and the Information Age, cocktail recipes are widely shared online on websites. Cocktails and restaurants that serve them are frequently covered and reviewed in tourism magazines and guides. Some cocktails, such as the Mojito, Manhattan, and Martini, have become staples in restaurants and pop culture. == Components == In general terms the most important elements consist of the base, a modifying, smoothing or aromatizing agent, and an additional special flavouring or coloring agent. The base will always be the most dominant ingredient. It constitutes at least 50% of the entire volume of the cocktail, and always consists of spirit based liquors or wine based liquors. The type of base will determine the style of liquor, thus gin based cocktails, such as the Martini, will differ from whisky based cocktails, such as the Manhattan. The modifying agent functions as a buffer for the sharp bite of the base, and adds character to its natural flavour. Modifiers can be classified into the three categories of aromatics and bitters, fruit juices (with or without sugar), and smoothing agents (such as cream, sugar or eggs). Like the modifiers, special care must be taken so that the special flavouring agent does not overpower the base. For this reason quantities are often limited to drops and dashes. When a combined drink contains only a distilled spirit and a mixer, such as soda or fruit juice, it is a highball. Many of the International Bartenders Association Official Cocktails are highballs. When a mixed drink contains only a distilled spirit and a liqueur, it is a duo, and when it adds cream or a cream-based liqueur, it is a trio. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs. Mixed drinks without alcohol that resemble cocktails can be known as "zero-proof" or "virgin" cocktails or "mocktails". == Etymology == The origin of the word "cocktail" is disputed. It is presumably from "cock-tail", meaning "with tail standing up, like a cock's", in particular of a horse, but how this came to be applied to alcoholic mixed drinks is unclear. The most prominent theories are that it refers to a stimulant, hence a stimulating drink, or to a non-purebred horse, hence a mixed drink. Cocktail historian David Wondrich speculates that "cocktail" is a reference to gingering, a practice for perking up an old horse by means of a ginger suppository so that the animal would "cock its tail up and be frisky", hence by extension a stimulating drink, like pick-me-up. This agrees with usage in early citations (1798: "'cock-tail' (vulgarly called ginger)", 1803: drink at 11 a.m. to clear the head, 1806: "stimulating liquor"), and suggests that a cocktail was initially considered a medicinal drink, which accords with the use of bitters. Etymologist Anatoly Liberman endorses as "highly probable" the theory advanced by Låftman (1946), which Liberman summarizes as follows: === Citations === The first recorded use of cocktail not referring to a horse is found in The Morning Post and Gazetteer in London, England, March 20, 1798: The Oxford English Dictionary cites the word as originating in the U.S. The first recorded use of cocktail as a beverage (possibly non-alcoholic) in the United States appears in The Farmer's Cabinet, April 28, 1803: The first definition of cocktail known to be an alcoholic beverage appeared in The Balance and Columbian Repository (Hudson, New York) May 13, 1806; editor Harry Croswell answered the question, "What is a cocktail?": === Folk etymologies === Other origins have been suggested, as corruptions of other words or phrases. These can be dismissed as folk etymologies, given the well-attested term "cock-tail" for a horse. Dale DeGroff hypothesizes that the word evolved from the French , for an eggcup in which Antoine A. Peychaud, creator of Peychaud's Bitters, allegedly used to serve his guests a mix of cognac with a dash of his bitters. Several authors have theorized that "cocktail" may be a corruption of "cock ale". == Development == There is a lack of clarity on the origins of cocktails. Traditionally cocktails were a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters. By the 1860s, however, a cocktail frequently included a liqueur. for "cocktails". A key ingredient distinguishing cocktails from other drinks in this compendium was the use of bitters. Mixed drinks popular today that conform to this original meaning of "cocktail" include the Old Fashioned whiskey cocktail, the Sazerac cocktail, and the Manhattan cocktail. The ingredients listed (spirits, sugar, water, and bitters) match the ingredients of an Old Fashioned, which originated as a term used by late 19th-century bar patrons to distinguish cocktails made the "old-fashioned" way from newer, more complex cocktails. The term highball appears during the 1890s to distinguish a drink composed only of a distilled spirit and a mixer. Published in 1902 by Farrow and Jackson, "Recipes of American and Other Iced Drinks" contains recipes for nearly two dozen cocktails, some still recognizable today. The first "cocktail party" ever thrown was allegedly by Julius S. Walsh Jr. of St. Louis, Missouri, in May 1917. Walsh invited 50 guests to her home at noon on a Sunday. The party lasted an hour until lunch was served at 1p.m. The site of this first cocktail party still stands. In 1924, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis bought the Walsh mansion at 4510 Lindell Boulevard, and it has served as the local archbishop's residence ever since. During Prohibition in the United States (1920–1933), when alcoholic beverages were illegal, cocktails were still consumed illegally in establishments known as speakeasies. The quality of the liquor available during Prohibition was much worse than previously. There was a shift from whiskey to gin, which does not require aging and is, therefore, easier to produce illicitly. Honey, fruit juices, and other flavorings served to mask the foul taste of the inferior liquors. Sweet cocktails were easier to drink quickly, an important consideration when the establishment might be raided at any moment. With wine and beer less readily available, liquor-based cocktails took their place, even becoming the centerpiece of the new cocktail party. Cocktails became less popular in the late 1960s and through the 1970s, until resurging in the 1980s with vodka often substituting for the original gin in drinks such as the martini. Traditional cocktails began to make a comeback in the 2000s, and by the mid-2000s there was a renaissance of cocktail culture in a style typically referred to as mixology that draws on traditional cocktails for inspiration but uses novel ingredients and often complex flavors.	[ "Prohibition in the United States", "St. Louis", "Harry Croswell", "bitters", "Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)", "alcoholic beverage", "Peychaud's Bitters", "liqueur", "List of IBA official cocktails", "Eleusinian Mysteries", "cocktail party", "Walter de Gruyter", "Sazerac", "beer", "gingering", "Martini (cocktail)", "folk etymology", "Manhattan (cocktail)", "University of Chicago Press", "Liquor", "mixed drink", "Anatoly Liberman", "cock ale", "The Daily Telegraph", "Dick & Fitzgerald", "The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks", "Drink mixer", "Oxford University Press", "Carbonated water", "highball", "kykeon", "Philip II of Macedon", "Missouri", "Collins glass", "bartender", "The Wall Street Journal", "vodka", "liquor", "The Museum of the American Cocktail", "Non-alcoholic mixed drink", "Consumer Reports", "grenadine", "List of beverages", "List of cocktails", "Old fashioned (cocktail)", "gin", "tonic water", "Mojito", "flavored syrup", "United States Democratic-Republican Party", "honey", "speakeasy", "Crown Publishing Group", "whiskey", "Hudson, New York", "List of national drinks", "Farrow and Jackson", "cocktail glass", "IBA Official Cocktail", "distilled beverage", "Ten Speed Press", "Jerry Thomas (bartender)", "North America", "Oxford English Dictionary", "HarperCollins", "Shrub (drink)", "Maraschino cherry", "fruit juice", "Language change", "Dale DeGroff", "cream", "Information Age", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis" ]
7,601	Coptic Orthodox Church	The Coptic Orthodox Church (), also known as the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, is an Oriental Orthodox Christian church based in Egypt. The head of the church and the See of Alexandria is the pope of Alexandria on the Holy Apostolic See of Saint Mark, who also carries the title of Father of fathers, Shepherd of shepherds, Ecumenical Judge and the 13th among the Apostles. The See of Alexandria is titular. The Coptic pope presides from Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in the Abbassia District in Cairo. The church follows the Coptic Rite for its liturgy, prayer and devotional patrimony. Adherents of the Coptic Orthodox Church make up Egypt's largest and most significant minority population, and the largest population of Christians in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). They make up the largest share of the approximately 10 million Christians in Egypt. The Coptic Orthodox Church was established by Mark, an apostle and evangelist, during the middle of the 1st century (). Due to disputes concerning the nature of Christ, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Eastern Orthodox Church were in schism after the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, resulting in a conflict with the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. After AD 639, Egypt was ruled by its Islamic conquerors from Arabia. In the 12th century, the church relocated its seat from Alexandria to Cairo. The same century also saw the Copts become a religious minority. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Nubian Christianity was supplanted by Islam. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the larger body of ethnic Egyptian Christians began to call themselves Coptic Orthodox, to distinguish themselves from the Catholic Copts and from the Eastern Orthodox, who are mostly Greek. In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly. This was extended to the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1998 following the successful Eritrean War of Independence from Ethiopia. Since the 2011 Egyptian revolution, Coptic Christians have suffered increased religious discrimination and violence. == History == === Apostolic foundation === According to tradition, the Coptic Church was founded by Mark the Evangelist ; it regards itself as the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. However, most Copts speak Arabic, the official language of Egypt. The theological college of the catechetical school was re-established in 1893. The school became a leading center of the allegorical method of biblical interpretation, espoused rapprochement between Greek culture and the Christian faith, and attempted to assert orthodox Christian teachings against heterodox views in an era of doctrinal flux. ==== Role and participation in the ecumenical councils ==== ==== Council of Nicaea ==== In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. The Council of Nicea in AD 325 was convened by Emperor Constantine I after Pope Alexander I of Alexandria proposed holding a council to respond to heresies. A council under the presidency of Hosius of Cordova attempted to resolve the dispute. This eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the Nicene Creed. ==== Council of Constantinople ==== In AD 381, Pope Timothy I of Alexandria presided over the second ecumenical council known as the First Council of Constantinople, to judge Macedonius, who denied the Divinity of the Holy Spirit. This council completed the Nicene Creed with this confirmation of the divinity of the Holy Spirit: We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen ==== Council of Ephesus ==== Another theological dispute in the 5th century occurred over the teachings of Nestorius, the patriarch of Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not hypostatically joined with human nature, but rather dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be "Mother of Christ" Christotokos. The council confirmed the teachings of Athanasius and confirmed the title of Mary as "Mother of God". It also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is "One Nature for God the Word Incarnate" (Mia Physis tou Theou Logou Sesarkōmenē). The introduction to the creed is formulated as follows: We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God (Theotokos) for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us, Amen. When, in AD 451, Emperor Marcian attempted to heal divisions in the church, the response of Pope Dioscorus–the Pope of Alexandria who was later exiled–was that the emperor should not intervene in the affairs of the church. It was at Chalcedon that the emperor, through the imperial delegates, enforced harsh disciplinary measures against Pope Dioscorus in response to his boldness. In AD 449, Pope Dioscorus headed the 2nd Council of Ephesus, called the "Robber Council" by Chalcedonian historians. It held to the Miaphysite formula which upheld the Christology of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word" (Greek: μία φύσις Θεοῦ Λόγου σεσαρκωμένη (mia physis Theou Logou sesarkōmenē)). By anathematizing Pope Leo because of the tone and content of his tome, as per Alexandrine Theology perception, Pope Dioscorus was found guilty of doing so without due process; in other words, the Tome of Leo was not a subject of heresy in the first place, but it was a question of questioning the reasons behind not having it either acknowledged or read at the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449. Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as a heretic by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending the third congregation of the council from which he was ousted, apparently the result of a conspiracy tailored by the Roman delegates. Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to call the non-Chalcedonians "Monophysites", though the Coptic Orthodox Church in reality regards Monophysitism as a heresy. The Chalcedonian doctrine in turn came to be known as "Dyophysite". A term that comes closer to Coptic Orthodoxy is Miaphysite, which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. === From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt === === Muslim conquest of Egypt === The Muslim invasion of Egypt took place in AD 639. Relying on eyewitness testimony, Bishop John of Nikiu in his Chronicle provides a graphic account of the invasion from a Coptic perspective. Although the Chronicle has only been preserved in an Ethiopic (Ge'ez) text, some scholars believe that it was originally written in Coptic. John's account is critical of the invaders who he says "despoiled the Egyptians of their possessions and dealt cruelly with them", and he details the atrocities committed by the Muslims against the native population during the conquest:And when with great toil and exertion they had cast down the walls of the city, they forthwith made themselves masters of it, and put to the sword thousands of its inhabitants and of the soldiers, and they gained an enormous booty, and took the women and children captive and divided them amongst themselves, and they made that city a desolation. Though critical of the Muslim commander (Amr ibn al-As), who, during the campaign, he says "had no mercy on the Egyptians, and did not observe the covenant they had made with him, for he was of a barbaric race", he does note that following the completion of the conquest, Amr "took none of the property of the Churches, and he committed no act of spoilation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days." Despite the political upheaval, the Egyptian population remained mainly Christian. However, gradual conversions to Islam over the centuries had changed Egypt from a Christian to a largely Muslim country by the end of the 12th century. Another scholar writes that a combination of "repression of Coptic revolts", Arab-Muslim immigration, and Coptic conversion to Islam resulted in the demographic decline of the Copts. Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church. Although the Coptic Church did not disappear, the Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites. === Under Islamic rule (640–1800) === In 969, Egypt entered the Fatimid dynasty (in Egypt from 969 to 1171), who adopted a largely favorable attitude toward the Christians. The major exception to this was the persecution led by Caliph al-Hakim between 1004 and 1013, which included clothing regulations, prohibition of publicly celebrating Christian festivals, and dismissal of Christian and Jewish functionaries. However, at the end of his reign al-Hakim rescinded these measures, allowing the Copts to regain privileged positions within the administration. The Coptic patriarchal residence moved from Alexandria to Cairo during the patriarchate of Cyril II (1078–92). This move was at the demand of the grand vizier Badr al-Jamali, who insisted that the pope establish himself in the capital. In 1798, the French invaded Egypt unsuccessfully and the British helped the Turks to regain power over Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty. === From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution === The position of Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit. In 1855 the jizya tax was abolished by Sa'id Pasha. Shortly thereafter, the Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Coptic Church underwent phases of new development. In 1853, Pope Cyril IV established the first modern Coptic schools, including the first Egyptian school for girls. He also founded a printing press, which was only the second national press in the country. The pope established very friendly relations with other denominations, to the extent that when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time, he left his church under the guidance of the Coptic patriarch. In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox patriarchates of Alexandria agreed to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making re-baptisms unnecessary, and to recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other. In Tahrir Square, Cairo, on Wednesday 2 February 2011, Coptic Christians joined hands to provide a protective cordon around their Muslim neighbors during salat (prayers) in the midst of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. === Modern persecution === While Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history, Human Rights Watch has noted growing religious intolerance and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, and a failure by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible. More than a hundred Egyptian copts were killed in sectarian clashes from 2011 to 2017, and many homes and businesses destroyed. In Minya, 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and 2016 were documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights. Coptic Christian women and girls are often abducted and disappear. In 2015, 21 men traveled to Libya to support their families. There, they would be kidnapped and beheaded by the Islamic State in Libya. === Recent church reforms === Under Pope Shenouda III, from 1971 to 2012, the church underwent a large transformation. Writing in 2013, the theologian Samuel Tadros stated "Today's Coptic Church as an institution is built solely on his vision". For the first time in its history, the synod codified its internal laws. It also established numerous coptic institutions within and outside of Egypt. Shenouda raised the number of bishops from 26 to 117 and ordained hundreds of priests, which greatly reduced the influence of any one bishop. Shenouda also instituted a yearly meeting of the synod, which greatly expanded the number of laws governing the church. This included instituting church curriculums for the education of new priests, new deacons, and newly weds. For the first time in the Coptic Church's modern history, women could become ordained as deacons. The synod also adopted a model for community development, dramatically increasing the scope of community services provided by the church, including: hospitals, adult literacy schools, orphanages, libraries, and community centres. Much of this work was fuelled by donations from wealthy Coptic industrialists and Copts from abroad. Shenouda also held talks with the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, in an effort to promote ecumenism . Pope Shenouda also increased the Church's involvement in politics, seeing it as a way to advocate for the interest of Copts, during the rise of Islamism in Egypt and increase in terrorist attacks. The president of Egypt, Anwar Sadat ordered that Shenouda be put into exile in a Coptic Monastery far away from Cairo in 1981. This exile was short lived, ending when Sadat was assassinated by Muslim extremists a few months later. Under president Hosni Mubarak, Shenouda continued his political stance and often protested persecution of Copts by leaving Cairo and staying in seclusion, which often caused the regime to quickly address issues. Shenouda's political involvement drew criticism from some church members, including the prominent monk Father Matta El Meskeen. On 17 March 2012, Pope Shenouda died, leaving many Copts mourning and worrying as tensions rose with Muslims. Shenouda constantly met with Muslim leaders in order to create peace, his death resulting in concerns that without his mediation good relations would break down. Many were worried about increased Islamic control of Egypt as the Muslim Brotherhood won 70% of the parliamentary elections. Shenouda's approach to church leadership has, in part, been adopted by the current patriarch. Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria maintains relations with the Egyptian government and other churches. However, while Shenouda was critical of the expanded influence of Protestant teaching and books in Coptic churches, Tawadros has increased ecumenical dialogue with several Protestant churches. Tawadros is a less political figure than his predecessor and has expressed support for the Egyptian government's institutions during crises. In 2020, a woman in Florida accused a former priest of sexual assault when she was a minor. She claimed that he was defrocked in 2014, but continued presenting himself as a priest. In response, the synod issued a public statement disavowing him and instituted anti-abuse measures. Several diocese in North America and Europe, issued statements in support of sexual assault survivors. On 10 May 2023, Pope Tawadros visited the Vatican to celebrate Coptic-Catholic Friendship day and the 50 year anniversary of the meeting between Pope Paul VI and Pope Shenouda III. In this same year Pope Francis announced that the 21 Coptic Martyrs killed by ISIS in Libya in 2015 would be added to the Catholic Roman Martyrology, and Pope Tawadros gifted relics from each of the 21 martyrs to the Vatican. == Fasts, feasts, liturgy and canonical hours == thumb\|right\|200px\|The [[Agpeya is a breviary used in Coptic Orthodox Christianity to pray the canonical hours at seven fixed prayer times of the day, in the eastward direction. Church bells enjoin Christians to pray at these hours. Before praying, they wash their hands and face to be clean before and present their best to God; shoes are removed to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God. During each of the seven fixed prayer times, Coptic Orthodox Christians pray "prostrating three times in the name of the Trinity; at the end of each Psalm … while saying the 'Alleluia';" and 41 times for each of the Kyrie eleisons present in a canonical hour. The Coptic Orthodox Church observes days of ritual purification. However, while meat that still contains blood after cooking is discouraged from being eaten, the Coptic Church does not forbid its members from consuming any particular type of food, unlike in Islam or Judaism. All churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church are designed to face the eastward direction of prayer and efforts are made to remodel churches obtained from other Christian denominations that are not built in this fashion. In Coptic Orthodox Christianity, fasting is defined as going without meat or dairy. With respect to Eucharistic discipline, Coptic Orthodox Christians fast from midnight onwards (or at least nine hours) prior to receiving the sacrament of Holy Communion. Coptic Christmas, which usually falls on January 6 or 7 is a major feast. Other major feasts are Epiphany, Palm Sunday, Easter, Pentecost, Ascension, and Annunciation. These are known in the Coptic world as the Seven Major Feasts. Major feasts are always preceded by fasts. Additionally, the Coptic Orthodox Church also has Seven Minor Feasts: the Circumcision of the Lord, Entrance into the Temple, Entrance into Egypt, Transfiguration, Maundy Thursday, Thomas Sunday, and Great Lent. Furthermore, there are several indigenous feasts of the Theotokos. There are also other feasts commemorating the martyrdom of important saints from Coptic history. == Demographics == Available Egyptian census figures and other third-party survey reports have not reported more than 4 million Coptic Orthodox Christians in Egypt. Egyptian Copts are the biggest Christian community in the Arab world. Estimates of their numbers vary, but generally range between 4.7 and 7.1 million. The majority of them live in Egypt under the jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Since 2006, Egyptian censuses have not reported on religion and church leaders have alleged that Christians were under-counted in government surveys. In 2017, a government owned newspaper Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Copts at 10 to 15% and the membership claimed by the Coptic Orthodox Church is in the range of 20 to 25 million. There are also significant numbers in the diaspora outside Africa in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France, and Germany. The exact number of Egyptian born Coptic Orthodox Christians in the diaspora is hard to determine and is roughly estimated to be close to 1 million. There are between 150,000 and 200,000 adherents in Sudan. == Jurisdiction outside Egypt == Besides Egypt, the Church of Alexandria has jurisdiction over all of Africa. The following autocephalous churches have strong historical ties to the Coptic Orthodox Church. === Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church === Tradition holds that Ethiopia was first evangelized by St. Matthew and St. Bartholomew in the 1st century ce, and the first Ethiopian convert is thought to have been the eunuch in Jerusalem mentioned in The Acts of the Apostles (8:27–40). Ethiopia was further Christianized in the 4th century ce by two men (likely brothers) from Tyre—St. Frumentius. Ever since the conversion of Ezana of Axum to Christianity by Frumentius in 325 AD, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has received its archbishops from the Coptic Orthodox Church. Until the mid-twentieth century, the metropolitans of the Ethiopian church were ethnic Copts. Joseph II consecrated Archbishop Abuna Basilios as the first native head of the Ethiopian Church on 14 January 1951. In 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Abuna Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia. === Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church === Following the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993, the newly independent Eritrean government appealed to Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria for Eritrean Orthodox autocephaly. In 1994, Pope Shenouda ordained Abune Phillipos as first Archbishop of Eritrea. === Episcopal titles === == Administration == The Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria is governed by its Holy Synod, which is headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Under his authority are the metropolitan archbishops, metropolitan bishops, diocesan bishops, patriarchal exarchs, missionary bishops, auxiliary bishops, suffragan bishops, assistant bishops, chorbishops and the patriarchal vicars for the Church of Alexandria.	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7,602	The Family International	The Family International (TFI) is an American religious cult founded in 1968 by David Brandt Berg. The group has gone under a number of different names since its inception, including Teens for Christ, The Children of God (COG), The Family of Love, or simply The Family. A British court case found the group was an authoritarian cult which engaged in the systematic physical and sexual abuse of children, The group has also been accused of targeting vulnerable people. == Overview == According to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, "at its height" the Family movement had "tens of thousands of members, including River and Joaquin Phoenix, Rose McGowan, and Jeremy Spencer". it began a method of evangelism called Flirty Fishing that used sex to "show God's love and mercy" and win converts, resulting in controversy. TFI's founder and prophetic leader, David Berg—who adopted the name "Moses David" while in Laurentide, Canada, and was also referred to "Father David" by members After his death, his widow Karen Zerby became the leader of TFI, taking the titles of "Queen" and "Prophetess". Zerby married Steve Kelly (also known as Peter Amsterdam), an assistant of Berg's whom Berg had handpicked as her "consort". Kelly took the title of "King Peter" and became the face of TFI, speaking in public more often than either Berg or Zerby. There have been multiple allegations of child sexual abuse made by past members. Berg preached a combination of traditional Christian evangelism, with elements popular with the counterculture of the 1960s. There was much "end-of-the-world imagery" found in the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, preaching of impending doom for America and the ineffectiveness of established churches. Berg "urged a return to the early Christian community described in the Bible's Book of Acts, in which believers lived together and shared all," Berg started in 1968 as an evangelical preacher with a following of "born-again hippies" who gathered at a coffeehouse in Huntington Beach, in Orange County, California. In 1969, after having a revelation "that California would be hit by a major earthquake", he left Huntington Beach and "took his followers on the road". In a letter written in January 1972, Berg stated that he was God's prophet for the contemporary world, attempting to further solidify his spiritual authority within the group. Berg's letters also contained public acknowledgement of his own failings and weaknesses, for example, he issued a Mo Letter entitled "My confession -- I was an alcoholic!" (ML #1406 Summer 1982) relating his depression after some of his closest supporters quit in 1978. and by the mid-1970s, it had "colonies" in an estimated 70 countries. Berg reorganized the movement, dismissing "more than 300 leading members after hearing unspecified 'reports of serious misconduct and abuse of their positions." The Family of Love era was characterized by international expansion. After 1978 Flirty Fishing "increased drastically" and became common practice within the group. A Mo Letter from 1980 (ML #999 May 1980) for example was headlined "The Devil Hates Sex! --- But God Loves It!". In some areas flirty fishers used escort agencies to meet potential converts. According to TFI "over 100,000 received God's gift of salvation through Jesus, and some chose to live the life of a disciple and missionary" as a result of Flirty Fishing. === The Family (1982–1994) === According to the Family's official history, the group had "far fewer common standards of conduct" during The Family of Love stage than it had previously. In the late 1980s the group "tightened its standards" "to ensure that all member communities provide a very wholesome environment for all, particularly the children", and changed its name to "The Family". In January 2005, Claire Borowik, a spokesperson for TFI, stated: Due to the fact that our current zero-tolerance policy regarding sexual interaction between adults and underage minors was not in our literature published before 1986, we came to the realization that during a transitional stage of our movement, from 1978 until 1986, there were cases when some minors were subject to sexually inappropriate advances ... This was corrected officially in 1986, when any contact between an adult and minor (any person under 21 years of age) was declared an excommunicable offense. After a 1993 expose in the Los Angeles Times, the group broke "years of virtual silence" and began "inviting reporters and religious scholars" to visit its commune in La Habra, California, where at least a Washington Post journalist (Gustav Niebuhr) found its members to be "a clean-cut bunch, friendly and courteous". At that time The Family claimed to have "about 9,000 members worldwide, with about 750 scattered across the United States". The group emphasized its mainstream Christian opposition to abortion, homosexuality, drugs and drunkenness and its respect for Rev. Billy Graham. which defined the rights and responsibilities of Charter Members and Homes. The Charter also included the Fundamental Family Rules, a summary of rules and guidelines from past TF publications which were still in effect. In the 1994–95 British court case, the Rt. Hon. Lord Justice Alan Ward ruled that the group, including some of its top leaders, had in the past engaged in abusive sexual practices involving minors and had also used severe corporal punishment and sequestration of minors. He found that by 1995 TF had abandoned these practices and concluded that they were a safe environment for children. Nevertheless, he did require that the group cease all corporal punishment of children in the United Kingdom and denounce any of Berg's writings that were "responsible for children in TF having been subjected to sexually inappropriate behaviour". === The Family International (2004–present) === The Love Charter is The Family's set governing document that entails each member's rights, responsibilities and requirements, while the Missionary Member Statutes and Fellow Member Statutes were written for the governance of TFI's Missionary member and Fellow Member circles, respectively. FD Homes were reviewed every six months against a published set of criteria. The Love Charter increased the number of single family homes as well as homes that relied on jobs such as self-employment. ==== Recent teachings ==== TFI's recent teachings are based on beliefs which they term the "new [spiritual] weapons". TFI members believe that they are soldiers in the spiritual war of good versus evil for the souls and hearts of men. ==== Spirit Helpers ==== "Spirit Helpers" include angels, other religious and mythical figures, and departed humans, including celebrities; for example the goddess Aphrodite, the Snowman, Merlin, the Sphinx, Elvis, Marilyn Monroe, Audrey Hepburn, Richard Nixon, and Winston Churchill. ==== The Keys of the Kingdom ==== TFI believes that the Biblical passage "I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatsoever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven" (Matthew 16:19), refers to an increasing amount of spiritual authority that was given to Peter and the early disciples. According to TFI beliefs, this passage refers to keys that were hidden and unused in the centuries that followed, but were again revealed through Karen Zerby as more power to pray and obtain miracles. TFI members call on the various Keys of the Kingdom for extra effect during prayer. The Keys, like most TFI beliefs, were published in magazines that looked like comic-books in order to make them teachable to children. ==== Loving Jesus ==== "Loving Jesus" is a term TFI members use to describe their intimate, sexual relationship with Jesus. TFI describes its "Loving Jesus" teaching as a radical form of bridal theology. They believe the church of followers is Christ's bride, called to love and serve him with wifely fervor; however, this bridal theology is taken further, encouraging members to imagine Jesus is joining them during sexual intercourse and masturbation. Male members are cautioned to visualize themselves as women, in order to avoid a homosexual relationship with Jesus. Many TFI publications, and spirit messages claimed to be from Jesus himself, elaborate this intimate, sexual relation they believe Jesus desires and needs. TFI imagines itself as his special "bride" in graphic poetry, guided visualizations, artwork, and songs. Some TFI literature is not brought into conservative countries for fear it may be classified at customs as pornography. The literature outlining this view of Jesus and his desire for a sexual relationship with believers was edited for younger teens, then further edited for children. == Criticism == The Family has been found liable in a British court, and also criticized by the press and the anti-cult movement. Ex-members have accused the Family's leadership of following "a policy of lying to outsiders", being "steeped in a history of sexual deviance" and even meddling "in Third World politics". The Family replies that it is a victim of "persecution". on their lives in TFI. In 1971, an organization called FREECOG was founded by concerned parents and others, including deprogrammer Ted Patrick to free members of the COG from their involvement in the group. At least one individual growing up in the family (Verity Carter) during the Children of God era described being sexually abused "from the age of four by members of the... cult, including her own father". She blames the philosophy of David Berg, who told members that "God was love and love was sex", so that sex should not be limited by age or relationship. Carter also complains of being "repeatedly beaten and whipped for the smallest of transgressions", being denied "music or television or culture", or other "contact with the outside world", so that she had "no idea how the world worked" other than how to manipulate the "systemites" (outsiders), like social workers. Author Don Lattin interviewed numerous members of the Family for his book Jesus Freaks. In a review of his book, Paul Burgarino describes Berg as "drawing from the remnants of hippie life—people with nothing to lose, nowhere to go, and no Christian background" to alert them to deviations in Berg's preaching. One notable song released in 1985 was Cathy Don't Go, about a woman who goes to the supermarket where customers have barcodes on their hands and foreheads, and who almost gets implanted with a 666 microchip. The cult also created children's shows, with an example being Life With Grandpa, which had characters based on Berg and his family, and featured sexual content alongside Christianity-related life lessons. == Notable members (past and present) == ===Joined in adulthood=== Jeremy Spencer, blues slide guitarist and a founding member of Fleetwood Mac, which he left in 1971 when he joined TFI. ===Raised in the COG and later left=== Christopher Owens: musician, of US indie band Girls, was brought up in TFI by his parents. Rose McGowan: film actress, described her TFI childhood in interviews with Howard Stern, People magazine, and later in her book Brave. River Phoenix, Joaquin Phoenix, Rain Phoenix, Liberty Phoenix, and Summer Phoenix, actors, were members of the group from 1972 to 1978. River Phoenix, who died of a drug overdose in 1993, told Details magazine in November 1991 that "they're ruining people's lives." Susan Justice: American pop rock singer-songwriter and guitarist, known best for her debut self-recorded album, The Subway Recordings. Tina Dupuy: American journalist and syndicated columnist. Ricky Rodriguez: subject of the suppressed manual advocating adult-child sexual contact, committed a murder-suicide in 2005, killing one of the women who raised and allegedly sexually abused him, then himself. Juliana Buhring: first woman to bicycle around the world and co-author of Not Without My Sister along with Celeste and Kristina Jones. Lauren Hough: author of Leaving Isn't the Hardest Thing, brought up in TFI. Flor Edwards, author, who was raised inside the group before her parents moved out. Dawn Watson: victim of sexual abuse while living in a TFI community. raised in the group from age 12 until she left in her 20's with her two children. Bexy Cameron: British child member who left aged 15 and later wrote a book about her experiences. Faith Jones: a lawyer, was raised in the group in Macau before leaving. She wrote about her life in the book Sex Cult Nun. == Autobiographical accounts == Davis, Deborah (Linda Berg) (1984). THE CHILDREN OF GOD: The Inside Story. Zondervan Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan. . Expose by the founder's eldest daughter who left the cult. Expose by a senior member who left after 20+ years. Young was born and raised in The Children of God cult. She's the eldest daughter of a second generation cult member who was 14 when she was impregnated by an older cult member. Hough was born and raised in the Children of God. Her 2021 essay collection is a New York Times Bestseller. == Media featuring the group == The Jesus Trip (1971): a documentary by Denis Tuohy that has interviews with Children of God members. Children of God (1994): a 63-minute Channel 4 documentary by John Smithson; detailing the Padilla family and the abuse of their three underage daughters and the death of another. Children of God: Lost and Found: a 75-minute documentary by Noah Thomson, featured at the 2007 Slamdance Film Festival. Cult Killer: The Rick Rodriguez Story: a 53-minute UK documentary with a transcript. In the first episode of Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends, "Born Again Christians", Louis visits a Texas TFI family. The Parcast Podcast Cults: Episodes 11 and 12. Citizen Rose: A five part documentary series shown on the E! Channel. The first episode premiered on January 30, 2018. The series follows actress Rose McGowan who was born into the cult. The Last Podcast on the Left did a four part series on the cult: Episodes 248-251 Dan Cummins' podcast Timesuck covered the cult in episode 104, "The Children of God Sex Cult". AJJ released a song entitled "Children of God" on their 2014 album Christmas Island. A&E's Cults and Extreme Belief, episode 3 (2018) is about the Children of God.	[ "First disciples of Jesus", "Karen Zerby", "deprogramming", "Richard Nixon", "Ricky Rodriguez", "Marilyn Monroe", "hippies", "Billy Graham", "The Right Honorable", "Merlin", "counterculture of the 1960s", "Girls (band)", "The Last Podcast on the Left", "Channel 4", "Jim Palosaari", "Tina Dupuy", "Book of Acts", "Susan Justice", "Rose McGowan", "Los Angeles Times", "corporal punishment", "Zondervan", "Huntington Beach", "2007 Slamdance Film Festival", "pop music", "Flirty Fishing", "Comet Kohoutek", "Aphrodite", "Fleetwood Mac", "Love bombing", "Not Without My Sister", "Ted Patrick", "Howard Stern", "Orange County, California", "The Daily Telegraph", "bridal theology", "New Testament", "Saint Peter", "excommunication", "Washington Post", "Jeremy Spencer", "Sex, Slander, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God", "music video", "spiritual warfare", "River Phoenix", "Christian and Missionary Alliance", "Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends", "Citizen Rose", "Parcast", "Winston Churchill", "David Brandt Berg", "slide guitar", "Sphinx", "masturbation", "proselytism", "La Habra, California", "Audrey Hepburn", "Elvis", "Christianity", "Panton Hill, Victoria", "Liberty Phoenix", "John Smithson", "cult", "People (American magazine)", "A&E (TV channel)", "Alan Ward (judge)", "murder-suicide", "Esquire (magazine)", "Jesus", "Details (magazine)", "blues", "Cults and Extreme Belief (TV series)", "David Berg", "Dan Cummins", "commune (intentional community)", "missionary", "Joaquin Phoenix", "Juliana Buhring", "apocalypticism", "barcode", "salvation", "microchip", "Christopher Owens", "666 (number)", "The Washington Post", "FREECOG", "anti-cult movement", "conflict between good and evil", "Denis Tuohy", "Summer Phoenix", "Reuters", "child sexual abuse", "sexual intercourse", "evangelism", "The New York Times", "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation", "Book of Revelation", "Rain Phoenix", "Nova Religio", "angel", "AJJ (band)", "physical abuse" ]
7,603	CIT	CIT or cit may refer to: ==Organizations== Center for Information Technology, of the US government CIT Group, an American banking and financial services company Compagnia Italiana Turismo, an Italian travel agency Confederación Interamericana de Trabajadores, an inter-American trade union confederation Conflict Intelligence Team, open-source independent investigative organisation originating from Russia ===Educational institutions=== CIT School, a senior secondary boys' school in Kolkata, West Bengal, India Canadian Institute of Technology, Tirana, Albania Canberra Institute of Technology Carnegie Institute of Technology, the former name for Carnegie Mellon University Cebu Institute of Technology – University, Cebu City, Philippines Central Institute of Technology, a corporate parent of the Wellington Institute of Technology in New Zealand Changchun Institute of Technology, Jilin, China Changshu Institute of Technology, Jiangsu, China Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan Chungyu Institute of Technology, Keelung, Taiwan Coimbatore Institute of Technology, India Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland Chartered Institute of Transport, London California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, California, United States == Places == Çit, Kemaliye Çit, Taşköprü, a village in Turkey ==Science and medicine== Canine infectious tracheobronchitis or "kennel cough" β-CIT ( RTI-55), phenyltropane-based psychostimulant CIT (gene), citron kinase CIT Program Tumor Identity Cards, a programme for characterising tumours Collagen induction therapy, an aesthetic medical procedure ==Transport infrastructure== Chislehurst railway station (National Rail station code CIT) Shymkent International Airport (IATA: CIT) ==Other uses== Cash-in-transit, the physical transfer of banknotes, coins, credit cards and items of value Cit (consciousness), Sanskrit for consciousness or awareness; alternately spelled chit citation Closed inflatable trampoline CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament, in basketball Corporate Income Tax Counselor-in-Training, at a summer camp Crisis intervention training Critical incident technique Customer interaction tracker	[ "Collagen induction therapy", "CIT School", "Chislehurst railway station", "Canadian Institute of Technology", "RTI-55", "Closed inflatable trampoline", "Chiba Institute of Technology", "Cebu Institute of Technology – University", "Compagnia Italiana Turismo", "Crisis intervention training", "Cork Institute of Technology", "Cit (consciousness)", "Çit, Taşköprü", "Chungyu Institute of Technology", "Counselor-in-Training", "CIT Program Tumor Identity Cards", "citation", "California Institute of Technology", "Çit, Kemaliye", "Carnegie Mellon University", "CIT (gene)", "Cash-in-transit", "Canine infectious tracheobronchitis", "Conflict Intelligence Team", "Changchun Institute of Technology", "Shymkent International Airport", "Confederación Interamericana de Trabajadores", "Wellington Institute of Technology", "Critical incident technique", "Chartered Institute of Transport", "CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament", "Corporate tax", "CIT Group", "Center for Information Technology", "Changshu Institute of Technology", "Canberra Institute of Technology", "Coimbatore Institute of Technology" ]
7,604	Code of Hammurabi	The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, purportedly by Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt stele tall. The stele was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The text itself was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum. The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four fifths contain what are generally called the laws. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak". The laws are casuistic, expressed as "if... then" conditional sentences. Their scope is broad, including, for example, criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. Modern scholars responded to the Code with admiration at its perceived fairness and respect for the rule of law, and at the complexity of Old Babylonian society. There was also much discussion of its influence on the Mosaic Law. Scholars quickly identified —the "eye for an eye" principle—underlying the two collections. Debate among Assyriologists has since centred around several aspects of the Code: its purpose, its underlying principles, its language, and its relation to earlier and later law collections. Despite the uncertainty surrounding these issues, Hammurabi is regarded outside Assyriology as an important figure in the history of law and the document as a true legal code. The U.S. Capitol has a relief portrait of Hammurabi alongside those of other historic lawgivers. There are replicas of the stele in numerous institutions, including the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. ==Background== ===Hammurabi=== Hammurabi (or Hammurapi), the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC (middle chronology). He secured Babylonian dominance over the Mesopotamian plain through military prowess, diplomacy, and treachery. When Hammurabi inherited his father Sin-Muballit's throne, Babylon held little local sway; the local hegemon was Rim-Sin of Larsa. Hammurabi waited until Rim-Sin grew old, then conquered his territory in one swift campaign, leaving his organisation intact. Later, Hammurabi betrayed allies in Eshnunna, Elam, and Mari to gain their territories. Hammurabi had an aggressive foreign policy, but his letters suggest he was concerned with the welfare of his many subjects and was interested in law and justice. He commissioned extensive construction works, and in his letters, he frequently presents himself as his people's shepherd. Justice is also a theme of the prologue to the Code, and "the word translated 'justice' []... is one whose root runs through both prologue and epilogue". ===Earlier law collections=== Although Hammurabi's Code was the first Mesopotamian law collection to be discovered, it was not the first written; several earlier collections survive. These collections were written in Sumerian and Akkadian. They also purport to have been written by rulers. There were almost certainly more such collections, as statements of other rulers suggest the custom was widespread. The similarities between these law collections make it tempting to assume a consistent underlying legal system. As with the Code of Hammurabi, however, it is difficult to interpret the purpose and underlying legal systems of these earlier collections, prompting numerous scholars to question whether this should be attempted. Extant collections include: The Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur. The Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin. The Laws of Eshnunna (written by Bilalama or by Dadusha). The "Laws of X," which, rather than a distinct collection, may be the end of the Code of Ur-Nammu. There are additionally thousands of documents from the practice of law, from before and during the Old Babylonian period. These documents include contracts, judicial rulings, letters on legal cases, and reform documents such as that of Urukagina, king of Lagash in the mid-3rd millennium BC, whose reforms combatted corruption. Mesopotamia has the most comprehensive surviving legal corpus from before the Digest of Justinian, even compared to those from ancient Greece and Rome. ==Copies== ===Louvre stele=== The first copy of the text found, and still the most complete, is on a stele. The stele is now displayed on the ground floor of the Louvre, in Room 227 of the Richelieu wing. At the top is an image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the image are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: One-fifth contains a prologue and epilogue, while the remaining four-fifths contain what are generally called the laws. Near the bottom, seven columns of the laws, each with more than eighty lines, were polished and erased in antiquity. The stele was found in three large fragments and reconstructed. It is high, with a circumference is at the summit and at the base. Hammurabi's image is high and wide. The Louvre stele was found at the site of the ancient Elamite city of Susa. Susa is in modern-day Khuzestan Province, Iran (Persia at the time of excavation). The stele was excavated by the French Archaeological Mission under the direction of Jacques de Morgan. Father Jean-Vincent Scheil published the initial report in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia (). According to Scheil, the stele's fragments were found on the tell of the Susa acropolis (), between December 1901 and January 1902. The few, large fragments made assembly easy. Scheil hypothesised that the stele had been taken to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nakhunte and that he had commissioned the erasure of several columns of laws to write his legend there. It has been proposed that the relief portion of the stele, especially the beards of Hammurabi and Shamash, was reworked at the same time. Roth suggests the stele was taken as plunder from Sippar, where Hammurabi lived towards the end of his reign. ===Other copies=== Fragments of a second and possibly third stele recording the Code were found along with the Louvre stele at Susa. Over fifty manuscripts containing the laws are known. They were found not only in Susa but also in Babylon, Nineveh, Assur, Borsippa, Nippur, Sippar, Ur, Larsa, and more. Copies were created during Hammurabi's reign, and also after it, since the text became a part of the scribal curriculum. Copies have been found dating from one thousand years after the stele's creation, and a catalog from the library of Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (685–631 BC) lists a copy of the "judgments of Hammurabi". The additional copies fill in most of the stele's original text, including much of the erased section. ==Early scholarship== The of the Code was published by Father Jean-Vincent Scheil in 1902, in the fourth volume of the Reports of the Delegation to Persia (). After a brief introduction with details of the excavation, Scheil gave a transliteration and a free translation into French, as well as a selection of images. Editions in other languages soon followed: in German by Hugo Winckler in 1902, in English by C. H. W. Johns in 1903, and in Italian by Pietro Bonfante, also in 1903. The Code was thought to be the earliest Mesopotamian law collection when it was rediscovered in 1902—for example, C. H. W. Johns' 1903 book was titled The Oldest Code of Laws in the World. The English writer H. G. Wells included Hammurabi in the first volume of The Outline of History, and to Wells too the Code was "the earliest known code of law". However, three earlier collections were rediscovered afterwards: the Code of Lipit-Ishtar in 1947, the Laws of Eshnunna in 1948, and the Code of Ur-Nammu in 1952. Early commentators dated Hammurabi and the stele to the 23rd century BC. However, this is an earlier estimate than even the "ultra-long chronology" would support. The Code was compiled near the end of Hammurabi's reign. This was deduced partly from the list of his achievements in the prologue. Scheil enthused about the stele's importance and perceived fairness, calling it "a moral and political masterpiece". C. H. W. Johns called it "one of the most important monuments in the history of the human race". He remarked that "there are many humanitarian clauses and much protection is given the weak and the helpless", and even lauded a "wonderful modernity of spirit". John Dyneley Prince called the Code's rediscovery "the most important event which has taken place in the development of Assyriological science since the days of Rawlinson and Layard". Charles Francis Horne commended the "wise law-giver" and his "celebrated code". James Henry Breasted noted the Code's "justice to the widow, the orphan, and the poor", but remarked that it "also allows many of the old and naïve ideas of justice to stand". Commentators praised the advanced society they believed the Code evinced. Several singled out perceived secularism: Owen Jenkins, for example, but even Charles Souvay for the Catholic Encyclopedia, who opined that unlike the Mosaic Law the Code was "founded upon the dictates of reason". The question of the Code's influence on the Mosaic Law received much early attention. Scholars also identified Hammurabi with the Biblical figure Amraphel, but this proposal has since been abandoned. ==Frame== ===Relief=== The relief appears to show Hammurabi standing before a seated Shamash. Shamash wears the horned crown of divinity and has a solar attribute, flames, spouting from his shoulders. Contrastingly, Scheil, in his , identified the seated figure as Hammurabi and the standing figure as Shamash. Scheil also held that the scene showed Shamash dictating to Hammurabi while Hammurabi held a scribe's stylus, gazing attentively at the god. Martha Roth lists other interpretations: "that the king is offering the laws to the god; that the king is accepting or offering the emblems of sovereignty of the rod and ring; or—most probably—that these emblems are the measuring tools of the rod-measure and rope-measure used in temple-building". Hammurabi may even be imitating Shamash. It is certain, though, that the draughtsman showed Hammurabi's close links to the divine realm, using composition and iconography. ===Prologue=== The prologue and epilogue together occupy one-fifth of the text. Out of around 4,130 lines, the prologue occupies 300 lines and the epilogue occupies 500. They are in ring composition around the laws, though there is no visual break distinguishing them from the laws. Both are written in poetic style, and, as William W. Davies wrote, "contain much... which sounds very like braggadocio". The 300-line prologue begins with an etiology of Hammurabi's royal authority (1–49). Anum, the Babylonian sky god and king of the gods, granted rulership over humanity to Marduk. Marduk chose the centre of his earthly power to be Babylon, which in the real world worshipped him as its tutelary god. Marduk established the office of kingship within Babylon. Finally, Anum, along with the Babylonian wind god Enlil, chose Hammurabi to be Babylon's king. Hammurabi was to rule "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak" (37–39: ). He was to rise like Shamash over the Mesopotamians (the , literally the "black-headed people") and illuminate the land (40–44). Hammurabi then lists his achievements and virtues (50–291). These are expressed in noun form, in the Akkadian first person singular nominal sentence construction "[noun]... " ("I am [noun]"). The first nominal sentence (50–53) is short: "I am Hammurabi, the shepherd, selected by the god Enlil" (). Then Hammurabi continues for over 200 lines in a single nominal sentence with the delayed to the very end (291). In the Digesta seu Pandectae (533), the second volume of the codification of laws ordered by Justinian I (527–565) of the Eastern Roman Empire, a legal opinion written by the Roman jurist Paulus at the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century in 235 AD was included about the Lex Rhodia ("Rhodian law") that articulates the general average principle of marine insurance established on the island of Rhodes in approximately 1000 to 800 BC as a member of the Doric Hexapolis, plausibly by the Phoenicians during the proposed Dorian invasion and emergence of the purported Sea Peoples during the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100 – c. 750) that led to the proliferation of the Doric Greek dialect. The law of general average constitutes the fundamental principle that underlies all insurance. ==Reception outside Assyriology== The Code is often referred to in legal scholarship, where its provisions are assumed to be laws, and the document is assumed to be a true code of laws. This is also true outside academia. There is a relief portrait of Hammurabi over the doors to the House Chamber of the U.S. Capitol, along with portraits of 22 others "noted for their work in establishing the principles that underlie American law". There are replicas of the Louvre stele in institutions around the world, including the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Peace Palace in The Hague (seat of the International Court of Justice). ==Medico-legal legacy and political implications== Hammurabi's Code is notable for its comprehensive approach to law, covering subjects from criminal acts to medical practices. The Code includes specific rules that regulate medical treatments, set surgery fees, and punish malpractice. For instance, if a physician caused the death of a noble during surgery, they would be severely punished, sometimes having their hand cut off. This harshness portrays how seriously medical responsibility was taken even in ancient times. From a political science perspective, Hammurabi's Code is valuable and fundamental because it demonstrates how law was used to reinforce social hierarchies and maintain control. writes that the Code's laws were applied differently depending on a person's social class, so nobles received greater protection than commoners and enslaved people. This legal stratification reflects the power dynamic of Babylonian society and shows how law was used not just to govern but also to preserve the social order. Finally, the Hammurabi's Code could be considered impressive by its power (despite its modern irrelevancy) and severity. The harsh punishments may seem extreme by modern standards, but they were likely necessary to maintain order in a society where survival depended on strict adherence to rules. At the same time, Hammurabi's Code represents a significant step forward in the development of law, medicine and the medico-legal system. By codifying laws and making them public, Hammurabi established a system that would influence generations so that the principles of justice, fairness, and accountability that underpin the Code continue to resonate today.	[ "New York, NY", "ancient Near East", "H. G. 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T. Batsford", "Nineveh", "Library of Ashurbanipal", "Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)", "Society of Biblical Literature", "cylinder seal", "Ninlil", "code of law", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Twelve Tables", "Amorite", "Khuzestan Province", "statute", "Chartering (shipping)", "legal opinion", "First Dynasty of Babylon", "Middle Assyrian Empire", "Raymond Westbrook", "contract", "Mosaic Law", "Eshnunna", "Zababa", "jurisprudence", "Macmillan Inc.", "InFaith", "Phoenicia", "Headquarters of the United Nations", "Code of Lipit-Ishtar", "Boston", "Panbabylonism", "Sin-Muballit", "šumma ālu", "tell (archaeology)", "World History Encyclopedia", "Friedrich Delitzsch", "Cincinnati, OH", "Byzantine Empire", "Louvre Museum", "Enlil", "legislation", "Assyriologists", "T. & T. Clark", "the Levant", "Digest of Justinian", "Greek Dark Ages", "Justinian I", "Gortyn Code", "basalt", "Isin", "god of wisdom", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Ginn and Company", "legal remedy", "Laws of Eshnunna", "Israel Exploration Journal", "Sumerian language", "Marduk", "Wolfram von Soden", "A. Leo Oppenheim", "David P. Wright", "Eisenbrauns", "Liberty Fund", "Kansas City, KS", "Journal of Cuneiform Studies", "Mount Sinai", "The Catholic Encyclopaedia", "Marc Van De Mieroop", "property law", "principle", "Austen Henry Layard", "Prudential Financial", "Leipzig, Germany", "Music&NEW", "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "Chicago", "London, England", "John Dyneley Prince", "Sea Peoples", "Berlin", "durative", "Roman law", "Oxford, England", "United Nations", "Wiley-Blackwell", "cuneiform", "Atlanta, GA", "Eerdmans", "headquarters of the United Nations", "The Expository Times", "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "clause", "Edinburgh, Scotland", "etiology", "bas-relief", "Iraq", "Code of Justinian", "Anu", "Dorian invasion", "Elam", "United States law", "Rim-Sin", "Winona Lake, IN", "insurance", "United States Capitol", "Adad", "Hittite laws", "marine insurance", "The Washington Post", "Avalon Project", "tutelary god", "Akkadian language", "International Court of Justice", "Covenant Code", "Corban University", "civil law (legal system)", "The Outline of History", "Wiesbaden, Germany", "Urukagina", "secularism", "Borsippa", "Jacques de Morgan", "king of the gods", "History of institutions in Mesopotamia", "Hammurabi Human Rights Organization", "National Geographic", "general average", "Mari, Syria", "fief", "argument from silence", "Paris", "Ur", "medieval", "Records of the Past Exploration Society", "Apple Music", "distraint", "Digest (Roman law)", "Henry Creswicke Rawlinson", "Grand Rapids, MI", "Louvre", "Arameans", "Thomas Nelson and Sons", "Amraphel", "ring composition", "land tenure", "inter vivos", "Princeton University Press" ]
7,605	Rum and Coke	Rum and Coke, or the Cuba libre ( , ; literally "Free Cuba"), is a highball cocktail consisting of cola, rum, and in many recipes lime juice on ice. Traditionally, the cola ingredient is Coca-Cola ("Coke") and the alcohol is a light rum such as Bacardi; however, the drink may be made with various types of rums and cola brands, and lime juice may or may not be included. The cocktail originated in the early 20th century in Cuba, after the country won independence in the Spanish–American War. It subsequently became popular across Cuba, the United States, and other countries. Its simple recipe and inexpensive, ubiquitous ingredients have made it one of the world's most-popular alcoholic drinks. Drink critics often consider the drink mediocre, but it has been noted for its historical significance. ==History== The drink was created in Cuba in the early 1900s, but its exact origins are not certain. It became popular shortly after 1900, when bottled Coca-Cola was first imported into Cuba from the United States. Its origin is associated with the heavy U.S. presence in Cuba following the Spanish–American War of 1898; the drink's traditional name, "Cuba libre" (Free Cuba), was the slogan of the Cuban independence movement. The Cuba libre is sometimes said to have been created during the Spanish–American War. However, this predates the first distribution of Coca-Cola to Cuba in 1900. A drink called a "Cuba libre" was indeed known in 1898, but this was a mix of water and brown sugar. Fausto Rodriguez, a Bacardi advertising executive, claimed to have been present when the drink was first poured, and produced a notarized affidavit to that effect in 1965. According to Rodriguez, this took place in August 1900, when he was a 14-year-old messenger working for a member of the U.S. Army Signal Corps in Havana. One day at a local bar, Rodriguez's employer ordered Bacardi rum mixed with Coca-Cola. This intrigued a nearby group of American soldiers, who ordered a round for themselves, giving birth to a popular new drink. Bacardi published Rodriguez's affidavit in a Life magazine ad in 1966. However, Rodriguez's status as a Bacardi executive has led some commentators to doubt the veracity of his story. Another story states that the drink was first created in 1902 at Havana's El Floridita restaurant to celebrate the anniversary of Cuban independence. The drink became a staple in Cuba, catching on due to the pervasiveness of its ingredients. Havana was already known for its iced drinks in the 19th century, as it was one of the few warm-weather cities that had abundant stores of ice shipped down from colder regions. Bacardi and other Cuban rums also boomed after independence brought in large numbers of foreign tourists and investors, as well as new opportunities for exporting alcohol. Light rums such as Bacardi became favored for cocktails as they were considered to mix well. Coca-Cola had been a common mixer in the United States ever since it was first bottled in 1886, and it became a ubiquitous drink in many countries after it was first exported in 1900. Rum and Coke quickly spread from Cuba to the United States. In the early 20th century the cocktail, like Coca-Cola itself, was most popular in the Southern United States. During the Prohibition era from 1922 to 1933, Coca-Cola became a favored mixer for disguising the taste of low-quality rums, as well as other liquors. In 1921 H. L. Mencken jokingly wrote of a South Carolina variant called the "jump stiddy", which consisted of Coca-Cola mixed with denatured alcohol drained from automobile radiators. After Prohibition, rum and Coke became prevalent in the northern and western U.S. as well, and in both high-brow and low-brow circles. Rum and Coke achieved a new level of popularity during World War II. Starting in 1940, the United States established a series of outposts in the British West Indies to defend against the German Navy. The American presence created cross-cultural demand, with American servicemen and the locals developing tastes for each other's products. In particular, American military personnel took to Caribbean rum due to its inexpensiveness, while Coca-Cola became especially prevalent in the islands thanks to the company shipping it out with the military. Within the United States, imported rum became increasingly popular, as government quotas for industrial alcohol reduced the output of American distillers of domestic liquors. In 1943, Lord Invader's Calypso song "Rum and Coca-Cola" drew further attention to the drink in Trinidad. The song was an adaptation of Lionel Belasco's 1904 composition "L'Année Passée" with new lyrics about American soldiers in Trinidad cavorting with local girls and drinking rum and Coke. Comedian Morey Amsterdam plagiarized "Rum and Coca-Cola" and licensed it to the Andrews Sisters as his own work. The Andrews Sisters' version was a major hit in 1945 and further boosted the popularity of rum and Coke, especially in the military. Lord Invader and the owners of Belasco's composition successfully sued Amsterdam for the song's rights. During the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Bacardi fled to Puerto Rico. The following year, the U.S. placed an embargo against Cuba, which made Cuban-made rum unavailable in the U.S. and Coca-Cola largely unavailable in Cuba. As such, it became difficult to make a rum and Coke with its traditional ingredients in either country. ==Popularity and reception== The rum and Coke is very popular; Bacardi says that it is the world's second-most-popular alcoholic drink. Its popularity derives from the ubiquity and low cost of the main ingredients, and the fact that it is very easy to make. As it can be made with any quantity or style of rum, it is simple to prepare and difficult to ruin. Drink critics often have a low opinion of the cocktail. Writer Wayne Curtis called it "a drink of inspired blandness", while Jason Wilson of The Washington Post called it "a lazy person's drink". However, any amount and proportion of rum and cola may be used. Additionally, while light rum is traditional, dark rums and other varieties are also common. Coca-Cola is the conventional cola in the drink, to the point that customers rarely order anything else. This dates back to the origin of the drink in Cuba and was solidified in the 1920s when Coca-Cola emerged as the primary cola brand following the bankruptcy of Pepsi and Chero-Cola, and therefore the preferred cola mixer in alcoholic drinks. Pepsi's later attempts to enter the cocktail market were unsuccessful, especially after the song "Rum and Coca-Cola" solidified the association in the public imagination. Nonetheless, different colas are sometimes used. In Cuba, as Coca-Cola has not been imported since the U.S. embargo of 1960, the domestic TuKola is used in Cuba libres. Other common variants call for Mexican Coke (which uses cane sugar instead of high-fructose corn syrup), Moxie, Diet Coke (the Cuba Lite or rum and Diet) and Dr. Pepper (the Captain and Pepper, featuring Captain Morgan spiced rum). Some modern recipes inspired by older ones include additional ingredients such as bitters. More elaborate variants with further ingredients include the cinema highball, which uses rum infused with buttered popcorn and mixed with cola. Another is the Mandeville cocktail, which includes light and dark rum, cola, and citrus juice along with Pernod absinthe and grenadine.	[ "affidavit", "Havana", "Piscola", "Prohibition in the United States", "Bacardi", "bitters", "Penguin Group", "rum", "Mexican Coke", "South Carolina", "Lionel Belasco", "Whiskey and Coke", "light rum", "Rum and Coca-Cola", "United States embargo against Cuba", "Coca-Cola", "dark rum", "Calypso music", "cocktail", "The Washington Post", "absinthe", "centiliter", "TuKola", "Drink mixer", "Spanish–American War", "white rum", "Radiator (engine cooling)", "Lord Invader", "Trinidad", "high-fructose corn syrup", "highball", "Andrews Sisters", "cola", "Cuba", "grenadine", "Kriegsmarine", "Imbibe", "Esquire (magazine)", "gin", "Captain Morgan", "Puerto Rico", "Charles A. Coulombe", "Lime (fruit)", "British West Indies", "Pepsi", "Pernod", "Dr. Pepper", "International Bartenders Association", "Cuban Revolution", "Slate (magazine)", "H. L. Mencken", "denatured alcohol", "pisco", "World War II", "Morey Amsterdam", "Moxie", "Diet Coke", "El Floridita", "Signal Corps (United States Army)", "añejo (rum)", "Chero-Cola", "Southern United States", "Life (magazine)" ]
7,607	Collagen helix	In molecular biology, the collagen triple helix or type-2 helix is the main secondary structure of various types of fibrous collagen, including type I collagen. In 1954, Ramachandran & Kartha (13, 14) advanced a structure for the collagen triple helix on the basis of fiber diffraction data. It consists of a triple helix made of the repetitious amino acid sequence glycine-X-Y, where X and Y are frequently proline or hydroxyproline. Collagen folded into a triple helix is known as tropocollagen. Collagen triple helices are often bundled into fibrils which themselves form larger fibres, as in tendons. ==Structure== Glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline must be in their designated positions with the correct configuration. For example, hydroxyproline in the Y position increases the thermal stability of the triple helix, but not when it is located in the X position. The thermal stabilization is also hindered when the hydroxyl group has the wrong configuration. Due to the high abundance of glycine and proline contents, collagen fails to form a regular α-helix and β-sheet structure. Three left-handed helical strands twist to form a right-handed triple helix. A collagen triple helix has 3.3 residues per turn. Each of the three chains is stabilized by the steric repulsion due to the pyrrolidine rings of proline and hydroxyproline residues. The pyrrolidine rings keep out of each other's way when the polypeptide chain assumes this extended helical form, which is much more open than the tightly coiled form of the alpha helix. The three chains are hydrogen bonded to each other. The hydrogen bond donors are the peptide NH groups of glycine residues. The hydrogen bond acceptors are the CO groups of residues on the other chains. The OH group of hydroxyproline does not participate in hydrogen bonding but stabilises the trans isomer of proline by stereoelectronic effects, therefore stabilizing the entire triple helix. The rise of the collagen helix (superhelix) is 2.9 Å (0.29 nm) per residue. The center of the collagen triple helix is very small and hydrophobic, and every third residue of the helix must have contact with the center. Due to the very tiny and tight space at the center, only the small hydrogen of the glycine side chain is capable of interacting with the center. This contact is impossible even when a slightly bigger amino acid residue is present other than glycine.	[ "molecular biology", "polypeptide", "residue (biochemistry)", "hydrogen bond", "Hydrogen bonding", "secondary structure", "peptide", "Helix", "pyrrolidine", "steric repulsion", "tendon", "type I collagen", "proline", "amino acid", "superhelix", "fibril", "alpha helix", "collagen", "glycine", "triple helix", "hydroxyproline", "tropocollagen" ]
7,609	Cosmic censorship hypothesis	The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two mathematical conjectures about the structure of gravitational singularities arising in general relativity. Singularities that arise in the solutions of Einstein's equations are typically hidden within event horizons, and therefore cannot be observed from the rest of spacetime. Singularities that are not so hidden are called naked. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis was conceived by Roger Penrose in 1969 and posits that no naked singularities exist in the universe. ==Basics== Since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be observed from the rest of spacetime, causality may break down, and physics may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems, singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe, as described by the general theory of relativity, is deterministic: it is possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe (possibly excluding some finite regions of space hidden inside event horizons of singularities), knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a spacelike three-dimensional hypersurface, called the Cauchy surface). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is yet impossible to predict the behavior of spacetime in the causal future of a singularity. Cosmic censorship is not merely a problem of formal interest; some form of it is assumed whenever black hole event horizons are mentioned. The hypothesis was first formulated by Roger Penrose in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable, falsifiable, and sufficiently general to be interesting. Because the statement is not a strictly formal one, there is sufficient latitude for (at least) two independent formulations: a weak form, and a strong form. == Weak and strong cosmic censorship hypothesis == The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two conjectures concerned with the global geometry of spacetimes. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts there can be no singularity visible from future null infinity. In other words, singularities need to be hidden from an observer at infinity by the event horizon of a black hole. Mathematically, the conjecture states that, for generic initial data, the causal structure is such that the maximal Cauchy development possesses a complete future null infinity. The strong cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that, generically, general relativity is a deterministic theory, in the same sense that classical mechanics is a deterministic theory. In other words, the classical fate of all observers should be predictable from the initial data. Mathematically, the conjecture states that the maximal Cauchy development of generic compact or asymptotically flat initial data is locally inextendible as a regular Lorentzian manifold. Taken in its strongest sense, the conjecture suggests locally inextendibility of the maximal Cauchy development as a continuous Lorentzian manifold [very Strong Cosmic Censorship]. This strongest version was disproven in 2018 by Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk for the Cauchy horizon of an uncharged, rotating black hole. The two conjectures are mathematically independent, as there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is valid but strong cosmic censorship is violated and, conversely, there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is violated but strong cosmic censorship is valid. ==Example== The Kerr metric, corresponding to a black hole of mass M and angular momentum J, can be used to derive the effective potential for particle orbits restricted to the equator (as defined by rotation). This potential looks like: V_{\rm{eff}}(r,e,\ell)=-\frac{M}{r}+\frac{\ell^2-a^2(e^2-1)}{2r^2}-\frac{M(\ell-a e)^2}{r^3},~~~ a\equiv \frac{J}{M} where r is the coordinate radius, e and \ell are the test-particle's conserved energy and angular momentum respectively (constructed from the Killing vectors). To preserve cosmic censorship, the black hole is restricted to the case of a < 1. For there to exist an event horizon around the singularity, the requirement a < 1 must be satisfied. == Counter-example == An exact solution to the scalar-Einstein equations R_{ab}=2\phi_a\phi_b which forms a counterexample to many formulations of the cosmic censorship hypothesis was found by Mark D. Roberts in 1985: ds^2=-(1+2\sigma)\,dv^2+2\,dv\,dr+r(r-2\sigma v)\left(d\theta^2 + \sin^2 \theta \,d\phi^2\right),\quad \varphi = \frac{1}{2} \ln\left(1 - \frac{2\sigma v}{r}\right), where \sigma is a constant.	[ "angular momentum", "physics", "Caustic (mathematics)", "general relativity", "Addison-Wesley", "naked singularity", "null infinity", "Reissner–Nordström", "spacetime", "Cauchy horizon", "Firewall (physics)", "Physical Review Letters", "Fuzzball (string theory)", "general theory of relativity", "Einstein's field equation", "University of Chicago Press", "orbits", "causal structure", "Kerr metric", "gravitational collapse", "Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems", "American Physical Society", "Nuovo Cimento", "scientific wager", "Oxford University Press", "Roger Penrose", "causality", "Killing vectors", "Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet", "gravitational singularity", "universe", "black hole", "John Preskill", "The New York Times", "Lorentzian manifold", "event horizon", "Solutions of the Einstein field equations", "effective potential", "Cambridge University Press", "Black hole information paradox", "Stephen Hawking", "Elsevier", "Cauchy surface", "spacelike", "conjecture", "falsifiable", "Kip Thorne", "Chronology protection conjecture", "Quanta Magazine", "determinism" ]
7,610	Catholic (term)	The word catholic (derived via Late Latin , from the ancient Greek adjective () ) comes from the Greek phrase () , and is a combination of the Greek words () and () . The first known use of "Catholic" was by the church father Ignatius of Antioch in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans (circa 110 AD). In the context of Christian ecclesiology, it has a rich history and several usages. The word in English can mean either "of the Catholic faith" or "relating to the historic doctrine and practice of the Western Church". "Catholicos", the title used for the head of some churches in Eastern Christian traditions, is derived from the same linguistic origin. In non-ecclesiastical use, it derives its English meaning directly from its root, and is currently used to mean the following: including a wide variety of things, or all-embracing; universal or of general interest; having broad interests, or wide sympathies; inclusive, inviting. The term has been incorporated into the name of the largest Christian communion, the Roman Catholic Church. All of the three main branches of Christianity in the East – Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church and Church of the East – had always identified themselves as Catholic in accordance with apostolic traditions and the Nicene Creed. Lutherans, Reformed, Anglicans and Methodists also believe that their churches are "Catholic" in the sense that they too are in continuity with the original universal church founded by the Apostles. However, each church defines the scope of the "Catholic Church" differently. The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox churches, and Church of the East, all maintain that their own denomination is identical with the original universal church, from which all other denominations broke away. An early definition for what is "catholic" was summarized in what is known as the Vincentian Canon in the 5th century Commonitory: "what has been believed everywhere, always, and by all." Distinguishing beliefs of Catholicity, the beliefs of most Christians who call themselves "Catholic", include the episcopal polity, that bishops are considered the highest order of ministers within the Christian religion, found in the line of the Nicene Creed: "I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church." During the medieval and modern times, additional distinctions arose regarding the use of the terms Western Catholic and Eastern Catholic. Before the East–West Schism of 1054, those terms had just the basic geographical meanings, since only one undivided Catholicity existed, uniting the Latin-speaking Christians of West and the Greek-speaking Christians of the East. After the Schism, terminology became much more complicated, resulting in the creation of parallel and conflicting terminological systems. ==Etymology== The Greek adjective katholikos, the origin of the term catholic, means 'universal'. Directly from the Greek, or via Late Latin catholicus, the term catholic entered many other languages, becoming the base for the creation of various theological terms such as catholicism and catholicity (Late Latin catholicismus, catholicitas). The term catholicism is the English form of Late Latin catholicismus, an abstract noun based on the adjective catholic. The Modern Greek equivalent is back-formed and usually refers to the Catholic Church. The terms catholic, catholicism, and catholicity are closely related to the use of the term Catholic Church. (See Catholic Church (disambiguation) for more uses.) The earliest evidence of the use of that term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 107 to Christians in Smyrna. Exhorting Christians to remain closely united with their bishop, he wrote: "Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church." From the second half of the second century, the word "catholic" began to be used to mean "orthodox" (non-heretical), "because Catholics claimed to teach the whole truth, and to represent the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the exaggeration of some one truth and was essentially partial and local". In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term "Catholic Christian" exclusively to those who followed the same faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome and Pope Peter of Alexandria. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), Augustine of Hippo (354–430) further developed the use of the term "catholic" in relation to Christianity. The 5th century Vincentian Canon, published in Commonitory, defined "catholic" as "what has been believed everywhere, always, and by all."}} Of the meaning for Ignatius of this phrase J.H. Srawley wrote: This is the earliest occurrence in Christian literature of the phrase 'the Catholic Church' (ἡ καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία). The original sense of the word is 'universal'. Thus Justin Martyr (Dial. 82) speaks of the 'universal or general resurrection', using the words ἡ καθολικὴ ἀνάστασις. Similarly here the Church universal is contrasted with the particular Church of Smyrna. Ignatius means by the Catholic Church 'the aggregate of all the Christian congregations' (Swete, Apostles Creed, p. 76). So too the letter of the Church of Smyrna is addressed to all the congregations of the Holy Catholic Church in every place. And this primitive sense of 'universal' the word has never lost, although in the latter part of the second century it began to receive the secondary sense of 'orthodox' as opposed to 'heretical'. Thus it is used in an early Canon of Scripture, the Muratorian fragment (circa 170 A.D.), which refers to certain heretical writings as 'not received in the Catholic Church'. So too Cyril of Jerusalem, in the fourth century, says that the Church is called Catholic not only 'because it is spread throughout the world', but also 'because it teaches completely and without defect all the doctrines which ought to come to the knowledge of men'. This secondary sense arose out of the original meaning because Catholics claimed to teach the whole truth, and to represent the whole Church, while heresy arose out of the exaggeration of some one truth and was essentially partial and local. By Catholic Church Ignatius designated the universal church. Ignatius considered that certain heretics of his time, who disavowed that Jesus was a material being who actually suffered and died, saying instead that "he only seemed to suffer" (Smyrnaeans, 2), were not really Christians. ===Martyrdom of Polycarp=== The term is also used in the Martyrdom of Polycarp (AD 156): ===Muratorian fragment=== The Muratorian fragment (AD 177) mentions: ===Tertullian=== The term is employed by Tertullian (AD 200): ===Clement of Alexandria=== Clement of Alexandria (AD 202) cites: ===Cyprian of Carthage=== Cyprian of Carthage (AD 254) wrote a large number of epistles where he makes use of the term: In addition to epistles 66, 69 and 70, the term is also found in the epistles 19, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 54, 63, 68, 71, 72, 74, 75. ===Cyril of Jerusalem=== As mentioned in the above quotation from J.H. Srawley, Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), who is venerated as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion, distinguished what he called the "Catholic Church" from other groups who could also refer to themselves as an ἐκκλησία (assembly or church): Since the word Ecclesia is applied to different things (as also it is written of the multitude in the theatre of the Ephesians, And when he had thus spoken, he dismissed the Assembly (Acts 19:41), and since one might properly and truly say that there is a Church of evil doers, I mean the meetings of the heretics, the Marcionists and Manichees, and the rest, for this cause the Faith has securely delivered to you now the Article, "And in one Holy Catholic Church"; that you may avoid their wretched meetings, and ever abide with the Holy Church Catholic in which you were regenerated. And if ever you are sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God(Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26). ===Theodosius I=== Theodosius I, Emperor from 379 to 395, declared "Catholic" Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, declaring in the Edict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380: It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation, should continue the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Deity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation, and in the second the punishment which our authority, in accordance with the will of heaven, will decide to inflict. Theodosian Code XVI.i.2 ===Jerome=== Jerome wrote to Augustine of Hippo in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" ===Augustine of Hippo=== Only slightly later, Augustine of Hippo (354–430) also used the term "Catholic" to distinguish the "true" church from heretical groups: In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house. Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church. —St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith. — St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith. ===Vincent of Lerins=== A contemporary of Augustine, Vincent of Lerins, wrote in 434 (under the pseudonym Peregrinus) a work known as the Commonitoria ("Memoranda"). While insisting that, like the human body, church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54–59, chapter XXIII), he stated: ===Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church=== In the early centuries of Christian history, the majority of Christians who followed doctrines represented in Nicene Creed were bound by one common and undivided Catholicity that united the Latin-speaking Christians of the west and the Greek-speaking Christians of the east. In those days, the terms "eastern Catholic" and "western Catholic" had geographical meanings, generally corresponding to existing linguistic distinctions between Greek east and Latin west. In spite of various theological and ecclesiastical disagreements between Christian sees, a common Catholicity was preserved. A great dispute arose between the 9th and 11th century. After the East–West Schism, the notion of common Catholicity was broken and each side started to develop its own terminological practice.}} On the other side of the widening rift, Eastern Orthodox were considered by western theologians to be Schismatics. Relations between East and West were further estranged by the tragic events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 and Sack of Constantinople in 1204. Those bloody events were followed by several failed attempts to reach reconciliation (see: Second Council of Lyon, Council of Florence, Union of Brest, Union of Uzhhorod). During the late medieval and early modern period, terminology became much more complicated, resulting in the creation of parallel and confronting terminological systems that exist today in all of their complexity. During the Early Modern period, a special term "Acatholic" was widely used in the West to mark all those who were considered to hold heretical theological views and irregular ecclesiastical practices. In the time of Counter-Reformation the term Acatholic was used by zealous members of the Catholic Church to designate Protestants as well as Eastern Orthodox Christians. The term was considered to be so insulting that the Council of the Serbian Orthodox Church, held in Temeswar in 1790, decided to send an official plea to emperor Leopold II, begging him to ban the use of the term "Acatholic". === Lutheranism === The Augsburg Confession found within the Book of Concord, a compendium of belief of the Lutheranism, teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church". When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1530, they believe to have "showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils".	[ "Marcion", "Catholic Church", "Massacre of the Latins", "Son of God", "Letter to the Smyrnaeans", "independent Catholic Churches", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Anglican Use", "Union of Uzhhorod", "Reform (Anglican)", "Augustine of Hippo", "Smyrna", "Nicene Creed", "Augsburg Confession", "Catholicity", "Jerome", "List of popes", "Methodism", "Pope Peter II of Alexandria", "Counter-Reformation", "Ignatius of Antioch", "Clement of Alexandria", "historical episcopate", "Apostles in the New Testament", "heresy", "Cyril of Jerusalem", "Trinity", "Oriental Orthodoxy", "episcopal polity", "Anglican Catholic Church", "Christianity in the 2nd century", "Bride of Christ", "Metropolitanate of Karlovci", "Protestants", "Catholic Church (disambiguation)", "Filioque", "Theodosius I", "Manichaeism", "East–West Schism", "Martyrdom of Polycarp", "Late Latin", "Council of Florence", "Theodore Balsamon", "Second Council of Lyon", "ecclesiology", "Western Church", "Liberal Catholic Church", "Christianity in the 4th century", "Anglican Communion", "Four Marks of the Church", "patriarch of Antioch", "Church of the East", "Muratorian fragment", "Novatian", "Christian Classics Ethereal Library", "sanctity", "Anglicanism", "Lutheran", "Timișoara", "ancient Greek", "orthodoxy", "Siege of Constantinople (1204)", "Eastern Christianity", "Valentinus (Gnostic)", "Lutheranism", "relic", "Jesus Christ", "Christian denomination", "Christianity", "Biblical Canon", "Marcionism", "Vincent of Lerins", "el:Καθολικισμός", "Broadman Press", "Book of Concord", "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor", "catholicity", "Pope Cornelius", "Jesus", "Basilica of San Clemente al Laterano", "general resurrection", "Apostle Peter", "state religion", "Cyprian", "Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor", "English language", "Catholicos", "Union of Brest", "Anglo-Catholicism", "Christian Church", "Eleutherus", "Edict of Thessalonica", "Pope Damasus I", "Tertullian", "Commonitory", "church father", "apostolicity", "bishop", "saint", "Roman Catholic Church", "Rome", "The Lutheran Witness" ]
7,611	Crystal Eastman	Crystal Catherine Eastman (June 25, 1881 – July 28, 1928) was an American lawyer, antimilitarist, feminist, socialist, and journalist. She was a leader in the fight for women's suffrage, a co-founder and co-editor with her brother Max Eastman of the radical arts and politics magazine The Liberator, co-founder of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, and co-founder in 1920 of the American Civil Liberties Union. In 2000, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. ==Early life and education== Crystal Eastman was born in Marlborough, Massachusetts, on June 25, 1881, the third of four children. Her oldest brother, Morgan, was born in 1878 and died in 1884. The second brother, Anstice Ford Eastman, who became a general surgeon, was born in 1878 and died in 1937. Max was the youngest, born in 1883. In 1883, their parents, Samuel Elijah Eastman and Annis Bertha Ford, moved the family to Canandaigua, New York. In 1889, their mother became one of the first women ordained as a Protestant minister in America when she became a minister of the Congregational church. Her father was also a Congregational minister, and the two served as pastors at the church of Thomas K. Beecher near Elmira. Mark Twain's family also attended the church and it was this shared association that young Crystal also became acquainted with him. The siblings lived together on 11th Street in New York City's Greenwich Village among other radical activists for several years. The group, including Ida Rauh, Inez Milholland, Floyd Dell, and Doris Stevens, also spent summers and weekends in Croton-on-Hudson, where Max bought a house in 1916. Eastman graduated from Vassar College in 1903 and received a Master of Arts degree in sociology (then a relatively new field) from Columbia University in 1904. She then attended New York University Law School, graduating in 1907 as the second in her class. She advocated for "motherhood endowments" whereby mothers of young children would receive monetary benefits. She argued it would reduce forced dependence of mothers on men, as well as economically empower women. ==Emancipation== Wallace J. Benedict was an insurance agent in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and so when Eastman married him in 1911, she moved there after the wedding. She served as president of the New York City branch. This group sought to remove profiteering from arms manufacturing and campaigned against conscription, imperial adventures, and military intervention. The NCLB grew into the American Civil Liberties Union(ACLU), with Baldwin at the head and Eastman functioning as attorney-in-charge. Eastman is credited as a founding member of the ACLU, but her role as founder of the NCLB may have been largely ignored by posterity because of her personal differences with Baldwin. ==Marriage and family== In 1916, Eastman married the British editor and antiwar activist Walter Fuller, who had come to the United States to direct his sisters' singing of folksongs. They had two children, Jeffrey Fuller born in 1917 and Annis Fuller born in 1921. After Max Eastman's periodical The Masses was forced to close by government censorship in 1917, he and Crystal co-founded a radical journal of politics, art, and literature: the Liberator, in early 1918. ===Post-War=== After the war, Eastman organized the First Feminist Congress in 1919. ==Works== ===Papers=== Eastman's papers are housed at Harvard University. ===Publications=== The Library of Congress has the following publications by Eastman in its collection, many of them published posthumously: 'Employers' Liability,' a Criticism Based on Facts (1909) Work-accidents and the Law (1910) Mexican-American Peace Committee (Mexican-American league) (1916) Work accidents and the Law (1969) Toward the Great Change: Crystal and Max Eastman on Feminism, Antimilitarism, and Revolution, edited by Blanche Wiesen Cook (1976) Crystal Eastman on Women and Revolution, edited by Blanche Wiesen Cook (1978) "Crystal Eastman: A Revolutionary Life," by Amy Aronson (2020)	[ "Time and Tide (magazine)", "The Freeman", "Schlesinger Library", "The Masses", "Abolitionism in the United States", "Underground Railroad", "Workers' compensation", "Max Eastman", "Seneca Falls (town), New York", "Millerism", "Woman's Peace Party", "American Civil Liberties Union", "Radio Times", "Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage", "Croton-on-Hudson, New York", "The Liberator (United States magazine)", "suffrage", "Women's International League for Peace and Freedom", "Greenwich Village", "American Union Against Militarism", "The Liberator (magazine)", "BBC", "Mormonism", "Socialism", "Annis Bertha Ford Eastman", "National Woman's Party", "Alice Paul", "Harvard University", "World War I", "Norman Thomas", "Lucy Burns", "Erie, Pennsylvania", "Elmira, New York", "Blanche Wiesen Cook", "Columbia University", "Seneca Falls, New York", "nephritis", "List of peace activists", "Congregational church", "National Civil Liberties Bureau", "Vassar College", "Antimilitarism", "Equal Rights (journal)", "workers' compensation", "Protestant", "Women's suffrage in the United States", "Socialist Party USA", "Wisconsin", "National Women's Hall of Fame", "Marlborough, Massachusetts", "Second Great Awakening", "Walter Fuller (editor)", "London, England", "Amy Aronson", "Inez Milholland", "Freda Kirchwey", "Feminism", "Ida Rauh", "military intervention", "Jane Addams", "Mark Twain", "Floyd Dell", "Paul Underwood Kellogg", "U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations", "First Red Scare", "conscientious objectors", "First Feminist Congress", "Liberator (magazine)", "Charles Evans Hughes", "Doris Stevens", "Canandaigua, New York", "Master of Arts", "Woodrow Wilson", "Milwaukee", "Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Paul U. Kellogg", "New York University Law School", "Burned-over district", "Roger Nash Baldwin", "The Nation", "conscription", "Thomas K. Beecher", "The Pittsburgh Survey", "Jeffrey Fuller", "Equal Rights Amendment", "Lillian D. Wald" ]
7,612	Christopher Alexander	Christopher Wolfgang John Alexander (4 October 1936 – 17 March 2022) was an Austrian-born British-American architect and design theorist. He was an emeritus professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His theories about the nature of human-centered design have affected fields beyond architecture, including urban design, software, and sociology. Alexander designed and personally built over 100 buildings, both as an architect and a general contractor. In software, Alexander is regarded as the father of the pattern language movement. The first wiki—the technology behind Wikipedia—led directly from Alexander's work, according to its creator, Ward Cunningham. Alexander's work has also influenced the development of agile software development. However, Alexander was controversial among some mainstream architects and critics, in part because his work was often harshly critical of much of contemporary architectural theory and practice. Alexander is best known for his 1977 book A Pattern Language, a perennial seller some four decades after publication. Reasoning that users are more sensitive to their needs than any architect could be, he collaborated with his students Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid King, and Shlomo Angel to produce a pattern language that would empower anyone to design and build at any scale. His other books include Notes on the Synthesis of Form, A City is Not a Tree (first published as a paper and re-published in book form in 2015), The Timeless Way of Building, A New Theory of Urban Design, and The Oregon Experiment. More recently he published the four-volume The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe, about his newer theories of "morphogenetic" processes, and The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth, about the implementation of his theories in a large building project in Japan. ==Personal life== Alexander was born in Vienna, Austria. His father, Ferdinand Johann Alfred Alexander, was Catholic and his mother, Lilly Edith Elizabeth (Deutsch) Alexander was Jewish. As a young child Alexander emigrated in fall 1938 with his parents from Austria to England, when his parents were forced to flee the Nazi regime. (They worked as German language teachers.) He spent much of his childhood in Chichester and Oxford, England, where he began his education in the sciences. He moved from England to the United States in 1958 to study at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He moved to Berkeley, California in 1963 to accept an appointment as Professor of Architecture, a position he would hold for almost 40 years. In 2002, after his retirement, Alexander moved to Arundel, England, where he continued to write, teach and build up to the time of his illness and death. Alexander was married to Margaret Moore Alexander, and he had two daughters, Sophie and Lily, by his former wife Pamela Patrick. Alexander held both British and American citizenship. On 17 March 2022, Alexander died peacefully in his home in Binsted, near Arundel, United Kingdom, following a long illness. He was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies. ==Honors== Alexander was elected to the Society of Fellows, Harvard University 1961–64; awarded the First Medal for Research by the American Institute of Architects, 1972; elected member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Arts, 1980; winner of the Best Building in Japan award, 1985; winner of the ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) Distinguished Professor Award, 1986 and 1987; invited to present the Louis Kahn Memorial Lecture, 1992; elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996; and 1994 Seaside Prize recipient. ==Career== ===Author=== The Timeless Way of Building (1979) described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire: A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (1977), co-authored with Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a generative grammar. The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious. The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations. The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe, and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs. A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality. A New Theory of Urban Design (1987) coincided with a renewal of interest in urbanism among architects, but stood apart from most other expressions of this by assuming a distinctly anti-masterplanning stance. An account of a design studio conducted with University of California Berkeley students on a site in San Francisco, it shows how convincing urban networks can be generated by requiring individual actors to respect only local rules, in relation to neighbours. A vastly undervalued part of the Alexander canon, A New Theory is important in understanding the generative processes which give rise to the shanty towns latterly championed by Stewart Brand, Robert Neuwirth, and Charles III, the then Prince of Wales (2001). There have been critical reconstructions of Alexander's design studio based on the theories put forward in A New Theory of Urban Design. The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe (2003–04), which includes The Phenomenon of Life, The Process of Creating Life, A Vision of a Living World and The Luminous Ground, is Alexander's most comprehensive and elaborate work. In it, he put forth a new theory about the nature of space and described how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, planning, and the way in which we view the world in general. The mostly static patterns from A Pattern Language were amended by more dynamic sequences, which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the result of sequences). Sequences, like patterns, promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture). The online publication Katarxis 3 (September 2004) includes several essays by Christopher Alexander, as well as a debate between Alexander and Peter Eisenman from 1982. Alexander's final book published while he was alive, The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle Between Two World-Systems (2012), is the story of the largest project he and his colleagues had ever tackled, the construction of a new High School/College campus in Japan. He also used the project to connect with themes in his four-volume series. He contrasted his approach, (System A) with the construction processes endemic in the U.S. and Japanese economies (System B). As Alexander describes it, System A is focused on enhancing the life/spirit of spaces within given constraints (land, budget, client needs, etc.) (drawings are sketches – decisions on placing buildings, materials used, finish and such are made in the field as construction proceeds, with adjustments as needed to meet overall budget); System B ignores, and tends to diminish or destroy that quality because there is an inherent flaw: System A is a generally a product of a different Economic System than we live in now. When the architect is only responsible for concept and casual field drawings (which the builder uses to build structures at the lowest possible [competitive] cost), the builder finds that System A can not produce acceptable results at the lowest market cost. Except for a culture where land and material costs are low or first world clients who are sensitive, patient and wealthy. In most cases, the economically motivated builder must use a hybrid system. In the best case, System AB, the builder uses the processes of System A to differentiate, improve and inform his work. Or there are no economic considerations and the builder is the architect and is building for himself. In the last few chapters he described "centers" as a way of thinking about the connections among spaces, and about what brings more wholeness and life to a space. ===Works of architecture=== Among Alexander's most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo (the building process of which is outlined in his 2012 book The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth); the West Dean Visitors Centre in West Sussex, England; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in San Jose, California (both described in Nature of Order); the Sala House and the Martinez House (experimental houses in Albany and Martinez, California made of lightweight concrete); the low-cost housing in Mexicali, Mexico (described in The Production of Houses); and several private houses (described and illustrated in The Nature of Order). Alexander's built work is characterized by a special quality (which he used to call "the quality without a name", but named "wholeness" in Nature of Order) that relates to human beings and induces feelings of belonging to the place and structure. This quality is found in the most loved traditional and historic buildings and urban spaces, and is precisely what Alexander has tried to capture with his sophisticated mathematical design theories. Paradoxically, achieving this connective human quality has also moved his buildings away from the abstract imageability valued in contemporary architecture, and this is one reason why his buildings are under-appreciated at present. ===Teaching=== In addition to his lengthy teaching career as a professor at UC Berkeley (during which a number of international students began to appreciate and apply his methods), Alexander was a key faculty member at both The Prince of Wales's Summer Schools in Civil Architecture (1990–1994) and The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment. He also initiated the process which led to the international Building Beauty post-graduate school for architecture, which launched in Sorrento, Italy for the 2017–18 academic year. ==Influence== ===Architecture=== Alexander's work has widely influenced architects; among those who acknowledge his influence are Sarah Susanka, Andres Duany, and Witold Rybczynski. Robert Campbell, the Pulitzer Prize-winning architecture critic for the Boston Globe, stated that Alexander "has had an enormous critical influence on my life and work, and I think that's true of a whole generation of people."}} Many urban development projects continue to incorporate Alexander's ideas. For example, in the UK the developers Living Villages have been highly influenced by Alexander's work and used A Pattern Language as the basis for the design of The Wintles in Bishops Castle, Shropshire. Sarah Susanka's "Not So Big House" movement adapts and popularizes Alexander's patterns and outlook. in the 1960s and 1970s on programming language design, modular programming, object-oriented programming, software engineering and other design methodologies. Alexander's mathematical concepts and orientation were similar to Edsger Dijkstra's influential A Discipline of Programming. The greatest influence of A Pattern Language in computer science is the design patterns movement. Alexander's philosophy of incremental, organic, coherent design also influenced the extreme programming movement. The Wiki was invented Will Wright wrote that Alexander's work was influential in the origin of the SimCity computer games, and in his later game Spore. Alexander often led his own software research, such as the 1996 Gatemaker project with Greg Bryant. Alexander discovered and conceived a recursive structure, so called wholeness, which is defined mathematically, exists in space and matter physically, and reflects in our minds and cognition psychologically. He had his idea of wholeness back to early 1980s when he finished his first version of The Nature of Order. His idea of wholeness or degree of wholeness relying on a recursive structure of centers resemble aspects of Google's PageRank. ===Religion=== The fourth volume of The Nature of Order approaches religious questions from a scientific and philosophical rather than mystical direction, focusing in human feelings, well-being and nature interaction rather than metaphysics. In it, Alexander describes deep ties between the nature of matter, human perception of the universe, and the geometries people construct in buildings, cities, and artifacts. He suggests a crucial link between traditional practices and beliefs, and recent scientific advances. Despite his leanings toward Deism, and his naturalistic and anthropologic approach to religion, Alexander maintained that he was a practicing member of the Catholic Church, which he believed to have accumulated, within its knowledge, a great deal of human truth. ===Design science=== The life's work of Alexander is dedicated to turn design from unselfconscious behavior to selfconscious behavior, so called design science. In his very first book Notes on the Synthesis of Forms, he set what he wanted to do. He was inspired by traditional buildings, and tried to derive some 253 patterns for architectural design. Later on, he further distilled 15 geometric properties to characterize living structure in The Nature of Order. The design principles are differentiation and adaptation. ===Complex networks=== In his classic A City is Not a Tree, he already had some primary ideas of complex networks, although he used semilattice rather than complex networks. In his 1964 book Notes on the Synthesis of Form (p. 65), he prefigured community structure in complex networks, a topic that emerged around 2004. ==Published works== Alexander's published works include: Community and Privacy, with Serge Chermayeff (1963) Notes on the Synthesis of Form (1964) A City is Not a Tree (1965) The Atoms of Environmental Structure (1967) A Pattern Language which Generates Multi-service Centers, with Ishikawa and Silverstein (1968) Houses Generated by Patterns (1969) The Grass Roots Housing Process (1973) The Center for Environmental Structure Series, made up of: The Oregon Experiment (1975) A Pattern Language, with Ishikawa and Silverstein (1977) The Timeless Way of Building (1979) The Linz Cafe (1981) The Production of Houses, with Davis, Martinez, and Corner (1985) A New Theory of Urban Design, with Neis, Anninou, and King (1987) Foreshadowing of 21st Century Art: The Color and Geometry of Very Early Turkish Carpets (1993) The Mary Rose Museum, with Black and Tsutsui (1995) The Nature of Order Book 1: The Phenomenon of Life (2002) The Nature of Order Book 2: The Process of Creating Life (2002) The Nature of Order Book 3: A Vision of a Living World (2005) The Nature of Order Book 4: The Luminous Ground (2004) The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle between Two World-Systems, with Hans Joachim Neis and Maggie More Alexander (2012) Unpublished: Sustainability and Morphogenesis (working title)	[ "design science", "Catholic Church", "Peter Buchanan (architect)", "design patterns", "Spore (2008 video game)", "West Sussex", "Sara Ishikawa", "urbanism", "Notes on the Synthesis of Form", "National Building Museum", "extreme programming", "A Theory of Architecture", "The Hillside Group", "Sala House", "Murray Silverstein", "Vincent Scully Prize", "Harvard Society of Fellows", "Will Wright (game designer)", "University of California, Berkeley", "complex networks", "MIT", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Andres Duany", "Nazi regime", "Congress for the New Urbanism", "Sarah Susanka", "Robert Neuwirth", "A Pattern Language", "Living Villages", "Nikos Salingaros", "Wiki", "community structure", "Oundle School", "Dragon School", "Martinez, California", "wiki", "Harvard University", "Michael Mehaffy", "Arundel", "Vienna", "Peter Eisenman", "Building Beauty", "pattern language", "Global Award for Sustainable Architecture", "A City is Not a Tree", "Pattern language", "Pattern gardening", "Louis Kahn", "urban design", "object-oriented programming", "Trinity College, Cambridge", "Chichester", "Berkeley, California", "Hillside Group", "pneumonia", "Professors in the United States", "shanty town", "Federal State of Austria", "New Urbanist", "Bachelor's degree", "University of Oregon", "UC Berkeley", "The Architectural Review", "American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "The Timeless Way of Building", "Oxford", "Greg Bryant (computer scientist)", "SimCity", "The Prince's Foundation for the Built Environment", "Design theory", "San Jose, California", "human perception", "generative grammar", "Urban Design Group", "The Oregon Experiment", "agile software development", "University of California Berkeley", "Design pattern (computer science)", "The Nature of Order", "programming language design", "Serge Chermayeff", "belief", "Albany, California", "Witold Rybczynski", "Charles III", "Deism", "The New York Times", "Vault (architecture)", "Edsger Dijkstra", "Mexicali", "Robert Campbell (journalist)", "Ward Cunningham", "Stewart Brand" ]
