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Chinese remainder theorem
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In mathematics, the Chinese remainder theorem states that if one knows the remainders of the Euclidean division of an integer n by several integers, then one can determine uniquely the remainder of the division of n by the product of these integers, under the condition that the divisors are pairwise coprime (no two divisors share a common factor other than 1).
The theorem is sometimes called Sunzi's theorem. Both names of the theorem refer to its earliest known statement that appeared in Sunzi Suanjing, a Chinese manuscript written during the 3rd to 5th century CE. This first statement was restricted to the following example:
If one knows that the remainder of n divided by 3 is 2, the remainder of n divided by 5 is 3, and the remainder of n divided by 7 is 2, then with no other information, one can determine the remainder of n divided by 105 (the product of 3, 5, and 7) without knowing the value of n. In this example, the remainder is 23. Moreover, this remainder is the only possible positive value of n that is less than 105.
The Chinese remainder theorem is widely used for computing with large integers, as it allows replacing a computation for which one knows a bound on the size of the result by several similar computations on small integers.
The Chinese remainder theorem (expressed in terms of congruences) is true over every principal ideal domain. It has been generalized to any ring, with a formulation involving two-sided ideals.
==History==
The earliest known statement of the problem appears in the 5th-century book Sunzi Suanjing by the Chinese mathematician Sunzi:
Sunzi's work would not be considered a theorem by modern standards; it only gives one particular problem, without showing how to solve it, much less any proof about the general case or a general algorithm for solving it. An algorithm for solving this problem was described by Aryabhata (6th century). Special cases of the Chinese remainder theorem were also known to Brahmagupta (7th century) and appear in Fibonacci's Liber Abaci (1202). The result was later generalized with a complete solution called Da-yan-shu () in Qin Jiushao's 1247 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections which was translated into English in early 19th century by British missionary Alexander Wylie.
The notion of congruences was first introduced and used by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae of 1801. Gauss illustrates the Chinese remainder theorem on a problem involving calendars, namely, "to find the years that have a certain period number with respect to the solar and lunar cycle and the Roman indiction." Gauss introduces a procedure for solving the problem that had already been used by Leonhard Euler but was in fact an ancient method that had appeared several times.
==Statement==
Let n1, ..., nk be integers greater than 1, which are often called moduli or divisors. Let us denote by N the product of the ni.
The Chinese remainder theorem asserts that if the ni are pairwise coprime, and if a1, ..., ak are integers such that 0 ≤ ai < ni for every i, then there is one and only one integer x, such that 0 ≤ x < N and the remainder of the Euclidean division of x by ni is ai for every i.
This may be restated as follows in terms of congruences:
If the n_i are pairwise coprime, and if a1, ..., ak are any integers, then the system
\begin{align}
x &\equiv a_1 \pmod{n_1} \\
&\,\,\,\vdots \\
x &\equiv a_k \pmod{n_k},
\end{align}
has a solution, and any two solutions, say x1 and x2, are congruent modulo N, that is, .
In abstract algebra, the theorem is often restated as: if the ni are pairwise coprime, the map
x \bmod N \;\mapsto\;(x \bmod n_1,\, \ldots,\, x \bmod n_k)
defines a ring isomorphism
\mathbb{Z}/N\mathbb{Z} \cong \mathbb{Z}/n_1\mathbb{Z} \times \cdots \times \mathbb{Z}/n_k\mathbb{Z}
between the ring of integers modulo N and the direct product of the rings of integers modulo the ni. This means that for doing a sequence of arithmetic operations in \mathbb{Z}/N\mathbb{Z}, one may do the same computation independently in each \mathbb{Z}/n_i\mathbb{Z} and then get the result by applying the isomorphism (from the right to the left). This may be much faster than the direct computation if N and the number of operations are large. This is widely used, under the name multi-modular computation, for linear algebra over the integers or the rational numbers.
The theorem can also be restated in the language of combinatorics as the fact that the infinite arithmetic progressions of integers form a Helly family.
==Proof==
The existence and the uniqueness of the solution may be proven independently. However, the first proof of existence, given below, uses this uniqueness.
===Uniqueness===
Suppose that and are both solutions to all the congruences. As and give the same remainder, when divided by , their difference is a multiple of each . As the are pairwise coprime, their product also divides , and thus and are congruent modulo . If and are supposed to be non-negative and less than (as in the first statement of the theorem), then their difference may be a multiple of only if .
===Existence (first proof)===
The map
x \bmod N \mapsto (x \bmod n_1, \ldots, x\bmod n_k)
maps congruence classes modulo to sequences of congruence classes modulo . The proof of uniqueness shows that this map is injective. As the domain and the codomain of this map have the same number of elements, the map is also surjective, which proves the existence of the solution.
This proof is very simple but does not provide any direct way for computing a solution. Moreover, it cannot be generalized to other situations where the following proof can.
===Existence (constructive proof)===
Existence may be established by an explicit construction of . This construction may be split into two steps, first solving the problem in the case of two moduli, and then extending this solution to the general case by induction on the number of moduli.
====Case of two moduli====
We want to solve the system:
\begin{align}
x &\equiv a_1 \pmod {n_1}\\
x &\equiv a_2 \pmod {n_2},
\end{align}
where n_1 and n_2 are coprime.
Bézout's identity asserts the existence of two integers m_1 and m_2 such that
m_1n_1+m_2n_2=1.
The integers m_1 and m_2 may be computed by the extended Euclidean algorithm.
A solution is given by
x = a_1m_2n_2+a_2m_1n_1.
Indeed,
\begin{align}
x&=a_1m_2n_2+a_2m_1n_1\\
&=a_1(1 - m_1n_1) + a_2m_1n_1 \\
&=a_1 + (a_2 - a_1)m_1n_1,
\end{align}
implying that x \equiv a_1 \pmod {n_1}. The second congruence is proved similarly, by exchanging the subscripts 1 and 2.
====General case====
Consider a sequence of congruence equations:
\begin{align}
x &\equiv a_1 \pmod{n_1} \\
&\vdots \\
x &\equiv a_k \pmod{n_k},
\end{align}
where the n_i are pairwise coprime. The two first equations have a solution a_{1,2} provided by the method of the previous section. The set of the solutions of these two first equations is the set of all solutions of the equation
x \equiv a_{1,2} \pmod{n_1n_2}.
As the other n_i are coprime with n_1n_2, this reduces solving the initial problem of equations to a similar problem with k-1 equations. Iterating the process, one gets eventually the solutions of the initial problem.
===Existence (direct construction)===
For constructing a solution, it is not necessary to make an induction on the number of moduli. However, such a direct construction involves more computation with large numbers, which makes it less efficient and less used. Nevertheless, Lagrange interpolation is a special case of this construction, applied to polynomials instead of integers.
Let N_i = N/n_i be the product of all moduli but one. As the n_i are pairwise coprime, N_i and n_i are coprime. Thus Bézout's identity applies, and there exist integers M_i and m_i such that
M_iN_i + m_in_i=1.
A solution of the system of congruences is
x=\sum_{i=1}^k a_iM_iN_i.
In fact, as N_j is a multiple of n_i for i\neq j,
we have
x \equiv a_iM_iN_i \equiv a_i(1-m_in_i) \equiv a_i \pmod{n_i},
for every i.
==Computation==
Consider a system of congruences:
\begin{align}
x &\equiv a_1 \pmod{n_1} \\
&\vdots \\
x &\equiv a_k \pmod{n_k}, \\
\end{align}
where the n_i are pairwise coprime, and let N=n_1 n_2\cdots n_k. In this section several methods are described for computing the unique solution for x, such that 0\le x and these methods are applied on the example
\begin{align}
x &\equiv 0 \pmod 3 \\
x &\equiv 3 \pmod 4 \\
x &\equiv 4 \pmod 5.
\end{align}
Several methods of computation are presented. The two first ones are useful for small examples, but become very inefficient when the product n_1\cdots n_k is large. The third one uses the existence proof given in . It is the most convenient when the product n_1\cdots n_k is large, or for computer computation.
===Systematic search===
It is easy to check whether a value of is a solution: it suffices to compute the remainder of the Euclidean division of by each . Thus, to find the solution, it suffices to check successively the integers from to until finding the solution.
Although very simple, this method is very inefficient. For the simple example considered here, integers (including ) have to be checked for finding the solution, which is . This is an exponential time algorithm, as the size of the input is, up to a constant factor, the number of digits of , and the average number of operations is of the order of .
Therefore, this method is rarely used, neither for hand-written computation nor on computers.
===Search by sieving===
The search of the solution may be made dramatically faster by sieving. For this method, we suppose, without loss of generality, that 0\le a_i (if it were not the case, it would suffice to replace each a_i by the remainder of its division by n_i). This implies that the solution belongs to the arithmetic progression
a_1, a_1 + n_1, a_1+2n_1, \ldots
By testing the values of these numbers modulo n_2, one eventually finds a solution x_2 of the two first congruences. Then the solution belongs to the arithmetic progression
x_2, x_2 + n_1n_2, x_2+2n_1n_2, \ldots
Testing the values of these numbers modulo n_3, and continuing until every modulus has been tested eventually yields the solution.
This method is faster if the moduli have been ordered by decreasing value, that is if n_1>n_2> \cdots > n_k. For the example, this gives the following computation. We consider first the numbers that are congruent to 4 modulo 5 (the largest modulus), which are 4, , , ... For each of them, compute the remainder by 4 (the second largest modulus) until getting a number congruent to 3 modulo 4. Then one can proceed by adding at each step, and computing only the remainders by 3. This gives
4 mod 4 → 0. Continue
4 + 5 = 9 mod 4 →1. Continue
9 + 5 = 14 mod 4 → 2. Continue
14 + 5 = 19 mod 4 → 3. OK, continue by considering remainders modulo 3 and adding 5 × 4 = 20 each time
19 mod 3 → 1. Continue
19 + 20 = 39 mod 3 → 0. OK, this is the result.
This method works well for hand-written computation with a product of moduli that is not too big. However, it is much slower than other methods, for very large products of moduli. Although dramatically faster than the systematic search, this method also has an exponential time complexity and is therefore not used on computers.
===Using the existence construction===
The constructive existence proof shows that, in the case of two moduli, the solution may be obtained by the computation of the Bézout coefficients of the moduli, followed by a few multiplications, additions and reductions modulo n_1n_2 (for getting a result in the interval (0, n_1n_2-1)). As the Bézout's coefficients may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm, the whole computation, at most, has a quadratic time complexity of O((s_1+s_2)^2), where s_i denotes the number of digits of n_i.
For more than two moduli, the method for two moduli allows the replacement of any two congruences by a single congruence modulo the product of the moduli. Iterating this process provides eventually the solution with a complexity, which is quadratic in the number of digits of the product of all moduli. This quadratic time complexity does not depend on the order in which the moduli are regrouped. One may regroup the two first moduli, then regroup the resulting modulus with the next one, and so on. This strategy is the easiest to implement, but it also requires more computation involving large numbers.
Another strategy consists in partitioning the moduli in pairs whose product have comparable sizes (as much as possible), applying, in parallel, the method of two moduli to each pair, and iterating with a number of moduli approximatively divided by two. This method allows an easy parallelization of the algorithm. Also, if fast algorithms (that is, algorithms working in quasilinear time) are used for the basic operations, this method provides an algorithm for the whole computation that works in quasilinear time.
On the current example (which has only three moduli), both strategies are identical and work as follows.
Bézout's identity for 3 and 4 is
1\times 4 + (-1)\times 3 = 1.
Putting this in the formula given for proving the existence gives
0\times 1\times 4 + 3\times (-1)\times 3 =-9
for a solution of the two first congruences, the other solutions being obtained by adding to −9 any multiple of . One may continue with any of these solutions, but the solution is smaller (in absolute value) and thus leads probably to an easier computation
Bézout identity for 5 and 3 × 4 = 12 is
5\times 5 +(-2)\times 12 =1.
Applying the same formula again, we get a solution of the problem:
5\times 5 \times 3 + 12\times (-2)\times 4 = -21.
The other solutions are obtained by adding any multiple of , and the smallest positive solution is .
===As a linear Diophantine system===
The system of congruences solved by the Chinese remainder theorem may be rewritten as a system of linear Diophantine equations:
\begin{align}
x &= a_1 +x_1n_1\\
&\vdots \\
x &=a_k+x_kn_k,
\end{align}
where the unknown integers are x and the x_i. Therefore, every general method for solving such systems may be used for finding the solution of Chinese remainder theorem, such as the reduction of the matrix of the system to Smith normal form or Hermite normal form. However, as usual when using a general algorithm for a more specific problem, this approach is less efficient than the method of the preceding section, based on a direct use of Bézout's identity.
==Over principal ideal domains==
In , the Chinese remainder theorem has been stated in three different ways: in terms of remainders, of congruences, and of a ring isomorphism. The statement in terms of remainders does not apply, in general, to principal ideal domains, as remainders are not defined in such rings. However, the two other versions make sense over a principal ideal domain : it suffices to replace "integer" by "element of the domain" and \mathbb Z by . These two versions of the theorem are true in this context, because the proofs (except for the first existence proof), are based on Euclid's lemma and Bézout's identity, which are true over every principal domain.
However, in general, the theorem is only an existence theorem and does not provide any way for computing the solution, unless one has an algorithm for computing the coefficients of Bézout's identity.
==Over univariate polynomial rings and Euclidean domains==
The statement in terms of remainders given in cannot be generalized to any principal ideal domain, but its generalization to Euclidean domains is straightforward. The univariate polynomials over a field is the typical example of a Euclidean domain which is not the integers. Therefore, we state the theorem for the case of the ring R=K[X] for a field K. For getting the theorem for a general Euclidean domain, it suffices to replace the degree by the Euclidean function of the Euclidean domain.
The Chinese remainder theorem for polynomials is thus: Let P_i(X) (the moduli) be, for i = 1, \dots, k, pairwise coprime polynomials in R=K[X]. Let d_i =\deg P_i be the degree of P_i(X), and D be the sum of the d_i.
If A_i(X), \ldots,A_k(X) are polynomials such that A_i(X)=0 or \deg A_i for every , then, there is one and only one polynomial P(X), such that \deg P and the remainder of the Euclidean division of P(X) by P_i(X) is A_i(X) for every .
The construction of the solution may be done as in or . However, the latter construction may be simplified by using, as follows, partial fraction decomposition instead of the extended Euclidean algorithm.
Thus, we want to find a polynomial P(X), which satisfies the congruences
P(X)\equiv A_i(X) \pmod {P_i(X)},
for i=1,\ldots,k.
Consider the polynomials
\begin{align}
Q(X) &= \prod_{i=1}^{k}P_i(X) \\
Q_i(X) &= \frac{Q(X)}{P_i(X)}.
\end{align}
The partial fraction decomposition of 1/Q(X) gives polynomials S_i(X) with degrees \deg S_i(X) < d_i, such that
\frac{1}{Q(X)} = \sum_{i=1}^k \frac{S_i(X)}{P_i(X)},
and thus
1 = \sum_{i=1}^{k}S_i(X) Q_i(X).
Then a solution of the simultaneous congruence system is given by the polynomial
\sum_{i=1}^k A_i(X) S_i(X) Q_i(X).
In fact, we have
\sum_{i=1}^k A_i(X) S_i(X) Q_i(X)= A_i(X)+ \sum_{j=1}^{k}(A_j(X) - A_i(X)) S_j(X) Q_j(X) \equiv A_i(X)\pmod{P_i(X)},
for 1 \leq i \leq k.
This solution may have a degree larger than D=\sum_{i=1}^k d_i. The unique solution of degree less than D may be deduced by considering the remainder B_i(X) of the Euclidean division of A_i(X)S_i(X) by P_i(X). This solution is
P(X)=\sum_{i=1}^k B_i(X) Q_i(X).
===Lagrange interpolation===
A special case of Chinese remainder theorem for polynomials is Lagrange interpolation. For this, consider monic polynomials of degree one:
P_i(X)=X-x_i.
They are pairwise coprime if the x_i are all different. The remainder of the division by P_i(X) of a polynomial P(X) is P(x_i), by the polynomial remainder theorem.
Now, let A_1, \ldots, A_k be constants (polynomials of degree 0) in K. Both Lagrange interpolation and Chinese remainder theorem assert the existence of a unique polynomial P(X), of degree less than k such that
P(x_i)=A_i,
for every i.
Lagrange interpolation formula is exactly the result, in this case, of the above construction of the solution. More precisely, let
\begin{align}
Q(X) &= \prod_{i=1}^{k}(X-x_i) \\[6pt]
Q_i(X) &= \frac{Q(X)}{X-x_i}.
\end{align}
The partial fraction decomposition of \frac{1}{Q(X)} is
\frac{1}{Q(X)} = \sum_{i=1}^k \frac{1}{Q_i(x_i)(X-x_i)}.
In fact, reducing the right-hand side to a common denominator one gets
\sum_{i=1}^k \frac{1}{Q_i(x_i)(X-x_i)}= \frac{1}{Q(X)} \sum_{i=1}^k \frac{Q_i(X)}{Q_i(x_i)},
and the numerator is equal to one, as being a polynomial of degree less than k, which takes the value one for k different values of X.
Using the above general formula, we get the Lagrange interpolation formula:
P(X)=\sum_{i=1}^k A_i\frac{Q_i(X)}{Q_i(x_i)}.
===Hermite interpolation===
Hermite interpolation is an application of the Chinese remainder theorem for univariate polynomials, which may involve moduli of arbitrary degrees (Lagrange interpolation involves only moduli of degree one).
The problem consists of finding a polynomial of the least possible degree, such that the polynomial and its first derivatives take given values at some fixed points.
More precisely, let x_1, \ldots, x_k be k elements of the ground field K, and, for i=1,\ldots, k, let a_{i,0}, a_{i,1}, \ldots, a_{i,r_i-1} be the values of the first r_i derivatives of the sought polynomial at x_i (including the 0th derivative, which is the value of the polynomial itself). The problem is to find a polynomial P(X) such that its j th derivative takes the value a_{i,j} at x_i, for i=1,\ldots,k and j=0,\ldots,r_j.
Consider the polynomial
P_i(X) = \sum_{j=0}^{r_i - 1}\frac{a_{i,j}}{j!}(X - x_i)^j.
This is the Taylor polynomial of order r_i-1 at x_i, of the unknown polynomial P(X). Therefore, we must have
P(X)\equiv P_i(X) \pmod {(X-x_i)^{r_i}}.
Conversely, any polynomial P(X) that satisfies these k congruences, in particular verifies, for any i=1, \ldots, k
P(X)= P_i(X) +o(X-x_i)^{r_i-1}
therefore P_i(X) is its Taylor polynomial of order r_i - 1 at x_i, that is, P(X) solves the initial Hermite interpolation problem.
The Chinese remainder theorem asserts that there exists exactly one polynomial of degree less than the sum of the r_i, which satisfies these k congruences.
There are several ways for computing the solution P(X). One may use the method described at the beginning of . One may also use the constructions given in or .
==Generalization to non-coprime moduli==
The Chinese remainder theorem can be generalized to non-coprime moduli. Let m, n, a, b be any integers, let g = \gcd(m,n); M = \operatorname{lcm}(m,n), and consider the system of congruences:
\begin{align}
x &\equiv a \pmod m \\
x &\equiv b \pmod n,
\end{align}
If a \equiv b \pmod g, then this system has a unique solution modulo M = mn/g. Otherwise, it has no solutions.
If one uses Bézout's identity to write g = um + vn, then the solution is given by
x = \frac{avn+bum}{g}.
This defines an integer, as divides both and . Otherwise, the proof is very similar to that for coprime moduli.
==Generalization to arbitrary rings==
The Chinese remainder theorem can be generalized to any ring, by using coprime ideals (also called comaximal ideals). Two ideals and are coprime if there are elements i\in I and j\in J such that i+j=1. This relation plays the role of Bézout's identity in the proofs related to this generalization, which otherwise are very similar. The generalization may be stated as follows.
Let be two-sided ideals of a ring R and let be their intersection. If the ideals are pairwise coprime, we have the isomorphism:
\begin{align}
R/I &\to (R/I_1) \times \cdots \times (R/I_k) \\
x \bmod I &\mapsto (x \bmod I_1,\, \ldots,\, x \bmod I_k),
\end{align}
between the quotient ring R/I and the direct product of the R/I_i,
where "x \bmod I" denotes the image of the element x in the quotient ring defined by the ideal I.
Moreover, if R is commutative, then the ideal intersection of pairwise coprime ideals is equal to their product; that is
I= I_1\cap I_2 \cap\cdots\cap I_k= I_1I_2\cdots I_k,
if and are coprime for all .
===Interpretation in terms of idempotents===
Let I_1, I_2, \dots, I_k be pairwise coprime two-sided ideals with \bigcap_{i = 1}^k I_i = 0, and
\varphi:R\to (R/I_1) \times \cdots \times (R/I_k)
be the isomorphism defined above. Let f_i=(0,\ldots,1,\ldots, 0) be the element of (R/I_1) \times \cdots \times (R/I_k) whose components are all except the th which is , and e_i=\varphi^{-1}(f_i).
The e_i are central idempotents that are pairwise orthogonal; this means, in particular, that e_i^2=e_i and e_ie_j=e_je_i=0 for every and . Moreover, one has e_1+\cdots+e_n=1, and I_i=R(1-e_i).
In summary, this generalized Chinese remainder theorem is the equivalence between giving pairwise coprime two-sided ideals with a zero intersection, and giving central and pairwise orthogonal idempotents that sum to .
==Applications==
===Sequence numbering===
The Chinese remainder theorem has been used to construct a Gödel numbering for sequences, which is involved in the proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorems.
===Fast Fourier transform===
The prime-factor FFT algorithm (also called Good-Thomas algorithm) uses the Chinese remainder theorem for reducing the computation of a fast Fourier transform of size n_1n_2 to the computation of two fast Fourier transforms of smaller sizes n_1 and n_2 (providing that n_1 and n_2 are coprime).
===Encryption===
Most implementations of RSA use the Chinese remainder theorem during signing of HTTPS certificates and during decryption.
The Chinese remainder theorem can also be used in secret sharing, which consists of distributing a set of shares among a group of people who, all together (but no one alone), can recover a certain secret from the given set of shares. Each of the shares is represented in a congruence, and the solution of the system of congruences using the Chinese remainder theorem is the secret to be recovered. Secret sharing using the Chinese remainder theorem uses, along with the Chinese remainder theorem, special sequences of integers that guarantee the impossibility of recovering the secret from a set of shares with less than a certain cardinality.
===Range ambiguity resolution===
The range ambiguity resolution techniques used with medium pulse repetition frequency radar can be seen as a special case of the Chinese remainder theorem.
=== Decomposition of surjections of finite abelian groups ===
Given a surjection \mathbb{Z}/n \to \mathbb{Z}/m of finite abelian groups, we can use the Chinese remainder theorem to give a complete description of any such map. First of all, the theorem gives isomorphisms
\begin{align}
\mathbb{Z}/n &\cong \mathbb{Z}/p_{n_1}^{a_1} \times \cdots \times \mathbb{Z}/p_{n_i}^{a_i} \\
\mathbb{Z}/m &\cong \mathbb{Z}/p_{m_1}^{b_1} \times \cdots \times \mathbb{Z}/p_{m_j}^{b_j}
\end{align}
where \{p_{m_1},\ldots,p_{m_j} \} \subseteq \{ p_{n_1},\ldots, p_{n_i} \}. In addition, for any induced map
\mathbb{Z}/p_{n_k}^{a_k} \to \mathbb{Z}/p_{m_l}^{b_l}
from the original surjection, we have a_k \geq b_l and p_{n_k} = p_{m_l}, since for a pair of primes p,q, the only non-zero surjections
\mathbb{Z}/p^a \to \mathbb{Z}/q^b
can be defined if p = q and a \geq b.
These observations are pivotal for constructing the ring of profinite integers, which is given as an inverse limit of all such maps.
===Dedekind's theorem===
Dedekind's theorem on the linear independence of characters. Let be a monoid and an integral domain, viewed as a monoid by considering the multiplication on . Then any finite family of distinct monoid homomorphisms is linearly independent. In other words, every family of elements satisfying
\sum_{i \in I}\alpha_i f_i = 0
must be equal to the family .
Proof. First assume that is a field, otherwise, replace the integral domain by its quotient field, and nothing will change. We can linearly extend the monoid homomorphisms to -algebra homomorphisms , where is the monoid ring of over . Then, by linearity, the condition
\sum_{i\in I}\alpha_i f_i = 0,
yields
\sum_{i \in I}\alpha_i F_i = 0.
Next, for the two -linear maps and are not proportional to each other. Otherwise and would also be proportional, and thus equal since as monoid homomorphisms they satisfy: , which contradicts the assumption that they are distinct.
Therefore, the kernels and are distinct. Since is a field, is a maximal ideal of for every in . Because they are distinct and maximal the ideals and are coprime whenever . The Chinese Remainder Theorem (for general rings) yields an isomorphism:
\begin{align}
\phi: k[M] / K &\to \prod_{i \in I}k[M] / \mathrm{Ker} F_i \\
\phi(x + K) &= \left(x + \mathrm{Ker} F_i\right)_{i \in I}
\end{align}
where
K = \prod_{i \in I}\mathrm{Ker} F_i = \bigcap_{i \in I}\mathrm{Ker} F_i.