7,614	Clabbers	Clabbers is a game played by tournament Scrabble players for fun, or occasionally at Scrabble variant tournaments. The name derives from the fact that the words CLABBERS and SCRABBLE form an anagram pair. ==Rules== The rules are identical to those of Scrabble, except that valid plays are only required to form anagrams of acceptable words; in other words, the letters in a word do not need to be placed in the correct order. If a word is challenged, the player who played the word must then name an acceptable word that anagrams to the tiles played. Because the number of "words" that can be formed is vastly larger than in standard English, the board usually ends up tightly packed in places, and necessarily quite empty in others. Game scores will often be much higher than in standard Scrabble, due to the relative ease of making high-scoring overlap plays and easier access to premium squares. ==Web version== The Internet Scrabble Club offers the ability to play Clabbers online. ==Example game (SOWPODS)== Horizontal words from top to bottom (# denotes words that exist in the Collins English Dictionary but not the TWL). Some of the words below have multiple anagrams: ALI = AIL TOD = DOT ISNAETCR = CANISTER WOPL = PLOW DEER = DEER ZIF = FIZ SIATX = TAXIS BTADEI = BAITED MGU = GUM EMING = MINGE# ECOPU = COUPE RATHE = HEART IQ = QI VUEJ = JUVE# EWY = WYE ODOR = ODOR ASSGEOU = GASEOUS ROH = RHO Vertical words from left to right ATIW = WAIT KAMER = MAKER LOSODF = FLOODS GCALINS = SCALING IDNPE = PINED UOT = OUT ALEZ = LAZE PHA = HAP RSITOUEN = ROUTINES FIAR = FAIR EBRYE = BEERY XIM = MIX NAV = VAN UO = OU# GULNED = LUNGED JOR = JOR# RO = OR	[ "Jor (disambiguation)", "The Boston Globe", "Scrabble", "Internet Scrabble Club", "Collins English Dictionary", "Qi", "Rho (disambiguation)", "standard English", "anagram", "The New York Times" ]
7,616	Canopus (disambiguation)	Canopus (or Alpha Carinae) is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina. Canopus may also refer to: Canopus (insect), Neotropical bug genus Canopus (mythology), in Homeric myth, the pilot of King Menelaus's ship Canopus (nuclear test) was the name given to the first test of the French hydrogen bomb, in 1968, with a yield of 2.8 megatons Canopus (Thrace), a town of ancient Thrace, a suburb of Byzantium Canopus, Egypt, an ancient Egyptian city near modern-day Abu Qir, in the Nile Delta Canopus 2, an Argentine sounding rocket Canopus Corporation, a manufacturer of video editing cards and video editing software Canopus G-ADHL, a Short Empire flying boat Canopus in Argos, a series of space fiction by Doris Lessing Canopic jar, ancient Egyptian vessel for storing organs removed by mummification procedure Canopus Lake, a lake in Clarence Fahnestock State Park in New York State, USA HMS Canopus, two ships of the Royal Navy USS Canopus, three ships of the United States Navy	[ "Canopus (Thrace)", "Canopus (mythology)", "Short Empire", "Canopus in Argos", "USS Canopus", "Canopus, Egypt", "Canopus", "Canopus Corporation", "Canopus (drums)", "Canopic jar", "Canopus 2", "Canopus (insect)", "HMS Canopus", "Canopus (nuclear test)", "Canopus Lake" ]
7,617	Corum Jhaelen Irsei	Corum Jhaelen Irsei (known also as "the Prince in the Scarlet Robe" and "Corum of the Silver Hand") is a fictional fantasy hero in a series of novels written by Michael Moorcock. The character was introduced in the novel The Knight of Swords, published in 1971. This was followed by two other books published during the same year, The Queen of Swords and The King of Swords. The three novels are collectively known as the "Corum Chronicles trilogy" or "the Chronicles of Corum". Both The Knight of the Swords and The King of the Swords won the August Derleth Award in 1972 and 1973 respectively. The character then starred in three books making up the "Silver Hand trilogy", and has appeared in other stories taking place in Moorcock's multiverse. Corum is a hero with disabilities, losing his left hand and right eye early in his first story. The hand and eye are later replaced by the Eye of Rhynn and the six-fingered Hand of Kwll, powerful artifacts that help Corum against his enemies. Corum is usually reluctant to use these two artifacts, as they involve methods and dark forces that conflict with his personal morality. Since the Eye of Rhynn causes Corum to see multiple planes of reality simultaneously, he often wears an eye patch over it to keep from being overwhelmed. After he loses both artifacts, Corum relies on a normal eyepatch and a silver prosthetic hand. Corum is one of many incarnations of Michael Moorcock's "Eternal Champion", a soul who is reborn frequently throughout the multiverse and usually fights to restore or maintain the Cosmic Balance between Chaos and Law. In some stories, Corum's adventures allow him to meet other aspects of the Eternal Champion, such as Elric of Melniboné, Erekosë, and Dorian Hawkmoon. While Elric famously owes allegiance to the chaos god Arioch, Corum follows the cause of Law and begins his adventures by opposing the plans of Arioch (or his universe's version of the same being). == Fictional character biography == Corum lives during an age before recorded history, when human beings are rising on Earth and beginning to war with the planet's older societies. Corum's race, the Vadhagh, understands advanced science regarding the nature of reality. Through force of will, they are able to perceive and even shift through different dimensional planes for different purposes. The primitive humans of the age mistake these scientific tricks for sorcery and believe the Vadhagh engage in demonic rituals and witchcraft. Corum's people are long-lived and believe they have nothing to fear from humans. Over the centuries, they become complacent and ignorant of the world around them. As a result, they are taken by surprise when a human tribe hunts them down and slaughters them. The last survivor as far as he knows, Corum is tortured and mutilated by the human barbarians, losing an eye and a hand before he escapes. He wants vengeance against all humanity, but later learns humans make up many societies of different beliefs and moralities. After encountering sorcerers and god-like beings, Corum learns all reality is influenced by the forces of Chaos and Law. Corum dedicates himself to maintaining balance between both forces, as disaster and death occur if either side holds too much influence. ==Collections== ===The Swords Trilogy=== This trilogy consists of The Knight of the Swords (1971), The Queen of the Swords (1971), and The King of the Swords (1971). In the United Kingdom it has been collected as an omnibus edition titled Corum, Swords of Corum and most recently Corum: The Prince in the Scarlet Robe (vol. 30 of Orion's Fantasy Masterworks series). In the United States the first trilogy has been published as Corum: The Coming of Chaos. ====Plot==== Prince Corum is a Vadhagh, one of a race of long-lived beings with limited magical abilities dedicated to peaceful pursuits such as art and poetry. Corum's father sends him away from their home, Castle Erorn, on a quest to learn the fate of their kinsmen. Corum eventually discovers that a group of "Mabden" (men), led by the savage Earl Glandyth-a-Krae, have raided all of the Vadhaugh's castles, and raped and slaughtered all of the Vadhaugh therein, including Corum's entire family. Arming himself, Corum attacks and kills several of the Mabden before being captured and tortured. After having his left hand cut off and right eye put out, Corum escapes by moving into another plane of existence, becoming invisible to the Mabden. They depart, and Corum is found by The Brown Man, a dweller of the forest of Laahr able to see Corum while out of phase. The Brown Man takes Corum to a being called The Giant of Laahr, who treats his wounds and explains he has a higher purpose. Travelling to Moidel's Castle (a likely incarnation of Mont-Saint-Michel), Corum encounters his future lover, the Margravine Rhalina, a Mabden woman of the civilized land of Lwym an Esh. Having found out Corum's location by torturing and killing the Brown Man of Laahr, Glandyth-a-Krae marshalled his allies to Moidel's Castle. Glandyth had kept Corum's former hand and eye as souvenirs, and showed them to Corum to provoke a reaction. Rhalina uses sorcery (a ship summoned from the depths of the ocean and manned by her drowned dead husband and crew) to ward off an attack by Glandyth-a-Krae. Determined to restore himself, Corum and Rhalina travel to the island of Shool, a near immortal and mad sorcerer. During the journey Corum observes the Wading God, a mysterious giant who trawls the ocean with a net. Upon arriving at the island, Shool takes Rhalina hostage, and then provides Corum with two artifacts to replace his lost hand and eye: the Hand of Kwll and the Eye of Rhynn. The Eye of Rhynn allows Corum to see into an undead netherworld where the last beings killed by Corum exist until summoned by the Hand of Kwll. Shool then explains that Corum's ill fortune has been caused by the Chaos God Arioch, the Knight of the Swords. When Arioch and his fellow Chaos Lords conquered the Fifteen Planes, the balance between the forces of Law and Chaos tipped in favor of Chaos, and their minions - such as Glandyth-a-Krae - embarked on a bloody rampage. Shool sends Corum to Arioch's fortress to steal the Heart of Arioch, which the sorcerer intends to use to attain greater power. Corum confronts Arioch, and learns Shool is nothing more than a pawn of the Chaos God. Arioch then ignores Corum, who discovers the location of the Heart. Corum is then attacked by Arioch, but the Hand of Kwll crushes the Heart and banishes the Chaos God forever. Before fading from existence, Arioch warns Corum that he has now earned the enmity of the Sword Rulers. Corum then meets with The Giant of Laahr, who reveals himself to be Lord Arkyn, the godlike Lord of Law whose realm had been taken over by Arioch. Arkyn tells Corum the destruction of Arioch is the first step towards Law regaining control of the Fifteen Planes. Corum returns to the island to rescue Rhalina, and discovers Shool has become a powerless moron. Shool is devoured by his own creations soon afterwards. On another five planes, the forces of Chaos - led by Xiombarg, Queen of the Swords - reign supreme and are on the verge on eradicating the last resistance from the forces of Law. The avatars of the Bear and Dog gods plot with Earl Glandyth-a-Krae to murder Corum and return Arioch to the Fifteen Planes. Guided by Arkyn, Corum, Rhalina and companion Jhary-a-Conel cross the planes and encounter the King Without A Country, the last of his people who in turn is seeking the City in the Pyramid. The group locate the City, which is in fact a floating arsenal powered by advanced technology and inhabited by a people originally from Corum's world and his distant kin. Besieged by the forces of Chaos, the City requires certain rare minerals to continue to power their weapons. Corum and Jhary attempt to locate the minerals and also encounter Xiombarg, who learns of Corum's identity. Corum slows Xiombarg's forces by defeating their leader, Prince Gaynor the Damned. Xiombarg is goaded into attacking the City directly in revenge for Arioch's banishment. Arkyn provides the minerals and confronts Xiombarg, who has manifested in a vulnerable state. As Arkyn banishes Xiombarg, Corum and his allies devastate the forces of Chaos. Glandyth-a-Krae, however, escapes and seeks revenge. A spell - determined to have been cast by the forces of Chaos - forces the inhabitants of Corum's plane to war with each other (including the City in the Pyramid). Desperate to stop the slaughter, Corum, Rhalina and Jhary-a-Conel travel to the last five planes, ruled by Mabelode, the King of the Swords. Rhalina is taken hostage by the forces of Chaos and Corum has several encounters with the forces of Chaos, including Earl Glandyth-a-Krae. Corum also meets two other aspects of the Eternal Champion: Elric and Erekosë, with all three seeking the mystical city of Tanelorn for their own purposes. After a brief adventure in the "Vanishing Tower", the other heroes depart and Corum and Jhary arrive at their version of Tanelorn. Corum discovers one of the "Lost Gods", the being Kwll, who is imprisoned and cannot be freed until whole. Corum offers Kwll his hand, on the condition that he aid them against Mabelode. Kwll accepts the terms, but reneges on the bargain until persuaded to assist. Corum is also stripped of his artificial eye, which belongs to Kwll's brother, the Lost God Rhynn. Kwll transports Corum and Jhary to the court of Mabelode, with the pair fleeing with Rhalina when Kwll directly challenges the Chaos God. On Kwll's instruction, Corum tosses the eye into the sea. It is recovered by the mysterious Wading God Corum had previously encountered, who is revealed to be Rhynn, which distracts Glandyth-a-Krae during his duel with Corum. In a final battle, Corum avenges his family by killing Glandyth-a-Krae and decimating the last of Chaos' mortal forces. Kwll later appears to Corum and reveals that all the gods - of both Chaos and Law - have been slain in order to free humanity and allow it to shape its own destiny. ===The Silver Hand Trilogy=== This trilogy consists of The Bull and the Spear (1973), The Oak and the Ram (1973), and The Sword and the Stallion (1974). It was titled The Prince with the Silver Hand in the United Kingdom and The Chronicles of Corum in the United States respectively. The previous trilogy hinted at a Celtic or proto-Celtic setting for the stories - the terms mabden (human beings) and shefanhow (demons) occurring in these books are both Cornish language words. The Silver Hand trilogy is more explicit in its Celtic connections, with overt borrowings from Celtic mythology. ====Plot==== Set eighty years after the defeat of the Sword Rulers, Corum has become despondent and alone since the death of his Mabden bride Rhalina. Plagued by voices at night, Corum believes he has gone insane until old friend Jhary-a-Conel advises Corum it is in fact a summons from another world. Listening to the voices allows Corum to pass to the other world, which is in fact the distant future. The descendants of Rhalina's folk, the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich (see: Crom Cruach), who call Corum "Corum Llew Ereint" (see: Lludd Llaw Eraint), face extinction by the Fhoi Myore (Fomorians). The Fhoi Myore, seven powerful but diseased and barely sentient giants, with the aid of their allies have conquered the land and plunged it into eternal winter. Allying himself with King Mannach, ruler of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich, Corum falls in love with his daughter Medhbh (see: Medb). Corum also hears the prophecy of a seeress, who claims Corum should fear a brother (who will apparently slay him), a harp and above all, beauty. Corum seeks the lost artifacts of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich - a sacred Bull, a spear, an oak, a ram, a sword and a stallion - which will restore the land. Corum gains new allies, Goffanon (a blacksmith and diminutive giant, a member of the Sidhe race) and Goffanon's cousin and true giant Illbrec. They battle the Fhoi Myore, who themselves have allies: a returned Prince Gaynor, the wizard Calatin and his clone of Corum, the Brothers of the Pine, the undead Ghoolegh and a host of giant demonic dogs. After being instrumental in the death of two of the Fhoi Myore and restoring to his senses the encircled Amergin, the High King and Chief Druid of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich, Corum and his allies fight a final battle in which all their foes are destroyed. Corum decides not to return his own world, and is attacked by his clone, whom he defeats with the aid of a spell placed on his silver hand by Medhbh. Medhbh, however, attacks and wounds Corum, having been told by the being the Dagdah that their world must be free of all gods and demi-gods if they are to flourish as a people. Corum is then killed with his own sword by his animated silver hand, thereby fulfilling the prophecy.	[ "Erekosë", "fictional", "Gofannon", "Cornish language", "avatar", "Prophet", "Stormbringer (role-playing game)", "Mont-Saint-Michel", "magic item", "Limited series (comics)", "Jhary-a-Conel", "The Dagda", "Cloning", "Dorian Hawkmoon", "Lludd Llaw Eraint", "August Derleth Award", "Celts", "Medb", "Victor Gollancz Ltd", "Melniboné", "Crom Cruach", "Chaosium", "Elric", "Amergin Glúingel", "Fantasy Masterworks", "Sidhe", "blacksmith", "Orion Books", "Fomorians", "Cŵn Annwn", "role-playing game", "Multiverse (Michael Moorcock)", "First Comics", "Eternal Champion (character)", "Arioch", "Michael Moorcock", "Elric of Melniboné" ]
7,618	Cumberland (disambiguation)	Cumberland is one of the historic counties of England. Cumberland may also refer to: == Places == ===Australia=== Cumberland, Queensland, a ghost town west of Georgetown Cumberland County, New South Wales, containing most of the Sydney metropolitan area Cumberland Council, New South Wales Cumberland Islands (Queensland) Cumberland Park, South Australia, a suburb south of Adelaide Cumberland Land District, Tasmania Cumberland Plain, a biogeographical region in Sydney Cumberland Plain Woodland, a woodland community in Sydney ===Canada=== Cumberland (Edmonton), Alberta, a neighbourhood Cumberland (federal electoral district), former district in Nova Scotia Cumberland (Nova Scotia provincial electoral district), former district Cumberland (Saskatchewan provincial electoral district), current district Cumberland (territorial electoral district), former district in what is now Saskatchewan Cumberland, British Columbia Cumberland, Ontario (disambiguation), three locations within the Canadian province of Ontario Cumberland County, Nova Scotia Cumberland House, Saskatchewan Cumberland House Provincial Park, Saskatchewan Cumberland Lake, Saskatchewan Cumberland Sound, an inlet into Baffin Island ===United States=== ====Place names by state==== Cumberland County (disambiguation), in 10 of the United States, as well as in Canada and Australia Cumberland, Georgia, an edge city of Atlanta, business district, and neighborhood Cumberland Island, in Eastern Georgia, a geographical feature and a town Cumberland Island National Seashore Cumberland, Indiana Cumberland, Iowa Cumberland, Kentucky Cumberland, Maine in Cumberland County Cumberland Center, Maine Cumberland, Maryland Cumberland Narrows Cumberland Bone Cave, a fossil-filled cave, Wills Mountain, Allegany County, Maryland Cumberland, New Jersey Cumberland Head, New York Cumberland, Ohio Cumberland, Oklahoma Cumberland Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania Cumberland Township, Greene County, Pennsylvania Cumberland, Rhode Island, a town Cumberland Hill, Rhode Island, within the town Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, a town within Cumberland Gap National Historical Park Cumberland Gap National Historical Park (see also below) Cumberland City, Tennessee, in Stewart County on the Cumberland River Cumberland, Virginia in Cumberland County Cumberland, New Kent County, Virginia Cumberland (New Kent, Virginia), a historic farm property Cumberland, Washington Cumberland, Wisconsin, a city Cumberland, Barron County, Wisconsin, a town ====Regional features==== Cumberland Gap, a pass through the Appalachian Mountains near junction of Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee. Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee and Kentucky Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee and Kentucky Cumberland River in Tennessee and Kentucky Cumberland Falls Lake Cumberland, an artificial lake on the Cumberland River Cumberland Road, a historical road, part of the National Road, the first US federal highway Cumberland Valley, in Pennsylvania and Maryland Cumberland Valley AVA, wine region ===Other places=== Cumberland (unitary authority), Cumbria, England, covering a similar area to the historic county Cumberland, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Cumberland (ward), one of the ancient divisions of the county of Cumberland, England Cumberland River (disambiguation) ==People== Cumberland (surname) Duke of Cumberland, a former and currently suspended peerage of England, Great Britain and the United Kingdom Earl of Cumberland, a former peerage of England ==Companies== Cumberland Drugs, a defunct chain of pharmacies located in Quebec and eastern Ontario Cumberland Farms, a chain of convenience stores found primarily in the northeastern United States Cumberland Records, a record label ==Education== Cumberland School of Law, in Birmingham, Alabama Cumberland University, in Lebanon, Tennessee University of the Cumberlands in Williamsburg, Kentucky ==Food== Cumberland sauce, a fruit-based sauce Cumberland sausage, a traditional sausage recipe in Britain ==Healthcare institutions== Cumberland Infirmary, a hospital in Carlisle West Cumberland Hospital, a hospital in Whitehaven ==Ships== Cumberland (ship), four merchant ships HMS Cumberland, eleven ships of the Royal Navy USS Cumberland, three ships of the United States Navy ==Sports== Cumberland (rugby league team), a team in the inaugural New South Wales Rugby League competition Cumberland United, an Association Football club in Adelaide, Australia ==Other uses== 1964 Cumberland B-52 crash, an accident involving a nuclear bomber Army of the Cumberland, part of the Union Army in the American Civil War Cumberland Arms, a pub in Adelaide, South Australia Cumberland Building Society, a building society Cumberland Presbyterian Church, a Presbyterian denomination in Protestant Christianity Cumberland station (disambiguation), stations of the name	[ "Cumberland (Nova Scotia provincial electoral district)", "Cumberland, Maine", "Cumberland Arms", "Cumberland Island", "Cumberland, Washington", "Cumberland, New Jersey", "Cumberland (Edmonton)", "Cumberland Islands (Queensland)", "Cumberland Township, Greene County, Pennsylvania", "Lake Cumberland", "West Cumberland Hospital", "Cumberland County (disambiguation)", "Cumberland", "Cumberland, Rhode Island", "Cumberland (territorial electoral district)", "Cumberland Center, Maine", "Cumberland, Oklahoma", "Cumberland Plateau", "Cumberland, Iowa", "Cumberland House, Saskatchewan", "USS Cumberland", "Cumberland, Barron County, Wisconsin", "Cumberland United", "Cumberland School of Law", "Cumberland station (disambiguation)", "Cumberland Infirmary", "Cumberland (surname)", "Cumberland Road", "Cumberland Building Society", "1964 Cumberland B-52 crash", "Cumberland Plain", "Earl of Cumberland", "Cumberland (federal electoral district)", "Cumberland Sound", "Cumberland Valley AVA", "Cumberland (unitary authority)", "Cumberland House Provincial Park", "Cumberland University", "University of the Cumberlands", "Cumberland County, Nova Scotia", "Cumberland, Queensland", "Cumberland, Kentucky", "Cumberland Falls", "Cumberland, New Kent County, Virginia", "Cumberland Plain Woodland", "Cumberland Narrows", "Cumberland sauce", "Cumberland Park, South Australia", "Army of the Cumberland", "Cumberland (ship)", "Cumberland, British Columbia", "Cumberland (rugby league team)", "Cumberland Gap National Historical Park", "Cumberland Presbyterian Church", "Cumberland, Ohio", "Cumberland (Saskatchewan provincial electoral district)", "Cumberland, Virginia", "Cumberland Mountains", "Cumberland, Indiana", "Cumberland (ward)", "Cumberland Drugs", "Cumberland River", "Cumberland Valley", "Cumberland City, Tennessee", "Cumberland Gap", "Cumberland, Ontario (disambiguation)", "Cumberland (New Kent, Virginia)", "Cumberland River (disambiguation)", "Cumberland Council, New South Wales", "Cumberland, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "Cumberland Island National Seashore", "Cumberland Gap, Tennessee", "Cumberland Hill, Rhode Island", "Cumberland, Wisconsin", "Cumberland sausage", "Cumberland Records", "Cumberland Lake", "Cumberland Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania", "Cumberland County, New South Wales", "Cumberland, Maryland", "Cumberland Head, New York", "Cumberland Bone Cave", "Cumberland, Georgia", "Cumberland Farms", "Duke of Cumberland", "HMS Cumberland", "Cumberland Land District" ]
7,619	Capella (disambiguation)	Capella is a bright star in the constellation of Auriga. Capella may also refer to: ==Places== Capella, Queensland, a town in the Central Highlands Region, Australia Capella, Aragon, a municipality in Huesca, Spain Capella Island, a minor island of the U.S. Virgin Islands ==Hotels== Capella Bangkok Capella Resort, Singapore ==Science and technology== Capella (crater), an impact crater on the Moon Capella (engineering), an open-source engineering solution Capella Space, an American space company ==Music== Capella (music), a musical ensemble Capella (notation program), a program by capella Software AG ==Transportation and industry== Mazda Capella, a model of automobile USS Capella, a cargo ship of the United States Navy Capella (concrete ship), a concrete ship built in World War II Capella Aircraft, an American aircraft manufacturer ==Other uses== Capella University, an online academic institution based in Minneapolis, Minnesota Gallinago or Capella, a genus of snipes ==People with the name== Martianus Capella, writer and astronomer of late antiquity	[ "Capella, Queensland", "Capella, Aragon", "Capella (engineering)", "Capella Resort, Singapore", "Capella Aircraft", "Capella Space", "Capella University", "Gallinago", "Capela (disambiguation)", "A cappella (disambiguation)", "USS Capella", "Capella (concrete ship)", "Martianus Capella", "Chapel (music)", "Capella Island", "Capella Bangkok", "Capella", "Cappella (disambiguation)", "Capella (notation program)", "Kapella (disambiguation)", "Capella (crater)", "Capelle (disambiguation)", "Mazda Capella" ]
7,622	Complex instruction set computer	A complex instruction set computer (CISC ) is a computer architecture in which single instructions can execute several low-level operations (such as a load from memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store) or are capable of multi-step operations or addressing modes within single instructions. The term was retroactively coined in contrast to reduced instruction set computer (RISC) and has therefore become something of an umbrella term for everything that is not RISC, where the typical differentiating characteristic is that most RISC designs use uniform instruction length for almost all instructions, and employ strictly separate load and store instructions. Examples of CISC architectures include complex mainframe computers to simplistic microcontrollers where memory load and store operations are not separated from arithmetic instructions. Specific instruction set architectures that have been retroactively labeled CISC are System/360 through z/Architecture, the PDP-11 and VAX architectures, and many others. Well known microprocessors and microcontrollers that have also been labeled CISC in many academic publications include the Motorola 6800, 6809 and 68000 families; the Intel 8080, iAPX 432, x86 and 8051 families; the Zilog Z80, Z8 and Z8000 families; the National Semiconductor NS320xx family; the MOS Technology 6502 family; and others. Some designs have been regarded as borderline cases by some writers. For instance, the Microchip Technology PIC has been labeled RISC in some circles and CISC in others. ==Incitements and benefits== Before the RISC philosophy became prominent, many computer architects tried to bridge the so-called semantic gap, i.e., to design instruction sets that directly support high-level programming constructs such as procedure calls, loop control, and complex addressing modes, allowing data structure and array accesses to be combined into single instructions. Instructions are also typically highly encoded in order to further enhance the code density. The compact nature of such instruction sets results in smaller program sizes and fewer main memory accesses (which were often slow), which at the time (early 1960s and onwards) resulted in a tremendous saving on the cost of computer memory and disc storage, as well as faster execution. It also meant good programming productivity even in assembly language, as high level languages such as Fortran or Algol were not always available or appropriate. Indeed, microprocessors in this category are sometimes still programmed in assembly language for certain types of critical applications. ===New instructions=== In the 1970s, analysis of high-level languages indicated compilers produced some complex corresponding machine language. It was determined that new instructions could improve performance. Some instructions were added that were never intended to be used in assembly language but fit well with compiled high-level languages. Compilers were updated to take advantage of these instructions. The benefits of semantically rich instructions with compact encodings can be seen in modern processors as well, particularly in the high-performance segment where caches are a central component (as opposed to most embedded systems). This is because these fast, but complex and expensive, memories are inherently limited in size, making compact code beneficial. Of course, the fundamental reason they are needed is that main memories (i.e., dynamic RAM today) remain slow compared to a (high-performance) CPU core. ==Design issues== While many designs achieved the aim of higher throughput at lower cost and also allowed high-level language constructs to be expressed by fewer instructions, it was observed that this was not always the case. For instance, low-end versions of complex architectures (i.e. using less hardware) could lead to situations where it was possible to improve performance by not using a complex instruction (such as a procedure call or enter instruction) but instead using a sequence of simpler instructions. One reason for this was that architects (microcode writers) sometimes "over-designed" assembly language instructions, including features that could not be implemented efficiently on the basic hardware available. There could, for instance, be "side effects" (above conventional flags), such as the setting of a register or memory location that was perhaps seldom used; if this was done via ordinary (non duplicated) internal buses, or even the external bus, it would demand extra cycles every time, and thus be quite inefficient. Even in balanced high-performance designs, highly encoded and (relatively) high-level instructions could be complicated to decode and execute efficiently within a limited transistor budget. Such architectures therefore required a great deal of work on the part of the processor designer in cases where a simpler, but (typically) slower, solution based on decode tables and/or microcode sequencing is not appropriate. At a time when transistors and other components were a limited resource, this also left fewer components and less opportunity for other types of performance optimizations. ===The RISC idea=== The circuitry that performs the actions defined by the microcode in many (but not all) CISC processors is, in itself, a processor which in many ways is reminiscent in structure to very early CPU designs. In the early 1970s, this gave rise to ideas to return to simpler processor designs in order to make it more feasible to cope without (then relatively large and expensive) ROM tables and/or PLA structures for sequencing and/or decoding. An early (retroactively) RISC-labeled processor (IBM 801 IBM's Watson Research Center, mid-1970s) was a tightly pipelined simple machine originally intended to be used as an internal microcode kernel, or engine, in CISC designs, but also became the processor that introduced the RISC idea to a somewhat larger audience. Simplicity and regularity also in the visible instruction set would make it easier to implement overlapping processor stages (pipelining) at the machine code level (i.e. the level seen by compilers). However, pipelining at that level was already used in some high-performance CISC "supercomputers" in order to reduce the instruction cycle time (despite the complications of implementing within the limited component count and wiring complexity feasible at the time). Internal microcode execution in CISC processors, on the other hand, could be more or less pipelined depending on the particular design, and therefore more or less akin to the basic structure of RISC processors. The CDC 6600 supercomputer, first delivered in 1965, has also been retroactively described as RISC. It had a load–store architecture which allowed up to five loads and two stores to be in progress simultaneously under programmer control. It also had multiple function units which could operate at the same time. ===Superscalar=== In a more modern context, the complex variable-length encoding used by some of the typical CISC architectures makes it complicated, but still feasible, to build a superscalar implementation of a CISC programming model directly; the in-order superscalar original Pentium and the out-of-order superscalar Cyrix 6x86 are well-known examples of this. The frequent memory accesses for operands of a typical CISC machine may limit the instruction-level parallelism that can be extracted from the code, although this is strongly mediated by the fast cache structures used in modern designs, as well as by other measures. Due to inherently compact and semantically rich instructions, the average amount of work performed per machine code unit (i.e. per byte or bit) is higher for a CISC than a RISC processor, which may give it a significant advantage in a modern cache-based implementation. Transistors for logic, PLAs, and microcode are no longer scarce resources; only large high-speed cache memories are limited by the maximum number of transistors today. Although complex, the transistor count of CISC decoders do not grow exponentially like the total number of transistors per processor (the majority typically used for caches). Together with better tools and enhanced technologies, this has led to new implementations of highly encoded and variable-length designs without load–store limitations (i.e. non-RISC). This governs re-implementations of older architectures such as the ubiquitous x86 (see below) as well as new designs for microcontrollers for embedded systems, and similar uses. The superscalar complexity in the case of modern x86 was solved by converting instructions into one or more micro-operations and dynamically issuing those micro-operations, i.e. indirect and dynamic superscalar execution; the Pentium Pro and AMD K5 are early examples of this. It allows a fairly simple superscalar design to be located after the (fairly complex) decoders (and buffers), giving, so to speak, the best of both worlds in many respects. This technique is also used in IBM z196 and later z/Architecture microprocessors. ===CISC and RISC terms=== The terms CISC and RISC have become less meaningful with the continued evolution of both CISC and RISC designs and implementations. The first highly (or tightly) pipelined x86 implementations, the 486 designs from Intel, AMD, Cyrix, and IBM, supported every instruction that their predecessors did, but achieved maximum efficiency only on a fairly simple x86 subset that was only a little more than a typical RISC instruction set (i.e., without typical RISC load–store limits). The Intel P5 Pentium generation was a superscalar version of these principles. However, modern x86 processors also (typically) decode and split instructions into dynamic sequences of internally buffered micro-operations, which helps execute a larger subset of instructions in a pipelined (overlapping) fashion, and facilitates more advanced extraction of parallelism out of the code stream, for even higher performance. Contrary to popular simplifications (present also in some academic texts,) not all CISCs are microcoded or have "complex" instructions. As CISC became a catch-all term meaning anything that's not a load–store (RISC) architecture, it's not the number of instructions, nor the complexity of the implementation or of the instructions, that define CISC, but that arithmetic instructions also perform memory accesses. Compared to a small 8-bit CISC processor, a RISC floating-point instruction is complex. CISC does not even need to have complex addressing modes; 32- or 64-bit RISC processors may well have more complex addressing modes than small 8-bit CISC processors. A PDP-10, a PDP-8, an Intel 80386, an Intel 4004, a Motorola 68000, a System z mainframe, a Burroughs B5000, a VAX, a Zilog Z80000, and a MOS Technology 6502 all vary widely in the number, sizes, and formats of instructions, the number, types, and sizes of registers, and the available data types. Some have hardware support for operations like scanning for a substring, arbitrary-precision BCD arithmetic, or transcendental functions, while others have only 8-bit addition and subtraction. But they are all in the CISC category. because they have "load-operate" instructions that load and/or store memory contents within the same instructions that perform the actual calculations. For instance, the PDP-8, having only 8 fixed-length instructions and no microcode at all, is a CISC because of how the instructions work, PowerPC, which has over 230 instructions (more than some VAXes), and complex internals like register renaming and a reorder buffer, is a RISC, while Minimal CISC has 8 instructions, but is clearly a CISC because it combines memory access and computation in the same instructions.	[ "PDP-8", "Zero instruction set computer", "computer architecture", "AMD", "dynamic RAM", "iAPX 432", "IBM", "x86", "embedded system", "P5 (microarchitecture)", "microcode", "Motorola 6800", "Intel 80386", "Fortran", "programmable logic array", "umbrella term", "CDC 6600", "microcontroller", "Zilog Z8", "PIC microcontroller", "System z", "semantic gap", "8051", "Intel P5", "VAX", "Motorola 68000", "Microchip Technology", "Reduced instruction set computer", "instruction set architecture", "PDP-10", "Cyrix 6x86", "Cyrix", "load–store architecture", "programming productivity", "6809", "6502", "Minimal instruction set computer", "mainframe computer", "Association for Computing Machinery", "System/360", "IBM 801", "PDP-11", "ALGOL", "Zilog Z80000", "Explicitly parallel instruction computing", "Intel", "One-instruction set computer", "micro-operations", "Intel 4004", "Minimal CISC", "superscalar", "Motorola 68000 series", "Memory (computers)", "z/Architecture", "arithmetic", "operator (programming)", "Pipeline (computing)", "MOS Technology 6502", "8080", "Z8000", "Microcode", "Very long instruction word", "addressing mode", "Z80", "micro-operation", "reduced instruction set computer", "high level language", "IBM z196", "Pentium", "Pentium Pro", "National Semiconductor", "Burroughs B5000", "transcendental function", "Computer program", "NS32000", "AMD K5", "assembly language", "Comparison of instruction set architectures" ]
7,624	CISC	CISC may refer to: Caribbean Island Swimming Championships Chongqing Iron and Steel Company Clean intermittent self-catheterisation, a form of urinary catheterization Complex instruction set computer Criminal Intelligence Service Canada CRTC Interconnection Steering Committee	[ "Chongqing Iron and Steel Company", "Criminal Intelligence Service Canada", "Complex instruction set computer", "urinary catheterization", "Caribbean Island Swimming Championships", "Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission" ]
7,626	Cetacea	Cetacea (; , ) is an infraorder of aquatic mammals belonging to the order Artiodactyla that includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. Key characteristics are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size and exclusively carnivorous diet. They propel themselves through the water with powerful up-and-down movement of their tail which ends in a paddle-like fluke, using their flipper-shaped forelimbs to maneuver. While the majority of cetaceans live in marine environments, a small number reside solely in brackish water or fresh water. Having a cosmopolitan distribution, they can be found in some rivers and all of Earth's oceans, and many species inhabit vast ranges where they migrate with the changing of the seasons. Cetaceans are famous for their high intelligence, complex social behaviour, and the enormous size of some of the group's members. For example, the blue whale reaches a maximum confirmed length of and a weight of 173 tonnes (190 short tons), making it the largest animal ever known to have existed. There are approximately 89 living species split into two parvorders: Odontoceti or toothed whales (containing porpoises, dolphins, other predatory whales like the beluga and the sperm whale, and the poorly understood beaked whales) and the filter feeding Mysticeti or baleen whales (which includes species like the blue whale, the humpback whale and the bowhead whale). Despite their highly modified bodies and carnivorous lifestyle, genetic and fossil evidence places cetaceans as nested within even-toed ungulates, most closely related to hippopotamus within the clade Whippomorpha. Cetaceans have been extensively hunted for their meat, blubber and oil by commercial operations. Although the International Whaling Commission has agreed on putting a halt to commercial whaling, whale hunting is still going on, either under IWC quotas to assist the subsistence of Arctic native people or in the name of scientific research, although a large spectrum of non-lethal methods are now available to study marine mammals in the wild. Cetaceans also face severe environmental hazards from underwater noise pollution, entanglement in abandoned ropes and nets, collisions with ships, plastic and heavy metals build-up, to accelerating climate change, but how much they are affected varies widely from species to species, from minimally in the case of the southern bottlenose whale to the baiji (Chinese river dolphin) which is considered to be functionally extinct due to human activity. == Baleen whales and toothed whales == The two parvorders, baleen whales (Mysticeti) and toothed whales (Odontoceti), are thought to have diverged around thirty-four million years ago. Baleen whales have bristles made of keratin instead of teeth. The bristles filter krill and other small invertebrates from seawater. Grey whales feed on bottom-dwelling mollusks. Rorqual family (balaenopterids) use throat pleats to expand their mouths to take in food and sieve out the water. Balaenids (right whales and bowhead whales) have massive heads that can make up 40% of their body mass. Most mysticetes prefer the food-rich colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, migrating to the Equator to give birth. During this process, they are capable of fasting for several months, relying on their fat reserves. The parvorder of Odontocetes – the toothed whales – include sperm whales, beaked whales, orcas, dolphins and porpoises. Generally their teeth have evolved to catch fish, squid or other marine invertebrates, not for chewing them, so prey is swallowed whole. Teeth are shaped like cones (dolphins and sperm whales), spades (porpoises), pegs (belugas), tusks (narwhals) or variable (beaked whale males). Female beaked whales' teeth are hidden in the gums and are not visible, and most male beaked whales have only two short tusks. Narwhals have vestigial teeth other than their tusk, which is present on males and 15% of females and has millions of nerves to sense water temperature, pressure and salinity. A few toothed whales, such as some orcas, feed on mammals such as pinnipeds and other whales. Toothed whales have well-developed senses – their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water, and they have advanced sonar capabilities using their melon. Their hearing is so well-adapted for both air and water that some blind specimens can survive. Some species, such as sperm whales, are well adapted for diving to great depths. Several species of toothed whales show sexual dimorphism, in which the males differ from the females, usually for purposes of sexual display or aggression. == Anatomy == Cetacean bodies are generally similar to those of fish, which can be attributed to their lifestyle and the habitat conditions. Their body is well-adapted to their habitat, although they share essential characteristics with other higher mammals (Eutheria). They have a streamlined shape, and their forelimbs are flippers. Almost all have a dorsal fin on their backs, but this can take on many forms, depending on the species. A few species, such as the beluga whale, lack them. Both the flipper and the fin are for stabilization and steering in the water. The male genitals and the mammary glands of females are sunken into the body. The male genitals are attached to a vestigial pelvis. The body is wrapped in a thick layer of fat, known as blubber. This provides thermal insulation and gives cetaceans their smooth, streamlined body shape. In larger species, it can reach a thickness up to . Sexual dimorphism evolved in many toothed whales. Sperm whales, narwhals, many members of the beaked whale family, several species of the porpoise family, orcas, pilot whales, eastern spinner dolphins and northern right whale dolphins show this characteristic. Males in these species developed external features absent in females that are advantageous in combat or display. For example, male sperm whales are up to 63% percent larger than females, and many beaked whales possess tusks used in competition among males. Hind legs are not present in cetaceans, nor are any other external body attachments such as a pinna and hair. === Head === Whales have an elongated head, especially baleen whales, due to the wide overhanging jaw. Bowhead whale plates can be long. Their nostril(s) make up the blowhole, with one in toothed whales and two in baleen whales. The nostrils are located on top of the head above the eyes so that the rest of the body can remain submerged while surfacing for air. The back of the skull is significantly shortened and deformed. By shifting the nostrils to the top of the head, the nasal passages extend perpendicularly through the skull. The teeth or baleen in the upper jaw sit exclusively on the maxilla. The braincase is concentrated through the nasal passage to the front and is correspondingly higher, with individual cranial bones that overlap. In toothed whales, connective tissue exists in the melon as a head buckle. This is filled with air sacs and fat that aid in buoyancy and biosonar. The sperm whale has a particularly pronounced melon; this is called the spermaceti organ and contains the eponymous spermaceti, hence the name "sperm whale". Even the long tusk of the narwhal is a vice-formed tooth. In many toothed whales, the depression in their skull is due to the formation of a large melon and multiple, asymmetric air bags. River dolphins, unlike most other cetaceans, can turn their head 90°. Most other cetaceans have fused neck vertebrae and are unable to turn their head at all. The baleen of baleen whales consists of long, fibrous strands of keratin. Located in place of the teeth, it has the appearance of a huge fringe and is used to sieve the water for plankton and krill. === Brain === Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on Earth, averaging and in mature males. The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans. In some whales, however, it is less than half that of humans: 0.9% versus 2.1%. In cetaceans, evolution in the water has caused changes to the head that have modified brain shape such that the brain folds around the insula and expands more laterally than in terrestrial mammals. As a result, the cetacean prefrontal cortex (compared to that in humans) rather than frontal is laterally positioned. Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of intelligence. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis of the relationship between mammalian brain mass (weight) and body mass for different species of mammals shows that larger species generally have larger brains. However, this increase is not fully proportional. Typically the brain mass only increases in proportion to somewhere between the two-thirds power (or the square of the cube root) and the three-quarters power (or the cube of the fourth root) of the body mass. mbrain ∝ (mbody)k where k is between two-thirds and three-quarters. Thus if Species B is twice the size of Species A, its brain size will typically be somewhere between 60% and 70% higher. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such an analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as an indication of animal intelligence. The neocortex of many cetaceans is home to elongated spindle neurons that, prior to 2019, were known only in hominids. In humans, these cells are thought to be involved in social conduct, emotions, judgment and theory of mind. Cetacean spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain homologous to where they are found in humans, suggesting they perform a similar function. === Skeleton === The cetacean skeleton is largely made up of cortical bone, which stabilizes the animal in the water. For this reason, the usual terrestrial compact bones, which are finely woven cancellous bone, are replaced with lighter and more elastic material. In many places, bone elements are replaced by cartilage and even fat, thereby improving their hydrostatic qualities. The ear and the muzzle contain a bone shape that is exclusive to cetaceans with a high density, resembling porcelain. This conducts sound better than other bones, thus aiding biosonar. The number of vertebrae that make up the spine varies by species, ranging from forty to ninety-three. The cervical spine, found in all mammals, consists of seven vertebrae which, however, are reduced or fused. This fusion provides stability during swimming at the expense of mobility. The fins are carried by the thoracic vertebrae, ranging from nine to seventeen individual vertebrae. The sternum is cartilaginous. The last two to three pairs of ribs are not connected and hang freely in the body wall. The stable lumbar and tail include the other vertebrae. Below the caudal vertebrae is the chevron bone. The front limbs are paddle-shaped with shortened arms and elongated finger bones, to support movement. They are connected by cartilage. The second and third fingers display a proliferation of the finger members, a so-called hyperphalangy. The shoulder joint is the only functional joint in all cetaceans except for the Amazon river dolphin. The collarbone is completely absent. === Fluke === Cetaceans have a cartilaginous fluke at the end of their tails that is used for propulsion. The fluke is set horizontally on the body and used with vertical movements, unlike fish and ichthyosaurs, which have vertical tails which move horizontally. == Physiology == === Circulation === Cetaceans have powerful hearts. Blood oxygen is distributed effectively throughout the body. They are warm-blooded, i.e., they hold a nearly constant body temperature. === Respiration === Cetaceans have lungs, meaning they breathe air. An individual can last without a breath from a few minutes to over two hours depending on the species. Cetacea are deliberate breathers who must be awake to inhale and exhale. When stale air, warmed from the lungs, is exhaled, it condenses as it meets colder external air. As with a terrestrial mammal breathing out on a cold day, a small cloud of 'steam' appears. This is called the 'spout' and varies across species in shape, angle and height. Species can be identified at a distance using this characteristic. The structure of the respiratory and circulatory systems is of particular importance for the life of marine mammals. The oxygen balance is effective. Each breath can replace up to 90% of the total lung volume. For land mammals, in comparison, this value is usually about 15%. During inhalation, about twice as much oxygen is absorbed by the lung tissue as in a land mammal. As with all mammals, the oxygen is stored in the blood and the lungs, but in cetaceans, it is also stored in various tissues, mainly in the muscles. The muscle pigment, myoglobin, provides an effective bond. This additional oxygen storage is vital for deep diving, since beyond a depth around , the lung tissue is almost completely compressed by the water pressure. === Abdominal organs === The stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales); this is followed by the main stomach and the pylorus. Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished histologically. The liver is large and separate from the gall bladder. The kidneys are long and flattened. The salt concentration in cetacean blood is lower than that in seawater, requiring kidneys to excrete salt. This allows the animals to drink seawater. The urinary bladder is proportionally smaller in cetaceans than in land mammals. The testes are located internally, without an external scrotum. The uterus is bicornuate. ====Electroreception==== At least one species, the tucuxi or Guiana dolphin, is able to use electroreception to sense prey. === Ears === Cetaceans are known to possess excellent hearing. The external ear has lost the pinna (visible ear), but still retains a narrow ear canal. The three small bones or ossicles that transmit sound within each ear are dense and compact, and differently shaped from those of land mammals. The semicircular canals are much smaller relative to body size than in other mammals. A bony structure of the middle and inner ear, the auditory bulla, is composed of two compact and dense bones (the periotic and tympanic). It is housed in a cavity in the middle ear; in the Odontoceti (apart from in the physeterids, this cavity is filled with dense foam and completely surrounds the bulla, which is connected to the skull only by ligaments. This may isolate the ear from sounds transmitted through the bones of the skull, something that also happens in bats. Cetaceans use sound to communicate, using groans, moans, whistles, clicks or the 'singing' of the humpback whale. They can discern the size, shape, surface characteristics, distance and movement of an object. They can search for, chase and catch fast-swimming prey in total darkness. Most Odontoceti can distinguish between prey and nonprey (such as humans or boats); captive Odontoceti can be trained to distinguish between, for example, balls of different sizes or shapes. Echolocation clicks also contain characteristic details unique to each animal, which may suggest that toothed whales can discern between their own click and that of others. While differences in ear structure associated with echolocating abilities are found amongst Cetacea, cranial asymmetry has also been found to be a factor in the ability to produce sounds used in echolocation. Mysticeti, who don't have the ability to echolocate, possess general symmetry of the skull and facial region, while Odontoceti display a nasofacial asymmetry that is linked to their echolocating abilities. Differences in the level of asymmetry also seem to correlate with differences in the types of sounds produced. === Chromosomes === The initial karyotype includes a set of chromosomes from 2n = 44. They have four pairs of telocentric chromosomes (whose centromeres sit at one of the telomeres), two to four pairs of subtelocentric and one or two large pairs of submetacentric chromosomes. The remaining chromosomes are metacentric—the centromere is approximately in the middle—and are rather small. All cetaceans have chromosomes 2n = 44, except the sperm whales and pygmy sperm whales, which have 2n = 42. == Ecology == === Range and habitat === Cetaceans are found in many aquatic habitats. While many marine species, such as the blue whale, the humpback whale and the orca, have a distribution area that includes nearly the entire ocean, some species occur only locally or in broken populations. These include the vaquita, which inhabits a small part of the Gulf of California and Hector's dolphin, which lives in some coastal waters in New Zealand. Most river dolphin species live exclusively in fresh water. Many species inhabit specific latitudes, often in tropical or subtropical waters, such as Bryde's whale or Risso's dolphin. Others are found only in a specific body of water. The southern right whale dolphin and the hourglass dolphin live only in the Southern Ocean. The narwhal and the beluga live only in the Arctic Ocean. Sowerby's beaked whale and the Clymene dolphin exist only in the Atlantic and the Pacific white-sided dolphin and the northern straight dolphin live only in the North Pacific. Cosmopolitan species may be found in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. However, northern and southern populations become genetically separated over time. In some species, this separation leads eventually to a divergence of the species, such as produced the southern right whale, North Pacific right whale and North Atlantic right whale. Migratory species' reproductive sites often lie in the tropics and their feeding grounds in polar regions. Thirty-two species are found in European waters, including twenty-five toothed and seven baleen species. === Whale migration === Many species of whales migrate on a latitudinal basis to move between seasonal habitats. For example, the gray whale migrates round trip. The journey begins at winter birthing grounds in warm lagoons along Baja California, and traverses of coastline to summer feeding grounds in the Bering, Chuckchi and Beaufort seas off the coast of Alaska. == Behaviour == === Sleep === Conscious breathing cetaceans sleep but cannot afford to be unconscious for long, because they may drown. While knowledge of sleep in wild cetaceans is limited, toothed cetaceans in captivity have been recorded to exhibit unihemispheric slow-wave sleep (USWS), which means they sleep with one side of their brain at a time, so that they may swim, breathe consciously and avoid both predators and social contact during their period of rest. A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow 'drift-dives', generally during the day, during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact, leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives. === Diving === While diving, the animals reduce their oxygen consumption by lowering the heart activity and blood circulation; individual organs receive no oxygen during this time. Some rorquals can dive for up to 40 minutes, sperm whales between 60 and 90 minutes and bottlenose whales for two hours. Diving depths average about . Species such as sperm whales can dive to , although more commonly . === Social relations === Most cetaceans are social animals, although a few species live in pairs or are solitary. A group, known as a pod, usually consists of ten to fifty animals, but on occasion, such as mass availability of food or during mating season, groups may encompass more than one thousand individuals. Inter-species socialization can occur. Pods have a fixed hierarchy, with the priority positions determined by biting, pushing or ramming. The behavior in the group is aggressive only in situations of stress such as lack of food, but usually it is peaceful. Contact swimming, mutual fondling and nudging are common. The playful behavior of the animals, which is manifested in air jumps, somersaults, surfing, or fin hitting, occurs more often than not in smaller cetaceans, such as dolphins and porpoises. === Hunting === Pod groups also hunt, often with other species. Many species of dolphins accompany large tunas on hunting expeditions, following large schools of fish. The orca hunts in pods and targets belugas and even larger whales. Humpback whales, among others, form in collaboration bubble carpets to herd krill or plankton into bait balls before lunging at them. Smaller cetaceans, such as dolphins and porpoises, engage in complex play behavior, including such things as producing stable underwater toroidal air-core vortex rings or "bubble rings". The two main methods of bubble ring production are rapid puffing of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface, forming a ring, or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the helical vortex currents thus formed. They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex rings, so that they burst into many separate bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface. Whales produce bubble nets to aid in herding prey. Larger whales are also thought to engage in play. The southern right whale elevates its tail fluke above the water, remaining in the same position for a considerable time. This is known as "sailing". It appears to be a form of play and is most commonly seen off the coast of Argentina and South Africa. Humpback whales also display this behaviour. Self-awareness appears to be a sign of abstract thinking. Self-awareness, although not well-defined, is believed to be a precursor to more advanced processes such as metacognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that humans exploit. Dolphins appear to possess self-awareness. The most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test, in which a temporary dye is placed on an animal's body and the animal is then presented with a mirror. Researchers then explore whether the animal shows signs of self-recognition. Critics claim that the results of these tests are susceptible to the Clever Hans effect. This test is much less definitive than when used for primates. Primates can touch the mark or the mirror, while dolphins cannot, making their alleged self-recognition behavior less certain. Skeptics argue that behaviors said to identify self-awareness resemble existing social behaviors, so researchers could be misinterpreting self-awareness for social responses. Advocates counter that the behaviors are different from normal responses to another individual. Dolphins show less definitive behavior of self-awareness, because they have no pointing ability. They showed dolphins real-time footage of themselves, recorded footage and another dolphin. They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behavior. While this particular study has not been replicated, dolphins later "passed" the mirror test. Little is known about how these decisions work, though studies have found evidence messy consensus decisions in groups of sperm whales and leadership in other species like bottlenose dolphins and killer whales. == Life history == === Reproduction and brooding === Most cetaceans sexually mature at seven to 10 years. An exception to this is the La Plata dolphin, which is sexually mature at two years, but lives only to about 20. The sperm whale reaches sexual maturity within about 20 years and has a lifespan between 50 and 100 years. After birth, the mother carries the infant to the surface for its first breath. At birth, they are about one-third of their adult length and tend to be independently active, comparable to terrestrial mammals. ==== Suckling ==== Like other placental mammals, cetaceans give birth to well-developed calves and nurse them with milk from their mammary glands. When suckling, the mother actively splashes milk into the mouth of the calf, using the muscles of her mammary glands, as the calf has no lips. This milk usually has a high-fat content, ranging from 16 to 46%, causing the calf to increase rapidly in size and weight. This reproductive strategy provides a few offspring that have a high survival rate. === Lifespan === Among cetaceans, whales are distinguished by an unusual longevity compared to other higher mammals. Some species, such as the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), can reach over 200 years. Based on the annual rings of the bony otic capsule, the age of the oldest known specimen is a male determined to be 211 years at the time of death. === Death === Upon death, whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life. Evidence of whale falls in present-day and fossil records shows that deep-sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures, with a global diversity of 407 species, comparable to other neritic biodiversity hotspots, such as cold seeps and hydrothermal vents. Deterioration of whale carcasses happens through three stages. Initially, organisms such as sharks and hagfish scavenge the soft tissues at a rapid rate over a period of months and as long as two years. This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments (which contain organic matter) by enrichment opportunists, such as crustaceans and polychaetes, throughout a period of years. Finally, sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing hydrogen sulfide enabling the growth of chemoautotrophic organisms, which in turn, support organisms such as mussels, clams, limpets and sea snails. This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species, averaging 185 per site. == Disease == Brucellosis affects almost all mammals. It is distributed worldwide, while fishing and pollution have caused porpoise population density pockets, which risks further infection and disease spreading. Brucella ceti, most prevalent in dolphins, has been shown to cause chronic disease, increasing the chance of failed birth and miscarriages, male infertility, neurobrucellosis, cardiopathies, bone and skin lesions, strandings and death. Until 2008, no case had ever been reported in porpoises, but isolated populations have an increased risk and consequentially a high mortality rate. == Evolution == === Fossil history === ==== Origins ==== The direct ancestors of today's cetaceans are probably found within the Dorudontidae whose most famous member, Dorudon, lived at the same time as Basilosaurus. Both groups had already developed some of the typical anatomical features of today's whales, such as the fixed bulla, which replaces the mammalian eardrum, as well as sound-conducting elements for submerged directional hearing. Their wrists were stiffened and probably contributed to the typical build of flippers. The hind legs existed, however, but were significantly reduced in size and with a vestigial pelvis connection.]] The fossil record traces the gradual transition from terrestrial to aquatic life. The regression of the hind limbs allowed greater flexibility of the spine. This made it possible for whales to move around with the vertical tail hitting the water. The front legs transformed into flippers, costing them their mobility on land. One of the oldest members of ancient cetaceans (Archaeoceti) is Pakicetus from the Middle Eocene of Pakistan. This is an animal the size of a wolf, whose skeleton is known only partially. It had functioning legs and lived near the shore. This suggests the animal could still move on land. The long snout had carnivorous dentition. The snout was elongated with overhead nostrils and eyes. The tail was strong and supported movement through water. Ambulocetus probably lived in mangroves in brackish water and fed in the riparian zone as a predator of fish and other vertebrates. Dating from about 45 million years ago are species such as Indocetus, Kutchicetus, Rodhocetus and Andrewsiphius, all of which were adapted to life in water. The hind limbs of these species were regressed and their body shapes resemble modern whales. Protocetidae family member Rodhocetus is considered the first to be fully aquatic. The body was streamlined and delicate with extended hand and foot bones. The merged pelvic lumbar spine was present, making it possible to support the floating movement of the tail. It was likely a good swimmer, but could probably move only clumsily on land, much like a modern seal. === External phylogeny === Molecular biology, immunology, and fossils show that cetaceans are phylogenetically closely related with the even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla). Whales' direct lineage began in the early Eocene, around 55.8 million years ago, with early artiodactyls. Since the fossil record suggests that the morphologically distinct hippo lineage dates back only about 15 million years, Cetacea and hippos apparently diverged from a common ancestor that was morphologically distinct from either. The most striking common feature is the talus, a bone in the upper ankle. Early cetaceans, archaeocetes, show double castors, which occur only in even-toed ungulates. Corresponding findings are from Tethys Sea deposits in northern India and Pakistan. The Tethys Sea was a shallow sea between the Asian continent and northward-bound Indian plate. Molecular and morphological evidence suggests that artiodactyls as traditionally defined are paraphyletic with respect to cetaceans. Cetaceans are deeply nested within the artiodactyls; the two groups together form a clade, a natural group with a common ancestor, for which the name Cetartiodactyla is sometimes used. Modern nomenclature divides Artiodactyla (or Cetartiodactyla) into four subordinate taxa: camelids (Tylopoda), pigs and peccaries (Suina), ruminants (Ruminantia), and hippos plus whales (Whippomorpha). The Cetacea's presumed location within Artiodactyla can be represented in the following cladogram: === Internal phylogeny === Within Cetacea, the two parvorders are baleen whales (Mysticeti) which owe their name to their baleen, and toothed whales (Odontoceti), which have teeth shaped like cones, spades, pegs, or tusks, and can perceive their environment through biosonar. }} }} }} }} }} The terms whale and dolphin are informal: Mysticeti: Whales, with four families: Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales), Cetotheriidae (pygmy right whales), Balaenopteridae (rorquals), Eschrichtiidae (grey whales) Odontoceti: Whales: with four families: Monodontidae (belugas and narwhals), Physeteridae (sperm whales), Kogiidae (dwarf and pygmy sperm whales), and Ziphiidae (beaked whales) Dolphins, with five families: Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins), Platanistidae (South Asian river dolphins), Lipotidae (old world river dolphins) Iniidae (new world river dolphins), and Pontoporiidae (La Plata dolphins) Porpoises, with one family: Phocoenidae The term 'great whales' covers those currently regulated by the International Whaling Commission: the Odontoceti families Physeteridae (sperm whales), Ziphiidae (beaked whales), and Kogiidae (pygmy and dwarf sperm whales); and Mysticeti families Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales), Cetotheriidae (pygmy right whales), Eschrichtiidae (grey whales), as well as part of the family Balaenopteridae (minke, Bryde's, sei, blue and fin; not Eden's and Omura's whales). == Threats == The primary threats to cetaceans come from people, both directly from whaling or drive hunting and indirect threats from fishing and pollution. === Whaling === Whaling is the practice of hunting whales, mainly baleen and sperm whales. This activity has gone on since the Stone Age. In the Middle Ages, reasons for whaling included their meat, oil usable as fuel and the jawbone, which was used in house construction. At the end of the Middle Ages, early whaling fleets aimed at baleen whales, such as bowheads. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch fleet had about 300 whaling ships with 18,000 crewmen. In the 18th and 19th centuries, baleen whales especially were hunted for their baleen, which was used as a replacement for wood, or in products requiring strength and flexibility such as corsets and crinoline skirts. In addition, the spermaceti found in the sperm whale was used as a machine lubricant and the ambergris as a material for pharmaceutical and perfume industries. In the second half of the 19th century, the explosive harpoon was invented, leading to a massive increase in the catch size. Large ships were used as "mother" ships for the whale handlers. In the first half of the 20th century, whales were of great importance as a supplier of raw materials. Whales were intensively hunted during this time; in the 1930s, 30,000 whales were killed. This increased to over 40,000 animals per year up to the 1960s, when stocks of large baleen whales collapsed. Most hunted whales are now threatened, with some great whale populations exploited to the brink of extinction. Atlantic and Korean gray whale populations were completely eradicated and the North Atlantic right whale population fell to some 300–600. The blue whale population is estimated to be around 14,000. The first efforts to protect whales came in 1931. Some particularly endangered species, such as the humpback whale (which then numbered about 100 animals), were placed under international protection and the first protected areas were established. In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was established, to monitor and secure whale stocks. Whaling of 14 large species for commercial purposes was prohibited worldwide by this organization from 1985 to 2005, though some countries do not honor the prohibition. The stocks of species such as humpback and blue whales have recovered, though they are still threatened. The United States Congress passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 sustain the marine mammal population. It prohibits the taking of marine mammals except for several hundred per year taken in Alaska. Japanese whaling ships are allowed to hunt whales of different species for ostensibly scientific purposes. Aboriginal whaling is still permitted. About 1,200 pilot whales were taken in the Faroe Islands in 2017, and about 900 narwhals and 800 belugas per year are taken in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia. About 150 minke are taken in Greenland per year, 120 gray whales in Siberia and 50 bowheads in Alaska, as aboriginal whaling, besides the 600 minke taken commercially by Norway, 300 minke and 100 sei taken by Japan and up to 100 fin whales taken by Iceland. Iceland and Norway do not recognize the ban and operate commercial whaling. Norway and Japan are committed to ending the ban. Dolphins and other smaller cetaceans are sometimes hunted in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. This is accomplished by driving a pod together with boats, usually into a bay or onto a beach. Their escape is prevented by closing off the route to the ocean with other boats or nets. Dolphins are hunted this way in several places around the world, including the Solomon Islands, the Faroe Islands, Peru and Japan (the most well-known practitioner). Dolphins are mostly hunted for their meat, though some end up in dolphinaria. Despite the controversy thousands of dolphins are caught in drive hunts each year. === Fishing === Dolphin pods often reside near large tuna shoals. This is known to fishermen, who look for dolphins to catch tuna. Dolphins are much easier to spot from a distance than tuna, since they regularly breathe. The fishermen pull their nets hundreds of meters wide in a circle around the dolphin groups, in the expectation that they will net a tuna shoal. When the nets are pulled together, the dolphins become entangled under water and drown. Line fisheries in larger rivers are threats to river dolphins. A greater threat than by-catch for small cetaceans is targeted hunting. In Southeast Asia, they are sold as fish-replacement to locals, since the region's edible fish promise higher revenues from exports. In the Mediterranean, small cetaceans are targeted to ease pressure on edible fish. Climate change influences the major wind systems and ocean currents, which also lead to cetacean strandings. Researchers studying strandings on the Tasmanian coast from 1920 to 2002 found that greater strandings occurred at certain time intervals. Years with increased strandings were associated with severe storms, which initiated cold water flows close to the coast. In nutrient-rich, cold water, cetaceans expect large prey animals, so they follow the cold water currents into shallower waters, where the risk is higher for strandings. Whales and dolphins who live in pods may accompany sick or debilitated pod members into shallow water, stranding them at low tide. === Environmental hazards === Heavy metals, residues of many plant and insect venoms and plastic waste flotsam are not biodegradable. Sometimes, cetaceans consume these hazardous materials, mistaking them for food items. As a result, the animals are more susceptible to disease and have fewer offspring. Vessel traffic also increases noise in the oceans. Such noise can disrupt cetacean behavior such as their use of biosonar for orientation and communication. Severe instances can panic them, driving them to the surface. This leads to bubbles in blood gases and can cause decompression sickness. Naval exercises with sonar regularly results in fallen cetaceans that wash up with fatal decompression. Sounds can be disruptive at distances of more than . Damage varies across frequency and species. == Relationship to humans == === Research history === In Aristotle's time, the fourth century BCE, whales were regarded as fish due to their superficial similarity. Aristotle, however, observed many physiological and anatomical similarities with the terrestrial vertebrates, such as blood (circulation), lungs, uterus and fin anatomy. His detailed descriptions were assimilated by the Romans, but mixed with a more accurate knowledge of the dolphins, as mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural history. In the art of this and subsequent periods, dolphins are portrayed with a high-arched head (typical of porpoises) and a long snout. The harbour porpoise was one of the most accessible species for early cetologists; because it could be seen close to land, inhabiting shallow coastal areas of Europe. Much of the findings that apply to all cetaceans were first discovered in porpoises. One of the first anatomical descriptions of the airways of a harbor porpoise dates from 1671 by John Ray. It nevertheless referred to the porpoise as a fish. In the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758), Swedish biologist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus asserted that cetaceans were mammals and not fish. His groundbreaking binomial system formed the basis of modern whale classification. === Culture === Stone Age petroglyphs, such as those in Roddoy and Reppa (Norway), and the Bangudae Petroglyphs in South Korea, depict them. Whale bones were used for many purposes. In the Neolithic settlement of Skara Brae on Orkney sauce pans were made from whale vertebrae. The whale was first mentioned in ancient Greece by Homer. There, it is called Ketos, from which was derived the Roman word for whale, Cetus. In the Bible especially, the leviathan plays a role as a sea monster. The prophet Jonah, on his flight from the city of Nineveh, is swallowed by a whale. Dolphins are mentioned far more often than whales. Aristotle discusses the sacred animals of the Greeks in his Historia Animalium. The Greeks admired the dolphin as a "king of the aquatic animals" and referred to them erroneously as fish. Dolphins appear in Greek mythology. Because of their intelligence, they rescued multiple people from drowning. They were said to love music, probably because of their own song, and in the legends they saved famous musicians, such as Arion of Lesbos from Methymna. Dolphins belong to the domain of Poseidon and led him to his wife Amphitrite. Dolphins are associated with other gods, such as Apollo, Dionysus and Aphrodite. The Greeks paid tribute to both whales and dolphins with their own constellation. The constellation of the Whale (Ketos, lat. Cetus) is located south of the Dolphin (Delphi, lat. Delphinus) north of the zodiac. Ancient art often included dolphin representations, including the Cretan Minoans. A particularly popular representation is that of Arion or Taras riding on a dolphin. In early Christian art, the dolphin is a popular motif, at times used as a symbol of Christ. ==== Middle Ages to the 19th century ==== St. Brendan described in his travel story Navigatio Sancti Brendani an encounter with a whale, between the years 565–573. Most descriptions of large whales from the Middle Ages until the whaling era, beginning in the 17th century, were of beached whales. Raymond Gilmore documented seventeen sperm whales in the estuary of the Elbe from 1723 to 1959 and thirty-one animals on the coast of Great Britain in 1784. In 1827, a blue whale beached itself off the coast of Ostend. Whales were used as attractions in museums and traveling exhibitions. Whalers from the 17th to 19th centuries depicted whales in drawings and recounted tales of their occupation. Although they knew that whales were harmless giants, they described battles with harpooned animals. These included descriptions of sea monsters, including huge whales, sharks, sea snakes, giant squid and octopuses. Among the first whalers who described their experiences on whaling trips was Captain William Scoresby from Great Britain, who published the book Northern Whale Fishery, describing the hunt for northern baleen whales. This was followed by Thomas Beale, a British surgeon, in his book Some observations on the natural history of the sperm whale in 1835; and Frederick Debell Bennett's The tale of a whale hunt in 1840. Whales were described in narrative literature and paintings, most famously in the novels Moby Dick by Herman Melville and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas by Jules Verne. Baleen was used to make vessel components such as the bottom of a bucket in the Scottish National Museum. The Norsemen crafted ornamented plates from baleen. In the Canadian Arctic (east coast) in Punuk and Thule culture (1000–1600 C.E.), baleen was used to construct houses in place of wood as roof support for winter houses. ==== Modern culture ==== In the 20th century, perceptions of cetaceans changed. They transformed from monsters into creatures of wonder, as science revealed them to be intelligent and peaceful animals. Hunting was replaced by whale and dolphin tourism. This change is reflected in films and novels. For example, the protagonist of the series Flipper was a bottle-nose dolphin. The TV series SeaQuest DSV (1993–1996), the movies Free Willy and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, and the book series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams are examples. The study of whale songs also produced a popular album, Songs of the Humpback Whale. === Captivity === Whales and dolphins have been kept in captivity for use in education, research and entertainment since the 19th century. ==== Belugas ==== Beluga whales were the first whales to be kept in captivity. Other species were too rare, too shy or too big. The first was shown at Barnum's Museum in New York City in 1861. For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source. Russia then became the largest provider. As of 2006, 30 belugas lived in Canada and 28 in the United States. 42 deaths in captivity had been reported. ==== Orcas ==== The orca's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks. From 1976 to 1997, fifty-five whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, nineteen from Japan and three from Argentina. These figures exclude animals that died during capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s and by 1999, about 40% of the forty-eight animals on display in the world were captive-born. Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity. In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60–90% of captive males. Captives have reduced life expectancy, on average only living into their 20s, although some live longer, including several over 30 years old and two, Corky II and Lolita, in their mid-40s. In the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average and up to 70–80 years. Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average and can reach 50–60 years. Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild orca behavior. Wild orca may travel up to in a day and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity. Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress. Orcas are well known for their performances in shows, but the number of orcas kept in captivity is small, especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins, with only forty-four captive orcas being held in aquaria as of 2012. Each country has its own tank requirements; in the US, the minimum enclosure size is set by the Code of Federal Regulations, 9 CFR E § 3.104, under the Specifications for the Humane Handling, Care, Treatment and Transportation of Marine Mammals. Aggression among captive orcas is common. They attack each other and their trainers as well. In 2013, SeaWorld's treatment of orcas in captivity was the basis of the movie Blackfish, which documents the history of Tilikum, an orca at SeaWorld Orlando, who had been involved in the deaths of three people. The film led to proposals by some lawmakers to ban captivity of cetaceans, and led SeaWorld to announce in 2016 that it would phase out its orca program. ==== Others ==== Dolphins and porpoises are kept in captivity. Bottlenose dolphins are the most common, as they are relatively easy to train, have a long lifespan in captivity and have a friendly appearance. Bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine. Other species kept in captivity are spotted dolphins, false killer whales and common dolphins, Commerson's dolphins, as well as rough-toothed dolphins, but all in much lower numbers. There are also fewer than ten pilot whales, Amazon river dolphins, Risso's dolphins, spinner dolphins, or tucuxi in captivity. Two unusual and rare hybrid dolphins, known as wolphins, are kept at Sea Life Park in Hawaii, which is a cross between a bottlenose dolphin and a false killer whale. Also, two common/bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity at Discovery Cove and SeaWorld San Diego. In repeated attempts in the 1960s and 1970s, narwhals kept in captivity died within months. A breeding pair of pygmy right whales were retained in a netted area. They were eventually released in South Africa. In 1971, SeaWorld captured a California gray whale calf in Mexico at Scammon's Lagoon. The calf, later named Gigi, was separated from her mother using a form of lasso attached to her flukes. Gigi was displayed at SeaWorld San Diego for a year. She was then released with a radio beacon affixed to her back; however, contact was lost after three weeks. Gigi was the first captive baleen whale. JJ, another gray whale calf, was kept at SeaWorld San Diego. JJ was an orphaned calf that beached itself in April 1997 and was transported two miles to SeaWorld. The calf was a popular attraction and behaved normally, despite separation from his mother. A year later, the then whale though smaller than average, was too big to keep in captivity, and was released on April 1, 1998. A captive Amazon river dolphin housed at Acuario de Valencia is the only trained river dolphin in captivity.	[ "wolphins", "minke whales", "Basilosaurus", "Monogamy in animals", "pilot whale", "porpoises", "carbonic acid", "Ruminantia", "rorqual", "Pinna (anatomy)", "sexual dimorphism", "Mithymna", "bat", "Carl Linnaeus", "Molecular Biology and Evolution", "cervical spine", "list of largest fish", "tucuxi", "hourglass dolphin", "ancient Greece", "Eocene", "Aristotle", "gray whale", "Moscow", "cardiopathy", "cosmopolitan distribution", "caudal vertebrae", "fresh water", "parvorder", "telomeres", "common dolphin", "ossicles", "molars", "Mathurin Jacques Brisson", "Hawaii", "Brucellosis", "Fluke (tail)", "Code of Federal Regulations", "whale", "Clever Hans", "spindle neuron", "Kutchicetus", "Artiofabula", "Atlantic spotted dolphin", "drowning", "pinnipeds", "Kekenodontidae", "52-hertz whale", "Hvalba", "Iniidae", "Pygmy right whale", "immunology", "Harbor porpoise", "Suina", "Saint Lawrence River", "Pachyosteosclerosis", "Brucella ceti", "calcium carbonate", "aquatic mammal", "Pecora", "toothed whales", "Poseidon", "Common dolphin", "Minoan civilization", "carnivorous", "sternum", "sperm whale", "Janjucetus", "plankton", "Whale vocalization", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", "right whales", "Aboriginal whaling", "Kogiidae", "paraphyletic", "dolphin drive hunt", "Raymond Gilmore", "vaquita", "Self-awareness", "whaling", "testicles", "alloparenting", "Faroe Islands", "pelvis", "flotsam", "harbour porpoise", "Amphitrite", "Clymene dolphin", "Thule", "brain to body mass ratio", "river dolphin", "whale oil", "centromeres", "baleen", "Ambulocetus", "placenta", "Commerson's dolphin", "eardrum", "Physeteridae", "polychaetes", "collarbone", "Uterus", "The New York Times", "Orca", "baiji", "mirror test", "cold seep", "whale meat", "corset", "Pinniped", "Rorqual", "de:Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil", "North Pacific right whale", "maxilla", "Streamlining theory", "mammals", "Pontoporiidae", "southern right whale dolphin", "melon (cetacean)", "Christian art", "Norsemen", "hydrothermal vent", "narwhal", "New York City", "bowhead whales", "Delphinoidea", "shark", "neocortex", "karyotype", "primates", "Aphrodite", "harpoon", "Douglas Adams", "ozone layer", "dorsal fin", "pinna (anatomy)", "bubble ring", "Sea Life Park", "vertebrae", "Bible", "chemoautotrophic", "dolphinarium", "southern bottlenose whale", "Neobalaenidae", "Sowerby's beaked whale", "Nineveh", "orca", "Ovulation", "Christ", "riparian zone", "Climate change", "Ojo de Liebre Lagoon", "Blowhole (anatomy)", "keratin", "Atlantic white-sided dolphin", "metacognition", "Phocoenidae", "Cetotheriidae", "Pakicetus", "archaeocetes", "neritic", "communication", "Basilosauridae", "Gulf of California", "baleen whales", "unihemispheric slow-wave sleep", "Amu Darya", "ocean acidification", "10th edition of Systema Naturae", "Balaenopteridae", "Hans Thewissen", "myoglobin", "Historia Animalium", "marine invertebrates", "Dwarf sperm whale", "toothed whale", "Tethys Sea", "Pakicetidae", "Delphinidae", "electroreception", "Jonah", "Science (journal)", "mammary glands", "Whale oil", "Delphinus", "Odontoceti", "Tylopoda", "sea monster", "Andrewsiphius", "Morphology (biology)", "toroid", "lumbar spine", "Lacrimal gland", "spindle neurons", "brackish water", "Amazon river dolphin", "Lesbos", "International Union for Conservation of Nature", "Hominidae", "Inioidea", "circulatory system", "Thomas Beale", "Bryde's whale", "Eschrichtiidae", "Eutheria", "hybrid (biology)", "Middle Ages", "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas", "Oceanic dolphins", "Pliny the Elder", "Dolphins in mythology", "Cetartiodactyla", "infraorder", "pygmy sperm whale", "unconsciousness", "Flipper (1995 TV series)", "teeth", "lesion", "Whale", "stress (medicine)", "Hector's dolphin", "Solomon Islands", "Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972", "humpback whale", "Animal echolocation", "Molecular biology", "porpoise", "Brain size", "Risso's dolphin", "St. Brendan", "climate change", "Noise pollution", "bubble net", "Natural History (Pliny)", "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology", "auditory bulla", "Helix", "gall bladder", "sperm whales", "SeaWorld San Diego", "St. Petersburg", "narwhals", "biosonar", "baleen whale", "Tail fluke", "Carnivore", "false killer whale", "Free Willy", "northern right whale dolphin", "Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution", "beluga whale", "Chevrotain", "talus bone", "binocular vision", "Ziphiidae", "Songs of the Humpback Whale (album)", "otic capsule", "chevron (anatomy)", "male infertility", "Cetus (mythology)", "Grey whale", "brain hemisphere", "river dolphins", "North Atlantic right whales", "Whale and Dolphin Conservation", "Southern Ocean", "infrasonic", "hydrostatic", "crustaceans", "World Animal Protection", "Flipper (anatomy)", "North Atlantic right whale", "spinner dolphin", "Monodontidae", "cochlea", "Britannica Online Encyclopedia", "Cetacean stranding", "cetology", "Porpoise", "hydrogen sulfide", "Balaenidae", "Archaeoceti", "ambergris", "Neolithic", "Wadi Al-Hitan", "Bottlenose dolphin", "Tilikum (orca)", "miscarriage", "Nekton", "bowhead whale", "South Asian river dolphin", "Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences", "sonar", "rough-toothed dolphin", "Peru", "Dolphin drive hunting", "Beluga whale", "crinoline", "Moby-Dick", "bottlenose whale", "Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home", "animal intelligence", "Pakistan", "Beaked whale", "Ichthyosaur", "Raoellidae", "Pacific white-sided dolphin", "La Plata dolphin", "clade", "Homer", "Arion", "krill", "spermaceti organ", "PLOS Biology", "Allometric", "streamlined", "cladogram", "encephalization quotient", "National Geographic Society", "SeaQuest DSV", "facial expression", "Mysticeti", "International Whaling Commission", "Histology", "Churchill River (Hudson Bay)", "Narwhal", "urinary bladder", "Dorudontidae", "Lipotidae", "ear canal", "pygmy right whale", "Jules Verne", "cancellous bone", "spermaceti", "vortex", "fertility", "Bangudae Petroglyphs", "cartilage", "marine mammals", "Indocetus", "Apollo", "thermal insulation", "petroglyphs", "Herman Melville", "William Scoresby", "Barnum's American Museum", "Ambulocetidae", "scrotum", "Rodhocetus", "invertebrate", "Family (biology)", "hair", "Stone Age", "Seattle", "dolphin", "Artiodactyla", "Whippomorpha", "respiratory system", "Cetus", "olfactory system", "Sochi", "Sexual dimorphism", "Dorudon", "Remingtonocetidae", "Cetruminantia", "decompression sickness", "blue whale", "Dolphin", "List of captive orcas", "southern right whale", "cetacean intelligence", "Orkney", "Dionysus", "Taras (mythology)", "even-toed ungulate", "Platanistidae", "Humpback whale", "chromosome", "Gray whale", "Acuario de Valencia", "Lissodelphis borealis", "River dolphin", "National Marine Fisheries Service", "pylorus", "Cetancodonta", "liver", "Hippopotamidae", "cortical bone", "Blackfish (film)", "thoracic vertebrae", "Discovery Cove", "chronic disease", "sleep", "Sperm whale", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", "STG pound", "blubber", "zodiac", "Yangtze river dolphin", "Protocetidae", "porcelain", "intelligence", "Physeteroidea", "beaked whale", "hagfish", "artiodactyl" ]
7,627	The Canterbury Tales	The Canterbury Tales () is a collection of 24 stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. The book presents the tales, which are mostly written in verse, as part of a fictional storytelling contest held by a group of pilgrims travelling together from London to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The Tales are widely regarded as Chaucer's magnum opus. They had a major effect upon English literature and may have been responsible for the popularisation of the English vernacular in mainstream literature, as opposed to French or Latin. English had, however, been used as a literary language centuries before Chaucer's time, and several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, the Gawain Poet, and Julian of Norwich—also wrote major literary works in English. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was seminal in this evolution of literary preference. The Canterbury Tales is generally thought to have been incomplete at the end of Chaucer's life. In the General Prologue, some 30 pilgrims are introduced. According to the Prologue, Chaucer's intention was to write four stories from the perspective of each pilgrim, two each on the way to and from their ultimate destination, St. Thomas Becket's shrine (making for a total of about 120 stories). It is revered as one of the most important works in English literature. ==Text== The question of whether The Canterbury Tales is a finished work has not been answered to date. There are 84 manuscripts and four incunabula (printed before 1500) editions of the work, which is more than for any other vernacular English literary text with the exception of Prick of Conscience. This comparison should not be taken as evidence of the Tales' popularity in the century after Chaucer's death, because, according to Derek Pearsall, it is unfair considering that Prick of Conscience had all the benefit of the "preservation of a dogmatic religious subject-matter". Fifty-five of these manuscripts are thought to have been originally complete, while 28 are so fragmentary that it is difficult to ascertain whether they were copied individually or as part of a set. The Tales vary in both minor and major ways from manuscript to manuscript; many of the minor variations are due to copyists' errors, while it is suggested that in other cases Chaucer both added to his work and revised it as it was being copied and possibly as it was being distributed. There are no manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales surviving in Chaucer's own hand. The two earliest known manuscripts, which both appear to have been copied by the same scribe, are MS Peniarth 392 D (called "Hengwrt"), and the Ellesmere Manuscript, a deluxe, illustrated manuscript. Until the 1940s, scholars tended to prefer the Ellesmere manuscript as closer to Chaucer's intentions; following John M. Manly and Edith Rickert, scholars increasingly favoured Hengwrt. The first version of The Canterbury Tales to be published in print was William Caxton's 1476 edition. It was one of the first books to be printed by Caxton, the first person in England to print books using a printing press. Only 10 copies of this edition are known to exist, including one held by the British Library and one held by the Folger Shakespeare Library. The copyist of the Hengwrt and Ellesmere manuscripts has been identified as a scrivener named Adam Pinkhurst. Since a poem, apparently by Chaucer, identifies his scribe as a man named "Adam", this has led to the hypothesis that the scribe who copied these two important manuscripts worked with Chaucer and knew him personally. This identification has been the subject of much controversy in the field of Middle English palaeography, though it is widely accepted as plausible. ===Order=== There is no consensus as to whether a complete version of the Tales exists, and also no consensus regarding Chaucer's intended order of the stories. Textual and manuscript clues have been adduced to support the two most popular modern methods of ordering the tales. Some scholarly editions divide the Tales into ten "Fragments". The tales that make up a Fragment are closely related and contain internal indications of their order of presentation, usually with one character speaking to and then stepping aside for another character. However, between Fragments, the connection is less obvious. Consequently, there are several possible orders; the one most frequently seen in modern editions follows the numbering of the Fragments (ultimately based on the Ellesmere order). 'Weeping and wailing, care and other sorrow I know enough, in the evening and in the morning,' quoth the Merchant, 'and so do many others who have been married.' No manuscript exists in Chaucer's own hand; all extant copies were made by scribes. Because the final -e sound was lost soon after Chaucer's time, scribes did not accurately copy it, and this gave scholars the impression that Chaucer himself was inconsistent in using it. It has now been established, however, that -e was an important part of Chaucer's grammar, and helped to distinguish singular adjectives from plural and subjunctive verbs from indicative.	[ "The Two Noble Kinsmen", "Lord Byron", "the Gawain Poet", "Hyperion (Simmons novel)", "William Caxton", "Emeric Pressburger", "French language", "The Clerk's Tale", "incunabula", "John Wycliffe", "A Knight's Tale", "John M. Manly", "Consolation of Philosophy", "Boethius", "The Franklin's Tale", "Eustache Deschamps", "The Canon's Yeoman's Tale", "Tale of Beryn", "The Canterbury Puzzles", "John Bromyard", "Alan Plater", "Western Schism", "Chaucer coming in contact with Petrarch or Boccaccio", "Jerome", "blood libel against Jews", "Canterbury Tales", "The Second Nun's Tale", "Michael Powell", "The Wife of Bath's Tale", "frame tale", "Great Vowel Shift", "Harriet Lee (writer)", "Peasants' Revolt", "John Lydgate", "the Black Death", "Canterbury Tales (TV series)", "British Library", "Julian of Norwich", "Canterbury Tales (musical)", "Geoffrey Chaucer", "Kingdom of England", "relativism", "Keith Reid", "Trinity Tales", "The Manciple's Tale", "The Monk's Tale", "Italy in the Middle Ages", "Harley MS. 7334", "The Physician's Tale", "Ellesmere manuscript", "Sir Thopas", "Zadie Smith", "Prick of Conscience", "Summa praedicantium", "Against Jovinianus", "Adam Pinkhurst", "scrivener", "St. Augustine", "Helen Cooper (professor)", "The Parson's Tale", "Richard Pynson", "Sir Topas", "riding rhyme", "Pui (society)", "Sir Lionel", "Angie Abdou", "Oxford University Press", "John Stow", "Hengwrt Chaucer", "The Canterbury Tales (film)", "Garrison Keillor", "pilgrimage", "John Urry (literary editor)", "Primetime Emmy", "Henry II of England", "Divine Comedy", "Hundred Years' War", "The Squire's Tale", "Ellesmere Chaucer", "The Plowman's Tale", "General Prologue", "Canterbury", "John of Gaunt", "Edith Rickert", "A Prairie Home Companion", "Ten Summoner's Tales", "John Gower", "liminality", "The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution", "Hugo Award", "A Canterbury Tale", "woodcut", "Virgil", "The Knight's Tale", "Jonathan Myerson", "American Repertory Theater", "Sting (musician)", "E. Nesbit", "Dan Simmons", "rhyme royal", "Walter William Skeat", "Decasyllable", "iambic pentameter", "empathy", "relic", "Nevill Coghill", "Estates of the realm", "courtier", "The Prick of Conscience", "Black Death", "A Whiter Shade of Pale", "Thomas Becket", "vernacular", "Academy Awards", "indulgences", "Canterbury Cathedral", "Sacrament of Confession", "P.C. Doherty", "The Friar's Tale", "Harold Bloom", "evolution", "Giovanni Boccaccio", "Library of Congress", "Patience Agbabi", "caesura", "Richard Dawkins", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "London", "The Summoner's Tale", "The Tale of Gamelyn", "Cambridge University Press", "The Wouldbegoods", "Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film", "The Merchant's Tale", "Masterpiece", "printing press", "Erik Chisholm", "The Pardoner's Tale", "Lollardy", "court poet", "Dante", "pilgrim", "Match cut", "The Reeve's Tale", "Lent", "Folger Shakespeare Library", "Latin", "fabliau", "Breton lai", "lost film", "The Tale of Melibee", "Pier Paolo Pasolini", "Couplet", "Bérinus", "Ovid", "Decameron", "Chaucer's Retraction", "The Prioress's Tale", "Procol Harum", "Piers Plowman", "Carnival", "The Shipman's Tale", "William Langland", "The Miller's Tale", "The Nun's Priest's Tale", "Siege of Thebes (Lydgate)", "Richard II of England", "Book of the Duchess", "Psychedelic rock", "The Man of Law's Tale", "John Adams Building", "Ezra Winter", "Thomas Occleve", "BAFTA", "verse (poetry)", "St. Mary Rouncesval", "English literature", "Henry Dudeney", "Petrarch", "Kent", "Heath Ledger", "Edward III", "Middle English", "The Cook's Tale" ]
7,628	Christine de Pizan	Christine de Pizan or Pisan (, ; born Cristina da Pizzano; September 1364 – ), was an Italian-born French court writer for King Charles VI of France and several French royal dukes, in both prose and poetry. Christine de Pizan served as a court writer in medieval France after the death of her husband. Christine's patrons included dukes Louis I of Orleans, Philip the Bold of Burgundy, and his son John the Fearless. Considered to be some of the earliest feminist writings, her work includes novels, poetry, and biography, and she also penned literary, historical, philosophical, political, and religious reviews and analyses. Her best known works are The Book of the City of Ladies and The Treasure of the City of Ladies, both prose works written when she worked for John the Fearless of Burgundy. Her books of advice to princesses, princes, and knights remained in print until the 16th century. == Life == === Early life and family (1364–1389) === Christine de Pizan was born in 1364 in the Republic of Venice, Italy. She was the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano. Her father became known as Thomas de Pizan, named for the family's origins in the village of Pizzano (currently part of the municipality of Monterenzio), southeast of Bologna. Her father worked as a physician, court astrologer and Councillor of the Republic of Venice. Thomas de Pizan accepted an appointment to the court of Charles V of France as the king's astrologer and in 1368 Christine moved to Paris. In 1379 Christine de Pizan married the notary and royal secretary Etienne du Castel. She had three children. Her daughter became a nun at the Dominican in 1397 as a companion to the King's daughter Marie. Christine's husband died of the plague in 1389, a year after her father had died. On 4 June 1389, in a judgment concerning a lawsuit filed against her by the archbishop of Sens and François Chanteprime, councillors of the King, Christine was called "damoiselle" and "widow of Estienne du Castel". === Writing career (1389–1405) === After her husband Etienne died, Christine was left to support her mother and her children. When she tried to collect money from her husband's estate, she faced complicated lawsuits regarding the recovery of salaries still owed to her husband. Through this, Christine became a court writer. By 1393, she was writing love ballads, which caught the attention of wealthy patrons within the court. Christine became a prolific writer. Her involvement in the production of her books and her skillful use of patronage in turbulent political times has earned her the title of the first professional woman of letters in Europe. Although Venetian by birth, Christine expressed a fervent nationalism for France. Affectively and financially she became attached to the French royal family, donating or dedicating her early ballads to its members, including Isabeau of Bavaria, Louis I, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Berry. Patronage changed in the late Middle Ages. Texts were still produced and circulated as continuous roll manuscripts, but were increasingly replaced by the bound codex. Members of the royal family became patrons of writers by commissioning books. As materials became cheaper a book trade developed, so writers and bookmakers produced books for the French nobility, who could afford to establish their own libraries. Christine thus had no single patron who consistently supported her financially and became associated with the royal court and the different factions of the royal family – the Burgundy, Orleans and Berry – each having their own respective courts. Throughout her career Christine undertook concurrent paid projects for individual patrons and subsequently published these works for dissemination among the nobility of France. France was ruled by Charles VI who since 1392 experienced a series of mental breakdowns, causing a crisis of leadership for the French monarchy. He was often absent from court and could eventually only make decisions with the approval of a royal council. Queen Isabeau was nominally in charge of governance when her husband was absent from court but could not extinguish the quarrel between members of the royal family. In the past, Blanche of Castile had played a central role in the stability of the royal court and had acted as regent of France. Christine published a series of works on the virtues of women, referencing Queen Blanche and dedicating them to Queen Isabeau. In 1402 she described Queen Isabeau as "High, excellent crowned Queen of France, very redoubtable princess, powerful lady, born at a lucky hour". Christine believed that France had been founded by the descendants of the Trojans and that its governance by the royal family adhered to the Aristotelian ideal. In 1400 Christine published L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector (Letter of Othea to Hector). When first published, the book was dedicated to Louis of Orléans, the brother of Charles VI, who was at court seen as potential regent of France. In L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector Hector of Troy is tutored in statecraft and the political virtues by the goddess of wisdom Othéa. Christine produced richly illustrated luxury editions of L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector in 1400. Between 1408 and 1415 Christine produced further editions of the book. Throughout her career she produced rededicated editions of the book with customised prologues for patrons, including an edition for Philip the Bold in 1403, and editions for Jean of Berry and Henry IV of England in 1404. In 1402, Christine became involved in a renowned literary controversy, the "Querelle du Roman de la Rose". Christine questioned the literary merits of Jean de Meun's popular Romance of the Rose, which satirizes the conventions of courtly love while critically depicting women as nothing more than seducers. In the midst of the Hundred Years' War between French and English kings, Christine wrote the dream allegory Le Chemin de long estude in 1403. Writing in the first-person, she and the Cumaean Sibyl travel together and witness a debate on the state of the world between the four allegories – Wealth, Nobility, Chivalry and Wisdom. Christine suggests that justice could be brought to earth by a single monarch who had the necessary qualities. In 1404, Christine chronicled the life of Charles V, portraying him as the ideal king and political leader, in Le Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy Charles V. The chronicle had been commissioned by Philip the Bold of Burgundy and in the chronicle, Christine passed judgment on the state of the royal court. When praising the efforts of Charles V in studying Latin, Christine lamented that her contemporaries had to resort to strangers to read the law to them. Before the book was completed, Philip the Bold died, and Christine offered the book to Jean, Duke of Berry in 1405 in an attempt to find a new patron. She was paid 100 livres for the book by Philip the Bold's successor John the Fearless in 1406 and would receive payments from his court for books until 1412. In 1405, Christine published Le Livre de la cité des dames (The Book of the City of Ladies) and Le Livre des trois vertus (Book of Three Virtues, known as The Treasure of the City of Ladies). In Le Livre de la cité des dames Christine presented intellectual and royal female leaders, such as Queen Zenobia. Christine dedicated Le Livre des trois vertus to the dauphine Margaret of Nevers, advising the young princess on what she had to learn. As Queen Isabeau's oldest son Louis of Guyenne came of age Christine addressed three works to him with the intention of promoting wise and effective government. The earliest of the three works has been lost. In Livre du Corps de policie (The Book of the Body Politic), published in 1407 and dedicated to the dauphin, Christine set out a political treatise which analysed and described the customs and governments of late medieval European societies. Christine favoured hereditary monarchies, arguing in reference to Italian city-states that were governed by princes or trade guilds, that "such governance is not profitable at all for the common good". Christine also devoted several chapters to the duties of a king as a military leader and she described in detail the role of the military class in society. === Civil war (1405–1430) === In the beginning of 1405, France was on the verge of a full-scale civil war. In 1407 John I of Burgundy, also known as John the Fearless, plunged France into a crisis when he ordered the assassination of Louis of Orléans. The Duke of Burgundy fled Paris when his complicity in the assassination became known, but was appointed regent of France on behalf of Charles VI in late 1408 after his military victory in the Battle of Othee. It is not certain who commissioned Christine to write a treatise on military warfare, but in 1410 Christine published the manual on chivalry, entitled Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie (The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry). In early 1411, Christine was paid 200 livres from the royal reasury for the book. In the preface Christine explained that she published the manual in French so that it could be read by practitioners of war not well versed in Latin. The book opened with a discussion of the just war theory advanced by Honoré Bonet. Christine also referenced classical writers on military warfare, such as Vegetius, Frontinus and Valerius Maximus. Christine discussed contemporary matters relating to what she termed the Laws of War, such as capital punishment, the payment of troops, as well as the treatment of noncombatants and prisoners of war. Christine opposed trial by combat, but articulated the medieval belief that God is the lord and governor of battle and that wars are the proper execution of justice. Nevertheless, she acknowledged that in a war "many great wrongs, extortions, and grievous deeds are committed, as well as raping, killings, forced executions, and arsons". Christine limited the right to wage war to sovereign kings because as head of states they were responsible for the welfare of their subjects. In 1411 the royal court published an edict prohibiting nobles from raising an army. After civil war had broken out in France, Christine in 1413 offered guidance to the young dauphin on how to govern well, publishing Livre de la paix (The Book of Peace). Livre de la paix was to be Christine's last major work and contained detailed formulations of her thoughts on good governance. The period was marked by bouts of civil war and failed attempts to bring John the Fearless to justice for assassinating his cousin. Christine addressed Louis of Guyenne directly, encouraging him to continue the quest for peace in France. She argued that "Every kingdom divided in itself will be made desolate, and every city and house divided against itself will not stand". Christine was acquainted with William of Tignonville, an ambassador to the royal court, and referenced Tignonville's speeches on the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. Christine drew a utopian vision of a just ruler, who could take advice from those older or wiser. In arguing that peace and justice were possible on earth as well as in heaven, Christine was influenced by Dante, whom she had referenced in Le Chemin de long estude. Christine encouraged the dauphin to deserve respect, by administering justice promptly and living by worthy example. Christine urged young princes to make themselves available to their subjects, avoid anger and cruelty, to act liberally, mercifully and truthfully. Christine's interpretation of the virtuous Christian prince built on the advice to rulers by St Benedict, Peter Abelard and Cicero. In 1414, Christine presented Queen Isabeau with a lavishly decorated collection of her works (now known as British Library Harley 4431). The bound book contained 30 of Christine's writings and 130 miniatures. She had been asked by the queen to produce the book. The work is noted for its quality miniature illuminations; Christine herself and her past royal patrons are depicted. As a mark of ownership and authorship the opening frontispiece depicts Queen Isabeau being presented with the book by Christine. In 1418, Christine published a consolation for women who had lost family members in the Battle of Agincourt under the title Epistre de la prison de vie Humaine (Letter Concerning the Prison of Human Life). In it, Christine did not express any optimism or hope that peace could be found on earth; instead, she expressed the view that the soul was trapped in the body and imprisoned in hell. The previous year she had presented the Epistre de la prison de vie Humaine to Marie of Berry, the administrator of the Duchy of Bourbon whose husband was held in English captivity. Historians assume that Christine spent the last ten years of her life in the Dominican convent of Poissy because of the civil war and the occupation of Paris by the English. Away from the royal court her literary activity ceased. However, in 1429, after Joan of Arc's military victory over the English, Christine published the poem Ditié de Jehanne d'Arc (The Tale of Joan of Arc). Published just a few days after the coronation of Charles VII, Christine expressed renewed optimism. She cast Joan as the fulfilment of prophecies by Merlin, the Cumaean Sibyl and Saint Bede, helping Charles VII to fulfill the predictions of Charlemagne. Christine is believed to have died in 1430, before Joan was tried and executed by the English. After her death the political crisis in France was resolved when Queen Isabeau's only surviving son Charles VII and John the Fearless' successor as Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, signed the Peace of Arras in 1435. == Works == Christine produced a large number of vernacular works, in both prose and verse. Her works include political treatises, mirrors for princes, epistles, and poetry. Christine's book Le Dit de la Rose (The Tale of the Rose) was published in 1402 as a direct attack on Jean de Meun's extremely popular book Romance of the Rose which was a continuation of the version by Guillaume de Lorris and characterised women as seducers. Christine claimed that Meun's views were misogynistic, vulgar, immoral, and slanderous to women. Christine sparked a debate over the literary merits of the work when she confronted the royal secretary, Jean de Montreuil, who had written a short treatise praising the work. The debate continued between Christine and two other male royal secretaries who defended Jean in a heated exchange. At the height of the exchange Christine published Querelle du Roman de la Rose (Letters on the Debate of the Rose). In this particular apologetic response, Christine belittles her own writing style, employing a rhetorical strategy by writing against the grain of her meaning, also known as antiphrasis. By 1405, Christine had completed her most famous literary works, The Book of the City of Ladies (Le Livre de la cité des dames) and The Treasure of the City of Ladies (Le Livre des trois vertus). The first of these shows the importance of women's past contributions to society, and the second strives to teach women of all estates how to cultivate useful qualities. In The Book of the City of Ladies Christine created a symbolic city in which women are appreciated and defended. She constructed three allegorical figures – Reason, Justice, and Rectitude – in the common pattern of literature in that era when many books and poetry used stock allegorical figures to express ideas or emotions. She enters into a dialogue, a movement between question and answer, with these allegorical figures that is from a completely female perspective. Together, they create a forum to speak on issues of consequence to all women. Only female voices, examples and opinions provide evidence within this text. Through Lady Reason in particular Christine argues that stereotypes of women can be sustained only if women are prevented from entering into the conversation. In City of Ladies Christine deliberated on the debate of whether the virtues of men and women differ, a frequently debated topic in late medieval Europe, particularly in the context of Aristotelian virtue ethics and his views on women. Christine repeatedly used the theological argument that men and women are created in God's image and both have souls capable of embracing God's goodness. Among the inhabitants of the City of Ladies are female saints, women from the Old Testament and virtuous women from the pagan antiquity as portrayed by Giovanni Boccaccio. Within her allegorical city of illustrious ladies, she reimagines the mythological figure, Medusa. Christine de Pizan's Medusa, in stark contrast to the typical portrayal in classical texts, is not a monstrous and deadly creature, but a woman deserving of safety from male harm. De Pizan is the first to provide a feminist revisionist perspective of the ancient myth. In The Treasure of the City of Ladies Christine addressed the "community" of women with the stated objective of instructing them on the means of achieving virtue. She took the position that all women were capable of humility, diligence and moral rectitude, and that duly educated women could become worthy residents of the imaginary City of Ladies. Drawing on her own life, Christine advised women on how to navigate the perils of early 15th-century French society. She was a strong advocate of education for women, having said "If it were customary to send little girls to school and to teach them the same subjects as are taught boys, they would learn just as fully and would understand the subtleties of all arts and sciences". With reference to Augustine of Hippo and other saints Christine offered advice on how the noble lady could achieve the love of God. Christine speaks through the allegorical figures of God's daughters – Reason, Rectitude and Justice – who represent the Three Virtues most important to women's success. Through secular examples of these three virtues, Christine urged women to discover meaning and achieve worthy acts in their lives. Christine argued that women's success depends on their ability to manage and mediate by speaking and writing effectively. Christine specifically sought out other women to collaborate in the creation of her work. She makes special mention of a manuscript illustrator we know only as Anastasia, whom she described as the most talented of her day. == Legacy == === Early French influence === Christine published 41 known pieces of poetry and prose in her lifetime and she gained fame across Europe as the first professional woman writer. She achieved such credibility that royalty commissioned her prose and contemporary intellectuals kept copies of her works in their libraries. After her death in 1430, Christine's influence was acknowledged by a variety of authors and her writings remained popular. While de Pizan's mixture of classical philosophy and humanistic ideals was in line with the style of other popular authors at the time, her outspoken defence of women was an anomaly. In her works she vindicated women against popular misogynist texts, such as Ovid's Art of Love, Jean de Meun's Romance of the Rose and Matheolus's Lamentations. Her book Le Livre de la cité des dames remained in print. Christine's Le Livre des trois vertus (The Treasure of the City of Ladies) became an important reference point for royal women in the 15th and 16th centuries; French editions were still being printed in 1536. Anne of France, who acted as regent of France, used it as a basis for her 1504 book of Enseignemens, written for her daughter Suzanne Duchess of Bourbon, who as agnatic heir to the Bourbon lands became co-regent. Christine's advice to princesses was translated and circulated as manuscripts or printed books among the royal families of France and Portugal. The City of Ladies was acknowledged and referenced by 16th century French women writers, including Anne de Beaujeu, Gabrielle de Bourbon, Marguerite de Navarre and Georgette de Montenay. Christine's political writings received some attention too. Livre de la paix was referenced by the humanist Gabriel Naudé and Christine was given large entries in encyclopedias by Denis Diderot, Louis Moréri and Prosper Marchand. In 1470 Jean V de Bueil reproduced Christine's detailed accounts of the armies and material needed to defend a castle or town against a siege in Le Jouvence. Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie was published in its entirety by the book printer Antoine Vérard in 1488, but Vérard claimed that it was his translation of Vegetius. Philippe Le Noir authored an abridged version of Christine's book in 1527 under the title L'Arbre des Batailles et fleur de chevalerie (The tree of battles and flower of chivalry). === Outside France === A Dutch edition of Le Livre de la cité des dames exists from the 15th century. In 1521 The Book of the City of Ladies was published in English. Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie was translated into English by William Caxton for Henry VII in 1489 and was published under the title The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry as print one year later, attributing Christine as author. English editions of The Book of the City of Ladies and Livre du corps de policie (The Book of the Body Politic) were printed in 1521 without referencing Christine as the author. Elizabeth I had in her court library copies of The Book of the City of Ladies, L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector (Letter of Othea to Hector) and The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry. Among the possessions of the English queen were tapestries with scenes from the City of Ladies. === 19th to 21st centuries === In the early 19th century Raimond Thomassy published an overview of Christine's political writings and noted that modern editions of these writings were not published and that as a political theorist Christine was descending into obscurity. Similarly, Mathilde Laigle and Marie-Josephe Pinet are credited with reviving the work of de Pizan in the early 20th century, as a writer who had been forgotten in France but noted elsewhere. Laigle noticed for instance that Spanish writers had borrowed extensively from de Pizan's work, even though it had not been translated into that language. Her activism has also drawn the fascination of modern feminists. Simone de Beauvoir wrote in 1949 that Épître au Dieu d'Amour was "the first time we see a woman take up her pen in defence of her sex". Beginning in the 1950s, scholarly work by Suzanne Solente further bolstered Christine's reputation. Judy Chicago's 1979 artwork The Dinner Party features a place setting for Christine de Pizan. In the 1980s Sandra Hindman published a study of the political events referenced in the illuminations of Christine's published works. In recent decades, Christine's work has continued to grow in reputation by the efforts of scholars such as Charity Cannon Willard and Earl Jeffrey Richards. In the opening cermenony of the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris, Christine was one of the 10 pioneering female contributors to French history honoured by gold-coloured statues which rose from giant pedestals along the river Seine. == List of works == Enseignements moraux (1395) ("Moral Teachings") L'Épistre au Dieu d'amours (1399) ("Epistle to the God of Love") L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector (1399–1400) ("Epistle of Othéa to Hector")" Dit de la Rose (1402) ("Tale of the Rose") Cent Ballades d'Amant et de Dame, Virelays, Rondeaux (1402) ("One Hundred Ballads, Virelays, and Rondeaus of Lover and Lady") Le Chemin de long estude (1403) ("Book of the Long Study") Livre de la mutation de fortune (1403) ("Book of Fortune's Transformation") La Pastoure (1403) ("The Pasture") Le Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy Charles V (1404) ("The Book of the Deeds and Good Morals of the Wise King Charles V") Le Livre de la cité des dames (1405) ("Book of the City of the Ladies") Le Livre des trois vertus (1405) ("Book of the Three Virtues", known in English as "Treasure of the City of the Ladies") L'Avision de Christine (1405) ("The Vision of Christine") Livre du corps de policie (1407) ("Book of the Body Politic") Livre des fais d'armes et de chevalerie (1410) ("Book of the Deeds of Arms and Chivalry", or "Treatise on Fortifications") Livre de paix (1413) ("Book of Peace") Epistre de la prison de vie humaine (1418) ("Epistle on the Prison of Human Life") Les sept psaumes allégorisés ("The Seven Psalms, Allegorized") Ditié de Jehanne d'Arc (1429) ("The Tale of Joan of Arc")	[ "Margaret of Nevers", "Henry IV of England", "Prosper Marchand", "just war theory", "Jean V de Bueil", "Queen Zenobia", "William Caxton", "Aristotle's views on women", "Amazons", "The Book of the City of Ladies", "Augustine of Hippo", "Battle of Agincourt", "Women's history", "city-state", "Denis Diderot", "Antoine Vérard", "Merlin", "Monterenzio", "Nobility", "Wisdom", "Gabriel Naudé", "trial by combat", "Venice", "Blanche of Castile", "Cumaean Sibyl", "Vernacular literature", "Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War", "virtue", "justice", "regent", "List of French-language poets", "Kingdom of France", "medieval Europe", "Marie of Valois, Prioress of Poissy", "classical philosophy", "The Treasure of the City of Ladies", "mirrors for princes", "Charity Cannon Willard", "Republic of Venice", "John I of Burgundy", "Vegetius", "Cambridge Digital Library", "Philip the Bold", "Louis I of Orleans", "Mathilde Laigle", "The Tale of Joan of Arc", "John the Fearless", "Anne de Beaujeu", "Hundred Years' War", "Marguerite de Navarre", "astrologer", "chivalry", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Sens", "guild", "Charles VI of France", "The Dinner Party", "manuscript culture", "Honoré Bonet", "siege", "Troy", "Judy Chicago", "Old Testament", "Louis I, Duke of Orléans", "Plague (disease)", "Peter Abelard", "Bologna", "medieval France", "Henry VII of England", "Jean de Berry", "Anne of France", "soul", "St Benedict", "humanistic", "Anastasia (artist)", "allegories", "antiphrasis", "Giovanni Boccaccio", "William of Tignonville", "hell", "Elizabeth I", "Treaty of Arras (1435)", "Marie of Berry", "Aristotelianism", "French livre", "Mathieu of Boulogne", "Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon", "Georgette de Montenay", "ballads", "Charles VII of France", "codex", "jousting", "Battle of Othee", "Valerius Maximus", "Duchy of Bourbon", "Dante", "Poissy", "noncombatants", "Chivalry", "2024 Summer Olympics", "Le Livre des trois vertus", "Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists", "Roman de la Rose", "Le Chemin de long estude", "Jean de Meun", "Latin", "Charlemagne", "Simone de Beauvoir", "Joan of Arc", "Louis of Guyenne", "Ovid", "dream allegory", "Charles V of France", "Cicero", "Hector of Troy", "Patronage", "Le Livre de la cité des dames", "Medusa", "Isabeau of Bavaria", "Philip the Good", "Le Livre de la mutation de fortune", "prisoners of war", "Aristotelian ethics", "Saint Bede", "Louis Moréri", "Frontinus", "Middle Ages" ]
7,630	Catharism	Catharism ( ; from the , "the pure ones") was a Christian quasi-dualist and pseudo-Gnostic movement which thrived in Southern Europe, particularly in northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries. Denounced as a heretical sect by the Catholic Church, its followers were attacked first by the Albigensian Crusade and later by the Medieval Inquisition, which eradicated the sect by 1350. Around 1 million were slaughtered, hanged, or burnt at the stake. Followers were known as Cathars or Albigensians, after the French city Albi where the movement first took hold, but referred to themselves as Good Christians. They famously believed that there were not one, but two Godsthe good God of Heaven and the evil god of this age (). According to tradition, Cathars believed that the good God was the God of the New Testament faith and creator of the spiritual realm. Many Cathars identified the evil god as Satan, the master of the physical world. The Cathars believed that human souls were the sexless spirits of angels trapped in the material realm of the evil god. They thought these souls were destined to be reincarnated until they achieved salvation through the "consolamentum", a form of baptism performed when death is imminent. At that moment, they believed they would return to the good God as "Cathar Perfect". Catharism was initially taught by ascetic leaders who set few guidelines, leading some Catharist practices and beliefs to vary by region and over time. The first mention of Catharism by chroniclers was in 1143; four years later the Catholic Church denounced Cathar practices, particularly the consolamentum ritual. From the beginning of his reign, Pope Innocent III attempted to end Catharism by sending missionaries and persuading the local authorities to act against the Cathars. In 1208, Pierre de Castelnau, Innocent's papal legate, was murdered while returning to Rome after excommunicating Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, who, in his view, was too lenient with the Cathars. Pope Innocent III then declared de Castelnau a martyr and launched the Albigensian Crusade in 1209. The nearly twenty-year campaign succeeded in vastly weakening the movement. The Medieval Inquisition that followed ultimately eradicated Catharism. There is academic controversy about whether Catharism was a organized religion or whether the medieval Church imagined or exaggerated it. The lack of any central organisation among Cathars and regional differences in beliefs and practices has prompted some scholars to question whether the Church exaggerated its threat while others wonder whether it even existed. ==Term== Though the term Cathar () has been used for centuries to identify the movement, whether it identified itself with the name is debated. In Cathar texts, the terms Good Men (), Good Women (), or Good Christians () are the common terms of self-identification. In the testimony of suspects who were put to the question by the Inquisition, the term 'Cathar' was not used amongst the group of accused heretics themselves. The word 'Cathar' (aka. Gazarri etc.) is coined by Catholic theologians and used exclusively by the inquisition or by authors otherwise identified with the Orthodox church--for example in the anonymous pamphlet of 1430, Errores Gazariorum (Re: Errors of the Cathars). The full title of this treatise in English is, "The errors of the Gazarri, or of those who travel riding a broom or a stick." However the presence of a variety of beliefs and spiritual practices in the French countryside of the 12th and 13th centuries that came to be seen as heterodox relative to the Church in Rome is not actually in question, as the primary documents of the period exhaustively demonstrate. Several of these groups under other names, e.g. the Waldensians or Valdeis, bear a close similarity to the 'creed' or matrix of beliefs and folk-traditions pieced together under the umbrella of the term 'Catharism.' As the scholar Claire Taylor puts it, "[This issue] matters at an ethical level, because by being cleverly iconoclastic and populist in suggesting that those using 'Cathar' have made 2+2=5, Pegg and Moore [re: scholars questioning whether or not the Cathars exist] make 2+2=3 by denying the existence of the persecuted group. The missing element is a dissident religious doctrine, for which historians using a fuller range of sources believe thousands of people were prepared to suffer extreme persecution and an agonising death." == Origins == The origins of the Cathars' beliefs are unclear, but most theories agree they came from the Byzantine Empire, mostly by the trade routes and spread from the First Bulgarian Empire to the Netherlands. The movement was greatly influenced by the Bogomils of the First Bulgarian Empire, and may have originated in the Byzantine Empire, namely through adherents of the Paulician movement in Armenia and eastern Anatolia who were resettled in Thrace (Philippopolis). The name of Bulgarians () was also applied to the Albigensians, and they maintained an association with the similar Christian movement of the Bogomils ("Friends of God") of Thrace. "That there was a substantial transmission of ritual and ideas from Bogomilism to Catharism is beyond reasonable doubt." Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils and the Paulicians, who influenced them, as well as the earlier Marcianists, who were found in the same areas as the Paulicians, the Manicheans and the Christian Gnostics of the first few centuries AD, although, as many scholars, most notably Mark Pegg, have pointed out, it would be erroneous to extrapolate direct, historical connections based on theoretical similarities perceived by modern scholars. John Damascene, writing in the 8th century AD, also notes of an earlier sect called the "Cathari", in his book On Heresies, taken from the epitome provided by Epiphanius of Salamis in his Panarion. He says of them: "They absolutely reject those who marry a second time, and reject the possibility of penance [that is, forgiveness of sins after baptism]". These are probably the same Cathari (actually Novations) who are mentioned in Canon 8 of the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in the year 325, which states "... [I]f those called Cathari come over [to the faith], let them first make profession that they are willing to communicate [share full communion] with the twice-married, and grant pardon to those who have lapsed ..." The writings of the Cathars were mostly destroyed because of the doctrine's threat perceived by the Papacy; thus, the historical record of the Cathars is derived primarily from their opponents. Cathar ideology continues to be debated, with commentators regularly accusing opposing perspectives of speculation, distortion and bias. Only a few texts of the Cathars remain, as preserved by their opponents (such as the ) which give a glimpse into the ideologies of their faith. One large text has survived, The Book of Two Principles (), which elaborates the principles of dualistic theology from the point of view of some Albanenses Cathars. It is now generally agreed by most scholars that identifiable historical Catharism did not emerge until at least 1143, when the first confirmed report of a group espousing similar beliefs is reported being active at Cologne by the cleric Eberwin of Steinfeld. A landmark in the "institutional history" of the Cathars was the Council, held in 1167 at Saint-Félix-Lauragais, attended by many local figures and also by the Bogomil papa Nicetas, the Cathar bishop of (northern) France and a leader of the Cathars of Lombardy. The Cathars were a largely local, Western European/Latin Christian phenomenon, springing up in the Rhineland cities, particularly Cologne, in the mid-12th century, northern France around the same time, and particularly the Languedoc—and the northern Italian cities in the mid-late 12th century. In the Languedoc and northern Italy, the Cathars attained their greatest popularity, surviving in the Languedoc, in much reduced form, up to around 1325 and in the Italian cities until the Inquisitions of the 14th century extirpated them. Catharism is generally believed to be a syncretic form of Zoroastrianism and Gnosticism and the heir to Manichaeism. == Beliefs == === Cosmology === Gnostic cosmology identified two creator deities. The first was the creator of the spiritual realm contained in the New Testament, while the second was the demiurge depicted in the Old Testament who created the physical universe. The demiurge, often called ("King of the World"), was identified as the God of Judaism. Some gnostic belief systems including Catharism began to characterise the duality of creation as a relationship between hostile opposing forces of good and evil. Although the demiurge was sometimes conflated with Satan or considered Satan's father, creator or seducer, these beliefs were far from unanimous. Some Cathar communities believed in a mitigated dualism similar to their Bogomil predecessors, stating that the evil god Satan had previously been the true God's servant before rebelling against him. Others, likely a majority over time given the influence reflected on the Book of the Two Principles, believed in an absolute dualism, where the two gods were twin entities of the same power and importance. All visible matter, including the human body, was created or crafted by this ; matter was therefore tainted with sin. Under this view, humans were actually angels seduced by Satan before a war in heaven against the army of Michael, after which they would have been forced to spend an eternity trapped in the evil God's material realm. The Cathars taught that to regain angelic status one had to renounce the material self completely. Until one was prepared to do so, they would be stuck in a cycle of reincarnation, condemned to suffer endless human lives on the corrupt Earth. Zoé Oldenbourg compared the Cathars to "Western Buddhists" because she considered that their view of the doctrine of "resurrection" in christianity was similar to the buddhist doctrine of rebirth. === Christology === Cathars venerated Jesus Christ and followed what they considered to be his true teachings, labelling themselves as "Good Christians". However, they denied his physical incarnation and Resurrection. Authors believe that their conception of Jesus resembled Docetism, believing him the human form of an angel, whose physical body was only an appearance. Bernard of Clairvaux's biographer and other sources accuse some Cathars of Arianism, and some scholars see Cathar Christology as having traces of earlier Arian roots. Some communities might have believed in the existence of a spirit realm created by the good God, the "Land of the Living", whose history and geography would have served as the basis for the evil god's corrupt creation. Under this view, the history of Jesus would have happened roughly as told, only in the spirit realm. The physical Jesus from the material world would have been evil, a false messiah and a lustful lover of the material Mary Magdalene. However, the true Jesus would have influenced the physical world in a way similar to the Harrowing of Hell, only by inhabiting the body of Paul. 13th century chronicler Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay recorded those views. === Other beliefs === Some Cathars told a version of the Enochian narrative, according to which Eve's daughters copulated with Satan's demons and bore giants. The Deluge would have been provoked by Satan, who disapproved of the demons revealing he was not the real god, or alternatively, an attempt by the Invisible Father to destroy the giants. The Holy Spirit was sometimes counted as one single entity, but to others it was considered the collective groups of unfallen angels who had not followed Satan in his rebellion. Cathars believed that the sexual allure of women impeded a man's ability to reject the material world. Despite this stance on sex and reproduction, some Cathar communities made exceptions. In one version, the Invisible Father had two spiritual wives, Collam and Hoolibam (identified with Oholah and Oholibah), and would himself have provoked the war in heaven by seducing the wife of Satan, or perhaps the reverse. Cathars adhering to this story would believe that having families and sons would not impede them from reaching God's kingdom. Some communities also believed in a Day of Judgment that would come when the number of the just equalled that of angels who fell, when the believers would ascend to the spirit realm, while the sinners would be thrown to everlasting fire along with Satan. The Cathars ate a pescatarian diet. They did not eat cheese, eggs, meat, or milk because these are all by-products of sexual intercourse. The Cathars believed that animals were carriers of reincarnated souls, and forbade the killing of all animal life, apart from fish, which they believed were produced by spontaneous generation. The Cathars could be seen as prefiguring Protestantism in that they denied transubstantiation, purgatory, prayers for the dead and prayers to saints. They also believed that the scriptures should be read in the vernacular. === Texts === The alleged sacred texts of the Cathars, besides the New Testament, included the Bogomil text The Gospel of the Secret Supper (also called John's Interrogation), a modified version of Ascension of Isaiah, and the Cathar original work The Book of the Two Principles (possibly penned by Italian Cathar John Lugio of Bergamo). They regarded the Old Testament as written by Satan, except for a few books which they accepted, and considered the Book of Revelation not a prophecy about the future, but an allegorical chronicle of what had transpired in Satan's rebellion. Their reinterpretation of those texts contained numerous elements characteristic of Gnostic literature. == Organization == === Sacraments === Cathars, in general, formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, protesting against what they perceived to be the moral, spiritual and political corruption of the Church. In contrast, the Cathars had but one central rite, the Consolamentum, or Consolation. This involved a brief spiritual ceremony to remove all sin from the believer and to induct him into the next higher level as a Perfect. Many believers would receive the Consolamentum as death drew near, performing the ritual of liberation at a moment when the heavy obligations of purity required of Perfecti would be temporally short. Some of those who received the sacrament of the consolamentum upon their death-beds may thereafter have shunned further food with an exception of cold water until death. This has been termed the . It was claimed by some of the church writers that when a Cathar, after receiving the Consolamentum, began to show signs of recovery he or she would be smothered in order to ensure his or her entry into paradise. Other than extreme cases, little evidence exists to suggest this was a common Cathar practice. The Cathars also refused the sacrament of the eucharist, saying that it could not possibly be the body of Christ. They also refused to partake in the practice of Baptism by water. The following two quotes are taken from the Inquisitor Bernard Gui's experiences with the Cathar practices and beliefs: === Social relationships === Killing was abhorrent to the Cathars. Consequently, abstention from all animal food, sometimes exempting fish, was enjoined of the Perfecti. The Perfecti avoided eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction. War and capital punishment were condemned—an abnormality in Medieval Europe, For example, the Papal Legate, Pierre de Castelnau, was assassinated in January 1208 in Provence. To the Cathars, reproduction was a moral evil to be avoided, as it continued the chain of reincarnation and suffering in the material world. Such was the situation that a charge of heresy levelled against a suspected Cathar was usually dismissed if the accused could show he was legally married. Despite the implicit anti-Semitism of their views on the Old Testament God, the Cathars had little hostility to Jews as people and Jews probably had a higher status in Cathar territories than they had anywhere else in Europe at the time. Cathars appointed Jews as bailiffs and to other roles as public officials, which further increased the Catholic Church's anger at the Cathars. Despite their condemnation of reproduction, the Cathars grew in numbers in southeastern France. By 1207, shortly before the murder of the Papal Legate Castelnau, many towns in that region, i.e. Provence and its vicinity, were almost completely populated by Cathari, Raymond of Toulouse was excommunicated, the second such instance, in 1209. This war pitted the nobles of France against those of the Languedoc. The widespread northern enthusiasm for the Crusade was partially inspired by a papal decree that permitted the confiscation of lands owned by Cathars and their supporters. This angered not only the lords of the south, but also the King Philip II of France, who was at least nominally the suzerain of the lords whose lands were now open to seizure. King Philip II wrote to Pope Innocent in strong terms to point this out—but Pope Innocent refused to change his decree. As the Languedoc was supposedly teeming with Cathars and Cathar sympathisers, this made the region a target for northern French noblemen looking to acquire new fiefs. The first target for the barons of the North were the lands of the Trencavel, powerful lords of Carcassonne, Béziers, Albi, and the Razes. Little was done to form a regional coalition, and the crusading army was able to take Carcassonne, the Trencavel capital, incarcerating Raymond Roger Trencavel in his own citadel, where he died within three months. Champions of the Occitan cause claimed that he was murdered. Simon de Montfort was granted the Trencavel lands by Pope Innocent, thus incurring the enmity of Peter II of Aragon, who previously had been aloof from the conflict, even acting as a mediator at the time of the siege of Carcassonne. The remainder of the first of the two Cathar wars now focused on Simon de Monfort's attempt to hold on to his gains through the winters. With a small force of confederates operating from the main winter camp at Fanjeaux, he was faced with the desertion of local lords who had sworn fealty to him out of necessity—and attempts to enlarge his newfound domain during the summer. His forces were then greatly augmented by reinforcements from northern France, Germany, and elsewhere. De Montfort's summer campaigns recaptured losses sustained in winter months, in addition to attempts to widen the crusade's sphere of operation. Notably he was active in the Aveyron at St. Antonin and on the banks of the Rhône at Beaucaire. Simon de Monfort's greatest triumph was the victory against superior numbers at the Battle of Muret in 1213 — a battle in which de Montfort's much smaller force, composed entirely of cavalry, decisively defeated the much-larger, by some estimates 5-10 times larger and combined-force allied armies of Raymond of Toulouse, his Occitan allies, and Peter II of Aragon. The battle saw the death of Peter II, which effectively ended the ambitions and influence of the house of Aragon/Barcelona in the Languedoc. In 1214, Philip II's victory at Bouvines near Lille ended the Anglo-French War of 1213-1214, dealt a death blow to the Angevin Empire, and freed Philip II to concentrate more of his attentions to the Albigensian Crusade underway in the south of France. In addition, the victory at Bouvines was against an Anglo-German force that was attempting to undermine the power of the French crown. An Anglo-German victory would have been a serious setback to the crusade. Full French royal intervention in support of the crusade occurred in early 1226, when Louis VIII of France led a substantial force into southeastern France. === Massacre === The crusader army came under the command, both spiritually and militarily, of the papal legate Arnaud Amalric, Abbot of Cîteaux. In the first significant engagement of the war, the town of Béziers was besieged on 22 July 1209. The Catholic inhabitants of the city were granted the freedom to leave unharmed, but many refused and opted to stay and fight alongside the Cathars. The townsmen spent much of 1209 fending off the crusaders. The Béziers army attempted a sortie but was quickly defeated, then pursued by the crusaders back through the gates and into the city. Arnaud Amalric, the Cistercian abbot-commander, wrote to Pope Innocent III, that during negotiations his soldiers had taken the initiative without waiting for orders. The doors of the church of St Mary Magdalene were broken down and the refugees dragged out and slaughtered. Reportedly, at least 7,000 men, women and children were killed there by Catholic forces, though some scholars dispute this number. Elsewhere in the town, many more thousands were mutilated and killed. Prisoners were blinded, dragged behind horses, and used for target practice. What remained of the city was razed by fire. Arnaud Amalric wrote "Today your Holiness, twenty thousand heretics were put to the sword, regardless of rank, age, or sex." The permanent population of Béziers at that time was then between 10,000 and 14,500, but local refugees seeking shelter within the city walls could conceivably have increased the number to 20,000, though scholars dispute the figure as figurative. According to a report thirty years later by a non-witness, Arnaud Amalric is supposed to have been asked how to tell Cathars from Catholics. His alleged reply, according to Caesarius of Heisterbach, a fellow Cistercian, was —"Kill them all, the Lord will recognise His own". After the success of his siege of Carcassonne, which followed the massacre at Béziers in 1209, Simon de Montfort was designated as leader of the Crusader army. Prominent opponents of the Crusaders were Raymond Roger Trencavel, viscount of Carcassonne, and his feudal overlord Peter II of Aragon, who held fiefdoms and had a number of vassals in the region. Peter died fighting against the crusade on 12 September 1213 at the Battle of Muret. Simon de Montfort was killed on 25 June 1218 after maintaining a siege of Toulouse for nine months. === Treaty and persecution === The official war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the House of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and the house of the Trencavels of the whole of their fiefs. The independence of the princes of the Languedoc was at an end. In spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not yet extinguished, and Catholic forces would continue to pursue Cathars. In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent III. Part of the agenda was combating the Cathar heresy. The Inquisition was established in 1233 to uproot the remaining Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century, and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in crushing Catharism as a popular movement, driving its remaining adherents underground. Cathars who refused to recant or relapsed were hanged, or burnt at the stake. On Friday 13 May 1239, in Champagne, 183 men and women convicted of Catharism were burned at the stake on the orders of the Dominican inquisitor and former Cathar Perfect . Mount Guimar, in northeastern France, had already been denounced as a place of heresy in a letter of the Bishop of Liège to Pope Lucius II in 1144. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar fortress of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On 16 March 1244, a large and symbolically important massacre took place, wherein over 200 Cathar Perfects were burnt in an enormous pyre at the ("field of the burned") near the foot of the castle. The Church, at the 1235 Council of Narbonne, decreed lesser chastisements against laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars. A popular though as yet unsubstantiated belief holds that a small party of Cathar Perfects escaped from the fortress prior to the massacre at . It is widely held in the Cathar region to this day that the escapees took with them "the Cathar treasure". What this treasure consisted of has been a matter of considerable speculation: claims range from sacred Gnostic texts to the Cathars' accumulated wealth, which might have included the Holy Grail (see below). Hunted by the Inquisition and deserted by the nobles of their districts, the Cathars became more and more scattered fugitives, meeting surreptitiously in forests and mountain wilds. Later insurrections broke out under the leadership of Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix, Aimery III of Narbonne, and Bernard Délicieux, a Franciscan friar later prosecuted for his adherence to another heretical movement, that of the Spiritual Franciscans at the beginning of the 14th century. By this time, the Inquisition had grown very powerful. Consequently, many presumed to be Cathars were summoned to appear before it. Precise indications of this are found in the registers of the Inquisitors Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The perfects, it was said, only rarely recanted, and hundreds were burnt. Repentant lay believers were punished, but their lives were spared as long as they did not relapse. Having recanted, they were obliged to sew yellow crosses onto their outdoor clothing and to live apart from other Catholics, at least for a time. === Annihilation === After several decades of harassment and re-proselytising, and, perhaps even more important, the systematic destruction of their religious texts, the sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts. In April 1310, the leader of a Cathar revival in the Pyrenean foothills, Peire Autier, was captured and executed in Toulouse. After 1330, the records of the Inquisition contain very few proceedings against Cathars. In the autumn of 1321, the last known Cathar perfect in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed. From the mid-12th century onwards, Italian Catharism came under increasing pressure from the Pope and the Inquisition, "spelling the beginning of the end." Other movements, such as the Waldensians and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit, which suffered persecution in the same area, survived in remote areas and in small numbers through the 14th and 15th centuries. The Waldensian movement continues today. Waldensian ideas influenced other proto-Protestant sects, such as the Hussites, Lollards, and the Moravian Church. ==== Genocide ==== == Later history == After the suppression of Catharism, the descendants of Cathars were discriminated against; at times, they were also required to live outside towns and their defences. They retained their Cathar identity, despite their reintegration into Catholicism. As such, any use of the term "Cathar" to refer to people after the suppression of Catharism in the 14th century is a cultural or ancestral reference and has no religious implication. Nevertheless, interest in the Cathars and their history, legacy and beliefs continues. === === The term , French meaning "Cathar Country", is used to highlight the Cathar heritage and history of the region in which Catharism was traditionally strongest. The area is centered around fortresses such as Montségur and Carcassonne; also, the French département of the Aude uses the title in tourist brochures. The areas have ruins from the wars against the Cathars that are still visible today. == Interrogation of heretics == In an effort to find the few remaining heretics in and around the village of Montaillou, Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers, future Pope Benedict XII, had those suspected of heresy interrogated in the presence of scribes who recorded their conversations. The late 13th- to early-14th-century document, the Fournier Register, discovered in the Vatican archives in the 1960s and edited by Jean Duvernoy, is the basis for Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie's work Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error. == Historical and current scholarship == The publication of the early scholarly book Crusade Against the Grail, by the young German and later SS officer, Otto Rahn in the 1930s, rekindled interest in the connection between the Cathars and the Holy Grail, especially in Germany. Rahn was convinced that the 13th-century work Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach was a veiled account of the Cathars. The philosopher and Nazi government official Alfred Rosenberg speaks favourably of the Cathars in The Myth of the Twentieth Century. Academic books in English first appeared at the beginning of the 21st century: for example, Malcolm Lambert's The Cathars and Malcolm Barber's The Cathars. === Debate on the nature and existence of Catharism === Starting in the 1990s and continuing to the present day, historians like R. I. Moore have challenged the extent to which Catharism, as an institutionalised religion, actually existed. Building on the work of French historians such as Monique Zerner and Uwe Brunn, Moore's The War on Heresy argues that Catharism was "contrived from the resources of [the] well-stocked imaginations" of churchmen, "with occasional reinforcement from miscellaneous and independent manifestations of local anticlericalism or apostolic enthusiasm." In short, Moore claims that the men and women persecuted as Cathars were not the followers of a secret religion imported from the East. Instead, they were part of a broader spiritual revival taking place in the later twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. Moore's work is indicative of a larger historiographical trend towards examining how heresy was constructed by the church. Scholars since the 1990s have referred to the fearful rumours of Cathars as a moral panic. The crusade against Cathars as a possibly-imaginary enemy has been compared to European witch-hunts, anti-Semitic persecution, and the Satanic Panic. In 2016, Cathars in Question, edited by Antonio Sennis, presented a range of conflicting views by academics of medieval heresy, including Feuchter, Stoyanov, Sackville, Taylor, D'Avray, Biller, Moore, Bruschi, Pegg, Hamilton, Arnold, and Théry-Astruc, who had met at University College London and the Warburg Institute in London in April 2013. Sennis describes the debate as about "an issue which is highly controversial and hotly debated among scholars: the existence of a medieval phenomenon which we can legitimately call 'Catharism.'" Dr. Andrew Roach in The English Historical Review commented that "Reconciliation still seems some distance away [among the] distinguished, if sometimes cantankerous, scholars" who contributed to the volume. He said: Professor Rebecca Rist describes the academic controversy as the "heresy debate" – "some of it very heated" – about whether Catharism was a "real heresy with Balkans origins, or rather a construct of western medieval culture, whose authorities wanted to persecute religious dissidents." Rist adds that some historians say the group was an invention of the medieval Church, so there never was a Cathar heresy; while she agrees that the medieval Church exaggerated its threat, she says there is evidence of the heresy's existence. Professor Claire Taylor has called for a "post-revisionism" in the debate, saying that legacy historians assumed the heresy was a form of dualism and therefore a form of Bogomilism, whereas "revisionists" have focused on social origins to explain the dissent. Lucy Sackville has argued that while the revisionists rightly point to the Cathars' opaque origins and their branding as 'Manichaeans,' this does not mean we should disregard all evidence that their heresy had an organised theology. ==In art and music== The principal legacy of the Cathar movement is in the poems and songs of the Cathar troubadours, though this artistic legacy is only a smaller part of the wider Occitan linguistic and artistic heritage. The Occitan song Lo Boièr is particularly associated with Catharism. Recent artistic projects concentrating on the Cathar element in Provençal and troubadour art include commercial recording projects by Thomas Binkley, electric hurdy-gurdy artist Valentin Clastrier, La Nef, and Jordi Savall. In popular culture, Catharism has been linked with the Knights Templar, an active sect of monks founded after the First Crusade (1095–1099). This link has caused fringe theories about the Cathars and the possibility of their possession of the Holy Grail, such as in the pseudohistorical The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail. == Reinterpretations == === Protestants === Protestants such as John Foxe, in the 16th century, and Jean Duvernoy, in the 20th century, argued that Cathars followed Proto-Protestant theology, though they were criticised by many historians. Foxe argued that they followed Calvinist soteriology. Such have argued that Cathars did not follow dualism but instead argued that such accusations were either misinterpretations of Cathar theology, wrongly attributed to Cathars or merely hostile claims. Other historians have also argued that Cathars instead followed Protestant theology because the Reformation spread rapidly to the land in which Cathars mainly existed. They argued that the people "held Protestant ideas" well before the Reformation. However, such arguments are generally viewed as weak, for instance because of the need to downplay the dualism not present in Protestantism. Hisel Berlin, advocating for the Baptist successionist theory, argued that claims about the Cathars were mainly false and that they denied things such as infant baptism. Since the end of the 19th century, the trend in academic Baptist historiography has been away from the successionist viewpoint to the view that modern day Baptists are an outgrowth of 17th-century English Separatism.	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Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius", "Bernard of Clairvaux", "full communion", "Dominican Order", "Transaction Publishers", "departments of France", "Catholic Church", "proto-Protestantism", "modalistic Monarchianism", "nontrinitarian", "Papal Legate", "troubadours", "Proto-Protestantism", "Angevin Empire", "Toulouse", "vassal", "Third Council of the Lateran", "Oholah and Oholibah", "Docetism", "Satan", "war in heaven", "Claudi Martí", "eucharist", "Yale University Press", "Vintage Books", "prayers for the dead", "Gnostics", "Baptism", "La Nef", "Athinganoi", "Battle of Bouvines", "Chichester, West Sussex", "Grand Est", "New Testament", "cardinal-bishop of Albano", "Arianism", "Mark Gregory Pegg", "Steinfeld Abbey", "EMI", "Medieval Inquisition", "Montaillou (book)", "Sociological Perspectives", "demon", "Gospel of the Secret Supper", "sacerdotal", "Tarn (department)", "Penguin Books", "baptism", "Lo Boièr", "Aimery III of Narbonne", "World History Encyclopedia", "intercession of saints", "Old Testament", "Council of Saint-Félix", "House of Châteaudun", "God in Judaism", "self-identification", "northern Italy", "Oxford", "Southern Europe", "Bernard Gui", "University of British Columbia Press", "Wiley-Blackwell", "Anatolia", "fr:Errores Gazariorum", "Clergy", "Battle of Muret", "Bogomil", "Manicheans", "damnation", "anti-Semitic", "witch-hunt", "Jean Duvernoy", "John, King of England", "Baptist beliefs", "salvation", "medieval Christianity", "English Separatist", "reincarnation", "Folquet de Marselha", "Languedoc", "adept", "Vitalism", "Servian (commune)", "Dualism in cosmology" ]
7,632	Cerebrospinal fluid	Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless transcellular body fluid found within the meningeal tissue that surrounds the vertebrate brain and spinal cord, and in the ventricles of the brain. CSF is mostly produced by specialized ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid granulations. It is also produced by ependymal cells in the lining of the ventricles. In humans, there is about 125 mL of CSF at any one time, and about 500 mL is generated every day. CSF acts as a shock absorber, cushion or buffer, providing basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. CSF also serves a vital function in the cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow. CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It fills the ventricles of the brain, cisterns, and sulci, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. There is also a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear via the perilymphatic duct where the perilymph is continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid. The ependymal cells of the choroid plexus have multiple motile cilia on their apical surfaces that beat to move the CSF through the ventricles. A sample of CSF can be taken from around the spinal cord via lumbar puncture. This can be used to test the intracranial pressure, as well as indicate diseases including infections of the brain or the surrounding meninges. Although noted by Hippocrates, it was forgotten for centuries, though later was described in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg. In 1914, Harvey Cushing demonstrated that CSF is secreted by the choroid plexus. == Structure == ===Circulation=== In humans, there is about 125–150 mL of CSF at any one time. CSF moves in a single outward direction from the ventricles, but multidirectionally in the subarachnoid space. The flow of CSF through perivascular spaces in the brain (surrounding the cerebral arteries) is obtained through the pumping movements of the walls of the arteries. In general, globular proteins and albumin are in lower concentration in ventricular CSF compared to lumbar or cisternal fluid. This continuous flow into the venous system dilutes the concentration of larger, lipid-insoluble molecules penetrating the brain and CSF. CSF is normally free of red blood cells and at most contains fewer than 5 white blood cells per mm3 (if the white cell count is higher than this it constitutes pleocytosis and can indicate inflammation or infection). ==Development== At around the fifth week of its development, the embryo is a three-layered disc, covered with ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. A tube-like formation develops in the midline, called the notochord. The notochord releases extracellular molecules that affect the transformation of the overlying ectoderm into nervous tissue. Arachnoid villi are formed around the 35th week of development, with arachnoid granulations noted around the 39th, and continuing developing until 18 months of age. The brain therefore exists in neutral buoyancy, which allows the brain to maintain its density without being impaired by its own weight, which would cut off blood supply and kill neurons in the lower sections without CSF. Metabolic waste products diffuse rapidly into CSF and are removed into the bloodstream as CSF is absorbed. When this goes awry, CSF can become toxic, such as in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common form of motor neuron disease. ===Production=== The brain produces roughly 500 mL of cerebrospinal fluid per day at a rate of about 20 mL an hour. This transcellular fluid is constantly reabsorbed, so that only 125–150 mL is present at any one time. Additionally, the larger CSF volume may be one reason as to why children have lower rates of postdural puncture headache. Most (about two-thirds to 80%) of CSF is produced by the choroid plexus. CSF is mostly produced by the lateral ventricles. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in two steps. Firstly, a filtered form of plasma moves from fenestrated capillaries in the choroid plexus into an interstitial space, Cilia on the apical surfaces of the ependymal cells beat to help transport the CSF. Water and carbon dioxide from the interstitial fluid diffuse into the epithelial cells. Within these cells, carbonic anhydrase converts the substances into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. These are exchanged for sodium and chloride on the cell surface facing the interstitium. As a result, to maintain electroneutrality blood plasma has a much lower concentration of chloride anions than sodium cations. CSF contains a similar concentration of sodium ions to blood plasma but fewer protein cations and therefore a smaller imbalance between sodium and chloride resulting in a higher concentration of chloride ions than plasma. This creates an osmotic pressure difference with the plasma. CSF has less potassium, calcium, glucose and protein. Choroid plexuses also secrete growth factors, iodine, vitamins B1, B12, C, folate, beta-2 microglobulin, arginine vasopressin and nitric oxide into CSF. There are circadian variations in CSF secretion, with the mechanisms not fully understood, but potentially relating to differences in the activation of the autonomic nervous system over the course of the day. In the fourth ventricle, CSF is produced from the arterial blood from the anterior inferior cerebellar artery (cerebellopontine angle and the adjacent part of the lateral recess), the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (roof and median opening), and the superior cerebellar artery. ===Reabsorption=== CSF returns to the vascular system by entering the dural venous sinuses via arachnoid granulations. particularly those surrounding the nose via drainage along the olfactory nerve through the cribriform plate. The pathway and extent are currently not known, In newborns, CSF pressure ranges from 8 to 10 cmH2O (4.4–7.3 mmHg or 0.78–0.98 kPa). Most variations are due to coughing or internal compression of jugular veins in the neck. When lying down, the CSF pressure as estimated by lumbar puncture is similar to the intracranial pressure. Hydrocephalus is an abnormal accumulation of CSF in the ventricles of the brain. Hydrocephalus can occur because of obstruction of the passage of CSF, such as from an infection, injury, mass, or congenital abnormality. Hydrocephalus is usually treated through the insertion of a shunt, such as a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt, which diverts fluid to another part of the body. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension is a condition of unknown cause characterized by a rise in CSF pressure. It is associated with headaches, double vision, difficulties seeing, and a swollen optic disc. Medical imaging such as CT scans and MRI scans can be used to investigate for a presumed CSF leak when no obvious leak is found but low CSF pressure is identified. Caffeine, given either orally or intravenously, often offers symptomatic relief. Lumbar puncture is carried out under sterile conditions by inserting a needle into the subarachnoid space, usually between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. CSF is extracted through the needle, and tested. Baricity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of human cerebrospinal fluid and is used in regional anesthesia to determine the manner in which a particular drug will spread in the intrathecal space. ===Liquorpheresis=== Liquorpheresis is the process of filtering the CSF in order to clear it from endogen or exogen pathogens. It can be achieved by means of fully implantable or extracorporeal devices, though the technique remains experimental today. ===CSF drug delivery=== CSF drug delivery refers to a number of methods designed to administer therapeutic agents directly into the CSF, bypassing the BBB to achieve higher drug concentrations in the CNS. This technique is particularly beneficial for treating neurological disorders such as brain tumors, infections, and neurodegenerative diseases. Intrathecal injection, where drugs are injected directly into the CSF via the lumbar region, and intracerebroventricular injection, targeting the brain's ventricles, are common approaches. These methods ensure that drugs can reach the CNS more effectively than systemic administration, potentially improving therapeutic outcomes and reducing systemic side effects. Advances in this field are driven by ongoing research into novel delivery systems and drug formulations, enhancing the precision and efficacy of treatments. Intrathecal pseudodelivery refers to a particular drug delivery method where the therapeutic agent is introduced into a reservoir connected to the intrathecal space, rather than being released into the CSF and distributed throughout the CNS. In this approach, the drug interacts with its target within the reservoir, allowing for changing the composition of the CSF without systemic release. This method can be advantageous for maximizing efficacy and minimizing systemic side effects. ==History== Various comments by ancient physicians have been read as referring to CSF. Hippocrates discussed "water" surrounding the brain when describing congenital hydrocephalus, and Galen referred to "excremental liquid" in the ventricles of the brain, which he believed was purged into the nose. But for some 16 intervening centuries of ongoing anatomical study, CSF remained unmentioned in the literature. This is perhaps because of the prevailing autopsy technique, which involved cutting off the head, thereby removing evidence of CSF before the brain was examined. Albrecht von Haller, a Swiss physician and physiologist, made note in his 1747 book on physiology that the "water" in the brain was secreted into the ventricles and absorbed in the veins, and when secreted in excess, could lead to hydrocephalus. In humans and other mammals, cerebrospinal fluid turns over at a rate of 3–5 times a day. Problems with CSF circulation, leading to hydrocephalus, can occur in other animals as well as humans.	[ "autoimmune", "white blood cell", "Cerebral shunt", "lymphatic system", "chemotherapy", "Calcium", "Sulcus (neuroanatomy)", "Syrinx (medicine)", "Polymerase chain reaction", "Magnesium", "meninges", "hydrocephalus", "anterior inferior cerebellar artery", "pleocytosis", "blood pressure", "primary brain vesicles", "sodium", "Gustav Albert Schwalbe", "mammal", "anesthetic", "spinal nerve", "Centimetre of water", "Thomas Willis", "chloride", "neuropore", "rhombencephalon", "pH", "teleost", "spinal surgery", "Capillary", "ventricular system", "anterior choroidal artery", "Heinrich Quincke", "neutral buoyancy", "Caffeine", "lumbar puncture", "dizziness", "motor neuron disease", "brain herniation", "blood–brain barrier", "arachnoid mater", "urinary incontinence", "ectoderm", "Neuroglobin", "transcellular fluid", "perfusion", "furosemide", "hydrogen ions", "phylogenesis", "perilymphatic duct", "neuroendocrine", "amniote", "Pandy's test", "Brain", "perilymph", "circle of Willis", "neuron", "aquaporin", "carbon dioxide", "inner ear", "sacrum", "density", "mesoderm", "autonomic nervous system", "intrathecal", "cerebral blood flow", "brain", "Harvey Cushing", "Hippocrates", "centimetre of water", "cell counting", "brain ischemia", "aquaporin-4", "Albrecht von Haller", "tight junctions", "Reissner's fiber", "Trilaminar embryonic disc", "tetracycline", "central canal", "Homeostasis", "beta-2 transferrin", "Motor coordination", "Na-K-Cl cotransporter", "dura mater", "vertebrate", "choroid plexus", "lymph", "human brain", "Hydrocephalus", "cranial nerves", "notochord", "red blood cell", "sympathetic nervous system", "Emanuel Swedenborg", "electrolyte", "nausea", "Microbiological culture", "third ventricle", "obese", "potassium", "neurological disease", "Harvey W. Cushing", "SCO-spondin", "immune system", "ependymal cell", "Water", "regional anesthesia", "xanthochromia", "glycine", "vitamin B1", "jugular vein", "intracranial hypotension", "double vision", "human embryonic development", "lateral aperture", "Extracellular fluid", "American Scientist", "cardiac cycle", "Human skull", "olfactory nerve", "intravenous", "bony labyrinth", "blood plasma", "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis", "vomiting", "neural tube", "median aperture", "iodine", "dural venous sinuses", "posterior inferior cerebellar artery", "meningitis", "mass", "intracranial pressure", "normal pressure hydrocephalus", "ventriculo-peritoneal shunt", "venous system", "François Magendie", "neuraxis", "simple columnar epithelium", "kilopascal", "encephalitis", "CT scan", "arachnoid granulation", "multiple sclerosis", "cognition", "mesencephalon", "Vitamin C", "idiopathy", "glymphatic system", "antibodies", "Aquaporin 4", "shock absorber", "subarachnoid space", "beta-2 microglobulin", "acetazolamide", "paraneoplastic syndrome", "microorganism", "obstructive hydrocephalus", "Ependyma", "spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak", "spinal cord", "bicarbonate", "MRI scan", "Ventricular system", "epithelium", "folate", "Cilium", "subcommissural organ", "arginine vasopressin", "concentration", "Potassium", "Vitamin B12", "W. Essex Wynter", "Syncope (medicine)", "temperature", "perivascular space", "carbonic anhydrase", "congenital abnormality", "lateral ventricles", "subarachnoid cisterns", "prosencephalon", "cerebral aqueduct", "weight", "Lateral ventricles", "superior cerebellar artery", "Idiopathic intracranial hypertension", "lumbar vertebrae", "neurosarcoidosis", "List of reference ranges for cerebrospinal fluid", "Sodium", "gait dysfunction", "Chloride", "Papilledema", "pia mater", "subarachnoid hemorrhage", "embryo", "Interventricular foramina (neuroanatomy)", "mmHg", "diffusion", "parasympathetic nervous system", "Na/K ATPase", "central nervous system", "neonate", "nitric oxide", "idiopathic intracranial hypertension", "cerebral arteries", "Medical imaging", "Galen", "systemic lupus erythematosus", "osmotic pressure", "cribriform plate", "Pauling's principle of electroneutrality", "endoderm", "cerebral autoregulation", "fibrin glue", "Baricity", "cerebral angiitis", "carbonic anhydrase inhibitor", "epidural blood patch", "fourth ventricle" ]
7,633	Cordial	Cordial may refer to: ==Food and drink== Liqueur, an alcoholic beverage Cordial (candy), a type of candy that has a liquid filling inside a chocolate shell Cordial (medicine), a medicinal beverage Elderflower cordial, a non-alcoholic beverage, commonly called just "cordial" in Ireland Squash (drink), a non-alcoholic fruit drink concentrate sometimes known as cordial ==Other uses== Cordial (album), an album by La Bottine Souriante Cordial (restaurant), a Michelin-starred restaurant in The Netherlands Agreeable, a personality trait also known as "cordiality"	[ "Cordial (restaurant)", "Squash (drink)", "Elderflower cordial", "Cordial (album)", "Liqueur", "Agreeable", "Cordial (candy)", "Cordial (medicine)" ]
7,635	Charles F. Hockett	Charles Francis Hockett (January 17, 1916 – November 3, 2000) was an American linguist who developed many influential ideas in American structuralist linguistics. He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism often referred to as "distributionalism" or "taxonomic structuralism". His academic career spanned over half a century at Cornell and Rice universities. Hockett was also a firm believer of linguistics as a branch of anthropology, making contributions that were significant to the field of anthropology as well. ==Professional and academic career== ===Education=== At the age of 16, Hockett enrolled at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio where he received a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in ancient history. While enrolled at Ohio State, Hockett became interested in the work of Leonard Bloomfield, a leading figure in the field of structural linguistics. Hockett continued his education at Yale University where he studied anthropology and linguistics and received his PhD in anthropology in 1939. While studying at Yale, Hockett studied with several other influential linguists such as Edward Sapir, George P. Murdock, and Benjamin Whorf. Hockett's dissertation was based on his fieldwork in Potawatomi; his paper on Potawatomi syntax was published in Language in 1939. In 1948 his dissertation was published as a series in the International Journal of American Linguistics. Following fieldwork in Kickapoo and Michoacán, Mexico, Hockett did two years of postdoctoral study with Leonard Bloomfield in Chicago and Michigan. ===Career=== Hockett began his teaching career in 1946 as an assistant professor of linguistics in the Division of Modern Languages at Cornell University where he was responsible for directing the Chinese language program. In 1957, Hockett became a member of Cornell's anthropology department and continued to teach anthropology and linguistics until he retired to emeritus status in 1982. In 1986, he took up an adjunct post at Rice University in Houston, Texas, where he remained active until his death in 2000. ===Achievements=== Charles Hockett held membership among many academic institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Society of Fellows at Harvard University. He served as president of both the Linguistic Society of America and the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States. In addition to making many contributions to the field of structural linguistics, Hockett also considered such things as Whorfian Theory, jokes, the nature of writing systems, slips of the tongue, and animal communication and their relativeness to speech. Outside the realm of linguistics and anthropology, Hockett practiced musical performance and composition. Hockett composed a full-length opera called The Love of Doña Rosita which was based on a play by Federico García Lorca and premiered at Ithaca College by the Ithaca Opera. Hockett and his wife Shirley were vital leaders in the development of the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra in Ithaca, New York. In appreciation of the Hocketts' hard work and dedication to the Ithaca community, Ithaca College established the Charles F. Hockett Music Scholarship, the Shirley and Chas Hockett Chamber Music Concert Series, and the Hockett Family Recital Hall. ==View on linguistics== In his paper "A Note on Structure", he proposes that linguistics can be seen as "a game and as a science." A linguist as a player in the game of languages has the freedom to experiment on all utterances of a language, but must ensure that "all the utterances of the corpus must be taken into account." Late in his career, he was known for his stinging criticism of Chomskyan linguistics. ==Key contributions== ===Criticisms of Noam Chomsky and the Generative Programme=== Hockett was initially receptive to Generative grammar, hailing Chomsky's Syntactic Structures as "one of only four major breakthroughs in the history of modern linguistics" (1965). After carefully examining the generative school's proposed innovations in Linguistics, Hockett decided that this approach was of little value. His book The State of the Art outlined his criticisms of the generative approach. In his paraphrase a key principle of the Chomskyan paradigm is that there are an infinite number of grammatical sentences in any particular language. The grammar of a language is a finite system that characterizes an infinite set of (well-formed) sentences. More specifically, the grammar of a language is a well-defined system by definition not more powerful than a universal Turing machine (and, in fact, surely a great deal weaker). The crux of Hockett's rebuttal is that the set of grammatical sentences in a language is not infinite, but rather ill-defined. Hockett proposes that "no physical system is well-defined". Later in "Where the tongue slips, there slip I" he writes as follows. It is currently fashionable to assume that, underlying the actual more or less bumbling speech behavior of any human being, there is a subtle and complicated but determinate linguistic "competence": a sentence-generating device whose design can only be roughly guessed at by any techniques so far available to us. This point of view makes linguistics very hard and very erudite, so that anyone who actually does discover facts about underlying "competence" is entitled to considerable kudos. Within this popular frame of reference, a theory of "performance" -- of the "generation of speech" -- must take more or less the following form. If a sentence is to be uttered aloud, or even thought silently to oneself, it must first be built by the internal "competence" of the speaker, the functioning of which is by definition such that the sentence will be legal ("grammatical") in every respect. But that is not enough; the sentence as thus constructed must then be performed, either overtly so that others may hear it, or covertly so that it is perceived only by the speaker himself. It is in this second step that blunders may appear. That which is generated by the speaker's internal "competence"is what the speaker "intends to say," and is the only real concern of linguistics: blunders in actually performed speech are instructions from elsewhere. Just if there are no such intrusions is what is performed an instance of "smooth speech". I believe this view is unmitigated nonsense, unsupported by any empirical evidence of any sort. In its place, I propose the following. All speech, smooth as well as blunderful, can be and must be accounted for essentially in terms of the three mechanisms we have listed: analogy, blending, and editing. An individual's language, at a given moment, is a set of habits--that is, of analogies, where different analogies are in conflict, one may appear as a constraint on the working of another. Speech actualizes habits--and changes the habits as it does so. Speech reflects awareness of norms; but norms are themselves entirely a matter of analogy (that is, of habit), not some different kind of thing. Despite his criticisms, Hockett always expressed gratitude to the generative school for seeing real problems in the preexisting approaches. There are many situations in which bracketing does not serve to disambiguate. As already noted, words that belong together cannot always be spoken together, and when they are not, bracketing is difficult or impossible. In the 1950s this drove some grammarians to drink and other to transformations, but both are only anodynes, not answers ===Design features of language=== One of Hockett's most important contributions was his development of the design-feature approach to comparative linguistics. He attempted to distinguish the similarities and differences among animal communication systems and human language. Hockett initially developed seven features, which were published in the 1959 paper “Animal ‘Languages’ and Human Language.” However, after many revisions, he settled on 13 design-features in the Scientific American "The Origin of Speech." Hockett argued that while every communication system has some of the 13 design features, only human, spoken language has all 13 features. In turn, that differentiates human spoken language from animal communication and other human communication systems such as written language. ====Hockett's 13 design features of language==== Vocal-Auditory Channel: Much of human language is performed using the vocal tract and auditory channel. Hockett viewed this as an advantage for human primates because it allowed for the ability to participate in other activities while simultaneously communicating through spoken language. Broadcast transmission and directional reception: All human language can be heard if it is within range of another person's auditory channel. Additionally, a listener has the ability to determine the source of a sound by binaural direction finding. Rapid Fading (transitoriness): Wave forms of human language dissipate over time and do not persist. A hearer can receive specific auditory information only at the time it is spoken. Interchangeability: A person has the ability to speak and hear the same signal. Anything that a person is able to hear can be reproduced in spoken language. Total Feedback: Speakers can hear themselves speak and monitor their speech production and internalize what they are producing by language. Specialization: Human language sounds are specialized for communication. When dogs pant it is to cool themselves off. When humans speak, it is to transmit information. Semanticity: Specific signals can be matched with a specific meaning. Arbitrariness: There is no limitation to what can be communicated about and no specific or necessary connection between the sounds used and the message being sent. Discreteness: Phonemes can be placed in distinct categories which differentiate them from one another, like the distinct sound of /p/ versus /b/. Displacement: People can refer to things in space and time and communicate about things that are not present. Productivity: People can create new and unique meanings of utterances from previously existing utterances and sounds. Traditional Transmission: Human language is not completely innate, and acquisition depends in part on the learning of a language. Duality of patterning: Meaningless phonic segments (phonemes) are combined to make meaningful words, which, in turn, are combined again to make sentences. While Hockett believed that all communication systems, animal and human alike, share many of these features, only human language contains all 13 design features. Additionally, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning are key to human language. ====Design feature representation in other communication systems==== Honeybees Foraging honey bees communicate with other members of their hive when they have discovered a relevant source of pollen, nectar, or water. In an effort to convey information about the location and the distance of such resources, honeybees participate in a particular figure-eight dance known as the waggle dance. In Hockett's "The Origin of Speech", he determined that the honeybee communication system of the waggle dance holds the following design features: Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: By the use of this dance, honeybees are able to send out a signal that informs other members of the hive as to what direction the source of food, or water can be located. Semanticity: Evidence that the specific signals of a communication system can be matched with specific meanings is apparent because other members of the hive are able to locate the food source after a performance of the waggle dance. Displacement: Foraging honeybees can communicate about a resource that is not currently present within the hive. Productivity: Waggle dances change based on the direction, amount, and type of resource. Gibbons are small apes in the family Hylobatidae. While they share the same kingdom, phylum, class, and order of humans and are relatively close to man, Hockett distinguishes between the gibbon communication system and human language by noting that gibbons are devoid of the last four design features. Gibbons possess the first nine design features, but do not possess the last four (displacement, productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning). Displacement, according to Hockett, appears to be lacking in the vocal signaling of apes. Productivity does not exist among gibbons because if any vocal sound is produced, it is one of a finite set of repetitive and familiar calls. Hockett supports the idea that humans learn language extra genetically through the process of traditional transmission. Hockett distinguishes gibbons from humans by stating that despite any similarities in communication among a species of apes, one cannot attribute these similarities to acquisition through the teaching and learning (traditional transmission) of signals; the only explanation must be a genetic basis. Finally, duality of patterning explains a human's ability to create multiple meanings from somewhat meaningless sounds. For example, the phonemes /t/, /a/, /c/ can be used to create the words "cat," "tack," and "act." Hockett states that no other Hominoid communication system besides human language maintains this ability. ===Later additions to the features=== In a report published in 1968 with anthropologist and scientist Stuart A. Altmann, Hockett derived three more Design Features, bringing the total to 16. These are the additional three: Prevarication: A speaker can say falsehoods, lies, and meaningless statements. Reflexiveness: Language can be used communicate about the very system it is, and language can discuss language Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another language Cognitive scientist and linguist at the University of Sussex Larry Trask offered an alternative term and definition for number 14, Prevarication: 14. (a) Stimulus Freedom: One can choose to say anything nothing in any given situation ====Relationship between design features and animal communication==== Chomsky theorized that humans are unique in the animal world because of their ability to utilize Design Feature 5: Total Feedback, or recursive grammar. This includes being able to correct oneself and insert explanatory or even non sequitur statements into a sentence, without breaking stride, and keeping proper grammar throughout. While there have been studies attempting to disprove Chomsky, Marcus states that, "An intriguing possibility is that the capacity to recognize recursion might be found only in species that can acquire new patterns of vocalization, for example, songbirds, humans and perhaps some cetaceans." This is in response to a study performed by psychologist Timothy Gentner of the University of California at San Diego. Gentner's study found that starling songbirds use recursive grammar to identify “odd” statements within a given “song.” However, the study does not necessarily debunk Chomsky's observation because it has not yet been proven that songbirds have the semantic ability to generalize from patterns. There is also thought that symbolic thought is necessary for grammar-based speech, and thus Homo Erectus and all preceding “humans” would have been unable to comprehend modern speech. Rather, their utterances would have been halting and even quite confusing to us, today. The Phonetics Laboratory Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics published the following chart, detailing how Hockett's (and Altmann's) Design Features fit into other forms of communication, in animals: ==Selected works== 1939: "Potowatomi Syntax", Language 15: 235–248. 1942: "A System of Descriptive Phonology", Language 18: 3-21. 1944: Spoken Chinese; Basic Course. With C. Fang. Holt, New York. 1947: "Peiping phonology", in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, 67, pp. 253–267. [= Martin Joos (ed.), Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, 4th edition. Chicago and London 1966, pp. 217–228. 1947: "Problems of morphemic analysis", in: Language, 24, pp. 414–41. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 229–242]. 1948: "Biophysics, linguistics, and the unity of science", in: American Scientist, 36, pp. 558–572. 1950: "Peiping morphophonemics", in: Language, 26, pp. 63–85. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 315–328]. 1954: "Two models of grammatical description", in: Word, 10, pp. 210–234. [= Readings in Linguistics, vol. I, pp. 386–399]. 1955: A Manual of Phonology. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics 11. 1958: A Course in Modern Linguistics. The Macmillan Company: New York. 1960: "The Origin of Speech". in Scientific American, 203, pp. 89–97. 1961: "Linguistic Elements and Their Relation" in Language, 37: 29–53. 1967: The State of the Art. The Haag: Mouton 1973: Man's Place in Nature. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1977: The View From Language. Athens: The University of Georgia Press. 1987: Refurbishing Our Foundations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.	[ "Leonard Bloomfield", "Potawatomi language", "syntax", "emeritus", "Chinese language", "Musical composition", "postdoctoral", "Linguistic anthropology", "opera", "Design Features of Language", "Deception", "Bee Dance language", "innate", "ancient history", "Waggle dance", "Hominoid", "Traditional Transmission", "Linguistic universals", "Columbus, Ohio", "phoneme", "Syntactic Structures", "distributionalism", "written language", "Productivity (linguistics)", "Duality of patterning", "meaning (linguistics)", "Mexico", "Broadcast transmission and directional reception", "Scientific American", "vocal", "Spoken dialogue", "Opera", "primates", "Semanticity", "George P. Murdock", "structural linguistics", "Rapid Fading (transitoriness)", "signaling theory", "Society of Fellows", "Structural linguistics", "Harvard University", "Western meadowlark", "auditory system", "United States National Academy of Sciences", "phylum", "Displacement (linguistics)", "honey bee", "Bachelor of Arts", "duality of patterning", "writing system", "Rice University", "International Journal of American Linguistics", "kingdom (biology)", "phonemes", "Michigan", "American Scientist", "Ithaca College", "Linguistic Society of America", "Generative grammar", "structuralism", "Noam Chomsky", "Arbitrariness", "Edward Sapir", "Michoacán", "pollen", "doctor of philosophy", "Ohio State University", "Musical theatre", "Complete Feedback", "animal communication", "class (biology)", "speech production", "Learnability", "nectar", "joke", "Vocal-Auditory Channel", "American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Grey parrot", "human language", "Linguistics", "Chicago", "WP:Red link", "Larry Trask", "Origin of language", "linguistics", "structuralism (linguistics)", "Language acquisition", "Sign languages", "speech", "Cornell University", "dissertation", "Origin of speech", "Gibbon", "Animal communication", "the New York Times", "Benjamin Whorf", "Signalling theory", "waggle dance", "Ape language", "linguist", "Modern Languages", "Master of Arts", "Yale University", "order (biology)", "Design features of language", "Phonemes", "Cayuga, New York", "Federico García Lorca", "Cricket (insect)", "anthropology", "Kickapoo language", "Language (journal)", "Ithaca, New York", "Houston, Texas", "binaural direction", "meanings (linguistics)" ]
7,638	Consilience	In science and history, consilience (also convergence of evidence or concordance of evidence) is the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions. That is, when multiple sources of evidence are in agreement, the conclusion can be very strong even when none of the individual sources of evidence is significantly so on its own. Most established scientific knowledge is supported by a convergence of evidence: if not, the evidence is comparatively weak, and there will probably not be a strong scientific consensus. The principle is based on unity of knowledge; measuring the same result by several different methods should lead to the same answer. For example, it should not matter whether one measures distances within the Giza pyramid complex by laser rangefinding, by satellite imaging, or with a metre-stick – in all three cases, the answer should be approximately the same. For the same reason, different dating methods in geochronology should concur, a result in chemistry should not contradict a result in geology, etc. The word consilience was originally coined as the phrase "consilience of inductions" by William Whewell (consilience refers to a "jumping together" of knowledge). The word comes from Latin com- "together" and -siliens "jumping" (as in resilience). ==Description== Consilience requires the use of independent methods of measurement, meaning that the methods have few shared characteristics. That is, the mechanism by which the measurement is made is different; each method is dependent on an unrelated natural phenomenon. For example, the accuracy of laser range-finding measurements is based on the scientific understanding of lasers, while satellite pictures and metre-sticks (or yardsticks) rely on different phenomena. Because the methods are independent, when one of several methods is in error, it is very unlikely to be in error in the same way as any of the other methods, and a difference between the measurements will be observed. If the scientific understanding of the properties of lasers was inaccurate, then the laser measurement would be inaccurate but the others would not. As a result, when several different methods agree, this is strong evidence that none of the methods are in error and the conclusion is correct. This is because of a greatly reduced likelihood of errors: for a consensus estimate from multiple measurements to be wrong, the errors would have to be similar for all samples and all methods of measurement, which is extremely unlikely. Random errors will tend to cancel out as more measurements are made, due to regression to the mean; systematic errors will be detected by differences between the measurements and will also tend to cancel out since the direction of the error will still be random. This is how scientific theories reach high confidence—over time, they build up a large degree of evidence which converges on the same conclusion. When results from different strong methods do appear to conflict, this is treated as a serious problem to be reconciled. For example, in the 19th century, the Sun appeared to be no more than 20 million years old, but the Earth appeared to be no less than 300 million years (resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion and radioactivity, and the theory of quantum mechanics); or current attempts to resolve theoretical differences between quantum mechanics and general relativity. ==Significance== Because of consilience, the strength of evidence for any particular conclusion is related to how many independent methods are supporting the conclusion, as well as how different these methods are. Those techniques with the fewest (or no) shared characteristics provide the strongest consilience and result in the strongest conclusions. This also means that confidence is usually strongest when considering evidence from different fields because the techniques are usually very different. For example, the theory of evolution is supported by a convergence of evidence from genetics, molecular biology, paleontology, geology, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, and many other fields. In fact, the evidence within each of these fields is itself a convergence providing evidence for the theory. As a result, to disprove evolution, most or all of these independent lines of evidence would have to be found to be in error. and is often used as an argument for scientific realism by philosophers of science. Each branch of science studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. Atomic physics underlies the workings of chemistry, which studies emergent properties that in turn are the basis of biology. Psychology is not separate from the study of properties emergent from the interaction of neurons and synapses. Sociology, economics, and anthropology are each, in turn, studies of properties emergent from the interaction of countless individual humans. The concept that all the different areas of research are studying one real, existing universe is an apparent explanation of why scientific knowledge determined in one field of inquiry has often helped in understanding other fields. ==Deviations== Consilience does not forbid deviations: in fact, since not all experiments are perfect, some deviations from established knowledge are expected. However, when the convergence is strong enough, then new evidence inconsistent with the previous conclusion is not usually enough to outweigh that convergence. Without an equally strong convergence on the new result, the weight of evidence will still favor the established result. This means that the new evidence is most likely to be wrong. Science denialism (for example, AIDS denialism) is often based on a misunderstanding of this property of consilience. A denier may promote small gaps not yet accounted for by the consilient evidence, or small amounts of evidence contradicting a conclusion without accounting for the pre-existing strength resulting from consilience. More generally, to insist that all evidence converge precisely with no deviations would be naïve falsificationism, equivalent to considering a single contrary result to falsify a theory when another explanation, such as equipment malfunction or misinterpretation of results, is much more likely. ==In history== Historical evidence also converges in an analogous way. For example: if five ancient historians, none of whom knew each other, all claim that Julius Caesar seized power in Rome in 49 BCE, this is strong evidence in favor of that event occurring even if each individual historian is only partially reliable. By contrast, if the same historian had made the same claim five times in five different places (and no other types of evidence were available), the claim is much weaker because it originates from a single source. The evidence from the ancient historians could also converge with evidence from other fields, such as archaeology: for example, evidence that many senators fled Rome at the time, that the battles of Caesar’s civil war occurred, and so forth. Consilience has also been discussed in reference to Holocaust denial. {{Blockquote\|"We [have now discussed] eighteen proofs all converging on one conclusion...the deniers shift the burden of proof to historians by demanding that each piece of evidence, independently and without corroboration between them, prove the Holocaust. Yet no historian has ever claimed that one piece of evidence proves the Holocaust. We must examine the collective whole." ==Outside the sciences== In addition to the sciences, consilience can be important to the arts, ethics and religion. Both artists and scientists have identified the importance of biology in the process of artistic innovation. More recent descriptions include: {{quote\|"Proof is derived through a convergence of evidence from numerous lines of inquiry--multiple, independent inductions, all of which point to an unmistakable conclusion." Wilson held that with the rise of the modern sciences, the sense of unity gradually was lost in the increasing fragmentation and specialization of knowledge in the last two centuries. He asserted that the sciences, humanities, and arts have a common goal: to give a purpose to understand the details, to lend to all inquirers "a conviction, far deeper than a mere working proposition, that the world is orderly and can be explained by a small number of natural laws." An important point made by Wilson is that hereditary human nature and evolution itself profoundly affect the evolution of culture, in essence, a sociobiological concept. Wilson's concept is a much broader notion of consilience than that of Whewell, who was merely pointing out that generalizations invented to account for one set of phenomena often account for others as well. A parallel view lies in the term universology, which literally means "the science of the universe." Universology was first promoted for the study of the interconnecting principles and truths of all domains of knowledge by Stephen Pearl Andrews, a 19th-century utopian futurist and anarchist.	[ "comparative anatomy", "metre-stick", "Sun", "molecular biology", "Latin", "paleontology", "the arts", "Intrinsic and extrinsic properties", "general relativity", "Consilience (book)", "Atomic physics", "laser", "neuron", "denialism", "mystical", "cosmos", "comparative physiology", "Renaissance", "unity of knowledge", "systematic errors", "quantum mechanics", "HIV/AIDS denialism", "Falsifiability", "Rationality", "geochronology", "satellite imaging", "inductive reasoning", "Alfred A. Knopf", "modern science", "universology", "evolution", "Giza pyramid complex", "history of the universe", "Psychology", "C. P. Snow", "Scientific theory", "Greek philosophy", "Julius Caesar", "Laser rangefinder", "emergence", "anthropology", "statistically independent", "Age of Enlightenment", "Stephen Pearl Andrews", "scientific consensus", "genetics", "The Two Cultures", "evidence", "chemistry", "Holocaust denial", "Caesar’s civil war", "strength of evidence", "nuclear fusion", "Random errors", "regression to the mean", "radioactivity", "biogeography", "scientific realism", "biology", "synapse", "Edward Osborne Wilson", "William Whewell", "Middle Ages" ]
7,642	Clarence Brown	Clarence Leon Brown (May 10, 1890 – August 17, 1987) was an American film director. ==Early life== Born in Clinton, Massachusetts, to Larkin Harry Brown, a cotton manufacturer, and Katherine Ann Brown (née Gaw), Brown moved to Tennessee when he was 11 years old. He attended Knoxville High School And the University of Tennessee, both in Knoxville, Tennessee, graduating from the university at the age of 19 with two degrees in engineering. An early fascination in automobiles led Brown to a job with the Stevens-Duryea Company, then to his own Brown Motor Car Company in Alabama. He later abandoned the car dealership after developing an interest in motion pictures around 1913. He was hired by the Peerless Studio at Fort Lee, New Jersey, and became an assistant to the French-born director Maurice Tourneur. ==Career== After serving as a fighter pilot and flight instructor in the United States Army Air Service during World War I, Brown was given his first co-directing credit (with Tourneur) for The Great Redeemer (1920). Later that year, he directed a major portion of The Last of the Mohicans after Tourneur was injured in a fall. Brown moved to Universal in 1924, and then to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, where he remained until the mid-1950s. At MGM he was one of the main directors of their major female stars, he directed Joan Crawford six times and Greta Garbo seven. Brown was nominated five times for six films (see below) for an Academy Award as a director, but he never received an Oscar. However, he won Best Foreign Film for Anna Karenina, starring Garbo at the 1935 Venice International Film Festival. Brown's films gained a total of 38 Academy Award nominations and earned nine Oscars. Brown himself received five Academy Award nominations for six films and in 1949, he won the British Academy Award for the film version of William Faulkner's Intruder in the Dust. In 1957, Brown was awarded The George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film. Brown retired a wealthy man due to his real estate investments, but refused to watch new movies. He feared they might cause him to restart his career. The Clarence Brown Theater, on the campus of the University of Tennessee, is named in his honor. He holds the record for most nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director without a win, with six. ==Personal life== Clarence Brown was married four times. His first marriage was to Paula Herndon Pratt in 1913, which lasted until their divorce in 1920. The couple produced a daughter, Adrienne Brown. His second marriage was to Ona Wilson, which lasted from 1922 until their divorce in 1927. He was engaged to Dorothy Sebastian and Mona Maris, although he did not marry either of them, with Maris later saying she ended their relationship because she had her "own ideas of marriage then." He married his third wife, Alice Joyce, in 1933 and they divorced in 1945. His last marriage was to Marian Spies in 1946, which lasted until his death in 1987. On February 8, 1960, Brown received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1752 Vine Street, for his contributions to the motion pictures industry. ==Selected filmography== ===Director=== Trilby (1915) The Law of the Land (1917) The Blue Bird (1918) The Great Redeemer (1920) The Last of the Mohicans (1920) The Foolish Matrons (1921) The Light in the Dark (1922) Don't Marry for Money (1923) The Acquittal (1923) The Signal Tower (1924) Butterfly (1924) The Eagle (1925) The Goose Woman (1925) Smouldering Fires (1925) Flesh and the Devil (1926) Kiki (1926) A Woman of Affairs (1928) The Trail of '98 (1929) Navy Blues (1929) Wonder of Women (1929) Anna Christie (1930) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Romance (1930) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Inspiration (1931) Possessed (1931) A Free Soul (1931) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Emma (1932) Letty Lynton (1932) The Son-Daughter (1932) Looking forward (1933) Night Flight (1933) Sadie McKee (1934) Chained (1934) Anna Karenina (1935) Ah, Wilderness! (1935) Wife vs. Secretary (1936) The Gorgeous Hussy (1936) Conquest (1937) Of Human Hearts (1938) Idiot's Delight (1939) The Rains Came (1939) Edison, the Man (1940) Come Live with Me (1941) They Met in Bombay (1941) The Human Comedy (1943) – Academy Award nominations for Best Director and for Best Picture The White Cliffs of Dover (1944) National Velvet (1944) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director The Yearling (1946) – Academy Award nomination for Best Director Song of Love (1947) Intruder in the Dust (1949) To Please a Lady (1950) Angels in the Outfield (1951) When in Rome (1952) Plymouth Adventure (1952) ===Actor=== The Signal Tower (1924) – Switch Man Ben-Hur (1925) – Chariot Race Spectator (uncredited) Navy Blues (1929) – Roller Coaster Rider (uncredited) Possessed (1931) – Man on Merry-Go-Round (uncredited) (final film role)	[ "United States Army Air Service", "The Foolish Matrons", "Stevens-Duryea", "Fort Lee, New Jersey", "A Woman of Affairs", "To Please a Lady", "Smouldering Fires (film)", "Clinton, Massachusetts", "Idiot's Delight (film)", "Dorothy Sebastian", "Glendale, California", "Alice Joyce", "Butterfly (1924 film)", "The Yearling (film)", "The Rains Came", "Metro Pulse", "Night Flight (1933 film)", "When in Rome (1952 film)", "Directors Guild of America", "Los Angeles Times", "fighter pilot", "Academy Award for Best Director", "The Eagle (1925 film)", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Edison, the Man", "Romance (1930 film)", "Sadie McKee", "Don't Marry for Money", "Internet Archive", "The Acquittal", "Alabama", "William Faulkner", "Of Human Hearts", "University of Tennessee", "A Free Soul", "Intruder in the Dust (1949 film)", "The Son-Daughter", "Emma (1932 film)", "The Great Redeemer", "Mona Maris", "Wife vs. Secretary", "World War I", "Ah, Wilderness! (film)", "Maurice Tourneur", "Allen Estrin", "Universal Pictures", "Anna Christie (1930 film)", "Anna Karenina (1935 film)", "The Blue Bird (1918 film)", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Knoxville News Sentinel", "Song of Love (1947 film)", "The Goose Woman", "Santa Monica, California", "Knoxville High School (Tennessee)", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer", "Greta Garbo", "Louis Bromfield", "They Met in Bombay", "George Eastman House", "Possessed (1931 film)", "The Signal Tower", "Conquest (1937 film)", "Academy Awards", "Saint John's Health Center", "Inspiration (1931 film)", "The Light in the Dark", "Letty Lynton", "Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)", "Wonder of Women", "Kiki (1926 film)", "The Last of the Mohicans (1920 American film)", "Trilby (1915 film)", "Car", "The Law of the Land (film)", "The Human Comedy (film)", "flight instructor", "The White Cliffs of Dover (1944 film)", "Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1925 film)", "Looking Forward (1933 film)", "Vine Street", "Tennessee", "The Gorgeous Hussy", "Plymouth Adventure", "Venice International Film Festival", "Flesh and the Devil", "Knoxville, Tennessee", "Navy Blues (1929 film)", "The New York Times", "Chained (1934 film)", "National Velvet (film)", "Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)", "Come Live with Me (film)", "Joan Crawford", "The Trail of '98" ]