Consequently, the map
\begin{align}
\Phi: k[M] &\to \prod_{i \in I}k[M]/ \mathrm{Ker} F_i \\
\Phi(x) &= \left(x + \mathrm{Ker} F_i\right)_{i \in I}
\end{align}
is surjective. Under the isomorphisms the map corresponds to:
\begin{align}
\psi: k[M] &\to \prod_{i \in I}k \\
\psi(x) &= \left[F_i(x)\right]_{i \in I}
\end{align}
Now,
\sum_{i \in I}\alpha_i F_i = 0
yields
\sum_{i \in I}\alpha_i u_i = 0
for every vector in the image of the map . Since is surjective, this means that
\sum_{i \in I}\alpha_i u_i = 0
for every vector
\left(u_i\right)_{i \in I} \in \prod_{i \in I}k.
Consequently, . QED.
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"Coprime integers",
"degree of a polynomial",
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"Sunzi Suanjing",
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"principal ideal domain",
"Aryabhata",
"Leonhard Euler",
"profinite integer",
"modulo operation",
"polynomial remainder theorem",
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"Taylor polynomial",
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"combinatorics",
"maximal ideal",
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"theorem",
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"algorithm",
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"mathematical proof",
"kernel (algebra)",
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"absolute value",
"rational number",
"monic polynomial",
"time complexity",
"fast Fourier transform",
"image (mathematics)",
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"Fibonacci",
"quasilinear time",
"derivative",
"integers modulo n",
"Euclidean domain",
"pairwise coprime",
"prime number",
"medium pulse repetition frequency",
"inverse limit",
"Hasse principle",
"coprime",
"field (mathematics)",
"Covering system",
"quadratic time",
"commutative ring",
"Hermite interpolation",
"mathematical induction",
"secret sharing",
"Gödel's incompleteness theorems",
"Residue number system",
"divisor",
"Liber Abaci",
"arithmetic progression",
"monoid ring",
"Smith normal form",
"Euclidean function",
"range ambiguity resolution",
"exponential time",
"matrix (mathematics)",
"integral domain",
"Ideal (ring theory)",
"quotient field",
"ideal (ring theory)",
"extended Euclidean algorithm",
"Helly family",
"mathematics"
] |
7,716 |
Cyril M. Kornbluth
|
Cyril M. Kornbluth (July 2, 1923 – March 21, 1958) was an American science fiction author and a member of the Futurians. He used a variety of pen-names, including Cecil Corwin, S. D. Gottesman, Edward J. Bellin, Kenneth Falconer, Walter C. Davies, Simon Eisner, Jordan Park, Arthur Cooke, Paul Dennis Lavond, and Scott Mariner.
==Biography==
Kornbluth was born and grew up in the uptown Manhattan neighborhood of Inwood, in New York City. He was of Polish-Jewish descent, the son of a World War I veteran and grandson of a tailor, a Jewish immigrant from Galicia. Kornbluth's colleague and collaborator Frederik Pohl confirmed Kornbluth's lack of any actual middle name in at least one interview.
According to his widow, Kornbluth was a "precocious child", learning to read by the age of three and writing his own stories by the time he was seven. He graduated from high school at thirteen, received a CCNY scholarship at fourteen, and was "thrown out for leading a student strike" without graduating. He received a Bronze Star for his service in the Battle of the Bulge, where he served as a member of a heavy machine gun crew. Upon his discharge, he returned to finish his education at the University of Chicago under the G.I. Bill. returning to the East Coast where he collaborated on novels with his old Futurian friends Frederik Pohl and Judith Merril.
==Work==
Kornbluth began writing at 15. His first solo story, "The Rocket of 1955", was published in Richard Wilson's fanzine Escape (Vol. 1, No 2, August 1939); his first collaboration, "Stepsons of Mars," written with Richard Wilson and published under the name "Ivar Towers", appeared in the April 1940 Astonishing. His other short fiction includes "The Little Black Bag", "The Marching Morons", "The Altar at Midnight", "MS. Found in a Chinese Fortune Cookie", "Gomez" and "The Advent on Channel Twelve".
"The Little Black Bag" was first adapted for television live on the television show Tales of Tomorrow on May 30, 1952. It was later adapted for television by the BBC in 1969 for its Out of the Unknown series. In 1970, the same story was adapted by Rod Serling for an episode of his Night Gallery series. This dramatization starred Burgess Meredith as the alcoholic Dr. William Fall, who had long lost his doctor's license and become a homeless alcoholic. He finds a bag containing advanced medical technology from the future, which, after an unsuccessful attempt to pawn it, he uses benevolently.
"The Marching Morons" is a look at a far future in which the world's population consists of five billion idiots and a few million geniuses – the precarious minority of the "elite" working desperately to keep things running behind the scenes. In his introduction to The Best of C. M. Kornbluth, Pohl states that "The Marching Morons" is a direct sequel to "The Little Black Bag": it is easy to miss this, as "Bag" is set in the contemporary present while "Morons" takes place several centuries from now, and there is no character who appears in both stories. The titular black bag in the first story is actually an artifact from the time period of "The Marching Morons": a medical kit filled with self-driven instruments enabling a far-future moron to "play doctor". A future Earth similar to "The Marching Morons" – a civilisation of morons protected by a small minority of hidden geniuses – is used again in the final stages of Kornbluth & Pohl's Search the Sky.
"MS. Found in a Chinese Fortune Cookie" (1957) is supposedly written by Kornbluth using notes by "Cecil Corwin", who has been declared insane and incarcerated, and who smuggles out in fortune cookies the ultimate secret of life. This fate is said to be Kornbluth's response to the unauthorized publication of "Mask of Demeter" (as by "Corwin" and "Martin Pearson" (Donald A. Wollheim)) in Wollheim's anthology Prize Science Fiction in 1953.
Biographer Mark Rich describes the 1958 story "Two Dooms" as one of several stories which are "concern[ed] with the ethics of theoretical science" and which "explore moral quandaries of the atomic age":
{{bquote|"Two Dooms" follows atomic physicist Edward Royland on his accidental journey into an alternative universe where the Nazis and Japanese rule a divided United States. In his own world, Royland debated whether to delay progress at the Los Alamos nuclear research site or to help the atomic bomb achieve its terrifying result. Encountering both a slave village and a concentration camp in the alternative America, he comes to grips with the idea of life under bondage. The Space Merchants contributed significantly to the maturing and to the wider academic respectability of the science fiction genre, not only in America but also in Europe. Kornbluth also wrote several novels under his own name, including The Syndic and Not This August.
==Death==
Kornbluth suffered from "essential malignant hypertension" for many years, causing him to experience tinnitus. He died at age 34 in Levittown, New York. On a day when he was due to meet with Bob Mills in New York City to interview for the position of editor of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, he was delayed because he had to shovel snow from his driveway. After running to meet his train following this delay, Kornbluth suffered a fatal heart attack on the platform of the station. Almost all of Kornbluth's solo SF stories have been collected as His Share of Glory: The Complete Short Science Fiction of C. M. Kornbluth (NESFA Press, 1997).
==Personality and habits==
Frederik Pohl, in his autobiography The Way the Future Was, Damon Knight, in his memoir The Futurians, and Isaac Asimov, in his memoirs In Memory Yet Green and I. Asimov: A Memoir, all give descriptions of Kornbluth as a man of odd personal habits and eccentricities.
Kornbluth, for example, decided to educate himself by reading his way through an entire encyclopedia from A to Z; in the course of this effort, he acquired a great deal of esoteric knowledge that found its way into his stories, in alphabetical order by subject. When Kornbluth wrote a story that mentioned the ballista, an Ancient Roman weapon, Pohl knew that Kornbluth had finished the 'A's and had started on the 'B's.
According to Pohl, Kornbluth never brushed his teeth, and they were literally green. Deeply embarrassed by this, Kornbluth developed the habit of holding his hand in front of his mouth when speaking.
|
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"Template:Infobox writer/doc",
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"Ed Emshwiller",
"Not This August",
"World War II",
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"lesbian pulp fiction",
"European Theatre of World War II",
"Bronze Star Medal",
"Spider Robinson",
"Essential hypertension",
"Gladiator at Law",
"Galaxy Science Fiction",
"Hugo Award for Best Short Story",
"intersex",
"science fiction fandom",
"ballista",
"The Little Black Bag",
"The Syndic",
"Our Best: The Best of Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth",
"Battle of the Bulge",
"Nuclear weapon",
"The Marching Morons",
"Series of Unfortunate Events",
"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction",
"A Mile Beyond the Moon"
] |
7,720 |
Coprophagia
|
Coprophagia ( ) or coprophagy ( ) is the consumption of feces. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek "feces" and "to eat". Coprophagy refers to many kinds of feces-eating, including eating feces of other species (heterospecifics), of other individuals (allocoprophagy), or one's own (autocoprophagy). Feces may be already deposited or taken directly from the anus. Some animal species eat feces as a normal behavior, whereas other species may eat feces under certain conditions.
== Coprophagia by plants ==
Some carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes, obtain nutrition from the feces of commensal animals. Notable examples include Nepenthes jamban, whose specific name is the Indonesian word for toilet. Manure is organic matter, mostly animal feces, that is used as organic fertilizer for plants in agriculture.
== Coprophagia by nonhuman animals ==
=== By invertebrates ===
Coprophagous insects consume and redigest the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semidigested food, particularly in the case of herbivores, owing to the inefficiency of the large animals' digestive systems. Thousands of species of coprophagous insects are known, especially among the orders Diptera and Coleoptera. Examples of such flies are Scathophaga stercoraria and Sepsis cynipsea, dung flies commonly found in Europe around cattle droppings.
Among beetles, dung beetles are a diverse lineage, many of which feed on the microorganism-rich liquid component of mammals' dung, and lay their eggs in balls composed mainly of the remaining fibrous material. Group living and aggregation among common earwigs promotes allo-coprophagy (consuming the feces of other members of one's own species) to promote the growth of helpful gut bacteria and provide a food source when food is scarce.
Through proctodeal feeding, termites eat one another's feces as a means of obtaining their hindgut protists. Termites and protists have a symbiotic relationship (e.g. with the protozoan that allows the termites to digest the cellulose in their diet). For example, in one group of termites, a three-way symbiotic relationship exists; termites of the family Rhinotermitidae, cellulolytic protists of the genus Pseudotrichonympha in the guts of these termites, and intracellular bacterial symbionts of the protists.
=== By vertebrates ===
Lagomorphs (rabbits, hares, pikas) and some other mammals ferment fiber in their cecums, which is then expelled as cecotropes and eaten from the anus, a process called "cecotrophy". Then their food is processed through the gastrointestinal tract a second time, which allows them to absorb more nutrition. While cecotropes are expelled from the anus, they are not feces and thus eating them is not called coprophagia.
Domesticated and wild mammals are sometimes coprophagic.
Some dogs may lack critical digestive enzymes when they are only eating processed dried foods, so they gain these from consuming fecal matter. They only consume fecal matter that is less than two days old which supports this theory.
Cattle in the United States are often fed chicken litter. Concerns have arisen that the practice of feeding chicken litter to cattle could lead to bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad-cow disease) because of the crushed bone meal in chicken feed. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates this practice by attempting to prevent the introduction of any part of cattle brain or spinal cord into livestock feed. Chickens also eat their own feces. Other countries, such as Canada, have banned chicken litter for use as a livestock feed.
The young of elephants, giant pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the feces of their mothers or other animals in the herd, to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found in their ecosystems. When such animals are born, their intestines are sterile and do not contain these bacteria. Without doing this, they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants. Piglets with access to maternal feces early in life exhibited better performance.
Hamsters, guinea pigs, chinchillas, hedgehogs, and pigs eat their own droppings, which are thought to be a source of vitamins B and K, produced by gut bacteria. Sometimes, there is also the aspect of self-anointment while these creatures eat their droppings. On rare occasions gorillas have been observed consuming their feces, possibly out of boredom, a desire for warm food, or to reingest seeds contained in the feces.
== Coprophagia by humans ==
In humans, coprophagia has been described since the late 19th century in individuals with mental illnesses and in some sexual acts, such as the practices of anilingus and felching where sex partners insert their tongue into each other's anus and ingest biologically significant amounts of feces.
=== In cuisine ===
The feces of the rock ptarmigan is used in Urumiit, which is a delicacy in some Inuit cuisine. Several beverages are made using the feces of animals, including but not limited to Kopi luwak, insect tea, and Black Ivory Coffee. Casu martzu is a cheese that uses the digestive processes of live maggots to help ferment and break down the cheese's fats.
=== As a cult practice ===
Members of a religious cult in Thailand routinely ate the feces and dead skin of their leader, whom they considered to be a holy man with healing powers.
=== As a paraphilia ===
According to the DSM-5, coprophilia is a paraphilia where the object of sexual interest is feces. This can involve coprophagia.
Coprophagia is sometimes depicted in pornography, typically under the term "scat" (from scatology), such as in the shock video 2 Girls 1 Cup. The 120 Days of Sodom, a 1785 novel by Marquis de Sade, prominently features depictions of erotic sadomasochistic coprophagia. The 1975 film of the same name also contains scenes of coprophilia and coprophagia.
=== As a supposed medical treatment ===
Ayurveda and Siddha medicine use animal excreta in various forms, with the most important being the dung and urine of the Zebu.
During the mid 16th century, physicians tasted their patients' feces to better judge their state and condition, according to François Rabelais. Rabelais studied medicine, but was also a writer of satirical and grotesque fiction, so the truth of this statement is unclear.
Lewin reported "... consumption of fresh, warm camel feces has been recommended by Bedouins as a remedy for bacterial dysentery; its efficacy (probably attributable to the antibiotic subtilisin from Bacillus subtilis) was anecdotally confirmed by German soldiers in Africa during World War II". However, this story is likely a myth, and independent research has been unable to verify these claims.
=== As a symptom ===
Coprophagia has also been observed in some people with schizophrenia and pica.
|
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"Scathophaga stercoraria",
"Coprophilous fungi",
"camel",
"Manure",
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"paraphilia",
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"koala",
"hedgehogs",
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"Zebu",
"guinea pigs",
"Scatophagidae",
"organic fertilizer",
"bacteria",
"Bedouin",
"herbivore"
] |
7,721 |
C. L. Moore
|
Catherine Lucille Moore (January 24, 1911 – April 4, 1987) was an American science fiction and fantasy writer, who first came to prominence in the 1930s writing as C. L. Moore. She was among the first women to write in the science fiction and fantasy genres (though earlier woman writers in these genres include Clare Winger Harris, Greye La Spina, and Francis Stevens, among others). Moore's work paved the way for many other female speculative fiction writers.
Moore married her first husband Henry Kuttner in 1940, and most of her work from 1940 to 1958 (Kuttner's death) was written by the couple collaboratively. They were prolific co-authors under their own names, although more often under any one of several pseudonyms.
As "Catherine Kuttner", she had a brief career as a television scriptwriter from 1958 to 1962. She retired from writing in 1963.
==Early life==
Moore was born on January 24, 1911, in Indianapolis, Indiana. She was chronically ill as a child and spent much of her time reading literature of the fantastic. She left college during the Great Depression to work as a secretary at the Fletcher Trust Company in Indianapolis.
==Early career==
The Vagabond, a student-run magazine at Indiana University, published three of her stories when she was a student there. The three short stories, all with a fantasy theme and all credited to "Catherine Moore", appeared in 1930–31. Her first professional sales appeared in pulp magazines beginning in 1933. Her decision to publish under the name "C. L. Moore" stemmed not from a desire to hide her gender, but to keep her employers at Fletcher Trust from knowing that she was working as a writer on the side.
Her early work included two significant series in Weird Tales, then edited by Farnsworth Wright. One features the rogue and adventurer Northwest Smith wandering through the Solar System; the other features the swordswoman/warrior Jirel of Joiry, one of the first female protagonists in sword-and-sorcery fiction. Both series are sometimes named for their lead characters.
The most famous Northwest Smith story is "Shambleau", which was also Moore's first professional sale. It originally appeared in the November 1933 issue of Weird Tales,
Included in that collection were "Judgment Night" (first published in August and September 1943), the lush rendering of a future galactic empire with a sober meditation on the nature of power and its inevitable loss; "The Code" (July 1945), an homage to the classic Faust with modern theories and Lovecraftian dread; "Promised Land" (February 1950) and "Heir Apparent" (July 1950), both documenting the grim twisting that mankind must undergo in order to spread into the Solar System; and "Paradise Street" (September 1950), a futuristic take on the Old West conflict between lone hunter and wilderness-taming settlers.
==Marriage to Henry Kuttner and literary collaborations==
Moore met Henry Kuttner, also a science fiction writer, in 1936 when he wrote her a fan letter under the impression that "C. L. Moore" was a man. They soon collaborated on a story that combined Moore's signature characters, Northwest Smith and Jirel of Joiry: "Quest of the Starstone" (1937).
Moore and Kuttner married in 1940 and thereafter wrote many of their stories in collaboration, sometimes under their own names, but more often using the joint pseudonyms C. H. Liddell, Lawrence O'Donnell, or Lewis Padgett — most commonly the latter, a combination of their mothers' maiden names. Moore still occasionally wrote solo work during this period, including the frequently anthologized "No Woman Born" (1944). A selection of Moore's solo short fiction work from 1942 through 1950 was collected in 1952's Judgement Night. Moore's only solo novel, Doomsday Morning, appeared in 1957.
The vast majority of Moore's work in the period, though, was written as part of a very prolific partnership. Working together, the couple managed to combine Moore's style with Kuttner's more cerebral storytelling. They continued to work in science fiction and fantasy, and their works include two frequently anthologized sci-fi classics: "Mimsy Were the Borogoves" (February 1943), the basis for the film The Last Mimzy (2007), and Vintage Season (September 1946), the basis for the film Timescape (1992). As "Lewis Padgett" they also penned two mystery novels: The Brass Ring (1946) and The Day He Died (1947).
==Later career==
After Kuttner's death in 1958, Moore continued teaching her writing course at the University of Southern California, but permanently retired from writing any further literary fiction. Instead, working as "Catherine Kuttner", she carved out a short-lived career as a scriptwriter for Warner Bros. television, writing episodes of the westerns Sugarfoot, Maverick, and The Alaskans, as well as the detective series 77 Sunset Strip, all between 1958 and 1962. However, upon marrying Thomas Reggie (who was not a writer) in 1963, she ceased writing entirely.
Moore was the author guest of honor at Kansas City, Missouri's fantasy and science fiction convention BYOB-Con 6, held over the U.S. Memorial Day weekend in May 1976. She was a pro guest of honor at Denvention II (the 39th World Science Fiction Convention) in 1981.
In a 1979 interview, she said that she and a writer friend were collaborating on a fantasy story, and how it could possibly form the basis of a new series. But nothing was ever published.
In 1981, Moore received two annual awards for her career in fantasy literature: the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement, chosen by a panel of judges at the World Fantasy Convention, and the Gandalf Grand Master Award, chosen by vote of participants in the World Science Fiction Convention. She died on April 4, 1987, at her home in Hollywood, California.
==Awards==
1978: Fritz Leiber Award
1981: Gandalf Grand Master Award, World Fantasy Convention Lifetime Achievement Award
1998: Posthumous induction into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame
2019: Retro Hugo Award for best Novelette for the year 1944
== Selected works ==
Scarlet Dream (short story, 1934)
"There Shall be Darkness" (short story, 1942)
Earth's Last Citadel (with Henry Kuttner; 1943)
The Dark World (credited to Henry Kuttner, but believed by many critics to be a collaboration, 1946)
Vintage Season (novella written with Henry Kuttner, as "Lawrence O'Donnell"; 1946). It was filmed in 1992 as Timescape.
The Mask of Circe (with Henry Kuttner; 1948, Illustrated by Alicia Austin; 1971)
Beyond Earth's Gates (1949)
Judgment Night (stories, 1952)
Shambleau and Others (stories, 1953)
Northwest of Earth (stories, 1954)
No Boundaries (with Henry Kuttner; stories, 1955)
Doomsday Morning (1957)
Jirel of Joiry (Paperback Library, 1969); Black God's Shadow (Donald M. Grant, 1977)—the five Jirel stories collected; the latter a limited edition with color plates, signed, numbered, and boxed
The Best of C. L. Moore, edited by Lester Del Rey (Nelson Doubleday, 1975)—includes a biographical introduction by Lester Del Rey, which is carefully noncommittal about the influence of her personal life on her writing, and an autobiographical afterword by Moore
Black God's Kiss (Paizo Publishing, 2007; )—the five Jirel stories collected
Northwest of Earth: The Complete Northwest Smith (Paizo Publishing, 2008; )—the thirteen Northwest Smith stories collected
== Explanatory notes ==
|
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"Salon (gathering)",
"Maverick (TV series)",
"Gandalf Award",
"Screenwriter",
"The Dark World",
"Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America",
"The Last Mimzy",
"No Woman Born",
"Lovecraftian horror",
"Judgment Night (collection)",
"pulp magazines"
] |
7,722 |
Compactron
|
Compactrons are a type of vacuum tube, which contain multiple electrode structures packed into a single enclosure. They were designed to compete with early transistor electronics and were used in televisions, radios, and similar roles.
== History ==
The Compactron was a trade name applied to multi-electrode structure tubes specifically constructed on a 12-pin Duodecar base. This vacuum tube family was introduced in 1961 by General Electric in Owensboro, Kentucky to compete with transistorized electronics during the solid state transition. Television sets were a primary application. The idea of multi-electrode tubes itself was far from new and indeed the Loewe company of Germany was producing multi-electrode tubes as far back as 1926, and they even included all of the required passive components as well.
Use was prevalent in televisions because transistors were slow to achieve the high power and frequency capabilities needed particularly in color television sets. The first portable color television, the General Electric Porta-Color, was designed using 13 tubes, 10 of which were Compactrons. Even before the compactron design was unveiled, nearly all tube based electronic equipment used multi-electrode tubes of one type or another. Virtually every AM/FM radio receiver of the 1950s and 60's used a 6AK8 (EABC80) tube (or equivalent) consisting of three diodes and a triode which was designed in 1954.
Compactron's integrated valve design helped lower power consumption and heat generation (they were to tubes what integrated circuits were to transistors). Compactrons were also used in a few high end Hi-Fi stereos. By the mid-1980s this type of tube was functionally obsolete. Compactrons simply don't exist in any TV sets designed after 1986. Other specialist uses of the tube declined in parallel with the television set manufacture. Manufacture of Compactrons ceased in the early 1990s. New old stock replacements for almost all Compactron types produced are easily found for sale on the Internet.
|
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"integrated circuits",
"Sylvania Electric Products",
"General Electric",
"Fender Musical Instruments Corporation",
"12AX7",
"Solid state (electronics)",
"Porta-Color",
"Television",
"New old stock",
"evacuation tip",
"radio",
"television"
] |
7,723 |
Carmichael number
|
In number theory, a Carmichael number is a composite number which in modular arithmetic satisfies the congruence relation:
b^n\equiv b\pmod{n}
for all integers . The relation may also be expressed in the form:
b^{n-1}\equiv 1\pmod{n}
for all integers b that are relatively prime to . They are infinite in number.
They constitute the comparatively rare instances where the strict converse of Fermat's Little Theorem does not hold. This fact precludes the use of that theorem as an absolute test of primality.
The Carmichael numbers form the subset K1 of the Knödel numbers.
The Carmichael numbers were named after the American mathematician Robert Carmichael by Nicolaas Beeger, in 1950. Øystein Ore had referred to them in 1948 as numbers with the "Fermat property", or "F numbers" for short.
== Overview ==
Fermat's little theorem states that if p is a prime number, then for any integer , the number b^p-b is an integer multiple of . Carmichael numbers are composite numbers which have the same property. Carmichael numbers are also called Fermat pseudoprimes or absolute Fermat pseudoprimes. A Carmichael number will pass a Fermat primality test to every base b relatively prime to the number, even though it is not actually prime.
This makes tests based on Fermat's Little Theorem less effective than strong probable prime tests such as the Baillie–PSW primality test and the Miller–Rabin primality test.
However, no Carmichael number is either an Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime or a strong pseudoprime to every base relatively prime to it
so, in theory, either an Euler or a strong probable prime test could prove that a Carmichael number is, in fact, composite.
Arnault
gives a 397-digit Carmichael number N that is a strong pseudoprime to all prime bases less than 307:
N = p \cdot (313(p - 1) + 1) \cdot (353(p - 1) + 1 )
where
p = 29674495668685510550154174642905332730771991799853043350995075531276838753171770199594238596428121188033664754218345562493168782883
is a 131-digit prime. p is the smallest prime factor of , so this Carmichael number is also a (not necessarily strong) pseudoprime to all bases less than .
As numbers become larger, Carmichael numbers become increasingly rare. For example, there are 20,138,200 Carmichael numbers between 1 and 1021 (approximately one in 50 trillion (5·1013) numbers).
=== Korselt's criterion ===
An alternative and equivalent definition of Carmichael numbers is given by Korselt's criterion.
Theorem (A. Korselt 1899): A positive composite integer n is a Carmichael number if and only if n is square-free, and for all prime divisors p of , it is true that .
It follows from this theorem that all Carmichael numbers are odd, since any even composite number that is square-free (and hence has only one prime factor of two) will have at least one odd prime factor, and thus p-1 \mid n-1 results in an even dividing an odd, a contradiction. (The oddness of Carmichael numbers also follows from the fact that -1 is a Fermat witness for any even composite number.)
From the criterion it also follows that Carmichael numbers are cyclic. Additionally, it follows that there are no Carmichael numbers with exactly two prime divisors.
== Discovery ==
The first seven Carmichael numbers, from 561 to 8911, were all found by the Czech mathematician Václav Šimerka in 1885 (thus preceding not just Carmichael but also Korselt, although Šimerka did not find anything like Korselt's criterion). His work, published in Czech scientific journal Časopis pro pěstování matematiky a fysiky, however, remained unnoticed.
Korselt was the first who observed the basic properties of Carmichael numbers, but he did not give any examples.
That 561 is a Carmichael number can be seen with Korselt's criterion. Indeed, 561 = 3 \cdot 11 \cdot 17 is square-free and , 10 \mid 560 and .
The next six Carmichael numbers are :
1105 = 5 \cdot 13 \cdot 17 \qquad (4 \mid 1104;\quad 12 \mid 1104;\quad 16 \mid 1104)
1729 = 7 \cdot 13 \cdot 19 \qquad (6 \mid 1728;\quad 12 \mid 1728;\quad 18 \mid 1728)
2465 = 5 \cdot 17 \cdot 29 \qquad (4 \mid 2464;\quad 16 \mid 2464;\quad 28 \mid 2464)
2821 = 7 \cdot 13 \cdot 31 \qquad (6 \mid 2820;\quad 12 \mid 2820;\quad 30 \mid 2820)
6601 = 7 \cdot 23 \cdot 41 \qquad (6 \mid 6600;\quad 22 \mid 6600;\quad 40 \mid 6600)
8911 = 7 \cdot 19 \cdot 67 \qquad (6 \mid 8910;\quad 18 \mid 8910;\quad 66 \mid 8910).
In 1910, Carmichael himself also published the smallest such number, 561, and the numbers were later named after him.
Jack Chernick proved a theorem in 1939 which can be used to construct a subset of Carmichael numbers. The number (6k + 1)(12k + 1)(18k + 1) is a Carmichael number if its three factors are all prime. Whether this formula produces an infinite quantity of Carmichael numbers is an open question (though it is implied by Dickson's conjecture).
Paul Erdős heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers. In 1994 W. R. (Red) Alford, Andrew Granville and Carl Pomerance used a bound on Olson's constant to show that there really do exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers. Specifically, they showed that for sufficiently large n, there are at least n^{2/7} Carmichael numbers between 1 and .
Löh and Niebuhr in 1992 found some very large Carmichael numbers, including one with 1,101,518 factors and over 16 million digits.
This has been improved to 10,333,229,505 prime factors and 295,486,761,787 digits, so the largest known Carmichael number is much greater than the largest known prime.
== Properties ==
=== Factorizations ===
Carmichael numbers have at least three positive prime factors. The first Carmichael numbers with k = 3, 4, 5, \ldots prime factors are :
The first Carmichael numbers with 4 prime factors are :
The second Carmichael number (1105) can be expressed as the sum of two squares in more ways than any smaller number. The third Carmichael number (1729) is the Hardy-Ramanujan Number: the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes (of positive numbers) in two different ways.
=== Distribution ===
Let C(X) denote the number of Carmichael numbers less than or equal to . The distribution of Carmichael numbers by powers of 10 : He further gave a heuristic argument suggesting that this upper bound should be close to the true growth rate of .
In the other direction, Alford, Granville and Pomerance proved in 1994 to
C(X) > X^{0.332}
who subsequently improved the exponent to .
Regarding the asymptotic distribution of Carmichael numbers, there have been several conjectures. In 1956, Erdős sharpened Erdős' heuristic arguments to conjecture that there are at least
X \cdot L(X)^{-1 + o(1)}
Carmichael numbers up to , where .
However, inside current computational ranges (such as the count of Carmichael numbers performed by Goutier up to 1022), these conjectures are not yet borne out by the data; empirically, the exponent is C(X) \approx X^{0.35} for the highest available count (C(X)=49679870 for X= 1022).
In 2021, Daniel Larsen proved an analogue of Bertrand's postulate for Carmichael numbers first conjectured by Alford, Granville, and Pomerance in 1994. Using techniques developed by Yitang Zhang and James Maynard to establish results concerning small gaps between primes, his work yielded the much stronger statement that, for any \delta>0 and sufficiently large x in terms of \delta, there will always be at least
\exp{\left(\frac{\log{x}}{(\log \log{x})^{2+\delta}}\right)}
Carmichael numbers between x and
x+\frac{x}{(\log{x})^{\frac{1}{2+\delta}}}.
== Generalizations ==
The notion of Carmichael number generalizes to a Carmichael ideal in any number field . For any nonzero prime ideal \mathfrak p in , we have \alpha^{{\rm N}(\mathfrak p)} \equiv \alpha \bmod {\mathfrak p} for all \alpha in , where {\rm N}(\mathfrak p) is the norm of the ideal . (This generalizes Fermat's little theorem, that m^p \equiv m \bmod p for all integers when is prime.) Call a nonzero ideal \mathfrak a in {\mathcal O}_K Carmichael if it is not a prime ideal and \alpha^{{\rm N}(\mathfrak a)} \equiv \alpha \bmod {\mathfrak a} for all , where {\rm N}(\mathfrak a) is the norm of the ideal . When is , the ideal \mathfrak a is principal, and if we let be its positive generator then the ideal \mathfrak a = (a) is Carmichael exactly when is a Carmichael number in the usual sense.
When is larger than the rationals it is easy to write down Carmichael ideals in : for any prime number that splits completely in , the principal ideal p{\mathcal O}_K is a Carmichael ideal. Since infinitely many prime numbers split completely in any number field, there are infinitely many Carmichael ideals in . For example, if is any prime number that is 1 mod 4, the ideal in the Gaussian integers \mathbb Z[i] is a Carmichael ideal.
Both prime and Carmichael numbers satisfy the following equality:
\gcd \left(\sum_{x=1}^{n-1} x^{n-1}, n\right) = 1.
== Lucas–Carmichael number ==
A positive composite integer n is a Lucas–Carmichael number if and only if n is square-free, and for all prime divisors p of , it is true that . The first Lucas–Carmichael numbers are:
399, 935, 2015, 2915, 4991, 5719, 7055, 8855, 12719, 18095, 20705, 20999, 22847, 29315, 31535, 46079, 51359, 60059, 63503, 67199, 73535, 76751, 80189, 81719, 88559, 90287, ...
== Quasi–Carmichael number ==
Quasi–Carmichael numbers are squarefree composite numbers with the property that for every prime factor of , divides positively with being any integer besides 0. If , these are Carmichael numbers, and if , these are Lucas–Carmichael numbers. The first Quasi–Carmichael numbers are:
35, 77, 143, 165, 187, 209, 221, 231, 247, 273, 299, 323, 357, 391, 399, 437, 493, 527, 561, 589, 598, 713, 715, 899, 935, 943, 989, 1015, 1073, 1105, 1147, 1189, 1247, 1271, 1295, 1333, 1517, 1537, 1547, 1591, 1595, 1705, 1729, ...
== Knödel number==
An n-Knödel number for a given positive integer n is a composite number m with the property that each coprime to m satisfies . The case are Carmichael numbers.
== Higher-order Carmichael numbers ==
Carmichael numbers can be generalized using concepts of abstract algebra.
The above definition states that a composite integer n is Carmichael
precisely when the nth-power-raising function pn from the ring Zn of integers modulo n to itself is the identity function. The identity is the only Zn-algebra endomorphism on Zn so we can restate the definition as asking that pn be an algebra endomorphism of Zn.
As above, pn satisfies the same property whenever n is prime.
The nth-power-raising function pn is also defined on any Zn-algebra A. A theorem states that n is prime if and only if all such functions pn are algebra endomorphisms.
In-between these two conditions lies the definition of Carmichael number of order m for any positive integer m as any composite number n such that pn is an endomorphism on every Zn-algebra that can be generated as Zn-module by m elements. Carmichael numbers of order 1 are just the ordinary Carmichael numbers.
=== An order-2 Carmichael number ===
According to Howe, 17 · 31 · 41 · 43 · 89 · 97 · 167 · 331 is an order 2 Carmichael number. This product is equal to 443,372,888,629,441.
=== Properties ===
Korselt's criterion can be generalized to higher-order Carmichael numbers, as shown by Howe.
A heuristic argument, given in the same paper, appears to suggest that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers of order m, for any m. However, not a single Carmichael number of order 3 or above is known.
|
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] |
7,727 |
Controlled Substances Act
|
The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) is the statute establishing federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use, and distribution of certain substances is regulated. It was passed by the 91st United States Congress as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 and signed into law by President Richard Nixon. The Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.
The legislation created five schedules (classifications), with varying qualifications for a substance to be included in each. Two federal agencies, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), determine which substances are added to or removed from the various schedules, although the statute passed by Congress created the initial listing. Congress has sometimes scheduled other substances through legislation such as the Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Prevention Act of 2000, which placed gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in Schedule I and sodium oxybate (the isolated sodium salt in GHB) in Schedule III when used under an FDA New Drug Application (NDA) or Investigational New Drug (IND). Classification decisions are required to be made on criteria including potential for abuse (an undefined term), The Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) was the beginning of over 200 laws concerning public health and consumer protections. Others were the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938), and the Kefauver Harris Amendment of 1962.
In 1969, President Richard Nixon announced that the Attorney General, John N. Mitchell, was preparing a comprehensive new measure to more effectively meet the narcotic and dangerous drug problems at the federal level by combining all existing federal laws into a single new statute. With the help of White House Counsel head, John Dean; the executive director of the Shafer Commission, Michael Sonnenreich; and the Director of the BNDD, John Ingersoll creating and writing the legislation, Mitchell was able to present Nixon with the bill.
The CSA not only combined existing federal drug laws and expanded their scope, but it also changed the nature of federal drug law policies and expanded federal law enforcement pertaining to controlled substances.
Title II, Part F of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 established the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse—known as the Shafer Commission after its chairman, Raymond P. Shafer—to study cannabis abuse in the United States. During his presentation of the commission's First Report to Congress, Sonnenreich and Shafer recommended the decriminalization of marijuana in small amounts, with Shafer stating,
Rufus King notes that this stratagem was similar to that used by Harry Anslinger when he consolidated the previous anti-drug treaties into the Single Convention and took the opportunity to add new provisions that otherwise might have been unpalatable to the international community. According to David T. Courtwright, "the Act was part of an omnibus reform package designed to rationalize, and in some respects to liberalize, American drug policy." (Courtwright noted that the Act became, not libertarian, but instead repressionistic to the point of tyrannical in its intent; a cruel and/or arbitrary exercise of power). It eliminated mandatory minimum sentences and provided support for drug treatment and research.
King notes that the rehabilitation clauses were added as a compromise to Senator Harold Hughes, who favored a moderate approach. The bill, as introduced by Senator Everett Dirksen, ran to 91 pages. While it was being drafted, the Uniform Controlled Substances Act, to be passed by state legislatures, was also being drafted by the Department of Justice; its wording closely mirrored the Controlled Substances Act.
The Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978 added provisions implementing the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
The Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984.
The 1986 Federal Analog Act for chemicals "substantially similar" in Schedule I and II to be listed
The 1988 Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act (implemented August 1, 1989, as Article 12) added provisions implementing the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances that went into force on November 11, 1990.
The 1990 Anabolic Steroids Control Act, passed as part of the Crime Control Act of 1990, which placed anabolic steroids into Schedule III
The 1993 Domestic Chemical Diversion and Control Act (effective on April 16, 1994) in response to methamphetamine trafficking.
The Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Prevention Act of 2000 placed gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in Schedule I and sodium oxybate (the isolated sodium salt in GHB) in Schedule III when used under an FDA NDA or IND.
The 2008 Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act
The 2010 Electronic Prescriptions for Controlled Substances (EPCS).
The 2012 Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act Subtitle D - synthetic drugs, added several Markush like statements that describes synthetic cannabinoid chemical space that are also controlled as Schedule 1 substances. However, since then many new synthetic cannabinoids not covered by this act have emerged
The 2010 Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act (effective on October 12, 2010), to allow pharmacies to operate take-back programs for controlled substance medications in response to the US opioid epidemic.
The 2017 Protecting Patient Access to Emergency Medications Act (PPAEMA) amended Section 33 of the CSA to include DEA registration for Emergency Medical Service (EMS) agencies, approved uses of standing orders, and requirements for the maintenance and administration of controlled substances used by EMS agencies.
In 2018 the act was also amended to describe and control all chemical space related to Fentanyl like chemicals using Markush like notation, the first time Markush like statement were directly used in the act itself
==Statute content==
The Controlled Substances Act consists of two subchapters. Subchapter I defines Schedules I–V, lists chemicals used in the manufacture of controlled substances, and differentiates lawful and unlawful manufacturing, distribution, and possession of controlled substances, including possession of Schedule I drugs for personal use; this subchapter also specifies the dollar amounts of fines and durations of prison terms for violations. Subchapter II describes the laws for exportation and importation of controlled substances, again specifying fines and prison terms for violations.
==Enforcement authority==
The Drug Enforcement Administration was established in 1973, combining the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and Customs' drug agents. Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the DEA, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.
The DEA may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information. Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the Deputy Administrator of DEA, requests from HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control.
This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of HHS. Then, HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration and evaluations and recommendations from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and, on occasion, from the scientific and medical community at large. The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed.
The HHS recommendation on scheduling is binding to the extent that if HHS recommends, based on its medical and scientific evaluation, that the substance not be controlled, then the DEA may not control the substance. Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the DEA Administrator evaluates all available data and makes a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed. Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure.
An example is when international treaties require control of a substance. allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I "to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety". Thirty days' notice is required before the order can be issued, and the scheduling expires after a year. The period may be extended six months if rulemaking proceedings to permanently schedule the drug are in progress. In any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated. Unlike ordinary scheduling proceedings, such temporary orders are not subject to judicial review.
The CSA creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances. All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances.
==Treaty obligations==
The Congressional findings in 21 USC §§ , , and state that a major purpose of the CSA is to "enable the United States to meet all of its obligations" under international treaties. The CSA bears many resemblances to these Conventions. Both the CSA and the treaties set out a system for classifying controlled substances in several schedules in accordance with the binding scientific and medical findings of a public health authority. Under of the CSA, that authority is the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS). Under Article 3 of the Single Convention and Article 2 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the World Health Organization is that authority.
The domestic and international legal nature of these treaty obligations must be considered in light of the supremacy of the United States Constitution over treaties or acts and the equality of treaties and Congressional acts. In Reid v. Covert the Supreme Court of the United States addressed both these issues directly and clearly holding:
According to the Cato Institute, these treaties only bind (legally obligate) the United States to comply with them as long as that nation agrees to remain a state party to these treaties. The U.S. Congress and the President of the United States have the absolute sovereign right to withdraw from or abrogate at any time these two instruments, in accordance with said nation's Constitution, at which point these treaties will cease to bind that nation in any way, shape, or form.
A provision for automatic compliance with treaty obligations is found at , which also establishes mechanisms for amending international drug control regulations to correspond with HHS findings on scientific and medical issues. If control of a substance is mandated by the Single Convention, the Attorney General is required to "issue an order controlling such drug under the schedule he deems most appropriate to carry out such obligations," without regard to the normal scheduling procedure or the findings of the HHS Secretary. However, the Secretary has great influence over any drug scheduling proposal under the Single Convention, because requires the Secretary the power to "evaluate the proposal and furnish a recommendation to the Secretary of State which shall be binding on the representative of the United States in discussions and negotiations relating to the proposal."
Similarly, if the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs adds or transfers a substance to a schedule established by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that current U.S. regulations on the drug do not meet the treaty's requirements, the Secretary is required to issue a recommendation on how the substance should be scheduled under the CSA. If the Secretary agrees with the commission's scheduling decision, he can recommend that the Attorney General initiate proceedings to reschedule the drug accordingly.
If the HHS Secretary disagrees with the UN controls, the Attorney General must temporarily place the drug in Schedule IV or V (whichever meets the minimum requirements of the treaty) and exclude the substance from any regulations not mandated by the treaty. The Secretary is required to request that the Secretary of State take action, through the commission or the UN Economic and Social Council, to remove the drug from international control or transfer it to a different schedule under the convention. The temporary scheduling expires as soon as control is no longer needed to meet international treaty obligations.
This provision was invoked in 1984 to place Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) in Schedule IV. The drug did not then meet the Controlled Substances Act's criteria for scheduling; however, control was required by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In 1999, an FDA official explained to Congress:
The Cato Institute's Handbook for Congress calls for repealing the CSA, an action that would likely bring the United States into conflict with international law, were the United States not to exercise its sovereign right to withdraw from and/or abrogate the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and/or the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances prior to repealing the Controlled Substances Act.
==Schedules of controlled substances==
There are five different schedules of controlled substances, numbered IV. The CSA describes the different schedules based on three factors:
Potential for abuse: How likely is this drug to be abused?
Accepted medical use: Is this drug used as a treatment in the United States?
Safety and potential for addiction: Is this drug safe? How likely is this drug to cause addiction? What kinds of addiction?
The following table gives a summary of the different schedules.
Placing a drug or other substance in a certain schedule or removing it from a certain schedule is primarily based on 21 USC §§ , , , , , , and . Every schedule otherwise requires finding and specifying the "potential for abuse" before a substance can be placed in that schedule. The specific classification of any given drug or other substance is usually a source of controversy, as is the purpose and effectiveness of the entire regulatory scheme.
Some have argued that this is an important exemption, since alcohol and tobacco are two of the most widely used drugs in the United States.
===Schedule I===
Schedule I substances are described as those that have all of the following findings:
No prescriptions may be written for Schedule I substances, and such substances are subject to production quotas which the DEA imposes.
Under the DEA's interpretation of the CSA, a drug does not necessarily have to have the same "high potential for abuse" as heroin, for example, to merit placement in Schedule I:
Drugs listed in this control schedule include:
αMT (alpha-methyltryptamine), a psychedelic, stimulant, and entactogen drug of the tryptamine class that was originally developed as an antidepressant by workers at Upjohn in the 1960s.
BZP (benzylpiperazine), a synthetic stimulant once sold as a designer drug. It has been shown to be associated with an increase in seizures if taken alone. Although the effects of BZP are not as potent as MDMA, it can produce neuroadaptations that can cause an increase in the potential for abuse of this drug.
Cathinone, an amphetamine-like stimulant found in the shrub Catha edulis (khat).
DMT (dimethyltryptamine), a naturally occurring psychedelic drug that is widespread throughout the plant kingdom and endogenous to the human body. DMT is the main psychoactive constituent in the psychedelic South American brew, ayahuasca, for which the UDV are granted exemption from DMT's schedule I status on the grounds of religious freedom.
Etorphine, a semi-synthetic opioid possessing an analgesic potency approximately 1,000–3,000 times that of morphine.
GHB (gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid), a general anesthetic and treatment for narcolepsy-cataplexy and alcohol withdrawal with a limited safe dosage range and poor ability to control pain when used as an anesthetic (severely limiting its usefulness). It was placed in Schedule I in March 2000 after widespread recreational use led to increased emergency room visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. A specific formulation of this drug is also listed in Schedule III for limited uses, under the trademark Xyrem.
Heroin is the brand name for diacetylmorphine or morphine diacetate, which is an inactive prodrug that exerts its effects after being converted into the major active metabolite morphine, and the minor metabolite 6-MAM - which itself is also rapidly converted to morphine. Some European countries still use it as a potent pain reliever in terminal cancer patients, and as second option, after morphine sulfate; it is about twice as potent, by weight, as morphine and, indeed, becomes morphine upon injection into the bloodstream. The two acetyl groups attached to the morphine make a prodrug which delivers morphine to the opioid receptors twice as fast as morphine can.
Ibogaine, a naturally occurring psychoactive substance found in plants in the family Apocynaceae. Some countries in North America use ibogaine as an alternative medicine treatment for opioid drug addiction. Ibogaine is also used for medicinal and ritual purposes within African spiritual traditions of the Bwiti.
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), a semi-synthetic psychedelic drug famous for its involvement in the counterculture of the 1960s.
Marijuana and its cannabinoids. Pure (–)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol is also listed in Schedule III for limited uses, under the trademark Marinol. As a result of ballot initiatives, many states have made recreational and medical use of marijuana legal, while other states have decriminalized possession of small amounts. Such measures operate only on state laws, and have no effect on federal law. Whether such users would actually be prosecuted under federal law is a separate question with no definitive answer. Given the widespread medicinal use of cannabis, the maintenance of its Schedule I classification has been controversial, with many calling for a reclassification or holistic federal decriminalization. As of April 30, 2024, cannabis was set to be reclassified by the DEA as a Schedule III controlled substance.
MDMA ("ecstasy" or "molly"), a stimulant, psychedelic, and entactogenic drug which initially garnered attention in psychedelic therapy as a treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The medical community originally agreed upon placing it as a Schedule III substance, but the government denied this suggestion, despite two court rulings by the DEA's administrative law judge that placing MDMA in Schedule I was illegal. It was temporarily unscheduled after the first administrative hearing from December 22, 1987 – July 1, 1988.
Mescaline, a naturally occurring psychedelic drug and the main psychoactive constituent of peyote (Lophophora williamsii), San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi), and Peruvian torch cactus (Echinopsis peruviana).
Methaqualone (Quaalude, Sopor, Mandrax), a sedative that was previously used for similar purposes as barbiturates, until it was rescheduled.
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii), a cactus growing in nature primarily in northeastern Mexico; one of the few plants specifically scheduled, with a narrow exception to its legal status for religious use in Native American churches.
Psilocybin and psilocin, naturally occurring psychedelic drugs and the main psychoactive constituents of psilocybin mushrooms.
Controlled substance analogues intended for human consumption, as defined by the Federal Analogue Act.
In addition to the named substance, usually all possible ethers, esters, salts and stereoisomers of these substances are also controlled and also 'analogues', which are chemically similar chemicals.
===Schedule II===
Schedule II substances are those that have the following findings:
{{blockquote|1=
{{ordered list|type=A
|The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse
|The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions
|Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence. Prescriptions shall be retained in conformity with the requirements of section 827 of this title. No prescription for a controlled substance in Schedule II may be refilled.
These drugs vary in potency: for example fentanyl is about 80 times as potent as morphine (heroin is roughly two times as potent). More significantly, they vary in nature. Pharmacology and CSA scheduling have a weak relationship.
Because refills of prescriptions for Schedule II substances are not allowed, it can be burdensome to both the practitioner and the patient if the substances are to be used on a long-term basis. To provide relief, in 2007, was amended (at ) to allow practitioners to write up to three prescriptions at once, to provide up to a 90-day supply, specifying on each the earliest date on which it may be filled.
Drugs in this schedule include:
Amphetamine drugs including Adderall, Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse): treatment of ADHD, narcolepsy, severe obesity (limited use, dextroamphetamine only), binge eating disorder (lisdexamfetamine only). Originally placed in Schedule III, but moved to Schedule II in 1978 as part of the Psychotropic Substances Act.
Barbiturates (short-acting), such as pentobarbital
Cocaine: used as a topical anesthetic or local anesthetic and to stop severe epistaxis
Codeine (pure) and any drug for non-parenteral administration containing the equivalent of more than 90 mg of codeine per dosage unit;
Diphenoxylate (pure)
Fentanyl and most other strong pure opioid agonists, e.g. levorphanol
Hydrocodone in any formulation since October 2014 (examples include Vicodin, Norco, Tussionex). Prior to October 2014, formulations containing hydrocodone and over-the-counter analgesics such as Acetaminophen and Ibuprofen were Schedule III.
Hydromorphone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Dilaudid, Palladone)
Methadone: treatment of heroin addiction, extreme chronic pain
Methamphetamine: treatment of ADHD (rare), severe obesity (limited use) under the brandname Desoxyn.
Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin): treatment of ADHD, narcolepsy
Morphine: a pain medication of the opiate family.
Nabilone (Cesamet) – A synthetic cannabinoid. An analogue to dronabinol (Marinol) which is a Schedule III drug.
Opium tincture (Laudanum): a potent antidiarrheal
Oxycodone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Percocet, OxyContin, and Percodan)
Oxymorphone (semi-synthetic opioid; active ingredient in Opana)
Nembutal (Pentobarbital) – barbiturate medication originally developed for narcolepsy; primarily used today for physician assisted suicide and euthanasia of animals.
Pethidine (USAN: Meperidine; Demerol)
Phencyclidine (PCP) - Formerly used as veterinary anesthetic under the trade name Sernylan and before then as an injectable anesthetic under the trade name Sernyl.