7,643	Conciliation	Conciliation is an alternative dispute resolution process whereby the parties to a dispute rely on a neutral third-party known as the conciliator, to assist them in solving their dispute. The conciliator, who may meet with the parties both separately and together, does this by; lowering tensions, improving communication, interpreting issues, and assisting parties in finding a mutually acceptable outcome. Unlike litigation or arbitration, conciliation is a voluntary, confidential, and flexible method aimed at resolving conflicts without the need for formal legal proceedings. The conciliation process has no legal standing and the decision made by the conciliator is not binding. The conciliator usually has no authority to seek evidence or call witnesses, usually writes no decision, and makes no award. == Conciliation process == The conciliation process begins when both parties agree to engage in it as a method of resolving a dispute. There are multiple uses for this form of alternative dispute resolution including transnational intellectual property, peace efforts, and other areas of community concern. This can be either part of an outline contract that was handled before the dispute arose or after a dispute arises. Conciliation is a preferred method of dispute resolution compared to litigation or binding arbitration. They select a conciliator by mutual consent or through an appointing institution. The conciliator then gathers information to understand the concerns and objectives of each side. The conciliator helps the parties move toward a resolution. In issues of international law this may include shuttle diplomacy. Most successful "conciliators" are usually highly skilled negotiators. or for governmental agencies such as the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service in the United States.	[ "Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (United States)", "litigation", "shuttle diplomacy", "dispute resolution", "arbitration", "pl:Ugoda" ]
7,645	Cyclone (programming language)	The Cyclone programming language was intended to be a safe dialect of the C language. It avoids buffer overflows and other vulnerabilities that are possible in C programs by design, without losing the power and convenience of C as a tool for system programming. It is no longer supported by its original developers, with the reference tooling not supporting 64-bit platforms. The Rust language is mentioned by the original developers for having integrated many of the same ideas Cyclone had. Cyclone development was started as a joint project of Trevor Jim from AT&T Labs Research and Greg Morrisett's group at Cornell University in 2001. Version 1.0 was released on May 8, 2006. ==Language features== Cyclone attempts to avoid some of the common pitfalls of C, while still maintaining its look and performance. To this end, Cyclone places the following limits on programs: NULL checks are inserted to prevent segmentation faults Pointer arithmetic is limited Pointers must be initialized before use (this is enforced by definite assignment analysis) Dangling pointers are prevented through region analysis and limits on free() Only "safe" casts and unions are allowed goto into scopes is disallowed switch labels in different scopes are disallowed Pointer-returning functions must execute return setjmp and longjmp are not supported To maintain the tool set that C programmers are used to, Cyclone provides the following extensions: Never-NULL pointers do not require NULL checks "Fat" pointers support pointer arithmetic with run-time bounds checking Growable regions support a form of safe manual memory management Garbage collection for heap-allocated values Tagged unions support type-varying arguments Injections help automate the use of tagged unions for programmers Polymorphism replaces some uses of void * varargs are implemented as fat pointers Exceptions replace some uses of setjmp and longjmp For a better high-level introduction to Cyclone, the reasoning behind Cyclone and the source of these lists, see this paper. Cyclone looks, in general, much like C, but it should be viewed as a C-like language. ===Pointer types=== Cyclone implements three kinds of pointer: * (the normal type) @ (the never-NULL pointer), and ? (the only type with pointer arithmetic allowed, "fat" pointers). The purpose of introducing these new pointer types is to avoid common problems when using pointers. Take for instance a function, called foo that takes a pointer to an int: int foo(int ); Although the person who wrote the function foo could have inserted NULL checks, let us assume that for performance reasons they did not. Calling foo(NULL); will result in undefined behavior (typically, although not necessarily, a SIGSEGV signal being sent to the application). To avoid such problems, Cyclone introduces the @ pointer type, which can never be NULL. Thus, the "safe" version of foo would be: int foo(int @); This tells the Cyclone compiler that the argument to foo should never be NULL, avoiding the aforementioned undefined behavior. The simple change of to @ saves the programmer from having to write NULL checks and the operating system from having to trap NULL pointer dereferences. This extra limit, however, can be a rather large stumbling block for most C programmers, who are used to being able to manipulate their pointers directly with arithmetic. Although this is desirable, it can lead to buffer overflows and other "off-by-one"-style mistakes. To avoid this, the ? pointer type is delimited by a known bound, the size of the array. Although this adds overhead due to the extra information stored about the pointer, it improves safety and security. Take for instance a simple (and naïve) strlen function, written in C: int strlen(const char s) { int i = 0; if (s == NULL) return 0; while (s[i] != '\0') { i++; } return i; } This function assumes that the string being passed in is terminated by '\0'. However, what would happen if were passed to this string? This is perfectly legal in C, yet would cause strlen to iterate through memory not necessarily associated with the string s. There are functions, such as strnlen which can be used to avoid such problems, but these functions are not standard with every implementation of ANSI C. The Cyclone version of strlen is not so different from the C version: int strlen(const char ? s) { int i, n = s.size; if (s == NULL) return 0; for (i = 0; i < n; i++, s++) if (s == '\0') return i; return n; } Here, strlen bounds itself by the length of the array passed to it, thus not going over the actual length. Each of the kinds of pointer type can be safely cast to each of the others, and arrays and strings are automatically cast to ? by the compiler. (Casting from ? to * invokes a bounds check, and casting from ? to @ invokes both a NULL check and a bounds check. Casting from * to ? results in no checks whatsoever; the resulting ? pointer has a size of 1.) ===Dangling pointers and region analysis=== Consider the following code, in C: char itoa(int i) { char buf[20]; sprintf(buf,"%d",i); return buf; } The function itoa allocates an array of chars buf on the stack and returns a pointer to the start of buf. However, the memory used on the stack for buf is deallocated when the function returns, so the returned value cannot be used safely outside of the function. While GNU Compiler Collection and other compilers will warn about such code, the following will typically compile without warnings: char itoa(int i) { char buf[20], *z; sprintf(buf,"%d",i); z = buf; return z; } GNU Compiler Collection can produce warnings for such code as a side-effect of option or , but there are no guarantees that all such errors will be detected. Cyclone does regional analysis of each segment of code, preventing dangling pointers, such as the one returned from this version of itoa. All of the local variables in a given scope are considered to be part of the same region, separate from the heap or any other local region. Thus, when analyzing itoa, the Cyclone compiler would see that z is a pointer into the local stack, and would report an error.	[ "programming language", "pointer arithmetic", "Pointer arithmetic", "undefined behavior", "Project Verona", "Greg Morrisett", "Exception handling", "pointer (computer science)", "Setjmp.h", "ML (programming language)", "system programming", "fat pointer", "C (programming language)", "SIGSEGV", "bounds checking", "definite assignment analysis", "AT&T Labs", "64-bit computing", "Null pointer", "Unix signal", "GNU Compiler Collection", "void pointer", "Rust (programming language)", "Garbage collection (computer science)", "ANSI C", "buffer overflow", "segmentation fault", "Control flow", "Polymorphism (computer science)", "Cornell University", "free()", "Tagged union", "Dangling pointer" ]
7,646	Cognitivism	Cognitivism may refer to: Cognitivism (ethics), the philosophical view that ethical sentences express propositions and are capable of being true or false Cognitivism (psychology), a psychological approach that argues that mental function can be understood as the internal manipulation of symbols Cognitivism (aesthetics), a view that cognitive psychology can help understand art and the response to it Anecdotal cognitivism, a psychological methodology for interpreting animal behavior in terms of mental states	[ "Cognitivism (aesthetics)", "Cognitive anthropology", "Computationalism", "Cognitive science", "Situated cognition", "Symbol grounding", "Philosophy of mind", "Cognition", "Socio-cognitive", "Cognitivism (ethics)", "Cognitivism (psychology)", "Anecdotal cognitivism" ]
7,647	Counter (digital)	In digital electronics, a counter is a sequential logic circuit that counts and stores the number of positive or negative transitions of a clock signal. A counter typically consists of flip-flops, which store a value representing the current count, and in many cases, additional logic to effect particular counting sequences, qualify clocks and perform other functions. Each clock pulse causes the value stored in the counter to increment or decrement (increase or decrease by one). A digital counter is a finite state machine, with a clock input signal and multiple output signals that collectively represent the state. The state indicates the current count, either directly as a binary number or in binary-coded decimal (BCD), or using encodings such as one-hot or Gray code. Most counters have a Reset input which is used to initialize the counter. Depending on the design, a counter may have additional inputs to control functions such as count enabling and parallel data loading. Digital counters are categorized in various ways, including by attributes such as modulus and output encoding, and by special capabilities such as data preloading and bidirectional (up and down) counting. Every counter is classified as either synchronous or asynchronous. Some counters, specifically ring counters and Johnson counters, are categorized according to their unique architectures. Counters are widely used in computers, device interfaces, and other applications. They are implemented as stand-alone integrated circuits and as integrated components in larger integrated circuits such as microcontrollers and FPGAs. ==Characteristics== An electronic counter is a sequential logic circuit that has a clock input signal and a group of output signals that represent an integer "count" value. Upon each qualified clock edge, the circuit will increment (or decrement, depending on circuit design) the stored count. When the count reaches the end of the counting sequence (maximum count when incrementing; zero count when decrementing), the next clock will cause the count to overflow or underflow and the counting sequence will start over. ===Signals=== In addition to the clock input, many counters provide other input signals, such as: Reset – sets count to zero. Some IC manufacturers name this signal "clear" or "master reset (MR)". Depending on the counter design, this signal may be asynchronous or synchronous. Enable – allows or inhibits counting. Direction – determines whether count will increment or decrement. Data – parallel input data which represents a particular count value. Load – copies parallel input data to the counter. Some counters provide a Terminal Count output which indicates that the next clock will cause overflow or underflow. This is used in various ways, including: to implement counter cascading (combining two or more counters to create a single, larger counter) by connecting the Terminal Count output of one counter to the Enable input of the next counter. to dynamically change the counter modulus, by connecting Terminal Count to the counter’s Load input and applying an appropriate value to the Data inputs. ===Modulus=== The modulus of a counter is the number of states in its count sequence. A counter that has modulus value n is commonly referred to as a modulo-n or MOD-n counter. For example, a counter that counts up from 0 to 5 and then overflows is a MOD-6 counter because it has six states. The maximum possible modulus of a counter is determined by the number of flip-flops. More specifically, a counter with n flip-flops has a maximum possible modulus of . For example, a four-bit counter can have a modulus of up to 16 (). Some counters (e.g., binary counters) include all possible states in their count sequences. Other counters omit one or more possible states from their counting sequences; for example, a decade counter has ten states (0 to 9) and thus is a MOD-10 counter. ===Output encoding=== As it counts, every counter produces a sequence of output codes (bit patterns) on its flip-flop outputs. Many of these code sequences, either by design or due to the nature of the counter, conform to widely used encoding systems. Several types of output encoding are commonly used in counters, including binary, BCD, Gray code, and one-hot. ===Synchronous vs. asynchronous=== Counters are broadly categorized as either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous counters, all flip-flops share a common clock and change state at the same time. In asynchronous counters, each flip-flop has a unique clock, and the flip-flop states change at different times. ===Up/down counting === An up/down counter is a digital counter which counts up or down as directed by a special input signal. In synchronous up/down counters, the control signal is a single digital input whose state indicates count direction (e.g., '1' = count up; '0' = count down). In asynchronous up/down counters the direction control may alternatively consist of two separate "up" and "down" clock inputs. ==Common types== ===Binary counter === A binary counter is a digital counter that directly represents the count as a binary number. A binary counter is a MOD- counter, where n is the number of flip-flops used to store the count. For example, the illustrations below show the behavior of a 5-bit binary counter, which has 32 () states and is therefore a MOD-32 counter: File:Binary counter.gif\|Count sequence of a 5-bit binary up-counter File:Bin counter timing d.jpg\|Voltage changes on the outputs of a 5-bit binary counter as it counts up from 0 to 31 (left to right), with most-significant bit on top row and successively less-significant bits in the rows below ====Asynchronous binary (ripple) counter ==== An asynchronous binary counter, or binary ripple counter, is a "chain" of toggle (T) flip-flops in which the least-significant flip-flop (bit 0) is clocked by an external signal (the counter input clock), and all other flip-flops are clocked by the output of the nearest, less significant flip-flop (e.g., bit 0 clocks the bit 1 flip-flop, bit 1 clocks bit 2, etc.). When implemented with discrete flip-flops, ripple counters are commonly implemented with JK flip-flops, with each flip-flop configured to toggle when clocked (i.e., J and K are both connected to logic high). Each flip-flop is effectively a one-bit counter which increments its count (by toggling its output) once per clock cycle. It counts from zero to one and then, when the next clock arrives, it will overflow and start its count sequence over again at zero. Each output state persists for a full input clock cycle, and consequently the frequency of each flip-flop's output signal is exactly half that of its input clock. Additional flip-flops may be added to the chain to form a counter of any arbitrary word size (number of bits), with the output frequency of each bit equal to exactly half the frequency of its nearest, less significant bit. Each flip-flop introduces a delay from input clock edge to output toggle. This causes the counter bits to change at different times, thus producing a ripple effect and making the count unstable as the counter input clock propagates through the circuit. The duration of this instability (the output settling time) is proportional to the number of flip-flops. This makes ripple counters unsuitable for use in synchronous circuits that require the counter to have a fast output settling time. Also, it is often impractical to use ripple counter output bits as clocks for external circuits because the ripple effect causes timing skew between the bits. Ripple counters are commonly used as general-purpose counters and clock frequency dividers in applications where the instantaneous count and timing skew is unimportant. File:4020 Functional Diagram.svg\|Functional diagram of a CMOS 4020, 14-bit ripple counter IC File:RCA CD74HC4020E.jpg\|Photograph of a CMOS 4020, 14-bit ripple counter IC (RCA CD74HC4020E) ====Synchronous binary counter==== The circuit shown below is a synchronous, up-counting four-bit binary counter implemented with JK flip-flops. Upon clock rising edge, bit 0 will always toggle, whereas other bits will toggle only when all less-significant bits are at a logic high state (i.e., Q1 toggles if Q0 is logic high; Q2 toggles if Q0 and Q1 are both high; and Q3 toggles if Q0, Q1, and Q2 are all high). As in asynchronous counters, each flip-flop introduces a delay from input clock edge to output toggle, but in this case all flip-flops change state concurrently, and consequently the counter output will settle after only one flip-flop delay regardless of the number of bits. ===Decade counter=== A decade counter is a MOD-10 counter that counts from 0 to 9 and then overflows to zero. Depending on its design, the count may be represented in binary-coded decimal (BCD) (0000 to 1001) or other binary encodings. ====Asynchronous decade counter==== The circuit shown below is an asynchronous decade counter with BCD output. It is a modified 4-bit binary ripple counter that uses a NAND gate to reset the count to zero (by resetting all flip-flops) when the binary count increments to 10 (binary 1010), thus resulting in 10 output states. As in all asynchronous counters, the stored count is unstable while the external clock propagates through the flip-flop chain (including the reset upon reaching count 10). ====Synchronous decade counter==== The circuit shown below is a synchronous decade counter with BCD output. Five logic gates are used to implement the next-state logic, thus facilitating faster operation than an asynchronous counter at the expense of additional circuitry. ===Ring counter=== A ring counter is a circular shift register which is initialized (via its reset input signal) such that one flip-flop (typically bit 0) stores a ‘1’ and all other flip-flops store a ‘0’. Each clock pulse causes the ‘1’ to shift to the next flip-flop. When the ‘1’ reaches the last flip-flop in the shift register, the next clock causes it to shift into the first flip-flop, thus restarting the counting sequence and effecting a counter overflow. At any particular time only one counter output bit is logic ‘1’, and consequently a ring counter is effectively a one-hot state machine. A ring counter is MOD-n, where n is the number of flip-flops. For example, the ring counter shown below has four flip-flops and therefore is a MOD-4 counter. In this counter, bit 0 is initially set and all other bits are cleared. ===Johnson counter=== A Johnson counter (also called switch-tail ring, twisted ring, walking ring, or Möbius counter) is a circular shift register in which the output of the last stage is inverted and connected to the data input of the first stage, and all bits are initialized to zero, thus producing a Gray code output sequence. It can be clocked at relatively high frequencies because there are no intermediate logic gates, and consequently the worst-case propagation delay is from clock to flip-flop output. A Johnson counter is MOD-2n, where n is the number of flip-flops. For example, the Johnson counter shown below has four flip-flops and therefore is a MOD-8 counter. Johnson counters are commonly used in state machines and in specialized applications such as analog waveform generation (e.g., Davies sinusoidal generator). For example, the CMOS 4017 integrated circuit uses a 5-bit Johnson counter to cycle through 10 states, and thus implement a decade counter with one-hot encoded outputs: File:4017 Functional Diagram.svg\|Functional diagram of a CMOS 4017 IC, which combines a 5-bit Johnson counter and output decoder logic to implement a cascadable ten-state one-hot counter File:CMOS 4017 Diagram Logic Edge Up recadré v1.00.svg\|Internal logic of a CMOS 4017 IC; one output is active per state ==Implementation== Counters are implemented in a variety of ways, including as dedicated MSI and LSI integrated circuits, as embedded counters within ASICs, as general-purpose counter and timer peripherals in microcontrollers, and as IP blocks in FPGAs. In the latter case, a counter is typically instantiated by synthesizing it from a description written in VHDL, Verilog or some other hardware description language. For example, the following VHDL code describes a 32-bit binary up/down counter with count enable and preload capability: entity bidirectional_counter is port ( -- counter input/output signals: CLK : in std_logic; -- clock RESET : in std_logic; -- asynchronous reset ENABLE : in std_logic; -- count enable LOAD_ENABLE : in std_logic; -- load enable COUNT_UP : in std_logic; -- '1' for up, '0' for down counting DATA_IN : in unsigned(31 downto 0); -- value to load into counter DATA_OUT : out unsigned(31 downto 0) -- current counter value ); end bidirectional_counter; architecture behavioral of bidirectional_counter is signal counter : unsigned(31 downto 0) := (others => '0'); -- counter register begin process(CLK, RESET) begin if RESET = '1' then -- if counter reset is requested counter <= (others => '0'); -- reset the counter elsif rising_edge(CLK) then -- else upon rising clock edge if LOAD_ENABLE = '1' then -- if load is requested counter <= DATA_IN; -- jam new value into counter elsif ENABLE = '0' then -- else if counting is disabled null; -- do nothing elsif COUNT_UP = '1' then -- else if up-counting counter <= counter + 1; -- increment counter else -- else down-counting, so counter <= counter - 1; -- decrement counter end if; end if; end process; DATA_OUT <= counter; -- output current counter value end behavioral; ==Cascading== Some counters are cascadable, meaning that multiple instances of such counters can be connected together to form a larger, extended counter. To facilitate cascading, a cascadable counter typically has an enable input that enables counting, and an output that propagates overflows or underflows to the enable input of the next counter in the cascade. The first (least-significant) counter in a cascade may be permanently enabled by connecting its enable input to a fixed logic level, or its enable input may be dynamically driven. In either case, the enable input of the first counter serves as a count enable for the entire extended counter. Cascadable binary counters typically output a ripple-carry signal to notify the next counter in the cascade of an impending overflow or underflow. For example, in the four-bit cascadable up-counter shown below, an AND gate asserts the ripple-carry output (RCO) when the next clock is expected to cause an overflow (I.e., when the count is binary 1111 and counting is enabled): File:Cascadable binary up-counter.jpg\|Cascadable 4-bit binary up-counter File:Cascaded binary counters.jpg\|A cascade of 4-bit binary up-counters used to implement an n-bit up-counter, where n is a multiple of four ==Applications== Binary counters are widely used as timers and event counters. In a digital timer, the counter is clocked by a periodic digital signal which serves as a time reference and causes the count to change at a constant rate. The clock signal is typically sourced by a stable frequency source such as a crystal oscillator, either directly or via a clock divider. Depending on the application, a timer may output a signal that indicates timing status, or it may output the current count, or both. In the latter case, the count typically indicates either the elapsed or remaining time. Event counters are typically used to count asynchronous events that may or may not occur at variable frequencies. At any particular time, the current count indicates the number of events that have occurred since event counting began. ===One-shot timer=== The one-shot timer shown below uses a binary down-counter to generate an output pulse of precisely controlled duration. The timer output is the logical OR of all bits in the current count, and consequently the output pulse is active while the timer is running (I.e., when the count is not zero). When the count reaches zero, the output pulse is terminated and counting is halted. To start the timer running, a value representing the desired pulse width is applied to the counter's Data inputs and Load is asserted. The pulse width is specified in terms of clock cycles. For example, in the case of a 1 MHz clock, a 100 microsecond output pulse has a duration of 100 clock cycles, as shown below: This timer is retriggerable, meaning that it can be restarted while running and thus stretch (extend the duration of) the output pulse. ===Periodic interval timer=== Binary counters are commonly used as periodic interval timers (PITs), which output periodic pulses at an integer fraction of the clock frequency. PITs are used to generate system clock interrupts in computers, as clock dividers in phase lock loops and frequency synthesizers, and in many other applications. In the circuit below, a binary down-counter is used to implement a PIT. The interval between output pulses, measured in clock cycles, is stored in the Interval register, resulting in an output frequency equal to 1/(interval+1) times the clock frequency. When the count reaches zero, the NOR gate issues a pulse on the timer output. The output pulse is also used internally to reload the interval into the counter, thus restarting the timer. Each output pulse has a duration of one clock cycle. For example, to obtain a 1 MHz output frequency from a 6 MHz clock, the interval would be set to 5 as shown in the following timing diagram: ===Frequency counter=== Some counter applications utilize multiple counters. An example of this is the frequency counter shown below, which uses two counters to measure the frequency of a digital signal. One counter, configured as a one-shot, produces a pulse of precisely controlled width known as the time gate. The time gate is used to enable the clocking of an event counter, which is clocked by the signal whose frequency is to be measured. When a measurement begins, the event counter is zeroed and then proceeds to count rising edges of the unknown frequency signal while the time gate remains active. When the time gate ends, edge counting stops and the accumulated count indicates the measured frequency. The count directly indicates the measured frequency in Hz when the gate time is one second; for other gate times, the count must be scaled to obtain Hz. ===Stepped sinusoidal waveform approximation=== In the circuit shown below, a Johnson counter is used to generate a stepped sinusoidal voltage waveform as it sequences through its output states. The voltages at the counter outputs are summed by a network of weighted resistors, thus mapping each counter state to a point in the cosine function and producing a stepped sinusoid at the amplifier output. The stepped sinusoid's frequency ' is determined by clock frequency ' and the number of flip-flops as follows: . The number of flip-flops can be increased to increase the number of steps in the output waveform, and thereby reduce the associated harmonic distortion.	[ "finite state machine", "hardware description language", "binary number", "binary-coded decimal", "VHDL", "sinusoidal", "Synchronous circuit", "Time to digital converter", "state machine", "phase lock loop", "medium-scale integration", "Mechanical counter", "Web counter", "FPGA", "one-hot", "circular shift register", "RCA", "Asynchronous circuit", "synchronous circuit", "sequential logic", "integrated circuit", "ring counter", "Johnson counter", "microcontroller", "Verilog", "electronics", "frequency synthesizer", "Operational amplifier applications", "Flip-flop (electronics)", "frequency counter", "ASIC", "flip-flop (electronics)", "large-scale integration", "clock signal", "system clock", "Semiconductor intellectual property core", "digital electronics" ]
7,649	Cervical mucus method	Cervical mucus method may refer to a specific method of fertility awareness or natural family planning: Billings ovulation method Creighton Model FertilityCare System TwoDay Method	[ "fertility awareness", "Creighton Model FertilityCare System", "Billings ovulation method", "TwoDay Method", "natural family planning" ]
7,651	Coleridge (disambiguation)	Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834) was an English poet, literary critic, philosopher and theologian. Coleridge may also refer to: == Places == Coleridge, an electoral ward of Cambridge, England Coleridge, Nebraska, U.S. Coleridge, North Carolina, U.S. Lake Coleridge, Canterbury, New Zealand Coleridge Hundred, an ancient subdivision of Devon, England Coleridge (New Zealand electorate), a former parliamentary electorate Coleridge (crater), a crater on planet Mercury Coldridge, Devon, England == Other uses == Coleridge (surname), a list of people with the surname Coleridge Baron Coleridge of Ottery St Mary in the County of Devon, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom Coleridge Community College, Cambridge, England SS Empire Coleridge, a tanker ship	[ "Coleridge, Nebraska", "Coleridge (New Zealand electorate)", "Samuel Taylor Coleridge", "Coleridge (surname)", "Coleridge (crater)", "Cambridge", "Coleridge Hundred", "Coleridge Community College", "SS Empire Coleridge", "Coleridge-Taylor (disambiguation)", "Lake Coleridge", "Coleridge, North Carolina", "Baron Coleridge", "Coldridge" ]
7,655	Clay Mathematics Institute	The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) is a private, non-profit foundation dedicated to increasing and disseminating mathematical knowledge. Formerly based in Peterborough, New Hampshire, the corporate address is now in Denver, Colorado. CMI's scientific activities are managed from the President's office in Oxford, United Kingdom. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 through the sponsorship of Boston businessman Landon T. Clay. Harvard mathematician Arthur Jaffe was the first president of CMI. ==Governance== The institute is run according to a standard structure comprising a scientific advisory committee that decides on grant-awarding and research proposals, and a board of directors that oversees and approves the committee's decisions. , the board is made up of members of the Clay family, whereas the scientific advisory committee is composed of Simon Donaldson, Michael Hopkins, Andrei Okounkov, Gigliola Staffilani, Andrew Wiles, and Martin R. Bridson. Bridson is the current president of CMI. ==2024 updates== ===2024 Clay Research Fellows=== The Clay Mathematics Institute has announced that Ishan Levy and Mehtaab Sawhney have been awarded the 2024 Clay Research Fellowships. Both are completing their PhDs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and will start their five-year fellowships on July 1, 2024. ===2024 Clay Research Conference and Workshops=== The 2024 Clay Research Conference was held on October 2, 2024, at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford. The conference was accompanied by workshops from September 30 to October 4, 2024. Notable workshops include: New Advances in the Langlands Program: Geometry and Arithmetic New Frontiers in Probabilistic and Extremal Combinatorics The P=W Conjecture in Non Abelian Hodge Theory ===Awards and recognitions=== Daniel Graham from the University of Surrey won the Gold Medal for Mathematical Sciences at the 2024 STEM for Britain competition for his work on quantum authentication methods. ==Millennium Prize Problems== The institute is best known for establishing the Millennium Prize Problems on May 24, 2000. These seven problems are considered by CMI to be "important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years." For each problem, the first person to solve it will be awarded US$1,000,000 by the CMI. In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to Hilbert's problems, which were proposed in 1900, and had a substantial impact on 20th century mathematics. Of the initial 23 Hilbert problems, most of which have been solved, only the Riemann hypothesis (formulated in 1859) is included in the seven Millennium Prize Problems. For each problem, the Institute had a professional mathematician write up an official statement of the problem, which will be the main standard against which a given solution will be measured. The seven problems are: P versus NP The Hodge conjecture The Poincaré conjecture – solved, by Grigori Perelman The Riemann hypothesis Yang–Mills existence and mass gap Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture Some of the mathematicians who were involved in the selection and presentation of the seven problems were Michael Atiyah, Enrico Bombieri, Alain Connes, Pierre Deligne, Charles Fefferman, John Milnor, David Mumford, Andrew Wiles, and Edward Witten. ==Other awards== ===The Clay Research Award=== In recognition of major breakthroughs in mathematical research, the institute has an annual prize – the Clay Research Award. Its recipients to date are Ian Agol, Manindra Agrawal, Yves Benoist, Manjul Bhargava, Tristan Buckmaster, Danny Calegari, Alain Connes, Nils Dencker, Alex Eskin, David Gabai, Ben Green, Mark Gross, Larry Guth, Christopher Hacon, Richard S. Hamilton, Michael Harris, Philip Isett, Jeremy Kahn, Nets Katz, Laurent Lafforgue, Gérard Laumon, Aleksandr Logunov, Eugenia Malinnikova, Vladimir Markovic, James McKernan, Jason Miller, Maryam Mirzakhani, Ngô Bảo Châu, Rahul Pandharipande, Jonathan Pila, Jean-François Quint, Peter Scholze, Oded Schramm, Scott Sheffield, Bernd Siebert, Stanislav Smirnov, Terence Tao, Clifford Taubes, Richard Taylor, Maryna Viazovska, Vlad Vicol, Claire Voisin, Jean-Loup Waldspurger, Andrew Wiles, Geordie Williamson, Edward Witten and Wei Zhang. ==Other activities== Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute supports mathematics via the awarding of research fellowships (which range from two to five years and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing. The institute also has a yearly Clay Research Award, recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research. Finally, the institute organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures, and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to the postdoctoral level). CMI publications are available in PDF form at most six months after they appear in print.	[ "Nils Dencker", "Keith Devlin", "P versus NP problem", "Pierre Deligne", "Richard Taylor (mathematician)", "Maryam Mirzakhani", "Andrei Okounkov", "Christopher Hacon", "Claire Voisin", "Manjul Bhargava", "James McKernan", "Yves Benoist", "Enrico Bombieri", "Richard S. Hamilton", "Ngô Bảo Châu", "Gérard Laumon", "Harvard University", "Michael J. Hopkins", "Danny Calegari", "Peter Scholze", "Arthur Jaffe", "Landon T. Clay", "Geordie Williamson", "United States", "postdoctoral", "Peterborough, New Hampshire", "Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture", "Manindra Agrawal", "Edward Witten", "Ben J. Green", "Jeremy Kahn", "Laurent Lafforgue", "Millennium Prize Problems", "Oded Schramm", "Alain Connes", "Jonathan Pila", "Oxford", "Martin Bridson", "Nets Katz", "St. Petersburg", "Michael Atiyah", "Vladimir Markovic (mathematician)", "Convolution", "Grigori Perelman", "University of Surrey", "Charles Fefferman", "Rahul Pandharipande", "Jean-François Quint", "Alex Eskin", "Larry Guth", "foundation (nonprofit)", "Ian Agol", "Terence Tao", "Hodge conjecture", "Denver", "Clifford Taubes", "Hilbert's problems", "Jean-Loup Waldspurger", "Gigliola Staffilani", "Yang–Mills existence and mass gap", "Poincaré conjecture", "Michael Harris (mathematician)", "David Mumford", "Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness", "Andrew Wiles", "Riemann hypothesis", "Maryna Viazovska", "Clay Research Award", "Stanislav Smirnov", "Simon Donaldson", "John Milnor", "David Gabai", "mathematics" ]
7,659	Cerebral arteriovenous malformation	A cerebral arteriovenous malformation (cerebral AVM, CAVM, cAVM, brain AVM, or BAVM) is an abnormal connection between the arteries and veins in the brain—specifically, an arteriovenous malformation in the cerebrum. ==Signs and symptoms== The most frequently observed problems related to a cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM) are headaches and seizures, cranial nerve afflictions including pinched nerve and palsy, Symptoms due to bleeding include loss of consciousness, sudden and severe headache, nausea, vomiting, incontinence, and blurred vision, amongst others. AVMs in certain critical locations may stop the circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid, causing it to accumulate within the skull and giving rise to a clinical condition called hydrocephalus. A stiff neck can occur as the result of increased pressure within the skull and irritation of the meninges. ==Pathophysiology== A cerebral AVM is an abnormal anastomosis (connection) between the arteries and veins in the brain due to the lack of a capillary bed, and is most commonly of prenatal origin. The overall annual incidence of haemorrhage from a ruptured AVM is 2-4%. Smaller AVMs have a greater propensity for haemorrhaging, whereas larger AVMs tend to more often cause seizures instead. ==Diagnosis== A cerebral AVM diagnosis is established by neuroimaging studies after a complete neurological and physical examination. Three main techniques are used to visualize the brain and search for an AVM: computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and cerebral angiography. This system was designed to assess the patient's risk of neurological deficit after open surgical resection (surgical morbidity), based on characteristics of the AVM itself. Based on this system, AVMs may be classified as grades 1–5. This system was not intended to characterize risk of hemorrhage. "Eloquent" is defined as areas within the brain that, if removed will result in loss of sensory processing or linguistic ability, minor paralysis, or paralysis. These include the basal ganglia, language cortices, sensorimotor regions, and white matter tracts. Importantly, eloquent areas are often defined differently across studies where deep cerebellar nuclei, cerebral peduncles, thalamus, hypothalamus, internal capsule, brainstem, and the visual cortex could be included. The risk of post-surgical neurological deficit (difficulty with language, motor weakness, vision loss) increases with increasing Spetzler-Martin grade. === Supplemented Spetzler-Martin (SM-supp, Lawton-Young) Grade === A limitation of the Spetzler-Martin Grading system is that it does not include the following factors: Patient age, hemorrhage, diffuseness of nidus, and arterial supply. In 2010 a new supplemented Spetzler-Martin system (SM-supp, Lawton-Young) was devised adding these variables to the SM system. Under this new system AVMs are classified from grades 1–10. It has since been determined to have greater predictive accuracy than SM grades alone. ==Treatment== Treatment depends on the location and size of the AVM and whether there is bleeding or not. The treatment in the case of sudden bleeding is focused on restoration of vital function. ===Medical=== Anticonvulsant medications such as phenytoin are often used to control seizure; medications or procedures may be employed to relieve intracranial pressure. Eventually, curative treatment may be required to prevent recurrent hemorrhage. However, any type of intervention may also carry a risk of creating a neurological deficit. === Surgical === Surgical elimination of the blood vessels involved is the preferred curative treatment for many types of AVM. ===Radiosurgical=== Radiosurgery has been widely used on small AVMs with considerable success. The Gamma Knife is an apparatus used to precisely apply a controlled radiation dosage to the volume of the brain occupied by the AVM. While this treatment does not require an incision and craniotomy (with their own inherent risks), three or more years may pass before the complete effects are known, during which time patients are at risk of bleeding. ===Neuroendovascular therapy=== Embolization is performed by interventional neuroradiologists and the occlusion of blood vessels most commonly is obtained with ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (Onyx) or n-butyl cyanoacrylate. These substances are introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, and block vessels responsible for blood flow into the AVM. Embolization is frequently used as an adjunct to either surgery or radiation treatment. === Risks === A first-of-its-kind controlled clinical trial by the National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke focuses on the risk of stroke or death in patients with an AVM who either did or did not undergo interventional eradication. Early results suggest that the invasive treatment of unruptured AVMs tends to yield worse results than the therapeutic (medical) management of symptoms.{{efn\|According to established medical research, however, the chance of eventual hemorrhage increases over time. If a rupture or bleeding incident occurs, the blood may penetrate either into the brain tissue (cerebral hemorrhage) or into the subarachnoid space, which is located between the sheaths (meninges) surrounding the brain (subarachnoid hemorrhage). Bleeding may also extend into the ventricular system (intraventricular hemorrhage). Cerebral hemorrhage appears to be most common. Ruptured AVMs are a significant source of morbidity and mortality; following a rupture, as many as 29% of patients will die, with only 55% able to live independently. AVMs are more common in males than females, although in females pregnancy may start or worsen symptoms due to the increase in blood flow and volume it usually brings. There is a significant preponderance (15–20%) of AVM in patients with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler–Weber–Rendu syndrome).	[ "weakness", "Circulatory system", "anastomosis", "point prevalence", "cerebral aneurysm", "Onyx (interventional radiology)", "Cranial nerve disease", "meninges", "hydrocephalus", "cerebrospinal fluid", "cerebral angiography", "Boston Medical Center", "Radiosurgery", "intraventricular hemorrhage", "contrast agent", "loss of consciousness", "Eloquent cortex", "National Institutes of Health", "radiographically", "incidence (epidemiology)", "asymptomatic", "computed tomography", "pinched nerve", "phenytoin", "ventricular system", "National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke", "pregnancy", "arteriovenous malformation", "heart", "pain", "Wolters Kluwer", "Surgical Neurology International", "neurosurgeon", "seizure", "Artery", "clinical trial", "human brain", "nausea", "arteries", "Columbia University", "capillaries", "haemorrhage", "aphasia", "vomiting", "interventional neuroradiologists", "blood vessel", "blood flow", "blood volume", "lung", "intracranial hemorrhage", "Thieme Medical Publishers", "vein", "Medical News Today", "cerebral hemorrhage", "n-butyl cyanoacrylate", "craniotomy", "Mayo Clinic", "Embolization", "palsy", "subarachnoid space", "hemiparesis", "magnetic resonance angiogram", "headache", "parietal lobe", "Ventricular system", "ClinicalTrials.gov", "catheter", "prenatal", "X-ray", "experimental event rate", "cerebral circulation", "University of Rochester Medical Center", "neuroimaging", "vital function", "aneurysm", "subarachnoid hemorrhage", "Human brain", "capillary bed", "ethylene vinyl alcohol", "arteriole", "PLOS One", "numbness", "blurred vision", "magnetic resonance imaging", "Gamma Knife", "venules", "oxygenated blood", "hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia", "Urinary incontinence", "cerebrum" ]
7,660	Comparative method	In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards to infer the properties of that ancestor. The comparative method may be contrasted with the method of internal reconstruction in which the internal development of a single language is inferred by the analysis of features within that language. Ordinarily, both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages; to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language; to discover the development of phonological, morphological and other linguistic systems and to confirm or to refute hypothesised relationships between languages. The comparative method emerged in the early 19th century with the birth of Indo-European studies, then took a definite scientific approach with the works of the Neogrammarians in the late 19th–early 20th century. Here is Schleicher's explanation of why he offered reconstructed forms: In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred Indo-European original language side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular Indo-European languages, there is, I think, another of no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian (Sanskrit). ==Definition== ===Principles=== The aim of the comparative method is to highlight and interpret systematic phonological and semantic correspondences between two or more attested languages. If those correspondences cannot be rationally explained as the result of linguistic universals or language contact (borrowings, areal influence, etc.), and if they are sufficiently numerous, regular, and systematic that they cannot be dismissed as chance similarities, then it must be assumed that they descend from a single parent language called the 'proto-language'. A sequence of regular sound changes (along with their underlying sound laws) can then be postulated to explain the correspondences between the attested forms, which eventually allows for the reconstruction of a proto-language by the methodical comparison of "linguistic facts" within a generalized system of correspondences. Relation is considered to be "established beyond a reasonable doubt" if a reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible. In some cases, this reconstruction can only be partial, generally because the compared languages are too scarcely attested, the temporal distance between them and their proto-language is too deep, or their internal evolution render many of the sound laws obscure to researchers. In such case, a relation is considered plausible, but uncertain. ===Terminology=== Descent is defined as transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and, after being influenced by their peers, transmit it to the next generation, and so on. For example, a continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links Vulgar Latin to all of its modern descendants. Two languages are genetically related if they descended from the same ancestor language. For example, Italian and French both come from Latin and therefore belong to the same family, the Romance languages. Having a large component of vocabulary from a certain origin is not sufficient to establish relatedness; for example, heavy borrowing from Arabic into Persian has caused more of the vocabulary of Modern Persian to be from Arabic than from the direct ancestor of Persian, Proto-Indo-Iranian, but Persian remains a member of the Indo-Iranian family and is not considered "related" to Arabic. However, it is possible for languages to have different degrees of relatedness. English, for example, is related to both German and Russian but is more closely related to the former than to the latter. Although all three languages share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, English and German also share a more recent common ancestor, Proto-Germanic, but Russian does not. Therefore, English and German are considered to belong to a subgroup of Indo-European that Russian does not belong to, the Germanic languages. The division of related languages into subgroups is accomplished by finding shared linguistic innovations that differentiate them from the parent language. For instance, English and German both exhibit the effects of a collection of sound changes known as Grimm's Law, which Russian was not affected by. The fact that English and German share this innovation is seen as evidence of English and German's more recent common ancestor—since the innovation actually took place within that common ancestor, before English and German diverged into separate languages. On the other hand, shared retentions from the parent language are not sufficient evidence of a sub-group. For example, German and Russian both retain from Proto-Indo-European a contrast between the dative case and the accusative case, which English has lost. However, that similarity between German and Russian is not evidence that German is more closely related to Russian than to English but means only that the innovation in question, the loss of the accusative/dative distinction, happened more recently in English than the divergence of English from German. ==Origin and development== In classical antiquity, Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, but did not study them systematically. They sometimes explained them mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. Even though grammarians of Antiquity had access to other languages around them (Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan, Gaulish, Egyptian, Parthian...), they showed little interest in comparing, studying, or just documenting them. Comparison between languages really began after classical antiquity. ===Early works=== In the 9th or 10th century AD, Yehuda Ibn Quraysh compared the phonology and morphology of Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic but attributed the resemblance to the Biblical story of Babel, with Abraham, Isaac and Joseph retaining Adam's language, with other languages at various removes becoming more altered from the original Hebrew. In publications of 1647 and 1654, Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn first described a rigorous methodology for historical linguistic comparisons and proposed the existence of an Indo-European proto-language, which he called "Scythian", unrelated to Hebrew but ancestral to Germanic, Greek, Romance, Persian, Sanskrit, Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. The Scythian theory was further developed by Andreas Jäger (1686) and William Wotton (1713), who made early forays to reconstruct the primitive common language. In 1710 and 1723, Lambert ten Kate first formulated the regularity of sound laws, introducing among others the term root vowel. However, the origin of modern historical linguistics is often traced back to Sir William Jones, an English philologist living in India, who in 1786 made his famous The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family. ===Comparative linguistics=== The comparative method developed out of attempts to reconstruct the proto-language mentioned by Jones, which he did not name but subsequent linguists have labelled Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The first professional comparison between the Indo-European languages that were then known was made by the German linguist Franz Bopp in 1816. He did not attempt a reconstruction but demonstrated that Greek, Latin and Sanskrit shared a common structure and a common lexicon. In 1808, Friedrich Schlegel first stated the importance of using the eldest possible form of a language when trying to prove its relationships; in 1818, Rasmus Christian Rask developed the principle of regular sound-changes to explain his observations of similarities between individual words in the Germanic languages and their cognates in Greek and Jacob Grimm, better known for his Fairy Tales, used the comparative method in Deutsche Grammatik (published 1819–1837 in four volumes), which attempted to show the development of the Germanic languages from a common origin, which was the first systematic study of diachronic language change. Both Rask and Grimm were unable to explain apparent exceptions to the sound laws that they had discovered. Although Hermann Grassmann explained one of the anomalies with the publication of Grassmann's law in 1862, Karl Verner made a methodological breakthrough in 1875, when he identified a pattern now known as Verner's law, the first sound-law based on comparative evidence showing that a phonological change in one phoneme could depend on other factors within the same word (such as neighbouring phonemes and the position of the accent), which are now called conditioning environments. ===Neo-grammarian approach=== Similar discoveries made by the Junggrammatiker (usually translated as "Neogrammarians") at the University of Leipzig in the late 19th century led them to conclude that all sound changes were ultimately regular, resulting in the famous statement by Karl Brugmann and Hermann Osthoff in 1878 that "sound laws have no exceptions". That idea is fundamental to the modern comparative method since it necessarily assumes regular correspondences between sounds in related languages and thus regular sound changes from the proto-language. The Neogrammarian hypothesis led to the application of the comparative method to reconstruct Proto-Indo-European since Indo-European was then by far the most well-studied language family. Linguists working with other families soon followed suit, and the comparative method quickly became the established method for uncovering linguistic relationships. and Terry Crowley, who are both authors of introductory texts in historical linguistics. This abbreviated summary is based on their concepts of how to proceed. ===Step 1, assemble potential cognate lists=== This step involves making lists of words that are likely cognates among the languages being compared. If there is a regularly-recurring match between the phonetic structure of basic words with similar meanings, a genetic kinship can probably then be established. For example, linguists looking at the Polynesian family might come up with a list similar to the following (their actual list would be much longer): Borrowings or false cognates can skew or obscure the correct data. For example, English taboo () is like the six Polynesian forms because of borrowing from Tongan into English, not because of a genetic similarity. That problem can usually be overcome by using basic vocabulary, such as kinship terms, numbers, body parts and pronouns. Nonetheless, even basic vocabulary can be sometimes borrowed. Finnish, for example, borrowed the word for "mother", , from Proto-Germanic aiþį̄ (compare to Gothic ). English borrowed the pronouns "they", "them", and "their(s)" from Norse. Thai and various other East Asian languages borrowed their numbers from Chinese. An extreme case is represented by Pirahã, a Muran language of South America, which has been controversially claimed to have borrowed all of its pronouns from Nheengatu. ===Step 2, establish correspondence sets=== The next step involves determining the regular sound-correspondences exhibited by the lists of potential cognates. For example, in the Polynesian data above, it is apparent that words that contain t in most of the languages listed have cognates in Hawaiian with k in the same position. That is visible in multiple cognate sets: the words glossed as 'one', 'three', 'man' and 'taboo' all show the relationship. The situation is called a "regular correspondence" between k in Hawaiian and t in the other Polynesian languages. Similarly, a regular correspondence can be seen between Hawaiian and Rapanui h, Tongan and Samoan f, Maori ɸ, and Rarotongan ʔ. Mere phonetic similarity, as between English day and Latin (both with the same meaning), has no probative value. English initial d- does not regularly match since a large set of English and Latin non-borrowed cognates cannot be assembled such that English d repeatedly and consistently corresponds to Latin d at the beginning of a word, and whatever sporadic matches can be observed are due either to chance (as in the above example) or to borrowing (for example, Latin and English devil, both ultimately of Greek origin). However, English and Latin exhibit a regular correspondence of t- : d- If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind (the more, the better), a common origin becomes a virtual certainty, particularly if some of the correspondences are non-trivial or unusual. this is Grassmann's law, first described for Sanskrit by Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini and promulgated by Hermann Grassmann in 1863. Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in contexts that were later lost. For instance, in Sanskrit velars (k-like sounds) were replaced by palatals (ch-like sounds) whenever the following vowel was i or e. Subsequent to this change, all instances of e were replaced by a. The situation could be reconstructed only because the original distribution of e and a could be recovered from the evidence of other Indo-European languages. For instance, the Latin suffix , "and", preserves the original e vowel that caused the consonant shift in Sanskrit: Verner's Law, discovered by Karl Verner 1875, provides a similar case: the voicing of consonants in Germanic languages underwent a change that was determined by the position of the old Indo-European accent. Following the change, the accent shifted to initial position. Verner solved the puzzle by comparing the Germanic voicing pattern with Greek and Sanskrit accent patterns. This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets apply in complementary distribution, they can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme: "some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set". For example, the following potential cognate list can be established for Romance languages, which descend from Latin: They evidence two correspondence sets, k : k and ''k : : Since French occurs only before a where the other languages also have a, and French k occurs elsewhere, the difference is caused by different environments (being before a conditions the change), and the sets are complementary. They can, therefore, be assumed to reflect a single proto-phoneme (in this case k, spelled ⟨c⟩ in Latin). The original Latin words are , , and , all with an initial k. If more evidence along those lines were given, one might conclude that an alteration of the original k took place because of a different environment. A more complex case involves consonant clusters in Proto-Algonquian. The Algonquianist Leonard Bloomfield used the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages to reconstruct the following correspondence sets: Although all five correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution and so Bloomfield recognised that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set. His reconstructions were, respectively, hk, xk, čk (=), šk (=), and çk (in which x and ç are arbitrary symbols, rather than attempts to guess the phonetic value of the proto-phonemes). ===Step 4, reconstruct proto-phonemes=== Typology assists in deciding what reconstruction best fits the data. For example, the voicing of voiceless stops between vowels is common, but the devoicing of voiced stops in that environment is rare. If a correspondence -t- : -d- between vowels is found in two languages, the proto-phoneme is more likely to be -t-, with a development to the voiced form in the second language. The opposite reconstruction would represent a rare type. However, unusual sound changes occur. The Proto-Indo-European word for two, for example, is reconstructed as dwō, which is reflected in Classical Armenian as erku. Several other cognates demonstrate a regular change dw- → erk- in Armenian. Similarly, in Bearlake, a dialect of the Athabaskan language of Slavey, there has been a sound change of Proto-Athabaskan ts → Bearlake '. It is very unlikely that dw- changed directly into erk- and ts into ', but they probably instead went through several intermediate steps before they arrived at the later forms. It is not phonetic similarity that matters for the comparative method but rather regular sound correspondences. The simplest reconstruction for this set would be either m or b. Both m → b and b → m are likely. Because m occurs in five of the languages and b in only one of them, if b is reconstructed, it is necessary to assume five separate changes of b → m, but if m is reconstructed, it is necessary to assume only one change of m → b and so m would be most economical. That argument assumes the languages other than Arapaho to be at least partly independent of one another. If they all formed a common subgroup, the development b → m would have to be assumed to have occurred only once. ===Step 5, examine the reconstructed system typologically=== In the final step, the linguist checks to see how the proto-phonemes fit the known typological constraints. For example, a hypothetical system, has only one voiced stop, b, and although it has an alveolar and a velar nasal, n and ŋ, there is no corresponding labial nasal. However, languages generally maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories. In this case, a linguist might attempt to investigate the possibilities that either what was earlier reconstructed as b is in fact m or that the n and ŋ are in fact d and g. Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, here is the traditional Proto-Indo-European stop inventory: An earlier voiceless aspirated row was removed on grounds of insufficient evidence. Since the mid-20th century, a number of linguists have argued that this phonology is implausible and that it is extremely unlikely for a language to have a voiced aspirated (breathy voice) series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series. Thomas Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov provided a potential solution and argued that the series that are traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should be reconstructed as glottalized: either implosive or ejective . The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be replaced by just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. That example of the application of linguistic typology to linguistic reconstruction has become known as the glottalic theory. It has a large number of proponents but is not generally accepted. The reconstruction of proto-sounds logically precedes the reconstruction of grammatical morphemes (word-forming affixes and inflectional endings), patterns of declension and conjugation and so on. The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage is an open-ended task. ==Complications== ===The history of historical linguistics=== The limitations of the comparative method were recognized by the very linguists who developed it, but it is still seen as a valuable tool. In the case of Indo-European, the method seemed at least a partial validation of the centuries-old search for an Ursprache, the original language. The others were presumed to be ordered in a family tree, which was the tree model of the neogrammarians. The archaeologists followed suit and attempted to find archaeological evidence of a culture or cultures that could be presumed to have spoken a proto-language, such as Vere Gordon Childe's The Aryans: a study of Indo-European origins, 1926. Childe was a philologist turned archaeologist. Those views culminated in the Siedlungsarchaologie, or "settlement-archaeology", of Gustaf Kossinna, becoming known as "Kossinna's Law". Kossinna asserted that cultures represent ethnic groups, including their languages, but his law was rejected after World War II. The fall of Kossinna's Law removed the temporal and spatial framework previously applied to many proto-languages. Fox concludes: The Comparative Method as such is not, in fact, historical; it provides evidence of linguistic relationships to which we may give a historical interpretation.... [Our increased knowledge about the historical processes involved] has probably made historical linguists less prone to equate the idealizations required by the method with historical reality.... Provided we keep [the interpretation of the results and the method itself] apart, the Comparative Method can continue to be used in the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages. Proto-languages can be verified in many historical instances, such as Latin. Although no longer a law, settlement-archaeology is known to be essentially valid for some cultures that straddle history and prehistory, such as the Celtic Iron Age (mainly Celtic) and Mycenaean civilization (mainly Greek). None of those models can be or have been completely rejected, but none is sufficient alone. ===The Neogrammarian principle=== The foundation of the comparative method, and of comparative linguistics in general, is the Neogrammarians' fundamental assumption that "sound laws have no exceptions". When it was initially proposed, critics of the Neogrammarians proposed an alternate position that summarised by the maxim "each word has its own history". Several types of change actually alter words in irregular ways. Unless identified, they may hide or distort laws and cause false perceptions of relationship. ====Borrowing==== All languages borrow words from other languages in various contexts. Loanwords imitate the form of the donor language, as in Finnic kuningas, from Proto-Germanic kuningaz ('king'), with possible adaptations to the local phonology, as in Japanese sakkā, from English soccer. At first sight, borrowed words may mislead the investigator into seeing a genetic relationship, although they can more easily be identified with information on the historical stages of both the donor and receiver languages. Inherently, words that were borrowed from a common source (such as English coffee and Basque kafe, ultimately from Arabic qahwah) do share a genetic relationship, although limited to the history of this word. ====Areal diffusion==== Borrowing on a larger scale occurs in areal diffusion, when features are adopted by contiguous languages over a geographical area. The borrowing may be phonological, morphological or lexical. A false proto-language over the area may be reconstructed for them or may be taken to be a third language serving as a source of diffused features. Several areal features and other influences may converge to form a Sprachbund, a wider region sharing features that appear to be related but are diffusional. For instance, the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, before it was recognised, suggested several false classifications of such languages as Chinese, Thai and Vietnamese. ====Random mutations==== Sporadic changes, such as irregular inflections, compounding and abbreviation, do not follow any laws. For example, the Spanish words palabra ('word'), peligro ('danger') and milagro ('miracle') would have been parabla, periglo, miraglo by regular sound changes from the Latin parabŏla, perīcŭlum and mīrācŭlum, but the r and l changed places by sporadic metathesis. ====Analogy==== Analogy is the sporadic change of a feature to be like another feature in the same or a different language. It may affect a single word or be generalized to an entire class of features, such as a verb paradigm. An example is the Russian word for nine. The word, by regular sound changes from Proto-Slavic, should have been , but it is in fact . It is believed that the initial ' changed to ' under influence of the word for "ten" in Russian, . ====Gradual application==== Those who study contemporary language changes, such as William Labov, acknowledge that even a systematic sound change is applied at first inconsistently, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors. The sound change seems to gradually spread in a process known as lexical diffusion. While it does not invalidate the Neogrammarians' axiom that "sound laws have no exceptions", the gradual application of the very sound laws shows that they do not always apply to all lexical items at the same time. Hock notes, "While it probably is true in the long run every word has its own history, it is not justified to conclude as some linguists have, that therefore the Neogrammarian position on the nature of linguistic change is falsified". ====Non-inherited features==== The comparative method cannot recover aspects of a language that were not inherited in its daughter idioms. For instance, the Latin declension pattern was lost in Romance languages, resulting in an impossibility to fully reconstruct such a feature via systematic comparison. ===The tree model=== The comparative method is used to construct a tree model (German Stammbaum) of language evolution, in which daughter languages are seen as branching from the proto-language, gradually growing more distant from it through accumulated phonological, morpho-syntactic, and lexical changes. ====The presumption of a well-defined node==== The tree model features nodes that are presumed to be distinct proto-languages existing independently in distinct regions during distinct historical times. The reconstruction of unattested proto-languages lends itself to that illusion since they cannot be verified, and the linguist is free to select whatever definite times and places seems best. Right from the outset of Indo-European studies, however, Thomas Young said:It is not, however, very easy to say what the definition should be that should constitute a separate language, but it seems most natural to call those languages distinct, of which the one cannot be understood by common persons in the habit of speaking the other.... Still, however, it may remain doubtfull whether the Danes and the Swedes could not, in general, understand each other tolerably well... nor is it possible to say if the twenty ways of pronouncing the sounds, belonging to the Chinese characters, ought or ought not to be considered as so many languages or dialects.... But,... the languages so nearly allied must stand next to each other in a systematic order… The assumption of uniformity in a proto-language, implicit in the comparative method, is problematic. Even small language communities always have differences in dialect, whether they are based on area, gender, class or other factors. The Pirahã language of Brazil is spoken by only several hundred people but has at least two different dialects, one spoken by men and one by women. Campbell points out: It is not so much that the comparative method 'assumes' no variation; rather, it is just that there is nothing built into the comparative method which would allow it to address variation directly.... This assumption of uniformity is a reasonable idealization; it does no more damage to the understanding of the language than, say, modern reference grammars do which concentrate on a language's general structure, typically leaving out consideration of regional or social variation. Different dialects, as they evolve into separate languages, remain in contact with and influence one another. Even after they are considered distinct, languages near one another continue to influence one another and often share grammatical, phonological, and lexical innovations. A change in one language of a family may spread to neighboring languages, and multiple waves of change are communicated like waves across language and dialect boundaries, each with its own randomly delimited range. If a language is divided into an inventory of features, each with its own time and range (isoglosses), they do not all coincide. History and prehistory may not offer a time and place for a distinct coincidence, as may be the case for Proto-Italic, for which the proto-language is only a concept. However, Hock observes: The discovery in the late nineteenth century that isoglosses can cut across well-established linguistic boundaries at first created considerable attention and controversy. And it became fashionable to oppose a wave theory to a tree theory.... Today, however, it is quite evident that the phenomena referred to by these two terms are complementary aspects of linguistic change.... ====Subjectivity of the reconstruction==== The reconstruction of unknown proto-languages is inherently subjective. In the Proto-Algonquian example above, the choice of m as the parent phoneme is only likely, not certain. It is conceivable that a Proto-Algonquian language with b in those positions split into two branches, one that preserved b and one that changed it to m instead, and while the first branch developed only into Arapaho, the second spread out more widely and developed into all the other Algonquian tribes. It is also possible that the nearest common ancestor of the Algonquian languages used some other sound instead, such as p, which eventually mutated to b in one branch and to m in the other. Examples of strikingly complicated and even circular developments are indeed known to have occurred (such as Proto-Indo-European t > Pre-Proto-Germanic þ > Proto-Germanic ð > Proto-West-Germanic d > Old High German in > Modern German ), but in the absence of any evidence or other reason to postulate a more complicated development, the preference of a simpler explanation is justified by the principle of parsimony, also known as Occam's razor. Since reconstruction involves many such choices, some linguists prefer to view the reconstructed features as abstract representations of sound correspondences, rather than as objects with a historical time and place. The existence of proto-languages and the validity of the comparative method is verifiable if the reconstruction can be matched to a known language, which may be known only as a shadow in the loanwords of another language. For example, Finnic languages such as Finnish have borrowed many words from an early stage of Germanic, and the shape of the loans matches the forms that have been reconstructed for Proto-Germanic. Finnish 'king' and 'beautiful' match the Germanic reconstructions kuningaz and *skauniz (> German 'king', 'beautiful'). ====Additional models==== The wave model was developed in the 1870s as an alternative to the tree model to represent the historical patterns of language diversification. Both the tree-based and the wave-based representations are compatible with the comparative method. By contrast, some approaches are incompatible with the comparative method, including contentious glottochronology and even more controversial mass lexical comparison considered by most historical linguists to be flawed and unreliable.	[ "Leonard Bloomfield", "Grassmann's law", "Franz Bopp", "Finnish language", "Fox language", "root vowel", "János Sajnovics", "implosive consonant", "French language", "Thomas Gamkrelidze", "stop consonant", "loanword", "mass lexical comparison", "stress (linguistics)", "Jacob Grimm", "genetic (linguistics)", "Chinese language", "palatal consonant", "Plains Cree language", "Ejective consonant", "Neogrammarian", "Muran languages", "Menominee language", "Proto-Indo-Iranian", "Verner's law", "Aspiration (phonetics)", "Finno-Ugric languages", "Rapanui language", "Verner's Law", "Algonquian languages", "Pāṇini", "Karl Verner", "Hermann Osthoff", "dialect continuum", "phoneme", "Italian language", "grammar", "Brazil", "Oscan language", "Yehuda Ibn Quraysh", "internal reconstruction", "lexicon", "principle of economy", "Rasmus Christian Rask", "Lambert ten Kate", "East Asian languages", "Nheengatu language", "Old High German", "William Jones (philologist)", "Historical linguistics", "sound law", "Proto-Germanic", "linguistic universal", "Gothic language", "Mycenaean civilization", "dialect", "Munsee language", "lexical diffusion", "Vere Gordon Childe", "Occam's razor", "Anishinaabe language", "Vietnamese language", "Gaulish language", "Grammatical conjugation", "dialectology", "Dental consonant", "lexical innovation", "Proto-Algonquian", "linkage (linguistics)", "Bilabial nasal", "glottalic theory", "Ancient Greek", "pronoun", "Analogy", "Ursprache", "Proto-language", "Andreas Jäger", "Sanskrit", "Umbrian language", "India", "breathy voice", "glottochronology", "wave model", "Swadesh list", "accusative case", "Proto-Italic language", "Comparative linguistics", "tree model", "Proto-Indo-European", "neogrammarians", "false cognate", "genetic relationship (linguistics)", "velar consonant", "Sanskrit grammarians", "August Schleicher", "Grimm's Fairy Tales", "Euler diagram", "Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)", "Voiced consonant", "Rarotongan language", "Athabaskan languages", "Spanish language", "Latin declension", "Venn diagram", "Hawaiian language", "Old Norse language", "Ancient Egyptian", "Blackfoot language", "Māori language", "Gustaf Kossinna", "velar nasal", "dative case", "Lyle Campbell", "Indo-European studies", "Etruscan language", "Parthian language", "morpho-syntactic", "complementary distribution", "Morpheme", "Persian language", "William Wotton", "Finnic languages", "linguistics", "declension", "alveolar nasal", "labialized velar consonant", "Pirahã language", "William Labov", "Philology", "Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel", "Sprachbund", "isogloss", "English language", "vocabulary", "family tree", "sound change", "Lexeme", "Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn", "German language", "Arabic", "Voiceless consonant", "Lexicostatistics", "Linguistic reconstruction", "Latin", "Neogrammarians", "Labial consonant", "Hans Henrich Hock", "Hermann Grassmann", "Romance languages", "Karl Brugmann", "Celtic languages", "Tongan language", "Classical Armenian", "University of Leipzig", "attested language", "Thomas Young (scientist)", "Phonology", "Grimm's Law", "Arapaho language", "language contact", "Russian language", "Hungarian language", "Thai language", "Mi'kmaq language", "Voiced bilabial stop", "Palatovelar", "Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area", "Ancient Greek language", "Glottalization", "Semantics", "Slavey language", "Vulgar Latin", "Sami languages", "Wave model (linguistics)", "Samoan language", "morpheme", "historical linguistics", "Latin language", "Proto-Slavic", "Loanword", "Portuguese language", "Proto-Indo-European language", "Cree language", "proto-language", "linguistic typology", "Samuel Gyarmathi", "Voice (phonetics)", "areal feature (linguistics)", "Old Latin", "Indo-European languages", "Algonquian peoples", "False cognate", "metathesis (linguistics)", "classical antiquity", "Stress (linguistics)", "Polynesian languages", "Terry Crowley (linguist)", "Velar consonant", "Antoine Meillet", "Germanic languages", "phonology" ]
7,661	Council of Constance	The Council of Constance (; ) was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church that was held from 1414 to 1418 in the Bishopric of Constance (Konstanz) in present-day Germany. This was the first time that an ecumenical council was convened in the Holy Roman Empire. The council ended the Western Schism by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants and by electing Pope Martin V. It was the last papal election to take place outside of Italy. The council also condemned Jan Hus as a heretic and facilitated his execution; and it ruled on issues of national sovereignty and the rights of pagans and just war in response to a conflict between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland and the Order of the Teutonic Knights. The council is also important for its role in the debates over ecclesial conciliarism and papal supremacy. Constance issued two particularly significant decrees regarding the constitution of the Catholic Church: Haec sancta (1415), which asserted the superiority of ecumenical councils over popes in at least certain situations, and Frequens (1417), which provided for councils to be held automatically every ten years. The status of these decrees proved controversial in the centuries after the council, and Frequens was never put into practice. Though Haec sancta, at least, continued to be accepted as binding by much of the church up to the 19th century, present-day Catholic theologians generally regard these decrees as either invalid or as practical responses to a particular situation without wider implications. ==Origin and background== The council's main purpose was to end the Papal schism that had resulted from the confusion following the Avignon Papacy. Pope Gregory XI's return to Rome in 1377, followed by his death (in 1378) and the controversial election of his successor, Pope Urban VI, resulted in the defection of a number of cardinals and the election of a rival pope based at Avignon in 1378. After thirty years of schism, the rival courts convened the Council of Pisa, seeking to resolve the situation by deposing the two claimant popes and electing a new one. The council claimed that, in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, even if he were the bishop of Rome. Though the elected Antipope Alexander V and his successor, Antipope John XXIII (not to be confused with the 20th-century Pope John XXIII), gained widespread support, especially at the cost of the Avignon antipope, the schism remained, now involving not two but three claimants: Gregory XII at Rome, Benedict XIII at Avignon, and John XXIII. Therefore, many voices, including Sigismund, King of the Romans and of Hungary (and later Holy Roman Emperor), pressed for another council to resolve the issue. That council was called by John XXIII and was held from 16 November 1414 to 22 April 1418 in Constance, Germany. The council was attended by roughly 29 cardinals, 100 "learned doctors of law and divinity", 134 abbots, and 183 bishops and archbishops. ==Participants== Sigismund arrived on Christmas Eve 1414 and exercised a profound and continuous influence on the course of the council in his capacity of imperial protector of the church. An innovation at the council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in national blocs. The vote by nations was in great measure the initiative of the English, German, and French members. The legality of this measure, in imitation of the "nations" of the universities, was more than questionable, but during February 1415 it carried and thenceforth was accepted in practice, though never authorized by any formal decree of the council. The four "nations" consisted of England, France, Italy, and Germany, with Poles, Hungarians, Danes, and Scandinavians counted with the Germans. While the Italian representatives made up half of those in attendance, they were equal in influence to the English, who sent twenty deputies and three bishops. The Spanish deputies (from Portugal, Castile, Navarre and Aragon), initially absent, joined the council at the twenty-first session, constituting upon arrival the fifth nation. ==Decrees and doctrinal status== Many members of the new assembly (comparatively few bishops, but many doctors of theology and of canon and civil law, procurators of bishops, deputies of universities, cathedral chapters, provosts, etc., agents and representatives of princes, etc.) strongly favored the voluntary abdication of all three popes, as did King Sigismund. Although the Italian bishops who had accompanied John XXIII in large numbers supported his legitimacy, he grew increasingly more suspicious of the council. Partly in response to a fierce anonymous attack on his character from an Italian source, on 2 March 1415 he promised to resign. However, on 20 March he secretly fled the city and took refuge at Schaffhausen in territory of his friend Frederick, Duke of Austria-Tyrol. The famous decree Haec sancta synodus, which gave primacy to the authority of the council and thus became a source for ecclesial conciliarism, was promulgated in the fifth session, 6 April 1415: Haec sancta synodus marks the high-water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform. The acts of the council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the Council of Basel; they were printed in 1500. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, and thus written in 1415 under the title Ars moriendi. Haec sancta is today generally considered invalid by the Catholic Church, on the basis that Gregory XII was the legitimate pope at the time and the decree was passed by the council in a session before his confirmation. On this reading, the first sessions of the Council of Constance represented an invalid and illicit assembly of bishops, gathered under the authority of an antipope. This historiography is of much later provenance than the council itself, however: the Pisan line represented by John XXIII had been considered legitimate not just by most of the Latin church at the time of the council, but also subsequently by Pope Martin V, who referred to John as "our predecessor" in contrast to the other two claimants, who were merely "popes so-called in their obediences". The specific argument distinguishing two parts in the council was seemingly first made by the 17th-century Sorbonne theologian André Duval, and remained a fringe view for some time before its vindication within the Catholic Church under the influence of 19th-century ultramontanism. ==Ending the Western Schism== With the support of King Sigismund, enthroned before the high altar of the cathedral of Constance, the Council of Constance recommended that all three papal claimants abdicate, and that another be chosen. In part because of the constant presence of the King, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope. Gregory XII then sent representatives to Constance, whom he granted full powers to summon, open, and preside over an Ecumenical Council; he also empowered them to present his resignation of the papacy. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism. The legates were received by King Sigismund and by the assembled Bishops, and the King yielded the presidency of the proceedings to the papal legates, Cardinal Giovanni Dominici of Ragusa and Prince Carlo Malatesta. On 4 July 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Dominici and Malatesta as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts. Thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesta immediately informed the council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiff's behalf. He asked the council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately. Thereupon the commission by Gregory XII authorizing his proxy to resign the Papacy on his behalf was read and Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the papacy by Gregory XII and handed a written copy of the resignation to the assembly. Former Pope Gregory XII was then created titular Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Ruffina by the council, with rank immediately below the Pope (which made him the highest-ranking person in the church, since, due to his abdication, the See of Peter in Rome was vacant). Gregory XII's cardinals were accepted as true cardinals by the council, but the members of the council delayed electing a new pope for fear that a new pope would restrict further discussion of pressing issues in the church. By the time the anti-popes were all deposed and the new Pope, Martin V, was elected, two years had passed since Gregory XII's abdication, and Gregory was already dead. The council took great care to protect the legitimacy of the succession, ratified all his acts, and a new pontiff was chosen. The new pope, Martin V, elected November 1417, soon asserted the absolute authority of the papal office. ==Condemnation of Jan Hus== A second goal of the council was to continue the reforms begun at the Council of Pisa (1409). The reforms were largely directed against John Wycliffe, mentioned in the opening session and condemned in the eighth on 4 May 1415, and Jan Hus, along with their followers. Hus, summoned to Constance under a letter of safe conduct, was found guilty of heresy by the council and turned over to the secular court. "This holy synod of Constance, seeing that God's church has nothing more that it can do, relinquishes Jan Hus to the judgment of the secular authority and decrees that he is to be relinquished to the secular court." (Council of Constance Session 15 – 6 July 1415). The secular court sentenced him to be burned to death at the stake. Jerome of Prague, a supporter of Hus, came to Constance to offer assistance but was similarly arrested, judged, found guilty of heresy and turned over to the same secular court, with the same outcome as Hus. Poggio Bracciolini attended the council and related the unfairness of the process against Jerome. Paweł Włodkowic and the other Polish representatives to the Council of Constance publicly defended Hus. ==Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic conflict== In 1411, the First Peace of Thorn ended the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War, in which the Teutonic Knights fought the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, the peace was not stable and further conflicts arose regarding demarcation of the Samogitian borders. The tensions erupted into the brief Hunger War in summer 1414. It was concluded that the disputes would be mediated by the Council of Constance. The Polish-Lithuanian position was defended by Paulus Vladimiri, rector of the Jagiellonian University, who challenged legality of the Teutonic crusade against Lithuania. He argued that a forced conversion was incompatible with free will, which was an essential component of a genuine conversion. Therefore, the Knights could only wage a defensive war if pagans violated natural rights of the Christians. Vladimiri further stipulated that infidels had rights which had to be respected, and neither the Pope nor the Holy Roman Emperor had the authority to violate them. Lithuanians also brought a group of Samogitian representatives to testify to atrocities committed by the Knights. The Dominican theologian John of Falkenberg proved to be the fiercest opponent of the Poles. In his Liber de doctrina, Falkenberg argued thatthe Emperor has the right to slay even peaceful infidels simply because they are pagans. ... The Poles deserve death for defending infidels, and should be exterminated even more than the infidels; they should be deprived of their sovereignty and reduced to slavery. In Satira, he attacked Polish-Lithuanian King Jogaila, calling him a "mad dog" unworthy to be king. Falkenberg was condemned and imprisoned for such libel. Other opponents included Grand Master's proctor Peter Wormditt, Dominic of San Gimignano, John Urbach, Ardecino de Porta of Novara, and Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo Andrew Escobar. They argued that the Knights were perfectly justified in their crusade as it was a sacred duty of Christians to spread the true faith. Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly published an independent opinion that attempted to somewhat balance both Polish and Teutonic positions. The council established the Diocese of Samogitia, with its seat in Medininkai and subordinated to Lithuanian dioceses, and appointed Matthias of Trakai as the first bishop. Pope Martin V appointed the Lithuanians Jogaila and Vytautas, who were respectively King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, as vicars general in Pskov and Veliky Novgorod in recognition of their Catholicism. After another round of futile negotiations, the Gollub War broke out in 1422. It ended with the Treaty of Melno. Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic wars continued for another hundred years. ==Later status== Although Pope Martin V did not directly challenge the decrees of the council, his successor Eugene IV repudiated an attempt by a faction at the Council of Basel to declare the provisions of Haec sancta and Frequens a matter of faith. His 1439 bull on the matter, Moyses vir Dei, was underwritten by the Council of Florence. In convening the Fifth Lateran Council (1512–17), Pope Julius II further pronounced that Frequens had lost its force; Lateran V is sometimes seen as having itself abrogated Haec sancta, though the reading is controversial. Either way, while Rome itself came to reject the provisions made by the council, significant parts of the Church, notably in France, continued to uphold the validity of its decisions long after the event: Haec sancta was reaffirmed in the Gallican Articles of 1682, and even during the First Vatican Council of 1869–70 the French-American bishop of St. Augustine, Florida, Augustin Vérot, attempted to read Haec sancta into the record of deliberations. Despite the apparently definitive rejection of conciliarism at the First Vatican Council, the debate over the status of Constance was renewed in the 20th century. In the 1960s, in the context of the Second Vatican Council, the reformist Catholic theologian Hans Küng and the historian argued in defense of the dogmatic character of Haec sancta, suggesting that its terms could be reconciled with the definition of papal supremacy at Vatican I. Küng's argument received support from prelates such as Cardinal Franz König. Other Catholic historians adopted different views: Hubert Jedin considered Haec sancta to be an emergency measure with no binding validity beyond its immediate context, while Joseph Gill rejected the validity of the session that passed the decree altogether. The debate over Haec sancta subsided in the 1970s, however, without resolution.	[ "Theodoric Vrie", "Catholic Church", "Holy Roman Empire", "Eugene IV", "heretic", "John Wycliffe", "Frank Welsh (writer)", "Antipope Benedict XIII", "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "Hunger War", "Holy Roman Emperor", "John Dominici", "Antipope John XXIII", "Western Schism", "Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor", "Papal legate", "Fifth Lateran Council", "Hussites", "Paulus Vladimiri", "vicars general", "Carlo I Malatesta", "Council of Pisa", "Jerome of Prague", "Poland during the Jagiellon dynasty", "ultramontanism", "Death by burning", "Lithuanian Crusade", "Veliky Novgorod", "Pope Julius II", "Diocese of Samogitia", "Haec sancta", "Giovanni Dominici", "First Vatican Council", "Peace of Thorn (1411)", "Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Ruffina", "papal supremacy", "Council of Florence", "Elizabeth of Luxembourg", "Augustin Vérot", "Ars moriendi", "Samogitia", "Haec sancta synodus", "Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo", "Pope John XXIII", "Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)", "Diocese of St. Augustine", "Jogaila", "Jan Hus", "Second Vatican Council", "Pierre d'Ailly", "Franz König", "Matthias of Trakai", "Treaty of Melno", "archbishop", "Cardinal (Catholicism)", "Václav Brožík", "Declaration of the Clergy of France", "Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights", "Pope Gregory XII", "Pskov", "ecumenical council", "Carlo Malatesta", "Frequens", "abbot", "Hans Küng", "Andrew Escobar", "Konstanz", "John of Falkenberg", "Pope Martin V", "Joseph McCabe", "Jagiellonian University", "conciliarism", "Bishopric of Constance", "natural rights", "Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War", "Damals", "Gollub War", "Council of Vienne", "Bishop (Catholic Church)", "Hubert Jedin", "Vytautas", "Teutonic Knights", "Paweł Włodkowic", "Avignon Papacy", "Pope Urban VI", "Antipope Alexander V", "Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini", "Varniai", "Pope Gregory XI", "safe conduct", "Council of Basel" ]
7,662	Churches Uniting in Christ	Churches Uniting in Christ (CUIC) is an ecumenical organization that brings together mainline American denominations (including both predominantly white and predominantly black churches), and was inaugurated on January 20, 2002, in Memphis, Tennessee on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. It is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union. == History == === Origins === CUIC is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union (COCU), which had been founded in 1962. The original task of COCU was to negotiate a consensus between its nine (originally four) member communions (it also included three "advisory participant" churches). However, it never succeeded in this goal, despite making progress on several ecumenical fronts. At COCU's 18th plenary meeting in St. Louis, Missouri (January 1999), CUIC was proposed as a new relationship among the nine member communions. Each member communion voted to join CUIC over the next few years. === Inauguration === Heads of communion from each member of COCU (as well as the ELCA, a partner in mission and dialogue) inaugurated the group on the day before Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 2002 at the motel where he was killed. This particular location highlighted the group's focus on racism as a major dividing factor between and among churches. === Task forces === The Coordinating Council of CUIC created several task forces: Racial and Social Justice, Ministry, Young Adult and Local and Regional Ecumenism. Each task force represented an important part of early CUIC work. Local ecumenical liturgies were encouraged, and excitement initially built around "pilot programs" in Denver, Los Angeles, and Memphis. The Racial and Social Justice task force created gatherings and discussions on racial justice. The Ministry task force received much of the attention from church structures, however. The group had been given a mandate to complete work on reconciliation by 2007, and in 2003 began working on a document entitled "Mutual Recognition and Mutual Reconciliation of Ministries." === Mutual Recognition and Mutual Reconciliation of Ministries (MRMRM) === One of the most difficult issues concerning recognition and reconciliation of ministries was that of the historic episcopate. This was one of the issues that defeated proposals for union by COCU as well. The group approached this problem through dialogue, soliciting information from each member communion on the particularities of their theology and ecclesiology in order to come to a mutually acceptable conclusion. CUIC released the seventh and final draft of the MRMRM document in June 2005. Much work was done in 2006 on this document, which focused on "Episkope," the oversight of ministry. The work culminated in a consultation on episkope in St. Louis in October 2006 involving the heads of communion of the members of CUIC. At this consultation, the MRMRM document was met with resistance, and concern was raised in particular that CUIC was focusing too narrowly on reconciliation of ministries and "not taking seriously our commitment to working on those issues of systemic racism that remain at the heart of our continuing and separated life as churches here in the United States." === Moravian Church (Northern Province) === The nine churches which inaugurated CUIC in 2002 were joined by the Moravian Church, Northern Province. Neither body sent representatives to the CUIC plenary on January 11–14, 2008, though the AME Council of Bishops never voted to suspend membership officially. They felt the other churches were not doing enough to counter the history of racial injustice between black and white churches. In response to this, the remaining churches in CUIC decided in 2008 to suspend their work while they seek reconciliation with these churches. This work began with a group of representatives who revisited the 1999 document "Call to Christian Commitment and Action to Combat Racism," which is available on the current CUIC website. This also meant eliminating the position of Director as well as the suspension of the work of the CUIC task forces. === Reconciliation efforts === The African Methodist Episcopal Church resumed its participation by the February 2010 plenary meeting, where CUIC moved to refocus on its eight marks of commitment and a shared concern for racial justice as a major dividing factor facing ecumenism. Although the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church has not rejoined the group, efforts have continued to bring this communion back into membership. The Rev. Staccato Powell, an AMEZ pastor, preached at the 2011 CUIC plenary in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida as a part of these reconciliation efforts. Combating racism has again become a priority of CUIC. Concerns over the historic episcopate have been sidelined since 2008, though they may re-emerge. The group's focus on mutual reconciliation of ministries has been revisited in the light of racism and the impact that racism may have on exchanging ministers between denominations. Therefore, the coordinating council of CUIC created a consultation on race and ministry while also choosing to partner with the Samuel Dewitt Proctor Conference, a social justice organization involved in African American faith communities. ==Purpose== The purpose of CUIC has always been unity (as reflected in their current slogan, "reconciling the baptized, seeking unity with justice"). This reflects one of the core scripture passages in the ecumenical movement, Jesus' prayer in John 17:21, "That they all may be one". CUIC has approached this goal of unity in various ways throughout its history. ===Racism=== Racism has been a primary focus of CUIC since 2002 (and, indeed, a primary focus of COCU alongside other forms of exclusion and prejudice, such as sexism and ableism). According to Dan Krutz, former president of CUIC, "Overcoming racism has been a focal point of CUIC since its beginning... Racism may be the biggest sin that divides churches." Even before the absence of the AME and AMEZ churches at the January 2011 plenary, some in CUIC had noticed the lack of commitment to racial reconciliation. Since 2008, however, racism has become an even more pressing concern. This has led CUIC to address issues of racism in the public sphere, including the killing of Trayvon Martin and the recovery from the 2010 Haiti earthquake. ===Marks of Commitment=== According to their website, one of the reasons for transitioning from COCU to CUIC is so that member churches "stop 'consulting' and start living their unity in Christ more fully." This means that each member communion in CUIC agrees to abide by the eight Marks of Commitment, which are summarized as follows: Receive each other as Christ's church Mutually recognize baptisms & members Affirm apostolic creeds Celebrate Eucharist together Engage in mission & anti-racism Promote wholeness & inclusion Structure accountability, consultation & decision-making Support ongoing theological dialogue == Membership == ===Full members=== African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Episcopal Church (United States) International Council of Community Churches Moravian Church in North America Presbyterian Church (USA) United Church of Christ United Methodist Church === Former partners in mission and dialogue === Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ==Leadership== ===Presidents=== === Vice Presidents === ===Directors=== == Networking partners == National Council of Churches World Council of Churches Graymoor Ecumenical & Interreligious Institute Samuel DeWitt Proctor Conference	[ "Samuel DeWitt Proctor Conference", "Robina M. Winbush", "Christian Churches Together", "International Council of Community Churches", "Mainline (Protestant)", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in America", "Mainline Protestant", "Ecumenism", "Graymoor Ecumenical & Interreligious Institute", "Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)", "African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church", "mainline Protestantism", "sexism", "Martin Luther King Jr. Day", "Consultation on Church Union", "racism", "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church", "Memphis, Tennessee", "United States", "Ronald Cunningham (bishop)", "National Civil Rights Museum", "ableism", "Melvin Talbert", "World Council of Churches", "United Methodist Church", "That they all may be one", "Moravian Church in North America", "Christian ecumenism", "religious denomination", "African Methodist Episcopal Church", "2010 Haiti earthquake", "Teresa E. Jefferson-Snorton", "Presbyterian Church (USA)", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "virtual office", "National Council of Churches", "St. Louis, Missouri", "Trayvon Martin", "White people", "African American", "Staccato Powell", "United Church of Christ" ]
7,663	Canadian Unitarian Council	The Canadian Unitarian Council () (CUC) is a liberal religious association of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist congregations in Canada. It was formed on May 14, 1961, initially to be the national organization for Canadians belonging to the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) which formed a day later on May 15, 1961. Between 1961 and 2002, almost all member congregations of the CUC were also members of the UUA and most services to congregations in Canada were provided by the UUA. However, in 2002, the CUC formally became a separate entity from the UUA, although the UUA continues to provide ministerial settlement services and remains the primary source for education and theological resources. Some Canadian congregations have continued to be members of both the CUC and the UUA, while most congregations are only members of the CUC. The Canadian Unitarian Council is the only national body for Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist congregations in Canada and was one of the seventeen members of the now defunct International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (1995–2021). ==Organization== The CUC is made up of 43 member congregations and emerging groups, who are the legal owners of the organization, and who are, for governance and service delivery, divided into four regions: "BC" (British Columbia), "Western" (Alberta to Thunder Bay), "Central" (between Thunder Bay and Kingston), and "Eastern" (Kingston, Ottawa and everything east of that). However, for youth ministry, the "Central" and "Eastern" regions are combined to form a youth region known as "QuOM" (Quebec, Ontario and the Maritimes), giving the youth only three regions for their activities. The organization as a whole is governed by the CUC Board of Trustees (Board), whose mandate it is to govern in the best interests of the CUC's owners. The Board is made up of eight members who are elected by congregational delegates at the CUC's Annual General Meeting. This consists of two Trustees from each region, who are eligible to serve a maximum of two three-year terms. Board meetings also include Official Observers to the Board, who participate without a vote and represent UU Youth and Ministers. ===Service delivery=== As members of the CUC, congregations and emerging groups are served by volunteer Service Consultants, Congregational Networks, and a series of other committees. There are two directors of regional services, one for the Western two regions, and one for the Eastern two regions. Youth and young adults are served by a Youth and Young Adult Ministry Development staff of two. ===Annual conference and meeting=== Policies and business of the CUC are determined at the Annual Conference and Meeting (ACM), consisting of the Bi-Annual Conference, in which workshops are held, and the Annual General Meeting, in which business matters and plenary meetings are performed. The ACM features two addresses, a Keynote and a Confluence Lecture. The Confluence Lecture is comparable to the UUA's Ware Lecture in prestige. In early days this event simply consisted of the Annual General Meeting component as the Annual Conference component was not added to much later. And starting in 2017 the conference portion will only take place every second year. Past ACMs have been held in the following locations: ^Not an ACM, but an "Annual General Meeting" and "Symposium", and unlike ACMs it was organized by the CUC and the Unitarian Universalist Ministers of Canada instead of a local congregation. #Not a keynote presenter or lecturer, rather a symposium "provocateur". Upcoming locations ===Principles and sources=== The CUC does not have a central creed in which members are required to believe, but they have found it useful to articulate their common values in what has become known as The Principles and Sources of our Religious Faith, which are currently based on the UUA's former Principles and Sources with the addition of an 8th principle adopted by CUC members at a special meeting on November 27, 2021. The CUC had a task force whose mandate was to consider revising them. The principles and sources as published in church literature and on the CUC website: ===Formation and relationship to the Unitarian Universalist Association=== The CUC formed on May 14, 1961, to be the national organization for Canadians within the about-to-form UUA (it formed a day later on May 15, 1961). And until 2002, almost all member congregations of the CUC were also members of the UUA and most services to CUC member congregations were provided by the UUA. However, after an agreement between the UUA and the CUC, since 2002 most services have been provided by the CUC to its own member congregations, with the UUA continuing to provide ministerial settlement services. And also since 2002, some Canadian congregations have continued to be members of both the UUA and CUC while others are members of only the CUC. The Canadian Unitarian Universalist youth of the day disapproved of the 2002 change in relationship between the CUC and UUA. It is quite evident in the words of this statement, which was adopted by the attendees of the 2001 youth conference held at the Unitarian Church of Montreal: We the youth of Canada are deeply concerned about the direction the CUC seems to be taking. As stewards of our faith, adults have a responsibility to take into consideration the concerns of youth. We are opposed to making this massive jump in our evolutionary progress. === Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women's Association === The Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women's Association (CUUWA), established in May 2011, is a women's rights organization associated with the CUC. The CUUWA gained initial support from Prairie Women's Gathering and the Vancouver Island Women's retreat, and has since become a nationally recognized organization. ==== Mission ==== Originally called the Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women's Federation, the organization aims to raise awareness for women's education, rights, and equality of income. and inform society of the issues women have faced locally and internationally. As a part of their mission, the CUUWA circulates educational materials that highlight women's contributions to society. ===Name of CUC and playful abbreviation of Unitarian Universalist=== While the name of the organization is the Canadian Unitarian Council, the CUC includes congregations with Unitarian, Universalist, Unitarian Universalist, and Universalist Unitarian in their names. Changing the name of the CUC has occasionally been debated, but there have been no successful motions. To recognize this diversity, some members of the CUC abbreviate Unitarian Universalist as UU (and playfully read it as "You star, you"). Note, not all CUC members like this playful reading and so when these people write the abbreviation they leave out the star (*), just writing UU instead.	[ "Dr. Allan Sharp", "Montreal", "Matt Meyer", "maple leaf", "London, Ontario", "Kingston, Ontario", "Susan Walsh(Executive Director of USC Canada)", "Rev. Stephen Atkinson", "Rev. Melora Lyngood", "Victoria, British Columbia", "Ontario", "Will Brewer", "Unitarianism", "Winnipeg", "Canada", "Dr. Paul Bramadat", "Rev. Meg Riley", "Calgary", "Rev. Diane Rollert", "Rev. Ray Drennan", "Rev. Dr. John W. Baros-Johnson", "Hamilton, Ontario", "Rev. Brian Kiely", "Rev. Carly Gaylor", "Honourable Lois Hole", "Kelowna", "ethical", "Rev. Shawn Newton", "Rev. Chris Buice", "Congregationalist polity", "Rev. Christine E. Hillman", "Rev. Mark Morrison-Reed", "Toronto", "Lotta Hitschmanova", "Rev. Wayne Walder", "Universalist Church of America", "Rev. Bill Phipps", "flaming chalice", "Ottawa", "British Columbia", "Thunder Bay", "David Crawley (bishop)", "Allison Brewer", "Rev. Jane Bramadat", "women's rights", "First Unitarian Congregation of Toronto", "Rev. Julie Stoneberg", "David K. Foot", "Rev. Jeffrey Brown", "Alberta", "Youth ministry", "Unitarian Universalist Association", "youth", "Rev. Dr. Stephen", "Saskatoon", "Rev. Susan Van Dreser", "Rabbi Neal Rose", "Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Young adult (psychology)", "Mississauga", "Saint John, New Brunswick", "science", "International Council of Unitarians and Universalists", "Rev. Meg Roberts", "Rev. Erik Walker Wikstrom", "Vancouver", "Rev. Peter Boulatta", "Edmonton", "Unitarian Universalism" ]