Secobarbital (Seconal)
Tapentadol (Nucynta) – A drug with mixed opioid agonist and norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitor activity.
===Schedule III===
Schedule III substances are those that have the following findings:
{{blockquote|1=
{{ordered list|type=A
|The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in Schedules I and II.
|The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
|Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.
Intermediate-acting barbiturates, such as talbutal or butalbital
Buprenorphine (semi-synthetic opioid; active in Suboxone, Subutex)
Dihydrocodeine when compounded with other substances, to a certain dosage and concentration.
FDA-approved sodium oxybate products (e.g. Xyrem, Xywav and Lumryz)—preparations of GHB used to treat narcolepsy. These products are in Schedule III but with a restricted distribution system. All other forms or preparations of GHB are in Schedule I.
Marinol, synthetically prepared tetrahydrocannabinol (officially referred to by its INN, dronabinol) used to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, as well as appetite loss caused by AIDS.
Paregoric, an antidiarrheal and anti-tussive, which contains opium combined with camphor (which makes it less addiction-prone than laudanum, which is in Schedule II).
Phendimetrazine Tartrate, a stimulant synthesized for use as an anorexiant.
Benzphetamine HCl (Didrex), a stimulant designed for use as an anorexiant.
Fast-acting barbiturates such as secobarbital (Seconal) and pentobarbital (Nembutal), when combined with one or more additional active ingredient(s) not in Schedule II (e.g., Carbrital (no longer marketed), a combination of pentobarbital and carbromal).
Ergine (lysergic acid amide), listed as a sedative but also has psychedelic effects such as visual and auditory effects. An inefficient precursor to its N, N-diethyl analogue, LSD, ergine occurs naturally in the seeds of the common garden flowers Turbina corymbosa, Ipomoea tricolor, and Argyreia nervosa.
Perampanel (Fycompa), an anticonvulsant
===Schedule IV===
Placement on schedules; findings required
Schedule IV substances are those that have the following findings:
{{blockquote|1=
{{ordered list|type=A
|The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in Schedule III
|The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States
|Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in Schedule III
Suvorexant and Lemborexant, orexinergic sedatives
===Schedule V===
Schedule V substances are those that have the following findings:
{{blockquote|1=
{{ordered list|type=A
|The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV
|The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States
|Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.
===Controlled by other federal laws for legal recreational use===
These psychoactive drugs are not controlled by the act, and are also allowed for sale intended for recreational use at the federal level (others are allowed for sale as dietary supplements, but not specifically regulated or intended for recreational use):
Alcohol (ethanol), a sedative found in alcoholic drinks. Per the National Minimum Drinking Age Act (which is voluntarily abided by all 50 U.S. states), sale is limited to persons 21-years-old and above only. Sale regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) and less commonly the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Alcohol was formerly illegal under the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution from 1919, until the Twenty-first Amendment repealed it in 1933.
Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, chocolate; and some teas and soft drinks. It is regulated by the FDA under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, and drinks cannot contain more than 200 parts per million (0.02%) of caffeine. There is no federal age restriction for caffeine-containing products. Also available medically in some pain medications (usually in combination with other drugs, like in aspirin/acetaminophen/caffeine).
Nicotine, a stimulant found in tobacco (including cigarettes and cigars) and electronic cigarettes. Also used medically in nicotine replacement therapy. The minimum purchasing age of tobacco and e-cigarettes in the United States is 21-years-old, per the Synar amendment to the Public Health Service Act. Sales are regulated by the ATF and FDA.
==Regulation of precursors==
The Controlled Substances Act also provides for federal regulation of precursors used to manufacture some of the controlled substances. The DEA list of chemicals is actually modified when the United States Attorney General determines that illegal manufacturing processes have changed.
In addition to the CSA, due to pseudoephedrine (PSE) and ephedrine being widely used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, the U.S. Congress passed the Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act which places restrictions on the sale of any medicine containing pseudoephedrine. That bill was then superseded by the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005, which was passed as an amendment to the Patriot Act renewal and included wider and more comprehensive restrictions on the sale of PSE-containing products. This law requires customer signature of a "log-book" and presentation of valid photo ID in order to purchase PSE-containing products from all retailers.
Additionally, the law restricts an individual to the retail purchase of no more than three packages or 3.6 grams of such product per day per purchase – and no more than 9 grams in a single month. A violation of this statute constitutes a misdemeanor. Retailers now commonly require PSE-containing products to be sold behind the pharmacy or service counter. This affects many preparations which were previously available over-the-counter without restriction, such as Actifed and its generic equivalents.
== Research exemptions ==
A common misunderstanding amongst researchers is that most national laws (including the Controlled Substance Act) allows the supply/use of small amounts of a controlled substance for non-clinical / non-in vivo research without licenses. A typical use case might be having a few milligrams or microlitres of a controlled substance within larger chemical collections (often tens of thousands of chemicals) for in vitro screening or sale. Researchers often believe that there is some form of "research exemption" for such small amounts. This incorrect view may be further re-enforced by R&D chemical suppliers often stating and asking scientists to confirm that anything bought is for research use only.
A further misconception is that the Controlled Substances Act simply lists a few hundred substances (e.g. MDMA, Fentanyl, Amphetamine, etc.) and compliance can be achieved via checking a CAS number, chemical name or similar identifier. However, the reality is that in most cases all ethers, esters, salts and stereoisomers are also controlled and it is impossible to simply list all of these. The act contains several "generic statements" or "chemical space" laws, which aim to control all chemicals similar to the "named" substance, these provide detailed descriptions similar to Markushes, these include ones for Fentanyl and also synthetic cannabinoids.
Due to this complexity in legislation, the identification of controlled chemicals in research or chemical supply is often carried out computationally on the chemical structure, either by in-house systems maintained a company or by the use of commercial software solutions. Automated systems are often required as many research operations can have collections of 10,000–100,000 different substances at the 1–5 milligram scale, which are likely to include controlled substances, especially within medicinal chemistry research, even if the core focus of the company is not narcotic or psychotropic drugs. These may not have been controlled when created, but they have subsequently been declared controlled, or fall within chemical space close to known controlled substances, or are used as tool compounds, precursors or synthetic intermediates to a controlled substance.
== Analogues vs Markush descriptions ==
Historically, in an attempt to prevent psychoactive chemicals which are chemically similar to controlled substance, but not specifically controlled by it, the CSA also controls "analogues" of many listed controlled substances. The definition of what 'analogue' means is kept deliberately vague, presumably to make it harder to circumvent this rule, as it's not clear what is / is not controlled, thus placing an element of risk and deterrent in those performing the supply. It is up to the courts to then decide whether a specific chemical is an analogue, often via a 'battle of experts' for the defense and prosecution which can lead to extended and more uncertain prosecutions. The use of the 'analogue' definition also make it more difficult for companies involved in the legitimate supply of chemicals for research and industrial purposes to know whether a chemical is regulated under the CSA
Starting in 2012, with the Synthetic drug abuse prevention act, and later an amendment to the CSA in 2018 defining fentanyl chemical space, the CSA started to use Markush descriptions to clearly define what analogues or chemical space is controlled. These chemical space, chemical family, generic statements or markush statements (depending on the legislation terminology) have been used for many years by other countries, notably the UK in the Misuse of Drugs Act.
These have the advantage of clearly defining what is controlled, making prosecutions easier and compliance by legitimate companies simpler. However the downside is that these tend to be harder to understand for non-chemists and also give those wishing to supply for illegitimate reasons something to 'aim' for in terms of non-controlled chemical space. For both Markush and analogue type approaches, typically computational systems In addition, research shows certain substances on Schedule I, for drugs which have no accepted medical uses and high potential for abuse, actually have accepted medical uses, have low potential for abuse, or both. One of those substances is cannabis, which is either decriminalized or legalized in 33 states of the United States.
|
[
"Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990",
"Cocaine",
"chemotherapy",
"United Nations Drug Control Programme",
"tryptamine",
"Federal drug policy of the United States",
"zopiclone",
"West Virginia",
"Libertarianism",
"Ipomoea tricolor",
"drug",
"United States Government Publishing Office",
"epistaxis",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Dimethyltryptamine",
"ADHD",
"List of pharmaceutical companies",
"judicial review",
"zaleplon",
"opioid epidemic",
"Paracetamol",
"Africa",
"Kefauver Harris Amendment",
"decriminalization",
"Anabolic steroid",
"Federal law enforcement in the United States",
"cigar",
"Heroin",
"BNDD",
"Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction",
"gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid",
"laudanum",
"Cathinone",
"Tapentadol",
"Canada",
"Regulation of therapeutic goods",
"Supremacy Clause",
"United States Drug Enforcement Administration",
"anorexiant",
"Etorphine",
"Codeine",
"Everett Dirksen",
"Psilocybin",
"Drug prohibition",
"Lemborexant",
"production quota",
"Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies",
"United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce",
"President of the United States",
"Methamphetamine",
"vomiting",
"Suboxone",
"Democratic Party (United States)",
"Markush structure",
"United States Secretary of State",
"drug addiction",
"midazolam",
"United States Attorney General",
"Harry Anslinger",
"Collection of unused drugs",
"Article Six of the United States Constitution",
"appetite suppressant",
"Harold Hughes",
"eugeroic",
"topical anesthetic",
"khat",
"peyote",
"Gonzales v. Raich",
"International Opium Convention",
"Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970",
"Nabilone",
"Argyreia nervosa",
"DEA list of chemicals",
"United States Constitution",
"Anorexia (symptom)",
"Echinopsis peruviana",
"fentanyl",
"chocolate",
"butalbital",
"21 USC",
"oxazepam",
"McFadden v. United States",
"euthanasia",
"semi-synthetic",
"First Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"tea",
"temazepam",
"Hydromorphone",
"Ibuprofen",
"Carisoprodol",
"stimulant",
"Uniform Controlled Substances Act",
"Fatigue",
"Palladone",
"Assisted suicide",
"ephedrine",
"Ergine",
"National Institute on Drug Abuse",
"narcolepsy",
"wikt:parenteral",
"United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative",
"Lysergic acid diethylamide",
"Cindy Fazey",
"Treaty Clause",
"carbromal",
"Laudanum",
"diphenoxylate",
"John N. Mitchell",
"Diphenoxylate",
"John Dean",
"Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs",
"cannabis",
"substance abuse",
"Secobarbital",
"Harley O. Staggers",
"post-traumatic stress disorder",
"prohormone",
"War on drugs",
"Upjohn",
"antidiarrheal",
"United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances",
"Pentobarbital",
"Actifed",
"weight loss",
"modafinil",
"Crime Control Act of 1990",
"recreational drug use",
"Alcohol (drug)",
"federal government of the United States",
"União do Vegetal",
"Cannabidiol",
"Benzphetamine",
"Nonbenzodiazepine",
"Department of Health and Human Services",
"Michael Sonnenreich",
"levorphanol",
"UN Economic and Social Council",
"promethazine",
"Federal Analog Act",
"GW Pharmaceuticals",
"obesity",
"Benzodiazepine",
"White House Counsel",
"binge eating disorder",
"barbiturates",
"Federal Analogue Act",
"dronabinol",
"Congress of the United States",
"Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)",
"cannabis (drug)",
"coffee",
"Drug Enforcement Administration",
"Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives",
"cannabinoid",
"Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984",
"clonazepam",
"camphor",
"Raymond P. Shafer",
"software",
"Phencyclidine",
"aspirin/paracetamol/caffeine",
"gamma hydroxybutyrate",
"Hydrocodone",
"analgesic",
"international law",
"barbiturate",
"diazepam",
"Tetrahydrocannabinol",
"psilocybin mushroom",
"Patriot Act",
"atropine",
"Ibogaine",
"designer drug",
"Medical Device Regulation Act",
"Richard Nixon",
"pentobarbital",
"pseudoephedrine",
"Fentanyl",
"Methaqualone",
"counterculture of the 1960s",
"Catha edulis",
"Subutex",
"Morphine",
"Pyrovalerone",
"emergency room",
"Suvorexant",
"medicinal chemistry",
"Oxycodone",
"alprazolam",
"Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act",
"Caffeine",
"Dexmethylphenidate",
"Benzylpiperazine",
"psilocin",
"Marinol",
"Constitution of the United States",
"zolpidem",
"Commission on Narcotic Drugs",
"Fair Sentencing Act",
"Amphetamine",
"Secretary of Health and Human Services",
"pentazocine",
"ayahuasca",
"psychedelic drug",
"91st United States Congress",
"Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act",
"United States Adopted Name",
"Methadone",
"tetrahydrocannabinol",
"Buprenorphine",
"United Kingdom",
"Hypocretin (orexin) receptor 1",
"Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Prevention Act of 2000",
"entactogen",
"AIDS",
"Percocet",
"Dextroamphetamine",
"anabolic steroids",
"Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005",
"agonist",
"local anesthetic",
"Difenoxin",
"Controlled Drugs and Substances Act",
"Pethidine",
"prodrug",
"United States Department of Justice",
"Oxymorphone",
"Shafer Commission",
"electronic cigarette",
"Sovereignty",
"Chloral hydrate",
"talbutal",
"Reid v. Covert",
"alcoholic drinks",
"New Drug Application",
"National Minimum Drinking Age Act",
"brivaracetam",
"Dilaudid",
"Ruan v. United States",
"Mescaline",
"Paregoric",
"Nicotine",
"Bwiti",
"retigabine",
"sodium oxybate",
"International Nonproprietary Name",
"chlordiazepoxide",
"Title 21 of the United States Code",
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"Convention on Psychotropic Substances",
"Peyote",
"Methylphenidate",
"United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary",
"Food and Drug Administration",
"flunitrazepam",
"Z-drug",
"Turbina corymbosa",
"Dihydrocodeine",
"Chemical substance",
"Cannabis (drug)",
"nicotine replacement therapy",
"Phendimetrazine",
"Barbiturates",
"armodafinil",
"psychedelic therapy",
"cigarette",
"Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"Investigational New Drug",
"MDMA",
"Federal Register",
"treaty",
"phenobarbital",
"Lisdexamfetamine",
"Empathogen-entactogen",
"nausea",
"alcohol (drug)",
"Echinopsis pachanoi",
"Methamphetamine Precursor Control Act",
"eszopiclone",
"alpha-Methyltryptamine",
"OxyContin",
"Tramadol",
"morphine",
"Drug Trafficking Safe Harbor Elimination Act",
"Testosterone (medication)",
"Lomotil",
"secobarbital",
"Drug-Free Workplace Act of 1988",
"World Health Organization",
"soft drink",
"opioid",
"Opium",
"tobacco",
"Pure Food and Drug Act",
"National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse",
"Ketamine",
"drug policy of the United States",
"Schedule III controlled substance",
"Perampanel",
"Xyrem",
"dietary supplement",
"Percodan",
"Cato Institute",
"Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid",
"heroin",
"lacosamide",
"Head Money Cases",
"Misuse of Drugs Act 1971",
"anti-tussive",
"United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit",
"Burrage v. United States",
"Lorazepam",
"opium",
"pregabalin",
"Adderall",
"Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act",
"Public Health Service Act",
"Gonzales v. Oregon",
"anticonvulsant",
"androstenedione",
"ezogabine",
"Medical amnesty policy",
"methamphetamine"
] |
7,728 |
Claude Piron
|
Claude Piron, also known by the pseudonym Johán Valano, was a Swiss psychologist, Esperantist, translator, and writer. He worked as a translator for the United Nations from 1956 to 1961 and then for the World Health Organization.
He was a prolific author of Esperanto works. He spoke Esperanto from childhood and used it in Japan, China, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, in Africa and Latin America, and in nearly all the countries of Europe.
== Life ==
Piron was a psychotherapist and taught from 1973 to 1994 in the psychology department at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. His French-language book Le défi des langues – Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense, 1994) is a kind of psychoanalysis of international communication. A Portuguese version, O desafio das linguas, was published in 2002 (Campinas, São Paulo, Pontes).
In a lecture on the current system of international communication Piron argued that "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes" and "differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns... The same neuropsychological law...—called by Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation—applies to word formation as well as to grammar."
His diverse Esperanto writings include instructional books, books for beginners, novels, short stories, poems, articles and non-fiction books. His most famous works are Gerda malaperis! and La Bona Lingvo (The Good Language).
Gerda malaperis! is a novella which uses basic grammar and vocabulary in the first chapter and builds up to expert Esperanto by the end, including word lists so that beginners may easily follow along.
In La Bona Lingvo, Piron captures the basic linguistic and social aspects of Esperanto. He argues strongly for imaginative use of the basic Esperanto morpheme inventory and word-formation techniques, and against unnecessary importation of neologisms from European languages. He also presents the idea that, once one has learned enough vocabulary to express himself, it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many other languages.
Piron is the author of a book in French, Le bonheur clés en main (The Keys to Happiness), which distinguishes among pleasure, happiness and joy. He showed how one may avoid contributing to his own "anti-happiness" (l'anti-bonheur) and how one may expand the areas of happiness in his life. Piron's view was that, while one may desire happiness, desire is not enough. He said that just as people must do certain things in order to become physically stronger, they must do certain things in order to become happier.
|
[
"La Bona Lingvo",
"United Nations",
"Jean Piaget",
"morpheme",
"University of Geneva",
"Gerda malaperis!",
"Translation",
"Esperantist",
"Latin America",
"psychologist",
"psychotherapy",
"psychoanalysis",
"Esperanto",
"translation",
"World Health Organization"
] |
7,729 |
Captain America
|
Captain America is a superhero created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby who appears in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in Captain America Comics #1, published on December 20, 1940, by Timely Comics, a corporate predecessor to Marvel. Captain America's civilian identity is Steven "Steve" Rogers, a frail man enhanced to the peak of human physical perfection by an experimental "super-soldier serum" after joining the United States Army to aid the country's efforts in World War II. Equipped with an American flag–inspired costume and a virtually indestructible shield, Captain America and his sidekick Bucky Barnes clashed frequently with the villainous Red Skull and other members of the Axis powers. In the war's final days, an accident left Captain America frozen in a state of suspended animation until he was revived in modern times. He resumes his exploits as a costumed hero and becomes the leader of the superhero team the Avengers, but frequently struggles as a "man out of time" to adjust to the new era.
The character quickly emerged as Timely's most popular and commercially successful wartime creation upon his original publication, though the popularity of superheroes declined in the post-war period and Captain America Comics was discontinued in 1950. The character saw a short-lived revival in 1953 before returning to comics in 1964 and has since remained in continuous publication. Captain America's creation as an explicitly anti-Nazi figure was a deliberately political undertaking: Simon and Kirby were stridently opposed to the actions of Nazi Germany and supporters of U.S. intervention in World War II, with Simon conceiving of the character specifically in response to the American non-interventionism movement. Political messages have subsequently remained a defining feature of Captain America stories, with writers regularly using the character to comment on the state of American society and government.
Having appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, Captain America is one of the most popular and recognized Marvel Comics characters, and has been described as an icon of American popular culture. Though Captain America was not the first United States–themed superhero, he would become the most popular and enduring of the many patriotic American superheroes created during World War II. Captain America was the first Marvel character to appear in a medium outside of comic books, in the 1944 serial film Captain America; the character has subsequently appeared in a variety of films and other media, including the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where he was portrayed by actor Chris Evans from the character's first appearance in Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) to his final appearance in Avengers: Endgame (2019).
==Publication history==
===Creation and development===
The Super-Soldier Serum has enhanced Captain America's strength, speed, agility, endurance, reflexes, reaction time, and natural self-healing ability to the peak of human physical perfection. His physical conditioning is superior to any Olympic athlete who ever competed. He is additionally a master tactician and field commander, and has achieved mastery in a variety of hand-to-hand combat styles, including boxing and judo. The political character of Captain America's enemies has shifted over time: the character fought enemies associated with communism during his brief revival in the 1950s before shifting back to Nazi antagonists in the mid-1960s, while comics since 9/11 have frequently depicted the character facing terrorist villains.
===Romantic interests===
Steve Rogers' first love interest was Betsy Ross, introduced in his World War II-era comics as a member of the Women's Army Corps who later became the costumed superhero Golden Girl. Peggy Carter, an American member of the French Resistance, was retroactively established in comics published in the 1960s as another of Rogers' wartime lovers. When Rogers is revived in the post-war era, he begins a partnership and on-again off-again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter; introduced as Peggy's younger sister, she was later retconned as Peggy's grandniece to reflect Marvel's floating timeline. In comics published in the 1980s, Rogers dated and became engaged to civilian Bernie Rosenthal, though they ended their relationship amicably after Bernie left New York to attend law school. In the 1990s, Rogers had a romantic entanglement with the alternately villainous and antiheroic Diamondback, a member of the Serpent Society. Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Avengers: Infinity War (2018),
The first appearance of Captain America on television was in the 1966 Grantray-Lawrence Animation series The Marvel Super Heroes. The character would make minor appearances in several Marvel animated series in the subsequent decades, including Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981–1983), X-Men: The Animated Series (1992–1997), and The Avengers: United They Stand (1999–2000). Buoyed by increased popularity from the character's appearances in the MCU, Captain America began appearing in television series in more prominent roles beginning in the 2010s, such as The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes (2010–2012). Captain America was the first Marvel character to be adapted into a novel with Captain America: The Great Gold Steal by Ted White, published in 1968.
|
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"Truth: Red, White & Black",
"inker",
"Roger Stern",
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"X-Men: The Animated Series",
"Captain America II: Death Too Soon",
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"Iron Man",
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"Civil War (comics)",
"unmanned aerial vehicle",
"Collider (website)",
"List of United States-themed superheroes",
"Roger McKenzie (comics)",
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"Temple University Press",
"All Winners Comics",
"All Select Comics",
"strategist",
"jingoistic",
"TwoMorrows Publishing",
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"Red Skull",
"self-healing",
"American comic books",
"Captain America: The Captain",
"New York City",
"heater shield",
"superhero",
"Golden Age of Comic Books",
"Soviet Union",
"Watergate scandal",
"Secret Empire (2017 comic)",
"Syfy",
"Jeffrey Mace",
"Comic book death",
"Adam Hughes",
"Rob Liefeld",
"Nomad (Marvel Comics)",
"Gizmodo",
"U.S. Army",
"French Resistance",
"Illuminati (comics)",
"Mercury (mythology)",
"Leinil Francis Yu",
"Kieron Dwyer",
"adamantium",
"Captain America: The First Avenger",
"rogues' gallery",
"Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code",
"Chris Evans (actor)",
"Al Avison",
"post-traumatic stress disorder",
"Fred Entertainment",
"Mark Millar",
"fan club",
"Bill Finger",
"Hydra (comics)",
"Avengers (comics)",
"Spirit of '76 (Marvel Comics)",
"Marvel Universe",
"Marvel Knights",
"Retroactive continuity",
"John Ney Rieber",
"Flag-Smasher",
"social worker",
"hand-to-hand combat",
"Dan Jurgens",
"Jim Shooter",
"Fox Feature Syndicate",
"John Cassaday",
"Korean War",
"Donald F. Glut",
"floating timeline",
"Heroes Reborn (1996 comic)",
"Illegal drug trade in the United States",
"supervillain",
"Diamondback (Rachel Leighton)",
"Limited series (comics)",
"Anti-fascism",
"Copyright renewal in the United States",
"vibranium",
"Captain America (Ultimate Marvel character)",
"Harvey Awards",
"Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe",
"Bernie Rosenthal",
"German American Bund",
"Discus throw",
"Captain America (1979 film)",
"Ronald Reagan",
"Free Spirit (comics)",
"Fantastic Four",
"The Death of Captain America",
"Captain America: The Winter Soldier",
"The Atlantic",
"Copyright Act of 1976",
"Vietnam War",
"Patriot Act",
"Joe Simon",
"Secret Empire (organization)",
"Avengers: Endgame",
"Commission on Superhuman Activities",
"Grantray-Lawrence Animation",
"The Los Angeles Times",
"Nazism",
"Salvage for Victory",
"Cover date",
"Cold War",
"super soldiers",
"Marvel Comics",
"internal monologue",
"Demolition Man (character)",
"Adolf Hitler in popular culture",
"Captain America's shield",
"Nazi Germany",
"Harvey Award",
"United States Army",
"speed line",
"Chicago Review Press",
"Harlem",
"OC Weekly",
"Captain America: Reborn",
"J.M. DeMatteis",
"John Wayne",
"Bloomsbury Publishing",
"wiki",
"Al Gabriele",
"United States non-interventionism",
"ongoing series",
"cover date",
"United States",
"Archie Comics",
"Steve Epting",
"Mark Waid",
"pacifist",
"secret identity",
"Syracuse University Press",
"Ta-Nehisi Coates",
"All-Winners Squad",
"work for hire",
"George Roussos",
"Marvel Now!",
"Spider-Man",
"Chip Zdarsky",
"Supersoldier",
"Comic Book Resources",
"US Department of War",
"Avengers (comic book)",
"Tales of Suspense",
"superhero comics",
"Marvel Now",
"supersoldier",
"Isaiah Bradley",
"Martial arts",
"Sal Buscema",
"Fiorello La Guardia",
"McCarthyism",
"Bucky Barnes",
"Greatest Generation",
"Mark Gruenwald",
"survivor guilt",
"Spirit of '76 (Harvey Comics)",
"Nomad (comics)",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"John Byrne (comics)",
"Screen Rant",
"Manly Wade Wellman",
"Marvel Cinematic Universe",
"The Marvel Super Heroes",
"Atlas Comics (1950s)",
"U.S. Agent",
"thought balloons",
"Lower East Side",
"Al-Qaeda",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Human Torch (android)",
"U.S.A. Comics",
"Yank & Doodle",
"Image Comics",
"Captain America (serial)",
"Time (magazine)",
"Horror comics",
"Black Panther (character)",
"war on drugs",
"Television film",
"Avengers Disassembled",
"Nick Spencer",
"The Steranko History of Comics",
"Rick Remender",
"Martin Goodman (publisher)",
"Peter Lang (publisher)",
"Superman",
"DK (publisher)",
"Jim Lee",
"American Dream",
"Lists of Marvel Comics characters",
"Steve Englehart",
"comic book death",
"McFarland & Company",
"The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes",
"Parallel universes in fiction",
"Captain America in film",
"Otto Binder",
"Doctor Faustus (comics)",
"Ron Garney",
"Gene Colan",
"Human Torch",
"Captain Flag",
"Multiverse (Marvel Comics)",
"American Crusader",
"Jim Steranko",
"List of United States–themed superheroes",
"DC Comics",
"Peggy Carter",
"Batman",
"Andy Kubert",
"Crestwood Publications",
"round shield",
"Nick Fury",
"Flag of the United States",
"Marvel Mystery Comics",
"William Burnside (character)",
"Captain America in other media",
"The Winter Soldier (story arc)",
"Jack Flag",
"Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War",
"ABC-CLIO",
"domino mask",
"J. Michael Straczynski",
"Captain America (comic book)",
"IGN",
"Steve McNiven",
"serial film",
"Jeph Loeb",
"World War II",
"Sharon Carter",
"Basic Books",
"1939 Nazi rally at Madison Square Garden",
"Ed Brubaker",
"Second World War",
"The Avengers: United They Stand",
"Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends",
"Wizard (magazine)",
"Wayback Machine",
"Syd Shores",
"Captain America Comics",
"Serpent Society",
"Fresh Start (comics)",
"Marvel Age",
"Roger (radio communications)"
] |
7,730 |
Cyclops (disambiguation)
|
A Cyclops is a one-eyed monster in Greek mythology.
Cyclops or The Cyclops may also refer to:
==Arts and entertainment==
===Literature===
Cyclops (play), by Euripides
Cyclops (novel), a Dirk Pitt novel by Clive Cussler
Cyclops (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics superhero
Cyclops (magazine), a British underground comics magazine of the 1970s
Cyclops, a comic poem by Philoxenus of Cythera
Cyclops, an organization in David Brin's novel The Postman
===Film and television===
The Cyclops (film), a 1957 American science fiction film
Cyclops (1976 film), a Bulgarian film
Cyclops (1982 film), a Croatian film
Cyclops (1987 film), a Japanese science fiction horror film
Cyclops (2008 film), an American fantasy film
Cyclops, a character in the TV series Xiaolin Showdown
Cyclops, a character in the TV series Mahou Sentai Magiranger
Cyclops, the bus in the film The Big Bus
===Games===
Cyclops (Dungeons & Dragons), a giant in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons
Cyclops, a unit in the video game Halo Wars
===Music===
Cyclops (album), by Terminal Power Company
"Cyclops", a song from Portrait of an American Family by Marilyn Manson
"Cyclops", a song from The Libertines by the Libertines
===Other===
The Cyclops (Redon), an 1898 painting by Odilon Redon
Cyclops (roller coaster), at Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park, Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin, U.S.
==Science and technology==
Cromemco Cyclops, first commercial all-digital camera using a digital MOS area image sensor
Cyclops (computer system), an automated line-calling system in tennis
Cyclops (copepod), a genus of copepods (crustaceans)
Cyclops laser, a high-power laser built in 1975
Cyclops (rock), a type of agate
Project Cyclops, a NASA proposal for an Earth-based radio telescope array
==In the military==
HMS Cyclops, four ships of the Royal Navy
Cyclops-class monitor, four Royal Navy monitors built in the 1870s
USS Cyclops, two ships of the United States Navy
Huff-Daland XHB-1, an American 1920s prototype heavy bomber nicknamed "Cyclops"
Cyclops Airfield, an American World War II airfield in Papua New Guinea - see Sentani International Airport
==Transportation==
, a British cargo steamship
Cyclops, a West Cornwall Railway steam locomotive
Cyclops, a nickname for DM 556, an NZR DM class unit on the rail passenger network of Wellington, New Zealand
Cyclops, a nickname for the British Rail Class 67 Locomotive
Cyclops 1, a submersible vessel built by OceanGate
==Businesses==
Cyclops Steel, a former steel company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Cyclops (toy company), an Australian manufacturer of toys
==Places==
Cyclops Mountains, Papua province, Indonesia
Cyclops Peak, Enderby Land, Antarctica
==Other uses==
SouthWest Cyclops, a Canadian professional indoor lacrosse team
Cyclops, a Ku Klux Klan position title
A CYCLOPS junction, a certain kind of protected intersection
|
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"Cyclops Steel",
"British Rail Class 67",
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"The Libertines (album)",
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"The Postman",
"OceanGate",
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"Cyclops (magazine)",
"Cromemco Cyclops",
"Sentani International Airport",
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"List of Xiaolin Showdown characters",
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"Huff-Daland XHB-1",
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"Portrait of an American Family",
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"Cyclops Peak",
"SouthWest Cyclops",
"Cyclops (roller coaster)",
"protected intersection",
"Cyclops (novel)",
"Cyclops (Marvel Comics)",
"Cyclops (1976 film)",
"Cyclopia"
] |
7,731 |
Christian countercult movement
|
The Christian countercult movement or the Christian anti-cult movement is a social movement among certain Protestant evangelical and fundamentalist) and individual activists who oppose religious sects that they consider cults.
Countercult ministries often concern themselves with religious sects that consider themselves Christian but hold beliefs that are thought to contradict the teachings of the Bible. Such sects may include: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Unification Church, Christian Science, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Some Protestants classify the Catholic Church as a cult. Some also denounce non-Christian religions such as Islam, Wicca, Paganism, New Age groups, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions like UFO religions.
Countercult literature usually expresses specific doctrinal or theological concerns and it also has a missionary or apologetic purpose. It presents a rebuttal by emphasizing the teachings of the Bible against the beliefs of non-fundamental Christian sects. Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to evangelize to followers of cults. Some Christians also share concerns similar to those of the secular anti-cult movement.
The movement publishes its views through a variety of media, including books, magazines, and newsletters, radio broadcasting, audio and video cassette production, direct-mail appeals, proactive evangelistic encounters, professional and avocational websites, as well as lecture series, training workshops and counter-cult conferences.
==History==
===Precursors and pioneers===
Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of non-orthodox movements throughout church history. The Apostles themselves were involved in challenging the doctrines and claims of various teachers. The Apostle Paul wrote an entire epistle, Galatians, antagonistic to the teachings of a Jewish sect that claimed adherence to the teachings of both Jesus and Moses (cf. Acts 15 and Gal. 1:6–10). The First Epistle of John is devoted to countering early proto-Gnostic cults that had arisen in the first century CE, all claiming to be Christian (1 John 2:19).
The early Church in the post-apostolic period was much more involved in "defending its frontiers against alternative soteriologies—either by defining its own position with greater and greater exactness, or by attacking other religions, and particularly the Hellenistic mysteries." In fact, a good deal of the early Christian literature is devoted to the exposure and refutation of unorthodox theology, mystery religions and Gnostic groups. Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus of Rome were some of the early Christian apologists who engaged in critical analyses of unorthodox theology, Greco-Roman pagan religions, and Gnostic groups.
In the Protestant tradition, some of the earliest writings opposing unorthodox groups (such as the Swedenborgians) can be traced back to John Wesley, Alexander Campbell and Princeton Theological Seminary theologians like Charles Hodge and B. B. Warfield. The first known usage of the term cult by a Protestant apologist to denote a group is heretical or unorthodox is in Anti-Christian Cults by A. H. Barrington, published in 1898.
Quite a few of the pioneering apologists were Baptist pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, or participants in the Plymouth Brethren, like William C. Irvine and Sydney Watson. Watson wrote a series of didactic novels like Escaped from the Snare: Christian Science, Bewitched by Spiritualism, and The Gilded Lie (Millennial Dawnism), as warnings of the dangers posed by cultic groups. Watson's use of fiction to counter the cults has been repeated by later novelists like Frank E. Peretti.
The early twentieth-century apologists generally applied the words heresy and sects to groups like the Christadelphians, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Spiritualists, and Theosophists. This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in 1915 The Fundamentals, where apologists criticized the teachings of Charles Taze Russell, Mary Baker Eddy, the Mormons and Spiritualists.
===Mid-twentieth-century apologists===
Since the 1940s, the approach of traditional Christians was to apply the meaning of cult such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside the Bible or have teachings and practices deviating from traditional Christian teachings and practices. Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are:
The Missionary Faces Isms, by John C. Mattes, pub. 1937 (Board of American Missions of the United Lutheran Church in America).
Heresies Ancient and Modern, by J. Oswald Sanders, pub. 1948 (Marshall Morgan & Scott, London/Zondervan, Grand Rapids).
Heresies Exposed, by W. C. Irvine, pub. 1917, 1921, 1985 (Loizeaux Brothers).
Confusion of Tongues, by C. W. Ferguson, pub. 1928 (Doran & Co).
Isms New and Old, by Julius Bodensieck.
Some Latter-Day Religions, by G. H. Combs.
One of the first prominent countercult apologists was Jan Karel van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the Christian Reformed Church in North America. His book The Chaos of Cults, which was first published in 1938, became a classic in the field as it was repeatedly revised and updated until 1962.
===Walter Ralston Martin===
Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement was Walter Martin (1928–1989), whose numerous books include the 1955 The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults and the 1965 The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era, which continues to be influential. He became well known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, "The Bible Answer Man", currently hosted by Hank Hanegraaff.
In The Rise of the Cults, Martin gave the following definition of a cult:
By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of being in essential harmony with those sources. Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith.
As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been, Jehovah's Witnesses, Armstrongism, Christian Science and the Unification Church, but also smaller groups like the Swedenborgian Church. He defines Christian cults as groups that follow the personal interpretation of an individual, rather than the understanding of the Bible accepted by Nicene Christianity, providing the examples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Unity Church. Martin examines a large number of new religious movements; included are major groups such as Christian Science, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Armstrongism, Theosophy, the Baháʼí Faith, Unitarian Universalism, Scientology, as well as minor groups including various New Age and groups based on Eastern religions. The beliefs of other world religions such as Islam and Buddhism are also discussed. He covers each group's history and teachings, and contrasts them with those of mainstream Christianity.
Various other conservative Christian leaders—among them John Ankerberg and Norman Geisler—have emphasized themes similar to Martin's. Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known conservative Christian leaders as well as many conservative pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label. Dave Breese summed up this kind of definition in these words:
A cult is a religious perversion. It is a belief and practice in the world of religion which calls for devotion to a religious view or leader centered in false doctrine. It is an organized heresy. A cult may take many forms but it is basically a religious movement which distorts or warps orthodox faith to the point where truth becomes perverted into a lie. A cult is impossible to define except against the absolute standard of the teaching of Holy Scripture.
===Discernment blogging===
Kenne "Ken" Silva is said by other discernment bloggers to have pioneered online discernment ministry. Ken was a Baptist pastor who ran the discernment blog "Apprising". Silva wrote many blog articles about the Emerging Church, the Word of Faith Movement, the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Gay Christian Movement, and many other groups. He started his blog in 2005 and wrote there until his death in 2014.
Silva's work paved the way for other internet discernment ministries such as Pirate Christian Radio, a group of blogs and podcasts founded by Lutheran pastor Chris Rosebrough in 2008, and Pulpit & Pen, a discernment blog founded by Baptist pastor and polemicist J. D. Hall.
==Other technical terminology==
Since the 1980s, the term new religions or new religious movements has slowly entered into evangelical usage alongside the word cult. Some book titles use both terms.
The acceptance of these alternatives to the word cult in evangelicalism reflects, in part, the wider usage of such language in the sociology of religion.
==Apologetics==
The term countercult apologetics first appeared in Protestant evangelical literature as a self-designation in the late 1970s and early 1980s in articles by Ronald Enroth and David Fetcho, and by Walter Martin in Martin Speaks Out on the Cults. A mid-1980s debate about apologetic methodology between Ronald Enroth and J. Gordon Melton, led the latter to place more emphasis in his publications on differentiating the Christian countercult from the secular anti-cult. Eric Pement urged Melton to adopt the label "Christian countercult", and since the early 1990s the terms has entered into popular usage and is recognized by sociologists such as Douglas Cowan.
The only existing umbrella organization within the countercult movement in the United States is the Evangelical Ministries to New Religions (EMNR), founded in 1982 by Martin, Enroth, Gordon Lewis, and James Bjornstad. Ethiopia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Romania, Russia, Sweden, and Ukraine. A comparison between the methods employed in the United States and other nations discloses some similarities in emphasis, but also other nuances in emphasis. The similarities are that globally these ministries share a common concern about the evangelization of people in cults and new religions. There is also often a common thread of comparing orthodox doctrines and biblical passages with the teachings of the groups under examination. In some of the European and southern hemisphere contexts, however, confrontational methods of engagement are not always relied on, and dialogical approaches are sometimes advocated.
A group of organizations that originated within the context of established religion is working in more general fields of "cult awareness," especially in Europe. Their leaders are theologians, and they are often social ministries affiliated to big churches.
===Protestant===
Berlin-based (Parish Office for Sects and World Views) headed by Lutheran pastor Thomas Gandow
Swiss (Protestant Reformed Zwinglian Information Service on Churches, Sects and Religions) headed by Zwinglian parson Georg Schmid
===Catholic===
(Sects and ideologies in Saxony)
(Worldviews and religious groups) of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Linz, Austria
GRIS (), Italy
===Orthodox===
Synodic Committee about Heresies of Greek Orthodox Church
Center for Religious Studies in the name of Hieromartyr Ireneus of Lyon in Russia.
==Contextual missiology==
The phenomena of cults has also entered into the discourses of Christian missions and theology of religions. An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation in Thailand. From that consultation a position paper was produced. The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper. The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980.
In the 1990s, discussions in academic missions and theological journals indicate that another trajectory is emerging that reflects the influence of contextual missions theory. Advocates of this approach maintain that apologetics as a tool needs to be retained, but do not favor a confrontational style of engagement.
==Variations and models==
Countercult apologetics has several variations and methods employed in analyzing and responding to cults. The different nuances in countercult apologetics have been discussed by John A. Saliba and Philip Johnson.
The dominant method is the emphasis on detecting unorthodox or heretical doctrines and contrasting those with orthodox interpretations of the Bible and early creedal documents. Some apologists, such as Francis J. Beckwith, have emphasized a philosophical approach, pointing out logical, epistemological and metaphysical problems within the teachings of a particular group. Another approach involves former members of cultic groups recounting their spiritual autobiographies, which highlight experiences of disenchantment with the group, unanswered questions and doubts about commitment to the group, culminating in the person's conversion to evangelical Christianity.
Apologists like Dave Hunt in Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust and Hal Lindsey in The Terminal Generation have tended to interpret the phenomena of cults as part of the burgeoning evidence of signs that Christ's Second Advent is close at hand. Both Hunt and Constance Cumbey have applied a conspiracy model to interpreting the emergence of New Age spirituality and linking that to speculations about fulfilled prophecies heralding Christ's reappearance.
==Prominent advocates==
===People===
Constance Cumbey;
Ronald Enroth;
Norman Geisler;
Douglas Groothuis;
Dave Hunt;
Greg Koukl;
Bob Larson;
Walter Ralston Martin;
Josh McDowell;
J. P. Moreland;
Robert and Gretchen Passantino.
===Organizations===
Answers in Action, led by Robert and Gretchen Passantino;
Apologetics Index;
Apologetics Resource Center, led by Craig Branch;
Apologetics Press, led by Dave Miller;
Apprising, a blog written by Ken Silva;
Banner Ministries UK, led by Tricia Tillin;
Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry (CARM), founded and led by Matt Slick;
Christian Research Institute (CRI), founded by Walter Martin;
Cult Awareness and Information Centre, founded by the late Jan Groenveld;
Dialog Center International, founded by Johannes Aagaard;
Evangelical Ministries to New Religions (EMNR);
Midwest Christian Outreach;
Mormonism Research Ministry, led by Bill McKeever;
Personal Freedom Outreach;
Pirate Christian Radio, founded by Lutheran pastor Chris Rosebrough;
Pulpit & Pen, a blog founded and written by Baptist pastor J. D. Hall;
Reachout Trust, led by Michael Thomas;
Spiritual Counterfeits Project, led by president Mark J. Harris;
Stand To Reason, founded by Greg Koukl and Melinda Penner;
Utah Lighthouse Ministry, led by Jerald and Sandra Tanner;
Watchman Fellowship, founded by David Henke, led by James K. Walker;
|
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"Greg Koukl",
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"B. B. Warfield",
"Greco-Roman mysteries",
"Proto-Gnosticism",
"Dave Breese",
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Professor X
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Professor X (Prof. Charles Francis Xavier) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in The X-Men #1 (September 1963). The character is depicted as the founder and occasional leader of the X-Men.
Xavier is a member of a subspecies of humans known as mutants, who are born with superhuman abilities. He is an exceptionally powerful telepath, who can read and control the minds of others. To both shelter and train mutants from around the world, he runs a private school in the X-Mansion in Salem Center, located in Westchester County, New York. Xavier also strives to serve the greater good by promoting peaceful coexistence and equality between humans and mutants in a world where zealous anti-mutant bigotry is widespread. However, he later abandons his dream in favor of establishing a mutant nation in Krakoa.
Throughout much of the character's history, Xavier has been depicted with paraplegia and uses a wheelchair. One of the world's most powerful mutant telepaths, Xavier is a scientific genius and a leading authority in genetics. He has devised Cerebro and other equipment to enhance psionic powers and detect and track people with the mutant gene.
Xavier's pacifist and assimilationist ideology and actions have often been contrasted with that of Magneto, a mutant leader (initially characterized as a supervillain and later as a complex antihero) with whom Xavier has a complicated relationship. Writer Chris Claremont, who originated Magneto's backstory, modeled the politics of Xavier on David Ben-Gurion and that of Magneto on Menachem Begin. Later writers have additionally emphasized secretive, ruthless, and manipulative aspects of Xavier, while the later "Krakoan Age" storyline sees him align with Magneto to establish a sovereign mutant nation.
Patrick Stewart portrayed the character in the first three films in the 20th Century Fox X-Men film series and in various video games, and James McAvoy portrayed a younger version of the character in the 2011 prequel X-Men: First Class. Both actors reprised the role in the film X-Men: Days of Future Past. Stewart would reprise the role in the film Logan (2017), while McAvoy would further appear as his younger iteration of the character in X-Men: Apocalypse (2016), Deadpool 2 (2018), and Dark Phoenix (2019). Harry Lloyd portrayed the character in the third season of the television series Legion. Stewart returned to the role again, portraying an alternate version of the character in the 2022 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness.
==Publication history==
Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, Professor X first appeared in X-Men #1 (September 1963).
===Creation and influences===
Stan Lee has stated that the physical inspiration of Professor Xavier was from Academy Award-winning actor Yul Brynner.
Writer Scott Lobdell established Xavier's middle name to be "Francis" in Uncanny X-Men #309 (February 1994).
===Character===
Xavier's goals are to promote the peaceful affirmation of mutant rights, to mediate the co-existence of mutants and humans, to protect mutants from violent humans, and to protect society from antagonistic mutants, including his old friend, Magneto. To achieve these aims, he founded Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters (later named the Xavier Institute) to teach mutants to explore and control their powers. Its first group of students was the original X-Men (Cyclops, Iceman, Marvel Girl, Angel, and Beast). Xavier's students consider him a visionary and often refer to their mission as "Xavier's dream". He is highly regarded by others in the Marvel Universe, respected by various governments, and trusted by several other superhero teams, including the Avengers and the Fantastic Four. However, he also has a manipulative streak which has resulted in several significant fallings-out with allies and students.
He often acts as a public advocate for mutant rights and is the authority most of the Marvel superhero community turns to for advice on mutants. Despite this, his status as a mutant himself and originator of the X-Men only became public during the 2001 story "E Is for Extinction". He also appears in almost all of the X-Men animated series and in many video games, although usually as a non-playable character. Patrick Stewart plays him in the 2000s X-Men film series, as well as providing his voice in some of the X-Men video games (including some not connected to the film series).
According to BusinessWeek, Charles Xavier is listed as one of the top ten most intelligent fictional characters in American comics.
In a number of comics, Xavier is shown to have a dark side, a part of himself that he struggles to suppress. Perhaps the most notable appearance of this character element is in the Onslaught storyline, in which the crossover event's antagonist is a physical manifestation of that dark side. Also, Onslaught is created in the most violent act Xavier claims to have done: erasing the mind of Magneto. In X-Men #106 (August 1977), the new X-Men fight images of the original team, which have been created by what Xavier says is his "evil self ... who would use his powers for personal gain and conquest", which he says he is normally able to keep in check. In the 1984 four-part series titled The X-Men and the Micronauts, Xavier's dark desires manifest themselves as the Entity and threaten to destroy the Micronauts' universe.
In other instances, Xavier is shown to be secretive and manipulative. During the Onslaught storyline, the X-Men find Xavier's files, the "Xavier Protocols", which detail how to kill many of the characters, including Xavier himself, should the need ever arise, such as if they went rogue. Astonishing X-Men vol. 3, #12 (August 2005) reveals that when Xavier realizes that the Danger Room has become sentient, he keeps it trapped and experiments on it for years, an act that Cyclops calls "the oppression of a new life" and equates to humanity's treatment of mutants (however, X-Men Legacy #220 - 224 reveals that Xavier did not intend for the Danger Room to become sentient: it was an accident, and Xavier sought a way to free Danger, but was unable to find a way to accomplish this without deleting her sentience as well).
==Fictional character biography==
Charles Francis Xavier was born in New York City to the wealthy Dr. Brian Xavier, a well-respected nuclear scientist, and Sharon Xavier. The family lives in a very grand mansion estate in Westchester County because of the riches his father's nuclear research has brought them. He later grows up to attend Pembroke College at the University of Oxford, where he earns a Professorship in Genetics and other science fields, and goes on to live first in Oxford and then London for a number of years. Crucially, as he enters late adolescence, Xavier inherits the mansion-house he was raised in, enabling him not only to continue to live in it, but also to turn it in to Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters, which he begins together with the first of the X-Men.
Brian, his father, dies in an accident when Xavier is still very young, and Brian's science partner Kurt Marko comforts and then marries the grieving Sharon. When Xavier's telepathic mutant powers emerge, he discovers Marko cares only about his mother's money.
After the wedding, Kurt moves in with the Xaviers, bringing with him his son Cain. Kurt quickly grows neglectful of Sharon, driving her to alcoholism, and abuses both Charles and Cain. Cain takes out his frustrations and insecurities on his stepbrother. Charles uses his telepathic powers to read Cain's mind and explore the extent of his psychological damage, which only leads to Cain becoming more aggressive toward him and the young Xavier feeling Cain's pain firsthand.
With help from his superhuman powers and natural genius, Xavier becomes an excellent student and athlete, though he gives up the latter, believing his powers give him an unfair advantage. Due to his powers, by the time he graduates from high school, Charles loses all of his hair. He enters Bard College at age 16 and graduates with his bachelor's degree in biology in only two years. In graduate studies, he receives Ph.D.s in Genetics, Biophysics, Psychology, and Anthropology with a two-year residence at Pembroke College, University of Oxford. He also receives an M.D. in Psychiatry while spending several years in London. He is later appointed adjunct professor at Columbia University. Origins of Marvel Comics: X-Men #1 (2010) presents a different version of events, suggesting a scholarship to the University of Oxford rescued him from his abusive home, after which he "never looked back", suggesting he began his academic career as a very young man at Oxford. His stepbrother is resentful of him.
At graduate school, he meets a Scottish girl named Moira Kinross, a fellow genetics student with whom he falls in love. The two agree to get married, but soon, Xavier is drafted into the Korean War. He carves himself a niche as a soldier in search and rescue missions alongside Shadowcat's father, Carmen Pryde, and witnesses Cain's transformation into Juggernaut when he touches a ruby with an inscription on it in an underground temple. During the war, he receives a letter from Moira telling him that she is breaking up with him. He later discovers that Moira married her old boyfriend Joseph MacTaggert, who abuses her.
Deeply depressed when Moira broke off their engagement without explanation, Xavier began traveling around the world as an adventurer after leaving the army. In Cairo, he meets a young girl named Ororo Munroe (later known as Storm), who is a pickpocket, and the Shadow King, a powerful mutant who is posing as Egyptian crime lord Amahl Farouk. Xavier defeats the Shadow King, barely escaping with his life. This encounter leads to Xavier's decision to devote his life to protecting humanity from evil mutants and safeguarding innocent mutants from human oppression.