7,668	Charles Mingus	Charles Mingus Jr. (April 22, 1922 – January 5, 1979) was an American jazz upright bassist, composer, bandleader, pianist, and author. A major proponent of collective improvisation, he is considered one of the greatest jazz musicians and composers in history, with a career spanning three decades and collaborations with other jazz greats such as Duke Ellington, Charlie Parker, Max Roach, and Eric Dolphy. Mingus's work ranged from advanced bebop and avant-garde jazz with small and midsize ensembles to pioneering the post-bop style on seminal recordings like Pithecanthropus Erectus (1956) and Mingus Ah Um (1959) and progressive big band experiments such as The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady (1963). Mingus's compositions continue to be played by contemporary musicians ranging from the repertory bands Mingus Big Band, Mingus Dynasty, and Mingus Orchestra to high school students who play the charts and compete in the Charles Mingus High School Competition. In 1993, the Library of Congress acquired Mingus's collected papers—including scores, sound recordings, correspondence and photos—in what it called "the most important acquisition of a manuscript collection relating to jazz in the Library's history". ==Biography== ===Early life and career=== Charles Mingus was born in Nogales, Arizona. His father, Charles Mingus Sr., was a sergeant in the U.S. Army. Mingus Jr. was largely raised in the Watts area of Los Angeles. Mingus's ethnic background was complex. His ancestry included German American, African American, and Native American heritage. According to new information used to educate visitors to Mingus Mill in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, included in signs unveiled May 23, 2023, the father of Mingus Sr. was former slave Daniel Mingus, owned by the family of his mother Clarinda Mingus, a white woman. When Clarinda married a white man, Mingus Sr. was left with his white grandfather and great-grandparents. His father, who later changed his name to West, apparently did not have a relationship with Mingus Sr. His mother allowed only church-related music in their home, but Mingus developed an early love for other music, especially that of Duke Ellington. He studied trombone, and later cello, although he was unable to follow the cello professionally because, at the time, it was nearly impossible for a black musician to make a career of classical music, and the cello was not accepted as a jazz instrument. Despite this, Mingus was still attached to the cello; as he studied bass with Red Callender in the late 1930s, Callender even commented that the cello was still Mingus's main instrument. In Beneath the Underdog, Mingus states that he did not actually start learning bass until Buddy Collette accepted him into his swing band under the stipulation that he be the band's bass player. Much of the cello technique he learned was applicable to double bass when he took up the instrument in high school. He studied for five years with Herman Reinshagen, principal bassist of the New York Philharmonic, and compositional techniques with Lloyd Reese. Throughout much of his career, he played a bass made in 1927 by the German maker Ernst Heinrich Roth. Mingus was already writing relatively advanced musical pieces in his teenage years; many are similar to Third Stream in that they incorporate elements of classical music. A number of pieces were recorded in 1960 with conductor Gunther Schuller, and released as Pre-Bird, referring to Charlie "Bird" Parker; Mingus was one of many musicians whose perspectives on music were altered by Parker into "pre- and post-Bird" eras. Mingus gained a reputation as a bass prodigy. His first major professional job was playing with former Ellington clarinetist Barney Bigard. He toured with Louis Armstrong in 1943, and by early 1945 was recording in Los Angeles in a band led by Russell Jacquet, which also included Teddy Edwards, Maurice James Simon, Wild Bill Davis, and Chico Hamilton, and in May that year, in Hollywood, again with Edwards, in a band led by Howard McGhee. He then played with Lionel Hampton's band in the late 1940s; Hampton performed and recorded several Mingus pieces. A popular trio of Mingus, Red Norvo, and Tal Farlow in 1950 and 1951 received considerable acclaim, but Mingus's race caused problems with some club owners and he left the group. Mingus was briefly a member of Ellington's band in 1953, as a substitute for bassist Wendell Marshall; however, Mingus's notorious temper led to his being one of the few musicians personally fired by Ellington (Bubber Miley and drummer Bobby Durham are among the others) after a backstage fight between Mingus and Juan Tizol. Also in the early 1950s, before attaining commercial recognition as a bandleader, Mingus played gigs with Charlie Parker, whose compositions and improvisations greatly inspired and influenced him. Mingus considered Parker the greatest genius and innovator in jazz history, but he had a love-hate relationship with Parker's legacy. Mingus blamed the Parker mythology for a derivative crop of pretenders to Parker's throne. He was also conflicted and sometimes disgusted by Parker's self-destructive habits and the romanticized lure of drug addiction they offered to other jazz musicians. In response to the many sax players who imitated Parker, Mingus titled a song "If Charlie Parker Were a Gunslinger, There'd Be a Whole Lot of Dead Copycats" (released on Mingus Dynasty as "Gunslinging Bird"). Mingus married four times. His wives were Jeanne Gross, Lucille (Celia) Germanis, Judy Starkey, and Susan Graham Ungaro. ===Mingus Ah Um and other works=== In 1959, Mingus and his jazz workshop musicians recorded one of his best-known albums, Mingus Ah Um. Even in a year of standout masterpieces, including Dave Brubeck's Time Out, Miles Davis's Kind of Blue, John Coltrane's Giant Steps, and Ornette Coleman's The Shape of Jazz to Come, this was a major achievement, featuring such classic Mingus compositions as "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" (an elegy to Lester Young) and the vocal-less version of "Fables of Faubus" (a protest against segregationist Arkansas governor Orval Faubus that features double-time sections). In 2003 the album's legacy was cemented when it was inducted into the National Recording Registry. Also during 1959, Mingus recorded the album Blues & Roots, which was released the following year. Mingus said in his liner notes: "I was born swinging and clapped my hands in church as a little boy, but I've grown up and I like to do things other than just swing. But blues can do more than just swing." Mingus witnessed Ornette Coleman's legendary—and controversial—1960 appearances at New York City's Five Spot jazz club. He initially expressed rather mixed feelings for Coleman's innovative music: "... if the free-form guys could play the same tune twice, then I would say they were playing something ... Most of the time they use their fingers on the saxophone and they don't even know what's going to come out. They're experimenting." That same year, however, Mingus formed a quartet with Richmond, trumpeter Ted Curson and multi-instrumentalist Eric Dolphy. This ensemble featured the same instruments as Coleman's quartet, and is often regarded as Mingus rising to the challenging new standard established by Coleman. The quartet recorded on both Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus and Mingus. The former also features the version of "Fables of Faubus" with lyrics, aptly titled "Original Faubus Fables". In 1961, Mingus spent time staying at the house of his mother's sister (Louise) and her husband, Fess Williams, a clarinetist and saxophonist, in Jamaica, Queens. Subsequently, Mingus invited Williams to play at the 1962 Town Hall Concert. Only one misstep occurred in this era: The Town Hall Concert in October 1962, a "live workshop"/recording session. With an ambitious program, the event was plagued with troubles from its inception. Sixty years later, in 2014, the late American character actor Reg E. Cathey performed a voice recording of the complete guide for Studio 360. ===The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady and other Impulse! albums=== In 1963, Mingus released The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady, described as "one of the greatest achievements in orchestration by any composer in jazz history." The album was also unique in that Mingus asked his psychotherapist, Dr. Edmund Pollock, to provide notes for the record. Mingus also released Mingus Plays Piano, an unaccompanied album featuring some fully improvised pieces, in 1963. In addition, 1963 saw the release of Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus, an album praised by critic Nat Hentoff. In 1964, Mingus put together one of his best-known groups, a sextet including Dannie Richmond, Jaki Byard, Eric Dolphy, trumpeter Johnny Coles, and tenor saxophonist Clifford Jordan. The group was recorded frequently during its short existence. Mosaic Records has released a 7-CD set, Charles Mingus – The Jazz Workshop Concerts 1964–65, featuring concerts from Town Hall, Amsterdam, Monterey ’64, Monterey ’65, & Minneapolis). Coles fell ill and left during a European tour. Dolphy stayed in Europe after the tour ended, and died suddenly in Berlin on June 28, 1964. 1964 was also the year that Mingus met his future wife, Sue Graham Ungaro. The couple were married in 1966 by Allen Ginsberg. Facing financial hardship, Mingus was evicted from his New York home in 1966. ===Changes=== Mingus's pace slowed somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1974, after his 1970 sextet with Charles McPherson, Eddie Preston and Bobby Jones disbanded, he formed a quintet with Richmond, pianist Don Pullen, trumpeter Jack Walrath and saxophonist George Adams. They recorded two well-received albums, Changes One and Changes Two. Mingus also played with Charles McPherson in many of his groups during this time. Cumbia and Jazz Fusion in 1976 sought to blend Colombian music (the "Cumbia" of the title) with more traditional jazz forms. In 1971, Mingus taught for a semester at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York as the Slee Professor of Music. ===Later career and death=== By the mid-1970s, Mingus was feeling the effects of motor neuron disease. His once formidable bass technique declined until he could no longer play the instrument. He continued composing, however, and supervised a number of recordings before his death. At the time of his death, he was working with Joni Mitchell on an album eventually titled Mingus, which included lyrics added by Mitchell to his compositions, including "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat". The album featured Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, and bassist and composer, Jaco Pastorius. Mingus died on January 5, 1979, aged 56, in Cuernavaca, Mexico, where he had traveled for treatment and convalescence. His ashes were scattered in the Ganges River. == Musical style == His compositions retained the hot and soulful feel of hard bop, drawing heavily from black gospel music and blues, while sometimes containing elements of third stream, free jazz, and classical music. He once cited Duke Ellington and church as his main influences. Mingus espoused collective improvisation, similar to the old New Orleans jazz parades, paying particular attention to how each band member interacted with the group as a whole. In creating his bands, he looked not only at the skills of the available musicians, but also their personalities. Many musicians passed through his bands and later went on to impressive careers. He recruited talented and sometimes little-known artists, whom he utilized to assemble unconventional instrumental configurations. As a performer, Mingus was a pioneer in double bass technique, widely recognized as one of the instrument's most proficient players. Because of his brilliant writing for midsize ensembles, and his catering to and emphasizing the strengths of the musicians in his groups, Mingus is often considered the heir of Duke Ellington, for whom he expressed great admiration and with whom he collaborated on the record Money Jungle. Dizzy Gillespie had once said Mingus reminded him "of a young Duke", citing their shared "organizational genius". ==Personality== Mingus had a notoriously fiery temperament, which earned him the nickname "the Angry Man of Jazz". His refusal to compromise his musical integrity led to many onstage outbursts, which were directed at members of his band and the audience alike; in 1965, midway through a performance, he ordered half his band backstage to practice. Noisy audiences were subject to expressions of ire. Mingus chastised one such with "Isaac Stern doesn't have to put up with this shit", and on another occasion ordered his band to read books instead of playing. Also in the 1960s, playing a gig at the Five Spot Café in New York City, Mingus reportedly destroyed a $20,000 bass in response to hecklers in the audience. Guitarist and singer Jackie Paris was a witness to Mingus's irascibility. Paris recalls his time in the Jazz Workshop: "He chased everybody off the stand except [drummer] Paul Motian and me... The three of us just wailed on the blues for about an hour and a half before he called the other cats back." On October 12, 1962, Mingus punched Jimmy Knepper in the mouth while the two men were working together at Mingus's apartment on a score for his upcoming concert at the Town Hall in New York, and Knepper refused to take on more work. Mingus's blow broke off a crowned tooth and its underlying stub. In addition to bouts of ill temper, Mingus was prone to clinical depression and tended to have brief periods of extreme creative activity intermixed with fairly long stretches of greatly decreased output, such as the five-year period following the death of Eric Dolphy. In 1966, Mingus was evicted from his apartment at 5 Great Jones Street in New York City for nonpayment of rent, captured in the 1968 documentary film Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968, directed by Thomas Reichman. The film also features Mingus performing in clubs and in the apartment, firing a .410 bore shotgun indoors, composing at the piano, playing with and taking care of his young daughter Carolyn, and discussing love, art, politics, and the music school he had hoped to create. ==Legacy== ===The Mingus Big Band=== Charles Mingus's music is currently being performed and reinterpreted by the Mingus Big Band, which in October 2008 began playing every Monday at Jazz Standard in New York City, and often tours the rest of the U.S. and Europe. The Mingus Big Band, the Mingus Orchestra, and the Mingus Dynasty band are managed by Jazz Workshop, Inc. and run by Mingus's widow, Sue Graham Mingus. Elvis Costello has written lyrics for a few Mingus pieces. He had once sung lyrics for one piece, "Invisible Lady", backed by the Mingus Big Band on the album, Tonight at Noon: Three of Four Shades of Love. ===Epitaph=== Epitaph is considered one of Charles Mingus's masterpieces. The composition is 4,235 measures long, requires two hours to perform, and is one of the longest jazz pieces ever written. Epitaph was only completely discovered by musicologist Andrew Homzy during the cataloging process after Mingus's death. With the help of a grant from the Ford Foundation, the score and instrumental parts were copied, and the piece itself was premiered by a 30-piece orchestra, conducted by Gunther Schuller. This concert was produced by Mingus's widow, Sue Graham Mingus, at Alice Tully Hall on 3 June 1989, 10 years after Mingus's death. It was performed again at several concerts in 2007. The performance at Walt Disney Concert Hall is available on NPR. Hal Leonard published the complete score in 2008. ===Autobiography=== Mingus wrote the sprawling, exaggerated, quasi-autobiography, Beneath the Underdog: His World as Composed by Mingus, It includes accounts of abuse at the hands of his father from an early age, being bullied as a child, his removal from a white musician's union, and grappling with disapproval while married to white women and other examples of hardship and prejudice. ===Scholarly influence=== The work of Charles Mingus has also received attention in academia. The American scholar of religion and multidisciplinary artist Ashon Crawley writes in his book Blackpentecostal Breath: The Aesthetics of Possibility that Mingus' musicianship is an example of the power of music to blur the boundaries between the sacred and the profane. Discussing the song "Wednesday Night Prayer Meeting", which Mingus was inspired to write by attending a Holiness Pentecostal church in Los Angeles, Crawley suggests that Mingus found the gatherings to be an "ongoing, deep, intense mode of study, a kind of study wherein the aesthetic forms created could not be severed from the intellectual practice because they were one and also, but not, the same", and sought to express this through his compositions. Gunther Schuller has suggested that Mingus should be ranked among the most important American composers, jazz or otherwise. In 1988, a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts made possible the cataloging of Mingus compositions, which were then donated to the Music Division of the New York Public Library for public use. In 1993, The Library of Congress acquired Mingus's collected papers—including scores, sound recordings, correspondence and photos—in what they described as "the most important acquisition of a manuscript collection relating to jazz in the Library's history". ===Cover versions=== Considering the number of compositions that Charles Mingus wrote, his works have not been recorded as often as comparable jazz composers. The only Mingus tribute albums recorded during his lifetime were baritone saxophonist Pepper Adams's album, Pepper Adams Plays the Compositions of Charlie Mingus, in 1963, and Joni Mitchell's album Mingus, in 1979. Of all his works, his elegy for Lester Young, "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" (from Mingus Ah Um) has probably had the most recordings. The song has been covered by both jazz and non-jazz artists, such as Jeff Beck, Andy Summers, Eugene Chadbourne, and Bert Jansch and John Renbourn with and without Pentangle. Joni Mitchell sang a version with lyrics that she wrote for it. Elvis Costello has recorded "Hora Decubitus" (from Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus) on My Flame Burns Blue (2006). "Better Git It in Your Soul" was covered by Davey Graham on his album "Folk, Blues, and Beyond". Trumpeter Ron Miles performs a version of "Pithecanthropus Erectus" on his CD "Witness". New York Ska Jazz Ensemble has done a cover of Mingus's "Haitian Fight Song", as have the British folk rock group Pentangle and others. Hal Willner's 1992 tribute album Weird Nightmare: Meditations on Mingus (Columbia Records) contains idiosyncratic renditions of Mingus's works involving numerous popular musicians including Chuck D, Keith Richards, Henry Rollins and Dr. John. The Italian band Quintorigo recorded an entire album devoted to Mingus's music, titled Play Mingus. Gunther Schuller's edition of Mingus's "Epitaph", which premiered at Lincoln Center in 1989, was subsequently released on Columbia/Sony Records. One of the most elaborate tributes to Mingus came on September 29, 1969, at a festival honoring him. Duke Ellington performed The Clown, with Ellington reading Jean Shepherd's narration. It was long believed that no recording of this performance existed; however, one was discovered and premiered on July 11, 2013, by Dry River Jazz host Trevor Hodgkins for NPR member station KRWG-FM with re-airings on July 13, 2013, and July 26, 2014. Mingus's elegy for Duke, "Duke Ellington's Sound Of Love", was recorded by Kevin Mahogany on Double Rainbow (1993) and Anita Wardell on Why Do You Cry? (1995). ==Awards and honors== 1971: Guggenheim Fellowship (Music Composition). Inducted in the DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame. Awarded Slee Chair of Music at University of New York Buffalo. 1988: The National Endowment for the Arts provided grants for a Mingus nonprofit called "Let My Children Hear Music" which cataloged all of Mingus's works. The microfilms of these works were given to the Music Division of the New York Public Library where they are currently available for study. 1995: The United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor. 1997: Posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. 1999: Album Mingus Dynasty (1959) inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame. 2005: Inducted in the Jazz at Lincoln Center, Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame. 2013: Album Mingus Ah Um (1959) inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame. ==Discography== Strings and Keys (1953) Miss Bliss (1953) Jazzical Moods, Volume 1 (1955) Jazzical Moods, Volume 2 (1955) Jazz Composers Workshop (1956) Pithecanthropus Erectus (1956) The Clown (1957) Mingus Three (1957) East Coasting (1957) A Modern Jazz Symposium of Music and Poetry (1959) Mingus Ah Um (1959) Blues & Roots (1960) Mingus Dynasty (1960) Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus (1960) Pre-Bird (1961) Newport Rebels (1961) Mingus (1961) Tijuana Moods (1962) Oh Yeah (1962) The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady (1963) Tonight at Noon (1964) Mingus Plays Piano (1964) Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus (1964) Blue Bird (1971) Pithycanthropus Erectus (1971) Charles Mingus with Orchestra (1971) Let My Children Hear Music (1972) Mingus Moves (1974) Changes One (1975) Changes Two (1975) Three or Four Shades of Blues (1977) Lionel Hampton Presents Charles Mingus (1977) Cumbia & Jazz Fusion (1978) Reincarnation Of A Love Bird (1988) Mysterious Blues (1990) Shadows (2016) ==Filmography== 1959, Mingus contributed most of the music for John Cassavetes's New York City film Shadows. 1961, Mingus appeared as a bassist and actor in the British film All Night Long. 1968, Thomas Reichman directed the documentary Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968. 1991, Ray Davies produced a documentary entitled Weird Nightmare. It contains footage of Mingus and interviews with artists making Hal Willner's tribute album of the same name, including Elvis Costello, Charlie Watts, Keith Richards, and Vernon Reid. 1998, Charles Mingus: Triumph of the Underdog (78 minutes) a documentary film on Charles Mingus directed by Don McGlynn.	[ "Ornette Coleman", "double bass", "Jimmy Knepper", "hard bop", "tone poem", "Epitaph (Charles Mingus composition)", "Hong Kong", "Holiness Pentecostal", "Grammy Awards", "avant-garde jazz", "Andy Summers", "Music Division, Library of Congress", "Russell Jacquet", "The Library of Congress", "Money Jungle", "The Clown (album)", "Guggenheim Fellowship", "Blues & Roots", "Elvis Costello", "University at Buffalo", "Bloomsbury Publishing USA", "Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus", "Cumbia & Jazz Fusion", "Johnny Coles", "Charles Mingus: Triumph of the Underdog", "Red Callender", "composer", "Columbia Records", "Dr. John", "Watts, Los Angeles", "Hal Leonard", "All Night Long (1961 film)", "Jackie McLean", "Ashon Crawley", "Abacus Books", "Jazz Standard (jazz club)", "Jaki Byard", "Mingus Plays Piano", "New York Public Library", "Wayne Shorter", "The Complete Town Hall Concert", "Bert Jansch", "John Renbourn", "Red Norvo", "jazz", "His Final Work", "motor neuron disease", "Asheville Citizen-Times", "Jazz at Massey Hall", "Mexico", "The New York Review of Books", "Great Jones Street", "University of California Press", "Reincarnation of a Lovebird", "The Town Hall (New York City)", "Anita Wardell", "shotgun", "Jazz at Lincoln Center", "John Handy", "Mingus Three", "rhythm section", "Los Angeles", "Pre-Bird", "Pepper Adams Plays the Compositions of Charlie Mingus", "Nat Hentoff", "clinical depression", "Reg E. Cathey", "free jazz", "Charlie Watts", "third stream", "Great Smoky Mountains National Park", "Fables of Faubus", "National Recording Registry", "Teddy Edwards", "U.S. Army", "John Coltrane", "New York Philharmonic", "Max Roach", "Louis Armstrong", "Juan Tizol", "Changes Two", "Bud Powell", "orchestral jazz", "The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady", "Studio 360", "Clifford Jordan", "New York Times", "Tijuana Moods", "Charles Mingus in Paris: The Complete America Session", "Vernon Reid", "Mingus Ah Um", "pianist", "Mingus Dynasty (band)", "Pithecanthropus Erectus (album)", "Oxford University Press", "Jean Shepherd", "gospel music", "Miles Davis", "George Adams (musician)", "heckler", "Gunther Schuller", "Fordham University Press", "Giant Steps", "bebop", "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat", "Duke Ellington", "Dannie Richmond", "Double bass", "Universal Music Group", "Changes One (Mingus)", "Quintorigo", "Sonny Rollins", "progressive big band", "Five Spot", "Massey Hall", "Let My Children Hear Music", "J. R. Monterose", "Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)", "List of Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients J–P", "Rutgers University", "Google Books", "Sue Mingus", "Atlantic Records", "Nesuhi Ertegun", "Third Stream", "Debut Records", "Chico Hamilton", "Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus", "post-bop", "author", "free improvisation", "Nogales, Arizona", "DownBeat", "Walt Disney Concert Hall", "bandleader", "Cumbia", "Oh Yeah (Charles Mingus album)", "Three or Four Shades of Blues", "John Cassavetes", "The Shape of Jazz to Come", "Time Out (album)", "Wild Bill Davis", "Dizzy Gillespie", "Ganges River", "Lincoln Center", "bar (music)", "documentary film", "Will Friedwald", "United States Postal Service", "Wendell Marshall", "Five Spot Café", "DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame", "Eric Dolphy", "Gadfly Online", "Beneath the Underdog", "Knopf", "Library of Congress", "Ford Foundation", "The Village Voice", "The Jazz Experiments of Charlie Mingus", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award", "Slavery in the United States", "Tal Farlow", "blues", "Java Man", "Jazz Composers Workshop", "Cuernavaca", "Charles Mingus with Orchestra", "Shadows (1959 film)", "Mercury Records", "Kind of Blue", "Keith Richards", "United Artists Records", "H. Leonard Pub. Corp", "jazz ensemble", "Dave Brubeck", "Don Pullen", "Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968", "Davey Graham", "Bobby Durham (jazz musician)", "pimp", "Jaco Pastorius", "Mingus Dynasty", "embouchure", ".410 bore", "Jackie Paris", "Lionel Hampton", "Newport Rebels", "Limelight Editions", "Horace Parlan", "classical music", "Charlie Parker", "Ray Davies", "Alice Tully Hall", "Maurice James Simon", "Henry Rollins", "National Endowment for the Arts", "Fess Williams", "Tonight at Noon (album)", "Barney Bigard", "Orval Faubus", "All Music Guide to Jazz", "Chuck D", "Herbie Hancock", "Howard McGhee", "Pepper Adams", "Jazz", "Eugene Chadbourne", "University of New York Buffalo", "Alan Goldsher", "Lester Young", "Mal Waldron", "Isaac Stern", "USPS", "NPR", "Booker Ervin", "Ted Curson", "The Nation", "Allen Ginsberg", "Charles McPherson (musician)", "Mingus (Charles Mingus album)", "Bubber Miley", "Hominidae", "The New York Times", "Jeff Beck", "Hal Willner", "Buddy Collette", "Mingus Big Band", "Musical improvisation", "Mingus (Joni Mitchell album)", "Joni Mitchell", "Candid Records", "Impulse! Records", "Pentangle (band)", "Kevin Mahogany", "The Kennedy Center", "Paul Motian", "Jack Walrath", "East Coasting", "A Modern Jazz Symposium of Music and Poetry", "Mingus Moves", "Ernst Heinrich Roth" ]
7,669	Centimetre	A centimetre or centimeter (US/Philippine spelling), with SI symbol cm, is a unit of length in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one hundredth of a metre, centi being the SI prefix for a factor of . Equivalently, there are 100 centimetres in 1 metre. The centimetre was the base unit of length in the now deprecated centimetre–gram–second (CGS) system of units. Though for many physical quantities, SI prefixes for factors of 103—like milli- and kilo-—are often preferred by technicians, the centimetre remains a practical unit of length for many everyday measurements; for instance, human height is commonly measured in centimetres. A centimetre is approximately the width of the fingernail of an average adult person. ==Equivalence to other units of length== One millilitre is defined as one cubic centimetre, under the SI system of units. ==Other uses== In addition to its use in the measurement of length, the centimetre is used: sometimes, to report the level of rainfall as measured by a rain gauge in the CGS system, the centimetre is used to measure capacitance, where 1 cm of capacitance = farads in maps, centimetres are used to make conversions from map scale to real world scale (kilometres) to represent second moment of areas (cm4) as the inverse of the Kayser, a CGS unit, and thus a non-SI metric unit of wavenumber: 1 kayser = 1 wave per centimetre; or, more generally, (wavenumber in kaysers) = 1/(wavelength in centimetres). The SI unit of wavenumber is the inverse metre, m−1. ==Unicode symbols== For the purposes of compatibility with Chinese, Japanese and Korean (CJK) characters, Unicode has symbols for: centimetre – square centimetre – cubic centimetre – These characters are each equal in size to one Chinese character and are typically used only with East Asian, fixed-width CJK fonts.	[ "ruler", "rain gauge", "American and British English spelling differences", "farad", "wavenumber", "Unicode", "Korea", "Reciprocal length", "CJK", "capacitance", "Chinese language", "millimetres", "inch", "Japanese language", "human height", "wavelength", "United States customary units", "microwave", "Macmillan Publishers", "Centimetre–gram–second system of units", "SI", "International System of Units", "Imperial unit", "Centers for Disease Control", "Centimetre gram second system of units", "deprecated", "length", "millimetre", "SI prefix", "Units of measurement", "metre", "litre", "Orders of magnitude (length)", "kayser (unit)", "Conversion of units" ]
7,670	Central Coast	Central Coast may refer to: ==Australia== Central Coast (New South Wales), an official region of New South Wales, Australia Central Coast Council (New South Wales), a local government area in New South Wales Central Coast Mariners, the professional football A-league club based in the region Central Coast United FC, an amateur football club based in the region Central Coast Stadium, Gosford Central Coast Storm, a rugby league club based in the region Central Coast Waves, a rugby union team playing in the Shute Shield Central Coast Council (Tasmania), a local government area in Tasmania ==Canada== Central Coast Regional District, in British Columbia, Canada ==United States== Central Coast (California), in California, United States Central Coast AVA, a large American viticultural area	[ "Central Coast (California)", "Central Coast AVA", "Central Coast (New South Wales)", "Central Coast Mariners", "Central Coast Council (Tasmania)", "Central Coast Regional District", "Central Coast Stadium", "Central Coast Waves", "Central Coast United FC", "Central Coast Storm", "Central Coast Council (New South Wales)" ]
7,671	Committee on Data of the International Science Council	The Committee on Data of the International Science Council (CODATA) was established in 1966 as the Committee on Data for Science and Technology, originally part of the International Council of Scientific Unions, now part of the International Science Council (ISC). Since November 2023 its president is the Catalan researcher Mercè Crosas. CODATA exists to promote global collaboration to advance open science and to improve the availability and usability of data for all areas of research. CODATA supports the principle that data produced by research and susceptible to being used for research should be as open as possible and as closed as necessary. CODATA works also to advance the interoperability and the usability of such data; research data should be FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable). By promoting the policy, technological, and cultural changes that are essential to promote open science, CODATA helps advance ISC's vision and mission of advancing science as a global public good. The CODATA Strategic Plan 2015 and Prospectus of Strategy and Achievement 2016 identify three priority areas: promoting principles, policies and practices for open data and open science; advancing the frontiers of data science; building capacity for open science by improving data skills and the functions of national science systems needed to support open data. CODATA achieves these objectives through a number of standing committees and strategic executive led initiatives, and through its task groups and working groups. CODATA also works closely with member unions and associations of ISC to promote the efforts on open data and open science. == Publications and conferences == CODATA supports the Data Science Journal and collaborates on major data conferences like SciDataCon and International Data Week. In October 2020 CODATA is co-organising an International FAIR Symposium together with the GO FAIR initiative to provide a forum for advancing international and cross-domain convergence around FAIR. The event will bring together a global data community with an interest in combining data across domains for a host of research issues – including major global challenges, such as those relating to the Sustainable Development Goals. Outcomes will directly link to the CODATA Decadal Programme Data for the Planet: making data work for cross-domain grand challenges and to the developments of GO FAIR community towards the Internet of FAIR data and services. == Task Group on Fundamental Physical Constants == One of the CODATA strategic Initiatives and Task Groups concentrates on Fundamental Physical Constants. Established in 1969, its purpose is to periodically provide the international scientific and technological communities with an internationally accepted set of values of the fundamental physical constants and closely related conversion factors for use worldwide. The first such CODATA set was published in 1973. It incorporates all data up to 1 July 2017, and determines the final numerical values of h, e, k, and NA that are used for the new SI definitions. The regular version with a closing date of 31 December 2018 was used to produce the new 2018 CODATA values that were made available by the time the revised SI came into force on 20 May 2019. This was necessary because the redefinitions have a significant (mostly beneficial) effect on the uncertainties and correlation coefficients reported by CODATA.	[ "Boltzmann constant", "2019 revision of the SI", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Reviews of Modern Physics", "Mercè Crosas", "Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards", "Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data", "data", "Metrologia", "physical constant", "Nature (journal)", "BIPM", "International non-governmental organization", "Particle Data Group", "General Conference on Weights and Measures", "Avogadro constant", "conversion factor", "Elementary charge", "Hemisphere Publishing Corporation", "Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights", "International Science Council", "open data", "research", "FAIR data", "Planck constant", "Paris", "data science", "International Council of Scientific Unions", "open science", "NIST", "International Bureau of Weights and Measures", "Sustainable Development Goals" ]
7,672	Chuck Jones	Charles Martin Jones (September 21, 1912 – February 22, 2002) was an American animator, painter, voice actor and filmmaker, best known for his work with Warner Bros. Cartoons on the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of shorts. He wrote, produced, and/or directed many classic animated cartoon shorts starring Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, Pepé Le Pew, Marvin the Martian, and Porky Pig, among others. Jones started his career in 1933 alongside Tex Avery, Friz Freleng, Bob Clampett, and Robert McKimson at the Leon Schlesinger Production's Termite Terrace studio, the studio that made Warner Brothers cartoons, where they created and developed the Looney Tunes characters. During the Second World War, Jones directed many of the Private Snafu (1943–1946) shorts which were shown to members of the United States military. After his career at Warner Bros. ended in 1962, Jones started Sib Tower 12 Productions and began producing cartoons for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, including a new series of Tom and Jerry shorts (1963–1967) as well as the television adaptations of Dr. Seuss's How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1966) and Horton Hears a Who! (1970). He later started his own studio, Chuck Jones Enterprises, where he directed and produced the film adaptation of Norton Juster's The Phantom Tollbooth (1970). Jones's work along with the other animators was showcased in the documentary Bugs Bunny: Superstar (1975). Jones directed the first feature-length animated Looney Tunes compilation film, The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie (1979). In 1990 he wrote his memoir, Chuck Amuck: The Life and Times of an Animated Cartoonist, which was made into a documentary film, Chuck Amuck (1991). He was also profiled in the American Masters documentary Chuck Jones: Extremes & Inbetweens – A Life in Animation (2000) which aired on PBS. Two Warner Brothers cartoons that Jones directed, For Scent-imental Reasons and So Much for So Little, won Academy Awards for Best Animated Short Film, though at this time it was customary for the statuette to be given to a cartoon's producer, not the director. Jones did not receive a Best Animated Short Film Oscar of his own until winning for the The Dot and the Line in 1966. Robin Williams later presented Jones with an Honorary Academy Award in 1996 for his work in the animation industry. Film historian Leonard Maltin has praised Jones's work at Warner Bros., MGM and Chuck Jones Enterprises. In Jerry Beck's 1994 book The 50 Greatest Cartoons, a group of animation professionals ranked What's Opera, Doc? (1957) as the greatest cartoon of all time, with ten of the entries being directed by Jones including Duck Amuck (1953), Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century (1953), One Froggy Evening (1955), Rabbit of Seville (1950), and Rabbit Seasoning (1952). == Early life == Charles Martin Jones was born on September 21, 1912, in Spokane, Washington, to Mabel McQuiddy (née Martin) (1882–1971) and Charles Adams Jones (1883–?). When he was six months old, he moved with his parents and three siblings to Los Angeles, California. During his artistic education, he worked part-time as a janitor. After graduating from Chouinard Art Institute, Jones got a phone call from a friend named Fred Kopietz, who had been hired by the Ub Iwerks studio and offered him a job. He worked his way up in the animation industry, starting as a cel washer; "then I moved up to become a painter in black and white, some color. Then I went on to take animator's drawings and traced them onto the celluloid. Then I became what they call an in-betweener, which is the guy that does the drawing between the drawings the animator makes". While at Iwerks, he met a cel painter named Dorothy Webster, who later became his first wife. == Career == === Warner Bros. Cartoons === Jones joined Leon Schlesinger Productions, the independent studio that produced Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies for Warner Bros., in 1933 as an assistant animator. In 1935 he was promoted to animator and assigned to work with a new Schlesinger director, Tex Avery. There was no room for the new Avery unit in Schlesinger's small studio, so Avery, Jones, and fellow animators Bob Clampett, Virgil Ross, and Sid Sutherland were moved into a small adjacent building they dubbed "Termite Terrace". In 1937, Jones' old boss Ub Iwerks was subcontracted to produce several Looney Tunes shorts for Schleshinger, with Clampett and Jones brought in to assist him. Iwerks completed only two shorts before he left, with Clampett taking his position soon after. Jones worked alongside Clampett as an animator and an uncredited co-director (or "supervisor", the original title for an animation director in the studio) before becoming a main director himself in 1938 when Frank Tashlin left the studio, a position that was initially offered to animator Robert McKimson. The following year, Jones created his first major character, Sniffles, a cute Disney-style mouse, who went on to star in twelve Warner Bros. cartoons. Jones initially struggled in with his directorial style in his formative years. Unlike the other directors in the studio, Jones wanted to make cartoons that would rival the quality and tone to that of ones made by Walt Disney Productions. However, his cartoons suffered from sluggish pacing and confusing gags, with Jones himself later describing his early conception of timing and dialog to have been "formed by watching the action in the La Brea Tar Pits". Schlesinger and the studio heads were unsatisfied with his Disney-esque style and demanded him make cartoons that were more funny. Jones began to change of directorial style starting with the 1942 short The Draft Horse, but the cartoon that was generally considered his true turning point was The Dover Boys later that year. The short became highly-regarded in recent years for its quick-timed gags and extensive use of limited animation. Despite this, Schlesinger and the studios heads were still dissatisfied and begun the process to fire him, but they were unable to find a replacement due to a labor shortage stemming from World War II, so Jones kept his position. He was actively involved in efforts to unionize the staff of Leon Schlesinger Studios. He was responsible for recruiting animators, layout men, and background people. Almost all animators joined, in reaction to salary cuts imposed by Leon Schlesinger. The Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio had already signed a union contract, encouraging their counterparts under Schlesinger. In a meeting with his staff, Schlesinger talked for a few minutes, then turned over the meeting to his attorney. His insulting manner had a unifying effect on the staff. Jones gave a pep talk at the union headquarters. As negotiations broke down, the staff decided to go on strike. Schlesinger locked them out of the studio for a few days, before agreeing to sign the contract. Jones created characters through the late 1930s, late 1940s, and the 1950s, which include his collaborative help in co-developing Bugs Bunny and also included creating Claude Cat, Marc Antony and Pussyfoot, Charlie Dog, Michigan J. Frog, Gossamer, and his four most popular creations, Marvin the Martian, Pepé Le Pew, Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner. Jones and writer Michael Maltese collaborated on the Road Runner cartoons, Duck Amuck, One Froggy Evening, and What's Opera, Doc?. Other staff at Unit A whom Jones collaborated with include layout artist, background designer, and co-director Maurice Noble; animator and co-director Abe Levitow; and animators Ken Harris and Ben Washam. Jones remained at Warner Bros. throughout the 1950s, except for a brief period in 1953 when Warner closed the animation studio. During this interim, Jones found employment at Walt Disney Productions, where he teamed with Ward Kimball for a four-month period. According to Kimball, Jones expected to work at Disney at a higher salary rate then at Warner Bros., but was instead employed at the same salary despite numerous negotiations with Walt Disney. Furthermore, Jones was not given any directorial assignments but was instead assigned to assists Kimball on the film Sleeping Beauty (1959), which at the time was going through production delays. Upon Warner Bros. Cartoons reopening, Jones was rehired and reunited with most of his unit. Despite the unsatisfying tenure, Jones still holds the Disney studio to high regard, but later joked that the only job he wanted from Disney's was the position held by Walt. Jones's former animation unit was laid off after completing the final cartoon in their pipeline, The Iceman Ducketh, and the rest of the Warner Bros. Cartoons studio was closed in early 1963. Jones continued to work on other TV specials such as Horton Hears a Who! (1970), but his main focus during this time was producing the feature film The Phantom Tollbooth, which did lukewarm business when MGM released it in 1970. Jones co-directed 1969's The Pogo Special Birthday Special, based on the Walt Kelly comic strip, and voiced the characters of Porky Pine and Bun Rab. It was at this point that he decided to start ST Incorporated. === Return to Warner Bros. === Jones resumed working with Warner Bros. in 1976 with the animated TV adaptation of The Carnival of the Animals with Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck. Jones also produced The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie (1979), which was a compilation of Jones's best theatrical shorts, new Road Runner shorts for The Electric Company series and Bugs Bunny's Looney Christmas Tales (1979). New shorts were made for Bugs Bunny's Bustin' Out All Over (1980). In 1978, Jones's wife Dorothy died. He married Marian Dern, the writer of the comic strip Rick O'Shay in 1981. shortly after the release of Bugs Bunny: Superstar, which prominently featured Bob Clampett, Jones wrote a letter to Tex Avery, accusing Clampett of taking credit for ideas that were not his, and for characters created by other directors (notably Jones's Sniffles and Friz Freleng's Yosemite Sam). Their correspondence was never published in the media. It was forwarded to Michael Barrier, who conducted the interview with Clampett and was distributed by Jones to multiple people concerned with animation over the years. == Later years == Through the 1980s and 1990s, Jones was painting cartoon and parody art, sold through animation galleries by his daughter's company, Linda Jones Enterprises. Jones was the creative consultant and character designer for two Raggedy Ann animated specials and the first Alvin and the Chipmunks Christmas special A Chipmunk Christmas. He made a cameo appearance in the film Gremlins (1984) and he wrote and directed the Bugs Bunny/Daffy Duck animated sequences that bookend its sequel Gremlins 2: The New Batch (1990). Jones directed animated sequences for various features such as a lengthy sequence in the film Stay Tuned (1992) and a shorter one seen at the start of the Robin Williams vehicle Mrs. Doubtfire (1993). Also during the 1980s and 1990s, Jones served on the advisory board of the National Student Film Institute. Jones's final Looney Tunes cartoon was From Hare to Eternity (1997), which starred Bugs Bunny and Yosemite Sam, with Greg Burson voicing Bugs. The cartoon was dedicated to Friz Freleng, who had died in 1995. Jones's final animation project was a series of 13 shorts starring a timber wolf character he had designed in the 1960s named Thomas Timber Wolf. The series was released online by Warner Bros. in 2000. From 2001 until 2004, Cartoon Network aired The Chuck Jones Show which features shorts directed by him. The show won the Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Special Project. In 1997, Jones was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal. In 1999, he founded the non-profit Chuck Jones Center for Creativity, in Costa Mesa, California, an art education "gymnasium for the brain" dedicated to teaching creative skills, primarily to children and seniors, which is still in operation. In his later years, he recovered from skin cancer and received hip and ankle replacements. === Death === Jones died of congestive heart failure on February 22, 2002, at his home in Corona del Mar, Newport Beach at the age of 89. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea. was released in 2004 as part of disc three of the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 2 DVD set. == Legacy == === Academy Awards === Jones received an Honorary Academy Award in 1996 by the board of governors of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, for "the creation of classic cartoons and cartoon characters whose animated lives have brought joy to our real ones for more than half a century." At that year's awards show, Robin Williams, a self-confessed "Jones-aholic", presented the honorary award to Jones, calling him "The Orson Welles of cartoons", and the audience gave Jones a standing ovation as he walked onto the stage. For himself, a flattered Jones wryly remarked in his acceptance speech, "Well, what can I say in the face of such humiliating evidence? I stand guilty before the world of directing over three hundred cartoons in the last fifty or sixty years. Hopefully, this means you've forgiven me." He received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the World Festival of Animated Film – Animafest Zagreb in 1988. === Honors === Jones was a historical authority as well as a major contributor to the development of animation throughout the 20th century. In 1990, Jones received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. He received an honorary degree from Oglethorpe University in 1993. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Jones has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7011 Hollywood Blvd. He was awarded the Inkpot Award in 1974. In 1996, Jones received an Honorary Oscar at the 68th Academy Awards. Three short films directed by Jones have been inducted into the National Film Registry by the United States Film Preservation Board: What's Opera, Doc?, inducted in 1992; Duck Amuck, inducted in 1999; and One Froggy Evening, inducted in 2003. === Art exhibit === Jones's life and legacy were celebrated on January 12, 2012, with the official grand opening of The Chuck Jones Experience at Circus Circus Las Vegas. Many of Jones's family welcomed celebrities, animation aficionados and visitors to the new attraction when they opened the attraction in an appropriate and unconventional way. Among those in attendance were Jones's widow, Marian Jones; daughter Linda Clough; and grandchildren Craig, Todd and Valerie Kausen. == Publications == Jones, Chuck (1996). Chuck Reducks: Drawing from the Fun Side of Life. New York: Warner Books. .	[ "Warner Brothers", "Ub Iwerks", "Marvin the Martian", "So Much for So Little", "Cartoon Network", "IDW Publishing", "From Hare to Eternity", "Charlie Dog", "MGM Animation/Visual Arts", "Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 2", "Chouinard Art Institute", "Chuck Jones Productions", "UPA Animation", "Porky Pig", "Tex Avery", "Curiosity Shop", "Beep Prepared", "Leon Schlesinger", "Tribune Media Services", "National Film Registry", "Marc Antony and Pussyfoot", "Best Animated Short Film", "Yosemite Sam", "Mowgli's Brothers (TV special)", "The Iceman Ducketh", "The Draft Horse", "Michael Maltese", "Corona del Mar, Newport Beach", "The Phantom Tollbooth (film)", "How the Grinch Stole Christmas!", "Chuck Jones: Extremes & Inbetweens – A Life in Animation", "limited animation", "Hollywood Boulevard", "Oglethorpe University", "Warner Bros.", "Los Angeles Times", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Orson Welles", "Raggedy Ann", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Red Buttons", "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi", "Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)", "The White Seal", "Friz Freleng", "Merrie Melodies", "Rabbit of Seville", "Hartford Courant", "What's Opera, Doc?", "Gremlins 2: The New Batch", "Bugs and Daffy's Carnival of the Animals", "The Electric Company", "American Masters", "June Foray", "Bob Clampett", "Spokane, Washington", "standing ovation", "The Daily Telegraph", "The 50 Greatest Cartoons", "Tom and Jerry", "Sidney Sutherland", "One Froggy Evening", "Michael Barrier (historian)", "American Academy of Achievement", "Ben Washam", "Film Preservation Board", "The Dover Boys at Pimento University or The Rivals of Roquefort Hall", "Stay Tuned (film)", "Roger Ebert", "Heart failure", "Greg Burson", "High Note (film)", "The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie", "Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner", "Mouse Wreckers", "Ken Harris", "Claude Cat", "National Student Film Institute", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer", "Termite Terrace", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio", "Chuck Jones filmography", "University Press of Mississippi", "Annie Award", "American Broadcasting Company", "Michigan J. Frog", "Gay Purr-ee", "Jerry Beck", "Inkpot Award", "Warner Bros. Animation", "animator", "Maurice Noble", "Robert Goulet", "Mammy Two-Shoes", "From A to Z-Z-Z-Z", "Tom and Jerry: The Chuck Jones Collection", "Sniffles (Merrie Melodies)", "For Scent-imental Reasons", "Now Hear This (film)", "Bugs Bunny: Superstar", "Rudyard Kipling", "George Selden (author)", "Virgil Ross", "Hell-Bent for Election", "IGN", "YouTube", "La Brea Tar Pits", "Gossamer (Looney Tunes)", "Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Film", "Looney Tunes", "Library of Congress", "Frank Tashlin", "The Cricket in Times Square", "The Dot and the Line", "Walt Disney Animation Studios", "Ub Iwerks Studio", "Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century", "Walt Kelly", "United States military", "The Library of American Comics", "Cremation", "The Bear That Wasn't", "The Pogo Special Birthday Special", "Mrs. Doubtfire", "Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film", "Judy Garland", "World War II", "Alvin and the Chipmunks", "Dr. Seuss", "Daffy Duck", "Gremlins", "Newport Beach, California", "How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (TV special)", "Mubi (streaming service)", "animated cartoon", "Frank Capra", "Pepé Le Pew", "Robert McKimson", "Rabbit Seasoning", "Los Angeles, California", "Robin Williams", "Second World War", "Ward Kimball", "Rick O'Shay", "The Washington Post", "Horton Hears a Who! (TV special)", "Leonard Maltin", "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences", "Edward MacDowell Medal", "Walt Disney", "Nelly's Folly", "PBS", "A Chipmunk Christmas", "Warner Bros. Cartoons", "Norton Juster", "Daffy Duck for President", "Animafest Zagreb", "Chuck Amuck: The Movie", "Bugs Bunny", "IMDb", "Screen Gems", "Abe Levitow", "Honorary Academy Award", "United Productions of America", "The Weakly Reporter", "Private Snafu", "Walter Lantz Productions", "The Jungle Book", "Boris Karloff", "Duck Amuck", "Circus Circus Las Vegas" ]
7,673	Costume	Costume is the distinctive style of dress and/or makeup of an individual or group that reflects class, gender, occupation, ethnicity, nationality, activity or epoch—in short, culture. The term also was traditionally used to describe typical appropriate clothing for certain activities, such as riding costume, swimming costume, dance costume, and evening costume. Appropriate and acceptable costume is subject to changes in fashion and local cultural norms. This general usage has gradually been replaced by the terms "dress", "attire", "robes" or "wear" and usage of "costume" has become more limited to unusual or out-of-date clothing and to attire intended to evoke a change in identity, such as theatrical, Halloween, and mascot costumes. Before the advent of ready-to-wear apparel, clothing was made by hand. When made for commercial sale it was made, as late as the beginning of the 20th century, by "costumiers", often women who ran businesses that met the demand for complicated or intimate female costume, including millinery and corsetry. == Etymology == Derived from the Italian language and passed down through French, the term "costume" shares its origins with the word signifying fashion or custom. Variedly, the term "costume," indicating clothing exclusively from the eighteenth century onward, can be traced back to the Latin consuetudo, meaning "custom" or "usage." == National costume == National costume or regional costume expresses local (or exiled) identity and emphasizes a culture's unique attributes. They are often a source of national pride. Examples include the Scottish kilt, Turkish Zeybek, or Japanese kimono. In Bhutan there is a traditional national dress prescribed for men and women, including the monarchy. These have been in vogue for thousands of years and have developed into a distinctive dress style. The dress worn by men is known as Gho which is a robe worn up to knee-length and is fastened at the waist by a band called the Kera. The front part of the dress which is formed like a pouch, in olden days was used to hold baskets of food and short dagger, but now it is used to keep cell phone, purse and the betel nut called Doma. The dress worn by women consist of three pieces known as Kira, Tego and Wonju. The long dress which extends up to the ankle is Kira. The jacket worn above this is Tego which is provided with Wonju, the inner jacket. However, while visiting the Dzong or monastery a long scarf or stoll, called Kabney is worn by men across the shoulder, in colours appropriate to their ranks. Women also wear scarfs or stolls called Rachus, made of raw silk with embroidery, over their shoulder but not indicative of their rank. == Theatrical costume == Costume often refers to a particular style of clothing worn to portray the wearer as a character or type of character at a social event in a theatrical performance on the stage or in film or television. In combination with other aspects of stagecraft, theatrical costumes can help actors portray characters' and their contexts as well as communicate information about the historical period/era, geographic location and time of day, season or weather of the theatrical performance. Some stylized theatrical costumes, such as Harlequin and Pantaloon in the Commedia dell'arte, exaggerate an aspect of a character. == Costume construction == A costume technician is a term used for a person that constructs and/or alters the costumes. The costume technician is responsible for taking the two dimensional sketch and translating it to create a garment that resembles the designer's rendering. It is important for a technician to keep the ideas of the designer in mind when building the garment. === Draping and cutting === Draping is the art of manipulating fabric directly on a dress form or body form as the first step to create a pattern. A body form can be padded to a person's specific measurements. Flat drafting is the art of drawing patterns onto paper based on measurements to create a pattern. Cutting is the act of tracing a pattern onto fabric and cutting out the pieces. These pieces are put together to create a final costume. In costuming, the person who creates a pattern is called a cutter/draper, and in fashion this person is more commonly called a pattern drafter, though both techniques may be used in both fields. Draping is especially useful with stretchy fabrics or bias cut garments as the maker can see how it will be effected by body curves and the pull of gravity. == Jobs == Costume designer: Designs and creates a concept for the costumes for the play or performance. Costume technician: Constructs and patterns the costumes for the play or performance. Milliner: Also known as a hatmaker, responsible for the manufacturing of hats and headwear. == Religious festivals == Wearing costumes is an important part of holidays developed from religious festivals such as Mardi Gras (in the lead up to Easter), and Halloween (related to All Hallow's Eve). Mardi Gras costumes usually take the form of jesters and other fantasy characters; Halloween costumes traditionally take the form of supernatural creatures such as ghosts, vampires, pop-culture icons and angels. Halloween costumes developed from pre-Christian religious traditions: to avoid being terrorized by evil spirits walking the Earth during the harvest festival Samhain, the Celts donned disguises. In the eighth century, Pope Gregory VIII designated November 1 as All Saints Day, and the preceding days as All Hallows Eve; Samhain's costuming tradition was incorporated into these Christian holidays. However, in the modern era, Halloween "is widely celebrated in almost every corner of American life," and the wearing of costumes forms part of a secular tradition. Christmas costumes typically portray characters such as Santa Claus (developed from Saint Nicholas). In Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States the American version of a Santa suit and beard is popular; in the Netherlands, the costume of Zwarte Piet is customary. Easter costumes are associated with the Easter Bunny or other animal costumes. In Judaism, a common practice is to dress up on Purim. During this holiday, Jews celebrate the change of their destiny. They were delivered from being the victims of an evil decree against them and were instead allowed by the King to destroy their enemies. A quote from the Book of Esther, which says: "On the contrary" () is the reason that wearing a costume has become customary for this holiday. Buddhist religious festivals in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia and Lhasa and Sikkim in India perform the Cham dance, which is a popular dance form utilising masks and costumes. == Parades and processions == Parades and processions provide opportunities for people to dress up in historical or imaginative costumes. For example, in 1879 the artist Hans Makart designed costumes and scenery to celebrate the wedding anniversary of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor and Empress and led the people of Vienna in a costume parade that became a regular event until the mid-twentieth century. Uncle Sam costumes are worn on Independence Day in the United States. The Lion Dance, which is part of Chinese New Year celebrations, is performed in costume. Some costumes, such as the ones used in the Dragon Dance, need teams of people to create the required effect. == Sporting events and parties == Public sporting events such as fun runs also provide opportunities for wearing costumes, as do private masquerade balls and fancy dress parties. === Mascots === Costumes are popularly employed at sporting events, during which fans dress as their team's representative mascot to show their support. Businesses use mascot costumes to bring in people to their business either by placing their mascot in the street by their business or sending their mascot out to sporting events, festivals, national celebrations, fairs, and parades. Mascots appear at organizations wanting to raise awareness of their work. Children's Book authors create mascots from the main character to present at their book signings. Animal costumes that are visually very similar to mascot costumes are also popular among the members of the furry fandom, where the costumes are referred to as fursuits and match one's animal persona, or "fursona". === Children === Costumes also serve as an avenue for children to explore and role-play. For example, children may dress up as characters from history or fiction, such as pirates, princesses, cowboys, or superheroes. They may also dress in uniforms used in common jobs, such as nurses, police officers, or firefighters, or as zoo or farm animals. Young boys tend to prefer costumes that reinforce stereotypical ideas of being male, and young girls tend to prefer costumes that reinforce stereotypical ideas of being female. === Cosplay === Cosplay, a word of Japanese origin that in English is short for "costume display" or "costume play", is a performance art in which participants wear costumes and accessories to represent a specific character or idea that is usually always identified with a unique name (as opposed to a generic word). These costume wearers often interact to create a subculture centered on role play, so they can be seen most often in play groups, or at a gathering or convention. A significant number of these costumes are homemade and unique, and depend on the character, idea, or object the costume wearer is attempting to imitate or represent. The costumes themselves are often artistically judged to how well they represent the subject or object that the costume wearer is attempting to contrive. == Design == Costume design is the envisioning of clothing and the overall appearance of a character or performer. Costume may refer to the style of dress particular to a nation, a class, or a period. In many cases, it may contribute to the fullness of the artistic, visual world that is unique to a particular theatrical or cinematic production. The most basic designs are produced to denote status, provide protection or modesty, or provide visual interest to a character. Costumes may be for, but not limited to, theater, cinema, or musical performances. Costume design should not be confused with costume coordination, which merely involves altering existing clothing, although both processes are used to create stage clothes. === Organizations === The Costume Designers Guild's international membership includes motion picture, television, and commercial costume designers, assistant costume designers and costume illustrators, and totals over 750 members. The National Costumers Association is an 80 year old association of professional costumers and costume shops. === Publications === The Costume Designer is a quarterly magazine devoted to the costume design industry. === Notable designers and awards === Notable costume designers include recipients of the Academy Award for Best Costume Design, Tony Award for Best Costume Design, and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Costume Design. Edith Head and Orry-Kelly, both of whom were born late in 1897, were two of Hollywood's most notable costume designers. == Industry == Professional-grade costumes are typically designed and produced by costume companies who can design and create unique costumes. These companies have often been in business for over 100 years, and continue to work with individual clients to create professional quality costumes. Professional costume houses rent and sell costumes for the trade. This includes companies that create mascots, costumes for film, TV costumes and theatrical costumes. Larger costume companies have warehouses full of costumes for rental to customers. There is an industry where costumers work with clients and design costumes from scratch. They then will create original costumes specifically to the clients specifications.	[ "kimono", "Samhain", "French language", "Trousers", "List of costume designers", "uniform", "beard", "Kira (Bhutan)", "mascot", "Academy Award for Best Costume Design", "fursuit", "Character (arts)", "Costume design", "jester", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Costume Design", "costume designer", "Lhasa (prefecture-level city)", "culture", "Gho", "Kyoto", "holidays", "costumed character", "Italian language", "Sikkim", "Identity (social science)", "Costume jewelry", "Dragon dance", "cosmetics", "Mardi Gras", "fursona", "Easter Bunny", "Easter", "Tibet", "hatmaking", "Zeybek (dance)", "Commedia dell'arte", "Uniform", "Dress code", "Riding habit", "Kera (clothing)", "furry fandom", "Stagecraft", "Harlequin", "supernatural", "fashion", "Cham dance", "Pope Gregory VIII", "Saint Nicholas", "princesses", "India", "Dzong", "Orry-Kelly", "World Costume Festival", "Hans Makart", "Rachus", "Costume museum (disambiguation)", "Bhutan", "Artistic rendering", "masquerade ball", "Kabney", "Costumed character", "Independence Day (US)", "clothing", "Book of Esther", "Edith Head", "Toei Kyoto Studio Park", "Santa suit", "Costume drama", "angels", "festival", "Hatmaking", "All Hallow's Eve", "fancy dress party", "Costume Designers Guild", "kilt", "Purim", "Corsetmaker", "vampires", "performance", "dance costume", "Zwarte Piet", "evening gown", "Mascot", "Toego", "sketch (drawing)", "Santa Claus", "betel nut", "Halloween costume", "ghosts", "Illusion costume", "Judaism", "Scotland", "Tony Award for Best Costume Design", "Uncle Sam", "Trove", "Cosplay", "Best Costume Design (disambiguation)", "Swimsuit", "theatre", "exile", "National costume", "Wardrobe supervisor", "Lion dance", "Japan", "fun run", "Wonju (Bhutan)" ]
7,674	Cable car (railway)	A cable car (usually known as a cable tram outside North America) is a type of cable railway used for mass transit in which rail cars are hauled by a continuously moving cable running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required. Cable cars are distinct from funiculars, where the cars are permanently attached to the cable. == History == The first cable-operated railway to use a moving rope that could be picked up or released by a grip on the cars was the Fawdon Wagonway, a colliery railway line that opened in 1826. Another began operation in 1840: the London and Blackwall Railway, which hauled passengers in east London, England. The rope available at the time proved too susceptible to wear and the system was abandoned in favour of steam locomotives after eight years. In America, the first cable car installation in operation probably was the West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway, New York City's first-ever elevated railway, which ran from 1 July 1868 to 1870. The collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars proving cumbersome, and the line was closed and rebuilt to operate with steam locomotives. In 1869, P. G. T. Beauregard demonstrated a cable car at New Orleans and was issued . In 1873, the Clay Street Hill Railroad, which later became part of the San Francisco cable car system, was first tested. Promoted by Andrew Smith Hallidie with design work by William Eppelsheimer, the line's grips became the model for other cable car transit systems, whose cars were often known as the Hallidie Cable Car. In 1881, the first such system opened outside San Francisco: the Dunedin cable tramway system in Dunedin, New Zealand. For Dunedin, George Smith Duncan further developed the Hallidie model, introducing the pull curve and the slot brake; the former was a way to pull cars through a curve, since Dunedin's curves were too sharp to allow coasting, while the latter forced a wedge down into the cable slot to stop the car. Both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco. In Australia: the Melbourne cable tramway system operated from 1885 to 1940 and was one of the most extensive in the world with 1200 trams and trailers operating over 15 routes with 103 km (64 miles) of track; while Sydney had two cable tram routes - Milsons Point to North Sydney (1886-1905) and King Street Wharf to Edgecliff (1894-1905). Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace horsecar (or mule-drawn) systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Many people at the time viewed horse-drawn transit as unnecessarily cruel, and the fact that a typical horse could work only four or five hours per day necessitated the maintenance of large stables of draft animals that had to be fed, housed, groomed, medicated and rested. Thus, for a period, economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities. For example, the Chicago City Railway, also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in Chicago in 1882 and went on to become the largest and most profitable cable car system. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of incline, but of transportation capacity. This caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. Rather than using a grip car and single trailer, as many cities did, or combining the grip and trailer into a single car, like San Francisco's California Cars, Chicago used grip cars to pull trains of up to three trailers. In 1883 the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway was opened, which had a most curious feature: though it was a cable car system, it used steam locomotives to get the cars into and out of the terminals. After 1896 the system was changed to one on which a motor car was added to each train to maneuver at the terminals, while en route, the trains were still propelled by the cable. On 25 September 1883, a test of a cable car system was held by Liverpool Tramways Company in Kirkdale, Liverpool. This would have been the first cable car system in Europe, but the company decided against implementing it. Instead, the distinction went to the 1884 Highgate Hill Cable Tramway, a route from Archway to Highgate, north London, which used a continuous cable and grip system on the 1 in 11 (9%) climb of Highgate Hill. The installation was not reliable and was replaced by electric traction in 1909. Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the Glasgow District Subway, the first underground cable car system, in 1896. (London, England's first deep-level tube railway, the City & South London Railway, had earlier also been built for cable haulage but had been converted to electric traction before opening in 1890.) A few more cable car systems were built in the United Kingdom, Portugal, and France. European cities, having many more curves in their streets, were ultimately less suitable for cable cars than American cities. Though some new cable car systems were still being built, by 1890 the cheaper to construct and simpler to operate electrically-powered trolley or tram started to become the norm, and eventually started to replace existing cable car systems. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. Eventually, San Francisco became the only street-running manually operated system to surviveDunedin, the second city with such cars, was also the second-last city to operate them, closing down in 1957. ===Recent revival=== In the last decades of the 20th-century and the early 21st-century, cable traction in general has seen a limited revival as automatic people movers, used in resort areas, airports (for example, Terminal Link at Toronto Pearson International Airport opening in 2006 and Oakland Airport Connector at Oakland International Airport, San Francisco), huge hospital centers and some urban settings. While many of these systems involve cars permanently attached to the cable, the Minimetro system from Poma/Leitner Group and the Cable Liner system from DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car both have variants that allow the cars to be automatically decoupled from the cable under computer control, and can thus be considered a modern interpretation of the cable car. ==Operation== The cable is itself powered by a stationary engine or motor situated in a cable house or power house. The speed at which it moves is relatively constant depending on the number of units gripping the cable at any given time. The cable car begins moving when a clamping device attached to the car, called a grip, applies pressure to ("grip") the moving cable. Conversely, the car is stopped by releasing pressure on the cable (with or without completely detaching) and applying the brakes. This gripping and releasing action may be manual, as was the case in all early cable car systems, or automatic, as is the case in some recent cable operated people mover type systems. Gripping must be applied evenly and gradually in order to avoid bringing the car to cable speed too quickly and unacceptably jarring passengers. In the case of manual systems, the grip resembles a very large pair of pliers, and considerable strength and skill are required to operate the car. As many early cable car operators discovered the hard way, if the grip is not applied properly, it can damage the cable, or even worse, become entangled in the cable. In the latter case, the cable car may not be able to stop and can wreak havoc along its route until the cable house realizes the mishap and halts the cable. One apparent advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency. This is due to the economy of centrally located power stations, and the ability of descending cars to transfer energy to ascending cars. However, this advantage is totally negated by the relatively large energy consumption required to simply move the cable over and under the numerous guide rollers and around the many sheaves. Approximately 95% of the tractive effort in the San Francisco system is expended in simply moving the four cables at . Electric cars with regenerative braking do offer the advantages, without the problem of moving a cable. In the case of steep grades, however, cable traction has the major advantage of not depending on adhesion between wheels and rails. There is also the advantage that keeping the car gripped to the cable will also limit the downhill speed of the car to that of the cable. Because of the constant and relatively low speed, a cable car's potential to cause harm in an accident can be underestimated. Even with a cable car traveling at only , the mass of the cable car and the combined strength and speed of the cable can cause extensive damage in a collision. == Relation to funiculars == A cable car is superficially similar to a funicular, but differs from such a system in that its cars are not permanently attached to the cable and can stop independently, whereas a funicular has cars that are permanently attached to the propulsion cable, which is itself stopped and started. A cable car cannot climb as steep a grade as a funicular, but many more cars can be operated with a single cable, making it more flexible, and allowing a higher capacity. During the rush hour on San Francisco's Market Street Railway in 1883, a car would leave the terminal every 15 seconds. A few funicular railways operate in street traffic, and because of this operation are often incorrectly described as cable cars. Examples of such operation, and the consequent confusion, are: The Great Orme Tramway in Llandudno, Wales. Several street funiculars in Lisbon, Portugal. Even more confusingly, a hybrid cable car/funicular line once existed in the form of the original Wellington Cable Car, in the New Zealand city of Wellington. This line had both a continuous loop haulage cable that the cars gripped using a cable car gripper, and a balance cable permanently attached to both cars over an undriven pulley at the top of the line. The descending car gripped the haulage cable and was pulled downhill, in turn pulling the ascending car (which remained ungripped) uphill by the balance cable. This line was rebuilt in 1979 and is now a standard funicular, although it retains its old cable car name. == List of cable car systems == === Cities currently operating cable cars === ==== Traditional cable car systems ==== The only known existing traditional cable car system is the San Francisco cable car system in the city of San Francisco, California. San Francisco's cable cars constitute the oldest and largest such system in permanent operation, and it is one of the few still functioning in the traditional manner, with manually operated cars running in street traffic. Other examples of cable powered street running systems can be found on the Great Orme in North Wales, and in Lisbon in Portugal. Both of these, however, are funiculars. ==== Modern cable car systems ==== Several cities operate a modern version of the cable car system. These systems are fully automated and run on their own reserved right of way. They are commonly referred to as people movers, although that term is also applied to systems with other forms of propulsion, including funicular style cable propulsion. These cities include: Oakland, California, United States – The Oakland Airport Connector system between the BART rapid transit system and Oakland International Airport, based on Doppelmayr Cable Car's Cable Liner Pinched Loop Perugia, Italy – The Perugia People Mover, based on Leitner's MiniMetro Shanghai, China - The Bund Sightseeing Tunnel, based on Soulé's SK Caracas, Venezuela - The Cabletren Bolivariano, based on Doppelmayr Cable Car's Cable Liner Pinched Loop Zürich, Switzerland - The Skymetro connects the Zurich Airport's main Airside Center, Gates A, B and C with its mid-field Gates E, based on OTIS's Otis Hovair === Cities previously operating cable cars === ==== Australia ==== Melbourne (1885–1940). Main article: Melbourne cable tramway system Sydney (1886–1905). Milsons Point to North Sydney (1886-1905) and King Street Wharf to Edgecliff (1894-1905). Paris (Tramway funiculaire de Belleville 1873–1935) ==== Lebanon ==== Beirut (Late 1880s until destruction during the Lebanese Civil War) ==== New Zealand ==== Dunedin (1881–1957, the Dunedin cable tramway system) Wellington (1902–1979, the original Wellington Cable Car hybrid system) ==== Philippines ==== Manila (Early 1900s-1930s, the Manila-Malabon railway.) ==== Portugal ==== Lisbon (converted to regular tram lines in the early 20th century: São Sebastião, Estrela, and Graça) ==== United Kingdom ==== Birmingham (City of Birmingham Tramways Company Ltd, 1888–1911, converted to electric traction) Edinburgh (Edinburgh Corporation Tramways, 1899–1923, converted to electric traction) Glasgow (Glasgow Subway, 1896–1935, converted to electric traction) Hastings Liverpool (trial in 1883) London, England (1884–1909, Highgate Hill Cable Tramway connecting Archway with Highgate, the first cable car in regular operation in Europe) Matlock (1893–1927, the Matlock Cable Tramway) ==== Isle of Man ==== Douglas (1896–1929, the Upper Douglas Cable Tramway) ==== United States ==== Baltimore, Maryland (1890–1897) Binghamton, New York (trial in 1885) Brooklyn, New York New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway Brooklyn Cable Company's Park Avenue Line Brooklyn Heights Railroad's Montague Street Line Butte, Montana (1889–1897) Chicago, Illinois (1882–1906) Chicago City Railway North Chicago Street Railroad West Chicago Street Railroad Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio Denver, Colorado (1886–1900, the Denver Tramway) Grand Rapids, Michigan Hoboken, New Jersey (1886–1892, the North Hudson County Railway's Hoboken Elevated) Kansas City, Missouri (1885–1913), including 9th St Incline (1888–1902), 8th St. Tunnel in use (1887–1956) Los Angeles, California (1885–1889) Second Street Cable Railway, (1886–1902) Temple Street Cable Railway, (1889–1896) Los Angeles Cable Railway New York City West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway's Ninth Avenue Line New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway Third Avenue Railroad's 125th Street Crosstown Line Third Avenue Railroad's Third Avenue Line Metropolitan Street Railway's Broadway Line Metropolitan Street Railway's Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line Metropolitan Street Railway's Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line IRT Ninth Avenue Line (defunct) Newark, New Jersey (1888–1889) Oakland, California Oakland Cable Railway (1886–1899) Piedmont Cable Company (1890–1898) Omaha, Nebraska Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Portland, Oregon (1890–1904) Providence, Rhode Island (1888–1895) St. Louis, Missouri Saint Paul, Minnesota San Diego, California (1890–1892) Seattle, Washington (1888–1940) Sioux City, Iowa Spokane, Washington (1899–1936) Tacoma, Washington (1891–1938) Tulsa, Oklahoma Washington, D.C. (1890–1899, part of the Washington streetcar system) Wichita, Kansas	[ "Otis Hovair", "New Orleans", "Leitner Ropeways", "Kansas City, Missouri", "draft animals", "Washington, D.C.", "New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway", "Hastings", "Highgate Hill Cable Tramway", "Temple Street Cable Railway", "Liverpool", "Seattle, Washington", "Rack railway", "Grade (slope)", "Los Angeles Cable Railway", "San Francisco", "Butte, Montana", "Grand Rapids, Michigan", "Bogotá", "Cable ferry", "Saint Paul, Minnesota", "Skymetro", "Third Avenue Railroad", "colliery railway line", "New York City", "Oakland, California", "Perugia People Mover", "Shanghai", "rail adhesion", "Baltimore, Maryland", "Cable railway", "Philadelphia", "Bund Sightseeing Tunnel", "Brooklyn Cable Company", "Streetcars in Washington, D.C.", "sheave", "Edinburgh Corporation Tramways", "Second Street Cable Railway", "William Eppelsheimer", "Wellington Cable Car", "Tramway funiculaire de Belleville", "Pittsburgh", "tram", "Cabletren Bolivariano", "Portland, Oregon", "Wire rope", "Metropolitan Street Railway", "Cleveland, Ohio", "Birmingham", "Spokane, Washington", "Portugal", "Cable Liner", "New Zealand", "Caracas", "North Hudson County Railway", "Newark, New Jersey", "Denver, Colorado", "Bogotazo", "pliers", "List of funicular railways", "Oakland Airport Connector", "street running", "Doppelmayr Cable Car", "Railway electrification system", "Liverpool Tramways Company", "Dunedin", "Zurich Airport", "Fawdon Wagonway", "Tulsa, Oklahoma", "Wichita, Kansas", "Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line", "mule", "Poma", "125th Street Crosstown Line", "horsecar", "United Kingdom", "Minimetro", "Lebanese Civil War", "Zürich", "Laon", "San Francisco, California", "Llandudno", "Oakland Cable Railway", "stables", "Cable cars in Chicago", "cable grip", "Brooklyn Heights Railroad", "City of Birmingham Tramways Company Ltd", "Cable car (disambiguation)", "Glasgow Subway", "Funicular", "Clay Street Hill Railroad", "Piedmont Cable Company", "Edinburgh", "funicular", "San Francisco cable car system", "Public transport", "Oakland International Airport", "Cincinnati, Ohio", "stationary engine", "Toronto Pearson International Airport", "Third Avenue Line (Manhattan surface)", "Aerial tramway", "Denver Tramway", "Elevator", "City & South London Railway", "China", "Kirkdale, Liverpool", "Brooklyn", "George Hilton (historian)", "Upper Douglas Cable Tramway", "Montague Street Line", "West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway", "Italy", "Binghamton, New York", "Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line", "steam locomotive", "Dunedin cable tramway system", "Chicago", "Wales", "Park Avenue Line (Brooklyn surface)", "San Diego", "London", "London and Blackwall Railway", "Switzerland", "St. Louis, Missouri", "Trams in Lisbon", "Providence, Rhode Island", "Stanford University Press", "Highgate", "P. G. T. Beauregard", "Great Orme Tramway", "Reaction ferry", "elevated railway", "Hoboken Elevated", "Bay Area Rapid Transit", "Ninth Avenue Line (Manhattan elevated)", "Sioux City, Iowa", "Perugia", "Andrew Smith Hallidie", "Wellington", "Los Angeles, California", "regenerative braking", "Cable grip", "MiniMetro", "Melbourne cable tramway system", "SK (people mover)", "Lisbon", "Poma 2000", "Douglas, Isle of Man", "Matlock Cable Tramway", "Broadway Line (Lower Manhattan surface)", "IRT Ninth Avenue Line", "people mover", "Glasgow", "Matlock, Derbyshire", "Tacoma, Washington", "Belleville funicular tramway", "George Smith Duncan", "Archway, London", "Beirut", "Melbourne", "DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car", "OTIS", "Doppelmayr/Garaventa Group", "cable railway", "Venezuela", "Paris", "Charabanc", "Hoboken, New Jersey", "Chicago City Railway", "Terminal Link", "Omaha, Nebraska", "electricity", "Manila", "Trams in Sydney" ]
7,676	Creaky voice	In linguistics, creaky voice (sometimes called laryngealisation, pulse phonation, vocal fry, or glottal fry) refers to a low, scratchy sound that occupies the vocal range below the common vocal register. It is a special kind of phonation in which the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together; as a result, the vocal folds are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact. They normally vibrate irregularly at 20–50 pulses per second, about two octaves below the frequency of modal voicing, and the airflow through the glottis is very slow. Although creaky voice may occur with very low pitch, as at the end of a long intonation unit, it can also occur with a higher pitch. All contribute to make a speaker's voice sound creaky or raspy. ==In phonology== In the Received Pronunciation of English, creaky voice has been described as a possible realisation of glottal reinforcement. For example, an alternative phonetic transcription of attempt could be . In some languages, such as Jalapa Mazatec, creaky voice has a phonemic status; that is, the presence or absence of creaky voice can change the meaning of a word. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, creaky voice of a phone is represented by a diacritical tilde , for example . The Danish prosodic feature stød is an example of a form of laryngealisation that has a phonemic function. A slight degree of laryngealisation, occurring in some Korean language consonants for example, is called "stiff voice". ==Social aspects== Use of creaky voice across general speech and in singing is termed "vocal fry". Some evidence exists of vocal fry becoming more common in the speech of young female speakers of American English in the early 21st century, It is subsequently theorized that vocal fry may be a way for women to sound more "authoritative" and credible by using it to emulate the deeper male register. Yuasa further theorizes that because California is at the center of much of the entertainment industry, young Americans may unconsciously be using creaky voice more because of the media they consume.	[ "Phone (phonetics)", "tilde", "larynx", "Vocal fry register", "Danish language", "fr:Voix craquée", "Pitch (music)", "vocal fry register", "glottal reinforcement", "stiff voice", "Creaky-voiced glottal approximant", "vocal folds", "intonation unit", "Korean language", "Received Pronunciation", "phonation", "American Speech–Language–Hearing Association", "br:Mouezh wigourus", "diacritic", "Prosody (linguistics)", "Jalapa Mazatec language", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "stød", "linguistics", "phoneme", "arytenoid cartilage", "Scientific American", "Animal Behaviour (journal)", "English language", "Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour", "Modal voice", "glottis" ]
7,677	Computer monitor	A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial or textual form. A discrete monitor comprises a visual display, support electronics, power supply, housing, electrical connectors, and external user controls. The display in modern monitors is typically an LCD with LED backlight, having by the 2010s replaced CCFL backlit LCDs. Before the mid-2000s, most monitors used a cathode-ray tube (CRT) as the image output technology. A monitor is typically connected to its host computer via DisplayPort, HDMI, USB-C, DVI, or VGA. Monitors sometimes use other proprietary connectors and signals to connect to a computer, which is less common. Originally computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were used for video. From the 1980s onward, computers (and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and video, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. Since 2010, the typical display aspect ratio of both televisions and computer monitors changed from 4:3 to 16:9 ==History== Early electronic computer front panels were fitted with an array of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the 'monitor'. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program's operation. Computer monitors were formerly known as visual display units (VDU), particularly in British English. This term mostly fell out of use by the 1990s. ==Technologies== Multiple technologies have been used for computer monitors. Until the 21st century most used cathode-ray tubes but they have largely been superseded by LCD monitors. ===Cathode-ray tube=== The first computer monitors used cathode-ray tubes (CRTs). Prior to the advent of home computers in the late 1970s, it was common for a video display terminal (VDT) using a CRT to be physically integrated with a keyboard and other components of the workstation in a single large chassis, typically limiting them to emulation of a paper teletypewriter, thus the early epithet of 'glass TTY'. The display was monochromatic and far less sharp and detailed than on a modern monitor, necessitating the use of relatively large text and severely limiting the amount of information that could be displayed at one time. High-resolution CRT displays were developed for specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use; wider commercial use became possible after the release of a slow, but affordable Tektronix 4010 terminal in 1972. Some of the earliest home computers (such as the TRS-80 and Commodore PET) were limited to monochrome CRT displays, but color display capability was already a possible feature for a few MOS 6500 series-based machines (such as introduced in 1977 Apple II computer or Atari 2600 console), and the color output was a specialty of the more graphically sophisticated Atari 8-bit computers, introduced in 1979. Either computer could be connected to the antenna terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution and color quality. Lagging several years behind, in 1981 IBM introduced the Color Graphics Adapter, which could display four colors with a resolution of pixels, or it could produce pixels with two colors. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of . By the end of the 1980s color progressive scan CRT monitors were widely available and increasingly affordable, while the sharpest prosumer monitors could clearly display high-definition video, against the backdrop of efforts at HDTV standardization from the 1970s to the 1980s failing continuously, leaving consumer SDTVs to stagnate increasingly far behind the capabilities of computer CRT monitors well into the 2000s. During the following decade, maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall as CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium, partly because it remained cheaper to produce. CRTs still offer color, grayscale, motion, and latency advantages over today's LCDs, but improvements to the latter have made them much less obvious. The dynamic range of early LCD panels was very poor, and although text and other motionless graphics were sharper than on a CRT, an LCD characteristic known as pixel lag caused moving graphics to appear noticeably smeared and blurry. ===Liquid-crystal display=== There are multiple technologies that have been used to implement liquid-crystal displays (LCD). Throughout the 1990s, the primary use of LCD technology as computer monitors was in laptops where the lower power consumption, lighter weight, and smaller physical size of LCDs justified the higher price versus a CRT. Commonly, the same laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines. TFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors. The first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors were the Eizo FlexScan L66 in the mid-1990s, the SGI 1600SW, Apple Studio Display and the ViewSonic VP140 in 1998. In 2003, LCDs outsold CRTs for the first time, becoming the primary technology used for computer monitors. sharper image at native resolution, and better checkerboard contrast. On the other hand, CRT monitors have superior blacks, viewing angles, and response time, can use arbitrary lower resolutions without aliasing, and flicker can be reduced with higher refresh rates, though this flicker can also be used to reduce motion blur compared to less flickery displays such as most LCDs. Many specialized fields such as vision science remain dependent on CRTs, the best LCD monitors having achieved moderate temporal accuracy, and so can be used only if their poor spatial accuracy is unimportant. High dynamic range (HDR) Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed natively. For a given display size, maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch or DPI. Dot pitch represents the distance between the primary elements of the display, typically averaged across it in nonuniform displays. A related unit is pixel pitch, In LCDs, pixel pitch is the distance between the center of two adjacent pixels. In CRTs, pixel pitch is defined as the distance between subpixels of the same color. Dot pitch is the reciprocal of pixel density. Pixel density is a measure of how densely packed the pixels on a display are. In LCDs, pixel density is the number of pixels in one linear unit along the display, typically measured in pixels per inch (px/in or ppi). Color characteristics: Luminance – measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m, also called a nit). Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing simultaneously. For example, a ratio of means that the brightest shade (white) is 20,000 times brighter than its darkest shade (black). Dynamic contrast ratio is measured with the LCD backlight turned off. ANSI contrast is with both black and white simultaneously adjacent onscreen. Color depth – measured in bits per primary color or bits for all colors. Those with 10bpc (bits per channel) or more can display more shades of color (approximately 1 billion shades) than traditional 8bpc monitors (approximately 16.8 million shades or colors), and can do so more precisely without having to resort to dithering. Gamut – measured as coordinates in the CIE 1931 color space. The names sRGB or Adobe RGB are shorthand notations. Color accuracy – measured in ΔE (delta-E); the lower the ΔE, the more accurate the color representation. A ΔE of below 1 is imperceptible to the human eye. A ΔE of 24 is considered good and requires a sensitive eye to spot the difference. Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be viewed, without subjectively excessive degradation to the image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically. Input speed characteristics: Refresh rate is (in CRTs) the number of times in a second that the display is illuminated (the number of times a second a raster scan is completed). In LCDs it is the number of times the image can be changed per second, expressed in hertz (Hz). Determines the maximum number of frames per second (FPS) a monitor is capable of showing. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time. Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to change between two shades. The particular shades depend on the test procedure, which differs between manufacturers. In general, lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts such as ghosting. Grey to grey (GtG), measured in milliseconds (ms). Input latency is the time it takes for a monitor to display an image after receiving it, typically measured in milliseconds (ms). Power consumption is measured in watts. ===Size=== On two-dimensional display devices such as computer monitors the display size or viewable image size is the actual amount of screen space that is available to display a picture, video or working space, without obstruction from the bezel or other aspects of the unit's design. The main measurements for display devices are width, height, total area and the diagonal. The size of a display is usually given by manufacturers diagonally, i.e. as the distance between two opposite screen corners. This method of measurement is inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT television when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, it was the external diameter of the glass envelope that described their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the rectangular image was smaller than the diameter of the tube's face (due to the thickness of the glass). This method continued even when cathode-ray tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles; it had the advantage of being a single number specifying the size and was not confusing when the aspect ratio was universally 4:3. With the introduction of flat-panel technology, the diagonal measurement became the actual diagonal of the visible display. This meant that an eighteen-inch LCD had a larger viewable area than an eighteen-inch cathode-ray tube. Estimation of monitor size by the distance between opposite corners does not take into account the display aspect ratio, so that for example a 16:9 widescreen display has less area, than a 4:3 screen. The 4:3 screen has dimensions of and an area , while the widescreen is , . ===Aspect ratio=== Until about 2003, most computer monitors had a 4:3 aspect ratio and some had 5:4. Between 2003 and 2006, monitors with 16:9 and mostly 16:10 (8:5) aspect ratios became commonly available, first in laptops and later also in standalone monitors. Reasons for this transition included productive uses (i.e. field of view in video games and movie viewing) such as the word processor display of two standard letter pages side by side, as well as CAD displays of large-size drawings and application menus at the same time. In 2008 16:10 became the most common sold aspect ratio for LCD monitors and the same year 16:10 was the mainstream standard for laptops and notebook computers. In 2010, the computer industry started to move over from 16:10 to 16:9 because 16:9 was chosen to be the standard high-definition television display size, and because they were cheaper to manufacture. In 2011, non-widescreen displays with 4:3 aspect ratios were only being manufactured in small quantities. According to Samsung, this was because the "Demand for the old 'Square monitors' has decreased rapidly over the last couple of years," and "I predict that by the end of 2011, production on all 4:3 or similar panels will be halted due to a lack of demand." ===Resolution=== The resolution for computer monitors has increased over time. From during the late 1970s, to during the late 1990s. Since 2009, the most commonly sold resolution for computer monitors is , shared with the 1080p of HDTV. Before 2013 mass market LCD monitors were limited to at , excluding niche professional monitors. By 2015 most major display manufacturers had released (4K UHD) displays, and the first (8K) monitors had begun shipping. ===Gamut=== Every RGB monitor has its own color gamut, bounded in chromaticity by a color triangle. Some of these triangles are smaller than the sRGB triangle, some are larger. Colors are typically encoded by 8 bits per primary color. The RGB value [255, 0, 0] represents red, but slightly different colors in different color spaces such as Adobe RGB and sRGB. Displaying sRGB-encoded data on wide-gamut devices can give an unrealistic result. The gamut is a property of the monitor; the image color space can be forwarded as Exif metadata in the picture. As long as the monitor gamut is wider than the color space gamut, correct display is possible, if the monitor is calibrated. A picture that uses colors that are outside the sRGB color space will display on an sRGB color space monitor with limitations. Still today, many monitors that can display the sRGB color space are not factory nor user-calibrated to display it correctly. Color management is needed both in electronic publishing (via the Internet for display in browsers) and in desktop publishing targeted to print. ==Additional features== ===Universal features=== Power saving Most modern monitors will switch to a power-saving mode if no video-input signal is received. This allows modern operating systems to turn off a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. This also extends the monitor's service life. Some monitors will also switch themselves off after a time period on standby. Most modern laptops provide a method of screen dimming after periods of inactivity or when the battery is in use. This extends battery life and reduces wear. Indicator light Most modern monitors have two different indicator light colors wherein if video-input signal was detected, the indicator light is green and when the monitor is in power-saving mode, the screen is black and the indicator light is orange. Some monitors have different indicator light colors and some monitors have a blinking indicator light when in power-saving mode. Integrated accessories Many monitors have other accessories (or connections for them) integrated. This places standard ports within easy reach and eliminates the need for another separate hub, camera, microphone, or set of speakers. These monitors have advanced microprocessors which contain codec information, Windows interface drivers and other small software which help in proper functioning of these functions. Ultrawide screens Monitors that feature an aspect ratio greater than 2:1 (for instance, 21:9 or 32:9, as opposed to the more common 16:9, which resolves to 1.7:1).Monitors with an aspect ratio greater than 3:1 are marketed as super ultrawide monitors. These are typically massive curved screens intended to replace a multi-monitor deployment. Touch screen These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. The screen will need frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints. Sensors Ambient light for automatically adjusting screen brightness and/or color temperature Infrared camera for biometrics, eye and/or face recognition. Eye tracking as user input device. As lidar receiver for 3D scanning. ===Consumer features=== Glossy screen Some displays, especially newer flat-panel monitors, replace the traditional anti-glare matte finish with a glossy one. This increases color saturation and sharpness but reflections from lights and windows are more visible. Anti-reflective coatings are sometimes applied to help reduce reflections, although this only partly mitigates the problem. Curved designs Most often using nominally flat-panel display technology such as LCD or OLED, a concave rather than convex curve is imparted, reducing geometric distortion, especially in extremely large and wide seamless desktop monitors intended for close viewing range. 3D Newer monitors are able to display a different image for each eye, often with the help of special glasses and polarizers, giving the perception of depth. An autostereoscopic screen can generate 3D images without headgear. ===Professional features=== Anti-glare and anti-reflection screens Features for medical using or for outdoor placement. Directional screen Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security-conscious applications. Integrated professional accessories Integrated screen calibration tools, screen hoods, signal transmitters; Protective screens. Tablet screens A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch without the use of one or more special tools' pressure. Newer models however are now able to detect touch from any pressure and often have the ability to detect tool tilt and rotation as well. Touch and tablet sensors are often used on sample and hold displays such as LCDs to substitute for the light pen, which can only work on CRTs. Integrated display LUT and 3D LUT tables The option for using the display as a reference monitor; these calibration features can give an advanced color management control for take a near-perfect image. Local dimming backlight Option for professional LCD monitors, inherent to OLED & CRT; professional feature with mainstream tendency. Backlight brightness/color uniformity compensation Near to mainstream professional feature; advanced hardware driver for backlit modules with local zones of uniformity correction. ==Mounting== Computer monitors are provided with a variety of methods for mounting them depending on the application and environment. ===Desktop=== A desktop monitor is typically provided with a stand from the manufacturer which lifts the monitor up to a more ergonomic viewing height. The stand may be attached to the monitor using a proprietary method or may use, or be adaptable to, a VESA mount. A VESA standard mount allows the monitor to be used with more after-market stands if the original stand is removed. Stands may be fixed or offer a variety of features such as height adjustment, horizontal swivel, and landscape or portrait screen orientation. ===VESA mount=== The Flat Display Mounting Interface (FDMI), also known as VESA Mounting Interface Standard (MIS) or colloquially as a VESA mount, is a family of standards defined by the Video Electronics Standards Association for mounting flat-panel displays to stands or wall mounts. It is implemented on most modern flat-panel monitors and TVs. For computer monitors, the VESA Mount typically consists of four threaded holes on the rear of the display that will mate with an adapter bracket. ===Rack mount=== Rack mount computer monitors are available in two styles and are intended to be mounted into a 19-inch rack: Fixed A fixed rack mount monitor is mounted directly to the rack with the flat-panel or CRT visible at all times. The height of the unit is measured in rack units (RU) and 8U or 9U are most common to fit 17-inch or 19-inch screens. The front sides of the unit are provided with flanges to mount to the rack, providing appropriately spaced holes or slots for the rack mounting screws. A 19-inch diagonal screen is the largest size that will fit within the rails of a 19-inch rack. Larger flat-panels may be accommodated but are 'mount-on-rack' and extend forward of the rack. There are smaller display units, typically used in broadcast environments, which fit multiple smaller screens side by side into one rack mount. Stowable A stowable rack mount monitor is 1U, 2U or 3U high and is mounted on rack slides allowing the display to be folded down and the unit slid into the rack for storage as a drawer. The flat display is visible only when pulled out of the rack and deployed. These units may include only a display or may be equipped with a keyboard creating a KVM (Keyboard Video Monitor). Most common are systems with a single LCD but there are systems providing two or three displays in a single rack mount system. ===Panel mount=== A panel mount computer monitor is intended for mounting into a flat surface with the front of the display unit protruding just slightly. They may also be mounted to the rear of the panel. A flange is provided around the screen, sides, top and bottom, to allow mounting. This contrasts with a rack mount display where the flanges are only on the sides. The flanges will be provided with holes for thru-bolts or may have studs welded to the rear surface to secure the unit in the hole in the panel. Often a gasket is provided to provide a water-tight seal to the panel and the front of the screen will be sealed to the back of the front panel to prevent water and dirt contamination. ===Open frame=== An open frame monitor provides the display and enough supporting structure to hold associated electronics and to minimally support the display. Provision will be made for attaching the unit to some external structure for support and protection. Open frame monitors are intended to be built into some other piece of equipment providing its own case. An arcade video game would be a good example with the display mounted inside the cabinet. There is usually an open frame display inside all end-use displays with the end-use display simply providing an attractive protective enclosure. Some rack mount monitor manufacturers will purchase desktop displays, take them apart, and discard the outer plastic parts, keeping the inner open-frame display for inclusion into their product. ==Security vulnerabilities== According to an NSA document leaked to , the NSA sometimes swaps the monitor cables on targeted computers with a bugged monitor cable to allow the NSA to remotely see what is being displayed on the targeted computer monitor. Van Eck phreaking is the process of remotely displaying the contents of a CRT or LCD by detecting its electromagnetic emissions. It is named after Dutch computer researcher Wim van Eck, who in 1985 published the first paper on it, including proof of concept. While most effective on older CRT monitors due to their strong electromagnetic emissions, it can potentially apply to LCDs as well, although modern shielding techniques significantly mitigate the risk. Phreaking more generally is the process of exploiting telephone networks.	[ "Computer monitor", "field of view in video games", "microphone", "light pen", "19-inch rack", "HDMI", "screen calibration tool", "Tektronix 4010", "Viewing angle", "Television set", "Pixel response time", "Personal computer", "History of display technology", "Der Spiegel", "Webcam", "Digital Visual Interface", "Color depth", "multi-monitor", "lidar", "data processing", "graphics tablet", "Viewable image size", "Flat-panel display", "USB-C", "cold-cathode fluorescent lamp", "Dot pitch", "Adobe RGB color space", "Van Eck phreaking", "display device", "Apple II", "DisplayPort", "flat-panel display", "biometrics", "Head-mounted display", "Vector monitor", "home computer", "Backlight", "Radius of curvature", "color temperature", "color triangle", "Dumb terminal", "LCD monitors", "notebook computers", "EE Times", "Color Graphics Adapter", "4K resolution", "Stereoscopy", "Virtual desktop", "high-definition video", "Curved screen", "monochrome monitor", "curved screen", "Composite monitor", "Organic light-emitting diode", "Films", "color saturation", "TFT-LCD", "3D scanning", "chassis", "LCD monitor", "cathode-ray tube", "color management", "Display lag", "Linear-motion bearing", "VGA connector", "Power consumption", "Atari 8-bit computers", "widescreen", "desktop publishing", "Computer speaker", "prosumer", "Housing (engineering)", "VDU", "Variable refresh rate", "Visual display unit", "Color difference", "Display aspect ratio", "rack unit", "Gamut", "4:3", "Atari 2600", "digital television adapter", "teleprinter", "front panel", "Screen burn-in", "Anti-reflective coating", "SGI 1600SW", "dithering", "SDTV", "High frame rate", "Eizo", "line printer", "HDTV", "Samsung", "Computer speakers", "progressive scan", "high-definition television", "16:10", "color gamut", "Luminance", "chromaticity", "Exif", "electrical connector", "1080p", "electronic visual display", "Commodore PET", "Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays", "Display resolution", "Contrast ratio", "Pixel density", "Color management", "drawer", "ViewSonic", "CIE 1931 color space", "Rackmount KVM", "MOS Technology 6502", "display aspect ratio", "5:4", "High dynamic range", "sample and hold", "Multi-monitor", "input device", "TRS-80", "8K resolution", "Computer port (hardware)", "Enhanced Graphics Adapter", "television set", "electronic publishing", "Refresh rate", "Liquid-crystal display", "USB hub", "video display terminal", "LED-backlit LCD", "raster scan", "TV tuner", "picture", "Apple Studio Display (1998–2004)", "output device", "16:9", "plasma display", "Computer terminal", "vision science", "sRGB" ]