In a strange town near the Himalayas, Xavier encounters an alien calling himself Lucifer, the advance scout for an invasion by his race, and foils his plans. In retaliation, Lucifer drops a huge stone block on Xavier, crippling his legs. After Lucifer leaves, a young woman named Sage hears Xavier's telepathic cries for help and rescues him, bringing him to safety, beginning a long alliance between the two.
In a hospital in India, he is brought to an American nurse, Amelia Voght, who looks after him and, as she sees to his recovery, they fall in love. When he is released from the hospital, the two moved into an apartment in Bombay together. Amelia is troubled to find Charles studying mutation, as she is a mutant and unsettled by it, though she calms when he reveals himself to be a mutant as well. They eventually move to the United States, living on Xavier's family estate. But the night Scott Summers moves into Xavier's mansion, Amelia leaves him, believing Charles would have changed his view and that mutants should lie low. Yet he is recruiting them to what she believes is a lost cause. Charles tries to force her to stay with his mental powers, but immediately ashamed by this, lets her go. She later becomes a disciple of Magneto.
Over the years, Charles makes a name for himself as geneticist and psychologist, apparently renowned enough that the Greys were referred to him when no other expert could help their catatonic daughter, Jean. Xavier trains her in the use of her telekinesis, while inhibiting her telepathic abilities until she matures. Around this time, he also starts working with fellow mutation expert, Karl Lykos, as well as Moira MacTaggert again, who built a mutant research station on Muir Island. Apparently, Charles had gotten over Moira in his travels to the Greek island of Kirinos.
Xavier founded Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters, which provides a safe haven for mutants and teaches them to master their abilities. In addition, he seeks to foster mutant-human relations by providing his superhero team, the X-Men, as an example of mutants acting in good faith, as he told FBI agent Fred Duncan. With his inherited fortune, he uses his ancestral mansion at 1407 Graymalkin Lane in Salem Center, Westchester County, New York as a base of operations with technologically advanced facilities, including the Danger Room – later, Fantomex mentions that Xavier is a billionaire with a net worth of $3.5 billion. Presenting the image of a stern teacher, Xavier makes his students endure a rigorous training regime.
Xavier's first five students are Cyclops, Iceman, Angel, Beast, and Marvel Girl who become the original X-Men. After he completes recruiting the original team of X-Men, he sends them into battle with Magneto.
Throughout most of his time with the team, Xavier uses his telepathic powers to keep in constant contact with his students and provides instructions and advice when needed. In addition, he uses a special machine called Cerebro, which enhances his ability to detect mutants and to allow the team to find new students in need of the school.
Among the obstacles Xavier faces is his old friend, Magneto, who has grown into an advocate of mutant superiority since their last encounter and who believes the only solution to mutant persecution is domination over humanity.
When anthropologist Bolivar Trask resurfaces the "mutant problem", Xavier counters him in a televised debate, however, he appears arrogant and Trask sends his mutant-hunting robot Sentinels to terrorize mutants. The X-Men dispatch them, but Trask sees the error in his ways too late as he is killed by his creations.
At one point, Xavier seemingly dies during the X-Men's battle with the sub-human Grotesk, but it is later revealed that Xavier arranged for a reformed former villain named Changeling to impersonate him while he went into hiding to plan a defense against an invasion by the extraterrestrial Z'Nox, imparting a portion of his telepathic abilities to the Changeling to complete the disguise.
When the X-Men are captured by the sentient island Krakoa, Xavier assembles a new team to rescue them, including Cyclops' and Havok's long-lost brother, Vulcan, along with Darwin, Petra, and Sway. This new team, composed of students of Dr. Moira MacTaggert, was sent to rescue the original X-Men from Krakoa. However, after rescuing Cyclops, McTaggert's former students were seemingly killed. Upon Cyclops' return, Xavier removed Cyclops' memories of the death of Vulcan and his teammates; and began assembling yet another team of X-Men.
Xavier's subsequent rescue team consists of Banshee, Colossus, Sunfire, Nightcrawler, Storm, Wolverine, and Thunderbird. After the mission, the older team of X-Men, except for Cyclops, leave the school, believing they no longer belong there, and Xavier mentors the new X-Men.
Xavier forms a psychic bond across galaxies with Princess Lilandra from the Shi'ar Empire. When they finally meet, it is love at first sight. She implores the professor to stop her mad brother, Shi'ar Emperor D'Ken, and he instantly aids her by deploying his X-Men. When Jean Grey returns from the Savage Land to tell him that all the X-Men are dead, he shuts down the school and travels with Lilandra to her kingdom, where she is crowned Empress and he is treated like a child or a trophy husband.
Xavier senses the changes taking place in Jean Grey, and returns to Earth to help and resume leadership of the X-Men. Shortly thereafter he battles his pupil after she becomes Dark Phoenix and destroys a populated planet in the Shi'ar Empire. It hurts Xavier to be on the opposite side of Lilandra, but he has no other choice but to challenge the Shi'ar Imperial Guard to a duel over the fate of the Phoenix. Xavier would have lost against the greater power of the Dark Phoenix, but thanks to the help Jean Grey gives him (fighting her Phoenix persona), Xavier emerges victorious; she later commits suicide to prevent herself from endangering more innocent lives.
When the X-Men fight members of the extraterrestrial race known as the Brood, Xavier is captured by them, and implanted with a Brood egg, which places Xavier under the Brood's control. During this time, Xavier assembles a team of younger mutants called the New Mutants, secretly intended to be prime hosts for reproduction of the aliens. The X-Men discover this and return to free Xavier, but they are too late to prevent his body from being destroyed with a Brood Queen in its place; however, his soul remains intact. The X-Men and Starjammers subdue this monstrous creature containing Xavier's essence, but the only way to restore him is to clone a new body using tissue samples he donated to the Starjammers and transfer his consciousness into the clone body. This new body possesses functional legs, though the psychosomatic pain Xavier experienced after living so long as a paraplegic takes some time to subside. Subsequently, he even joins the X-Men in the field, but later decides not to continue this practice after realizing that his place is at the school, as the teacher of the New Mutants.
After taking a teaching position at Columbia University in Uncanny X-Men #192, Xavier is severely injured and left for dead as the victim of a hate crime. Callisto and her Morlocks, a group of underground-dwelling mutants, get him to safety. One of the Morlocks partially restores Xavier's health, but Callisto warns Xavier that he is not fully healed and that he must spend more time recuperating and restrain himself from exerting his full strength or powers, or his health might fail again. Xavier hides his injuries from the others and resumes his life.
A reformed Magneto is arrested and put on trial. Xavier attends the trial to defend his friend. Andrea and Andreas Strucker, the children of presumed dead Baron von Strucker, crash the courtroom to attack Magneto and Xavier. Xavier is seriously injured. Dying, he asks a shocked Magneto to look after the X-Men for him. Lilandra, who has a psychic bond with Xavier, feels that he is in great danger and heads to Earth. There, she and Corsair take Xavier with them so Shi'ar advanced technology can heal him.
Xavier leaves Magneto in charge of the school, but some of the X-Men are unwilling to forgive their former enemy. Cyclops loses a duel for the leadership of the X-Men against Storm, then leaves them and joins the other four original X-Men to form a new team called X-Factor.
In the meantime, Charles becomes stranded in space with the Starjammers, but he is reunited with his lover Lilandra and relishes his carefree lifestyle. He serves as a member of the Starjammers aboard the starship Starjammer, mobile in the Shi'ar Galaxy. He becomes consort to the Princess-Majestrix Lilandra while in exile, and when she later resumes her throne he takes up residence with her in the Imperial palace on the Shi'ar homeworld. Xavier joins Lilandra in her cause to overthrow her sister Deathbird, taking on the powers of Phoenix temporarily wherein he is named Bald Phoenix by Corsair, but sees that he must return to help the X-Men.
Xavier eventually becomes imprisoned by the Skrulls during their attempted invasion of the Shi'ar Empire. Xavier breaks free from imprisonment by Warskrull Prime, and is reunited with the X-Men. A healthy Xavier returns from the Shi'ar Empire and is reunited with both the current and original X-Men teams, and resumes his leadership responsibilities of the united teams. In a battle with his old foe, the Shadow King, in the "Muir Island Saga", Xavier's spine is shattered, returning him to his former paraplegic state, while his son David is seemingly killed. In the following months, Xavier rebuilds the mansion, which previously was rebuilt with Shi'ar technology, and restructures the X-Men into two teams.
While holding a mutant rights speech, Xavier is nearly assassinated by Stryfe in the guise of Cable, being infected with a fatal techno-organic virus. For reasons of his own, the villain Apocalypse saves him. As a temporary side-effect, he gains full use of his legs and devotes his precious time to the youngest recruit on his team, Jubilee.
With all his students now highly trained adults, Professor Xavier renames his school the Xavier Institute For Higher Learning. Also, he assumes control of a private institution, the Massachusetts Academy, making it a new School for Gifted Youngsters. Another group of young mutants is trained here, Generation X, with Banshee and Emma Frost as headmaster and headmistress, respectively.
Professor X is for a time the unknowing host of the evil psionic entity Onslaught, the result of a previous battle with Magneto. In that battle, Magneto uses his powers to rip out the adamantium bonded to Wolverine's skeleton, and a furious Xavier wipes Magneto's mind, leaving him in a coma. From the psychic trauma of Xavier using his powers so violently and the mixing of Magneto's and Xavier's repressed anger, Onslaught is born. Onslaught wreaks havoc, destroying much of Manhattan, until many of Marvel's superheroes—including the Avengers, the Fantastic Four and the Hulk—destroy him. Xavier is left without his telepathy and, overcome with guilt, leaves the X-Men and is incarcerated for his actions. He later returns to the X-Men after Operation: Zero Tolerance, in which he is shocked by the cruel act of being turned over to the mutant-hating Bastion, following a clash with the sentient Cerebro and a team of impostor X-Men.
Xavier questions his dream again and Magneto shortly thereafter is confronted by the X-Men. After the battle, the UN concedes Genosha to Magnus, and Wolverine is angered by Xavier stopping him from getting his revenge on Magneto. Charles and Logan are later trapped in a dimension with different laws of physics, wherein they have to coordinate their moves together and, in the process, gain a better understanding of the other's views.
Apocalypse kidnaps the fabled "Twelve" special mutants (Xavier included) whose combined energies would grant him omnipotence. After Apocalypse's defeat with the help of Skrull mutants, Xavier goes with the young Skrulls known as Cadre K to train them and free them from their oppressors, and eventually returns to aid in Legacy Virus research.
Mystique and her Brotherhood start a deadly assault on Muir Isle by releasing an altered form of the Legacy Virus, all in retaliation against the election campaign of Robert Kelly, a seeming mutant-hater. Mystique blows up Moira MacTaggert's laboratory complex, fatally wounding her. Charles goes to the astral plane to meet with her and retrieve information on the cure to the Legacy Virus, but after gathering the information does not want to leave her alone. If not for Jean and Cable talking him down and pulling him back, the professor would have died with his first love, who states she has no regrets.
Xavier's evil twin Cassandra Nova, whom Xavier attempted to kill while they were both in their mother's womb, orders a group of rogue Sentinels to destroy the independent mutant nation of Genosha. Magneto, who is Genosha's leader, appears to die along with the vast majority of the nation's inhabitants. Nova then takes over Xavier's body. Posing as Xavier, she reveals his mutation to the world, something he needed to do but did not want to sully his reputation over, before going into space and crippling the Shi'ar Empire. The X-Men restore Xavier, but Lilandra, believing that too much disaster has come from the Shi'ar's involvement with the X-Men, annuls her marriage to Xavier. Lilandra previously had gone insane and tried to assassinate Charles on a trip to Mumbai. During this period, a mutant named Xorn joins the X-Men. Xorn uses his healing power to restore Xavier's use of his legs.
When the X-Men receive a distress call from a Scottish island, they are surprised to find Juggernaut with nowhere to go, as the island was destroyed by his further-mutated partner in crime, Black Tom Cassidy, who died. Xavier reaches out to his stepbrother and offers him a place in his mansion, with Cain reluctantly accepting. The Juggernaut redeems himself over the next few weeks and joins the X-Men. Xavier finds out that Cain's father preferred him to his own flesh and blood and that they both thought they deserved the abuse they incurred by Kurt; Cain believed this because his father loved someone else's child more than him, and Charles felt guilty about getting in the way. That it is why neither of them stopped Kurt Marko with their powers.
Now outed as a mutant, Xavier makes speeches to the public about mutant tolerance. He also founds the X-Corporation, or X-Corp (not to be confused with the X-Corps), with offices all over the world. The purpose of the X-Corp is to watch over mutant rights and help mutants in need. As a result of being out, the school no longer hides the fact that it is a school for mutants and it opens its doors for more mutant (and even human) students to come in. A student named Quentin Quire and members of his gang start a riot at the Xavier Institute during an open house at the school. As a result, Quire and two other students are killed. Uncertain about his dream's validity, Xavier announces that he will step down as headmaster and be succeeded by Jean Grey. Afterwards, Xorn reveals himself to be Magneto, having apparently not died in the Sentinel raid on Genosha. Magneto undoes the restoration of Xavier's ability to walk, kidnaps him, and destroys the X-Mansion (killing several of the students). Then Xorn/Magneto assaults New York, where Cyclops, Fantomex and a few students confront him. After the rest of the X-Men arrive, Xorn/Magneto kills Jean Grey with an electromagnetically induced stroke, and Wolverine decapitates him. With Jean dead, Xavier leaves the school to Cyclops and Emma Frost, to bury Xorn/Magneto in Genosha. In a retcon of Grant Morrison's storyline, there Xavier meets the "real" Magneto, who mysteriously survived Cassandra Nova's assault. The two resolve their differences and attempt to restore their friendship, leading a team of mutants, the Genoshan Excalibur, to rebuild and restore order to the destroyed island nation.
At the mansion, the Danger Room (the X-Men's simulated reality training chamber) gains sentience, christens itself "Danger", assumes a humanoid form, and attacks the X-Men before leaving to kill Xavier. With Magneto's help, Xavier holds off Danger until the X-Men arrive. Danger flees, but not before revealing to Colossus that Xavier has known it to be sentient ever since he upgraded it. Colossus is especially offended by this because he had been held captive and experimented upon by Danger's ally, Ord of the Breakworld. Ashamed, Xavier tries to explain to them that by the time he realized what was happening, he could see no other course. The disgusted X-Men leave.
===House of M===
In a prelude to House of M, Magneto's daughter Scarlet Witch has a mental breakdown and causes the death of several Avengers. Magneto brings her to Xavier and asks him to use his mental powers to help her. Although aided by Doctor Strange and the appearance of Cassandra Nova, Xavier is unsuccessful. Xavier orders a meeting of the X-Men and Avengers to decide Wanda's fate. Her brother Quicksilver, believing the heroes plan to kill her, speeds off to Genosha and convinces Wanda that she could right the wrongs she inflicted by using her powers to alter reality.
Quicksilver somehow forces a tearful Wanda to reveal to him her heart's desires of Magneto, the assembled New Avengers, and the X-Men, and then uses her powers to make them all real. Thanks to Magneto, though, this re-imagined world is a place where a much more numerous mutant-kind are the dominant species, humans a disenfranchised and oppressed 'silent majority', and Magneto himself rules supreme. In this reality, the only proof that Charles Xavier ever existed is a secret monument in Magneto's palace garden, with the engraved message "He died so Genosha could live".
After mutant Layla Miller restores the memories of some of the X-Men and Avengers, they head to Genosha where they discover that Magneto has erected a memorial garden for Xavier commemorating his death. Emma is horrified until Cloak fades into the grave and discovers there is no body inside. After a battle, Scarlet Witch again uses her powers to restore reality and, as a slight against her father, causes a large majority mutants to lose their powers, leaving the mutant race on the brink of extinction and causing the lost powers to become an energy mass, the Collective. With reality restored, Xavier is still missing and the X-Men are unable to detect him with Cerebro.
===Deadly Genesis===
Xavier returns when Cyclops' and Havok's long-lost brother, Vulcan, Xavier seeks to confront Vulcan before he can enact his vengeance against the Shi'ar empire, which killed Vulcan's mother. While en route to the Shi'ar homeworld, Xavier is abducted and is later thrown into the M'Kraan Crystal by Vulcan. Darwin follows Xavier into the crystal and pulls Xavier out. This somehow restores Xavier's lost telepathy. With help from his longtime lover, Lilandra, Xavier escapes back to Earth with several of his X-Men.
Upon Xavier's return to Earth, as seen in the World War Hulk storyline, he begins to search for lost mutants such as Magneto. Charles' search for more mutants is interrupted by the Hulk, who was sent into extraterrestrial exile by the Illuminati, a group of powerful superbeings to which Xavier belongs. Xavier had no part in (and did not know of) the Hulk exile decision, but Xavier admits to Hulk that he would have concurred to a temporary exile so Bruce Banner could be cured of transforming into the Hulk. However, he also tells the Hulk he would not have agreed to permanent exile. Xavier attempts to surrender to the Hulk, but after viewing the X-Mansion's large graveyard dedicated to post-M-Day mutant deaths, The Hulk concludes the mutants have suffered enough and leaves the Mansion grounds on his own accord. While the X-Men tend to the wounded, Cyclops finally forgives Professor X.
===Messiah Complex===
While using Cerebra and talking to Beast during the Messiah Complex storyline, Charles detects a new mutant so powerful it fries Cerebra's system. He asks Cyclops to send out a team to find out about the mutant. Once the team has come back empty handed, he argues with Scott for not telling him about the team he deployed to find former Acolytes. Scott tells him outright that he does not need him to run the X-Men anymore. This upsets Charles and annoys him later on when he overhears Cyclops briefing X-Factor on the situation. He also approaches the New X-Men in an attempt to help them figure out a non-violent way to help against the Purifiers, but is quickly rebuked by Surge, who questions where he was when they were getting attacked the first time, and that they did not need to learn from him. Charles questions Cyclops' decision to send X-Force to hunt down his own son, Cable, in front of the students. Cyclops then tells Xavier that he is a distraction that will keep getting in the way and that he must leave the mansion. Xavier is contacted by Cable, who lost the mutant newborn to the traitorous actions of Bishop, who in turn lost the child to the Marauders, and tells him that he is the only one who can help Cable save the future. In the final fight, Xavier is accidentally shot in the head by Bishop. Immediately afterward Xavier's body disappears and Cyclops declares that there are no more X-Men.
Professor Xavier survives Bishop's gunshot but falls into a coma. Xavier is kidnapped by Exodus, Tempo, and Karima Shapandar. Exodus tries to heal Xavier, Xavier mentally fights Exodus. Exodus finally approaches Magneto, who is apparently still depowered, for help. Magneto and Karima Shapandar are able to stir Xavier's memories and coax him out of his coma, though Xavier remains slightly confused and partly amnesiac. Later, Exodus confronts Magneto about Joanna Cargill's injury (Magneto was forced to shoot a laser through her eyeball to prevent her attempted an assassination of Xavier). Exodus nearly kills Magneto, and Xavier drags Exodus onto the Astral Plane, putting Xavier's own newly restored mind at stake. Xavier defeats Exodus after a harrowing psionic battle, and Exodus reveals the reason he abducted Xavier and to restore his mind: Exodus wants Xavier to lead the Acolytes and find the mutant messiah child (now under the guardianship of Cable) to indoctrinate the child into their cause. Xavier refuses. Emma Frost's telepathy picks up on the psychic fight, and Emma informs Cyclops that Xavier is alive. Xavier parts company with Magneto and Karima to try to regain his lost memories by visiting people from his past.
The first person Charles visits is Carter Ryking, who had gone insane after losing his powers. Charles reads Carter's memories and discovers that when the two were children they were used as test subjects by Nathan Milbury of the Black Womb Project, with the approval of Charles' father, Doctor Brian Xavier. Xavier makes the connection Milbury and X-Men villain, Mister Sinister, who has apparently long been manipulating Charles' life in addition to other X-Men. Afterwards, he discovers he has been targeted by assassins.
Charles eventually discovers Mister Sinister had set up Charles, Sebastian Shaw, Juggernaut, and Ryking (Hazard) as potential new hosts for Sinister's mind. Professor X returns to the X-Mansion to find it destroyed after recent events.
While in his mind, Emma forces Xavier to relive each of his morally ambiguous decisions under altruistic pretenses. As the issue continues, Charles realizes his human arrogance and that while some of his decisions were morally wrong, he must move forward with his life and deal with the consequences. Emma ends her incursion into Xavier's mind by reminding him of Moira MacTaggert's last words. As he reflects on Moira's words, Xavier gives Cyclops his blessing to lead the X-Men and leaves to find his own path. Following his encounter with Wolverine (in the "Original Sin" Arc) Professor Xavier seeks out his step-brother, the unstoppable Juggernaut in an attempt to reform him. After a conversation about the meaning of the word "Juggernaut" and a review of Juggernaut and Xavier's shared history Xavier offers Cain an empty box as a gift. Confused by Xavier's gift Cain attempts to kill the Professor bringing an entire sports bar down over their heads in the process. Later Cain battles the X-Men in his full Juggernaut armor and conquers the planet. Just as everything appears to be under the Juggernaut's control Xavier reappears and informs him that everything that has just taken place except for Juggernaut destroying the bar took place in Cain's mind. A baffled Cain demands to know how Xavier managed to overcome his psychically shielded helmet to which the Professor replies that he decided to visit Cain in his sleep. Professor Xavier then informs him that he now understands Cain as a person and that he will not attempt to get in his way or reform him again. But Xavier also warns Cain that if he gets in the way of the Professor's path to redemption Xavier will stop him permanently. Following his encounter with Cain it has been revealed that Xavier is now searching for Rogue.
After his bruising encounter with Cyclops and Emma Frost, Professor X is forced to revisit the biggest challenge and the biggest failure of his career, Wolverine, when the feral mutant asks for Charles' help in freeing his son from the clutches of the Hellfire Club. As the two search for Daken, Wolverine reveals that when he first joined the X-Men he attempted to assassinate Xavier due to some unknown programming. In response, the Professor broke Logan's mind and rebuilt it so that any and all programming he received was forgotten. Logan also revealed that the real reason Xavier asked him to join the X-Men was that Charles "needed a weapon". Eventually Professor Xavier and Wolverine locate Sebastian Shaw's mansion and attack his minions, just as they are about to enter a bomb explodes from within catching them both off guard. From the wreckage emerges an angry Sebastian who immobilizes Wolverine. Meanwhile, Miss Sinister knocks Daken unconscious and has him taken to the med lab in the mansion's basement. As Shaw prepares to deliver a killing blow to Xavier, Wolverine recovers and stops him telling Xavier to rescue his son. Professor Xavier locates the med lab and after a quick psychic battle with Miss Sinister enters Daken's fractured mind. While in Daken's mind Xavier discovers Romulus's psychic tampering and comments that Daken's mind is even more broken than Wolverine's was. Before Xavier can heal Daken a psychic bomb explodes causing Xavier to become comatose and Daken to wake up. Miss Sinister arrives and attempts to manipulate Daken who reveals that the psychic bomb in his head restored his memories and stabs Miss Sinister in the chest. Meanwhile, Wolverine defeats Shaw and enters the mansion to find Daken standing over an unconscious Xavier preparing to kill him. Wolverine tells Daken that he will not let him hurt Xavier and the two fight. Overcome with guilt over what happened to Daken and Itsu, Wolverine allows himself to be beaten. Just as Daken appears to have won Xavier pulls both of them onto the astral plane revealing that the psychic bomb had little effect on him because his psyche was already shattered. Xavier then explains to Wolverine and Daken that Romulus is solely responsible for Itsu's death and that he lied to Daken about everything because he wanted Wolverine to become his weapon. As the three converse, Daken returns to the physical plane and prevents Shaw from killing Xavier. With the truth revealed Wolverine and Daken decide to kill Romulus. As the two depart Wolverine tells Xavier that he forgives him for all of the dark moments in their history. Wolverine acknowledges that Professor Xavier allowed him to become a hero. Wolverine then tells the Professor that he hopes he will one day be able to forgive him for choosing to kill Romulus.
Professor Xavier recruits Gambit to go with him to Australia to find and help Rogue who is currently staying at the X-Men's old base in the Outback; unaware Danger is using Rogue as a conduit for her revenge against him. Xavier has not seen again during the events of Secret Invasion, though his X-Men in San Francisco are successful at repelling the invaders there through the use of the modified Legacy Virus.
===Dark Reign===
During the Dark Reign storyline, Professor X convinces Exodus to disband the Acolytes. A H.A.M.M.E.R. helicopter arrives and from inside appears Norman Osborn, who wants to talk to him. During the Dark Avengers' arrival in San Francisco to enforce martial law and squelch the anti-mutant riots occurring in the city, Xavier appears (back in his wheelchair) in the company of Norman Osborn and publicly denounces Cyclops' actions and urges him to turn himself in. However, this Xavier was revealed to be Mystique who Osborn found to impersonate Xavier in public. The real Xavier is shown in prison on Alcatraz and slowly being stripped of his telepathic powers while in psionic contact with Beast, who was arrested earlier for his part in the anti-mutant riots. It was also revealed by Emma Frost that she and Professor X are both Omega Class Telepaths when she manages to detect the real Professor X.
After what happened at Utopia, Xavier has come to live on the risen Asteroid M, rechristened Utopia, along with the rest of the X-Men, X-Club, and mutant refugees and is also allowed to join the Utopia lead council (Cyclops, Storm, Namor, Iceman, Beast, Wolverine and Emma Frost). While he no longer continues to openly question every move that Cyclops makes, he is still concerned about some of his leadership decisions. Xavier had wanted to return to the mainland to clear his name, but in the aftermath of Osborn declaring Utopia as a mutant detention area, Cyclops refused to let him leave, stating that it would be a tactical advantage to have him as an ace in the hole in case the need arose. To that end, he has kept Xavier out of the field and instead relied on Emma Frost, Psylocke and the Stepford Cuckoos respectively for their own psionic talents. While attending the funeral of Yuriko Takiguchi, Magneto arrives at Utopia, apparently under peaceful motives. Xavier does not believe it, and attacks Magneto telepathically, causing Cyclops to force him to stand down. He later apologizes to Magneto for acting out of his old passions from their complicated relationship, which Magneto accepts.
===Second Coming===
During the Second Coming storyline, Professor Xavier is seen on Utopia delivering a eulogy at Nightcrawler's funeral. Like the other X-Men, he is deeply saddened by Kurt's death and anxious about the arrival of Cable and Hope. Xavier is seen using his powers to help his son Legion control his many personalities and battle the Nimrods. At the conclusion of Second Coming Professor X is seen surveying the aftermath of the battle from a helicopter. As Hope descends to the ground and cradles Cable's lifeless arm, Xavier reflects on everything that has transpired and states that, while he feels that Hope has indeed come to save mutant kind and revive his dream, she is still only a young woman and will have a long and difficult journey before she can truly achieve her potential.
===Avengers vs. X-Men===
During the "Avengers vs. X-Men" storyline, the Phoenix Force is split into five pieces and bonded with Cyclops, Emma Frost, Namor, Colossus and Magik (who become known as the Phoenix Five). Eventually, Cyclops and Frost come to possess the full Phoenix Force, and Professor X is instrumental in confronting them both, and dies in the ensuing battle with Cyclops. The Phoenix Force is subsequently forced to abandon Cyclops as a host by the efforts of both Hope Summers and the Scarlet Witch.
Xavier's body is later stolen by the Red Skull's S-Men while the group also captures Rogue and Scarlet Witch. Xavier's brain is removed and fused to the brain of the Red Skull. After Rogue and Scarlet Witch snapped out of the fight they were in, they find the lobotomized body of Professor X. Red Skull uses the new powers conferred upon him by Professor X's brain to provoke anti-mutant riots. His plans are foiled by the Avengers and the X-Men, and the Skull escapes.
Professor X's spirit is later seen in the Heaven dimension along with Nightcrawler's spirit at the time when Azazel invades Heaven.
During the AXIS storyline, a fragment of Professor X's psyche (which had escaped the scrubbing of his memories) still existed in Red Skull's mind preventing him from unleashing the full potential of Professor X's powers. During a fight with the Stark Sentinels, Doctor Strange and Scarlet Witch attempt to cast a spell to invert the axis of Red Skull's brain and bring out the fragment of Professor X to defeat Onslaught. Doctor Strange was targeted and captured by the Sentinels before they could cast the spell. When Magneto arrived with his supervillain allies, Doctor Doom and Scarlet Witch attempted to cast the inversion spell again and Red Onslaught was knocked unconscious and reverted to his Red Skull form. Although they did not know whether Professor X was now in control, the Avengers decided to be cautious and take Red Skull to Stark Tower. Eventually, the inversion was undone.
After the Skull mounts a telepathic assault that nearly allows him to take control of the Avengers, he is defeated when Deadpool places Magneto's old helmet on Rogue, allowing her to knock out the Skull and take him to Beast. Beast is subsequently able to perform brain surgery on the Skull, extracting the part of Xavier's brain that was grafted onto the villain's own brain without causing any apparent damage to the Skull. Rogers attempts to claim the fragment for himself, but Rogue flies up and incinerates the fragment with the aid of the Human Torch, the two expressing hope that Xavier will rest in peace.
===Resurrection===
The astral form of Professor Xavier has since been revealed to be imprisoned in the Astral Plane after Shadow King somehow acquired it upon Professor X's death. After what appeared to be years in the Astral Plane, Professor X is able to trick Shadow King into playing him in a 'game' that lures Rogue, Mystique and Fantomex onto the Astral Plane, while turning others into carriers for the Shadow King's 'contagious' psychic essence. With the Shadow King certain of his victory, he fails to realize that Xavier's apparent 'surrender' to his game was really just him biding his time until the Shadow King's influence was distracted long enough for him to drop his already-subtly-weakened guard long enough for Xavier to break his bonds, luring in the three aforementioned X-Men as their identities were already fundamentally malleable. With the Shadow King defeated, Xavier is apparently returned to the real world in the body of Fantomex, Fantomex reasoning that nobody really knows who he is as an individual beyond his status as one of the X-Men whereas this act of sacrifice will ensure that he is remembered for a great deed.
Proteus has spent years trapped in a psionic hellscape of the Astral Plane, where The Shadow King reigned supreme, only to escape last issue. Part of the reason that he could was the escape of Charles Xavier (who now chooses to go by X, since he is now in a younger body after escaping), and now X leads the X-Men directly into an ambush, as Proteus has warped an entire village with his powers, leading to a mind-to-mind battle that leaves X on the receiving end of a psychic beatdown.
Proteus has started his garden and his seeds are planted all over the world. Psylocke is in command and has a plan which mainly consists of Archangel using metal and Mystique morphing into his mother. Once they drain him, Rogue and Bishop convert his energy and release him back to the universe. Whilst this all went down Psylocke and X combined forces to burn out the seeds across the planet. As they are working on it they discover they are not enough to accomplish the task. X mentions the network of psychics the Shadow King was using and that Betsy who is in control should tap into it. She agrees and does so yet unbeknownst to her X was possessed by the Shadow King who violently erupts from X's head.
Following X's apparent death after the Shadow King exploded from his skull, the psychic villain tears the X-Men apart until X literally pulls himself back together (a feat he later refuses to explain), and he and Psylocke team up to harness the power of all of Earth's psychics to destroy the Shadow King. As Psylocke says she feels no psychic trace of him anywhere, X implants comforting post-hypnotic psychic suggestions in his allies and then erases their memories (including allowing Warren Worthington to switch between his identities at will). Only Psylocke's memory is left intact, with X telling her she will be the one to "keep him honest" while he embarks on a new mission.
===Dawn of X===
X has since made his presence known to his former students and reveals his new plan for all mutantkind. Now clad in a Cerebro-like helmet, Xavier has apparently abandoned his dream for peaceful coexistence, and had turned Krakoa into a sovereign nation state for mutants as well as use it to apparently heal the X-Men from their ordeals during the showdown against the forces of O.N.E. He then leads the X-Men into planting in seeds in strategic locations around the world and Mars, which, overnight, grow into massive plantlike "Habitats". As it turns out, these "Habitats" – and the plants that grew them – are extensions of Krakoa. Through the advancement of mutant technology combined with Krakoa's unique abilities as a living mutant island, Professor X and the X-Men have embassies around the world. Also through this combination of technology and mutant power, Xavier have developed three drugs that could change human life – a pill that extends human life by five years, an adaptable universal antibiotic, and a pill that cures "diseases of the mind, in humans".” In exchange for recognizing the sovereignty of Krakoa, Professor X will give these drugs to mankind, with mutants living in peace on the island.
While peace reigns on Krakoa, a mysterious team of assassins HALO drops into the island and assassinates Xavier, destroying his Cerebro helmet in the process. The Quiet Council hides Xavier's death from the rest of the world, and through the activation of a Cerebro backup, and the efforts of The Five, Xavier is reborn once more. Soon after, he partakes in a global conference alongside Magneto and Apocalypse, professing that he still loves humanity, whilst subtly warning them in regards to his previous assassination - and his knowledge of an ongoing assassination attempt at the forum itself, foiled by Cyclops and Gorgon.
==Powers and abilities==
Professor X is a mutant who possesses vast telepathic powers, and is among the strongest and most powerful telepaths in the Marvel Universe. He is able to perceive the thoughts of others or project his own thoughts within a radius of approximately . Xavier's telepathy once covered the entire world; although following this, Magneto altered the Earth's electromagnetic field to restrict Xavier's telepathic range. While not on Earth, Xavier's natural telepathic abilities have reached across space to make universal mental contact with multiple alien races. With extreme effort, he can also greatly extend the range of his telepathy. He can learn foreign languages by reading the language centers of the brain of someone adept, and alternately "teach" languages to others in the same manner. As side effect of his telepathy, Xavier possesses an eidetic memory and his brain can assimilate and process impossibly huge amounts of raw data in an astonishingly short amount of time.
Xavier's vast psionic powers enable him to manipulate the minds of others, warp perceptions to make himself seem invisible, project mental illusions, cause loss of particular memories or total amnesia, and induce pain or temporary mental and/or physical paralysis in others. Xavier once trained a new group of mutants mentally, subjectively making them experience months of training together, while only hours passed in the real world. Within close range, he can manipulate almost any number of minds for such simple feats. However, he can only take full possession of one other mind at a time, and must strictly be within that person's physical presence. He is one of the few telepaths skilled enough to communicate with animals and even share their perceptions. as well as narrowly defeat Exodus. However, he cannot permanently "reprogram" human minds to believe what he might want them to believe even if he wanted to do so, explaining that the mind is an organism that would always recall the steps necessary for it to reach the present and thus 'rewrite' itself to its original setting if he tried to change it. However, his initial reprogramming of Wolverine lasted several years, despite Wolverine overcoming the reprogramming much faster than an ordinary human because of his healing factor.
He is able to project from his mind 'bolts' composed of psychic energy, enabling him to stun the mind of another person into unconsciousness, inflict mental trauma, or even cause death. These 'bolts' inflict damage only upon other minds, having a negligible effect on non-mental beings, if any. The manner in which Xavier's powers function indicates that his telepathy is physical in some way, as it can be enhanced by physical means (for example, Cerebro), but can also be disrupted by physical means (for example, Magneto's alteration of the Earth's magnetic field).
Xavier can perceive the distinct mental presence/brain waves of other superhuman mutants within a small radius of himself. To detect mutants to a wider area beyond this radius, he must amplify his powers through Cerebro and subsequently Cerebra, computer devices of his own design which are sensitive to the psychic/physical energies produced by the mind.
Professor X can project his astral form into a psychic dimension known as the astral plane. There, he can use his powers to create objects, control his surroundings, and even control and destroy the astral forms of others. He cannot project this form over long distances.
Uncanny X-Men writer Ed Brubaker has claimed that, after being de-powered by the Scarlet Witch, and then re-powered by the M'Kraan Crystal, Charles' telepathy is more powerful than was previously known. However, the extent of this enhancement is unknown. Years prior to initial publishing, Charles Xavier had an undefined level of telekinesis. This aspect of his powers were potent enough to cause catastrophic system disruption in computerized appliances. Such an attribute has faded, however. His evil counterpart Cassandra Nova Xavier would possess this ability, indicating he still possessed the potential for them. This potential was proven true after his death and resurgence within the younger, stronger body of Charlie Cluster 7. The Professor, using the moniker X, fashioned a Cerebro like a helmet which acts as a focusing device for his psionic powers and used it to galvanize latent aspects of his X-Gene to stimulate some dormant properties, seemingly using telekinesis to will a flash drive on Mystique's person into his hand.
Charles Xavier is a genius with multiple doctorates. He is a world-renowned geneticist, a leading expert in mutation, possesses considerable knowledge of various life sciences, and is the inventor of Cerebro.
Charles Xavier was also given possession of the Mind Gem. It allows the user to boost mental power and access the thoughts and dreams of other beings. Backed by the Power Gem, it is possible to access all minds in existence simultaneously. Like all other former Illuminati members, Xavier has sworn to never use the gem and to keep its location hidden.
==Xavier Protocols==
The Xavier Protocols are a set of doomsday plans created by Professor X. The protocols detail the best way to kill many powerful mutant characters, including the X-Men and Xavier himself, should they become too large of a danger. The Xavier Protocols are first mentioned during the Onslaught crossover and first seen in Excalibur #100 in Moira MacTaggert's lab. Charles Xavier compiled a list of the Earth's most powerful mutants and plans on how to defeat them if they become a threat to the world. They are first used after Onslaught grows too powerful. Only parts of the actual protocols are ever shown. In the Operation: Zero Tolerance crossover Bastion obtains an encrypted copy of the protocols, intending to use them against the X-Men. However, Cable infiltrates the X-Mansion and secures all encrypted files before Bastion has a chance to decrypt them. Due to the tampering of Bastion and his Sentinels, the X-Mansion computer system Cerebro gains autonomy and seeks to destroy the X-Men by employing its knowledge of the Xavier Protocols. In a virtual environment created by Professor X, Cerebro executes the Xavier Protocols against the X-Men.
Each protocol is activated by the presence of a different combination of X-Men and were written by Xavier himself :
In 2014, BuzzFeed ranked Charles Xavier 11th in their "95 X-Men Members Ranked From Worst To Best" list.
In 2019, ComicBook.com ranked Charles Xavier 14th in their "50 Most Important Superheroes Ever" list.
In 2022, The Mary Sue ranked Charles Xavier 8th in their "10 Most Powerful X-Men of All Time" list and 7th in their "8 Most Powerful Marvel Mutants" list.
In 2022, Digital Trends ranked Charles Xavier 6th in their "Marvel’s most powerful mutants" list.
In 2022, Screen Rant included Charles Xavier in their "10 Smartest Marvel Telepaths" list.
In 2022, Newsarama ranked Charles Xavier 15th in their "Best X-Men members of all time" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Charles Xavier 1st in their "10 Greatest X-Men, Ranked By Experience" list.
==Other versions==
===1602===
Professor X is Carlos Javier in the miniseries Marvel 1602 (set in the alternative reality known as Earth-311), set at the end of the Elizabethan Era in an alternative universe. In this reality Carlos Javier set up a school for the Witchbreed to train them and prepare them to survive in a world that distrusted and hated them. He hid them away and would only send them out on mercy missions to retrieve other witchbreed who were in danger. When the young man named Werner – born with angel's wings – was to be burnt at the stake by the Inquisition, Javier sent his team leader, Scotius Summerisle, and Roberto Trefusis to rescue the boy. They did, and brought him back to Javier's school.
Nicholas Fury, the Queen of England's spymaster, came to visit Javier at his school and warn him of the danger posed by Elizabeth's death and the eventual rise to power of King James of Scotland, who had no love for witchbreed. Javier acknowledged the threat, but did nothing about it, though he showed Fury his team of super-powered youths. Fury also asked a favor, and requested that Javier use his powers to read the thoughts of a captured assassin. All Javier could tell him what that he was one of three; another was to kill a girl from the colonies, and the third, the queen. Fury later sent his protégé, Peter Parquagh, to Javier's school, to warn him that Fury would be coming for him in the name of King James soon, and that Javier should go quietly, rather than risk a war that would have serious consequences. Javier agreed, and when Fury arrived with an army of men, he and his students went without a fight.
While captive, Javier joined a discussion with Fury and Doctor Strange—the physician and magician of Queen Elizabeth. Strange told them that the world was coming to an end and the only way to save it would be to launch an attack on the castle of Otto von Doom, and steal away the treasure of the Templars and the survivors from the Four of the Fantastick. Fury disbelieved him, thinking his friend Sir Richard Reed dead, but Javier read Strange's mind, revealing that Strange thought he was telling the truth; and so it was decided. They traveled upon a ship that Javier's student Jean Grey lifted into the air with her mind, while Javier bolstered her powers with his own, and they flew to Latveria. Javier and Jean remained in meditation the whole way; keeping the ship afloat, for if they set down they would not get airborne again.
As the battle commenced, Javier led his men. He sent Angel and Scotius down to silence the cannons, while he ordered Roberto to deflect cannonballs, which he himself would try to steer off course via the cannoneer's minds. His beast-like student Henry he asked to protect the ship from the flying minions of Doom that soon boarded the ship from the air. When the Captain of the Fantastick raged against his stone prison beneath Castle Doomstadt, it freed the members of the Captain's crew, along with Donal (Thor) and Matthew Murdoch. Donal quickly used the staff that was his greatest treasure, and turned himself into the Thunder God, Thor. When Thor created a massive storm to use against Doom, Roberto used the sudden moisture in the air to freeze the cannons and save their ship. Doom also used Thor's storm to electrify the golden globe he held — a distraction given to him by Donal — but it exploded in his face, scarring him and bringing him to the brink of death. Victorious, Thor and the members of the Fantastick joined Javier's crew, and with Thor's help they got the boat to sea, as Jean Grey had collapsed.
The band of heroes set sail for the New World to fix the tear in time that had created the weather anomalies circling the globe, as well as endangering the universe itself. On the way, Jean Grey's body finally gave up under the strain of the use of her powers, and as per her final wish, she was flown into the air and vaporized by Scotius’ eye blasts, falling to the sea as ash; but not before Angel saw an image of an immense, flaming bird in the air. Almost to the Roanoke Colony, Javier sensed a trio of ships making their way to the New World; the first, Virginia Dare returning to the colonies with her time-traveling friend; the second, containing James’ men, set to kill Fury; and the third, the witchbreed Enrique with his two children. Enrique was an old friend of Javier's, later set against him. Javier's group intercepted Enrique's boat first, and Roberto encased it in ice to imprison them, while Javier demanded to know what they were doing. Enrique explained that the winds had taken them to the New World, but Javier did not trust him.
Javier soon participated in another group discussion; this led by the severed head of Doctor Strange, brought from England by his wife, Clea. Strange told them through his head that the faux-Indian Rojhaz was actually a visitor from the future, Captain America, whose arrival had jeopardized the universe itself. To fix it, the heroes would have to return him to the rift. They soon found the rift, and Javier had no choice but to make a deal with his old friend, Enrique, who was the only one with the power to open the rift to put the man back. Enrique agreed without hearing the proposal, but demanded that his own terms be met when his job was done. As Javier had no other choice, he agreed. Together with Enrique, Thor, and Fury, they opened the rift enough for Fury to drag Captain America through, and it closed, healing the universe permanently. Though instead of reverting things back to the way they should have been, it separated the universe from the original, creating a pocket universe where the out-of-time heroes continued to exist.
Before parting, Enrique explained his terms: that he would head north, and no one would follow him or investigate him; and that Javier would teach his children, Wanda and Petros, but not reveal to them that he was their father, though he would return one day to fetch them. Javier agreed, and parted with his old friend.
===Age of Apocalypse===
In the Age of Apocalypse, Charles Xavier was killed when he sacrificed himself to save Erik Lensherr from his own future son, David Haller (Legion), who had gone back in time to eliminate Magneto in the belief that his father would thus be there for him and succeed in his dream without Magneto to 'hinder' his efforts. As a result, Magneto founded the X-Men and sought human/mutant co-existence in Xavier's name- even naming his new son with Rogue 'Charles' after his friend- but Haller's rampage also prompted Apocalypse to awaken decades before the world was ready for him, resulting in Apocalypse conquering North America and most of the world, eventually forcing Magneto's X-Men to attempt a daring mission to gain the power necessary to go back in time and save Xavier from Haller as they recognised how vital Xavier was to the future.
===Amalgam Comics===
In the Amalgam Comics continuity, Charles Xavier was combined with DC's Doctor Fate and Marvel's Doctor Strange to create Dr. Strangefate. He was the only character aware of the nature of the Amalgam Comics universe.
He was also combined with Martian Manhunter to create Mr. X, leader of the JLX (a mash up of the X-Men and Justice League).
===Deadpool Corps===
In the second issue of Prelude to Deadpool Corps, Deadpool visits a universe where Prof. X runs an orphanage for troubled kids that includes Kidpool (kid version of Deadpool), Cyclops, Wolverine, Angel, and Colossus, with Storm being the headmistress and Beast as a teacher. In this universe, the professor has a fondness for Emma Frost who runs an orphanage for girls that includes Jean Grey and Rogue. He tries to get her attention by wearing wigs, throwing a dance for both orphanages, and trying to alter her memory.
===Exiles===
In the first mission of the Exiles they release an evil Professor X from prison, assuming that he was the 'teacher' who was needed to help the mutants of this world as many of their original realities featured Professor X as a benevolent teacher similar to his mainstream version. Having learned that Magneto was the teacher they were meant to save, they freed the other heroes from prison, with Mimic killing Xavier by getting up-close with a telepathic blocker designed by Forge and impaling him in the head with Wolverine's claws.
On the world of the Sons of Iron and Daughters of the Dragon, the New Exiles face a squad of alternative 'core X-Men' who are loyal to Lilandra. These X-Men are led by an alternative version of Xavier who is codenamed 'Black Cloak,' which is reference to his clothes. Xavier is able to walk on this world and carries a spear. The astral form of his head appears above his and he tends to mostly use his powers to prey upon the fears of his enemies. Xavier is unable to enter Psylocke's mind.
===House of M===
When the Scarlet Witch altered reality so Magneto ruled over the Earth and mutants were the dominant species, Professor X is initially depicted as missing; Wolverine attempts to locate him but his search turns up fruitless. Later on Genosha, Magneto is seen staring at a grave for the Professor, with the epitaph "He died so Genosha could live". However, when the grave is searched by Cloak, he finds there is no body. The question of Xavier's status in this world was left open-ended until House of M: Civil War, detailing the history of Magneto in this world. Xavier, while living, sought out Magneto when the latter was attempting to halt the oppression of mutantkind, declaring war on humans. He saved Magneto's life from a sniper attack and joined him, hoping to influence Magneto's actions into benevolence. He was disabled during the mutant takeover of Genosha and slowly grew more distant from Magneto as the latter's actions grew more bloodthirsty. Ultimately, when the United States sent a team onto Genosha to assassinate Magneto, Xavier found himself trying to appeal to a furious Bucky Barnes, who stabbed Xavier through the chest. What became of his body afterwards is unknown.
===Marvel Zombies===
In the Marvel Zombies one-shot Marvel Zombies: Dead Days, a zombified Alpha Flight attacks the X-Mansion. Storm informs the X-Men during the battle that Alpha Flight has ripped Xavier to pieces. Cyclops, trying not to deal with the fact that Xavier is dead, continues to fight. In the Marvel Zombies/Army of Darkness crossover, a zombified Beast informs Doctor Doom of Xavier's death, and that it was the Zombie Reed Richards who reprogrammed Cerebro to seek out humans.
In Marvel Zombies Return however, another alternative Xavier is zombified and turned into a human-detection system, his brain being permanently connected up to Cerebro so that he can find any remaining human beings.
===Mutant X===
In the alternative reality known as Mutant X, Professor X believing in harmony between man and mutant, formed, along with his friend Magnus, the X-Men and led the team towards that peaceful goal . However, the day they fought the Shadow King, everything changed. The good in Xavier was corrupted, and he left the team to explore his powers further. When he returned, it was during an attack by the Juggernaut. Xavier fired a blast at Juggernaut, but it missed and killed Magneto's lover Moira MacTaggert, instead. Xavier left the X-Men for good then, and traveled the world seeking out telepaths, whom he captured and incarcerated around the globe. He joined forces with Sinister in a bid to transfer all the mental energy of all the world's telepaths into himself. To that end, they created the X-Man, and Xavier took control of S.H.I.E.L.D., captured Gambit's adopted daughter Raven, and had Fury attempt to kill the X-Men with a nuclear strike. Xavier met up with The Six in New York, "fleeing" from Apocalypse and the Four Horsemen. However, when Xavier made several attempts to abduct Scotty, Havok was alerted to the truth by Jean Grey and Magneto, and realized who the true villain was. After a pitched battle, Xavier donned his psychic armor, and he and Sinister released a giant replica of Galactus to induce fear in the citizens of Earth, on which Xavier could feed his power. In the end, the replica was destroyed and the Six beat the fear phantoms that had comprised it. Xavier turned on Sinister and destroyed him, and X-Man ran off, leaving Scotty and Raven, who with X-Man were to be Xavier's psychic batteries, to help Havok blast away at Xavier. Xavier was knocked out of his armor and fled the scene, but not before unleashing a blast at Havok that hit Brute when he jumped in front of it to save Alex. Fortunately, the blast temporarily restored Hank to his former levels of intelligence, and he was able to devise cures for his friends before the effect faded away. Xavier was later summoned by Dr. Strange to help fight the Beyonder (Goblin Queen) by adding his psychic power to others to help Havok reach a higher plane of reality. While hooked up to the psychic amplification machine, Xavier was about to be killed by Dracula when he was saved by Bloodstorm, who staked her former master.