7,681	ClearType	ClearType is Microsoft's implementation of subpixel rendering technology in rendering text in a font system. ClearType attempts to improve the appearance of text on certain types of computer display screens by sacrificing color fidelity for additional intensity variation. This trade-off is asserted to work well on LCD flat panel monitors. ClearType was first announced at the November 1998 COMDEX exhibition. The technology was first introduced in software in January 2000 as an always-on feature of Microsoft Reader, which was released to the public in August 2000. ClearType was significantly changed with the introduction of DirectWrite in Windows 7. With the increasing availability of HiDPI displays after 2012, subpixel rendering has become less necessary. ==Background== Computer displays where the positions of individual pixels are permanently fixed such as most modern flat panel displays can show saw-tooth edges when displaying small, high-contrast graphic elements, such as text. ClearType uses spatial anti-aliasing at the subpixel level to reduce visible artifacts on such displays when text is rendered, making the text appear "smoother" and less jagged. ClearType also uses very heavy font hinting to force the font to fit into the pixel grid. This increases edge contrast and readability of small fonts at the expense of font rendering fidelity and has been criticized by graphic designers for making different fonts look similar. Like most other types of subpixel rendering, ClearType involves a compromise, sacrificing one aspect of image quality (color or chrominance detail) for another (light and dark or luminance detail). The compromise can improve text appearance when luminance detail is more important than chrominance. Only user and system applications render the application of ClearType. ClearType does not alter other graphic display elements (including text already in bitmaps). For example, ClearType enhancement renders text on the screen in Microsoft Word, but text placed in a bitmapped image in a program such as Adobe Photoshop is not. In theory, the method (called "RGB Decimation" internally) can enhance the anti-aliasing of any digital image. ClearType was invented in the Microsoft e-Books team by Bert Keely and Greg Hitchcock. It was then analyzed by researchers in the company, and signal processing expert John Platt designed an improved version of the algorithm. Dick Brass, a vice president at Microsoft from 1997 to 2004, complained that the company was slow in moving ClearType to market in the portable computing field. ==Human vision and cognition == ClearType and similar technologies work on the theory that variations in intensity are more noticeable than variations in color. ===Expert opinion=== In a MSDN article, Microsoft acknowledges that "[te]xt that is rendered with ClearType can also appear significantly different when viewed by individuals with varying levels of color sensitivity. Some individuals can detect slight differences in color better than others." This opinion is shared by font designer Thomas Phinney (former CEO of FontLab, also formerly with Adobe Systems): "There is also considerable variation between individuals in their sensitivity to color fringing. Some people just notice it and are bothered by it a lot more than others." Software developer Melissa Elliott has written about finding ClearType rendering uncomfortable to read, saying that "instead of seeing black text, I see blue text, and rendered over it but offset by a pixel or two, I see orange text, and someone reached into a bag of purple pixel glitter and just tossed it on...I’m not the only person in the world with this problem, and yet, every time it comes up, people are quick to assure me it works for them as if that’s supposed to make me feel better." Hinting expert Beat Stamm, who worked on ClearType at Microsoft, agrees that ClearType may look blurry at 96 dpi, which was a typical resolution for LCDs in 2008, but adds that higher resolution displays improve on this aspect: "WPF [Windows Presentation Foundation] uses method C [ClearType with fractional pixel positioning], but few display devices have a sufficiently high resolution to make the potential blur a moot point for everybody. . . . Some people are ok with the blur in Method C, some aren’t. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some people are fine with Method C when reading continuous text at 96 dpi (e.g. Times Reader, etc.) but not in UI scenarios. Many people are fine with the colors of ClearType, even at 96 dpi, but a few aren’t… To my eyes and at 96 dpi, Method C doesn’t read as well as Method A. It reads “blurrily” to me. Conversely, at 144 dpi, I don't see a problem with Method C. It looks and reads just fine to me." One illustration of the potential problem is the following image: In the above block of text, the same portion of text is shown in the upper half without and in the lower half with ClearType rendering (as opposed to Standard and ClearType in the previous image). This demonstrates the blurring introduced. ===Empirical studies=== A 2001 study, conducted by researchers from Clemson University and The University of Pennsylvania on "18 users who spent 60 minutes reading fiction from each of three different displays" found that "When reading from an LCD display, users preferred text rendered with ClearType. ClearType also yielded higher readability judgments and lower ratings of mental fatigue." A 2002 study on 24 users conducted by the same researchers from Clemson University also found that "Participants were significantly more accurate at identifying words with ClearType than without ClearType." According to a 2006 study, at the University of Texas at Austin by Dillon et al., ClearType "may not be universally beneficial". The study notes that maximum benefit may be seen when the information worker is spending large proportions of their time reading text (which is not necessarily the case for the majority of computer users today). Additionally, over one third of the study participants experienced some disadvantage when using ClearType. Whether ClearType, or other rendering, should be used is very subjective and it must be the choice of the individual, with the report recommending "to allow users to disable [ClearType] if they find it produces effects other than improved performance". Another 2007 empirical study, found that "while ClearType rendering does not improve text legibility, reading speed or comfort compared to perceptually-tuned grayscale rendering, subjects prefer text with moderate ClearType rendering to text with grayscale or higher-level ClearType contrast." A 2007 survey, of the literature by Microsoft researcher Kevin Larson presented a different picture: "Peer-reviewed studies have consistently found that using ClearType boosts reading performance compared with other text-rendering systems. In a 2004 study, for instance, Lee Gugerty, a psychology professor at Clemson University, in South Carolina, measured a 17 percent improvement in word recognition accuracy with ClearType. Gugerty’s group also showed, in a sentence comprehension study, that ClearType boosted reading speed by 5 percent and comprehension by 2 percent. Similarly, in a study published in 2007, psychologist Andrew Dillon at the University of Texas at Austin found that when subjects were asked to scan a spreadsheet and pick out certain information, they did those tasks 7 percent faster with ClearType." ==Display requirements== ClearType and allied technologies require display hardware with fixed pixels and subpixels. More precisely, the positions of the pixels and subpixels on the screen must be exactly known to the computer to which it is connected. This is the case for flat-panel displays, on which the positions of the pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the screen itself. Almost all flat panels have a perfectly rectangular array of square pixels, each of which contains three rectangular subpixels in the three primary colors, with the normal ordering being red, green, and blue, arranged in vertical bands. ClearType assumes this arrangement of pixels when rendering text. ClearType does not work properly with flat-panel displays that are operated at resolutions other than their “native” resolutions, since only the native resolution corresponds exactly to the actual positions of pixels on the screen of the display. If a display does not have the type of fixed pixels that ClearType expects, text rendered with ClearType enabled actually looks worse than type rendered without it. Some flat panels have unusual pixel arrangements, with the colors in a different order, or with the subpixels positioned differently (in three horizontal bands, or in other ways). ClearType needs to be manually tuned for use with such displays (see below). ClearType will not work as intended on displays that have no fixed pixel positions, such as CRT displays (which were still prevalent at the time of the release of Windows XP, which is why ClearType is disabled by default), however it will still have some antialiasing effect and may be preferable to some users as compared to non-anti-aliased type. ==Sensitivity to display orientation== Because ClearType utilizes the physical layout of the red, green and blue pigments of the LCD screen, it is sensitive to the orientation of the display. ClearType in Windows XP supports the RGB and BGR sub pixel structures; rotated displays, in which the subpixels are stacked vertically rather than arranged horizontally, are not supported. Using ClearType on these display configurations will actually reduce the display quality. The best option for users of Windows XP having rotated LCD displays (Tablet PCs or swivel-stand LCD displays) is using regular anti-aliasing, or switching off font-smoothing altogether. The software developer documentation for Windows CE states that ClearType for rotated screens is supported on that platform. ==Implementations== Windows XP (off by default) Windows Vista (on by default) Windows 7 (on by default) Windows 8: Only used in Windows 8 Desktop and all desktop apps Windows 10: Only used in Win32 apps and Win32 system features, not Universal Windows Platform. Internet Explorer 7 and later (on by default) Microsoft Office 2007 and 2010 (on by default) Windows Live Messenger (on by default) Microsoft Reader ClearType is also an integrated component of the Windows Presentation Foundation text-rendering engine. ===ClearType Font Collection=== As part of the Vista release, Microsoft released a set of fonts, known as the ClearType Font Collection, thought to work well with the ClearType system: Calibri Cambria Candara Consolas Constantia Corbel Meiryo Fonts included by some, but not always part of the set: Cariadings Malgun Gothic Microsoft JhengHei Microsoft YaHei Segoe ===ClearType in GDI=== ClearType can be globally enabled or disabled for GDI applications. A control panel applet is available to let the users tune the GDI ClearType settings. The GDI implementation of ClearType does not support sub-pixel positioning. ===ClearType tuning=== Windows XP, as supplied, allow ClearType to be turned on or off, with no adjustment; Windows 7 and later allow tuning of the ClearType parameters in Control Panel. A Microsoft ClearType tuner utility is available for free download for Windows versions lacking this facility. If ClearType is disabled in the operating system, applications with their own ClearType controls can still support it. Microsoft Reader (for e-books) has its own ClearType tuner. ===ClearType in WPF=== All text in Windows Presentation Foundation is anti-aliased and rendered using ClearType. There are separate ClearType registry settings for GDI and WPF applications, but by default the WPF entries are absent, and the GDI values are used in their absence. WPF registry entries can be tuned using the instructions from the MSDN WPF Text Blog. ClearType in WPF supports sub-pixel positioning, natural advance widths, Y-direction anti-aliasing and hardware acceleration. WPF supports aggressive caching of pre-rendered ClearType text in video memory. The extent to which this is supported is dependent on the video card. DirectX 10 cards will be able to cache the font glyphs in video memory, then perform the composition (assembling of character glyphs in the correct order, with the correct spacing), alpha blending (application of anti-aliasing), and RGB blending (ClearType's sub-pixel color calculations), entirely in hardware. This means that only the original glyphs need to be stored in video memory once per font (Microsoft estimates that this would require 2 MB of video memory per font), and other operations such as the display of anti-aliased text on top of other graphics including video can also be done with no computation effort on the part of the CPU. DirectX 9 cards will only be able to cache the alpha-blended glyphs in memory, thus requiring the CPU to handle glyph composition and alpha-blending before passing this to the video card. Caching these partially rendered glyphs requires significantly more memory (Microsoft estimates 5 MB per process). Cards that don't support DirectX 9 have no hardware-accelerated text rendering capabilities. ===ClearType in DirectWrite=== As pixel densities of displays improved and more high DPI screens became available, colored subpixel rendering became less of a necessity according to Microsoft. Also Windows tablet user interfaces evolved to support vertical screen orientations where the LCD color stripes would run horizontally. The original colored ClearType subpixel rendering was tuned to work optimally with horizontal orientation LCD displays where RGB or BGR stripes run vertically. For these reasons, DirectWrite which is the next-generation text rendering API from Microsoft moved away from color-aware ClearType. The font rendering engine in DirectWrite supports a different version of ClearType with only greyscale anti-aliasing, not color subpixel rendering, as demonstrated at PDC 2008. This version is sometimes called Natural ClearType but is often referred to simply as DirectWrite rendering (with the term "ClearType" being designated to only the RGB/BGR color subpixel rendering version). The improvements have been confirmed by independent sources, such as Firefox developers; they were particularly noticeable for OpenType fonts in Compact Font Format (CFF). Many Office 2013 apps including Word 2013, Excel 2013, parts of Outlook 2013 stopped using ClearType and switched to this DirectWrite greyscale antialiasing. The reasons invoked are, in the words of Murray Sargent: "There is a problem with ClearType: it depends critically on the color of the background pixels. This isn’t a problem if you know a priori that those pixels are white, which is usually the case for text. But the general case involves calculating what the colors should be for an arbitrary background and that takes time. Meanwhile, Word 2013 enjoys cool animations and smooth zooming. Nothing jumps any more. Even the caret (the blinking vertical line at the text insertion point) glides from one position to the next as you type. Jerking movement just isn’t considered cool any more. Well animations and zooms have to be faster than human response times in order to appear smooth. And that rules out ClearType in animated scenarios at least with present generation hardware. And in future scenarios, screens will have sufficiently high resolution that gray-scale anti-aliasing should suffice." For the same reasons related to animation performance and vertical screen orientations where the colored RGB/BGR ClearType antialiasing would be a problem, the color-aware version of ClearType was abandoned in Metro-style apps platform of Windows 8 (and Universal Windows Platform of Windows 10)., Subpixel rendering: – Method and apparatus for displaying images such as text – Mapping image data samples to pixel sub-components on a striped display device – Weighted mapping of image data samples to pixel sub-components on a display device – Methods and apparatus for performing image rendering and rasterization operations Complex color filtering: – Mapping samples of foreground/background color image data to pixel sub-components – Method and apparatus for detecting and reducing color artifacts in images – Methods apparatus and data structures for enhancing the resolution of images to be rendered on patterned display devices – Filtering image data to obtain samples mapped to pixel sub-components of a display device – Filtering image data to obtain samples mapped to pixel sub-components of a display device Subpixel font hinting and layout: – Methods and apparatus for performing grid fitting and hinting operations – Maintaining advance widths of existing characters that have been resolution enhanced ClearType tuning: – Method and apparatus for improving the quality of displayed images through the use of user reference information ==Other uses of the ClearType brand == The ClearType name was also used to refer to the screens of Microsoft Surface tablets. ClearType HD Display indicates a 1366×768 screen, while ClearType Full HD Display indicates a 1920×1080 screen.	[ "Windows Live Messenger", "Compact Font Format", "registered trademark", "BGR (subpixels)", "HiDPI", "Corbel (typeface)", "Microsoft Office Word", "Microsoft YaHei", "Dick Brass", "Microsoft Tablet PC", "John Platt (Principal Researcher)", "Windows XP", "Word 2013", "FreeType", "Professional Developers Conference", "DirectX", "Malgun Gothic", "alpha blending", "Constantia (typeface)", "The University of Pennsylvania", "Retina Display", "Microsoft Reader", "flat panel", "CoolType", "DirectWrite", "Windows CE", "LCD", "Quartz (graphics layer)", "Adobe Systems", "Dots per inch", "RGB", "Windows 7", "Clemson University", "IEEE Spectrum", "Microsoft Office 2007", "Firefox", "ZDNet", "luminance", "Consolas", "Calibri", "Microsoft Surface", "font", "cathode-ray tube", "Candara", "Graphics Device Interface", "Internet Explorer 7", "Font rasterization", "Steven Sinofsky", "computer display", "Meiryo", "e-book", "subpixel rendering", "Microsoft", "Microsoft JhengHei", "COMDEX", "hardware acceleration", "patent", "bitmap", "Windows 10", "Cambria (typeface)", "FontLab", "Windows Vista", "Segoe", "Windows Presentation Foundation", "chrominance", "Windows 8", "Windows XP Media Center Edition", "MSDN", "Photoshop", "video card", "anti-aliasing", "pigments" ]
7,682	Centriole	In cell biology a centriole is a cylindrical organelle composed mainly of a protein called tubulin. Centrioles are found in most eukaryotic cells, but are not present in conifers (Pinophyta), flowering plants (angiosperms) and most fungi, and are only present in the male gametes of charophytes, bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, cycads, and Ginkgo. A bound pair of centrioles, surrounded by a highly ordered mass of dense material, called the pericentriolar material (PCM), makes up a structure called a centrosome. Additional proteins include centrin, cenexin and tektin. The main function of centrioles is to produce cilia during interphase and the aster and the spindle during cell division. ==History== The centrosome was discovered jointly by Walther Flemming in 1875 and Edouard Van Beneden in 1876. Theodor Boveri introduced the term "centrosome" in 1888 and the term "centriole" in 1895. ==Role in cell division== Centrioles are involved in the organization of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis. Centrioles were previously thought to be required for the formation of a mitotic spindle in animal cells. However, more recent experiments have demonstrated that cells whose centrioles have been removed via laser ablation can still progress through the G1 stage of interphase before centrioles can be synthesized later in a de novo fashion. Additionally, mutant flies lacking centrioles develop normally, although the adult flies' cells lack flagella and cilia and as a result, they die shortly after birth. The centrioles can self replicate during cell division. ==Cellular organization== Centrioles are a very important part of centrosomes, which are involved in organizing microtubules in the cytoplasm. The position of the centriole determines the position of the nucleus and plays a crucial role in the spatial arrangement of the cell. ==Fertility== Sperm centrioles are important for 2 functions: (1) to form the sperm flagellum and sperm movement and (2) for the development of the embryo after fertilization. The sperm supplies the centriole that creates the centrosome and microtubule system of the zygote. ==Ciliogenesis== In flagellates and ciliates, the position of the flagellum or cilium is determined by the mother centriole, which becomes the basal body. An inability of cells to use centrioles to make functional flagella and cilia has been linked to a number of genetic and developmental diseases. In particular, the inability of centrioles to properly migrate prior to ciliary assembly has recently been linked to Meckel–Gruber syndrome. ==Animal development== Proper orientation of cilia via centriole positioning toward the posterior of embryonic node cells is critical for establishing left-right asymmetry, during mammalian development. ==Centriole duplication== Before DNA replication, cells contain two centrioles, an older mother centriole, and a younger daughter centriole. During cell division, a new centriole grows at the proximal end of both mother and daughter centrioles. After duplication, the two centriole pairs (the freshly assembled centriole is now a daughter centriole in each pair) will remain attached to each other orthogonally until mitosis. At that point the mother and daughter centrioles separate dependently on an enzyme called separase. The two centrioles in the centrosome are tied to one another. The mother centriole has radiating appendages at the distal end of its long axis and is attached to its daughter at the proximal end. Each daughter cell formed after cell division will inherit one of these pairs. Centrioles start duplicating when DNA replicates. It is unclear if the last common ancestor had one or two cilia. Important genes such as those coding for centrins, required for centriole growth, are only found in eukaryotes, and not in bacteria or archaea. Centrioles can vary the number of microtubules and can be made of 9 doublets of microtubules (as in Drosophila melanogaster) or 9 singlets of microtubules as in C. elegans. Atypical centrioles are centrioles that do not have microtubules, such as the Proximal Centriole-Like found in D. melanogaster sperm, or that have microtubules with no radial symmetry, such as in the distal centriole of human spermatozoon. Atypical centrioles may have evolved at least eight times independently during vertebrate evolution and may evolve in the sperm after internal fertilization evolves. It wasn't clear why the centriole became atypical until recently. The atypical distal centriole forms a dynamic basal complex (DBC) that, together with other structures in the sperm neck, facilitates a cascade of internal sliding that couples tail beating with head kinking. The atypical distal centriole's properties suggest that it evolved into a transmission system that couples the sperm tail motors to the whole sperm, thereby enhancing sperm function.	[ "flagella", "Caenorhabditis elegans", "Pinophyta", "Walther Flemming", "centrosomes", "crabs", "tubulin", "eukaryotic", "flagellate", "basal body", "orthogonal", "cycad", "laser", "Theodor Boveri", "Anatomical terms of location", "internal fertilization", "centrin", "interphase", "charophytes", "vascular plant", "cytokinesis", "fungi", "Aster (cell biology)", "centrins", "ciliate", "Joseph G. Gall", "microtubule", "Ginkgo", "centrosome", "sperm", "sperm cells", "mitosis", "Sperm", "Eukaryogenesis", "wikt:-ole", "tektin", "Drosophila melanogaster", "Flowering plant", "spindle apparatus", "bryophyte", "DNA replication", "cytoplasm", "Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann", "cilia", "cell division", "enzyme", "eukaryote", "archaea", "Proximal Centriole-Like", "Cell (biology)", "cenexin", "angiosperm", "Cilium", "land plants", "classical compound", "Étienne de Harven", "flagellum", "spermatozoon", "microtubules", "Meckel–Gruber syndrome", "pericentriolar material", "left-right asymmetry", "separase", "bacteria", "cilium", "cell biology", "Edouard Van Beneden", "organelle" ]
7,683	Creation science	Creation science or scientific creationism is a pseudoscientific form of Young Earth creationism which claims to offer scientific arguments for certain literalist and inerrantist interpretations of the Bible. It is often presented without overt faith-based language, but instead relies on reinterpreting scientific results to argue that various myths in the Book of Genesis and other select biblical passages are scientifically valid. The most commonly advanced ideas of creation science include special creation based on the Genesis creation narrative and flood geology based on the Genesis flood narrative. Creationists also claim they can disprove or reexplain a variety of scientific facts, theories and paradigms of geology, cosmology, biological evolution, archaeology, history, and linguistics using creation science. Creation science was foundational to intelligent design. The overwhelming consensus of the scientific community is that creation science fails to qualify as scientific because it lacks empirical support, supplies no testable hypotheses, and resolves to describe natural history in terms of scientifically untestable supernatural causes. Courts, most often in the United States where the question has been asked in the context of teaching the subject in public schools, have consistently ruled since the 1980s that creation science is a religious view rather than a scientific one. Historians, philosophers of science and skeptics have described creation science as a pseudoscientific attempt to map the Bible into scientific facts. Professional biologists have criticized creation science for being unscholarly, and even as a dishonest and misguided sham, with extremely harmful educational consequences. ==Beliefs and activities== ===Religious basis=== Creation science is based largely upon chapters 1–11 of the Book of Genesis. These describe how God calls the world into existence through the power of speech ("And God said, Let there be light," etc.) in six days, calls all the animals and plants into existence, and molds the first man from clay and the first woman from a rib taken from the man's side; a worldwide flood destroys all life except for Noah and his family and representatives of the animals, and Noah becomes the ancestor of the 70 "nations" of the world; the nations live together until the incident of the Tower of Babel, when God disperses them and gives them their different languages. Creation science attempts to explain history and science within the span of Biblical chronology, which places the initial act of creation some six thousand years ago. ===Modern religious affiliations=== Most creation science proponents hold fundamentalist or Evangelical Christian beliefs in Biblical literalism or Biblical inerrancy, as opposed to the higher criticism supported by liberal Christianity in the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy. However, there are also examples of Islamic and Jewish scientific creationism that conform to the accounts of creation as recorded in their religious doctrines. The Seventh-day Adventist Church has a history of support for creation science. This dates back to George McCready Price, an active Seventh-day Adventist who developed views of flood geology, which formed the basis of creation science. This work was continued by the Geoscience Research Institute, an official institute of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, located on its Loma Linda University campus in California. Creation science is generally rejected by the Church of England as well as the Roman Catholic Church. The Pontifical Gregorian University has officially discussed intelligent design as a "cultural phenomenon" without scientific elements. The Church of England's official website cites Charles Darwin's local work assisting people in his religious parish. ===Views on science=== Creation science rejects evolution and the common descent of all living things on Earth. Instead, it asserts that the field of evolutionary biology is itself pseudoscientific or even a religion. Creationists argue instead for a system called baraminology, which considers the living world to be descended from uniquely created kinds or "baramins." Creation science incorporates the concept of catastrophism to reconcile current landforms and fossil distributions with Biblical interpretations, proposing the remains resulted from successive cataclysmic events, such as a worldwide flood and subsequent ice age. It rejects one of the fundamental principles of modern geology (and of modern science generally), uniformitarianism, which applies the same physical and geological laws observed on the Earth today to interpret the Earth's geological history. Sometimes creationists attack other scientific concepts, like the Big Bang cosmological model or methods of scientific dating based upon radioactive decay. Young Earth creationists also reject current estimates of the age of the universe and the age of the Earth, arguing for creationist cosmologies with timescales much shorter than those determined by modern physical cosmology and geological science, typically less than 10,000 years. The foundational premises underlying scientific creationism disqualify it as a science because the answers to all inquiry therein are preordained to conform to Bible doctrine, and because that inquiry is constructed upon theories which are not empirically testable in nature. Scientists also deem creation science's attacks against biological evolution to be without scientific merit. The views of the scientific community were accepted in two significant court decisions in the 1980s, which found the field of creation science to be a religious mode of inquiry, not a scientific one. ==History== Creation science began in the 1960s, as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and nullify the scientific evidence for evolution. It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide. The main ideas in creation science are: the belief in creation ex nihilo (Latin: out of nothing); the conviction that the Earth was created within the last 6,000–10,000 years; the belief that humans and other life on Earth were created as distinct fixed "baraminological" kinds; and "flood geology" or the idea that fossils found in geological strata were deposited during a cataclysmic flood which completely covered the entire Earth. As a result, creationists also challenge the geologic and astrophysical measurements of the age of the Earth and the universe along with their origins, which creationists believe are irreconcilable with the account in the Book of Genesis. Creation science texts and curricula used in churches and Christian schools were revised to eliminate their Biblical and theological references, and less explicitly sectarian versions of creation science education were introduced in public schools in Louisiana, Arkansas, and other regions in the United States. The teaching of creation science in public schools in the United States effectively ended in 1987 following the United States Supreme Court decision in Edwards v. Aguillard. but in the aftermath of the First World War the growth of fundamentalist Christianity gave rise to a creationist opposition to such teaching. Legislation prohibiting the teaching of evolution was passed in certain regions, most notably Tennessee's Butler Act of 1925. The Soviet Union's successful launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 sparked national concern that the science education in public schools was outdated. In 1958, the United States passed National Defense Education Act which introduced new education guidelines for science instruction. With federal grant funding, the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) drafted new standards for the public schools' science textbooks which included the teaching of evolution. Almost half the nation's high schools were using textbooks based on the guidelines of the BSCS soon after they were published in 1963. The Tennessee legislature did not repeal the Butler Act until 1967. Creation science (dubbed "scientific creationism" at the time) emerged as an organized movement during the 1960s. It was strongly influenced by the earlier work of armchair geologist George McCready Price who wrote works such as Illogical Geology: The Weakest Point in the Evolution Theory (1906) and The New Geology (1923) to advance what he termed "new catastrophism" and dispute the current geological time frames and explanations of geologic history. Price was cited at the Scopes Trial of 1925, but his writings had no credence among geologists and other scientists. Price's "new catastrophism" was also disputed by most other creationists until its revival with the 1961 publication of The Genesis Flood by John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris, a work which quickly became an important text on the issue to fundamentalist Christians The act defined creation science as follows: The judgement defined the following as essential characteristics of science: Sudden creation "from nothing" calls upon a supernatural intervention, not natural law, and is neither testable nor falsifiable Objections in creation science that mutation and natural selection are insufficient to explain common origins was an incomplete negative generalization 'Kinds' are not scientific classifications, and creation science's claims of an outer limit to the evolutionary change possible of species are not explained scientifically or by natural law The separate ancestry of man and apes is an assertion rather than a scientific explanation, and did not derive from any scientific fact or theory Catastrophism, including its identification of the worldwide flood, failed as a science "Relatively recent inception" was the product of religious readings and had no scientific meaning, and was neither the product of, nor explainable by, natural law; nor is it tentative The court further noted that no recognized scientific journal had published any article espousing the creation science theory as described in the Arkansas law, and stated that the testimony presented by defense attributing the absence to censorship was not credible. In its ruling, the court wrote that for any theory to qualify as scientific, the theory must be tentative, and open to revision or abandonment as new facts come to light. It wrote that any methodology which begins with an immutable conclusion that cannot be revised or rejected, regardless of the evidence, is not a scientific theory. The court found that creation science does not culminate in conclusions formed from scientific inquiry, but instead begins with the conclusion, one taken from a literal wording of the Book of Genesis, and seeks only scientific evidence to support it. The judge concluded that "Act 590 is a religious crusade, coupled with a desire to conceal this fact," and that it violated the First Amendment's Establishment Clause. Louisiana's 1982 Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science Act, authored by State Senator Bill P. Keith, judged in the 1987 United States Supreme Court case Edwards v. Aguillard, and was handed a similar ruling. It found the law to require the balanced teaching of creation science with evolution had a particular religious purpose and was therefore unconstitutional. ===Intelligent design splits off=== In 1984, The Mystery of Life's Origin was first published. It was co-authored by chemist and creationist Charles B. Thaxton with Walter L. Bradley and Roger L. Olsen, the foreword written by Dean H. Kenyon, and sponsored by the Christian-based Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE). The work presented scientific arguments against current theories of abiogenesis and offered a hypothesis of special creation instead. While the focus of creation science had until that time centered primarily on the criticism of the fossil evidence for evolution and validation of the creation myth of the Bible, this new work posed the question whether science reveals that even the simplest living systems were far too complex to have developed by natural, unguided processes. Kenyon later co-wrote with creationist Percival Davis a book intended as a "scientific brief for creationism" to use as a supplement to public high school biology textbooks. Thaxton was enlisted as the book's editor, and the book received publishing support from the FTE. Prior to its release, the 1987 Supreme Court ruling in Edwards v. Aguillard barred the teaching of creation science and creationism in public school classrooms. The book, originally titled Biology and Creation but renamed Of Pandas and People, was released in 1989 and became the first published work to promote the anti-evolutionist design argument under the name intelligent design. The contents of the book later became a focus of evidence in the federal court case, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, when a group of parents filed suit to halt the teaching of intelligent design in Dover, Pennsylvania, public schools. School board officials there had attempted to include Of Pandas and People in their biology classrooms and testimony given during the trial revealed the book was originally written as a creationist text but following the adverse decision in the Supreme Court it underwent simple cosmetic editing to remove the explicit allusions to "creation" or "creator," and replace them instead with references to "design" or "designer." By the mid-1990s, intelligent design had become a separate movement. The creation science movement is distinguished from the intelligent design movement, or neo-creationism, because most advocates of creation science accept scripture as a literal and inerrant historical account, and their primary goal is to corroborate the scriptural account through the use of science. In contrast, as a matter of principle, neo-creationism eschews references to scripture altogether in its polemics and stated goals (see Wedge strategy). By so doing, intelligent design proponents have attempted to succeed where creation science has failed in securing a place in public school science curricula. Carefully avoiding any reference to the identity of the intelligent designer as God in their public arguments, intelligent design proponents sought to reintroduce the creationist ideas into science classrooms while sidestepping the First Amendment's prohibition against religious infringement. However, the intelligent design curriculum was struck down as a violation of the Establishment Clause in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, the judge in the case ruled "that ID is nothing less than the progeny of creationism." Today, creation science as an organized movement is primarily centered within the United States. Creation science organizations are also known in other countries, most notably Creation Ministries International which was founded (under the name Creation Science Foundation) in Australia. Proponents are usually aligned with a Christian denomination, primarily with those characterized as evangelical, conservative, or fundamentalist. While creationist movements also exist in Islam and Judaism, these movements do not use the phrase creation science to describe their beliefs. ==Issues== Creation science has its roots in the work of young Earth creationist George McCready Price disputing modern science's account of natural history, focusing particularly on geology and its concept of uniformitarianism, and his efforts instead to furnish an alternative empirical explanation of observable phenomena which was compatible with strict Biblical literalism. Price's work was later discovered by civil engineer Henry M. Morris, who is now considered to be the father of creation science. Morris and later creationists expanded the scope with attacks against the broad spectrum scientific findings that point to the antiquity of the Universe and common ancestry among species, including growing body of evidence from the fossil record, absolute dating techniques, and cosmogony. Many state that their opposition to scientific evolution is primarily based on religion. The overwhelming majority of scientists are in agreement that the claims of science are necessarily limited to those that develop from natural observations and experiments which can be replicated and substantiated by other scientists, and that claims made by creation science do not meet those criteria. ===Metaphysical assumptions=== Creation science makes the a priori metaphysical assumption that there exists a creator of the life whose origin is being examined. Christian creation science holds that the description of creation is given in the Bible, that the Bible is inerrant in this description (and elsewhere), and therefore empirical scientific evidence must correspond with that description. Creationists also view the preclusion of all supernatural explanations within the sciences as a doctrinaire commitment to exclude the supreme being and miracles. They claim this to be the motivating factor in science's acceptance of Darwinism, a term used in creation science to refer to evolutionary biology which is also often used as a disparagement. Critics argue that creation science is religious rather than scientific because it stems from faith in a religious text rather than by the application of the scientific method. criticize creation science on theological grounds, asserting either that religious faith alone should be a sufficient basis for belief in the truth of creation, or that efforts to prove the Genesis account of creation on scientific grounds are inherently futile because reason is subordinate to faith and cannot thus be used to prove it. Many Christian theologies, including Liberal Christianity, consider the Genesis creation narrative to be a poetic and allegorical work rather than a literal history, and many Christian churches—including the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic, Anglican and the more liberal denominations of the Lutheran, Methodist, Congregationalist and Presbyterian faiths—have either rejected creation science outright or are ambivalent to it. Belief in non-literal interpretations of Genesis is often cited as going back to Saint Augustine. Theistic evolution and evolutionary creationism are theologies that reconcile belief in a creator with biological evolution. Each holds the view that there is a creator but that this creator has employed the natural force of evolution to unfold a divine plan. Religious representatives from faiths compatible with theistic evolution and evolutionary creationism have challenged the growing perception that belief in a creator is inconsistent with the acceptance of evolutionary theory. Spokespersons from the Catholic Church have specifically criticized biblical creationism for relying upon literal interpretations of biblical scripture as the basis for determining scientific fact. Scientists have considered the hypotheses proposed by creation science and have rejected them because of a lack of evidence. Furthermore, the claims of creation science do not refer to natural causes and cannot be subject to meaningful tests, so they do not qualify as scientific hypotheses. In 1987, the United States Supreme Court ruled that creationism is religion, not science, and cannot be advocated in public school classrooms. Most mainline Christian denominations have concluded that the concept of evolution is not at odds with their descriptions of creation and human origins. A summary of the objections to creation science by scientists follows: Creation science is not falsifiable: An idea or hypothesis is generally not considered to be in the realm of science unless it can be potentially disproved with certain experiments, this is the concept of falsifiability in science. The act of creation as defined in creation science is not falsifiable because no testable bounds can be imposed on the creator. In creation science, the creator is defined as limitless, with the capacity to create (or not), through fiat alone, infinite universes, not just one, and endow each one with its own unique, unimaginable and incomparable character. It is impossible to disprove a claim when that claim as defined encompasses every conceivable contingency. Creation science violates the principle of parsimony: Parsimony favours those explanations which rely on the fewest assumptions. Scientists prefer explanations that are consistent with known and supported facts and evidence and require the fewest assumptions to fill the remaining gaps. Many of the alternative claims made in creation science retreat from simpler scientific explanations and introduce more complications and conjecture into the equation. Creation science is not, and cannot be, empirically or experimentally tested: Creationism posits supernatural causes which lie outside the realm of methodological naturalism and scientific experiment. Science can only test empirical, natural claims. Creation science is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive: Creation science adheres to a fixed and unchanging premise or "absolute truth," the "word of God," which is not open to change. Any evidence that runs contrary to that truth must be disregarded. In science, all claims are tentative, they are forever open to challenge, and must be discarded or adjusted when the weight of evidence demands it. By invoking claims of "abrupt appearance" of species as a miraculous act, creation science is unsuited for the tools and methods demanded by science, and it cannot be considered scientific in the way that the term "science" is currently defined. Scientists and science writers commonly characterize creation science as a pseudoscience. In the United States, the principal focus of creation science advocates is on the government-supported public school systems, which are prohibited by the Establishment Clause from promoting specific religions. Historical communities have argued that Biblical translations contain many translation errors and errata, and therefore that the use of biblical literalism in creation science is self-contradictory. ==Kinds of creation science== === Biology === Creationist arguments in relation to biology center on an idea derived from Genesis that states that life was created by God, in a finite number of "created kinds," rather than through biological evolution from a common ancestor. Creationists contend that any observable speciation descends from these distinctly created kinds through inbreeding, deleterious mutations and other genetic mechanisms. Whereas evolutionary biologists and creationists share similar views of microevolution, creationists reject the fact that the process of macroevolution can explain common ancestry among organisms far beyond the level of common species. Popular arguments against evolution have changed since the publishing of Henry M. Morris' first book on the subject, Scientific Creationism (1974), but some consistent themes remain: that missing links or gaps in the fossil record are proof against evolution; that the increased complexity of organisms over time through evolution is not possible due to the law of increasing entropy; that it is impossible that the mechanism of natural selection could account for common ancestry; and that evolutionary theory is untestable. The origin of the human species is particularly hotly contested; the fossil remains of hominid ancestors are not considered by advocates of creation biology to be evidence for a speciation event involving Homo sapiens. Creationists also assert that early hominids, are either apes, or humans. Richard Dawkins has explained evolution as "a theory of gradual, incremental change over millions of years, which starts with something very simple and works up along slow, gradual gradients to greater complexity," and described the existing fossil record as entirely consistent with that process. Biologists emphasize that transitional gaps between recovered fossils are to be expected, that the existence of any such gaps cannot be invoked to disprove evolution, and that instead the fossil evidence that could be used to disprove the theory would be those fossils which are found and which are entirely inconsistent with what can be predicted or anticipated by the evolutionary model. One example given by Dawkins was, "If there were a single hippo or rabbit in the Precambrian, that would completely blow evolution out of the water. None have ever been found." ===Geology=== ====Flood geology==== Flood geology is a concept based on the belief that most of Earth's geological record was formed by the Great Flood described in the story of Noah's Ark. Fossils and fossil fuels are believed to have formed from animal and plant matter which was buried rapidly during this flood, while submarine canyons are explained as having formed during a rapid runoff from the continents at the end of the flood. Sedimentary strata are also claimed to have been predominantly laid down during or after Noah's flood and orogeny. Flood geology is a variant of catastrophism and is contrasted with geological science in that it rejects standard geological principles such as uniformitarianism and radiometric dating. For example, the Creation Research Society argues that "uniformitarianism is wishful thinking." Geologists conclude that no evidence for such a flood is observed in the preserved rock layers Nevertheless, there continue to be adherents to the belief in flood geology, and in recent years new creationist models have been introduced such as catastrophic plate tectonics and catastrophic orogeny. ====Radiometric dating==== Creationists point to flawed experiments they have performed, which they claim demonstrate that 1.5 billion years of nuclear decay took place over a short period of time, from which they infer that "billion-fold speed-ups of nuclear decay" have occurred, a massive violation of the principle that radioisotope decay rates are constant, a core principle underlying nuclear physics generally, and radiometric dating in particular. The scientific community points to numerous flaws in the creationists' experiments, to the fact that their results have not been accepted for publication by any peer-reviewed scientific journal, and to the fact that the creationist scientists conducting them were untrained in experimental geochronology. They have also been criticised for widely publicising the results of their research as successful despite their own admission of insurmountable problems with their hypothesis. The constancy of the decay rates of isotopes is well supported in science. Evidence for this constancy includes the correspondences of date estimates taken from different radioactive isotopes as well as correspondences with non-radiometric dating techniques such as dendrochronology, ice core dating, and historical records. Although scientists have noted slight increases in the decay rate for isotopes subject to extreme pressures, those differences were too small to significantly impact date estimates. The constancy of the decay rates is also governed by first principles in quantum mechanics, wherein any deviation in the rate would require a change in the fundamental constants. According to these principles, a change in the fundamental constants could not influence different elements uniformly, and a comparison between each of the elements' resulting unique chronological timescales would then give inconsistent time estimates. In refutation of young Earth claims of inconstant decay rates affecting the reliability of radiometric dating, Roger C. Wiens, a physicist specializing in isotope dating states: "Only one technical exception occurs under terrestrial conditions, and this is not for an isotope used for dating. ... The artificially-produced isotope, beryllium-7 has been shown to change by up to 1.5%, depending on its chemical environment. ... Heavier atoms are even less subject to these minute changes, so the dates of rocks made by electron-capture decays would only be off by at most a few hundredths of a percent." "... Another case is material inside of stars, which is in a plasma state where electrons are not bound to atoms. In the extremely hot stellar environment, a completely different kind of decay can occur. 'Bound-state beta decay' occurs when the nucleus emits an electron into a bound electronic state close to the nucleus. ... All normal matter, such as everything on Earth, the Moon, meteorites, etc. has electrons in normal positions, so these instances never apply to rocks, or anything colder than several hundred thousand degrees." "The last case also involves very fast-moving matter. It has been demonstrated by atomic clocks in very fast spacecraft. These atomic clocks slow down very slightly (only a second or so per year) as predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity. No rocks in our solar system are going fast enough to make a noticeable change in their dates." ====Radiohaloes==== In the 1970s, young Earth creationist Robert V. Gentry proposed that radiohaloes in certain granites represented evidence for the Earth being created instantaneously rather than gradually. This idea has been criticized by physicists and geologists on many grounds including that the rocks Gentry studied were not primordial and that the radionuclides in question need not have been in the rocks initially. Thomas A. Baillieul, a geologist and retired senior environmental scientist with the United States Department of Energy, disputed Gentry's claims in an article entitled, "'Polonium Haloes' Refuted: A Review of 'Radioactive Halos in a Radio-Chronological and Cosmological Perspective' by Robert V. Gentry." Baillieul noted that Gentry was a physicist with no background in geology and given the absence of this background, Gentry had misrepresented the geological context from which the specimens were collected. Additionally, he noted that Gentry relied on research from the beginning of the 20th century, long before radioisotopes were thoroughly understood; that his assumption that a polonium isotope caused the rings was speculative; and that Gentry falsely argued that the half-life of radioactive elements varies with time. Gentry claimed that Baillieul could not publish his criticisms in a reputable scientific journal, although some of Baillieul's criticisms rested on work previously published in reputable scientific journals. More recently, creationist physicist Russell Humphreys has proposed a hypothesis called "white hole cosmology", asserting that the Universe expanded out of a white hole less than 10,000 years ago; claiming that the age of the universe is illusory and results from relativistic effects. Humphreys' cosmology is advocated by creationist organisations such as Answers in Genesis; however because its predictions conflict with current observations, it is not accepted by the scientific community. ====Planetology==== Various claims are made by creationists concerning alleged evidence that the age of the Solar System is of the order of thousands of years, in contrast to the scientifically accepted age of 4.6 billion years. It is commonly argued that the number of comets in the Solar System is much higher than would be expected given its supposed age. Young Earth Creationists reject the existence of the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud. They also argue that the recession of the Moon from the Earth is incompatible with either the Moon or the Earth being billions of years old. These claims have been refuted by planetologists. In response to increasing evidence suggesting that Mars once possessed a wetter climate, some creationists have proposed that the global flood affected not only the Earth but also Mars and other planets. People who support this claim include creationist astronomer Wayne Spencer and Russell Humphreys. An ongoing problem for creationists is the presence of impact craters on nearly all Solar System objects, which is consistent with scientific explanations of solar system origins but creates insuperable problems for young Earth claims. Creationists Harold Slusher and Richard Mandock, along with Glenn Morton (who later repudiated this claim) asserted that impact craters on the Moon are subject to rock flow, and so cannot be more than a few thousand years old. While some creationist astronomers assert that different phases of meteoritic bombardment of the Solar System occurred during "creation week" and during the subsequent Great Flood, others regard this as unsupported by the evidence and call for further research. ==Groups== ===Proponents=== Answers in Genesis Creation Ministries International Creation Research Society Geoscience Research Institute Institute for Creation Research ===Critics=== American Museum of Natural History National Science Teachers Association National Center for Science Education No Answers in Genesis National Academy of Sciences Scientific American The BioLogos Foundation The Skeptic's Dictionary Talk.reason TalkOrigins Archive	[ "Lemon v. Kurtzman", "age of the Earth", "Catholic Church", "Darwinism", "theology", "general relativity", "Princeton University Press", "MIT Press", "A priori and a posteriori", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "American Museum of Natural History", "Henry M. Morris", "Augustine of Hippo", "geology", "half-life", "uranium–lead dating", "microevolution", "cubits", "First Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Islam", "Biblical inerrancy", "Bill Keith (Louisiana politician)", "neo-creationism", "faith", "Andrew Dickson White", "Chronology of the universe", "Adnan Oktar", "special creation", "evolutionary biology", "Harvard University Press", "fossil fuel", "white hole", "University of California, Davis", "common descent", "Creation Ministries International", "pseudoarchaeology", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Dover, Pennsylvania", "Transitional fossil", "Denialism", "catastrophism", "Of Pandas and People", "meteorology", "W. W. Norton & Company", "rhenium–osmium dating", "scientific journal", "Biological Sciences Curriculum Study", "Smithsonian Institution", "Duane Gish", "State school", "Methodism", "atomic clock", "National Museum of Natural History", "Pontifical Academy of Sciences", "Epperson v. Arkansas", "McLean v. Arkansas", "Evangelicalism", "Geologic time scale", "empirical", "Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District", "Mars", "Modern Library", "creationist museum", "List of Bible translations by language", "anti-evolutionist", "Noah's Ark", "InterAcademy Panel", "chemistry", "Butler Act", "Philosophy of science", "Roman Catholic", "Bible errata", "Yale University Press", "Federal judiciary of the United States", "Encyclopædia Britannica Online", "University of California Press", "Scientific American", "orogeny", "Scientific evidence", "polonium", "Zondervan", "biology", "cosmogony", "Biostratigraphy", "Niles Eldredge", "Stratum", "dendrochronology", "Herman of Alaska", "submarine canyon", "abiogenesis", "National Academy of Sciences", "Book of Genesis", "intelligent design movement", "International Conference on Creationism", "creatio ex nihilo", "Foundation for Thought and Ethics", "allegory", "Lion Hudson", "flood geology", "Edwards v. Aguillard", "Lunar distance", "catastrophic plate tectonics", "Occam's razor", "Jewish views on evolution", "polemic", "intelligent design", "Geology", "Isotopes of beryllium", "Bible", "The Daily Telegraph", "False dilemma", "United States", "John William Draper", "Pontifical Gregorian University", "scientific community", "Eugenie Scott", "evidence for evolution", "Oort cloud", "Oxford University Press", "Stephen Jay Gould", "TalkOrigins Archive", "Establishment Clause", "chemist", "RATE project", "Scientific theory", "Genesis creation narrative", "isotope", "speed of light", "age of the universe", "Conflict thesis", "ice age", "Jonathan Sarfati", "rubidium–strontium dating", "Louisiana State Legislature", "Omphalos hypothesis", "mutation", "Answers in Genesis", "Annual Review of Anthropology", "Young Earth creationism", "Solar System", "absolute dating", "astronomy", "Phillip E. Johnson", "Routledge", "creation myth", "Anglicanism", "Loma Linda University", "comet", "Naturalism (philosophy)", "Congregational church", "The BioLogos Foundation", "Rutgers University Press", "radiometric dating", "Age of the universe", "physical cosmology", "Constitutionality", "Hypothesis", "Skeptic (U.S. magazine)", "ABC-CLIO", "Homo sapiens", "Lutheranism", "Tower of Babel", "Greenwood Press", "Johns Hopkins University Press", "Review and Herald Publishing Association", "Ken Ham", "Mount Everest", "Geoscience Research Institute", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Creation and evolution in public education", "Creation Research Society", "human evolution", "Institute for Creation Research", "Touchstone Magazine", "samarium–neodymium dating", "Goucher College", "Flood myth", "Walter Bradley (engineer)", "Big Bang", "Dean H. Kenyon", "National Academies Press", "Presbyterianism", "evolution", "Scientific consensus", "Arkansas", "Supernatural", "Anthropology", "Islamic views on evolution", "natural history", "Orogeny", "United States Department of Energy", "Richard Dawkins", "Wedge strategy", "linguistics", "Science, Technology, & Human Values", "Paradigm", "Louisiana", "Robert V. Gentry", "National Defense Education Act", "liberal Christianity", "Science", "National Council of Churches", "Sedimentation", "impact crater", "Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy", "TWAS", "nuclear physics", "skepticism", "Chronology of the Bible", "Liberal Christianity", "Scopes Trial", "Associated Press", "Fundamentalist Christianity", "argon–argon dating", "pseudohistory", "Geological history of Earth", "Kent Hovind", "Sputnik 1", "Genesis flood narrative", "Creation–evolution controversy", "George McCready Price", "s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context", "Geochronology", "Science (journal)", "Prometheus Books", "Age of Earth", "Radioactive decay", "Lee Strobel", "Noah", "Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.", "Seventh-day Adventist Church", "John C. Whitcomb", "speciation", "Theistic evolution", "Time (magazine)", "Biblical literalism", "Big History", "Talk.reason", "quantum mechanics", "The Navigators (organization)", "myth", "Historical criticism", "Baraminology", "Judaism", "macroevolution", "scientific fact", "geochronology", "Australian Skeptics", "scientific method", "iUniverse", "entropy", "uniformitarianism", "Percival Davis", "National Center for Science Education", "intelligent designer", "American Scientific Affiliation", "Kuiper belt", "Astrophysics", "pseudoscience", "Charles Thaxton", "Hippopotamus", "Hominidae", "Skeptical Inquirer", "fossil", "Christian theology", "National Science Teachers Association", "Daily Herald (Arlington Heights)", "Precambrian rabbit", "The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications", "K–Ar dating", "Newsweek", "ape", "The Skeptic's Dictionary", "Church of England", "Scientific skepticism", "Natural theology" ]
7,685	List of cartographers	Cartography is the study of map making and cartographers are map makers. ==Before 1400== Anaximander, Greek Anatolia (610 BC–546 BC), first to attempt making a map of the known world Hecataeus of Miletus, Greek Anatolia (550 BC–476 BC), geographer, cartographer, and early ethnographer Dicaearchus, Magna Graecia (c. 350 BC–285 BC), philosopher, cartographer, geographer, mathematician, author Ende, Spain (), illustrator, cartographer, nun Eratosthenes, Ptolemaic Egypt (276 BC–194 BC), Greek scientist, mathematician, geographer, and cartographer Gyōki, Japan (668–749), Buddhist monk, cartographer, surveyor, and civil engineer, Hipparchus, Greek Anatolia (190 BC–120 BC), astronomer, cartographer, geographer Liu An, China (179 BC–122 BC), geographer, cartographer, author of the Huainanzi Marinus of Tyre, Roman Syria (c. AD 70–130), Greek geographer, cartographer and mathematician, who founded mathematical geography Ptolemy, Ptolemaic Egypt (c. 85–165), Greek astronomer, cartographer, and geographer Pei Xiu (224–271), Chinese geographer and cartographer Isidore of Seville, Hispania (560–636) al-Khwārazmī, Caliphate (9th century), Persian cartographer, geographer, and polymath. Su Song, China (1020–1101), horologist and engineer; as a Song dynasty diplomat, he used his knowledge of cartography and map-making to solve territorial border disputes with the rival Liao dynasty Shen Kuo, China (1031–1095), polymath scientist and statesman, author of the Dream Pool Essays, which included a large atlas of China and foreign regions, and also made a three-dimensional raised-relief map al-Idrisi, Sicily (1100–1166), Arab cartographer, geographer and traveller Maximus Planudes, Byzantine Empire (13th century), a monk credited with restoring the texts and maps of Ptolemy Petrus Vesconte, Genoese cartographer, author of the oldest signed Portolan chart (1311) Angelino Dulcert (14th century), author of the earliest known Majorcan portolan charts of the Mediterranean ==15th century== Jacobus Angelus, Florence, translated Ptolemy into Latin Martin Behaim (Germany, 1436–1507) Benedetto Bordone (Venetian Republic 1460–1551) Sebastian Cabot (1476–1557), Venetian explorer Erhard Etzlaub (1460–1532) Leonardo da Vinci (Italy, 1452–1519) Henricus Martellus Germanus (Germany, fl. 1480–1496) Donnus Nicholas Germanus (Germany, fl. 1460–1475) Fra Mauro (Venice, c. 1459) Piri Reis (Dardanelles, Ottoman Empire, 1465–1554/1555), author of the Kitab-ı Bahriye Johannes Ruysch (Netherlands, c. 1466–1530), explorer, cartographer, astronomer, manuscript illustrator and painter Hartmann Schedel (Germany, 1440–1514) Amerigo Vespucci (Republic of Florence, 1454–1512) Johannes Werner (Germany, 1466–1528), refined and promoted the Werner map projection Martin Waldseemüller (Germany, c. 1470–c. 1521/1522) Olaus Magnus (Olof Månsson) (Sweden, 1490–1557), published Carta Marina in 1539 Gabriel de Valseca (15th century), Majorcan, author of several portolan charts of the Mediterranean (15th century), from Ancona, author of several portolan charts of the Mediterranean ==16th century== Giovanni Battista Agnese (c. 1500–1564), Genoese, cartographer, author of numerous nautical atlases Hacı Ahmet, Ottoman Tunisian cartographer, translated 16th c. map into Turkish for the Ottoman Empire. Peter Apian (1495–1552), also known as Peter Bienewitz, German geographer and astronomer, author of the Apianus projection Philipp Apian (1531–1589) Joost Janszoon Bilhamer (Netherlands, 1541–1590) Hernando de los Ríos Coronel (1559–1621?), cosmographer and cartographer, mapped Taiwan (Isla Hermosa), Luzon and part of the Chinese coast. Willem Janszoon Blaeu (Netherlands, 1571–1638), father of Joan Blaeu Giovanni Battista Boazio, mapped Sir Francis Drake's voyage to the West Indies and America Anders Bure (Sweden, 1571 – 1646), founder of Swedish cartography Jacob Roelofs van Deventer (Netherlands, c. 1510/15–1575) Fernão Vaz Dourado (India, c. 1520–c. 1580), Portuguese cartographer of the school initiated by Lopo Homem Oronce Finé (France, 1494–1555) Gemma Frisius (or Reiner Gemma) (Netherlands, 1508–1555) Jan Van Hanswijk (Netherlands, fl. 1594) Martin Helwig (Germany, 1516–1574) Augustin Hirschvogel (Germany, 1503–1553) Lopo Homem (Portugal?–1565), co-author, with the Reinel family, of the well-known Miller Atlas Diogo Homem (Portugal 1521–1576), cartographer, son of Lopo Homem Jodocus Hondius (Netherlands, 1563–1612) Johannes Honterus (Transylvania, 1498–1549) Gerard de Jode (Netherlands, 1509–1591) Urbano Monti (Italy, 1544–1613) Jacques le Moyne (France, c. 1533–1588) Guillaume Le Testu (France, c. 1509–1573) Jacobus Pentius de Leucho (Italy) Gerardus Mercator (Netherlands, 1512–1594) Sebastian Münster (Germany, 1488–1552) Abraham Ortelius (France, 1527–1598), generally recognized as the creator of the first modern atlas Petrus Plancius (Netherlands, 1552–1622) Diego Gutiérrez (Spain, ?) published a map entitled Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio with printer Hieronymus Cock. First map with toponym "California" and first appearance of a word for "Appalachia," as the term "Apalchen." Timothy Pont (Scotland, 1565–1614) Pedro Reinel (Portugal ?–c. 1542), author of the oldest signed Portuguese nautical chart Jorge Reinel (Portugal c. 1502–c. 1572), Portuguese cartographer, son of Pedro Reinel Diogo Ribeiro (Portugal, ?–Sevilha, 1533), author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527) Sebastião Lopes (Portugal 16th century), Portuguese cartographer and cosmographer Christopher Saxton (England, born c. 1540) John Speed (England, 1542–1629) Fernando Álvares Seco (Portugal?–?), signed the oldest known map of Portugal, reproduced in various editions of Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Bernardus Sylvanus (Italy) Luís Teixeira (Portugal ?–?), author of an important atlas of Brazil Bartolomeu Velho (Portugal ?–1568), cosmographer and cartographer Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer (Netherlands, 1533/34–1605/06), driver, cartographer Edward Wright (mathematician) (England, 1561–1615), mathematician and cartographer Georg Braun (Germany, 1541–1622), cartographer ==17th century== Pieter van der Aa (Netherlands, 1659–1733) João Teixeira Albernaz I (Portugal, died c. 1664), prolific cartographer, son of Luís Teixeira João Teixeira Albernaz II (Portugal, died c. 1699), Portuguese cartographer Pedro Teixeira Albernaz (Portugal, c. 1595–1662), Portuguese cartographer author of an important atlas of the Iberian Peninsula and a map of Portugal (1656) Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan (France, c. 1600–1673), French cartographer who created first descriptive map of Ukraine François Berthelot (France), cartographer of the Mediterranean Sea Johannes Blaeu (Netherlands, 1596–1673) Emanuel Bowen (1693/4–1767), engraver and map maker Greenville Collins (British, 1643–1694) Vincenzo Coronelli (Venetian, 1650–1718) Guillaume Delisle (French, 1675–1726) Petter Gedda (Sweden, 1661–1697) Hessel Gerritsz (Netherlands, 1581–1632), cartographer for the VOC Isaak de Graaff (Netherlands, 1668–1743), cartographer for the VOC Johann Homann (Germany, 1664–1724), geographer Henricus Hondius (Netherlands, 1597–1651) Willem Hondius (Netherlands, 1598–1652/58) Johannes Janssonius (Netherlands, 1588–1664) Johannes van Keulen (Netherlands, 1654–1715) Joannes de Laet (Netherlands, 1581–1649) Michael van Langren (Netherlands, 1600–1675) Alain Manesson Mallet (France, 1630–1706) Matthäus Merian Sr. (Switzerland, 1593–1650) and Jr. (Switzerland, 1621–1687) David de Meyne (Netherlands, c. 1569–1620) Herman Moll (Germany?/England, 1654–1732) Robert Morden (England, 1650–1703) Giovan Battista Nicolosi (Italy, 1610–1670) Dirck Rembrantsz van Nierop (Netherlands, 1610–1682), cartographer, mathematician and astronomist Jean-Baptiste Nolin (France, c.1657–1708) John Ogilby (Scotland, 1600–1676) (England, 16xx–1743) Nicolas Sanson (France, 1600–1667) Peter Schenk the Elder (Germany, 1660–1718/19) Johannes Vingboons (Netherlands, 1616/17–1670), cartographer and aquarellist Georg Matthäus Vischer (Austria, 1628–1696), cartographer, topographer and engraver Claes Jansz Visscher (Netherlands, 1587–1652) Nicolaes Visscher I (Netherlands, 1618–1679) Frederik de Wit (Netherlands, 1610/16–1698) Nicolaes Witsen (Netherlands, 1641–1717), diplomat, cartographer, writer and mayor of Amsterdam Giovanni Cassini ( Cassini I, Italy & France, 1625–1712) Jacques Cassini (a.k.a. Cassini II, France, 1677–1756) ==18th century== John James Abert (United States, 1788–1863), headed the Corps of Topographical Engineers for 32 years and organized the mapping of the American West Anders Åkerman (Sweden, 1721/23–1778), first globemaker in Sweden John Arrowsmith (England, 1790–1873), member of the Arrowsmith family of geographers Louis Albert Guislain Bacler d'Albe (France, 1761–1824), also artist and longtime strategic advisor to Napoleon John Senex (1690–1740), engraver, publisher, surveyor and geographer to Queen Anne John Lodge Cowley, cartographer, mathematician and geographer Agostino Codazzi (Italy, 1793–1858) Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres (1721–1824), created Atlantic Neptune Giambattista (Giovanni Battista) Albrizzi (Venice, 1698–1777), publisher of illustrated books and maps Sieur le Rouge map c. 1740 John Gibson (cartographer), map c. 1758 Jacques-Nicolas Bellin (1703–1772), chief cartographer to the French navy William Bligh (England, 1754–57 December 1817), Ships Master during the infamous Bounty mutiny and noted free-hand cartographer Rigobert Bonne (France, 1727–1795), Royal Cartographer to France in the office of the Hydrographer at Depot de la Marine Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville (France, 1697–1782) Don Tomas Lopez de Vargas Machuca (Spain, 1730–1802) Lourenco Homem da Cunha d’Eca, created , 1808 Abel Buell (1742–1822), published the first map of the new United States created by an American Catharina Buijs (1714–1781), Dutch cartographer for the Dutch East India Company Dimitrie Cantemir (Moldavia and Russia, 1673–1723) César-François Cassini de Thury (a.k.a. Cassini III, France, 1714–1784) Jean-Dominique Cassini (a.k.a. Cassini IV, France, 1748–1845) Edme Mentelle (France, 1730–1816) Pierre Gilles Chanlair (France, 1758–1817) James Cook (Captain RN) (1728–1779), navigator and naval chart maker Simeon De Witt (1756–1834), successor to Robert Erskine and Surveyor-General of the State of New York Louis Isidore Duperrey (French, 1786–1865) Johann Friedrich Endersch (Germany, fl. 1755) Colonel Robert Erskine (1735–1780), geographer and Surveyor-General of the Continental Army during the American Revolution Joseph de Ferraris (1726–1814), Austrian cartographer of the Austrian Netherlands Matthew Flinders (British, 1774–1814), Royal Navy officer; circumnavigated Australia and made exploration of the Australian coastline Joseph Marx Baron von Liechtenstern (Austria, 1765–1828) Louis Feuillée (France, 1660–1732) Björn Gunnlaugsson (Iceland, 1788–1876) Fielding Lucas, Jr. (c. 1781–1854), of the Lucas Brothers, Baltimore, US J. Flyn "New and Correct Plan of London", 1770 Samuel Gustaf Hermelin (Sweden, 1744–1820) Thomas Jefferys (England, c. 1710–1771), geographer of King George III of the United Kingdom William Faden (England, 1749–1836), successor to Thomas Jefferys Pierre Jacotin (France, 1765–1829) Murdoch McKenzie (Scotland, died 1797) John Mitchell (1711–1768), colonial British American mapmaker Thomas Livingstone Mitchell (England, 1792–1855) Robert Moresby (England, 1794–1863) Thomas Moule (England, 1784–1851) Carlton Osgood (United States, †1816) Adriaan Reland (Netherlands, 1676–1718), linguist and cartographer Thomas Richardson (Scotland) Dider Robert de Vaugondy (France, 1688–1766) John Rocque (England, 1709–1762) David Watson, surveyed Scotland post 1747 to produce The Duke of Cumberland's Map William Roy (England, 1726–1790) William Mudge (England, 1762–1820) Thomas Frederick Colby (England, 1784–1852) Matthäus Seutter (Germany, 1678–1757) Friedrich Wilhelm Carl von Schmettau (1743–1806) Matthias Seutter (Germany, 1678–1757) Jacob Swart (Netherlands, 1796–1866) Inō Tadataka (Japan, 1745–1818), Surveyor and cartographer who completed the first surveyed map of Japan David Thompson (British–Canadian, 1770–1857) Daniel-Charles Trudaine (France, 1703–1769) Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (1676–1747) Thomas Kitchin (1718–1784), London-based cartographer and engraver of maps of England, greater Europe, and parts of the British Empire.; at one time held the titles "Senior Hydrographer to His Majesty" and "Senior Engraver to His Royal Highness the Duke of York" Friedrich Christoph Müller (Germany, 1751–1808) Philippe Vandermaelen (Belgium, 1795–1869) Alexander Wilbrecht (Russia, 1757–1823), geographer of the Geographic Department of the Cabinet of Her Imperial Majesty Emma Willard (United States, 1787–1870), women's rights activist and education reformer James Wilson (United States, 1763–1835), first maker of globes in the United States George Washington (United States of America, 1732–1799), first president of the United States; cartographer Henri Michelot (France, born c. 1664), Marseilles, France, hydrographer and pilot of the Royal Galley ==19th century== Robert Aitken of Beith. born c. 1786 Carlo de Candia (1803–1862), Italian cartographer, created the large maritime map of Sardinia in 1: 250,000 scale, travel version. John Bartholomew the elder(26 April 1805 – 8 April 1861), Scottish cartographer and engraver. Henry Peter Bosse (Germany/United States, 1844–1903), also photographer and civil engineer Abraham Bradley Jr. (1767–1838), created first postal road maps of the United States George Bradshaw (England, 1801–1853) Eugenia Wheeler Goff (United States, 1844–1922), combined history, resources, and geography Leslie George Bullock (1895–1971) Bernard J. S. Cahill (1867–1944), inventor of octahedral "Butterfly Map" of the world George Comer (1858–1937) John Paul Goode (1862–1932), created the "Evil Mercator" and Goode’s World Atlas Hermann Haack (Germany, 1872–1966) Eduard Imhof (1895–1986), oversaw the Schweizerischer Mittelschulatlas, the atlas used in Swiss James Ireland Craig (1868–1952), inventor of the Craig retroazimuthal projection, otherwise known as the Mecca projection J. H. Colton (United States, 1800–1893) Carl Diercke (1842–1913) Max Eckert-Greifendorff (Germany, 1868–1938) Percy Fawcett (1867–1925), British explorer of South America Matthew Fontaine Maury (United States, 1806–1873), U.S. Navy officer; also oceanographer, meteorologist, cartographer, author, geologist, and educator Matsuura Takeshirō (Japan, 1818–1888), explorer, cartographer, writer, painter, priest, and antiquarian. Thaddeus Mortimer Fowler (1842–1922), American producer of pictorial maps Charles F. Hoffmann (Germany/United States, 1838–1913) James Gardner Charles E. Goad (1848 – 1910), English Canadian cartographer and pioneer of insurance maps William Hughes (geographer) FRGS (1818 – 21 May 1876), English geographer, mapmaker, cartographer and author. Gwynneth de Candia Vaughan (England 1879 - ?), British cartographer, mapmaker in the Australian territories. Felix Jones (England, 1813–1878) Florence Kelley (United States, 1859–1932), political reformer, director of the Chicago portion of the Hull House Maps and Papers Peter Kozler (Slovenia, 1824–1879), lawyer, geographer, politician, manufacturer Lilian Lancaster (1852–1939), British creator of anthropomorphic maps Rudolf Leuzinger (Switzerland, 1826–1896), known for mountain landscapes and geologic forms and the first to produce terrain maps in color lithography. Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun (France, 1816–1889) Heinrich Theodor Menke (Germany, 1819–1892) August Heinrich Petermann (18 April 1822 – 25 September 1878), German cartographer George Philip (1800–1882), cartographer, map publisher and founder of the publishing house George Philip & Son Ltd. Erwin Raisz (1893–1968) Daniel Alfred Sanborn (United States, 1827–1883), founder of the prolific insurance map provider Sanborn Map Company William Schmollinger (fl. 1830s) William R. Shepherd (1871–1934) Yuly Shokalsky (Russia, 1856–1940), also oceanographer and geographer Karl Spruner von Merz (Germany, 1803–1892) John Tallis and Company (England, 1838–1851) Nicolas Auguste Tissot (France, 1824–1897), devised Tissot's indicatrix Shanawdithit (Canada, c. 1801–1829), created maps depicting the movement Beothuk people in Newfoundland Edward A. Vincent (England/United States, c. 1825–27 November 1856), cartographer, civil engineer, architect Nain Singh Rawat (India, 1830–1882), Cartographer and explorer Cope, Emmor B: Gettysburg Battlefield cartographer and first Gettysburg National Military Park superintendent Alexandre Vuillemin (France, 1812–1880) Ruth Taylor White (United States 1899 – ?), creator of pictorial maps of the United States John Francon Williams FRGS (1854–4 September 1911), editor, journalist, writer, geographer, historian, cartographer and inventor. Fanny Bullock Workman (United States, 1859–1925), geographer, cartographer, explorer, travel writer, and mountaineer James Wyld (England, 1812–1887) Hatsusaburō Yoshida (Japan, 1884–1955) ==20th century== Regina Araújo de Almeida (Brazil, 1949– ), professor of geography at the University of São Paulo, tactile cartographer Jacques Bertin (France, 1918–2010) Josef Breu (Austria, 1914–1998) Cynthia Brewer (United States, 1957– ), developed ColorBrewer, professor at Penn State University Roger Brunet (1931– ) Emanuela Casti (1950– ), formalized a semiotic theory of geographic maps Danny Dorling (1968– ), developed circular cartograms Marion A. Frieswyk (United States, 1922–2021), first female intelligence cartographer in the Central Intelligence Agency Ruth Rhoads Lepper Gardner (United States, 1905–2011), cartographer of the Maine coast Emily Garfield, (1987– ), cartographic artist Günther Hake (1922–2000) Richard Edes Harrison (1901–1994) Tom Harrisson (1911–1976) George F. Jenks (1916–1996) Elrey Borge Jeppesen (1907–1996) Ingrid Kretschmer (1939–2011) Toy Lasker (United States, 1919–2011), creator and editor of Flashmaps guidebooks Edgar Lehmann (1905–1990) Samuel Herbert Maw (1881–1952), architect, delineator and cartographer of Canada Kate McLean (United Kingdom) Best known for creating olfactory maps of cities Jess Miller (United States, 1988– ), artist, photographer, and cartographer of rural Arkansas Mark Monmonier (United States, 1943– ), wrote How to Lie with Maps and created the Monmonier Algorithm. Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Syracuse University Mark Newman (1968– ), developed area contiguous cartograms using a diffusion-based method Rudi Ogrissek (1926–1999) Rafael Palacios (1905–1993), prolific map-drawer for major US publishers Phyllis Pearsall (England, 1906–1996), creator of the Geographers' A–Z Street Atlas Jacques Pervititch (Turkey, 1877–1945), creator of series of insurance maps of Istanbul Barbara Petchenik (1939–1992), first woman to serve as Vice President of the International Cartographic Association Edward Ayearst Reeves (1862–1945), British geographer, astronomer, and cartographer Arthur H. Robinson (1915–2004), wrote the influential textbook Elements of Cartography and developed the Robinson projection Abbas Sahab (1921–2000), Iranian cartographer, produced the first atlas of the Persian Gulf Paula Scher (United States, 1948– ), graphic designer, painter Joni Seagar (United States 1954– ), professor of geography at the University of Vermont Nikolas Schiller (1980– ), Arabesque maps composed of kaleidoscopic aerial photographs John C. Sherman (1916–1996) Jessamine Shumate (1902–1990) Kira B. Shingareva (Russia, 1938–2013), first person to successfully map the dark side of the moon John P. Snyder (1926–1997), developed the space oblique Mercator projection Dr. E. Lee Spence (1947– ), pioneer underwater archaeologist, decorative, historical maps showing shipwreck locations Marie Tharp (1920–2006), oceanographic cartographer, co-created the first scientific map of the ocean floor with Bruce Heezen Norman J. W. Thrower (1919–2002), professor at UCLA and author who was known for work in geography, surveying practices, and history Waldo R. Tobler (1930–2018), developed the first law of geography Judith Tyner (United States, born 1939), professor emerita of geography at California State University, Long Beach Ludwig von der Vecht (Deutschland, 1854–1919), cartographer of German colonies Bradford Washburn (1910–2007) Denis Wood (United States, 1945– ), artist, author, and former professor of design at North Carolina State University David Woodward (1942–2004) Hannah Feldman (cartographer) (2001–) Betsy Barthold (cartographer) (2000–) Gabrielle Puente (cartographer) (2001–)	[ "George Washington", "California State University, Long Beach", "Georg Braun", "map projection", "Jacques Cassini", "Carl Diercke", "Ptolemy", "Carlton Osgood", "cosmographer", "Rudi Ogrissek", "Marinus of Tyre", "Ottoman Empire", "United States Navy", "Matthew Fontaine Maury", "Matthäus Seutter", "Shanawdithit", "Murdoch Mackenzie (cartographer)", "Alain Manesson Mallet", "Republic of Florence", "Henry Peter Bosse", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Gwynneth de Candia Vaughan", "Daniel-Charles Trudaine", "Guillaume Le Testu", "Brazil", "Johannes Werner", "Southampton Island", "Jacob Swart", "Petter Gedda", "Percy Fawcett", "John Gibson (cartographer)", "William Mudge", "Peter Schenk the Elder", "Thomas Moule", "Canada", "Lourenco Homem da Cunha d’Eca", "Gerard de Jode", "Dominique, comte de Cassini", "Ancona", "Yuly Shokalsky", "Rafael Palacios (artist)", "Beothuk", "Penn State University", "Leslie George Bullock", "Jacques-Nicolas Bellin", "Johannes Vingboons", "History of cartography", "John Arrowsmith (cartographer)", "Monmouthshire (historic)", "Abraham Ortelius", "Daniel Alfred Sanborn", "Philip Johan von Strahlenberg", "Edward A. Vincent", "Emanuela Casti", "David Thompson (explorer)", "Gabrielle Puente (cartographer)", "Liao dynasty", "William Bligh", "Matthäus Merian", "medieval Persian cartographers", "Roman Syria", "George F. Jenks", "Johannes van Keulen", "Friedrich Wilhelm Carl von Schmettau", "Joan Blaeu", "Edward Ayearst Reeves", "medieval Arab cartographers", "Regina Araújo de Almeida", "Robinson projection", "Ruth Taylor White", "Eugenia Wheeler Goff", "Emmor Cope", "Mark Monmonier", "Jacobus Angelus", "Battista Agnese", "first law of geography", "Florence Kelley", "Edward Wright (mathematician)", "Isaak de Graaff", "Jodocus Hondius", "World Digital Library", "Sebastian Cabot (explorer)", "Joannes de Laet", "George Bradshaw", "Claes Jansz Visscher", "Nain Singh Rawat", "Bernardus Sylvanus", "Continental Army", "Fra Mauro", "Nicolas Sanson", "James Ireland Craig", "Liu An", "Dream Pool Essays", "Sebastian Münster", "Louis Isidore Duperrey", "Donnus Nicholas Germanus", "César-François Cassini de Thury", "Edme Mentelle", "North Carolina State University", "Sebastião Lopes", "Portolan", "Martin Helwig", "architectural delineator", "Istanbul", "John Senex", "James Cook", "Rigobert Bonne", "Johannes Blaeu", "al-Khwārazmī", "Joost Janszoon Bilhamer", "Richard Edes Harrison", "toponym", "Alexander Wilbrecht", "David Woodward (cartographer)", "François Berthelot", "John Speed", "Rudolf Leuzinger", "Augustin Hirschvogel", "Category:Historians of cartography", "Lopo Homem", "Dicaearchus", "Urbano Monti", "Cynthia Brewer", "Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer", "Thomas Frederick Colby", "Lilian Lancaster (cartographer)", "geographer", "Jones, James Felix", "Henri Michelot", "Emanuel Bowen", "Hispania", "Johann Friedrich Endersch", "John Tallis", "Isidore of Seville", "Jorge Reinel", "Frederik de Wit", "George Philip (cartographer)", "kaleidoscope", "Russian cartographers", "Guillaume Delisle", "Olaus Magnus", "John Paul Goode", "Matsuura Takeshirō", "Bruce C. Heezen", "David de Meyne", "Iberian Peninsula", "planisphere", "Oronce Finé", "J. H. Colton", "Caliphate", "Michael van Langren", "Apianus projection", "Luís Teixeira", "atlas", "Björn Gunnlaugsson", "ethnographer", "Pedro Reinel", "Judith Tyner", "Bradford Washburn", "Don Tomas Lopez de Vargas Machuca", "Ludwig von der Vecht", "Pierre Jacotin", "Günther Hake", "Martin Behaim", "Pierre Gilles Chanlair", "Peter Bienewitz", "William Schmollinger", "Thomas Kitchin", "Gyōki", "Nikolas Schiller", "Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)", "Switzerland", "Henricus Martellus Germanus", "Alexandre Vuillemin", "Amerigo Vespucci (explorer)", "Magna Graecia", "Charles F. Hoffmann", "National Museum of American History", "Erwin Raisz", "Hieronymus Cock", "Fanny Bullock Workman", "Fernão Vaz Dourado", "Erhard Etzlaub", "Hipparchus", "Leonardo da Vinci", "Betsy Barthold (cartographer)", "Gettysburg National Military Park", "John Lodge Cowley", "Robert Aitken's new Parish Atlas of Ayrshire. 1829.", "Joseph Marx Baron von Liechtenstern", "Huainanzi", "Elrey Borge Jeppesen", "Ende (artist)", "Thomas Jefferys", "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum", "Jessamine Shumate", "William Hughes (geographer)", "João Teixeira Albernaz I", "Catharina Buijs", "Earth", "globe", "Waldo R. Tobler", "Philippe Vandermaelen", "Hecataeus of Miletus", "J. Flyn", "Giovan Battista Nicolosi", "Jacques le Moyne", "Thomas Richardson (cartographer)", "Tom Harrisson", "Vincenzo Coronelli", "Miller Atlas", "nautical chart", "Abel Buell", "Equator", "al-Idrisi", "Gabriel de Valseca", "Emily Garfield", "William Faden", "John Rocque", "Fernando Álvares Seco", "Louis Albert Guislain Bacler d'Albe", "astronomer", "Ingrid Kretschmer", "Benedetto Bordone", "Phyllis Pearsall", "Thomas Livingstone Mitchell", "Thaddeus Mortimer Fowler", "three-dimensional space", "Heinrich Theodor Menke", "Max Eckert-Greifendorff", "Portolan chart", "Baltimore", "Robert Erskine (inventor)", "List of geographers", "Joseph de Ferraris", "Willem Blaeu", "Inō Tadataka", "Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan", "Gettysburg Battlefield", "Mark Newman", "Reinel family", "Pedro Teixeira Albernaz", "Hessel Gerritsz", "University of Vermont", "Jean-Baptiste Nolin", "Kate McLean", "American Revolution", "Paula Scher", "Karl Spruner von Merz", "Ancient world maps", "Carta Marina", "Tissot's indicatrix", "Gemma Frisius", "Anaximander", "horologist", "Goad map", "Jess Miller", "Jacques Bertin", "Barbara Petchenik", "Bartolomeu Velho", "Nicolaes Witsen", "James Gardner (surveyor)", "Matthias Seutter", "Dimitrie Cantemir", "Craig retroazimuthal projection", "Napoleon", "Ottoman Tunisia", "Giovanni Battista Boazio", "Diego Gutiérrez (cartographer)", "Roger Brunet", "Matthew Flinders", "Robert Moresby", "cartogram", "John Ogilby", "Pei Xiu", "Hernando de los Ríos Coronel", "Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio", "Arthur H. Robinson", "Brill's New Pauly", "Giambattista Albrizzi", "Maximus Planudes", "Simeon De Witt", "cartographer", "Corps of Topographical Engineers", "Greenville Collins", "Hatsusaburō Yoshida", "Willem Hondius", "Arkansas", "Hendrik Hondius II", "Sanborn maps", "James Wyld", "Louis Feuillée", "raised-relief map", "Fielding Lucas, Jr.", "Agostino Codazzi", "Anders Bure", "Kira B. Shingareva", "Abraham Bradley Jr.", "John Francon Williams", "Adriaan Reland", "Ptolemaic Egypt", "UCLA", "Johannes Honterus", "Toy Lasker", "University of São Paulo", "Samuel Herbert Maw", "Hannah Feldman (cartographer)", "Kitab-ı Bahriye", "Pieter van der Aa", "Johannes Ruysch", "Eratosthenes", "Peter Kozler", "space oblique mercator projection", "Friedrich Christoph Müller", "Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville", "Johann Homann", "Samuel Gustaf Hermelin", "Nicolas Auguste Tissot", "Venetian Republic", "aerial photographs", "Syracuse University", "Dr. E. Lee Spence", "International Cartographic Association", "Hacı Ahmet", "James Wilson (globe maker)", "Josef Breu", "John Bartholomew the elder", "John P. Snyder", "Gerardus Mercator", "Appalachia", "Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres", "Jacques Pervititch", "Edgar Lehmann", "Abbas Sahab", "Song dynasty", "Denis Wood", "John C. Sherman", "Emma Willard", "Peter Apian", "Robert Morden", "Jan Van Hanswijk", "Pietro Vesconte", "polymath", "Jacob Roelofs van Deventer", "William Roy", "Dutch East India Company", "pictorial maps", "Giovanni Cassini", "Christopher Saxton", "Arabesque (European art)", "civil engineer", "John Mitchell (geographer)", "Ukraine", "Dirck Rembrantsz van Nierop", "Robert de Vaugondy", "Marie Tharp", "ColorBrewer", "archaeologist", "João Teixeira Albernaz II", "American West", "Petrus Plancius", "Joni Seagar", "Atlantic Neptune", "Eduard Imhof", "Carlo de Candia", "Francis Drake", "Republic of Genoa", "William R. Shepherd", "Philipp Apian", "Jacobus Pentius de Leucho", "Anders Åkerman", "Diogo Homem", "Cartography", "California", "Piri Reis", "Category:Cartography organizations", "Sieur le Rouge", "Bernard J. S. Cahill", "Majorca", "Shen Kuo", "mathematician", "Royal Navy", "Norman J. W. Thrower", "Martin Waldseemüller", "Charles E. Goad", "Herman Moll", "Anatolia", "Danny Dorling", "Johannes Janssonius", "George Comer", "Hartmann Schedel", "Georg Matthäus Vischer", "Timothy Pont", "Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun", "August Heinrich Petermann", "Cartography of India", "Su Song", "Persian Gulf", "Angelino Dulcert", "George III of the United Kingdom", "Geographers' A–Z Street Atlas", "Nicolaes Visscher I", "John James Abert", "George Philip & Son Ltd.", "Tactile cartography", "Marion A. Frieswyk", "Hermann Haack", "Ruth Rhoads Lepper Gardner" ]
7,689	Cirth	The Cirth (, meaning "runes"; sg. certh ) is a semi‑artificial script, based on real‑life runic alphabets, one of several scripts invented by J. R. R. Tolkien for the constructed languages he devised and used in his works. Cirth is written with a capital letter when referring to the writing system; the letters themselves can be called cirth. In the fictional history of Middle-earth, the original Certhas was created by the Sindar (or Grey Elves) for their language, Sindarin. Its extension and elaboration was known as the Angerthas Daeron, as it was attributed to the Sinda Daeron, despite the fact that it was most probably arranged by the Noldor in order to represent the sounds of other languages like Quenya and Telerin. Although it was later largely replaced by the Tengwar, the Cirth was nonetheless adopted by the Dwarves to write down both their Khuzdul language (Angerthas Moria) and the languages of Men (Angerthas Erebor). The Cirth was also adapted, in its oldest and simplest form, by various races including Men and even Orcs. ==External history== ===Concept and creation=== Many letters have shapes also found in the historical runic alphabets, but their sound values are only similar in a few of the vowels. Rather, the system of assignment of sound values is much more systematic in the Cirth than in the historical runes (e.g., voiced variants of a voiceless sound are expressed by an additional stroke). The division between the older Cirth of Daeron and their adaptation by Dwarves and Men has been interpreted as a parallel drawn by Tolkien to the development of the Fuþorc to the Younger Fuþark. The original Elvish Cirth "as supposed products of a superior culture" are focused on logical arrangement and a close connection between form and value whereas the adaptations by mortal races introduced irregularities. Similar to the Germanic tribes who had no written literature and used only simple runes before their conversion to Christianity, the Sindarin Elves of Beleriand with their Cirth were introduced to the more elaborate Tengwar of Fëanor when the Noldorin Elves returned to Middle-earth from the lands of the divine Valar. == Internal history and description == ===Certhas=== In the Appendix E to The Return of the King, Tolkien writes that the Sindar of Beleriand first developed an alphabet for their language some time between the invention of the Tengwar by Fëanor (YT 1250) and the introduction thereof to Middle-earth by the Exiled Noldor towards the end of the First Age. This alphabet was devised to represent only the sounds of their Sindarin language and its letters were mostly used for inscribing names or brief memorials on wood, stone or metal, hence their angular shapes and straight lines. An abecedarium of cirth, consisting of the runes listed in due order, was commonly known as Certhas (, meaning "rune-rows" in Sindarin and loosely translated as "runic alphabet"). The oldest cirth were the following:). In this arrangement, the assignment of values to each certh is systematic. The runes consisting of a stem and a branch attached to the right are used for voiceless stops, while other sounds are allocated according to the following principles: \|\| gw \|\| khw \|\| ghw \|\| nw \|\| ngw (spelt ). Since the sound could best be represented by a reversal of the sign for (to indicate its spirantization), the reversible was given the value , and was assigned to . but is a voiceless postalveolar affricate in Vanyarin.}} \| \| \|{{note\|ADB\|\|The certh , the theoretical value of which is , is instead used as in both Quenya and Sindarin (cf. the tengwa "esse"/"áze"). (at least in published words of Khuzdul: of course, our corpus is very limited to judge the necessity or not, of these sounds). Here they are marked with a black star (★). Notes: ==Encoding schemes== ===Unicode=== Equivalents for some (but not all) cirth can be found in the Runic block of Unicode. Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes received explicit recognition with the introduction of his three additional runes to the Runic block with the release of Unicode 7.0, in June 2014. The three characters represent the English , and graphemes, as follows: A formal Unicode proposal to encode Cirth as a separate script was made in September 1997 by Michael Everson. No action was taken by the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) but Cirth appears in the Roadmap to the SMP. ===ConScript Unicode Registry=== Unicode Private Use Area layouts for Cirth are defined at the ConScript Unicode Registry (CSUR) and the Under-ConScript Unicode Registry (UCSUR). Two different layouts are defined by the CSUR/UCSUR: 1997-11-03 proposal implemented by fonts like GNU Unifont and Code2000. 2000-04-22 discussion paper implemented by fonts like Constructium and Fairfax. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols below instead of Cirth.	[ "Second Age", "Root (linguistics)", "Fricative", "voiceless postalveolar fricative", "artificial script", "Tolkien's scripts", "Unicode", "postalveolar consonant", "stop consonant", "Modern English", "lingua franca", "diphthong", "front vowel", "palatal consonant", "glottal stop", "Approximant consonant", "Lateral consonant", "Valar", "minstrel", "Variety (linguistics)", "First Age", "Voiceless palatal fricative", "History of Arda", "Bind rune", "Nasal consonant", "List of Middle-earth weapons and armour", "Esgaroth", "Elvish languages (Middle-earth)", "Gandalf", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "nasal consonant", "runic alphabet", "dental consonant", "Dental consonant", "Gondolin", "Runic (Unicode block)", "The History of Middle-earth", "Tolkien's legendarium", "Latin script", "back vowel", "Article (grammar)", "Parma Eldalamberon", "Fëanor", "scribal abbreviation", "Aspirated consonant", "Glottal consonant", "Noldor", "Man (Middle-earth)", "Moria (Middle-earth)", "writing system", "alphabet", "place of articulation", "macron below", "Tengwar", "Orc (Middle-earth)", "Sindar", "velar consonant", "front consonant", "assibilation", "Telerin", "Voiced consonant", "Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩", "spirant", "Private Use Areas", "Beleriand", "The Hobbit", "The Treason of Isengard", "Welsh language", "featural script", "Stop consonant", "Christopher Tolkien", "gemination", "Cluster reduction", "combining diacritic", "Carl F. Hostetter", "affricate consonant", "labial consonant", "Doriath (Middle-earth)", "Trill consonant", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Elf (Middle-earth)", "circumflex", "Swarthmore College", "bilabial nasal", "voiceless postalveolar affricate", "Mythlore", "runic alphabets", "labialized velar consonant", "Palatal consonant", "Troll (Middle-earth)", "Dorsal consonant", "Specials (Unicode block)", "The Lord of the Rings", "Khuzdul", "glottal consonant", "Old English", "English language", "voiceless palatal fricative", "Welsh phonology", "Sindarin", "Elrond", "Lonely Mountain", "Labial consonant", "abecedarium", "voicelessness", "Fuþorc", "Walter de Gruyter", "Quenya", "Middle-earth", "transliteration", "The Return of the King", "Thingol", "numerical digits", "Phonology", "fricative consonant", "Conjunction (grammar)", "Balin (Middle-earth)", "ConScript Unicode Registry", "Book of Mazarbul", "Westron", "Alphabet", "Dale (Middle-earth)", "Homorganic consonant", "Eregion", "ampersand", "constructed language", "long vowel", "List of runestones", "runes", "spirantization", "WP:RS", "dot (diacritic)", "Third Age", "Michael Everson", "GNU Unifont", "Dwarf (Middle-earth)", "Years of the Trees", "Younger Fuþark", "Typographic ligature" ]
7,697	Lockheed C-130 Hercules	The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medevac, and cargo transport aircraft. The versatile airframe has found uses in other roles, including as a gunship (AC-130), for airborne assault, search and rescue, scientific research support, weather reconnaissance, aerial refueling, maritime patrol, and aerial firefighting. It is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. More than 40 variants of the Hercules, including civilian versions marketed as the Lockheed L-100, operate in more than 60 nations. The C-130 entered service with the U.S. in 1956, followed by Australia and many other nations. During its years of service, the Hercules has participated in numerous military, civilian and humanitarian aid operations. In 2007, the transport became the fifth aircraft to mark 50 years of continuous service with its original primary customer, which for the C-130 is the United States Air Force (USAF). The C-130 is the longest continuously produced military aircraft, having achieved 70 years of production in 2024. The updated Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules remains in production . ==Design and development== ===Background and requirements=== The Korean War showed that World War II-era piston-engine transports—Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars, Douglas C-47 Skytrains and Curtiss C-46 Commandos—were no longer adequate. On 2 February 1951, the United States Air Force issued a General Operating Requirement (GOR) for a new transport to Boeing, Douglas, Fairchild, Lockheed, Martin, Chase Aircraft, North American, Northrop, and Airlifts Inc. The new transport would have a capacity of 92 passengers, 72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a cargo compartment that was approximately long, high, and wide. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed specifically as a combat transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage. A notable advance for large aircraft was the introduction of a turboprop powerplant, the Allison T56 which was developed for the C-130. It gave the aircraft greater range than a turbojet engine as it used less fuel. Turboprop engines also produced much more power for their weight than piston engines. However, the turboprop configuration chosen for the T56, with the propeller connected to the compressor, had the potential to cause structural failure of the aircraft if an engine failed. Safety devices had to be incorporated to reduce the excessive drag from a windmilling propeller. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter had rear ramps, which made it possible to drive vehicles onto the airplane (also possible with the forward ramp on a C-124). The ramp on the Hercules was also used to airdrop cargo, which included a low-altitude parachute-extraction system for Sheridan tanks and even dropping large improvised "daisy cutter" bombs. The new Lockheed cargo plane had a range of and it could operate from short and unprepared strips. Fairchild, North American, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate. The remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs: Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was a close affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed (preliminary project designation L-206) proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L-206. Hall Hibbard, Lockheed vice president and chief engineer, saw the proposal and directed it to Kelly Johnson, who did not care for the low-speed, unarmed aircraft, and remarked, "If you sign that letter, you will destroy the Lockheed Company." The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, California. The aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype, but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base; Jack Real and Dick Stanton served as flight engineers. Kelly Johnson flew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune. After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have been built through 2009. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers and originally equipped with the blunt nose of the prototypes. Deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A-models were equipped with skis and re-designated C-130D. As the C-130A became operational with Tactical Air Command (TAC), the C-130's lack of range became apparent and additional fuel capacity was added with wing pylon-mounted tanks outboard of the engines; this added of fuel capacity for a total capacity of . ===Improved versions=== The C-130B model was developed to complement the A-models that had previously been delivered, and incorporated new features, particularly increased fuel capacity in the form of auxiliary tanks built into the center wing section and an AC electrical system. Four-bladed Hamilton Standard propellers replaced the Aero Products' three-blade propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models. The C-130B had ailerons operated by hydraulic pressure that was increased from , as well as uprated engines and four-blade propellers that were standard until the J-model. The B model was originally intended to have "blown controls", a system that blows high-pressure air over the control surfaces to improve their effectiveness during slow flight. It was tested on an NC-130B prototype aircraft with a pair of T-56 turbines providing high-pressure air through a duct system to the control surfaces and flaps during landing. This greatly reduced landing speed to just 63 knots and cut landing distance in half. The system never entered service because it did not improve takeoff performance by the same margin, making the landing performance pointless if the aircraft could not also take off from where it had landed. An electronic reconnaissance variant of the C-130B was designated C-130B-II. A total of 13 aircraft were converted. The C-130B-II was distinguished by its false external wing fuel tanks, which were disguised signals intelligence (SIGINT) receiver antennas. These pods were slightly larger than the standard wing tanks found on other C-130Bs. Most aircraft featured a swept blade antenna on the upper fuselage, as well as extra wire antennas between the vertical fin and upper fuselage not found on other C-130s. Radio call numbers on the tail of these aircraft were regularly changed to confuse observers and disguise their true mission. The extended-range C-130E model entered service in 1962 after it was developed as an interim long-range transport for the Military Air Transport Service. Essentially a B-model, the new designation was the result of the installation of Sargent Fletcher external fuel tanks under each wing's midsection and more powerful Allison T56-A-7A turboprops. The hydraulic boost pressure to the ailerons was reduced back to as a consequence of the external tanks' weight in the middle of the wingspan. The E model also featured structural improvements, avionics upgrades, and a higher gross weight. Australia took delivery of 12 C130E Hercules during 1966–67 to supplement the 12 C-130A models already in service with the RAAF. Sweden and Spain fly the TP-84T version of the C-130E fitted for aerial refueling capability. The KC-130 tankers, originally C-130F procured for the US Marine Corps (USMC) in 1958 (under the designation GV-1) are equipped with a removable stainless steel fuel tank carried inside the cargo compartment. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue aerial refueling pods each transfer up to to two aircraft simultaneously, allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft formations, (a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in less than 30 minutes). The US Navy's C-130G has increased structural strength allowing higher gross weight operation. ===Further developments=== The C-130H model has updated Allison T56-A-15 turboprops, a redesigned outer wing, updated avionics, and other minor improvements. Later H models had a new, fatigue-life-improved, center wing that was retrofitted to many earlier H-models. For structural reasons, some models are required to land with reduced amounts of fuel when carrying heavy cargo, reducing usable range. The H model remains in widespread use with the United States Air Force (USAF) and many foreign air forces. Initial deliveries began in 1964 (to the RNZAF), remaining in production until 1996. An improved C-130H was introduced in 1974, with Australia purchasing 12 of the type in 1978 to replace the original 12 C-130A models, which had first entered Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) service in 1958. The U.S. Coast Guard employs the HC-130H for long-range search and rescue, drug interdiction, illegal migrant patrols, homeland security, and logistics. C-130H models produced from 1992 to 1996 were designated as C-130H3 by the USAF, with the "3" denoting the third variation in design for the H series. Improvements included ring laser gyros for the INUs, GPS receivers, a partial glass cockpit (ADI and HSI instruments), a more capable APN-241 color radar, night vision device compatible instrument lighting, and an integrated radar and missile warning system. The electrical system upgrade included Generator Control Units (GCU) and Bus Switching units (BSU) to provide stable power to the more sensitive upgraded components. The equivalent model for export to the UK is the C-130K, known by the Royal Air Force (RAF) as the Hercules C.1. The C-130H-30 (Hercules C.3 in RAF service) is a stretched version of the original Hercules, achieved by inserting a plug aft of the cockpit and an plug at the rear of the fuselage. A single C-130K was purchased by the Met Office for use by its Meteorological Research Flight, where it was classified as the Hercules W.2. This aircraft was heavily modified, with its most prominent feature being the long red and white striped atmospheric probe on the nose and the move of the weather radar into a pod above the forward fuselage. This aircraft, named Snoopy, was withdrawn in 2001 and was then modified by Marshall of Cambridge Aerospace as a flight testbed for the A400M turbine engine, the TP400. The C-130K is used by the RAF Falcons for parachute drops. Three C-130Ks (Hercules C Mk.1P) were upgraded and sold to the Austrian Air Force in 2002. ===Enhanced models=== The MC-130E Combat Talon was developed for the USAF during the Vietnam War to support special operations missions in Southeast Asia, and led to both the MC-130H Combat Talon II as well as a family of other special missions aircraft. 37 of the earliest models currently operating with the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) are scheduled to be replaced by new-production MC-130J versions. The EC-130 Commando Solo is another special missions variant within AFSOC, albeit operated solely by an AFSOC-gained wing in the Pennsylvania Air National Guard, and is a psychological operations/information operations (PSYOP/IO) platform equipped as an aerial radio station and television stations able to transmit messaging over commercial frequencies. Other versions of the EC-130, most notably the EC-130H Compass Call, are also special variants, but are assigned to the Air Combat Command (ACC). The AC-130 gunship was first developed during the Vietnam War to provide close air support and other ground-attack duties. The HC-130 is a family of long-range search and rescue variants used by the USAF and the U.S. Coast Guard. Equipped for the deep deployment of Pararescuemen (PJs), survival equipment, and (in the case of USAF versions) aerial refueling of combat rescue helicopters, HC-130s are usually the on-scene command aircraft for combat SAR missions (USAF only) and non-combat SAR (USAF and USCG). Early USAF versions were also equipped with the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system, designed to pull a person off the ground using a wire strung from a helium balloon. The John Wayne movie The Green Berets features its use. The Fulton system was later removed when aerial refueling of helicopters proved safer and more versatile. The movie The Perfect Storm depicts a real-life SAR mission involving aerial refueling of a New York Air National Guard HH-60G by a New York Air National Guard HC-130P. The C-130R and C-130T are U.S. Navy and USMC models, both equipped with underwing external fuel tanks. The USN C-130T is similar but has additional avionics improvements. In both models, aircraft are equipped with Allison T56-A-16 engines. The USMC versions are designated KC-130R or KC-130T when equipped with underwing refueling pods and pylons and are fully night vision system compatible. The RC-130 is a reconnaissance version developed during the Cold War. Sometimes called "ferret" aircraft, these planes were initially retrofitted standard C-130s. The Lockheed L-100 (L-382) is a civilian variant, equivalent to a C-130E model without military equipment. The L-100 also has two stretched versions. ===Next generation=== In the 1970s, Lockheed proposed a C-130 variant with turbofan engines rather than turboprops, but the U.S. Air Force preferred the takeoff performance of the existing aircraft. In the 1980s, the C-130 was intended to be replaced by the Advanced Medium STOL Transport project. The project was canceled and the C-130 has remained in production. Building on lessons learned, Lockheed Martin modified a commercial variant of the C-130 into a High Technology Test Bed (HTTB). This test aircraft set numerous short takeoff and landing performance records and significantly expanded the database for future derivatives of the C-130. Modifications made to the HTTB included extended chord ailerons, a long chord rudder, fast-acting double-slotted trailing edge flaps, a high-camber wing leading edge extension, a larger dorsal fin and dorsal fins, the addition of three spoiler panels to each wing upper surface, a long-stroke main and nose landing gear system, and changes to the flight controls and a change from direct mechanical linkages assisted by hydraulic boost, to fully powered controls, in which the mechanical linkages from the flight station controls operated only the hydraulic control valves of the appropriate boost unit. The HTTB first flew on 19 June 1984, with civil registration of N130X. After demonstrating many new technologies, some of which were applied to the C-130J, the HTTB was lost in a fatal accident on 3 February 1993, at Dobbins Air Reserve Base, in Marietta, Georgia. The crash was attributed to disengagement of the rudder fly-by-wire flight control system, resulting in a total loss of rudder control capability while conducting ground minimum control speed tests (Vmcg). The disengagement was a result of the inadequate design of the rudder's integrated actuator package by its manufacturer; the operator's insufficient system safety review failed to consider the consequences of the inadequate design to all operating regimes. A factor that contributed to the accident was the flight crew's lack of engineering flight test training. In the 1990s, the improved C-130J Super Hercules was developed by Lockheed (later Lockheed Martin). This model is the newest version and the only model in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J model has new turboprop engines, six-bladed propellers, digital avionics, and other new systems. ===Upgrades and changes=== In 2000, Boeing was awarded a contract to develop an Avionics Modernization Program kit for the C-130. The program was beset with delays and cost overruns until project restructuring in 2007. In September 2009, it was reported that the planned Avionics Modernization Program (AMP) upgrade to the older C-130s would be dropped to provide more funds for the F-35, CV-22 and airborne tanker replacement programs. However, in June 2010, Department of Defense approved funding for the initial production of the AMP upgrade kits. Under the terms of this agreement, the USAF has cleared Boeing to begin low-rate initial production (LRIP) for the C-130 AMP. A total of 198 aircraft are expected to feature the AMP upgrade. The current cost per aircraft is , although Boeing expects that this price will drop to US$7 million for the 69th aircraft. An engine enhancement program saving fuel and providing lower temperatures in the T56 engine has been approved, and the US Air Force expects to save $2 billion (~$ in ) and extend the fleet life. In 2021, the Air Force Research Laboratory demonstrated the Rapid Dragon system which transforms the C-130 into a lethal strike platform capable of launching 12 JASSM-ER with 500 kg warheads from a standoff distance of . Future anticipated improvements support includes support for JDAM-ER, mine laying, drone dispersal as well as improved standoff range when JASSM-XR become available in 2024. ===Replacement=== In October 2010, the U.S. Air Force released a capability request for information (CRFI) for the development of a new airlifter to replace the C-130. The new aircraft was to carry a 190% greater payload and assume the mission of mounted vertical maneuver (MVM). The greater payload and mission would enable it to carry medium-weight armored vehicles and unload them at locations without long runways. Various options were under consideration, including new or upgraded fixed-wing designs, rotorcraft, tiltrotors, or even an airship. The C-130 fleet of around 450 planes would be replaced by only 250 aircraft. The Air Force had attempted to replace the C-130 in the 1970s through the Advanced Medium STOL Transport project, which resulted in the C-17 Globemaster III that instead replaced the C-141 Starlifter. The Air Force Research Laboratory funded Lockheed Martin and Boeing demonstrators for the Speed Agile concept, which had the goal of making a STOL aircraft that could take off and land at speeds as low as on airfields less than long and cruise at Mach 0.8-plus. Boeing's design used upper-surface blowing from embedded engines on the inboard wing and blown flaps for circulation control on the outboard wing. Lockheed's design also used blown flaps outboard, but inboard used patented reversing ejector nozzles. Boeing's design completed over 2,000 hours of wind tunnel tests in late 2009. It was a 5 percent-scale model of a narrow body design with a payload. When the AFRL increased the payload requirement to , they tested a 5 percent-scale model of a widebody design with a take-off gross weight and an "A400M-size" wide cargo box. It would be powered by four IAE V2533 turbofans. On 26 March 2013, Boeing was granted a patent for its swept-wing powered lift aircraft. In January 2014, Air Mobility Command, Air Force Materiel Command and the Air Force Research Lab were in the early stages of defining requirements for the C-X next generation airlifter program to replace both the C-130 and C-17. The aircraft would be produced from the early 2030s to the 2040s. ==Operational history== ===Military=== The first production batch of C-130A aircraft were delivered beginning in 1956 to the 463d Troop Carrier Wing at Ardmore AFB, Oklahoma, and the 314th Troop Carrier Wing at Sewart AFB, Tennessee. Six additional squadrons were assigned to the 322d Air Division in Europe and the 315th Air Division in the Far East. Additional aircraft were modified for electronics intelligence work and assigned to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany while modified RC-130As were assigned to the Military Air Transport Service (MATS) photo-mapping division. The C-130A entered service with the U.S. Air Force in December 1956. In 1958, a U.S. reconnaissance C-130A-II of the 7406th Support Squadron was shot down over Armenia by four Soviet MiG-17s along the Turkish-Armenian border during a routine mission. Australia became the first non-American operator of the Hercules with 12 examples being delivered from late 1958. The Royal Canadian Air Force became another early user with the delivery of four B-models (Canadian designation CC-130 Mk I) in October / November 1960. In 1963, a Hercules achieved and still holds the record for the largest and heaviest aircraft to land on an aircraft carrier. During October and November that year, a USMC KC-130F (BuNo 149798), loaned to the U.S. Naval Air Test Center, made 29 touch-and-go landings, 21 unarrested full-stop landings and 21 unassisted take-offs on at a number of different weights. The pilot, Lieutenant (later Rear Admiral) James H. Flatley III, USN, was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his role in this test series. The tests were highly successful, but the aircraft was not deployed this way. Flatley denied that C-130 was tested for carrier onboard delivery (COD) operations, or for delivering nuclear weapons. He said that the intention was to support the Lockheed U-2, also being tested on carriers. The Hercules used in the test, most recently in service with Marine Aerial Refueler Squadron 352 (VMGR-352) until 2005, is now part of the collection of the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida. In 1964, C-130 crews from the 6315th Operations Group at Naha Air Base, Okinawa commenced forward air control (FAC; "Flare") missions over the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos supporting USAF strike aircraft. In April 1965 the mission was expanded to North Vietnam where C-130 crews led formations of Martin B-57 Canberra bombers on night reconnaissance/strike missions against communist supply routes leading to South Vietnam. In early 1966 Project Blind Bat/Lamplighter was established at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. After the move to Ubon, the mission became a four-engine FAC mission with the C-130 crew searching for targets and then calling in strike aircraft. Another little-known C-130 mission flown by Naha-based crews was Operation Commando Scarf (or Operation Commando Lava), which involved the delivery of chemicals onto sections of the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos that were designed to produce mud and landslides in hopes of making the truck routes impassable. In November 1964, on the other side of the globe, C-130Es from the 464th Troop Carrier Wing but loaned to 322d Air Division in France, took part in Operation Dragon Rouge, one of the most dramatic missions in history in the former Belgian Congo. After communist Simba rebels took white residents of the city of Stanleyville hostage, the U.S. and Belgium developed a joint rescue mission that used the C-130s to drop, air-land, and air-lift a force of Belgian paratroopers to rescue the hostages. Two missions were flown, one over Stanleyville and another over Paulis during Thanksgiving week. The headline-making mission resulted in the first award of the prestigious MacKay Trophy to C-130 crews. In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the No. 6 Transport Squadron of the Pakistan Air Force modified its C-130Bs for use as bombers to carry up to of bombs on pallets. These improvised bombers were used to hit Indian targets such as bridges, heavy artillery positions, tank formations, and troop concentrations, though weren't that successful . In October 1968, a C-130Bs from the 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing dropped a pair of M-121 bombs that had been developed for the massive Convair B-36 Peacemaker bomber but had never been used. The U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force resurrected the huge weapons as a means of clearing landing zones for helicopters and in early 1969 the 463rd commenced Commando Vault missions. Although the stated purpose of Commando Vault was to clear LZs, they were also used on enemy base camps and other targets. During the late 1960s, the U.S. was eager to get information on Chinese nuclear capabilities. After the failure of the Black Cat Squadron to plant operating sensor pods near the Lop Nur Nuclear Weapons Test Base using a U-2, the CIA developed a plan, named Heavy Tea, to deploy two battery-powered sensor pallets near the base. To deploy the pallets, a Black Bat Squadron crew was trained in the U.S. to fly the C-130 Hercules. The crew of 12, led by Col Sun Pei Zhen, took off from Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base in an unmarked U.S. Air Force C-130E on 17 May 1969. Flying for six and a half hours at low altitude in the dark, they arrived over the target and the sensor pallets were dropped by parachute near Anxi in Gansu province. After another six and a half hours of low-altitude flight, they arrived back at Takhli. The sensors worked and uploaded data to a U.S. intelligence satellite for six months before their batteries failed. The Chinese conducted two nuclear tests, on 22 September 1969 and 29 September 1969, during the operating life of the sensor pallets. Another mission to the area was planned as Operation Golden Whip, but it was called off in 1970. It is most likely that the aircraft used on this mission was either C-130E serial number 64-0506 or 64-0507 (cn 382-3990 and 382–3991). These two aircraft were delivered to Air America in 1964. After being returned to the U.S. Air Force sometime between 1966 and 1970, they were assigned the serial numbers of C-130s that had been destroyed in accidents. 64-0506 is now flying as 62–1843, a C-130E that crashed in Vietnam on 20 December 1965, and 64-0507 is now flying as 63–7785, a C-130E that had crashed in Vietnam on 17 June 1966. The A-model continued in service through the Vietnam War, where the aircraft assigned to the four squadrons at Naha AB, Okinawa, and one at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan performed yeoman's service, including operating highly classified special operations missions such as the BLIND BAT FAC/Flare mission and Fact Sheet leaflet mission over Laos and North Vietnam. The A-model was also provided to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force as part of the Vietnamization program at the end of the war, and equipped three squadrons based at Tan Son Nhut Air Base. The last operator in the world is the Honduran Air Force, which is still flying one of five A model Hercules (FAH 558, c/n 3042) as of October 2009. As the Vietnam War wound down, the 463rd Troop Carrier/Tactical Airlift Wing B-models and A-models of the 374th Tactical Airlift Wing were transferred back to the United States where most were assigned to Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard units. Another prominent role for the B model was with the United States Marine Corps, where Hercules initially designated as GV-1s replaced C-119s. After Air Force C-130Ds proved the type's usefulness in Antarctica, the U.S. Navy purchased several B-models equipped with skis that were designated as LC-130s. C-130B-II electronic reconnaissance aircraft were operated under the SUN VALLEY program name primarily from Yokota Air Base, Japan. All reverted to standard C-130B cargo aircraft after their replacement in the reconnaissance role by other aircraft. The C-130 was also used in the 1976 Entebbe raid in which Israeli commando forces performed a surprise operation to rescue 103 passengers of an airliner hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists at Entebbe Airport, Uganda. The rescue force—200 soldiers, jeeps, and a black Mercedes-Benz (intended to resemble Ugandan Dictator Idi Amin's vehicle of state)—was flown over almost entirely at an altitude of less than from Israel to Entebbe by four Israeli Air Force (IAF) Hercules aircraft without mid-air refueling (on the way back, the aircraft refueled in Nairobi, Kenya). During the Falklands War () of 1982, Argentine Air Force C-130s undertook dangerous re-supply night flights as blockade runners to the Argentine garrison on the Falkland Islands. They also performed daylight maritime survey flights. One was shot down by a Royal Navy Sea Harrier using AIM-9 Sidewinders and cannon. The crew of seven were killed. Argentina also operated two KC-130 tankers during the war, and these refueled both the Douglas A-4 Skyhawks and Navy Dassault-Breguet Super Étendards; some C-130s were modified to operate as bombers with bomb-racks under their wings. The British also used RAF C-130s to support their logistical operations. During the Gulf War of 1991 (Operation Desert Storm), the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps, along with the air forces of Australia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, and the UK. The MC-130 Combat Talon variant also made the first attacks using the largest conventional bombs in the world, the BLU-82 "Daisy Cutter" and GBU-43/B "Massive Ordnance Air Blast" (MOAB) bomb. Daisy Cutters were used to primarily clear landing zones and to eliminate mine fields. The weight and size of the weapons make it impossible or impractical to load them on conventional bombers. The GBU-43/B MOAB is a successor to the BLU-82 and can perform the same function, as well as perform strike functions against hardened targets in a low air threat environment. Since 1992, two successive C-130 aircraft named Fat Albert have served as the support aircraft for the U.S. Navy Blue Angels flight demonstration team. Fat Albert I was a TC-130G (151891) a former U.S. Navy TACAMO aircraft serving with Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron Three (VQ-3) before being transferred to the BLUES, while Fat Albert II is a C-130T (164763). Although Fat Albert supports a Navy squadron, it is operated by the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) and its crew consists solely of USMC personnel. At some air shows featuring the team, Fat Albert takes part, performing flyovers. Until 2009, it also demonstrated its rocket-assisted takeoff (RATO) capabilities; these ended due to dwindling supplies of rockets. The AC-130 also holds the record for the longest sustained flight by a C-130. From 22 to 24 October 1997, two AC-130U gunships flew 36 hours nonstop from Hurlburt Field, Florida to Daegu International Airport, South Korea, being refueled seven times by KC-135 tanker aircraft. This record flight beat the previous record longest flight by over 10 hours and the two gunships took on of fuel. The gunship has been used in every major U.S. combat operation since Vietnam, except for Operation El Dorado Canyon, the 1986 attack on Libya. During the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the ongoing support of the International Security Assistance Force (Operation Enduring Freedom), the C-130 Hercules has been used operationally by Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, Spain, the UK, and the United States. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom), the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, the UK, and the United States. After the initial invasion, C-130 operators as part of the Multinational force in Iraq used their C-130s to support their forces in Iraq. Since 2004, the Pakistan Air Force has employed C-130s in the War in North-West Pakistan. Some variants had forward looking infrared (FLIR Systems Star Safire III EO/IR) sensor balls, to enable close tracking of militants. In 2017, France and Germany announced that they are to build up a joint air transport squadron at Evreux Air Base, France, comprising ten C-130J aircraft. Six of these will be operated by Germany. Initial operational capability is expected for 2021 while full operational capability is scheduled for 2024. The Argentine Air Force has five C-130H aircraft that are part of a US-funded security assistance donation. The US has been leasing the aircraft to the Argentine Air Force through the Georgia Air National Guard since June 2023. ===Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill=== For almost two decades, the USAF 910th Airlift Wing's 757th Airlift Squadron and the U.S. Coast Guard have participated in oil spill cleanup exercises to ensure the U.S. military has a capable response in the event of a national emergency. The 757th Airlift Squadron operates the DOD's only fixed-wing Aerial Spray System which was certified by the EPA to disperse pesticides on DOD property to spread oil dispersants onto the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf Coast in 2010. During the 5-week mission, the aircrews flew 92 sorties and sprayed approximately 30,000 acres with nearly 149,000 gallons of oil dispersant to break up the oil. The Deepwater Horizon mission was the first time the US used the oil dispersing capability of the 910th Airlift Wing—its only large area, fixed-wing aerial spray program—in an actual spill of national significance. The Air Force Reserve Command announced the 910th Airlift Wing has been selected as a recipient of the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for its outstanding achievement from 28 April 2010 through 4 June 2010. === Hurricane Harvey (2017) === C-130s temporarily based at Kelly Field conducted mosquito control aerial spray applications over areas of eastern Texas devastated by Hurricane Harvey. This special mission treated more than 2.3 million acres at the direction of Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the Texas Department of State Health Services (DSHS) to assist in recovery efforts by helping contain the significant increase in pest insects caused by large amounts of standing, stagnant water. The 910th Airlift Wing operates the Department of Defense's only aerial spray capability to control pest insect populations, eliminate undesired and invasive vegetation, and disperse oil spills in large bodies of water. The aerial spray flight also is now able to operate during the night with NVGs, which increases the flight's best case spray capacity from approximately 60 thousand acres per day to approximately 190 thousand acres per day. Spray missions are normally conducted at dusk and nighttime hours when pest insects are most active, the U.S. Air Force Reserve reports. ===Aerial firefighting=== In the early 1970s, Congress authorized the Modular Airborne Firefighting System (MAFFS), a joint operation between the U.S. Forest Service and the Department of Defense. MAFFS is roll-on/roll-off device that allows C-130s to be temporarily converted into a 3,000-gallon airtanker for fighting wildfires when demand exceeds the supply of privately contracted and publicly available airtankers. In the late 1980s, 22 retired USAF C-130As were removed from storage and transferred to the U.S. Forest Service, which then transferred them to six private companies to be converted into airtankers. One of these C-130s crashed in June 2002 while operating near Walker, California. The crash was attributed to wing separation caused by fatigue stress cracking and contributed to the grounding of the entire large aircraft fleet. After an extensive review, US Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management declined to renew the leases on nine C-130A over concerns about the age of the aircraft, which had been in service since the 1950s, and their ability to handle the forces generated by aerial firefighting. More recently, an updated Retardant Aerial Delivery System known as RADS XL was developed by Coulson Aviation USA. That system consists of a C-130H/Q retrofitted with an in-floor discharge system, combined with a removable 3,500- or 4,000-gallon water tank. The combined system is FAA certified. On 23 January 2020, Coulson's Tanker 134, an EC-130Q registered N134CG, crashed during aerial firefighting operations in New South Wales, Australia, killing all three crew members. The aircraft had taken off out of RAAF Base Richmond and was supporting firefighting operations during Australia's 2019–20 fire season. ==Variants== Significant military variants of the C-130 include: C-130A Initial production model with four Allison T56-A-11/9 turboprop engines. 219 were ordered and deliveries to the USAF began in December 1956. C-130B Variant with four Allison T56-A-7 engines. 134 were ordered and entered USAF service in May 1959. C-130E Same engines as the C-130B but with two external fuel tanks, and an increased maximum takeoff weight capability. Introduced in August 1962 with 389 were ordered. C-130F/G Variants procured by the U.S. Navy for Marine Corps refueling missions, and other support/transport operations. C-130H Identical to the C-130E but with more powerful Allison T56-A-15 turboprop engines. Introduced in June 1964 with 308 ordered. C-130K Designation for RAF Hercules C1/W2/C3 aircraft (C-130Js in RAF service are the Hercules C.4 and Hercules C.5) C-130T Improved variants procured by the U.S. Navy for Marine Corps refueling, and other support/transport operations. C-130A-II Dreamboat Early version Electronic Intelligence/Signals Intelligence (ELINT/SIGINT) aircraft C-130J Super Hercules Tactical airlifter, with new engines, avionics, and updated systems C-130B BLC: A one-off conversion of C-130B 58–0712, modified with a double Allison YT56 gas generator pod under each outer wing, to provide bleed air for all the control surfaces and flaps. AC-130A/E/H/J/U/W Gunship variants C-130D/D-6 Ski-equipped version for snow and ice operations United States Air Force / Air National Guard CC-130E/H/J Hercules Designation for Canadian Armed Forces / Royal Canadian Air Force Hercules aircraft. U.S. Air Force used the CC-130J designation to differentiate the standard C-130J variant from the "stretched" C-130J (company designation C-130J-30). CC-130H(T) is the Canadian tanker variant of the KC-130H. C-130M: Designation used by the Brazilian Air Force for locally modified C-130H aircraft. DC-130A/E/H USAF and USN Drone control EC-130 EC-130E/J Commando Solo – USAF / Air National Guard psychological operations version EC-130E Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) – USAF procedural air-to-ground attack control, also provided NRT threat updates EC-130E Rivet Rider – Airborne psychological warfare aircraft EC-130H Compass Call – Electronic warfare and electronic attack. EC-130V – Airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) variant used by USCG for counter-narcotics missions GC-130 Permanently grounded instructional airframes HC-130 HC-130B/E/H – Early model combat search and rescue HC-130P/N Combat King – USAF aerial refueling tanker and combat search and rescue HC-130J Combat King II – Next generation combat search and rescue tanker HC-130H/J – USCG long-range surveillance and search and rescue, USAFR Aerial Spray & Airlift JC-130 Temporary conversion for flight test operations; used to recover drones and spy satellite film capsules. KC-130F/R/T/J United States Marine Corps aerial refueling tanker and tactical airlifter LC-130F/H/R USAF / Air National Guard – Ski-equipped version for Arctic and Antarctic support operations; LC-130F and R previously operated by USN MC-130 MC-130E/H Combat Talon I/II – Special operations infiltration/extraction variant MC-130W Combat Spear/Dragon Spear – Special operations tanker/gunship MC-130P Combat Shadow – Special operations tanker – all operational aircraft converted to HC-130P standard MC-130J Commando II (formerly Combat Shadow II) – Special operations tanker Air Force Special Operations Command YMC-130H – Modified aircraft under Operation Credible Sport for second Iran hostage crisis rescue attempt NC-130 Permanent conversion for flight test operations PC-130/C-130-MP Maritime patrol RC-130A/S Surveillance aircraft for reconnaissance SC-130J Sea Herc Proposed maritime patrol version of the C-130J, designed for coastal surveillance and anti-submarine warfare. TC-130 Aircrew training VC-130H VIP transport WC-130A/B/E/H/J Weather reconnaissance ("Hurricane Hunter") version for USAF / Air Force Reserve Command's 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron in support of the National Weather Service's National Hurricane Center C-130(EM/BM) Erciyes Turkey's Erciyes modernization program covers modernization of the avionics of C-130B/E variants of the aircraft. In scope of modernization the aircraft is equipped with Digital Cockpit (four-color Multifunctional Display with moving map capability-MFD), two Central Display Units (CDU) and two multifunction Central Control Computers compatible with international navigational requirements, as well as with a multifunction Mission Computer with high operational capability, Flight Management System (FMS), Link-16, Ground Mission Planning Unit compatible with the Air Force Information System, and display and lighting systems compatible with Night Vision Goggles. Other components such as GPS, indicator, anti-collision system, air radar, advanced military and civilian navigation systems, night-time invisible lighting for military missions, black box voice recorder, communication systems, advanced automated flight systems (military and civilian), systems enabling operation in the military network, digital moving map and ground mission planning systems are also included. B.L.8 () Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the C-130H. B.L.8A () Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the C-130H-30. Former operators ==Accidents== The C-130 Hercules has had a low accident rate in general. The Royal Air Force recorded an accident rate of about one aircraft loss per 250,000 flying hours over the last 40 years, placing it behind Vickers VC10s and Lockheed TriStars with no flying losses. USAF C-130A/B/E-models had an overall attrition rate of 5% as of 1989 as compared to 1–2% for commercial airliners in the U.S., according to the NTSB, 10% for B-52 bombers, and 20% for fighters (F-4, F-111), trainers (T-37, T-38), and helicopters (H-3). ==Aircraft on display== ===Argentina=== C-130B FAA TC-60. ex USAF 61-0964 received in February 1992 now at Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica since September 2011. ===Australia=== C-130A RAAF A97-214 used by 36 Squadron from early 1959, withdrawn from use late 1978. Stored at RAAF Museum, RAAF Base Williams, Point Cook. Airframe scrapped in February 2022. Cockpit section preserved and gifted to National Vietnam Veterans Museum, Phillip Island. C-130E RAAF A97-160 used by 37 Squadron from August 1966, withdrawn from use November 2000; to RAAF Museum, 14 November 2000, cocooned as of September 2005. C-130H A97-011 delivered in October 1978, withdrawn from use December 2012 to RAAF Museum, Point Cook where it is currently on display. === Belgium === C-130H Belgian Air Component tailnumber CH13 in service from 2009 until May 2021 is on display at the Beauvechain Air Base at the First Wing Historical Center. ===Brazil=== C-130H Brazilian Air Force FAB-2453 is on display at the Museu Aeroespacial in Rio de Janeiro since 2014. ===Canada=== CC-130E RCAF 10313 (later 130313) is on display at the National Air Force Museum of Canada, CFB Trenton CC-130E RCAF 10307 (later 130307) is on display in the Reserve Hangar at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario CC-130E RCAF 130328 is on display at the Greenwood Aviation Museum, CFB Greenwood ===Colombia=== C-130B FAC 1010 (serial number 3521) moved on 14 January 2016 to the Colombian Aerospace Museum in Tocancipá, Cundinamarca, for static display. C-130B FAC1011 (serial number 3585, ex 59–1535) preserved at the Colombian Air and Space Museum within CATAM AFB, Bogotá. ===Indonesia=== C-130B Indonesian Air Force A-1301 preserved at Sulaeman Airstrip, Bandung. Also occasionally used for Paskhas Training. The airplane is relocated to Air Force Museum in Yogyakarta in 2017. ===New Zealand=== C-130H(NZ) Royal New Zealand Air Force, aircraft NZ7001 was retired to the Air Force Museum making its final delivery flight into Wigram on 19 February 2025, following 60 years service. ===Norway=== C-130H Royal Norwegian Air Force 953 was retired on 10 June 2007 and moved to the Air Force museum at Oslo Gardermoen in May 2008. ===Philippines=== L-100-20 4512 Philippine Air Force on display at Mactan Air Base aircraft park. === Poland === C-130E number 1503 (serial number 70-1272), formerly operated by Polish Air Force and stationed at 33rd Air Base, retired on 30 July 2024. It is currently on display at the Polish Air Force Museum in Dęblin. ===Saudi Arabia=== C-130H RSAF 460 was operated by 4 Squadron Royal Saudi Air Force from December 1974 until January 1987. It was damaged in a fire at Jeddah in December 1989. Restored for ground training by August 1993. At Royal Saudi Air Force Museum, November 2002, restored for ground display by using a tail from another C-130H. ===United Kingdom=== Hercules C3 XV202 that served with the Royal Air Force from 1967 to 2011, is on display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford. ===United States=== GC-130A, AF Ser. No. 55-037 used by the 773 TCS, 483 TCW, 315 AD, 374 TCW, 815 TAS, 35 TAS, 109 TAS, belly-landed at Duluth, Minnesota, April 1973, repaired; 167 TAS, 180 TAS, to Chanute Technical Training Center as GC-130A, May 1984; now displayed at Museum of Missouri Military History, Missouri National Guard Ike Skelton Training Center, Jefferson City, Missouri. Previously displayed at Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, (former) Chanute AFB, Rantoul, Illinois until museum closed. C-130A, AF Ser. No. 56-0518 used by the 314 TCW, 315 AD, 41 ATS, 328 TAS; to Republic of Vietnam Air Force 435 Transport Squadron, November 1972; holds the C-130 record for taking off with the most personnel on board, during the evacuation of SVN, 29 April 1975, with 452. Returned to USAF, 185 TAS, 105 TAS; Flown to Little Rock AFB on 28 June 1989. It was converted to a static display at the LRAFB Visitor Center, Arkansas by Sept. 1989. C-130A, AF Ser. No. 57-0453 was operated from 1958 to 1991, last duty with 155th TAS, 164th TAG, Tennessee Air National Guard, Memphis International Airport/ANGB, Tennessee, 1976–1991, named "Nite Train to Memphis"; to AMARC in December 1991, then sent to Texas for modification into a replica of C-130A-II Dreamboat aircraft, AF Ser. No. 56-0528, shot down by Soviet fighters in Soviet airspace near Yerevan, Armenia on 2 September 1958, while on ELINT mission with loss of all crew, displayed in National Vigilance Park, National Security Agency grounds, Fort George Meade, Maryland. C-130B, AF Ser. No. 59-0528 was operated by 145th Airlift Wing, North Carolina Air National Guard; placed on static display at Charlotte Air National Guard Base, North Carolina in 2010. C-130D, AF Ser. No. 57-0490 used by the 61st TCS, 17th TCS, 139th TAS with skis, July 1975 – April 1983; to MASDC, 1984–1985, GC-130D ground trainer, Chanute AFB, Illinois, 1986–1990; When Chanute AFB closed in September 1993, it moved to the Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum (former Chanute AFB), Rantoul, Illinois. In July 1994, it moved to the Empire State Aerosciences Museum, Schenectady County Airport, New York, until placed on the gate at Stratton Air National Guard Base in October 1994. NC-130B, AF Ser. No. 57-0526 was the second B model manufactured, initially delivered as JC-130B; assigned to 6515th Organizational Maintenance Squadron for flight testing at Edwards AFB, California on 29 November 1960; turned over to 6593rd Test Squadron's Operating Location No. 1 at Edwards AFB and spent next seven years supporting Corona Program; "J" status and prefix removed from aircraft in October 1967; transferred to 6593rd Test Squadron at Hickam AFB, Hawaii and modified for mid-air retrieval of satellites; acquired by 6514th Test Squadron at Hill AFB, Utah in Jan. 1987 and used as electronic testbed and cargo transport; aircraft retired January 1994 with 11,000+ flight hours and moved to Hill Aerospace Museum at Hill AFB by January 1994. C-130E, AF Ser. No. 62-1787, on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, was flown to the museum on 18 August 2011. One of the greatest feats of heroism during the Vietnam War involved the C-130E, call sign "Spare 617". The C-130E attempted to airdrop ammunition to surround South Vietnamese forces at An Loc, Vietnam. Approaching the drop zone, Spare 617 received heavy enemy ground fire that damaged two engines, ruptured a bleed air duct in the cargo compartment, and set the ammunition on fire. Flight engineer TSgt Sanders was killed, and navigator 1st Lt Lenz and co-pilot 1st Lt Hering were both wounded. Despite receiving severe burns from hot air escaping from the damaged air bleed duct, loadmaster TSgt Shaub extinguished a fire in the cargo compartment, and successfully jettisoned the cargo pallets, which exploded in mid-air. Despite losing a third engine on the final approach, pilot Capt Caldwell landed Spare 617 safely. For their actions, Caldwell and Shaub received the Air Force Cross, the U.S. Air Force's second highest award for valor. TSgt Shaub also received the William H. Pitsenbarger Award for Heroism from the Air Force Sergeants Association. KC-130F, USN/USMC BuNo 149798 used in tests in October–November 1963 by the U.S. Navy for unarrested landings and unassisted take-offs from the carrier USS Forrestal (CV-59), it remains the record holder for largest aircraft to operate from a carrier flight deck, and carried the name "Look Ma, No Hook" during the tests. Retired to the National Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, Florida in May 2003. C-130G, USN/USMC BuNo 151891; modified to EC-130G, 1966, then testbed for EC-130Q TACAMO in 1981, then changed to TC-130G and used by Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron Three (VQ-3) for flight proficiency (bounce bird). In early 1991 it was transferred to AMMARG Davis-Monthan AFB Tucson, AZ. In May 1991 it was assigned as the U.S. Navy's Blue Angels USMC support aircraft, serving as "Fat Albert Airlines" from 1991 to 2002. Retired to the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida in November 2002 where it remains on outside static display reflecting the BLUES colors. C-130E, AF Ser. No. 69-6580 operated by the 61st TAS, 314th TAW, 317th TAW, 314th TAW, 317th TAW, 40th AS, 41st AS, 43rd AW, retired after center wing cracks were detected in April 2002; to the Air Mobility Command Museum, Dover AFB, Delaware on 2 February 2004. C-130E, AF Ser. No. 70-1269 was used by the 43rd AW and is on display at the Pope Air Park, Pope AFB, North Carolina as of 2006. C-130H, AF Ser. No. 74-1686 used by the 463rd TAW; one of three C-130H airframes modified to YMC-130H for an aborted rescue attempt of Iranian hostages, Operation Credible Sport, with rocket packages blistered onto fuselage in 1980, but these were removed after the mission was canceled. Subsequent duty with the 4950th Test Wing, then donated to the Museum of Aviation at Robins AFB, Georgia, in March 1988. C-130H, AF Ser. No. 88-4401 operated by the Ohio 179th Airlift Wing has been retired and is on display at the MAPS Air Museum in Canton, Ohio. ==Specifications (C-130H)==	[ "2002 airtanker crashes", "United States Air Force", "Polish Air Force", "Air Force Outstanding Unit Award", "United States Navy", "USCG", "ski", "Snoopy", "Lockheed Corporation", "bomb", "stainless steel", "Cessna T-37 Tweet", "Royal Saudi Air Force Museum", "MC-130 Combat Talon", "special operations", "EC-130H Compass Call", "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17", "National Weather Service", "C-130A-II Dreamboat", "Advanced Medium STOL Transport", "Chanute AFB", "Bureau of Land Management", "General Dynamics F-111", "The Green Berets (film)", "Boeing", "Royal New Zealand Air Force", "tiltrotor", "463d Troop Carrier Wing", "Federal Emergency Management Agency", "CAESAR self-propelled howitzer", "Tupolev Tu-95", "United States Marine Corps", "Dyess AFB", "National Vigilance Park", "Operation Desert Storm", "Lockheed P2V Neptune", "Hurlburt Field", "Medical evacuation", "military transport aircraft", "Willis Hawkins", "Allison Engine Company", "Surveillance aircraft", "Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard", "Arctic", "Met Office", "Evreux Air Base", "Antarctica", "runway", "touch-and-go landing", "Greenwood Aviation Museum", "wildfire", "Stratton Air National Guard Base", "New York Air National Guard", "Idi Amin", "Inertial guidance system", "Indo-Pakistani War of 1965", "Air National Guard", "Marietta, Georgia", "Air Force Research Laboratory", "UTC Aerospace Systems", "Air Force Materiel Command", "Coulson Aviation", "United States Forest Service", "Operation Iraqi Freedom", "Schenectady County Airport", "United States Department of Defense", "Operation Dragon Rouge", "33rd Air Base", "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II", "Air Force Reserve Command", "Lockheed EC-130", "Palestinian people", "Fort George Meade", "Lockheed Martin", "Dobbins Air Reserve Base", "Hamilton Standard", "Lockheed MC-130", "A400M", "Lockheed DC-130", "Douglas C-47 Skytrain", "Sea Harrier", "Kisangani", "New Zealand Defence Force", "Blackburn Beverley", "322d Air Division", "Lockheed AC-130", "M-121 (bomb)", "Tachikawa Airfield", "Ardmore Air Force Base", "Electronic warfare", "Canadian Armed Forces", "Bogotá", "National Air Force Museum of Canada", "Joint Direct Attack Munition", "Marine Corps Times", "Los Angeles Times", "Antonov An-12", "Maritime patrol", "AMARC", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "315th Air Division", "Royal Saudi Air Force", "Air Force Sergeants Association", "Lockheed L-100", "Rio de Janeiro", "179th Airlift Wing", "Gulf War", "Canton, Ohio", "Mercedes-Benz", "Air Force Cross (United States)", "Naha Air Base", "Westinghouse Electric (1886)", "314th Troop Carrier Wing", "2019–20 Australian bushfire season", "Operation Credible Sport", "Sewart AFB", "Reciprocating engine", "Edwards AFB", "National Security Agency", "NAS Pensacola", "Fulton surface-to-air recovery system", "Curtiss C-46 Commando", "Night vision device", "Allison T56", "757th Airlift Squadron", "low-altitude parachute-extraction system", "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)", "Beauvechain Air Base", "2020 Coulson Aviation Lockheed C-130 Hercules crash", "801 Naval Air Squadron", "close air support", "North Vietnamese Army", "Rantoul, Illinois", "Edwards Air Force Base", "Deepwater Horizon oil spill", "aerial firefighting", "airborne infantry", "Fort Bragg", "avionics", "USS Forrestal", "maritime patrol", "International Security Assistance Force", "Air Combat Command", "Air Mobility Command", "Belgian Congo", "Lockheed U-2", "Korean War", "Tactical airlifter", "U.S. Forest Service airtanker scandal", "Wigram Aerodrome", "search and rescue", "Douglas A-4 Skyhawk", "Blue Angels", "Humvee", "Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica de Argentina", "North American Aviation", "Cundinamarca Department", "M551 Sheridan", "B-52 Stratofortress", "Arresting gear", "Nairobi", "Williams FJ44", "Hurricane Harvey", "aerial refueling", "Flightglobal", "BLU-82", "Republic of Vietnam Air Force", "passengers", "2003 invasion of Iraq", "Canada Aviation and Space Museum", "4950th Test Wing", "Military Air Transport Service", "M113 armored personnel carrier", "ground-attack aircraft", "airtanker", "Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base", "Vietnam War", "1958 C-130 shootdown incident", "Transall C-160", "145th Airlift Wing", "New South Wales", "Rhein-Main Air Base", "Douglas C-124 Globemaster II", "List of non-carrier aircraft flown from aircraft carriers", "Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker", "humanitarian aid", "mosquito control", "forward looking infrared", "Burbank, California", "MacKay Trophy", "night vision device", "Kawasaki C-1", "Israeli Air Force", "combat search and rescue", "The Perfect Storm (film)", "Shaanxi Y-8", "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)", "Royal Australian Air Force", "ring laser gyro", "Pakistan Air Force", "Hall Hibbard", "Tennessee Air National Guard", "tactical airlift", "airborne troops", "Royal Air Force Museum Cosford", "Paulis (Congo)", "North Vietnam", "Hill Aerospace Museum", "Pope AFB", "Tocancipá", "carrier onboard delivery", "flight engineer", "Tactical Air Command", "Pennsylvania Air National Guard", "Hill AFB", "Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar", "Jack Real", "glass cockpit", "List of radars", "CFB Trenton", "Modular Airborne FireFighting System", "CFB Greenwood", "Royal Canadian Air Force", "List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft", "Hurricane Hunter", "English Electric Canberra", "Low rate initial production", "ELINT", "Allison YT56", "Missouri National Guard", "Lockheed L-100 Hercules", "Maryland", "Air America (airline)", "Lockheed HC-130", "TP400", "NACA airfoil", "CSO/navigator", "Falkland Islands", "Aerial refuelling", "Convair B-36 Peacemaker", "Lop Nur", "North Carolina Air National Guard", "Museum of Missouri Military History", "Air Mobility Command Museum", "AGM-158 JASSM", "53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron", "James H. Flatley III", "Special operations", "Olausson, Lars", "Propeller (aircraft)", "6514th Test Squadron", "Operation Enduring Freedom", "aileron", "Air Force Special Operations Command", "Texas Department of State Health Services", "mine field", "Vietnamization", "CIA", "Daegu International Airport", "Marketplace (radio program)", "Multinational force in Iraq", "turboprop", "AIM-9 Sidewinder", "Fairchild Aircraft", "El Dorado International Airport", "Royal Air Force", "Chase XCG-20", "National Museum of Naval Aviation", "airship", "War in North-West Pakistan", "Air Force Museum of New Zealand", "Falklands War", "Defense Technical Information Center", "Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter", "Kelly Field Annex", "Night-vision device", "Vickers VC10", "Manuel Noriega", "Lockheed EC-130H Compass Call", "Northrop T-38 Talon", "Air Force Pararescue", "List of military electronics of the United States", "paratroopers", "Lockheed C-130 Hercules in Australian service", "RAAF Base Richmond", "7406th Support Squadron", "Honduran Air Force", "turbojet", "Iran hostage crisis", "Tan Son Nhut Air Base", "Fairchild C-123 Provider", "Marshall Aerospace", "Lockheed Martin KC-130", "forward air control", "Boeing B-52 Stratofortress", "Psychological Operations (United States)", "turbofan", "Operation Entebbe", "C-141 Starlifter", "wing", "Lockheed TriStar (RAF)", "C-130J Super Hercules", "airframe", "Lockheed WC-130", "Hickam AFB", "Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy", "JATO", "AC-130", "Northrop Corporation", "National Transportation Safety Board", "United States military aircraft serials", "Elmendorf Air Force Base", "gunship", "Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King", "air show", "VMGR-352", "Little Rock AFB", "HH-60 Pave Hawk", "Short Belfast", "Brazilian Air Force", "Tanker (aircraft)", "prototype", "Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base", "Argentine Air Force", "South Korea", "Entebbe Airport", "Rapid Dragon", "Lockheed D-21", "GBU-43/B", "Museu Aeroespacial", "Jefferson City, Missouri", "Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules", "fuel tank", "National Museum of the United States Air Force", "Ho Chi Minh Trail", "Lockheed RC-130 Hercules", "Kelly Johnson (engineer)", "Walker, California", "MAPS Air Museum", "bomber aircraft", "World War II", "IAE V2500", "invasive vegetation", "910th Airlift Wing", "Empire State Aerosciences Museum", "Jeddah", "Chase Aircraft", "Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum", "Illinois", "United States Coast Guard", "Yerevan, Armenia", "List of accidents and incidents involving the Lockheed C-130 Hercules", "EC-130 Commando Solo", "U.S. Forest Service", "Robins AFB", "Royal Thai Armed Forces", "Simba Rebellion", "Naha AB", "Martin B-57 Canberra", "aircraft carrier", "C-17 Globemaster III", "Lockheed LC-130", "Air Force Reserve", "Wright-Patterson AFB", "Charlotte Air National Guard Base", "Operation El Dorado Canyon", "Black Cat Squadron", "Dover AFB", "National Hurricane Center", "RAAF Museum", "Douglas Aircraft", "Glenn L. Martin Company", "loadmaster", "RAF Falcons", "Paskhas", "Cargo aircraft" ]
7,699	Commodore 1570	The Commodore 1570 is a 5¼" floppy disk drive for the Commodore 128 home/personal computer. It is a single-sided, 170 kB version of the Commodore 1571, released as a stopgap measure when Commodore International was unable to provide sufficient quantities of 1571s due to a shortage of double-sided drive mechanisms (which were supplied by an outside manufacturer). Like the 1571, it can read and write both GCR and MFM disk formats. The 1570 utilizes a 1571 logic board in a cream-colored original-1541-like case with a drive mechanism similar to the 1541's except that it was equipped with track-zero detection. Like the 1571, its built-in DOS provides a data burst mode for transferring data to the C128 computer at a faster speed than a 1541 can. Its ROM also contains some DOS bug fixes that didn't appear in the 1571 until much later. The 1570 can read and write all single-sided CP/M-format disks that the 1571 can access. Although the 1570 is compatible with the Commodore 64, the C64 isn't capable of taking advantage of the drive's higher-speed operation, and when used with the C64 it is little more than a pricier 1541. Also, many early buyers of the C128 chose to temporarily make do with a 1541 drive, perhaps owned as part of a previous C64 setup, until the 1571 became more widely available. The drive uses the CPU MOS 6502, floppy controller WD1770 or WD1772, I/O controllers 2x MOS Technology 6522 and 1x MOS Technology 6526.	[ "Commodore 64", "CP/M operating system", "MOS Technology 6502", "Commodore 1571", "Commodore DOS", "Floppy disk format", "floppy disk", "Group Coded Recording", "Western Digital FD1771", "Commodore 128", "Group coded recording", "MOS Technology 6522", "Commodore 1541", "Commodore International", "MOS Technology 6526", "Read-only memory", "Commodore bus", "Modified Frequency Modulation", "home computer", "personal computer" ]
7,700	Commodore 1571	{{Infobox information appliance \| name = Commodore 1571 \| title = \| image = VC1571.JPG \| caption = Commodore 1571 floppy drive \| manufacturer = Commodore Business Machines, Inc. \| type = Floppy drive \| releasedate = \| price = (1985) \| discontinued = \| media = 5¼" floppy disk DS DD using GCR or MFM \| os = CBM DOS 3.0 @ , WD1770 \| memory = 2 kB RAM 32 kB ROM When connected to a C128, the 1571 would default to double-sided mode, which allowed the drive to read its own 340k disks as well as single-sided 170 kB 1541 disks. If the C128 was switched into C64 mode by typing GO 64 from BASIC, the 1571 will stay in double-sided mode. If C64 mode was activated by holding down the C= key on power-up, the drive would automatically switch to single-sided mode, in which case it is unable to read 340 kB disks (also the default if a 1571 is used with a C64, Plus/4, VIC-20, or PET). A manual command can also be issued from BASIC to switch the 1571 between single and double sided mode. There is also an undocumented command which allows the user to independently control either of the read/write heads of the 1571, making it possible to format both sides of a diskette separate from each other, however the resultant disk cannot be read in a 1541 as it would be spinning in reverse direction when flipped upside down. In the same vein, "flippy" disks created with a 1541 cannot be read on a 1571 with this feature; they must be inserted upside down. The 1571 is not 100% low-level compatible with the 1541; however, this isn't a problem except in some software that uses advanced copy protections such as the RapidLok system found on MicroProse and Accolade games. The 1571 was noticeably quieter than its predecessor and tended to run cooler as well, even though, like the 1541, it had an internal power supply (later Commodore drives, like the 1541-II and the 3½" 1581, came with external power supplies). The 1541-II/1581 power supply makes mention of a 1571-II, hinting that Commodore may have intended to release a version of the 1571 with an external power supply. However, no 1571-IIs are known to exist. The embedded OS in the 1571 was an improvement over the Early 1571s had a bug in the ROM-based disk operating system that caused relative files to corrupt if they occupied both sides of the disk. A version 2 ROM was released, but though it cured the initial bug, it introduced some minor quirks of its own – particularly with the 1541 emulation. Curiously, it was also identified as V3.0. As with the 1541, Commodore initially could not meet demand for the 1571, and that lack of availability and the drive's relatively high price (about US$300) presented an opportunity for cloners. Two 1571 clones appeared, one from Oceanic and one from Blue Chip, but legal action from Commodore quickly drove them from the market. Commodore announced at the 1985 Consumer Electronics Show a dual-drive version of the 1571, to be called the Commodore 1572, but quickly canceled it, reportedly due to technical difficulties with the 1572 DOS. It would have had four times as much RAM as the 1571 (8 kB), and twice as much ROM (64 kB). The 1572 would have allowed for fast disk backups of non-copy-protected media, much like the old 4040, 8050, and 8250 dual drives. The 1571 built into the European plastic-case C128D computer is electronically identical to the stand-alone version, but 1571 version integrated into the later metal-case C128D (often called C128 DCR, for D Cost-Reduced) differs a lot from the stand-alone 1571. It includes a newer DOS, version 3.1, replaces the MOS Technology CIA interface chip, of which only a few features were used by the 1571 DOS, with a very much simplified chip called 5710, and has some compatibility issues with the stand-alone drive. Because this internal 1571 does not have an unused 8-bit input/output port on any chip, unlike most other Commodore drives, it is not possible to install a parallel cable in this drive, such as that used by SpeedDOS, DolphinDOS and some other fast third-party Commodore DOS replacements. == Technical design == The drive detects the motor speed and generates an internal data sampling clock signal that matches with the motor speed. The 1571 uses a saddle canceler when reading the data stream. A correction signal is generated when the raw data pattern on the disk consists of two consecutive zeros. With the GCR recording format a problem occurs in the read signal waveform. The worst case pattern 1001 may cause a saddle condition where a false data bit may occur. The original 1541 drives uses a one-shot to correct the condition. The 1571 uses a gate array to correct this digitally. The drive uses the MOS 6502 CPU, WD1770 or WD1772 floppy controller, 2x MOS Technology 6522 I/O controllers and 1x MOS Technology 6526. == Disk format == Unlike the 1541, which was limited to GCR formatting, the 1571 could read both GCR and MFM disk formats. The version of CP/M included with the C128 supported the following formats: IBM PC CP/M-86 Osborne 1 (double density upgrade) Epson QX10 Kaypro II, IV CBM CP/M FORMAT SS CBM CP/M FORMAT DS The 1571 can read any of the many CP/M -disk formats. If the CP/M BIOS is modified, it is possible to read any soft sector 40-track MFM format. Single density (FM) formats are not supported because the density selector pin on the MFM controller chip in the drive is disabled (wired to ground). A 1571 cannot boot from MFM disks; the user must boot CP/M from a GCR disk and then switch to MFM disks. With additional software, it was possible to read and write to MS-DOS-formatted floppies as well. Numerous commercial and public-domain programs for this purpose became available, the best-known being SOGWAP's "Big Blue Reader". Although the C128 could not run any MS-DOS-based software, this capability allowed data files to be exchanged with PC users. Reading or disks was possible as well with special software, but the standard format, which used FM rather than MFM encoding, could not be handled by the 1571 hardware without modifying the drive circuitry as the control line that determines if FM or MFM encoding is used by the disc controller chip was permanently wired to ground (MFM mode) rather than being under software control. In the 1541 format, while 40 tracks are possible for a drive like the 154x/157x, only are used. Commodore chose not to use the upper five tracks by default (or at least to use more than 35) due to the bad quality of some of the drive mechanisms, which did not always work reliably on those tracks. For compatibility and ease of implementation, the 1571's double-sided format of one logical disk side with was created by putting together the lower 35 physical tracks on each of the physical sides of the disk rather than using two times even though there were no more quality problems with the mechanisms of the 1571 drives.	[ "Commodore PET", "Commodore 8050", "BIOS", "Commodore 64", "MFM encoding", "copy protection", "IEEE-488", "CP/M-86", "MOS Technology CIA", "Osborne 1", "MOS Technology 6502", "Epson", "CP/M", "byte", "Commodore 1570", "8-bit computing", "Flippy disk", "Commodore 1581", "Commodore BASIC", "kilobyte", "Frequency modulation", "shift register", "Consumer Electronics Show", "Floppy disk format", "MS-DOS", "floppy disk", "Kaypro", "group coded recording", "bit-banging", "operating system", "Group Coded Recording", "Western Digital FD1771", "Commodore 128", "Group coded recording", "MOS Technology 6522", "MicroProse", "SOGWAP", "Commodore 1541", "Commodore Plus/4", "IBM Personal Computer", "Commodore International", "Commodore 4040", "VIC-20", "Double-sided disk", "Atari 8-bit computers", "MOS Technology 6526", "Read-only memory", "Commodore bus", "clock signal", "Modified Frequency Modulation", "Accolade, Inc.", "Modified frequency modulation", "Commodore DOS" ]
7,701	Cocaine	{{Infobox drug \| Verifiedfields = changed \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 477165921 \| image = Kokain - Cocaine.svg \| image_class = skin-invert-image \| width = \| alt = \| caption = \| image2 = Cocaine-from-xtal-1983-3D-balls.png \| width2 = \| alt2 = \| pronounce = kə(ʊ)ˈkeɪn \| tradename = Neurocaine, Goprelto, \| addiction_liability = High \| routes_of_administration = Topical, by mouth, insufflation, intravenous, inhalation \| class = \| ATC_prefix = N01 \| ATC_suffix = BC01 \| ATC_supplemental = , , \| legal_AU = Schedule 8 \| legal_AU_comment = \| legal_BR = F1 \| legal_BR_comment = \| legal_CA = Schedule I \| legal_CA_comment = \| legal_DE = Anlage III \| legal_DE_comment = \| legal_NZ = Class A \| legal_NZ_comment = \| legal_UK = Class A \| legal_UK_comment = \| legal_US = Schedule II \| legal_US_comment = \| legal_UN = N I III \| legal_UN_comment = \| legal_status = \| bioavailability = {{plainlist\| By mouth: 33% Insufflated: 60–80% Nasal spray: 25–43% is a tropane alkaloid that acts as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. As an extract, it is mainly used recreationally and often illegally as a euphoriant and as an aphrodisiac. It is also used in medicine by indigenous South Americans for various purposes and rarely, but more formally, as a local anaesthetic or diagnostic tool by medical practitioners in more developed countries. It is primarily obtained from the leaves of two coca species native to South America: Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense. After extraction from the plant, and further processing into cocaine hydrochloride (powdered cocaine), the drug is administered by being either snorted, applied topically to the mouth, or dissolved and injected into a vein. It can also then be turned into free base form (typically crack cocaine), in which it can be heated until sublimated and then the vapours can be inhaled. High doses can result in high blood pressure or high body temperature. Onset of effects can begin within seconds to minutes of use, depending on method of delivery, and can last between five and ninety minutes. Cocaine crosses the blood–brain barrier via a proton-coupled organic cation antiporter and (to a lesser extent) via passive diffusion across cell membranes. Cocaine blocks the dopamine transporter, inhibiting reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft into the pre-synaptic axon terminal; the higher dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft increase dopamine receptor activation in the post-synaptic neuron, causing euphoria and arousal. Cocaine also blocks the serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter, inhibiting reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine from the synaptic cleft into the pre-synaptic axon terminal and increasing activation of serotonin receptors and norepinephrine receptors in the post-synaptic neuron, contributing to the mental and physical effects of cocaine exposure. Repeated use is likely to result in addiction. Addicts who abstain from cocaine may experience prolonged craving lasting for many months. Abstaining addicts also experience modest drug withdrawal symptoms lasting up to 24 hours, with sleep disruption, anxiety, irritability, , depression, decreased libido, decreased ability to feel pleasure, and fatigue being common. Illicitly sold cocaine can be adulterated with fentanyl, local anesthetics, levamisole, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar, which can result in additional toxicity. In 2017, the Global Burden of Disease study found that cocaine use caused around 7,300 deaths annually. == Uses == Coca leaves have been used by Andean civilizations since ancient times. Inca culture, and through modern successor indigenous cultures of the Andes mountains, coca leaves are chewed, taken orally in the form of a tea, or alternatively, prepared in a sachet wrapped around alkaline burnt ashes, and held in the mouth against the inner cheek; it has traditionally been used to combat the effects of cold, hunger, and altitude sickness. Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860. Since 1961, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime. In the United States, cocaine is regulated as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act, meaning that it has a high potential for abuse but has an accepted medical use. While rarely used medically today, its accepted uses are as a topical local anesthetic for the upper respiratory tract as well as to reduce bleeding in the mouth, throat and nasal cavities. === Medical === Cocaine eye drops are frequently used by neurologists when examining people suspected of having Horner syndrome. In Horner syndrome, sympathetic innervation to the eye is blocked. In a healthy eye, cocaine will stimulate the sympathetic nerves by inhibiting norepinephrine reuptake, and the pupil will dilate; if the patient has Horner syndrome, the sympathetic nerves are blocked, and the affected eye will remain constricted or dilate to a lesser extent than the opposing (unaffected) eye which also receives the eye drop test. If both eyes dilate equally, the patient does not have Horner syndrome. Topical cocaine is sometimes used as a local numbing agent and vasoconstrictor to help control pain and bleeding with surgery of the nose, mouth, throat or lacrimal duct. It is also used for topical airway anaesthesia for procedures such as awake fibreoptic bronchoscopy or intubation. Although some absorption and systemic effects may occur, the use of cocaine as a topical anesthetic and vasoconstrictor is generally safe, rarely causing cardiovascular toxicity, glaucoma, and pupil dilation. Occasionally, cocaine is mixed with adrenaline and sodium bicarbonate and used topically for surgery, a formulation called Moffett's solution. Cocaine hydrochloride (Goprelto), an ester local anesthetic, was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2017, and is indicated for the introduction of local anesthesia of the mucous membranes for diagnostic procedures and surgeries on or through the nasal cavities of adults. Cocaine hydrochloride (Numbrino) was approved for medical use in the United States in January 2020. The most common adverse reactions in people treated with Goprelto are headache and epistaxis. Its effects can last from 15 minutes to an hour. The duration of cocaine's effects depends on the amount taken and the route of administration. Cocaine can be in the form of fine white powder and has a bitter taste. Crack cocaine is a smokeable form of cocaine made into small "rocks" by processing cocaine with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and water. Crack cocaine is referred to as "crack" because of the crackling sounds it makes when heated. Analysis of the correlation between the use of 18 various psychoactive substances shows that cocaine use correlates with other "party drugs" (such as ecstasy or amphetamines), as well as with heroin and benzodiazepines use, and can be considered as a bridge between the use of different groups of drugs. ==== Coca leaves ==== It is legal for people to use coca leaves in some Andean nations, such as Peru and Bolivia, where they are chewed, consumed in the form of tea, or are sometimes incorporated into food products. Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the buccal pouch (mouth between gum and cheek, much the same as chewing tobacco is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Coca tea, an infusion of coca leaves, is also a traditional method of consumption. The tea has often been recommended for travelers in the Andes to prevent altitude sickness. Its actual effectiveness has never been systematically studied. ==== Insufflation ==== Nasal insufflation (known colloquially as "snorting", "sniffing", or "blowing") is a common method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine. The drug coats and is absorbed through the mucous membranes lining the nasal passages. Cocaine's desired euphoric effects are delayed when snorted through the nose by about five minutes. This occurs because cocaine's absorption is slowed by its constricting effect on the blood vessels of the nose. In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 14.6 minutes. Any damage to the inside of the nose is due to cocaine constricting blood vessels — and therefore restricting blood and oxygen/nutrient flow — to that area. Rolled up banknotes, hollowed-out pens, cut straws, pointed ends of keys, specialized spoons, long fingernails, and (clean) tampon applicators are often used to insufflate cocaine. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a mobile phone screen, mirror, CD case or book) and divided into "bumps", "lines" or "rails", and then insufflated. A 2001 study reported that the sharing of straws used to "snort" cocaine can spread blood diseases such as hepatitis C. ==== Injection ==== Subjective effects not commonly shared with other methods of administration include a ringing in the ears moments after injection (usually when over 120 milligrams) lasting 2 to 5 minutes including tinnitus and audio distortion. This is colloquially referred to as a "bell ringer". In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. ==== Inhalation ==== The onset of cocaine's euphoric effects is fastest with inhalation, beginning after 3–5 seconds. In a 2000 Brookhaven National Laboratory medical department study, based on self-reports of 32 people who used cocaine who participated in the study, "peak high" was found at a mean of 1.4 ± 0.5 minutes. People often freebase crack with a pipe made from a small glass tube, often taken from "love roses", small glass tubes with a paper rose that are promoted as romantic gifts. These are sometimes called "stems", "horns", "blasters" and "straight shooters". A small piece of clean heavy copper or occasionally stainless steel scouring padoften called a "brillo" (actual Brillo Pads contain soap, and are not used) or "chore" (named for Chore Boy brand copper scouring pads)serves as a reduction base and flow modulator in which the "rock" can be melted and boiled to vapor. Crack is smoked by placing it at the end of the pipe; a flame held close to it produces vapor, which is then inhaled by the smoker. The effects felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long — usually 2 to 10 minutes. When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as cannabis, often rolled into a joint or blunt. == Effects == File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg\|class=skin-invert-image\|left\|upright=1.4\|A 2010 study ranking various illegal and legal drugs based on statements by drug-harm experts in the UK. Crack cocaine and cocaine were found to be the third and fifth overall most dangerous drugs respectively. File:US timeline. Opioid involvement in cocaine overdose.jpg\|alt=Opioid involvement in cocaine overdose deaths in the US. The green line is cocaine and any opioid (top line in 2017). The gray line is cocaine without any opioids (bottom line in 2017). The yellow line is cocaine and other synthetic opioids (middle line in 2017).\|Opioid involvement in cocaine overdose deaths in the US. The pale green line is cocaine without any opioid (bottom line in 2017). The yellow line is cocaine and synthetic opioids other than methadone (top line in 2017). File:Rational harm assessment of drugs bar plot.svg\|Delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs based on expert opinion in the UK. Cocaine was ranked the 2nd in dependence and physical harm and 3rd in social harm. === Acute === Acute exposure to cocaine has many effects on humans, including euphoria, increases in heart rate and blood pressure, and increases in cortisol secretion from the adrenal gland. In humans with acute exposure followed by continuous exposure to cocaine at a constant blood concentration, the acute tolerance to the chronotropic cardiac effects of cocaine begins after about 10 minutes, while acute tolerance to the euphoric effects of cocaine begins after about one hour. With excessive or prolonged use, the drug can cause itching, fast heart rate, and paranoid delusions or sensations of insects crawling on the skin. Intranasal cocaine and crack use are both associated with pharmacological violence. Aggressive behavior may be displayed by both addicts and casual users. Cocaine can induce psychosis characterized by paranoia, impaired reality testing, hallucinations, irritability, and physical aggression. Cocaine intoxication can cause hyperawareness, hypervigilance, and psychomotor agitation and delirium. Consumption of large doses of cocaine can cause violent outbursts, especially by those with preexisting psychosis. Crack-related violence is also systemic, relating to disputes between crack dealers and users. Acute exposure may induce cardiac arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation, supraventricular tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation. Acute exposure may also lead to angina, heart attack, and congestive heart failure. Cocaine overdose may cause seizures, abnormally high body temperature and a marked elevation of blood pressure, which can be life-threatening, and death. === Chronic === Although it has been commonly asserted, the available evidence does not show that chronic use of cocaine is associated with broad cognitive deficits. Research is inconclusive on age-related loss of striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) sites, suggesting cocaine has neuroprotective or neurodegenerative properties for dopamine neurons. Exposure to cocaine may lead to the breakdown of the blood–brain barrier. Physical side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include coughing up blood, bronchospasm, itching, fever, diffuse alveolar infiltrates without effusions, pulmonary and systemic eosinophilia, chest pain, lung trauma, sore throat, asthma, hoarse voice, dyspnea (shortness of breath), and an aching, flu-like syndrome. Cocaine constricts blood vessels, dilates pupils, and increases body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. It can also cause headaches and gastrointestinal complications such as abdominal pain and nausea. A common but untrue belief is that the smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down tooth enamel and causes tooth decay. Cocaine can cause involuntary tooth grinding, known as bruxism, which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to gingivitis. Additionally, stimulants like cocaine, methamphetamine, and even caffeine cause dehydration and dry mouth. Since saliva is an important mechanism in maintaining one's oral pH level, people who use cocaine over a long period of time who do not hydrate sufficiently may experience demineralization of their teeth due to the pH of the tooth surface dropping too low (below 5.5). Cocaine use also promotes the formation of blood clots. Illicitly-sold cocaine may be contaminated with levamisole. Levamisole may accentuate cocaine's effects. Levamisole-adulterated cocaine has been associated with autoimmune disease. Cocaine use leads to an increased risk of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes. === Addiction === Relatives of persons with cocaine addiction have an increased risk of cocaine addiction. Cocaine addiction occurs through ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens, which results in altered transcriptional regulation in neurons within the nucleus accumbens. ΔFosB levels have been found to increase upon the use of cocaine. Each subsequent dose of cocaine continues to increase ΔFosB levels with no ceiling of tolerance. Elevated levels of ΔFosB leads to increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, which in turn increases the number of dendritic branches and spines present on neurons involved with the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex areas of the brain. This change can be identified rather quickly, and may be sustained weeks after the last dose of the drug. Transgenic mice exhibiting inducible expression of ΔFosB primarily in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum exhibit sensitized behavioural responses to cocaine. They self-administer cocaine at lower doses than control, but have a greater likelihood of relapse when the drug is withheld. ΔFosB increases the expression of AMPA receptor subunit GluR2 During DNA repair of such damages, persistent chromatin alterations may occur such as methylation of DNA or the acetylation or methylation of histones at the sites of repair. These alterations can be epigenetic in the chromatin that contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes found in cocaine addiction. In humans, cocaine abuse may cause structural changes in brain connectivity, though it is unclear to what extent these changes are permanent. === Dependence and withdrawal === Cocaine dependence develops after even brief periods of regular cocaine use and produces a withdrawal state with emotional-motivational deficits upon cessation of cocaine use. === During pregnancy === Crack baby is a term for a child born to a mother who used crack cocaine during her pregnancy. The threat that cocaine use during pregnancy poses to the fetus is now considered exaggerated. Studies show that prenatal cocaine exposure (independent of other effects such as, for example, alcohol, tobacco, or physical environment) has no appreciable effect on childhood growth and development. In 2007, the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the United States warned about health risks while cautioning against stereotyping: There are also warnings about the threat of breastfeeding: The March of Dimes said "it is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk," and advises the following regarding cocaine use during pregnancy: === Mortality === Persons with regular or problematic use of cocaine have a significantly higher rate of death, and are specifically at higher risk of traumatic deaths and deaths attributable to infectious disease. In 2025, the Liberty House Clinic in the United Kingdom noted that chronic cocaine usage in fact had a higher risk of death than chronic alcohol consumption. == Pharmacology == === Pharmacokinetics === The extent of absorption of cocaine into the systemic circulation after nasal insufflation is similar to that after oral ingestion. The rate of absorption after nasal insufflation is limited by cocaine-induced vasoconstriction of capillaries in the nasal mucosa. Onset of absorption after oral ingestion is delayed because cocaine is a weak base with a pKa of 8.6, and is thus in an ionized form that is poorly absorbed from the acidic stomach and easily absorbed from the alkaline duodenum. Cocaine crosses the blood–brain barrier via both a proton-coupled organic cation antiporter Cocaine has a short elimination half life of 0.7–1.5 hours and is extensively metabolized by plasma esterases and also by liver cholinesterases, with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. If consumed with alcohol, cocaine combines with alcohol in the liver to form cocaethylene. Detection of cocaine metabolites in hair is possible in regular users until after the sections of hair grown during the period of cocaine use are cut or fall out. === Pharmacodynamics === The pharmacodynamics of cocaine involve the complex relationships of neurotransmitters (inhibiting monoamine uptake in rats with ratios of about: serotonin:dopamine = 2:3, serotonin:norepinephrine = 2:5). Cocaine affects certain serotonin (5-HT) receptors; in particular, it has been shown to antagonize the 5-HT3 receptor, which is a ligand-gated ion channel. An overabundance of 5-HT3 receptors is reported in cocaine-conditioned rats, though 5-HT3's role is unclear. The 5-HT2 receptor (particularly the subtypes 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C) are involved in the locomotor-activating effects of cocaine. Cocaine has been demonstrated to bind as to directly stabilize the DAT transporter on the open outward-facing conformation. Further, cocaine binds in such a way as to inhibit a hydrogen bond innate to DAT. Cocaine's binding properties are such that it attaches so this hydrogen bond will not form and is blocked from formation due to the tightly locked orientation of the cocaine molecule. Research studies have suggested that the affinity for the transporter is not what is involved in the habituation of the substance so much as the conformation and binding properties to where and how on the transporter the molecule binds. Conflicting findings have challenged the widely accepted view that cocaine functions solely as a reuptake inhibitor. To induce euphoria an intravenous dose of 0.3-0.6 mg/kg of cocaine is required, which blocks 66-70% of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the brain. Re-administering cocaine beyond this threshold does not significantly increase DAT occupancy but still results in an increase of euphoria which cannot be explained by reuptake inhibition alone. This discrepancy is not shared with other dopamine reuptake inhibitors like bupropion, sibutramine, mazindol or tesofensine, which have similar or higher potencies than cocaine as dopamine reuptake inhibitors. Furthermore, a similar response-occupancy discrepancy has been observed with methylphenidate, which also stabilizes the dopamine transporter in an open outward-facing conformation. These findings have evoked a hypothesis that cocaine may also function as a so-called "DAT inverse agonist" or "negative allosteric modifier of DAT" resulting in dopamine transporter reversal, and subsequent dopamine release into the synaptic cleft from the axon terminal in a manner similar to but distinct from amphetamines. Sigma receptors are affected by cocaine, as cocaine functions as a sigma ligand agonist. Further specific receptors it has been demonstrated to function on are NMDA and the D1 dopamine receptor. Cocaine also blocks sodium channels, thereby interfering with the propagation of action potentials; Cocaine also causes vasoconstriction, thus reducing bleeding during minor surgical procedures. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms and clock genes in behavioral actions of cocaine. Cocaine is known to suppress hunger and appetite by increasing co-localization of sigma σ1R receptors and ghrelin GHS-R1a receptors at the neuronal cell surface, thereby increasing ghrelin-mediated signaling of satiety and possibly via other effects on appetitive hormones. Chronic users may lose their appetite and can experience severe malnutrition and significant weight loss. Cocaine effects, further, are shown to be potentiated for the user when used in conjunction with new surroundings and stimuli, and otherwise novel environs. == Chemistry == === Appearance === Cocaine in its purest form is a white, pearly product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a salt, typically cocaine hydrochloride. Street cocaine is often adulterated or "cut" with cheaper substances to increase bulk, including talc, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, inositol, caffeine, procaine, phencyclidine, phenytoin, lignocaine, strychnine, levamisole, and amphetamine. Fentanyl has been increasingly found in cocaine samples, although it is unclear if this is primarily due to intentional adulteration or cross contamination. Crack cocaine looks like irregular shaped white rocks. === Forms === ==== Salts ==== Cocaine — a tropane alkaloid — is a weakly alkaline compound, and can therefore combine with acidic compounds to form salts. The hydrochloride (HCl) salt of cocaine is by far the most commonly encountered, although the sulfate (SO42−) and the nitrate (NO3−) salts are occasionally seen. Different salts dissolve to a greater or lesser extent in various solvents — the hydrochloride salt is polar in character and is quite soluble in water. ==== Base ==== As the name implies, "freebase" is the base form of cocaine, as opposed to the salt form. It is practically insoluble in water whereas hydrochloride salt is water-soluble. Smoking freebase cocaine has the additional effect of releasing methylecgonidine into the user's system due to the pyrolysis of the substance (a side effect which insufflating or injecting powder cocaine does not create). Some research suggests that smoking freebase cocaine can be even more cardiotoxic than other routes of administration because of methylecgonidine's effects on lung tissue and liver tissue. Pure cocaine is prepared by neutralizing its compounding salt with an alkaline solution, which will precipitate non-polar basic cocaine. It is further refined through aqueous-solvent liquid–liquid extraction. ==== Crack cocaine ==== Crack is usually smoked in a glass pipe, and once inhaled, it passes from the lungs directly to the central nervous system, producing an almost immediate "high" that can be very powerful – this initial crescendo of stimulation is known as a "rush". This is followed by an equally intense low, leaving the user craving more of the drug. Addiction to crack usually occurs within four to six weeks - much more rapidly than regular cocaine. Powder cocaine (cocaine hydrochloride) must be heated to a high temperature (about 197 °C), and considerable decomposition/burning occurs at these high temperatures. This effectively destroys some of the cocaine and yields a sharp, acrid, and foul-tasting smoke. Cocaine base/crack can be smoked because it vaporizes with little or no decomposition at , which is below the boiling point of water. Crack is a lower purity form of free-base cocaine that is usually produced by neutralization of cocaine hydrochloride with a solution of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3) and water, producing a very hard/brittle, off-white-to-brown colored, amorphous material that contains sodium carbonate, entrapped water, and other by-products as the main impurities. The origin of the name "crack" comes from the "crackling" sound (and hence the onomatopoeic moniker "crack") that is produced when the cocaine and its impurities (i.e. water, sodium bicarbonate) are heated past the point of vaporization. ==== Coca leaf infusions ==== Coca herbal infusion (also referred to as coca tea) is used in coca-leaf producing countries much as any herbal medicinal infusion would elsewhere in the world. The free and legal commercialization of dried coca leaves under the form of filtration bags to be used as "coca tea" has been actively promoted by the governments of Peru and Bolivia for many years as a drink having medicinal powers. In Peru, the National Coca Company, a state-run corporation, sells cocaine-infused teas and other medicinal products and also exports leaves to the U.S. for medicinal use. Visitors to the city of Cuzco in Peru, and La Paz in Bolivia are greeted with the offering of coca leaf infusions (prepared in teapots with whole coca leaves) purportedly to help the newly arrived traveler overcome the malaise of high altitude sickness. The effects of drinking coca tea are mild stimulation and mood lift. It has also been promoted as an adjuvant for the treatment of cocaine dependence. One study on coca leaf infusion used with counseling in the treatment of 23 addicted coca-paste smokers in Lima, Peru found that the relapses rate fell from 4.35 times per month on average before coca tea treatment to one during treatment. The duration of abstinence increased from an average of 32 days before treatment to 217.2 days during treatment. This suggests that coca leaf infusion plus counseling may be effective at preventing relapse during cocaine addiction treatment. There is little information on the pharmacological and toxicological effects of consuming coca tea. A chemical analysis by solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (SPE-GC/MS) of Peruvian and Bolivian tea bags indicated the presence of significant amounts of cocaine, the metabolite benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester and trans-cinnamoylcocaine in coca tea bags and coca tea. Urine specimens were also analyzed from an individual who consumed one cup of coca tea and it was determined that enough cocaine and cocaine-related metabolites were present to produce a positive drug test. === Synthesis === ==== Biosynthesis ==== The first synthesis and elucidation of the cocaine molecule was by Richard Willstätter in 1898. Willstätter's synthesis derived cocaine from tropinone. Since then, Robert Robinson and Edward Leete have made significant contributions to the mechanism of the synthesis. (-NO3) The additional carbon atoms required for the synthesis of cocaine are derived from acetyl-CoA, by addition of two acetyl-CoA units to the N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrolinium cation. The first addition is a Mannich-like reaction with the enolate anion from acetyl-CoA acting as a nucleophile toward the pyrrolinium cation. The second addition occurs through a Claisen condensation. This produces a racemic mixture of the 2-substituted pyrrolidine, with the retention of the thioester from the Claisen condensation. In formation of tropinone from racemic ethyl [2,3-13C2]4(Nmethyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)-3-oxobutanoate there is no preference for either stereoisomer. In cocaine biosynthesis, only the (S)-enantiomer can cyclize to form the tropane ring system of cocaine. The stereoselectivity of this reaction was further investigated through study of prochiral methylene hydrogen discrimination. This is due to the extra chiral center at C-2. This process occurs through an oxidation, which regenerates the pyrrolinium cation and formation of an enolate anion, and an intramolecular Mannich reaction. The tropane ring system undergoes hydrolysis, SAM-dependent methylation, and reduction via NADPH for the formation of methylecgonine. The benzoyl moiety required for the formation of the cocaine diester is synthesized from phenylalanine via cinnamic acid. Benzoyl-CoA then combines the two units to form cocaine. ===== N-methyl-pyrrolinium cation ===== The biosynthesis begins with L-Glutamine, which is derived to L-ornithine in plants. The major contribution of L-ornithine and L-arginine as a precursor to the tropane ring was confirmed by Edward Leete. Ornithine then undergoes a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent decarboxylation to form putrescine. In some animals, the urea cycle derives putrescine from ornithine. L-ornithine is converted to L-arginine, which is then decarboxylated via PLP to form agmatine. Hydrolysis of the imine derives N-carbamoylputrescine followed with hydrolysis of the urea to form putrescine. The separate pathways of converting ornithine to putrescine in plants and animals have converged. A SAM-dependent N-methylation of putrescine gives the N-methylputrescine product, which then undergoes oxidative deamination by the action of diamine oxidase to yield the aminoaldehyde. Schiff base formation confirms the biosynthesis of the N-methyl-Δ1-pyrrolinium cation. ===== Robert Robinson's acetonedicarboxylate ===== The biosynthesis of the tropane alkaloid is still not understood. Hemscheidt proposes that Robinson's acetonedicarboxylate emerges as a potential intermediate for this reaction. Condensation of N-methylpyrrolinium and acetonedicarboxylate would generate the oxobutyrate. Decarboxylation leads to tropane alkaloid formation. ===== Reduction of tropinone ===== The reduction of tropinone is mediated by NADPH-dependent reductase enzymes, which have been characterized in multiple plant species. These plant species all contain two types of the reductase enzymes, tropinone reductase I and tropinone reductase II. TRI produces tropine and TRII produces pseudotropine. Due to differing kinetic and pH/activity characteristics of the enzymes and by the 25-fold higher activity of TRI over TRII, the majority of the tropinone reduction is from TRI to form tropine. ===== Illegal clandestine chemistry ===== In 1991, the United States Department of Justice released a report detailing the typical process in which leaves from coca plants were ultimately converted into cocaine hydrochloride by Latin American drug cartels: the exact species of coca to be planted was determined by the location of its cultivation, with Erythroxylum coca being grown in tropical high altitude climates of the eastern Andes in Peru and Bolivia, while Erythroxylum novogranatense was favoured in drier lowland areas of Colombia the average cocaine alkaloid content of a sample of coca leaf varied between 0.1 and 0.8 percent, with coca from higher altitudes containing the largest percentages of cocaine alkaloids the typical farmer will plant coca on a sloping hill so rainfall will not drown the plants as they reach full maturity over 12 to 24 months after being planted the main harvest of coca leaves takes place after the traditional wet season in March, with additional harvesting also taking place in July and November the leaves are then taken to a flat area and spread out on tarpaulins to dry in the hot sun for approximately 6 hours, and afterwards placed in sacks to be transported to market or to a cocaine processing facility depending on location in the early 1990s, Peru and Bolivia were the main locations for converting coca leaf to coca paste and cocaine base, while Colombia was the primary location for the final conversion for these products into cocaine hydrochloride the conversion of coca leaf into coca paste was typically done very close to the coca fields to minimize the need to transport the coca leaves, with a plastic lined pit in the ground used as a "pozo" the leaves are added to the pozo along with fresh water from a nearby river, along with kerosene and sodium carbonate, then a team of several people will repeatedly stomp on the mixture in their bare feet for several hours to help turn the leaves into paste the cocaine alkaloids and kerosene eventually separate from the water and coca leaves, which are then drained off / scooped out of the mixture the cocaine alkaloids are then extracted from the kerosene and added into a dilute acidic solution, to which more sodium carbonate is added to cause a precipitate to form the acid and water are afterwards drained off and the precipitate is filtered and dried to produce an off-white putty-like substance, which is coca paste ready for transportation to cocaine base processing facility at the processing facility, coca paste is dissolved in a mixture of sulfuric acid and water, to which potassium permanganate is then added and the solution is left to stand for 6 hours to allow to unwanted alkaloids to break down the solution is then filtered and the precipitate is discarded, after which ammonia water is added and another precipitate is formed when the solution has finished reacting the liquid is drained, then the remaining precipitate is dried under heating lamps, and resulting powder is cocaine base ready for transfer to a cocaine hydrochloride laboratory at the laboratory, acetone is added to the cocaine base and after it has dissolved the solution is filtered to remove undesired material hydrochloric acid diluted in ether is added to the solution, which causes the cocaine to precipitate out of the solution as cocaine hydrochloride crystals the cocaine hydrochloride crystals are finally dried under lamps or in microwave ovens, then pressed into blocks and wrapped in plastic ready for export ==== GMO synthesis ==== ===== Research ===== In 2022, a GMO produced N. benthamiana were discovered that were able to produce 25% of the amount of cocaine found in a coca plant. === Detection in body fluids === Cocaine and its major metabolites may be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to monitor for use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or sudden death. Most commercial cocaine immunoassay screening tests cross-react appreciably with the major cocaine metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and separately measure each of these substances. When interpreting the results of a test, it is important to consider the cocaine usage history of the individual, since a chronic user can develop tolerance to doses that would incapacitate a cocaine-naive individual, and the chronic user often has high baseline values of the metabolites in his system. Cautious interpretation of testing results may allow a distinction between passive or active usage, and between smoking versus other routes of administration. === Field analysis === Cocaine may be detected by law enforcement using the Scott reagent. The test can easily generate false positives for common substances and must be confirmed with a laboratory test. Approximate cocaine purity can be determined using 1 mL 2% cupric sulfate pentahydrate in dilute HCl, 1 mL 2% potassium thiocyanate and 2 mL of chloroform. The shade of brown shown by the chloroform is proportional to the cocaine content. This test is not cross sensitive to heroin, methamphetamine, benzocaine, procaine and a number of other drugs but other chemicals could cause false positives. == Usage == According to a 2016 United Nations report, England and Wales are the countries with the highest rate of cocaine usage (2.4% of adults in the previous year). Other countries where the usage rate meets or exceeds 1.5% are Spain and Scotland (2.2%), the United States (2.1%), Australia (2.1%), Uruguay (1.8%), Brazil (1.75%), Chile (1.73%), the Netherlands (1.5%) and Ireland (1.5%). Usage is particularly prevalent among this demographic: 4% to 7% of males have used cocaine in the last year in Spain, Denmark, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The ratio of male to female users is approximately 3.8:1, but this statistic varies from 1:1 to 13:1 depending on country. In 2014 London had the highest amount of cocaine in its sewage out of 50 European cities. === United States === Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in the United States (behind cannabis) and the U.S. is the world's largest consumer of cocaine. The oldest evidence for cocaine used dates back to c. 8000 B.C.E in Peru. The coca leaf was, and still is, chewed almost universally by some indigenous communities. The remains of coca leaves have been found with ancient Peruvian mummies, and pottery from the time period depicts humans with bulged cheeks, indicating the presence of something on which they are chewing. There is also evidence that these cultures used a mixture of coca leaves and saliva as an anesthetic for the performance of trepanation. When the Spanish arrived in South America, the conquistadors at first banned coca as an "evil agent of devil". But after discovering that without the coca the locals were barely able to work, the conquistadors legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% off the value of each crop. In 1569, Spanish botanist Nicolás Monardes described the indigenous peoples' practice of chewing a mixture of tobacco and coca leaves to induce "great contentment": In 1609, Padre Blas Valera wrote: === Isolation and naming === Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca leaves had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine alkaloid was not achieved until 1855. Various European scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, but none had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient, and conditions of sea-shipping from South America at the time would often degrade the quality of the cocaine in the plant samples available to European chemists by the time they arrived. However, by 1855, the German chemist Friedrich Gaedcke successfully isolated the cocaine alkaloid for the first time. Gaedcke named the alkaloid "erythroxyline", and published a description in the journal Archiv der Pharmazie. In 1856, Friedrich Wöhler asked Dr. Carl Scherzer, a scientist aboard the Novara (an Austrian frigate sent by Emperor Franz Joseph to circle the globe), to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America. In 1859, the ship finished its travels and Wöhler received a trunk full of coca. Wöhler passed on the leaves to Albert Niemann, a PhD student at the University of Göttingen in Germany, who then developed an improved purification process. Niemann described every step he took to isolate cocaine in his dissertation titled Über eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern (On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves), which was published in 1860 and earned him his Ph.D. He wrote of the alkaloid's "colourless transparent prisms" and said that "Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue." Niemann named the alkaloid "cocaine" from "coca" (from Quechua "kúka") + suffix "ine". The first synthesis and elucidation of the structure of the cocaine molecule was by Richard Willstätter in 1898. The synthesis started from tropinone, a related natural product and took five steps. Because of the former use of cocaine as a local anesthetic, a suffix "-caine" was later extracted and used to form names of synthetic local anesthetics. === Medicalization === With the discovery of this new alkaloid, Western medicine was quick to exploit the possible uses of this plant. In 1879, Vassili von Anrep, of the University of Würzburg, devised an experiment to demonstrate the analgesic properties of the newly discovered alkaloid. He prepared two separate jars, one containing a cocaine-salt solution, with the other containing merely saltwater. He then submerged a frog's legs into the two jars, one leg in the treatment and one in the control solution, and proceeded to stimulate the legs in several different ways. The leg that had been immersed in the cocaine solution reacted very differently from the leg that had been immersed in saltwater. Karl Koller (a close associate of Sigmund Freud, who would write about cocaine later) experimented with cocaine for ophthalmic usage. In an infamous experiment in 1884, he experimented upon himself by applying a cocaine solution to his own eye and then pricking it with pins. His findings were presented to the Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society. Also in 1884, Jellinek demonstrated the effects of cocaine as a respiratory system anesthetic. In 1885, William Halsted demonstrated nerve-block anesthesia, and James Leonard Corning demonstrated peridural anesthesia. 1898 saw Heinrich Quincke use cocaine for spinal anesthesia. === Popularization === In 1859, an Italian doctor, Paolo Mantegazza, returned from Peru, where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the local indigenous peoples. He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to Milan, he wrote a paper in which he described the effects. In this paper, he declared coca and cocaine (at the time they were assumed to be the same) as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of "a furred tongue in the morning, flatulence, and whitening of the teeth." A chemist named Angelo Mariani who read Mantegazza's paper became immediately intrigued with coca and its economic potential. In 1863, Mariani started marketing a wine called Vin Mariani, which had been treated with coca leaves, to become coca wine. The ethanol in wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink's effect. It contained 6 mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7.2 mg per ounce, to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. A "pinch of coca leaves" was included in John Styth Pemberton's original 1886 recipe for Coca-Cola, though the company began using decocainized leaves in 1906 when the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed. In 1879 cocaine began to be used to treat morphine addiction. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a local anesthetic in Germany in 1884, about the same time as Sigmund Freud published his work Über Coca, in which he wrote that cocaine causes: By 1885 the U.S. manufacturer Parke-Davis sold coca-leaf cigarettes and cheroots, a cocaine inhalant, a Coca Cordial, cocaine crystals, and cocaine solution for intravenous injection. The company promised that its cocaine products would "supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and render the sufferer insensitive to pain." By the late Victorian era, cocaine use had appeared as a vice in literature. For example, it was injected by Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional Sherlock Holmes, generally to offset the boredom he felt when he was not working on a case. In early 20th-century Memphis, Tennessee, cocaine was sold in neighborhood drugstores on Beale Street, costing five or ten cents for a small boxful. Stevedores along the Mississippi River used the drug as a stimulant, and white employers encouraged its use by black laborers. In 1909, Ernest Shackleton took "Forced March" brand cocaine tablets to Antarctica, as did Captain Scott a year later on his ill-fated journey to the South Pole. In the 1931 song "Minnie the Moocher", Cab Calloway heavily references cocaine use. He uses the phrase "kicking the gong around", slang for cocaine use; describes titular character Minnie as "tall and skinny;" and describes Smokey Joe as "cokey". In the 1932 comedy musical film The Big Broadcast, Cab Calloway performs the song with his orchestra and mimes snorting cocaine in between verses. During the mid-1940s, amidst World War II, cocaine was considered for inclusion as an ingredient of a future generation of 'pep pills' for the German military, code named D-IX. In modern popular culture, references to cocaine are common. The drug has a glamorous image associated with the wealthy, famous and powerful, and is said to make users "feel rich and beautiful". In addition the pace of modern society − such as in finance − gives many the incentive to make use of the drug. In the United States, the development of "crack" cocaine introduced the substance to a generally poorer inner-city market. The use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use across the 1980s and 1990s in the U.S. However, from 2006 to 2010 cocaine use in the US declined by roughly half before again rising once again from 2017 onwards. In the UK, cocaine use increased significantly between the 1990s and late 2000s, with a similar high consumption in some other European countries, including Spain. The estimated U.S. cocaine market exceeded US$70 billion in street value for the year 2005, exceeding revenues by corporations such as Starbucks. Cocaine's status as a club drug shows its immense popularity among the "party crowd". In October 2010 it was reported that the use of cocaine in Australia has doubled since monitoring began in 2003. A problem with illegal cocaine use, especially in the higher volumes used to combat fatigue (rather than increase euphoria) by long-term users, is the risk of ill effects or damage caused by the compounds used in adulteration. Cutting or "stepping on" the drug is commonplace, using compounds which simulate ingestion effects, such as Novocain (procaine) producing temporary anesthesia, as many users believe a strong numbing effect is the result of strong and/or pure cocaine, ephedrine or similar stimulants that are to produce an increased heart rate. The normal adulterants for profit are inactive sugars, usually mannitol, creatine, or glucose, so introducing active adulterants gives the illusion of purity and to 'stretch' or make it so a dealer can sell more product than without the adulterants, however the purity of the cocaine is subsequently lowered. The adulterant of sugars allows the dealer to sell the product for a higher price because of the illusion of purity and allows the sale of more of the product at that higher price, enabling dealers to significantly increase revenue with little additional cost for the adulterants. A 2007 study by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction showed that the purity levels for street purchased cocaine was often under 5% and on average under 50% pure. == Society and culture == === Legal status === The production, distribution, and sale of cocaine products is restricted (and illegal in most contexts) in most countries as regulated by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. In the United States the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine are additionally regulated by the 1970 Controlled Substances Act. Some countries, such as Peru and Bolivia, permit the cultivation of coca leaf for traditional consumption by the local indigenous population, but nevertheless, prohibit the production, sale, and consumption of cocaine. The provisions as to how much a coca farmer can yield annually is protected by laws such as the Bolivian Cato accord. In addition, some parts of Europe, the United States, and Australia allow processed cocaine for medicinal uses only. ==== Australia ==== Cocaine is a Schedule 8 controlled drug in Australia under the Poisons Standard. It is the second most popular illicit recreational drug in Australia behind cannabis. In Western Australia under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 4.0g of cocaine is the amount of prohibited drugs determining a court of trial, 2.0g is the amount of cocaine required for the presumption of intention to sell or supply and 28.0g is the amount of cocaine required for purposes of drug trafficking. ==== United States ==== class=skin-invert-image\|thumb\|230px\|[[Drug overdoses killed more than 70,200 Americans in 2017, with cocaine overdoses making up 13,942 of those deaths. The Harrison Act left manufacturers of cocaine untouched so long as they met certain purity and labeling standards. Despite that cocaine was typically illegal to sell and legal outlets were rarer, the quantities of legal cocaine produced declined very little. Legal cocaine quantities did not decrease until the Jones–Miller Act of 1922 put serious restrictions on cocaine manufactures. Before the early 1900s, the primary problem caused by cocaine use was portrayed by newspapers to be addiction, not violence or crime, and the cocaine user was represented as an upper or middle class White person. In 1914, The New York Times published an article titled "Negro Cocaine 'Fiends' Are a New Southern Menace", portraying Black cocaine users as dangerous and able to withstand wounds that would normally be fatal. The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 mandated the same prison sentences for distributing 500 grams of powdered cocaine and just 5 grams of crack cocaine. In the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, white respondents reported a higher rate of powdered cocaine use, and Black respondents reported a higher rate of crack cocaine use. === Interdiction === In 2004, according to the United Nations, 589 tonnes of cocaine were seized globally by law enforcement authorities. Colombia seized 188 t, the United States 166 t, Europe 79 t, Peru 14 t, Bolivia 9 t, and the rest of the world 133 t. ==== Production ==== Colombia is as of 2019 the world's largest cocaine producer, with production more than tripling since 2013. Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine has been produced in Colombia, both from cocaine base imported from Peru (primarily the Huallaga Valley) and Bolivia and from locally grown coca. There was a 28% increase in the amount of potentially harvestable coca plants which were grown in Colombia in 1998. This, combined with crop reductions in Bolivia and Peru, made Colombia the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation after the mid-1990s. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. An interview with a coca farmer published in 2003 described a mode of production by acid-base extraction that has changed little since 1905. Roughly of leaves were harvested per hectare, six times per year. The leaves were dried for half a day, then chopped into small pieces with a string trimmer and sprinkled with a small amount of powdered cement (replacing sodium carbonate from former times). Several hundred pounds of this mixture were soaked in of gasoline for a day, then the gasoline was removed and the leaves were pressed for the remaining liquid, after which they could be discarded. Then battery acid (weak sulfuric acid) was used, one bucket per of leaves, to create a phase separation in which the cocaine free base in the gasoline was acidified and extracted into a few buckets of "murky-looking smelly liquid". Once powdered caustic soda was added to this, the cocaine precipitated and could be removed by filtration through a cloth. The resulting material, when dried, was termed pasta and sold by the farmer. The yearly harvest of leaves from a hectare produced of pasta, approximately 40–60% cocaine. Repeated recrystallization from solvents, producing pasta lavada and eventually crystalline cocaine were performed at specialized laboratories after the sale. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca-growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. Although production fell temporarily, coca crops rebounded in numerous smaller fields in Colombia, rather than the larger plantations. The cultivation of coca has become an attractive economic decision for many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, the spread of new strains of the coca plant due to persistent worldwide demand. The latest estimate provided by the U.S. authorities on the annual production of cocaine in Colombia refers to 290 metric tons. As of the end of 2011, the seizure operations of Colombian cocaine carried out in different countries have totaled 351.8 metric tons of cocaine, i.e. 121.3% of Colombia's annual production according to the U.S. Department of State's estimates. ==== Synthesis ==== Synthesizing cocaine could eliminate the high visibility and low reliability of offshore sources and international smuggling, replacing them with clandestine domestic laboratories, as are common for illicit methamphetamine, but is rarely done. Natural cocaine remains the lowest cost and highest quality supply of cocaine. Formation of inactive stereoisomers (cocaine has four chiral centres – 1R 2R, 3S, and 5S, two of them dependent, hence eight possible stereoisomers) plus synthetic by-products limits the yield and purity. ==== Trafficking and distribution ==== Organized criminal gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. Most cocaine is grown and processed in South America, particularly in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, and smuggled into the United States and Europe, the United States being the world's largest consumer of cocaine, where it is sold at huge markups; usually in the US at $80–120 for 1 gram, and $250–300 for 3.5 grams ( of an ounce, or an "eight ball"). ===== Caribbean and Mexican routes ===== The primary cocaine importation points in the United States have been in Arizona, southern California, southern Florida, and Texas. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.–Mexico border. , sixty-five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, where the drug is first transported from South American countries. , the Sinaloa Cartel is the most active drug cartel involved in smuggling illicit drugs like cocaine into the United States and trafficking them throughout the United States. Cocaine traffickers from Colombia and Mexico have established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug using a variety of smuggling techniques to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of , and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami. ===== Chilean route ===== Another route of cocaine traffic goes through Chile, which is primarily used for cocaine produced in Bolivia since the nearest seaports lie in northern Chile. The arid Bolivia–Chile border is easily crossed by 4×4 vehicles that then head to the seaports of Iquique and Antofagasta. While the price of cocaine is higher in Chile than in Peru and Bolivia, the final destination is usually Europe, especially Spain where drug dealing networks exist among South American immigrants. ===== Techniques ===== Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as "mules" (or "mulas"), who cross a border either legally, for example, through a port or airport, or illegally elsewhere. The drugs may be strapped to the waist or legs or hidden in bags, or hidden in the body (by swallowing or placement inside an orifice), typically known as 'bodypacking. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will receive most of the profits. If the mule caught, gangs may sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking alone. In many cases, mules are often forced into the role, as result of coercion, violence, threats or extreme poverty. Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western Caribbean–Gulf of Mexico area. These vessels are typically 150–250-foot (50–80 m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as go-fast boats, like those used by the local populations. Sophisticated drug subs are the latest tool drug runners are using to bring cocaine north from Colombia, it was reported on 20 March 2008. Although the vessels were once viewed as a quirky sideshow in the drug war, they are becoming faster, more seaworthy, and capable of carrying bigger loads of drugs than earlier models, according to those charged with catching them. ==== Sales to consumers ==== Cocaine is readily available in all major countries' metropolitan areas. According to the Summer 1998 Pulse Check, published by the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy, cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in San Diego, Bridgeport, Miami, and Boston. In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be due to a switch to methamphetamine among some users; methamphetamine is cheaper, three and a half times more powerful, and lasts 12–24 times longer with each dose. Nevertheless, the number of cocaine users remain high, with a large concentration among urban youth. In addition to the amounts previously mentioned, cocaine can be sold in "bill sizes": for example, $10 might purchase a "dime bag", a very small amount (0.1–0.15 g) of cocaine. These amounts and prices are very popular among young people because they are inexpensive and easily concealed on one's body. Quality and price can vary dramatically depending on supply and demand, and on geographic region. In 2008, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that the typical retail price of cocaine varied between €50 and €75 per gram in most European countries, although Cyprus, Romania, Sweden, and Turkey reported much higher values. ==== Consumption ==== World annual cocaine consumption, as of 2000, stood at around 600 tonnes, with the United States consuming around 300 t, 50% of the total, Europe about 150 t, 25% of the total, and the rest of the world the remaining 150 t or 25%. It is estimated that 1.5 million people in the United States used cocaine in 2010, down from 2.4 million in 2006.	[ "dopamine receptor", "Horner's syndrome", "club drug", "Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons", "Franz Joseph of Austria", "clock genes", "Human sexuality", "Crack cocaine", "epistaxis", "The Big Broadcast", "breastfeeding", "sodium", "blunt (drug culture)", "chromatin", "Chris Farley", "BDNF", "axon terminal", "Heinrich Quincke", "On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves", "lactose", "drug cartel", "tropinone", "kidney", "paranoia", "Reverse transport", "alkaloid", "alcoholic beverage", "South Pole", "World Drug Report", "tachycardia", "pupil", "Coca-Cola", "bruxism", "Fallopian tube", "Ernest Shackleton", "transcriptional regulation", "wine", "serotonin transporter", "monoamine", "benzoylecgonine", "delirium", "Philip Seymour Hoffman", "World Health Assembly", "Trepanning", "Bolivia", "Reward system", "tooth enamel", "Black cocaine", "Friedrich Gaedcke", "GMO", "Category:Synthetic opioids", "euphoria", "Indigenous peoples", "Cocaine dependence", "DNA repair", 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decay", "HIV", "Andes", "pen", "frigate", "Quechua languages", "tinnitus", "insufflation (medicine)", "Coca alkaloid", "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs", "peridural", "the Tacoma Times", "Cocaine addiction", "defoliants", "phencyclidine", "lacrimal duct", "nostrils", "vasoconstriction", "gold medal", "Studio 54", "dorsal striatum", "norepinephrine", "Archiv der Pharmazie", "cornea", "River Phoenix", "Chore Boy", "United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances", "Paolo Mantegazza", "List of cocaine analogues", "norcocaine", "Dopamine transporter", "stimulation", "Boston", "drinking straw", "Milan", "recreational drug use", "phenyltropane", "crack cocaine", "Illegal drug trade in Latin America", "Alcohol (drug)", "Glutamine", "Cuzco", "mesolimbic pathway", "arginine", "Sigma receptor", "ornithine", "5-HT2A receptor", "YouTube", "Texas", "sodium carbonate", "buccal pouch", "medicine", "infusion", "hydrochloric acid", "John Belushi", "hypertension", "Office of National Drug Control Policy", "dyspnea", "methylecgonine", "Gulf of Mexico", "Journal of the American Medical Association", "solid-phase extraction", "prohibition of drugs", "ammonia", "disco", "decreased libido", "Nasal administration", "cannabis (drug)", "altitude sickness", "substance use disorder", "synaptic cleft", "coca tea", "N. benthamiana", "cocaine paste", "κ-opioid receptor", "Western Australia", "sepsis", "Coca production in Colombia", "lignocaine", "Drosophila melanogaster", "John Pemberton", "norepinephrine receptor", "SMS Novara (1850)", "hydrolysis", "septum nasi", "mydriasis", "cholinesterase", "NADPH", "Arizona", "currency", "sodium bicarbonate", "dopamine", "calcium hydroxide", "Layne Staley", "Florida", "cocaethylene", "wet season", "Fentanyl", "mouth", "Memphis, Tennessee", "Blood plasma", "malnutrition", "Starbucks", "Kidney", "La Paz", "Oral administration", "benzodiazepine", "William Halsted", "Ecstasy (drug)", "Sublimation (phase transition)", "Colombian cocaine", "United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute", "embolism", "Cab Calloway", "Cocaine Anonymous", "indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Liver", "Vatican City", "adrenaline", "Methylecgonidine", "Wari culture", "Lima", "Richard Willstätter", "affix", "Scott reagent", "acid-base extraction", "sulfate", "5-HT2 receptor", "United Kingdom", "vasoconstrictor", "hypervigilance", "DNA methylation", "Miami", "5-HT3 receptor", "Cocaine paste", "acetone", "Coca tea", "go-fast boat", "sucrose", "National Survey on Drug Use and Health", "caustic soda", "itch", "serotonin", "ether", "Captain Scott", "Indigenous peoples of South America", "local anesthetic", "love rose", "pyrolysis", "Angelo Mariani (chemist)", "hydrochloride", "chloroform", "Quechua people", "recreational drug", "chewing tobacco", "cocaine spoon", "routes of administration", "racemic", "nasal passages", "biomimetics", "ophthalmology", "Minnie the Moocher", "mannitol", "kerosene", "Beale Street", "coca paste", "spinal anesthesia", "indigenous South Americans", "D.C. 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7,706	Cartesian coordinate system	In geometry, a Cartesian coordinate system (, ) in a plane is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely by a pair of real numbers called coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular oriented lines, called coordinate lines, coordinate axes or just axes (plural of axis) of the system. The point where the axes meet is called the origin and has as coordinates. The axes directions represent an orthogonal basis. The combination of origin and basis forms a coordinate frame called the Cartesian frame. Similarly, the position of any point in three-dimensional space can be specified by three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to three mutually perpendicular planes. More generally, Cartesian coordinates specify the point in an -dimensional Euclidean space for any dimension . These coordinates are the signed distances from the point to mutually perpendicular fixed hyperplanes. Cartesian coordinates are named for René Descartes, whose invention of them in the 17th century revolutionized mathematics by allowing the expression of problems of geometry in terms of algebra and calculus. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by equations involving the coordinates of points of the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates and satisfy the equation ; the area, the perimeter and the tangent line at any point can be computed from this equation by using integrals and derivatives, in a way that can be applied to any curve. Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory and more. A familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also essential tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering and many more. They are the most common coordinate system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design and other geometry-related data processing. ==History== The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes, who published this idea in 1637 while he was resident in the Netherlands. It was independently discovered by Pierre de Fermat, who also worked in three dimensions, although Fermat did not publish the discovery. The French cleric Nicole Oresme used constructions similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes and Fermat. Both Descartes and Fermat used a single axis in their treatments and have a variable length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced later, after Descartes' La Géométrie was translated into Latin in 1649 by Frans van Schooten and his students. These commentators introduced several concepts while trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes's work. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play a fundamental role in the development of the calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The two-coordinate description of the plane was later generalized into the concept of vector spaces. Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane, and the spherical and cylindrical coordinates for three-dimensional space. ==Description== ===One dimension=== An affine line with a chosen Cartesian coordinate system is called a number line. Every point on the line has a real-number coordinate, and every real number represents some point on the line. There are two degrees of freedom in the choice of Cartesian coordinate system for a line, which can be specified by choosing two distinct points along the line and assigning them to two distinct real numbers (most commonly zero and one). Other points can then be uniquely assigned to numbers by linear interpolation. Equivalently, one point can be assigned to a specific real number, for instance an origin point corresponding to zero, and an oriented length along the line can be chosen as a unit, with the orientation indicating the correspondence between directions along the line and positive or negative numbers. Each point corresponds to its signed distance from the origin (a number with an absolute value equal to the distance and a or sign chosen based on direction). A geometric transformation of the line can be represented by a function of a real variable, for example translation of the line corresponds to addition, and scaling the line corresponds to multiplication. Any two Cartesian coordinate systems on the line can be related to each-other by a linear function (function of the form taking a specific point's coordinate in one system to its coordinate in the other system. Choosing a coordinate system for each of two different lines establishes an affine map from one line to the other taking each point on one line to the point on the other line with the same coordinate. ===Two dimensions=== A Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system or an orthogonal coordinate system The coordinates are often denoted by the letters x, y, and z. The axes may then be referred to as the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, respectively. Then the coordinate planes can be referred to as the xy-plane, yz-plane, and xz-plane. In mathematics, physics, and engineering contexts, the first two axes are often defined or depicted as horizontal, with the third axis pointing up. In that case the third coordinate may be called height or altitude. The orientation is usually chosen so that the 90-degree angle from the first axis to the second axis looks counter-clockwise when seen from the point ; a convention that is commonly called the right-hand rule. ===Higher dimensions=== Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with pairs of real numbers; that is, with the Cartesian product \R^2 = \R\times\R, where \R is the set of all real numbers. In the same way, the points in any Euclidean space of dimension n be identified with the tuples (lists) of n real numbers; that is, with the Cartesian product \R^n. ===Generalizations=== The concept of Cartesian coordinates generalizes to allow axes that are not perpendicular to each other, and/or different units along each axis. In that case, each coordinate is obtained by projecting the point onto one axis along a direction that is parallel to the other axis (or, in general, to the hyperplane defined by all the other axes). In such an oblique coordinate system the computations of distances and angles must be modified from that in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold (see affine plane). ==Notations and conventions== The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas, as in or . The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters (x, y) in the plane, and (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space. This custom comes from a convention of algebra, which uses letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities. These conventional names are often used in other domains, such as physics and engineering, although other letters may be used. For example, in a graph showing how a pressure varies with time, the graph coordinates may be denoted p and t. Each axis is usually named after the coordinate which is measured along it; so one says the x-axis, the y-axis, the t-axis, etc. Another common convention for coordinate naming is to use subscripts, as (x1, x2, ..., xn) for the n coordinates in an n-dimensional space, especially when n is greater than 3 or unspecified. Some authors prefer the numbering (x0, x1, ..., xn−1). These notations are especially advantageous in computer programming: by storing the coordinates of a point as an array, instead of a record, the subscript can serve to index the coordinates. In mathematical illustrations of two-dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate (traditionally called the abscissa) is measured along a horizontal axis, oriented from left to right. The second coordinate (the ordinate) is then measured along a vertical axis, usually oriented from bottom to top. Young children learning the Cartesian system, commonly learn the order to read the values before cementing the x-, y-, and z-axis concepts, by starting with 2D mnemonics (for example, 'Walk along the hall then up the stairs' akin to straight across the x-axis then up vertically along the y-axis). Computer graphics and image processing, however, often use a coordinate system with the y-axis oriented downwards on the computer display. This convention developed in the 1960s (or earlier) from the way that images were originally stored in display buffers. For three-dimensional systems, a convention is to portray the xy-plane horizontally, with the z-axis added to represent height (positive up). Furthermore, there is a convention to orient the x-axis toward the viewer, biased either to the right or left. If a diagram (3D projection or 2D perspective drawing) shows the x- and y-axis horizontally and vertically, respectively, then the z-axis should be shown pointing "out of the page" towards the viewer or camera. In such a 2D diagram of a 3D coordinate system, the z-axis would appear as a line or ray pointing down and to the left or down and to the right, depending on the presumed viewer or camera perspective. In any diagram or display, the orientation of the three axes, as a whole, is arbitrary. However, the orientation of the axes relative to each other should always comply with the right-hand rule, unless specifically stated otherwise. All laws of physics and math assume this right-handedness, which ensures consistency. For 3D diagrams, the names "abscissa" and "ordinate" are rarely used for x and y, respectively. When they are, the z-coordinate is sometimes called the applicate. The words abscissa, ordinate and applicate are sometimes used to refer to coordinate axes rather than the coordinate values. ===Quadrants and octants=== The axes of a two-dimensional Cartesian system divide the plane into four infinite regions, called quadrants, ===Euclidean transformations=== The Euclidean transformations or Euclidean motions are the (bijective) mappings of points of the Euclidean plane to themselves which preserve distances between points. There are four types of these mappings (also called isometries): translations, rotations, reflections and glide reflections. ====Translation==== Translating a set of points of the plane, preserving the distances and directions between them, is equivalent to adding a fixed pair of numbers to the Cartesian coordinates of every point in the set. That is, if the original coordinates of a point are , after the translation they will be (x', y') = (x + a, y + b) . ====Rotation==== To rotate a figure counterclockwise around the origin by some angle \theta is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (x,y) by the point with coordinates (x',y'), where \begin{align} x' &= x \cos \theta - y \sin \theta \\ y' &= x \sin \theta + y \cos \theta . \end{align} Thus: (x',y') = ((x \cos \theta - y \sin \theta\,) , (x \sin \theta + y \cos \theta\,)) . ====Reflection==== If are the Cartesian coordinates of a point, then are the coordinates of its reflection across the second coordinate axis (the y-axis), as if that line were a mirror. Likewise, are the coordinates of its reflection across the first coordinate axis (the x-axis). In more generality, reflection across a line through the origin making an angle \theta with the x-axis, is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates by the point with coordinates , where \begin{align} x' &= x \cos 2\theta + y \sin 2\theta \\ y' &= x \sin 2\theta - y \cos 2\theta . \end{align} Thus: (x',y') = ((x \cos 2\theta + y \sin 2\theta\,) , (x \sin 2\theta - y \cos 2\theta\,)) . ====Glide reflection==== A glide reflection is the composition of a reflection across a line followed by a translation in the direction of that line. It can be seen that the order of these operations does not matter (the translation can come first, followed by the reflection). ====General matrix form of the transformations==== All affine transformations of the plane can be described in a uniform way by using matrices. For this purpose, the coordinates (x,y) of a point are commonly represented as the column matrix \begin{pmatrix}x\\y\end{pmatrix}. The result (x', y') of applying an affine transformation to a point (x,y) is given by the formula \begin{pmatrix}x'\\y'\end{pmatrix} = A \begin{pmatrix}x\\y\end{pmatrix} + b, where A = \begin{pmatrix} A_{1,1} & A_{1,2} \\ A_{2,1} & A_{2,2} \end{pmatrix} is a 2×2 matrix and b=\begin{pmatrix}b_1\\b_2\end{pmatrix} is a column matrix. That is, \begin{align} x' &= x A_{1,1} + y A_{1,1} + b_{1} \\ y' &= x A_{2,1} + y A_{2, 2} + b_{2}. \end{align} Among the affine transformations, the Euclidean transformations are characterized by the fact that the matrix A is orthogonal; that is, its columns are orthogonal vectors of Euclidean norm one, or, explicitly, A_{1,1} A_{1, 2} + A_{2,1} A_{2, 2} = 0 and A_{1, 1}^2 + A_{2,1}^2 = A_{1,2}^2 + A_{2, 2}^2 = 1. This is equivalent to saying that times its transpose is the identity matrix. If these conditions do not hold, the formula describes a more general affine transformation. The transformation is a translation if and only if is the identity matrix. The transformation is a rotation around some point if and only if is a rotation matrix, meaning that it is orthogonal and A_{1, 1} A_{2, 2} - A_{2, 1} A_{1, 2} = 1 . A reflection or glide reflection is obtained when, A_{1, 1} A_{2, 2} - A_{2, 1} A_{1, 2} = -1 . Assuming that translations are not used (that is, b_1=b_2=0) transformations can be composed by simply multiplying the associated transformation matrices. In the general case, it is useful to use the augmented matrix of the transformation; that is, to rewrite the transformation formula \begin{pmatrix}x'\\y'\\1\end{pmatrix} = A' \begin{pmatrix}x\\y\\1\end{pmatrix}, where A' = \begin{pmatrix} A_{1,1} & A_{1,2}&b_1 \\ A_{2,1} & A_{2,2}&b_2\\0&0&1 \end{pmatrix}. With this trick, the composition of affine transformations is obtained by multiplying the augmented matrices. ===Affine transformation=== Affine transformations of the Euclidean plane are transformations that map lines to lines, but may change distances and angles. As said in the preceding section, they can be represented with augmented matrices: \begin{pmatrix} A_{1,1} & A_{2,1} & b_{1} \\ A_{1,2} & A_{2,2} & b_{2} \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} x \\ y \\ 1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} x' \\ y' \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}. The Euclidean transformations are the affine transformations such that the 2×2 matrix of the A_{i,j} is orthogonal. The augmented matrix that represents the composition of two affine transformations is obtained by multiplying their augmented matrices. Some affine transformations that are not Euclidean transformations have received specific names. ====Scaling==== An example of an affine transformation which is not Euclidean is given by scaling. To make a figure larger or smaller is equivalent to multiplying the Cartesian coordinates of every point by the same positive number m. If are the coordinates of a point on the original figure, the corresponding point on the scaled figure has coordinates (x',y') = (m x, m y). If m is greater than 1, the figure becomes larger; if m is between 0 and 1, it becomes smaller. ====Shearing==== A shearing transformation will push the top of a square sideways to form a parallelogram. Horizontal shearing is defined by: (x',y') = (x+y s, y) Shearing can also be applied vertically: (x',y') = (x, x s+y) ==Orientation and handedness== ===In two dimensions=== Fixing or choosing the x-axis determines the y-axis up to direction. Namely, the y-axis is necessarily the perpendicular to the x-axis through the point marked 0 on the x-axis. But there is a choice of which of the two half lines on the perpendicular to designate as positive and which as negative. Each of these two choices determines a different orientation (also called handedness) of the Cartesian plane. The usual way of orienting the plane, with the positive x-axis pointing right and the positive y-axis pointing up (and the x-axis being the "first" and the y-axis the "second" axis), is considered the positive or standard orientation, also called the right-handed orientation. A commonly used mnemonic for defining the positive orientation is the right-hand rule. Placing a somewhat closed right hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up, the fingers point from the x-axis to the y-axis, in a positively oriented coordinate system. The other way of orienting the plane is following the left-hand rule, placing the left hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up. When pointing the thumb away from the origin along an axis towards positive, the curvature of the fingers indicates a positive rotation along that axis. Regardless of the rule used to orient the plane, rotating the coordinate system will preserve the orientation. Switching any one axis will reverse the orientation, but switching both will leave the orientation unchanged. ===In three dimensions=== Once the x- and y-axes are specified, they determine the line along which the z-axis should lie, but there are two possible orientations for this line. The two possible coordinate systems, which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed'. The standard orientation, where the xy-plane is horizontal and the z-axis points up (and the x- and the y-axis form a positively oriented two-dimensional coordinate system in the xy-plane if observed from above the xy-plane) is called right-handed or positive. The name derives from the right-hand rule. If the index finger of the right hand is pointed forward, the middle finger bent inward at a right angle to it, and the thumb placed at a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative orientation of the x-, y-, and z-axes in a right-handed system. The thumb indicates the x-axis, the index finger the y-axis and the middle finger the z-axis. Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left-handed system results. Figure 7 depicts a left and a right-handed coordinate system. Because a three-dimensional object is represented on the two-dimensional screen, distortion and ambiguity result. The axis pointing downward (and to the right) is also meant to point towards the observer, whereas the "middle"-axis is meant to point away from the observer. The red circle is parallel to the horizontal xy-plane and indicates rotation from the x-axis to the y-axis (in both cases). Hence the red arrow passes in front of the z-axis. Figure 8 is another attempt at depicting a right-handed coordinate system. Again, there is an ambiguity caused by projecting the three-dimensional coordinate system into the plane. Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out" between a convex cube and a concave "corner". This corresponds to the two possible orientations of the space. Seeing the figure as convex gives a left-handed coordinate system. Thus the "correct" way to view Figure 8 is to imagine the x-axis as pointing towards the observer and thus seeing a concave corner. ==Representing a vector in the standard basis== A point in space in a Cartesian coordinate system may also be represented by a position vector, which can be thought of as an arrow pointing from the origin of the coordinate system to the point. If the coordinates represent spatial positions (displacements), it is common to represent the vector from the origin to the point of interest as \mathbf{r}. In two dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates (x, y) can be written as: \mathbf{r} = x \mathbf{i} + y \mathbf{j}, where \mathbf{i} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix} and \mathbf{j} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix} are unit vectors in the direction of the x-axis and y-axis respectively, generally referred to as the standard basis (in some application areas these may also be referred to as versors). Similarly, in three dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) can be written as: \mathbf{r} = x \mathbf{i} + y \mathbf{j} + z \mathbf{k}, where \mathbf{i} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \mathbf{j} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, and \mathbf{k} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}. There is no natural interpretation of multiplying vectors to obtain another vector that works in all dimensions, however there is a way to use complex numbers to provide such a multiplication. In a two-dimensional cartesian plane, identify the point with coordinates with the complex number . Here, i is the imaginary unit and is identified with the point with coordinates , so it is not the unit vector in the direction of the x-axis. Since the complex numbers can be multiplied giving another complex number, this identification provides a means to "multiply" vectors. In a three-dimensional cartesian space a similar identification can be made with a subset of the quaternions.	[ "standard basis", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "physics", "bijective", "Cartesian product", "Cartesian coordinate robot", "Abscissa", "orthogonal vectors", "column matrix", "scaling (geometry)", "Roman numeral", "absolute value (algebra)", "differential geometry", "three-dimensional space", "complex analysis", "function of a real variable", "Reflection (mathematics)", "tuple", "La Géométrie", "positive and negative numbers", "Perspective (graphical)", "ordinate", "rotation (geometry)", "if and only if", "perpendicular", "distance from a point to a line", "hyperplane", "Isaac Newton", "abscissa", "versor", "integral", "subscript", "Origin (mathematics)", "Quadrant (Cartesian coordinate system)", "Orthogonal coordinates", "Frans van Schooten", "affine plane", "identity matrix", "computer programming", "record (computer science)", "Array data type", "Pythagoras's theorem", "orthogonal matrix", "engineering", "philosopher", "Spherical coordinate system", "computational geometry", "Euclidean plane isometry", "imaginary unit", "unit square", "Euclidean space", "Euclidean plane", "rotation matrix", "astronomy", "René Descartes", "Euclidean distance", "complex number", "coordinate rotations and reflections", "dimension", "equation", "wikt:concave", "tangent line", "linear algebra", "affine line", "ordered pair", "Euclidean vector", "Euclidean transformation", "image processing", "Nicole Oresme", "Jones diagram", "Cylindrical coordinate system", "unit circle", "algebra", "Horizontal and vertical", "vector spaces", "direction (geometry)", "transpose", "line (geometry)", "affine transformation", "analytic geometry", "calculus", "mathematician", "unit hyperbola", "Rotation (mathematics)", "group theory", "graph of a function", "glide reflection", "time", "curve", "clockwise", "coordinate frame", "shear mapping", "degree of freedom", "framebuffer", "orthogonal basis", "orthant", "quaternion", "real number", "Curve orientation", "3D projection", "right-hand rule", "function composition", "circle", "derivative", "right angle", "Theresa M. Korn", "Pierre de Fermat", "plane (geometry)", "unit vectors", "Heraldry", "number line", "vertical direction", "computer graphics", "Polar coordinate system", "horizontal plane", "coordinate line", "coordinate system", "parallelogram", "oblique coordinate system", "linear function", "perimeter", "middle finger", "computer-aided geometric design", "Euclidean norm", "pressure", "linear interpolation", "Regular grid", "index finger", "Translation (geometry)", "unit of length", "geometry", "Square matrix", "ray (geometry)", "octant (solid geometry)", "parentheses", "oriented line", "set (mathematics)", "point (geometry)", "area", "Affine transformation", "wikt:convex", "John Wiley & Sons", "augmented matrix", "translation (geometry)", "geometric transformation", "thumb" ]
7,708	Commandant of the United States Marine Corps	The commandant of the Marine Corps (CMC) is normally the highest-ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps. It is a four-star general position and a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The CMC reports directly to the secretary of the Navy and is responsible for ensuring the organization, policy, plans, and programs for the Marine Corps as well as advising the president, the secretary of defense, the National Security Council, The commandant performs all other functions prescribed in Section 8043 in Title 10 of the United States Code or delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in his administration in his name. As with the other joint chiefs, the commandant is an administrative position and has no operational command authority over United States Marine Corps forces. The commandant is nominated for appointment by the president, for a four-year term of office, Since 1806, the official residence of the commandant has been located in the Marine Barracks in Washington, D.C., and his main offices are in Arlington County, Virginia. The 39th and current commandant is General Eric M. Smith. ==Responsibilities== The responsibilities of the commandant are outlined in Title 10, Section 5043, the United States Code men have served as the commandant of the Marine Corps. The first commandant was Samuel Nicholas, who took office as a captain, The longest-serving was Archibald Henderson, sometimes referred to as the "Grand old man of the Marine Corps" due to his 39-year tenure.}} }} \|- \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align="center" \| - \| rowspan="2" \| \| data-sort-value="Smith, Eric" style="text-align:center" rowspan="2" \| GeneralEric M. Smith \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align="center" \| 10 July 2023 \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align="center" \| 22 September 2023 \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" \| \|- \| style="text-align:center \| 39 \| style="text-align:center \| 22 September 2023 \| style="text-align:center \| Incumbent \| style="text-align:center \| \|} ===Timeline===	[ "Wallace M. Greene", "Washington, D.C.", "United States European Command", "William Ward Burrows I", "George F. Elliott", "United States Secretary of Defense", "Rapid deployment force", "Carl Epting Mundy Jr.", "Arlington County, Virginia", "United States Homeland Security Council", "Major General (United States)", "National Security Advisor (United States)", "Uniforms of the United States Marine Corps", "Iraq War", "Marine Corps Times", "general officer", "United States Senate", "Wendell Cushing Neville", "John H. Russell Jr.", "Leonard F. Chapman Jr.", "Eric Smith (general)", "United States Army", "Samuel Nicholas", "Paul X. Kelley", "John A. Lejeune", "Charles Grymes McCawley", "Charles C. Krulak", "Robert Neller", "NATO", "United States Marine Corps Recruit Training", "United States Secretary of the Navy", "Captain (United States O-3)", "advice and consent", "World War I", "Marine Corps Base Quantico", "Joint Chiefs of Staff", "United States Code", "United States Marine Corps birthday ball", "Virginia", "Thomas Holcomb", "Vietnam", "Medal of Honor", "Ben Hebard Fuller", "General (United States)", "George Barnett", "Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe", "United States Marine Corps", "Charles Heywood", "Archibald Henderson", "James L. Jones", "Second Continental Congress", "Marine Corps Martial Arts Program", "de facto", "Headquarters Marine Corps", "John Harris (USMC officer)", "MARPAT", "President of the United States", "William P. Biddle", "Jacob Zeilin", "Hawker Siddeley Harrier", "Michael Hagee", "Randolph M. Pate", "Joseph Dunford", "Marine Corps University", "court-martial", "Robert H. Barrow", "Karsten Heckl", "Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.", "Three Block War", "James T. Conway", "Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps", "Tommy Tuberville", "Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps", "Obama Administration", "United States Marine Band", "United States Naval Aviator", "Franklin Wharton", "James F. Amos", "David Berger", "World War II", "United Service Organizations", "expeditionary warfare", "Fleet Marine Force", "Battle of Guam (1944)", "Eagle, Globe, and Anchor", "Robert E. Cushman Jr.", "Korean War", "Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform", "United States National Security Council", "de jure", "Politico", "The Pentagon", "David M. Shoup", "capital ship", "Alexander Vandegrift", "Victor H. Krulak", "Military Secretary to the Commandant of the Marine Corps", "Christopher J. Mahoney", "Clifton B. Cates", "Lemuel C. Shepherd Jr.", "United States Marine Corps History Division", "Louis H. Wilson Jr.", "Marine Corps Brevet Medal", "Navy Cross", "Continental Marines", "Alfred M. Gray Jr.", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "unified combatant command", "Anthony Gale", "Colonel (United States)", "Advanced Base Force", "American Civil War", "Semper fidelis", "Title 10 of the United States Code", "David H. Berger", "Vietnam War" ]
7,710	California Department of Transportation	The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) is an executive department of the U.S. state of California. The department is part of the cabinet-level California State Transportation Agency (CalSTA). Caltrans is headquartered in Sacramento. Caltrans manages the state's highway system, which includes the California Freeway and Expressway System, supports public transportation systems throughout the state and provides funding and oversight for three state-supported Amtrak intercity rail routes (Capitol Corridor, Pacific Surfliner and San Joaquins) which are collectively branded as Amtrak California. In 2015, Caltrans released a new mission statement: "Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California's economy and livability." ==History== The earliest predecessor of Caltrans was the Bureau of Highways, which was created by the California Legislature and signed into law by Governor James Budd in 1895. This agency consisted of three commissioners who were charged with analyzing the roads of the state and making recommendations for their improvement. At the time, there was no state highway system, since roads were purely a local responsibility. California's roads consisted of crude dirt roads maintained by county governments, as well as some paved streets in certain cities, and this ad hoc system was no longer adequate for the needs of the state's rapidly growing population. After the commissioners submitted their report to the governor on November 25, 1896, the legislature replaced the Bureau with the Department of Highways. Due to the state's weak fiscal condition and corrupt politics, little progress was made until 1907, when the legislature replaced the Department of Highways with the Department of Engineering, within which there was a Division of Highways. The year 1912 also saw the founding of the Transportation Laboratory and the creation of seven administrative divisions, which are the predecessors of the 12 district offices in use . Willits Mercantile Building for Del Norte, Humboldt, Lake, and Mendocino counties Redding C.R.Briggs Building for Lassen, Modoc, Shasta, Siskiyou, Tehama, and Trinity counties Sacramento Forum Building for Alpine, Amador, Butte, Calaveras, Colusa, El Dorado, Glenn, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Sierra, Solano, Stanislaus, Sutter, Tuolumne, Yolo, and Yuba counties San Francisco Rialto Building for Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Mateo, and Sonoma counties San Luis Obispo Union National Bank Building for Monterey, San Benito, Santa Barbara, and San Luis Obispo counties Fresno Forsythe Building for Fresno, Inyo, Kern, Kings, Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Mono, and Tulare counties Los Angeles Union Oil Building for Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, and Ventura counties In 1913, the California State Legislature began requiring vehicle registration and allocated the resulting funds to support regular highway maintenance, which began the next year. That same year, three additional divisions (now districts) were created, in Stockton, Bishop, and San Bernardino. The act "placed California highway's program on a sound financial basis" by doubling vehicle registration fees and raising gasoline and diesel fuel taxes from 3 cents to 4.5 cents per gallon. All these taxes were again raised further in 1953 and 1963. Over the next two decades after Collier-Burns, the state "embarked on a massive highway construction program" in which nearly all of the now-extant state highway system was either constructed or upgraded. The history of Caltrans and its predecessor agencies during the 20th century was marked by many firsts. It was one of the first agencies in the United States to paint centerlines on highways statewide; the first to build a freeway west of the Mississippi River; the first to build a four-level stack interchange; the first to develop and deploy non-reflective raised pavement markers, better known as Botts' dots; and one of the first to implement dedicated freeway-to-freeway connector ramps for high-occupancy vehicle lanes. In 1967, Governor Ronald Reagan formed a Task Force Committee on Transportation to study the state transportation system and recommend major reforms. One of the proposals of the task force was the creation of a State Transportation Board as a permanent advisory board on state transportation policy; the board would later merge into the California Transportation Commission in 1978. In September 1971, the State Transportation Board proposed the creation of a state department of transportation charged with responsibility "for performing and integrating transportation planning for all modes." Governor Reagan mentioned this proposal in his 1972 State of the State address, and Assemblyman Wadie P. Deddeh introduced Assembly Bill 69 to that effect, which was duly passed by the state legislature and signed into law by Reagan later that same year. AB 69 merged three existing departments to create the Department of Transportation, of which the most important was the Department of Public Works and its Division of Highways. The California Department of Transportation began official operations on July 1, 1973. The new agency was organized into six divisions: Highways, Mass Transportation, Aeronautics, Transportation Planning, Legal, and Administrative Services. Caltrans went through a difficult period of transformation during the 1970s, as its institutional focus shifted from highway construction to highway maintenance. The agency was forced to contend with declining revenues, increasing construction and maintenance costs (especially the skyrocketing cost of maintaining the vast highway system built over the past three prior decades), widespread freeway revolts, and new environmental laws. Maintenance and construction costs grew at twice the inflation rate in this era of high inflation; the reluctance of one governor after another to raise fuel taxes in accordance with inflation meant that California ranked dead last in the United States in per-capita transportation spending by 1983. !!Area (Counties) !!Headquarters \|- \|1 \|\|Del Monte, Humboldt, Lake, Mendocino \|\|Eureka \|- \|2 \|\|Lassen, Modoc, Plumas, Shasta, Siskiyou, Tehama, Trinity; portions of Butte and Sierra \|\|Redding \|- \|3 \|\|Butte, Colusa, El Dorado, Glenn, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, Sierra, Sutter, Yolo, Yuba \|\|Marysville \|- \|4 \|\|Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano, Sonoma \|\|Oakland \|- \|5 \|\|Monterey, San Benito, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz \|\|San Luis Obispo \|- \|6 \|\|Madera, Fresno, Tulare, Kings, Kern (west) \|\|Fresno \|- \|7\|\|Los Angeles, Ventura \|\|Los Angeles \|- \|8 \|\|Riverside, San Bernardino \|\|San Bernardino \|- \|9 \|\|Inyo, Mono, Kern (east) \|\|Bishop \|- \|10 \|\|Alpine, Amador, Calaveras, Mariposa, Merced, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Tuolumne \|\|Stockton \|- \|11 \|\|Imperial, San Diego \|\|San Diego \|- \|12 \|\|Orange \|\|Santa Ana \|}	[ "Shasta County, California", "Los Angeles County, California", "Wadie P. Deddeh", "Executive (government)", "Eureka, California", "San Joaquins", "California Freeway and Expressway System", "Willits, California", "Amtrak", "California State Route 82", "Bishop, California", "Del Norte County, California", "Mono County, California", "Kings County, California", "Monterey County, California", "List of Interstate Highways in California", "San Francisco", "Santa Ana, California", "Sutter County, California", "public transport", "Riverside County, California", "high-occupancy vehicle lane", "Sacramento, California", "San Bernardino County, California", "Four Level Interchange", "Fresno", "James Budd", "Oakland, California", "Capitol Corridor", "Burlingame, California", "Amador County, California", "Modoc County, California", "El Dorado County, California", "Fresno, California", "Nevada County, California", "California Environmental Quality Act", "Union Oil", "Los Angeles", "ProQuest", "Union Bank of Delaware", "Butte County, California", "United States Department of Transportation", "June McCarroll", "U.S. state", "California Highway Commission", "California Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices", "Orange County, California", "Contra Costa County, California", "Imperial County, California", "government of California", "Sacramento County, California", "Santa Clara County, California", "Lake County, California", "Gottschalks", "Caltrans District 7 Headquarters", "wikt:ad hoc", "California Coast Range", "Solano County, California", "County (United States)", "El Camino Real (California)", "Stanislaus County, California", "California State Legislature", "Yuba County, California", "Marin County, California", "San Mateo County, California", "Mode of transport", "Mariposa County, California", "San Luis Obispo County, California", "Thom Mayne", "San Luis Obispo", "Sierra County, California", "Glenn County, California", "San Luis Obispo, California", "Tulare County, California", "Mendocino County, California", "Kern County, California", "Madera County, California", "California Transportation Commission", "State highways in California", "Redding, California", "Botts' dots", "California", "Calaveras County, California", "Sonoma County, California", "Placer County, California", "State of the State address", "Tehama County, California", "Highway revolts in the United States", "Inyo County, California", "Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956", "Plumas County, California", "Pacific Surfliner", "Colusa County, California", "Napa County, California", "Alameda County, California", "San Joaquin County, California", "San Francisco County, California", "Stockton, California", "List of roads and highways", "Fuel taxes in the United States", "Ventura County, California", "Amtrak California", "Fresno County, California", "seismic retrofitting", "Lassen County, California", "Merced County, California", "Road tax", "Alpine County, California", "Santa Barbara County, California", "Marysville, California", "Los Angeles, California", "Santa Cruz County, California", "United States environmental law", "Trinity County, California", "1971 San Fernando earthquake", "San Bernardino, California", "South San Francisco, California", "Interstate Highway System", "Tuolumne County, California", "San Diego, California", "National Environmental Policy Act", "Siskiyou County, California", "San Francisco Bay Area", "Ronald Reagan", "Arroyo Seco Parkway", "San Diego County, California", "Yolo County, California", "Transportation in California", "Government of California", "Sacramento", "Humboldt County, California", "California State Transportation Agency", "San Benito County, California" ]
7,712	Continuation War	{{Infobox military conflict \| conflict = Continuation War \| partof = the Eastern Front of World War II \| image = Finnish soldiers 1944.jpg \| image_size = 300 \| caption = Finnish soldiers at the VT-line of fortifications during the Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive in June 1944 \| date = 25 June 1941 – 19 September 1944 () \| place = Finland, Karelia, and Murmansk area \| territory = * Petsamo ceded to the USSR Porkkala Peninsula leased to the USSR for 50 years Hanko retaken by Finland \| result = Moscow Armistice Start of the Lapland War \| combatant1 = ''Naval support: \| combatant2 = Air support:{{nowrap\| The Continuation War, also known as the Second Soviet–Finnish War, was a conflict fought by Finland and Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union during World War II. It began with a Finnish declaration of war on 25 June 1941 and ended on 19 September 1944 with the Moscow Armistice. The Soviet Union and Finland had previously fought the Winter War from 1939 to 1940, which ended with the Soviet failure to conquer Finland and the Moscow Peace Treaty. Numerous reasons have been proposed for the Finnish decision to invade, with regaining territory lost during the Winter War regarded as the most common. Other justifications for the conflict include Finnish President Risto Ryti's vision of a Greater Finland and Commander-in-Chief Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim's desire to annex East Karelia. On 22 June 1941, the Axis invaded the Soviet Union. Three days later, the Soviet Union conducted an air raid on Finnish cities which prompted Finland to declare war and allow German troops in Finland to begin offensive warfare. By September 1941, Finland had regained its post–Winter War concessions to the Soviet Union in Karelia. The Finnish Army continued its offensive past the 1939 border during the invasion of East Karelia and halted it only around from the centre of Leningrad. It participated in besieging the city by cutting the northern supply routes and by digging in until 1944. In Lapland, joint German–Finnish forces failed to capture Murmansk or cut the Kirov (Murmansk) Railway. The Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive in June and August 1944 drove the Finns from most of the territories that they had gained during the war, but the Finnish Army halted the offensive in August 1944. Hostilities between Finland and the USSR ceased in September 1944 with the signing of the Moscow Armistice in which Finland restored its borders per the 1940 Moscow Peace Treaty and additionally ceded Petsamo and leased the Porkkala Peninsula to the Soviets. Furthermore, Finland was required to pay war reparations to the Soviet Union, accept partial responsibility for the war, and acknowledge that it had been a German ally. Finland was also required by the agreement to expel German troops from Finnish territory, which led to the Lapland War between Finland and Germany. ==Background== ===Winter War=== On 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in which both parties agreed to divide the independent countries of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Romania into spheres of interest, with Finland falling within the Soviet sphere. One week later, Germany invaded Poland, leading to the United Kingdom and France declaring war on Germany. The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on 17 September. The Soviet government turned its attention to the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, demanding that they allow Soviet military bases to be established and troops stationed on their soil. The Baltic governments acquiesced to these demands and signed agreements in September and October. In October 1939, the Soviet Union attempted to negotiate with Finland to cede Finnish territory on the Karelian Isthmus and the islands of the Gulf of Finland, and to establish a Soviet military base near the Finnish capital of Helsinki. The Finnish government refused, and the Red Army invaded Finland on 30 November 1939. The same day, Field Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim, who was chairman of Finland's Defence Council at the time, assumed the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces. The USSR was expelled from the League of Nations and was condemned by the international community for the illegal attack. Foreign support for Finland was promised, but very little actual help materialised, except from Sweden. The Moscow Peace Treaty concluded the 105-day Winter War on 13 March 1940 and started the Interim Peace. By the terms of the treaty, Finland ceded 9% of its national territory and 13% of its economic capacity to the Soviet Union. Some 420,000 evacuees were resettled from the ceded territories. Finland avoided total conquest of the country by the Soviet Union and retained its sovereignty. Prior to the war, Finnish foreign policy had been based on multilateral guarantees of support from the League of Nations and Nordic countries, but this policy was considered a failure. After the war, Finnish public opinion favored the reconquest of Finnish Karelia. The government declared national defence to be its first priority, and military expenditure rose to nearly half of public spending. Finland both received donations and purchased war materiel during and immediately after the Winter War. Likewise, the Finnish leadership wanted to preserve the spirit of unanimity that was felt throughout the country during the Winter War. The divisive White Guard tradition of the Finnish Civil War's 16 May victory-day celebration was therefore discontinued. The Soviet Union had received the Hanko Naval Base, on Finland's southern coast near the capital Helsinki, where it deployed over 30,000 Soviet military personnel. Relations between Finland and the Soviet Union remained strained after the signing of the one-sided peace treaty, and there were disputes regarding the implementation of the treaty. Finland sought security against further territorial depredations by the USSR and proposed mutual defence agreements with Norway and Sweden, but these initiatives were quashed by Moscow. ===German and Soviet expansion in Europe=== After the Winter War, Germany was viewed with distrust by the Finnish, as it was considered an ally of the Soviet Union. Nonetheless, the Finnish government sought to restore diplomatic relations with Germany, but also continued its Western-orientated policy and negotiated a war trade agreement with the United Kingdom. The agreement was renounced after the German invasion of Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940 resulted in the UK cutting all trade and traffic communications with the Nordic countries. With the fall of France, a Western orientation was no longer considered a viable option in Finnish foreign policy. On 15 and 16 June, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states almost without any resistance and Soviet puppet regimes were installed. Within two months Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were incorporated into the USSR and by mid–1940, the two remaining northern democracies, Finland and Sweden, were encircled by the hostile states of Germany and the Soviet Union. On 23 June, shortly after the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states began, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov contacted the Finnish government to demand that a mining licence be issued to the Soviet Union for the nickel mines in Petsamo or, alternatively, permission for the establishment of a joint Soviet-Finnish company to operate there. A licence to mine the deposit had already been granted to a British-Canadian company and so the demand was rejected by Finland. The following month, the Soviets demanded that Finland destroy the fortifications on the Åland Islands and to grant the Soviets the right to use Finnish railways to transport Soviet troops to the newly acquired Soviet base at Hanko. The Finns very reluctantly agreed to those demands. On 24 July, Molotov accused the Finnish government of persecuting the communist Finland–Soviet Union Peace and Friendship Society and soon afterward publicly declared support for the group. The society organised demonstrations in Finland, some of which turned into riots. Russian-language sources from the post-Soviet era, such as the study Stalin's Missed Chance, maintain that Soviet policies leading up to the Continuation War were best explained as defensive measures by offensive means. The Soviet division of occupied Poland with Germany, the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states and the Soviet invasion of Finland during the Winter War are described as elements in the Soviet construction of a security zone or buffer region from the perceived threat from the capitalist powers of Western Europe. Other post-Soviet Russian-language sources consider establishment of Soviet satellite states in the Warsaw Pact countries and the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 as the culmination of the Soviet defence plan. Western historians, such as Norman Davies and John Lukacs, dispute this view and describe pre-war Soviet policy as an attempt to stay out of the war and regain the land lost due to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk after the fall of the Russian Empire. ===Relations between Finland, Germany and Soviet Union=== On 31 July 1940, Adolf Hitler gave the order to plan an assault on the Soviet Union, meaning Germany had to reassess its position regarding both Finland and Romania. Until then, Germany had rejected Finnish requests to purchase arms, but with the prospect of an invasion of Russia, that policy was reversed, and in August, the secret sale of weapons to Finland was permitted. Military authorities signed an agreement on 12 September, and an official exchange of diplomatic notes was sent on 22 September. Meanwhile, German troops were allowed to transit through Sweden and Finland. This change in policy meant Germany had effectively redrawn the border of the German and Soviet spheres of influence, in violation of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In response to that new situation, Molotov visited Berlin on 12–13 November 1940. He requested for Germany to withdraw its troops from Finland and to stop enabling Finnish anti-Soviet sentiments. He also reminded the Germans of the 1939 pact. Hitler inquired how the Soviets planned to settle the "Finnish question" to which Molotov responded that it would mirror the events in Bessarabia and the Baltic states. Hitler rejected that course of action. During the Finnish presidential election in December 1940, Risto Ryti was elected to be president largely due to interference by Molotov in Ryti's favour since he had signed the Moscow Peace Treaty as prime minister. On 18 December 1940, Hitler officially approved Operation Barbarossa, paving the way for the German invasion of the Soviet Union, in which he expected both Finland and Romania to participate. Meanwhile, Finnish Major General Paavo Talvela met with German Colonel General Franz Halder and Reich Marshal Hermann Göring in Berlin, the first time that the Germans had advised the Finnish government, in carefully-couched diplomatic terms, that they were preparing for war with the Soviet Union. Outlines of the actual plan were revealed in January 1941 and regular contact between Finnish and German military leaders began in February. Additionally in January 1941, Moscow again demanded Finland relinquish control of the Petsamo mining area to the Soviets, but Finland, emboldened by a rebuilt defence force and German support, rejected the proposition. In the late spring of 1941, the USSR made a number of goodwill gestures to prevent Finland from completely falling under German influence. Ambassador was replaced with the more conciliatory and passive . Furthermore, the Soviet government announced that it no longer opposed a rapprochement between Finland and Sweden. Those conciliatory measures, however, did not have any effect on Finnish policy. Finland wished to re-enter the war mainly because of the Soviet invasion of Finland during the Winter War, which the League of Nations and Nordic neutrality had failed to prevent due to lack of outside support. Finland primarily aimed to reverse its territorial losses from the 1940 Moscow Peace Treaty and, depending on the success of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, to possibly expand its borders, especially into East Karelia. Some right-wing groups, such as the Academic Karelia Society, supported a Greater Finland ideology. This ideology of a Greater Finland mostly composed of Soviet territories was augmented by anti-Russian sentiments. ===German and Finnish war plans=== The details of the Finnish preparations for war are still somewhat opaque. Historian William R. Trotter stated that "it has so far proven impossible to pinpoint the exact date on which Finland was taken into confidence about Operation Barbarossa" and that "neither the Finns nor the Germans were entirely candid with one another as to their national aims and methods. In any case, the step from contingency planning to actual operations, when it came, was little more than a formality". The inner circle of Finnish leadership, led by Ryti and Mannerheim, actively planned joint operations with Germany under a veil of ambiguous neutrality and without formal agreements after an alliance with Sweden had proved fruitless, according to a meta-analysis by Finnish historian . He likewise refuted the so-called "driftwood theory" that Finland had been merely a piece of driftwood that was swept uncontrollably in the rapids of great power politics. Even then, most historians conclude that Finland had no realistic alternative to co-operating with Germany. On 20 May, the Germans invited a number of Finnish officers to discuss the coordination of Operation Barbarossa. The participants met on 25–28 May in Salzburg and Berlin and continued their meeting in Helsinki from 3 to 6 June. They agreed upon Finnish mobilisation and a general division of operations. They also agreed that the Finnish Army would start mobilisation on 15 June, but the Germans did not reveal the actual date of the assault. The Finnish decisions were made by the inner circle of political and military leaders, without the knowledge of the rest of the government. Due to tensions between Germany and the Soviet Union, the government was not informed until 9 June that mobilisation of reservists would be required. ===Finland's relationship with Germany=== Finland never signed the Tripartite Pact. The Finnish leadership stated they would fight against the Soviets only to the extent needed to redress the balance of the 1940 treaty, though some historians consider that it had wider territorial goals under the slogan "shorter borders, longer peace" (). During the war, the Finnish leadership generally referred to the Germans as "brothers-in-arms" but also denied that they were allies of Germany – instead claiming to be "co-belligerents". For Hitler, the distinction was irrelevant since he saw Finland as an ally. The 1947 Paris Peace Treaty signed by Finland described Finland as having been "an ally of Hitlerite Germany" during the Continuation War. In a 2008 poll of 28 Finnish historians carried out by Helsingin Sanomat, 16 said that Finland had been an ally of Nazi Germany, six said it had not been and six did not take a position. ==Order of battle and operational planning== ===Soviet=== The Northern Front () of the Leningrad Military District was commanded by Lieutenant General Markian Popov and numbered around 450,000 soldiers in 18 divisions and 40 independent battalions in the Finnish region. During the Interim Peace, the Soviet Military had relaid operational plans to conquer Finland, but with the German attack, Operation Barbarossa, begun on 22 June 1941, the Soviets required its best units and latest materiel to be deployed against the Germans and so abandoned plans for a renewed offensive against Finland. The 23rd Army was deployed in the Karelian Isthmus, the 7th Army to Ladoga Karelia and the 14th Army to the Murmansk–Salla area of Lapland. The Northern Front also commanded eight aviation divisions. As the initial German strike against the Soviet Air Forces had not affected air units located near Finland, the Soviets could deploy around 700 aircraft supported by a number of Soviet Navy wings. The Red Banner Baltic Fleet, which outnumbered the navy of Germany (), comprised 2 battleships, 2 light cruisers, 47 destroyers or large torpedo boats, 75 submarines, over 200 smaller crafts, and 682 aircraft (of which 595 were operational). ===Finnish and German=== The Finnish Army () mobilised between 475,000 and 500,000 soldiers in 14 divisions and 3 brigades for the invasion, commanded by Field Marshal () Mannerheim. The army was organised as follows: II Corps and IV Corps: deployed to the Karelian Isthmus and comprised seven infantry divisions and one brigade. Army of Karelia: deployed north of Lake Ladoga and commanded by General Erik Heinrichs. It comprised the VI Corps, VII Corps, and Group Oinonen; a total of seven divisions, including the German 163rd Infantry Division, and three brigades. 14th Division: deployed in the Kainuu region, commanded directly by Finnish Headquarters (). Although initially deployed for a static defence, the Finnish Army was to later launch an attack to the south, on both sides of Lake Ladoga, putting pressure on Leningrad and thus supporting the advance of the German Army Group North through the Baltic states towards Leningrad. Finnish intelligence had overestimated the strength of the Red Army, when in fact it was numerically inferior to Finnish forces at various points along the border. The army, especially its artillery, was stronger than it had been during the Winter War but included only one armoured battalion and had a general lack of motorised transportation; the army possessed 1,829 artillery pieces at the beginning of the invasion. The Finnish Air Force () had received large donations from Germany prior to the Continuation War including Curtiss Hawk 75s, Fokker D.XXIs, Dornier Do 22 flying boats, Morane M.S. 406 bombers, and Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz trainers; in total the Finnish Air Force had 550 aircraft by June 1941, approximately half being combat. By September 1944, despite considerable German supply of aircraft, the Finns only had 384 planes. Even with the increase in supplied aircraft, the air force was constantly outnumbered by the Soviets. The Army of Norway, or , comprising four divisions totaling 67,000 German soldiers, held the arctic front, which stretched approximately through Finnish Lapland. This army would also be tasked with striking Murmansk and the Kirov (Murmansk) Railway during Operation Silver Fox. The Army of Norway was under the direct command of the German Army High Command () and was organised into Mountain Corps Norway and XXXVI Mountain Corps with the Finnish III Corps and 14th Division attached to it. The German Air Force High Command () assigned 60 aircraft from Luftflotte 5 (Air Fleet 5) to provide air support to the Army of Norway and the Finnish Army, in addition to its main responsibility of defending Norwegian air space. In contrast to the front in Finland, a total of 149 divisions and 3,050,000 soldiers were deployed for the rest of Operation Barbarossa. ==Finnish offensive phase in 1941== ===Initial operations=== In the evening of 21 June 1941, German mine-layers hiding in the Archipelago Sea deployed two large minefields across the Gulf of Finland. Later that night, German bombers flew along the gulf to Leningrad, mining the harbour and the river Neva, making a refueling stop at Utti, Finland, on the return leg. In the early hours of 22 June, Finnish forces launched Operation Kilpapurjehdus ("Regatta"), deploying troops in the demilitarised Åland Islands. Although the 1921 Åland convention had clauses allowing Finland to defend the islands in the event of an attack, the coordination of this operation with the German invasion and the arrest of the Soviet consulate staff stationed on the islands meant that the deployment was a deliberate violation of the treaty, according to Finnish historian Mauno Jokipii. On the morning of 22 June, Hitler's proclamation read: "Together with their Finnish comrades in arms the heroes from Narvik stand at the edge of the Arctic Ocean. German troops under command of the conqueror of Norway, and the Finnish freedom fighters under their Marshal's command, are protecting Finnish territory." Following the launch of Operation Barbarossa at around 3:15 a.m. on 22 June 1941, the Soviet Union sent seven bombers on a retaliatory airstrike into Finland, hitting targets at 6:06 a.m. Helsinki time as reported by the Finnish coastal defence ship Väinämöinen. On the morning of 25 June, the Soviet Union launched another air offensive, with 460 fighters and bombers targeting 19 airfields in Finland; however, inaccurate intelligence and poor bombing accuracy resulted in several raids hitting Finnish cities, or municipalities, causing considerable damage. 23 Soviet bombers were lost in this strike while the Finnish forces lost no aircraft. Although the USSR claimed that the airstrikes were directed against German targets, particularly airfields in Finland, the Finnish Parliament used the attacks as justification for the approval of a "defensive war". According to historian David Kirby, the message was intended more for public opinion in Finland than abroad, where the country was viewed as an ally of the Axis powers. ===Finnish advance in Karelia=== The Finnish plans for the offensive in Ladoga Karelia were finalised on 28 June 1941, and the first stages of the operation began on 10 July. By 16 July, the VI Corps had reached the northern shore of Lake Ladoga, dividing the Soviet 7th Army, which had been tasked with defending the area. The USSR struggled to contain the German assault, and soon the Soviet high command, Stavka (), pulled all available units stationed along the Finnish border into the beleaguered front line. Additional reinforcements were drawn from the 237th Rifle Division and the Soviet 10th Mechanised Corps, excluding the , both of which were stationed in Ladoga Karelia, but this stripped much of the reserve strength of the Soviet units defending that area. The Finnish II Corps started its offensive in the north of the Karelian Isthmus on 31 July. Other Finnish forces reached the shores of Lake Ladoga on 9 August, encircling most of the three defending Soviet divisions on the northwestern coast of the lake in a pocket (); these divisions were later evacuated across the lake. On 22 August, the Finnish IV Corps began its offensive south of II Corps and advanced towards Vyborg (). By 23 August, II Corps had reached the Vuoksi River to the east and encircled the Soviet forces defending Vyborg. Finnish forces captured Vyborg on 29 August. The Soviet order to withdraw from Vyborg came too late, resulting in significant losses in materiel, although most of the troops were later evacuated via the Koivisto Islands. After suffering severe losses, the Soviet 23rd Army was unable to halt the offensive, and by 2 September the Finnish Army had reached the old 1939 border. The advance by Finnish and German forces split the Soviet Northern Front into the Leningrad Front and the Karelian Front on 23 August. On 31 August, Finnish Headquarters ordered II and IV Corps, which had advanced the furthest, to halt their advance along a line that ran from the Gulf of Finland via Beloostrov–Sestra–Okhta–Lembolovo to Lake Ladoga. The line ran past the former 1939 border, and approximately from Leningrad; a defensive position was established along this line. On 30 August, the IV Corps fought the Soviet 23rd Army in the Battle of Porlampi and defeated them on 1 September. Sporadic fighting continued around Beloostrov until the Soviets evicted the Finns on 5 September. The front on the Isthmus stabilised and the siege of Leningrad began on 8 September. The Finnish Army of Karelia started its attack in East Karelia towards Petrozavodsk, Lake Onega and the Svir River on 9 September. German Army Group North advanced from the south of Leningrad towards the Svir River and captured Tikhvin but were forced to retreat to the Volkhov River by Soviet counterattacks. Soviet forces repeatedly attempted to expel the Finns from their bridgehead south of the Svir during October and December but were repulsed; Soviet units attacked the German 163rd Infantry Division in October 1941, which was operating under Finnish command across the Svir, but failed to dislodge it. Despite these failed attacks, the Finnish attack in East Karelia had been blunted and their advance had halted by 6 December. During the five-month campaign, the Finns suffered 75,000 casualties, of whom 26,355 had died, while the Soviets had 230,000 casualties, of whom 50,000 became prisoners of war. ===Operation Silver Fox in Lapland and Lend-Lease to Murmansk=== The German objective in Finnish Lapland was to take Murmansk and cut the Kirov (Murmansk) Railway running from Murmansk to Leningrad by capturing Salla and Kandalaksha. Murmansk was the only year-round ice-free port in the north and a threat to the nickel mine at Petsamo. The joint Finnish–German Operation Silver Fox (; ) was started on 29 June 1941 by the German Army of Norway, which had the Finnish 3rd and 6th Divisions under its command, against the defending Soviet 14th Army and 54th Rifle Division. By November, the operation had stalled from the Kirov Railway due to unacclimatised German troops, heavy Soviet resistance, poor terrain, arctic weather and diplomatic pressure by the United States on the Finns regarding the lend-lease deliveries to Murmansk. The offensive and its three sub-operations failed to achieve their objectives. Both sides dug in and the arctic theatre remained stable, excluding minor skirmishes, until the Soviet Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive in October 1944. The crucial arctic lend-lease convoys from the US and the UK via Murmansk and Kirov Railway to the bulk of the Soviet forces continued throughout World War II. The US supplied almost $11 billion in materials: 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, which could equip some 20 US armoured divisions); 11,400 aircraft; and of food. As a similar example, British shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks accounted for only 6% of total Soviet tank production, but over 25% of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army. ===Aspirations, war effort and international relations=== The Wehrmacht rapidly advanced deep into Soviet territory early in the Operation Barbarossa campaign, leading the Finnish government to believe that Germany would defeat the Soviet Union quickly. President Ryti envisioned a Greater Finland, where Finns and other Finnic peoples would live inside a "natural defence borderline" by incorporating the Kola Peninsula, East Karelia and perhaps even northern Ingria. In public, the proposed frontier was introduced with the slogan "short border, long peace". Some members of the Finnish Parliament, such as members of the Social Democratic Party and the Swedish People's Party, opposed the idea, arguing that maintaining the 1939 frontier would be enough. Mannerheim often called the war an anti-Communist crusade, hoping to defeat "Bolshevism once and for all". On 10 July, Mannerheim drafted his order of the day, the Sword Scabbard Declaration, in which he pledged to liberate Karelia; in December 1941 in private letters, he made known his doubts of the need to push beyond the previous borders. The Finnish government assured the United States that it was unaware of the order. According to Vehviläinen, most Finns thought that the scope of the new offensive was only to regain what had been taken in the Winter War. He further stated that the term 'Continuation War' was created at the start of the conflict by the Finnish government to justify the invasion to the population as a continuation of the defensive Winter War. The government also wished to emphasise that it was not an official ally of Germany, but a 'co-belligerent' fighting against a common enemy and with purely Finnish aims. Vehviläinen wrote that the authenticity of the government's claim changed when the Finnish Army crossed the old frontier of 1939 and began to annex Soviet territory. British author Jonathan Clements asserted that by December 1941, Finnish soldiers had started questioning whether they were fighting a war of national defence or foreign conquest. By the autumn of 1941, the Finnish military leadership started to doubt Germany's capability to finish the war quickly. The Finnish Defence Forces suffered relatively severe losses during their advance and, overall, German victory became uncertain as German troops were halted near Moscow. German troops in northern Finland faced circumstances they were unprepared for and failed to reach their targets. As the front lines stabilised, Finland attempted to start peace negotiations with the USSR. Mannerheim refused to assault Leningrad, which would inextricably tie Finland to Germany; he regarded his objectives for the war to be achieved, a decision that angered the Germans. Due to the war effort, the Finnish economy suffered from a lack of labour, as well as food shortages and increased prices. To combat this, the Finnish government demobilised part of the army to prevent industrial and agricultural production from collapsing. In October, Finland informed Germany that it would need of grain to manage until next year's harvest. The German authorities would have rejected the request, but Hitler himself agreed. Annual grain deliveries of equaled almost half of the Finnish domestic crop. On 25 November 1941, Finland signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, a less formal alliance, which the German leadership saw as a "litmus test of loyalty". Finland maintained good relations with a number of other Western powers. Foreign volunteers from Sweden and Estonia were among the foreigners who joined Finnish ranks. Infantry Regiment 200, called ("Finnish boys"), mostly Estonians, and the Swedes mustered the Swedish Volunteer Battalion. The Finnish government stressed that Finland was fighting as a co-belligerent with Germany against the USSR only to protect itself and that it was still the same democratic country as it had been in the Winter War. For example, Finland maintained diplomatic relations with the exiled Norwegian government and more than once criticised German occupation policy in Norway. Relations between Finland and the United States were more complex since the American public was sympathetic to the "brave little democracy" and had anticommunist sentiments. At first, the United States sympathised with the Finnish cause, but the situation became problematic after the Finnish Army had crossed the 1939 border. Finnish and German troops were a threat to the Kirov Railway and the northern supply line between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. On 25 October 1941, the US demanded that Finland cease all hostilities against the USSR and to withdraw behind the 1939 border. In public, President Ryti rejected the demands, but in private, he wrote to Mannerheim on 5 November and asked him to halt the offensive. Mannerheim agreed and secretly instructed General Hjalmar Siilasvuo and his III Corps to end the assault on the Kirov Railway. Nevertheless, the United States never declared war on Finland during the entire conflict. ===British declaration of war and action in the Arctic Ocean=== On 12 July 1941, the United Kingdom signed an agreement of joint action with the Soviet Union. Under German pressure, Finland closed the British legation in Helsinki and cut diplomatic relations with Britain on 1 August. On 2 August 1941, Britain declared that Finland was under enemy occupation, which ended all economic transactions between Britain and Finland and led to a blockade of Finnish trade. The most sizable British action on Finnish soil was the Raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo, an aircraft-carrier strike on German and Finnish ships on 31 July 1941. The attack accomplished little except the loss of one Norwegian ship and three British aircraft, but it was intended to demonstrate British support for its Soviet ally. From September to October in 1941, a total of 39 Hawker Hurricanes of No. 151 Wing RAF, based at Murmansk, reinforced and provided pilot-training to the Soviet Air Forces during Operation Benedict to protect arctic convoys. On 28 November, the British government presented Finland with an ultimatum demanding for the Finns to cease military operations by 3 December. Unofficially, Finland informed the Allies that Finnish troops would halt their advance in the next few days. The reply did not satisfy London, which declared war on Finland on 6 December. The Commonwealth nations of Canada, Australia, India and New Zealand soon followed suit. In private, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had sent a letter to Mannerheim on 29 November in which Churchill was "deeply grieved" that the British would have to declare war on Finland because of the British alliance with the Soviets. Mannerheim repatriated British volunteers under his command to the United Kingdom via Sweden. According to Clements, the declaration of war was mostly for appearance's sake. ==Trench warfare from 1942 to 1944== ===Unconventional warfare and military operations=== Unconventional warfare was fought in both the Finnish and Soviet wildernesses. Finnish long-range reconnaissance patrols, organised both by the Intelligence Division's Detached Battalion 4 and by local units, patrolled behind Soviet lines. Soviet partisans, both resistance fighters and regular long-range patrol detachments, conducted a number of operations in Finland and in Eastern Karelia from 1941 to 1944. In summer 1942, the USSR formed the 1st Partisan Brigade. The unit was 'partisan' in name only, as it was essentially 600 men and women on long-range patrol intended to disrupt Finnish operations. The 1st Partisan Brigade was able to infiltrate beyond Finnish patrol lines, but was intercepted, and rendered ineffective, in August 1942 at Lake Segozero. Irregular partisans distributed propaganda newspapers, such as Finnish translations of the official Communist Party paper Pravda (). Notable Soviet politician Yuri Andropov took part in these partisan guerrilla actions. Finnish sources state that, although Soviet partisan activity in East Karelia disrupted Finnish military supply and communication assets, almost two thirds of the attacks targeted civilians, killing 200 and injuring 50, including children and elderly. Between 1942 and 1943, military operations were limited, although the front did see some action. In January 1942, the Soviet Karelian Front attempted to retake Medvezhyegorsk (), which had been lost to the Finns in late 1941. With the arrival of spring in April, Soviet forces went on the offensive on the Svir River front, in the Kestenga () region further north in Lapland as well as in the far north at Petsamo with the 14th Rifle Division's amphibious landings supported by the Northern Fleet. All Soviet offensives started promisingly, but due either to the Soviets overextending their lines or stubborn defensive resistance, the offensives were repulsed. After Finnish and German counterattacks in Kestenga, the front lines were generally stalemated. In September 1942, the USSR attacked again at Medvezhyegorsk, but despite five days of fighting, the Soviets only managed to push the Finnish lines back on a roughly long stretch of the front. Later that month, a Soviet landing with two battalions in Petsamo was defeated by a German counterattack. In November 1941, Hitler decided to separate the German forces fighting in Lapland from the Army of Norway and create the Army of Lapland, commanded by Colonel General Eduard Dietl. In June 1942, the Army of Lapland was redesignated the 20th Mountain Army. ===Siege of Leningrad and naval warfare=== In the early stages of the war, the Finnish Army overran the former 1939 border, but ceased their advance from the center of Leningrad. Multiple authors have stated that Finland participated in the siege of Leningrad (), but the full extent and nature of their participation is debated and a clear consensus has yet to emerge. American historian David Glantz writes that the Finnish Army generally maintained their lines and contributed little to the siege from 1941 to 1944, whereas Russian historian stated in 2002 that Finland tacitly supported Hitler's starvation policy for the city. However, in 2009 British historian Michael Jones disputed Baryshnikov's claim and asserted that the Finnish Army cut off the city's northern supply routes but did not take further military action. In 2006, American author Lisa Kirschenbaum wrote that the siege started "when German and Finnish troops severed all land routes in and out of Leningrad." According to Clements, Mannerheim personally refused Hitler's request of assaulting Leningrad during their meeting on 4 June 1942. Mannerheim explained to Hitler that "Finland had every reason to wish to stay out of any further provocation of the Soviet Union." In 2014, author Jeff Rutherford described the city as being "ensnared" between the German and Finnish armies. British historian John Barber described it as a "siege by the German and Finnish armies from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944 [...]" in his foreword in 2017. Likewise, in 2017, Alexis Peri wrote that the city was "completely cut off, save a heavily patrolled water passage over Lake Ladoga" by "Hitler's Army Group North and his Finnish allies." The 150 speedboats, two minelayers and four steamships of the Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment, as well as numerous shore batteries, had been stationed on Lake Ladoga since August 1941. Finnish Lieutenant General Paavo Talvela proposed on 17 May 1942 to create a joint Finnish–German–Italian unit on the lake to disrupt Soviet supply convoys to Leningrad. The unit was named Naval Detachment K and comprised four Italian MAS torpedo motorboats of the XII Squadriglia MAS, four German KM-type minelayers and the Finnish torpedo-motorboat Sisu. The detachment began operations in August 1942 and sank numerous smaller Soviet watercraft and flatboats and assaulted enemy bases and beach fronts until it was dissolved in the winter of 1942–43. Twenty-three Siebel ferries and nine infantry transports of the German Einsatzstab Fähre Ost were also deployed to Lake Ladoga and unsuccessfully assaulted the island of Sukho, which protected the main supply route to Leningrad, in October 1942. Despite the siege of the city, the Soviet Baltic Fleet was still able to operate from Leningrad. The Finnish Navy's flagship had been sunk in September 1941 in the gulf by mines during the failed diversionary Operation North Wind in 1941. In early 1942, Soviet forces recaptured the island of Gogland, but lost it and the Bolshoy Tyuters islands to Finnish forces later in spring 1942. During the winter between 1941 and 1942, the Soviet Baltic Fleet decided to use their large submarine fleet in offensive operations. Though initial submarine operations in the summer of 1942 were successful, the and Finnish Navy soon intensified their anti-submarine efforts, making Soviet submarine operations later in 1942 costly. The underwater offensive carried out by the Soviets convinced the Germans to lay anti-submarine nets as well as supporting minefields between Porkkala Peninsula and Naissaar, which proved to be an insurmountable obstacle for Soviet submarines. On the Arctic Ocean, Finnish radio intelligence intercepted Allied messages on supply convoys to Murmansk, such as PQ 17 and PQ 18, and relayed the information to the Abwehr, German intelligence. ===Finnish military administration and concentration camps=== On 19 July 1941, the Finns created a military administration in occupied East Karelia with the goal of preparing the region for eventual incorporation into Finland. The Finns aimed to expel the Russian portion of the local population (constituting to about a half), who were deemed "non-national", from the area once the war was over, and replace them with Finno-Ugric peoples. Most of the East Karelian population had already been evacuated before the Finnish forces arrived, but about 85,000 people — mostly elderly, women and children — were left behind, less than half of whom were Karelians. A significant number of civilians, almost 30% of the remaining Russians, were interned in concentration camps. The winter between 1941 and 1942 was particularly harsh for the Finnish urban population due to poor harvests and a shortage of agricultural labourers. However, conditions were much worse for Russians in Finnish concentration camps. More than 3,500 people died, mostly from starvation, amounting to 13.8% of those detained, while the corresponding figure for the free population of the occupied territories was 2.6%, and 1.4% for Finland. Conditions gradually improved, ethnic discrimination in wage levels and food rations was terminated, and new schools were established for the Russian-speaking population the following year, after Commander-in-Chief Mannerheim called for the International Committee of the Red Cross from Geneva to inspect the camps. By the end of the occupation, mortality rates had dropped to the same levels as in Finland. ===Jews in Finland=== In 1939, Finland had a small Jewish population of approximately 2,000 people, of whom 300 were refugees from Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. They had full civil rights and fought with other Finns in the ranks of the Finnish Army. The field synagogue in East Karelia was one of the very few functioning synagogues on the Axis side during the war. There were several cases of Jewish officers of the Finnish Army being awarded the German Iron Cross, which they declined. German soldiers were treated by Jewish medical officers—who sometimes saved the soldiers' lives. German command mentioned Finnish Jews at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942, wishing to transport them to the Majdanek concentration camp in occupied Poland. SS leader Heinrich Himmler also raised the topic of Finnish Jews during his visit in Finland in the summer of 1942; Finnish Prime Minister Jukka Rangell replied that Finland did not have a Jewish question. In November 1942, the Minister of the Interior Toivo Horelli and the head of State Police Arno Anthoni secretly deported eight Jewish refugees to the Gestapo, raising protests among Finnish Social Democrat Party ministers. Only one of the deportees survived. After the incident, the Finnish government refused to transfer any more Jews to German detainment. Field Marshal Mannerheim had reminded the German command on numerous occasions that if the German troops withdrew from Estonia, Finland would be forced to make peace, even on extremely unfavourable terms. Finland abandoned peace negotiations in April 1944 because of the unfavourable terms the USSR demanded. ===Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive and breakthrough=== On 9 June 1944, the Soviet Leningrad Front launched an offensive against Finnish positions on the Karelian Isthmus and in the area of Lake Ladoga, timed to coincide with Operation Overlord in Normandy as agreed during the Tehran Conference. Along the -wide breakthrough, the Red Army concentrated 3,000 guns and mortars. In some places, the concentration of artillery pieces exceeded 200 guns for every kilometre of front or one for every . Soviet artillery fired over 80,000 rounds along the front on the Karelian Isthmus. On the second day of the offensive, the artillery barrages and superior number of Soviet forces crushed the main Finnish defence line. The Red Army penetrated the second line of defence, the Vammelsuu–Taipale line (VT line), at Kuuterselkä by the sixth day and recaptured Viipuri with insignificant resistance on 20 June. The Soviet breakthrough on the Karelian Isthmus forced the Finns to reinforce the area, thus allowing the concurrent Soviet offensive in East Karelia to meet less resistance and to recapture Petrozavodsk by 28 June 1944. On 25 June, the Red Army reached the third line of defence, the Viipuri–Kuparsaari–Taipale line (VKT line), and the decisive Battle of Tali-Ihantala began, which has been described as the largest battle in Nordic military history. By then, the Finnish Army had retreated around to approximately the same line of defence they had held at the end of the Winter War. Finland especially lacked modern anti-tank weaponry that could stop Soviet heavy armour, such as the KV-1 or IS-2. Thus, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop offered German hand-held Panzerfaust and Panzerschreck antitank weapons in exchange for a guarantee that Finland would not seek a separate peace with the Soviets. On 26 June, President Risto Ryti gave the guarantee as a personal undertaking that he, Field Marshal Mannerheim and Prime Minister Edwin Linkomies intended to last legally only for the remainder of Ryti's presidency. In addition to delivering thousands of anti-tank weapons, Hitler sent the 122nd Infantry Division and the half-strength 303rd Assault Gun Brigade armed with Sturmgeschütz III tank destroyers as well as the Luftwaffe's Detachment Kuhlmey to provide temporary support in the most vulnerable sectors. With the new supplies and assistance from Germany, the Finnish Army halted the numerically and materially superior Soviet advance at Tali-Ihantala on 9 July 1944 and stabilised the front. More battles were fought toward the end of the war, the last of which was the Battle of Ilomantsi, fought between 26 July and 13 August 1944 and resulting in a Finnish victory with the destruction of two Soviet divisions. Resisting the Soviet offensive had exhausted Finnish resources. Despite German support under the Ryti–Ribbentrop Agreement, Finland asserted that it was unable to blunt another major offensive. Soviet victories against German Army Groups Center and North during Operation Bagration made the situation even more dire for Finland. With no imminent further Soviet offensives, Finland sought to leave the war. On 1 August, Ryti resigned, and on 4 August, Field Marshal Mannerheim was sworn in as the new president. He annulled the agreement between Ryti and Ribbentrop on 17 August to allow Finland to sue for peace with the Soviets again, and peace terms from Moscow arrived on 29 August. ===Ceasefire and peace=== Finland was required to return to the borders agreed to in the 1940 Moscow Peace Treaty, demobilise its armed forces, fulfill war reparations and cede the municipality of Petsamo. The Finns were also required to end any diplomatic relations with Germany immediately and to expel the from Finnish territory by 15 September 1944; any troops remaining were to be disarmed, arrested and turned over to the Allies. The Finnish Parliament accepted those terms in a secret meeting on 2 September and requested for official negotiations for an armistice to begin. The Finnish Army implemented a ceasefire at 8:00 a.m. Helsinki time on 4 September. The Red Army followed suit a day later. On 14 September, a delegation led by Finnish Prime Minister Antti Hackzell and Foreign Minister Carl Enckell began negotiating, with the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, the final terms of the Moscow Armistice, which eventually included additional stipulations from the Soviets. They were presented by Molotov on 18 September and accepted by the Finnish Parliament a day later. The motivations for the Soviet peace agreement with Finland are debated. Several Western historians stated that the original Soviet designs for Finland were no different from those for the Baltic countries. American political scientist Dan Reiter asserted that for Moscow, the control of Finland was necessary. Reiter and the British historian Victor Rothwell quoted Molotov as telling his Lithuanian counterpart in 1940, when the Soviets effectively annexed Lithuania, that minor states such as Finland, "will be included within the honourable family of Soviet peoples". Reiter stated that concern over severe losses pushed Stalin into accepting a limited outcome in the war rather than pursuing annexation, although some Soviet documents called for military occupation of Finland. He also wrote that Stalin had described territorial concessions, reparations and military bases as his objective with Finland to representatives from the UK, in December 1941, and the US, in March 1943, as well as the Tehran Conference. He believed that in the end, "Stalin's desire to crush Hitler quickly and decisively without distraction from the Finnish sideshow" concluded the war. Red Army officers captured as prisoners of war during the Battle of Tali-Ihantala revealed that their intention was to reach Helsinki, and that they were to be strengthened with reinforcements for this task. This was confirmed by intercepted Soviet radio messages. Russian historian Nikolai Baryshnikov disputed the view that the Soviet Union sought to deprive Finland of its independence. He argued that there was no documentary evidence for such claims and that the Soviet government was always open for negotiations. Baryshnikov cited sources like the public information chief of Finnish Headquarters, Major , to show that Finnish leadership had learned of the limited Soviet plans for Finland by at least July 1944 after intelligence revealed that some Soviet divisions were to be transferred to reserve in Leningrad. Finnish historian stated similar findings in 2009. According to him, the Soviets refocused their efforts in the summer of 1944 from the Finnish Front to defeating Germany, and Mannerheim received intelligence from Colonel Aladár Paasonen in June 1944 that the Soviet Union was aiming for peace, not occupation. Evidence of the Soviet leadership's intentions for the occupation of Finland has later been uncovered. In 2018, it was revealed that the Soviets' designed and printed (in Goznak) new banknotes for Finland during the closing phases of the war, which were to be put into use after the planned occupation of the country. ==Aftermath and casualties== ===Finland and Germany=== According to Finnish historians, the casualties of the Finnish Defence Forces amounted to 63,204 dead or missing and around 158,000 wounded. Officially, the Soviets captured 2,377 Finnish prisoners-of-war, but Finnish researchers estimated the number to be around 3,500 prisoners. A total of 939 Finnish civilians died in air raids and 190 civilians were killed by Soviet partisans. Because of Soviet pressure, Finland decided not to accept economic aid from the Marshall Plan. On 6 April 1948, Finland and the Soviet Union agreed to sign the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948, which was introduced since Finland wanted more political independence from the USSR and the Soviets sought to prevent Finland from being used by Western powers to invade the USSR. On 19 September 1955, Finland and the Soviet Union agreed to extend the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 and the Soviets also agreed to return the Porkkala Peninsula to Finland. In January 1956, twelve years after the beginning of the lease in 1944, the Soviets withdrew from their naval base on Porkkala and the peninsula was returned to Finnish sovereignty. Many civilians who had been displaced after the Winter War had moved back into Karelia during the Continuation War and so had to be evacuated from Karelia again. Of the 260,000 civilians who had returned to Karelia, only 19 chose to remain and become Soviet citizens. Most of the Ingrian Finns, together with Votes and Izhorians living in German-occupied Ingria, had been evacuated to Finland in 1943–1944. After the armistice, Finland was forced to return the evacuees. Soviet authorities did not allow the 55,733 returnees to resettle in Ingria and deported the Ingrian Finns to central regions of the Soviet Union. === Soviet Union === The war is considered a Soviet victory. According to Finnish historians, Soviet casualties in the Continuation War were not accurately recorded and various approximations have arisen. Russian historian Grigori Krivosheev estimated in 1997 that around 250,000 were killed or missing in action while 575,000 were medical casualties (385,000 wounded and 190,000 sick). Finnish author Nenye and others stated in 2016 that at least 305,000 were confirmed dead, or missing, according to the latest research and the number of wounded certainly exceeded 500,000. Of material losses, authors Jowett and Snodgrass state that 697 Soviet tanks were destroyed, 842 field artillery pieces captured, and 1,600 airplanes destroyed by Finnish fighter planes (1,030 by anti-aircraft fire and 75 by the Navy). The number of Soviet prisoners of war in Finland was estimated by Finnish historians to be around 64,000, 56,000 of whom were captured in 1941. Around 2,600 to 2,800 Soviet prisoners of war were rendered to Germany in exchange for roughly 2,200 Finnish prisoners of war. Of the Soviet prisoners, at least 18,318 were documented to have died in Finnish prisoner of war camps. Finnish archival sources indicate that the highest mortality rates were observed in the largest prisoner of war camps, with mortality rates as high as 41%. For small camps, the comparable mortality rate was under 5%. Nearly 85% of the deaths happened between November 1941 and September 1942 with the highest monthly number of deaths, 2,665, recorded in February 1942. For comparison, the amount of deaths in February 1943 was 92. Historian attributes the amount of Soviet deaths to several factors, which include Finnish unpreparedness to handle unexpectedly large amounts of prisoners resulting in overcrowding, a lack of warm clothing among prisoners captured predominantly during the summer offensive, limited supplies of food (often made worse by camp personnel stealing food for themselves), and disease as a result of the previous factors. According to historian Antti Kujala, approximately 1,200 prisoners were shot, "most" of whom illegally. The extent of Finland's participation in the siege of Leningrad, and whether Soviet civilian casualties during the siege should be attributed to the Continuation War, is debated and lacks a consensus (estimates of civilian deaths during the siege range from 632,253 to 1,042,000). ==In film and literature== Several literary and cinematic arrangements have been made on the basis of the Continuation War. The best-known story about the Continuation War is Väinö Linna's novel The Unknown Soldier (), which was the basis for three films in 1955, 1985, and 2017. There is also a 1999 film Ambush, based on a novel by Antti Tuuri on the events in Rukajärvi, Karelia, and a 2007 film 1944: The Final Defence, based on the Battle of Tali-Ihantala. The final stages of the Continuation War were the primary focus of Soviet director Yuli Raizman's 1945 documentary entitled A Propos of the Truce with Finland (). The documentary illustrates the strategic operations that led to the breakthrough on the Karelian Isthmus by the Soviets as well as how Soviet propaganda presented the war overall. The film is titled Läpimurto Kannaksella ja rauhanneuvottelut in Finnish.	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