===Ruins===
Warren Ellis' Ruins was set in an alternative version of the Marvel Universe where "everything went wrong". In this world, "President X" leads a corrupt regime over the United States. He moved the White House from Washington to Westchester, New York, letting the capital fall to waste and corruption. He never formed the X-Men, with only Warren Worthington working for him as a secret serviceman. Some of his would-be X-Men are locked in a Texan prison by his orders and are sometimes forcibly deformed in an effort to keep their powers under control. He was known to frequently visit and verbally abuse them "leaving them all sobbing and throwing up". The Avengers were depicted in this world as a Californian pro-secessionist revolutionary cell that opposed Xavier's regime, who were all killed when the Avengers Quinjet was shot down. President X also started the 'Genoshan Police Action', also known as the 'Genoshan War'.
===Shadow Xavier===
In the first arc of New Excalibur the team is brought together partly as a response to a clash between Dazzler and a group of homicidal mutants bearing a resemblance to the Original X-Men. It turns out that these are the X-Men of an alternative universe where Charles Xavier is possessed by the Shadow King and has gone on to use his mind-controlled and thoroughly corrupted X-Men to wipe out all the other superhumans. This version of Xavier can walk, and insists that his followers refer to him as 'Master'.
He, along with the Shadow King, are killed by Lionheart.
===Ultimate Marvel===
In the Ultimate Marvel continuity, Professor Charles Xavier is the world's most powerful telepath, the founder and patron of the X-Men and a world-famous lecturer for pacifism and mutant emancipation. In contrast to his mainstream version, he is publicly open about his mutant status from the beginning and also has limited telekinetic abilities. He leaves his wife Moira MacTaggert, whom he collaborated with to create new therapies and surgical techniques for their mutant patients, and their sick son David to pursue Magneto's dream of a mutant society, but Magneto turns on him, crippling him with a shard of metal through his spine.
Xavier also repeatedly tampers with other people's minds to reach his goals, but he recognizes his flaws. In one instance, Xavier finds that Iceman has told a girl several secrets about the X-Men and is forced to erase the conversation from their minds. He generally believes that reading minds without permission is unacceptable, or so he leads his students to believe. In Ultimate X-Men #40, when Angel flies away, the Professor sends Storm after him because he telepathically knows that Angel is attracted to her. Similarly, Beast questions whether Xavier has made Storm love him.
In this timeline, his former love interests include Mystique and Emma Frost. In Ultimate X-Men #77, he tells Cyclops that he is in love with Jean. He also has a pet cat which he has named "Mystique".
In Ultimate X-Men #78, Xavier is apparently killed by Cable who was trying to prevent the horrible events in the future. In Ultimate X-Men #80 it is revealed that he is in fact alive, and a captive of Cable in the future. It has also been revealed that Cable has repaired his spine and is training Xavier to fight against Apocalypse. However, once the battle came, Jean Grey manifested as the Phoenix and destroyed Apocalypse. Jean returned everything back to normal, giving Xavier a "fresh start". As she did so however, she undid the repair to his spine that Cable had performed, leaving him once again disabled. Xavier reformed the X-Men upon return as the Headmaster of the Xavier Institute.
Soon after, Xavier left the school temporarily to aid Moira in some research on Muir Island. While he is away, the school is attacked by Alpha Flight whose mutant powers are enhanced by a drug called Banshee. Furthermore, it is revealed that Colossus has been using Banshee during his entire time at the Xavier's School to use his power without pain. Due to the sudden and apparently rampant use of the drug, Xavier and Jean begin screening all the students for traces of Banshee. However, it is later revealed the Banshee drug was created by Xavier himself, during his time in the Savage Land, and that it was created from Wolverine's blood. When Xavier tested Banshee, he was given powers that mimicked Wolverine's, including claws, enhanced senses, and a healing factor. Xavier and Magneto, however, deemed the drug too dangerous and stopped production of it. When Wolverine discovered that he was the source of the drug and that Xavier was responsible for its initial creation, Wolverine attacked Muir Island. Xavier admits to creating the drug but denies that he is responsible for its continued creation and use. It is revealed then that Moira got hold of Xavier's research and began creating and selling the drug to finance Muir Island. Moira, who had used the drug to give herself a sonic scream, begins to do battle with Wolverine, and Xavier evacuates the children moments before the research facility explodes.
In the Ultimatum story arc, Charles informs all mutants that Magneto is behind the actions. Magneto confronts Charles, explaining that he believes that he shall act as God did to cleanse the world and usher in an era of mutant supremacy. When Charles states that Magneto is not God and that he will stop him as he always has in the past, Magneto then snaps Charles's neck, killing him.
He returned, revealed as Rogue's benefactor, secretly sending her on an undercover mission and stating that he does not want his former students to know about his plan. It is unconfirmed if this is truly Xavier, as both William Stryker, Alex Summers and Quicksilver have been seen talking to their supposedly dead loved ones, hinting at a foe mentally manipulating several characters. It was revealed to be the work of Mr. Sinister, Apocalypse's disciple.
===X-Men Noir===
In X-Men Noir, Charles Xavier is a psychiatrist who ran the "Xavier School for Exceptionally Wayward Youth", in Westchester where he took in juvenile delinquents, but instead of reforming them, he actually further trained them in criminal talents, due to his belief that sociopathy was in fact the next state in human behavioral evolution. The paper in which he stated this led to his expulsion from the American Psychological Association. He is currently in Riker's Island, awaiting charges after the truth about his reform school were made public. Xavier had been framed by Chief of Detectives Eric Magnus for the murder of one of his own students: Warren. Magnus had murdered Warren after Xavier refused to make his X-Men join Magnus' Brotherhood.
===X-Treme X-Men===
An alternative of Earth-616's Professor X is shown, there was seemingly little to distinguish Charles Xavier until the day he was kidnapped by the forces of the Savior (unbeknownst to him, an alternative of himself), who removed his head from his body, placed in a life-giving "jar", and placed it with the heads of all the other alternative Xaviers put through the same procedure and made to scan the multiverse for the next mutants to be kidnapped. When the Savior was defeated, the collective of Xavier heads put themselves to work finding a new home for the people of the world they had been kidnapped to. However, in the process, all of the heads exploded, except one. This Xavier head would later aide a cross-dimension X-Men team in defeating ten evil Xaviers who are scattered throughout the multiverse and threaten existence itself. During the X-Termination crossover, AoA Nightcrawler's trip home resulted in the release of three evil beings that destroy anyone they touch. Several casualties resulted, including the AoA's Sabretooth, Horror Show, and Fiend, as well as the X-Treme X-Men's Xavier and Hercules.
==In other media==
|
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"physics",
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"Ororo Munroe",
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"non-playable character",
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"Greeks",
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"David Ben-Gurion",
"Morlocks (comics)",
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"Haifa",
"graduate school",
"Cerebro",
"Pembroke College, Oxford",
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"Salem Center, New York",
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"Brood (comics)",
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"Menachem Begin",
"World War Hulk",
"Quentin Quire",
"hate crime",
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"Dr. Strangefate",
"Sway (comics)"
] |
7,734 |
Central Pacific Railroad
|
The Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR) was a rail company chartered by U.S. Congress in 1862 to build a railroad eastwards from Sacramento, California, to complete most of the western part of the "First transcontinental railroad" in North America. Incorporated in 1861, CPRR ceased independent operations in 1885 when the railroad was leased to the Southern Pacific Railroad Company. Its assets were formally merged into Southern Pacific in 1959.
Following the completion of the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855, several national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of political disputes over slavery. With the secession of the South in 1861, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress. They passed legislation in 1862 authorizing the central rail route with financing in the form of land grants and government railroad bond, which were all eventually repaid with interest. The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed. The construction of the railroad also secured for the government the economical "safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores".
==History==
===Authorization and construction===
In the fall of 1860, Charles Marsh, a surveyor, civil engineer and water company owner, met with Theodore Judah, a civil engineer, who had recently built the Sacramento Valley Railroad from Sacramento to Folsom, California and was working on the California Central Railroad to extend the former from Folsom to Marysville. Marsh, who had already surveyed a potential railroad route between Sacramento and Nevada City, California, a decade earlier, went with Judah into the Sierra Nevada Mountains. There they examined the Henness Pass Turnpike Company's route (Marsh was a founding director of that company). They measured elevations and distances, and discussed the possibility of a transcontinental railroad. Both were convinced that it could be done.
In December 1860 or early January 1861, Marsh met with Judah and Daniel Strong in Strong's drug store in Dutch Flat, California, to discuss the project, which they called the Central Pacific Railroad of California. James Bailey, a friend of Judah, told Leland Stanford that Judah had a feasible route for a railroad across the Sierras, and urged Stanford to meet with Judah. In early 1861, Marsh, Judah and Strong met with Collis P. Huntington, Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins Jr. and Charles Crocker to obtain financial backing. Papers were filed to incorporate the new company, and on April 30, 1861, the eight of them, along with Lucius Anson Booth, became the first board of directors of the Central Pacific Railroad.
Planned by Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was promoted by Congress by the Pacific Railway Act of 1862 which authorized the issuance of government bonds and land grants for each mile that was constructed. Stanford served as president (at the same time he was elected governor of California), Huntington served as vice-president in charge of fundraising and purchasing, Hopkins was treasurer and Crocker was in charge of construction. They called themselves "The Associates", but became known as "The Big Four". Construction began in 1863 when the first rails were laid in Sacramento.
Construction proceeded in earnest in 1865 when James Harvey Strobridge, the head of the construction work force, hired the first Cantonese emigrant workers at Crocker's suggestion. The construction crew grew to include 12,000 Chinese laborers by 1868, when they breached Donner summit and constituted eighty percent of the entire work force. The "Golden spike", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869. Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.
In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was acquired by the Southern Pacific Company as a leased line. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway".) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which bought Southern Pacific in 1996.
The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) main line followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco Bay.
Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Most of the railroad workers in the west were Chinese, as they could be hired at a lower cost to do the difficult work. Fifty Cantonese emigrant workers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865 on a trial basis, and soon more and more Cantonese emigrants were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese were compensated less than their white counterparts, leading to far less white workers being hired. Chinese laborers were paid thirty-one dollars each month , and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board. In time, CPRR came to see the advantage of good workers employed at low wages: "Chinese labor proved to be Central Pacific's salvation."
The difficulties faced by the Central Pacific in the Sierra Nevada – particularly the extensive tunneling required – were far more formidable than those encountered by the Union Pacific Railroad in the Rocky Mountains. The story that Chinese workers were suspended in wicker baskets over vertical granite cliffs at Cape Horn, California, to drill and blast a ledge for the Central Pacific has been repeated and exaggerated by uncritical historians.
There is reliable, primary-source evidence stating that surveyors used safety ropes while staking out the route, but nothing about construction workers using ropes. Digging the cut was done downward from the top, and from each horizontal end of the cut. It is conceivable that a safety rope would have been useful when digging an initial footpath, that could then be enlarged into a shelf, but there was no reason to be suspended by ropes to dig or drill into the face of the cut. It wasn't done that way. And, most of the Chinese labor was not hired until later. So, the gangs that did the digging at Cape Horn may have been Irish.
===Financing===
{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = horizontal
|total_width = 450
|image1 = Trestle CPRR.jpg
|caption1 =
|image2 = The Last Spike 1869.jpg
|caption2 =
|footer = (Left): The Central Pacific built trestles initially in order to expedite construction of the railroad. Later, many of the trestles were filled in with dirt, such as this one near Secret Town, Placer County, California. Photo: Carleton Watkins(1876); (right): The Last Spike, painting by Thomas Hill (1881). Some of the Central Pacific officials depicted in the painting were not actually at the Gold Spike ceremony in Utah. Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of at this rate), and "doubled" (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges. The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.
Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds" in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds. (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring by . These grants were later doubled to per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.
Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863–1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto" (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act" of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.
The City and County's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered.
In 1863 the State legislature's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle". Critics claimed the CPRR's Big Four intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, California, to connect to the Dutch Flat-Donner Pass Wagon Road to monopolize the lucrative mining traffic, and not push the track east of Dutch Flat into the more challenging and expensive High Sierra effort. CPRR's chief engineer, Theodore Judah, also argued against such a road and hence against the Big Four, fearing that its construction would siphon money from CPRR's paramount trans-Sierra railroad effort. Despite Judah's strong objection, the Big Four incorporated in August 1863 the Dutch Flat-Donner Lake Wagon Road Company. Frustrated, Judah headed off for New York via Panama to raise funds to buy out the Big Four from CPRR and build his trans-Sierra railroad. Unfortunately, Judah contracted yellow fever in Panama and died in New York in November 1863.
==Museums and archives==
A replica of the Sacramento, California, Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.
Most of Collis P. Huntington's correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels) and is available at numerous other academic institutions across the country. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.
==Locomotives==
The Central Pacific's first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased from builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four-month journey that went around South America's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.
Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. The railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.
In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name: the El Gobernador.
==Preserved locomotives==
The following CP engines have been preserved:
Central Pacific 1, Gov. Stanford
CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum.
Central Pacific 3, C. P. Huntington, later purchased by the Southern Pacific Transportation Company.
Former Western Pacific Mariposa, Central Pacific's second number 31. Built in 1864, it helped build the first transcontinental railroad, and later was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914 and renumbered 1. Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles.
Virginia and Truckee 18 Dayton was built for the Virginia and Truckee Railroad and never served on the Central Pacific, but the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP's Sacramento shops in preservation (the other being CP 233). Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine's design.
Central Pacific's numbers 60 Jupiter, and 63 Leviathan. Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there are exact, full-size operating replicas built in recent years. The Jupiter was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific's 119 for use at the Golden Spike National Historical Park. Leviathan was finished in 2009, and was privately owned, traveling to various railroads to operate, until sold in 2018 to Stone Gable Estates of Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania. Stone Gable relettered the locomotive as Pennsylvania Railroad No. 331, a now-scrapped steam locomotive that pulled Abraham Lincoln's funeral train, and operates on the estate's Harrisburg, Lincoln and Lancaster Railroad.
==Timeline==
1861
June 28, 1861: "Central Pacific Rail Road of California" incorporated; name changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.
1862
July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.
1863
January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of "K" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.
October 26, 1863: First rail of the Pacific Railroad laid at Sacramento.
1864
April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, , where it makes a junction with the California Central Railroad, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.
June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California
October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California", a new corporation.
1865
February 1865: Central Pacific hired its first 50 Cantonese emigrant laborers on a trial basis.
May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened to Auburn, California.
September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened to Colfax, California (formerly known as "Illinoistown".)
1866
December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened to Cisco, California.
1867
June 25, 1867: 5,000 Chinese railroad workers went on strike in protest against the longer hours and wage inequality they were facing.
August 28, 1867: The Sierra Nevadas were finally "conquered" by the Central Pacific Railroad, after almost five years of sustained construction effort by its mainly Chinese crew about 10,000 strong, with the successful completion at Donner Pass of its 1,659-foot (506 m) Tunnel No. 6 (a.k.a. the "Summit Tunnel").
December 1, 1867: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, .
1868
June 18, 1868: The first passenger train crosses the Sierra Nevada to Lake's Crossing (modern day Reno, Nevada) at the eastern foot of the Sierra in Nevada.
1869
April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay of track in one day. To date, this is the longest stretch of track to have been built in one day.
May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah.
May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento.
September 6, 1869: The first transcontinental train reaches the San Francisco Bay at Alameda Terminal, achieving the first coast-to-coast railroad line.
November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries, Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870) and San Francisco and Oakland Railroad, complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland Pier.
1870
June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870), San Francisco and Alameda Railroad and San Francisco and Oakland Railroad to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co." (of June 1870).
August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co.", a new corporation.
1876
April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below).
1877
July 16, 1877: Start of the Great railroad strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike.
1883
November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities in total, were using standard time.
1885
April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific.
1888
June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.
1899
July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway".
1959
June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.
==Acquisitions==
San Joaquin Valley Railroad (1868–1870)
Stockton and Copperopolis Railroad
Stockton and Visalia Railroad
Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870)
|
[
"Roseville, California",
"Folsom, CA",
"Abraham Lincoln",
"Henness Pass",
"San Francisco and Oakland Railroad",
"Pacific Railway Act",
"Southern Pacific Railroad",
"Pacific Railroad Acts",
"Tracklaying race of 1869",
"Schenectady Locomotive Works",
"Virginia and Truckee 18 Dayton",
"Theodore Dehone Judah",
"Reno, Nevada",
"C. P. Huntington",
"Cisco, California",
"United States Treasury security",
"Sacramento, California",
"Oakland Pier",
"Mark Hopkins Jr.",
"Mandamus",
"Southern Pacific Transportation Company",
"Union Pacific Railroad",
"Mariners' Museum",
"Delta King",
"Secret Town, California",
"Central Pacific 173",
"Great railroad strike of 1877",
"4-2-4T",
"Cape Horn",
"Sacramento River",
"Golden Spike National Historical Park",
"Carleton Watkins",
"slavery",
"Rail transport in California",
"Old Sacramento State Historic Park",
"Calistoga, California",
"Cooke Locomotive and Machine Works",
"time zone",
"Gov. Stanford",
"Sierra Nevada",
"2-6-2T",
"El Gobernador",
"First transcontinental railroad",
"4-2-2",
"California State Railroad Museum",
"San Joaquin Valley Railroad (1868–1870)",
"Stockton Terminal and Eastern No. 1",
"monopsony",
"Southern United States",
"Pacific Railroad Surveys",
"US Congress",
"Travel Town Museum",
"Union Pacific No. 119",
"Leland Stanford",
"Stockton Terminal and Eastern",
"Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870)",
"Charles Crocker",
"Verdi, Nevada",
"Dutch Flat, California",
"Collis P. Huntington",
"Placer County, California",
"Baldwin Locomotive Works",
"Giuseppe Verdi",
"Golden spike",
"Overland Trail",
"Cantonese people",
"Sacramento Valley Railroad (1852-1877)",
"Marysville, CA",
"first transcontinental railroad",
"Theodore Judah",
"Alfred A. Hart",
"Pennsylvania Railroad",
"Colfax, California",
"Sacramento, CA",
"Folsom, California",
"Vallejo, California",
"Ogden, Utah",
"National Park Service",
"Marysville, California",
"The Big Four (Central Pacific Railroad)",
"Jupiter (locomotive)",
"San Francisco Bay",
"World Digital Library",
"Charles Marsh (railroad builder)",
"Thomas Hill (painter)",
"San Francisco and Alameda Railroad",
"Promontory, Utah",
"4-4-0",
"Alameda Terminal",
"California Central Railroad",
"Donner Pass",
"Newcastle, California",
"Rutherford B. Hayes",
"Martinsburg, West Virginia",
"California Pacific Railroad",
"standard time",
"Virginia and Truckee Railroad",
"secession",
"Republican Party (US)",
"American Civil War",
"Syracuse University",
"revenue",
"Newport News, Virginia",
"funeral train",
"Sacramento",
"Omaha, Nebraska",
"Auburn, California",
"Pacific Railway Acts",
"Henry P. Coon"
] |
7,737 |
Clairvoyance
|
Clairvoyance (; ) is the claimed ability to acquire information that would be considered impossible to get through scientifically proven sensations, thus classified as extrasensory perception, or "sixth sense". Any person who is claimed to have such ability is said to be a clairvoyant () ().
Claims for the existence of paranormal and psychic abilities such as clairvoyance have not been supported by scientific evidence. Parapsychology explores this possibility, but the existence of the paranormal is not accepted by the scientific community. The scientific community widely considers parapsychology, including the study of clairvoyance, a pseudoscience.
==Usage==
Pertaining to the ability of clear-sightedness, clairvoyance refers to the paranormal ability to see persons and events that are distant in time or space. It can be divided into roughly three classes: precognition, the ability to perceive or predict future events, retrocognition, the ability to see past events, and remote viewing, the perception of contemporary events happening outside the range of normal perception.
==In history and religion==
Throughout history, there have been numerous places and times in which people have claimed themselves, or others, to be clairvoyant.
In several religions, stories of certain individuals being able to see things far removed from their immediate sensory perception are commonplace, especially within pagan religions where oracles were used. Prophecy often involved some degree of clairvoyance, especially when future events were predicted. This ability has sometimes been attributed to a higher power rather than to the person performing it.
===Christianity===
A number of Christian saints were said to be able to see or know things that were far removed from their immediate sensory perception as a kind of gift from God, including Charbel Makhlouf, Padre Pio and Anne Catherine Emmerich in Catholicism and Gabriel Urgebadze, Paisios Eznepidis and John Maximovitch in Orthodoxy. Jesus Christ in the Gospels is also recorded as able to know things far removed from his immediate human perception. Some Christians today also share the same claim.
===Jainism===
In Jainism, clairvoyance is regarded as one of the five kinds of knowledge. The beings of hell and heaven (devas) are said to possess clairvoyance by birth. According to Jain text Sarvārthasiddhi, "this kind of knowledge has been called avadhi as it ascertains matter in downward range or knows objects within limits".
===Anthroposophy===
Rudolf Steiner, famous as a clairvoyant himself, claimed that it is easy for a clairvoyant to confuse their own emotional and spiritual being with the objective spiritual world.
==Parapsychology==
===Early research===
The earliest record of somnambulist clairvoyance is credited to the Marquis de Puységur, a follower of Franz Mesmer, who in 1784 was treating a local dull-witted peasant named Victor Race. During treatment, Race reportedly went into a trance and underwent a personality change, becoming fluent and articulate, and giving diagnosis and prescription for his own disease as well as those of others. Clairvoyance was a reported ability of some mediums during the spiritualist period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and psychics of many descriptions have claimed clairvoyant ability up to the present day.
Early researchers of clairvoyance included William Gregory, Gustav Pagenstecher, and Rudolf Tischner. Clairvoyance experiments were reported in 1884 by Charles Richet. Playing cards were enclosed in envelopes and a subject under hypnosis attempted to identify them. The subject was reported to have been successful in a series of 133 trials but the results dropped to chance level when performed before a group of scientists in Cambridge. J. M. Peirce and E. C. Pickering reported a similar experiment in which they tested 36 subjects over 23,384 trials. They did not find above chance scores.
Ivor Lloyd Tuckett (1911) and Joseph McCabe (1920) analyzed early cases of clairvoyance and concluded they were best explained by coincidence or fraud. In 1919, the magician P. T. Selbit staged a séance at his flat in Bloomsbury. The spiritualist Arthur Conan Doyle attended and declared the clairvoyance manifestations genuine.
A significant development in clairvoyance research came when J. B. Rhine, a parapsychologist at Duke University, introduced a standard methodology, with a standard statistical approach to analyzing data, as part of his research into extrasensory perception. A number of psychological departments attempted and failed to repeat Rhine's experiments. At Princeton University, W. S. Cox (1936) produced 25,064 trials with 132 subjects in a playing card ESP experiment. Cox concluded: "There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group. The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects." Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results. It was revealed that Rhine's experiments contained methodological flaws and procedural errors.
Eileen Garrett was tested by Rhine at Duke University in 1933 with Zener cards. Certain symbols were placed on the cards and sealed in an envelope, and she was asked to guess their contents. She performed poorly and later criticized the tests by claiming the cards lacked a psychic energy called "energy stimulus" and that she could not perform clairvoyance on command. The parapsychologist Samuel Soal and his colleagues tested Garrett in May 1937. Most of the experiments were carried out in the Psychological Laboratory at the University College London. A total of over 12,000 guesses were recorded but Garrett failed to produce above chance level. Soal wrote: "In the case of Mrs. Eileen Garrett we fail to find the slightest confirmation of Dr. J. B. Rhine's remarkable claims relating to her alleged powers of extra-sensory perception. Not only did she fail when I took charge of the experiments, but she failed equally when four other carefully trained experimenters took my place."
===Remote viewing===
Remote viewing, also known as remote sensing, remote perception, telesthesia and travelling clairvoyance, is the alleged paranormal ability to perceive a remote or hidden target without support of the senses.
A well-known recent study of remote viewing is the US government-funded project at the Stanford Research Institute from the 1970s through the mid-1990s. In 1972, Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ initiated a series of human subject studies to determine whether participants (the viewers or percipients) could reliably identify and accurately describe salient features of remote locations (targets). In the early studies, a human sender was typically present at the remote location as part of the experiment protocol. A three-step process was used. First, target conditions to be experienced by the senders were randomly selected. Second, in the viewing step, participants were asked to verbally express or sketch their impressions of the remote scene. Third, in these descriptions were matched by separate judges, as closely as possible, with the intended targets. The term remote viewing was coined to describe this overall process. The first paper by Puthoff and Targ on remote viewing was published in Nature in March 1974; in it, the team reported some degree of remote viewing success. After the publication of these findings, other attempts to replicate the experiments were carried out with remotely linked groups using computer conferencing.
The psychologists David Marks and Richard Kammann attempted to replicate Targ and Puthoff's remote viewing experiments at the Stanford Research Institute. In a series of 35 studies, they could not do so, so they investigated the original experiments' procedure. Marks and Kammann discovered that the notes given to the judges in Targ and Puthoff's experiments contained clues as to which order they were carried out, such as referring to yesterday's two targets, or the date of the session at the top of the page. They concluded that these clues explained the experiment's high hit rates. Marks achieved 100% accuracy without visiting any of the sites but by using cues. James Randi has written that controlled tests by several other researchers, eliminating several sources of cuing and extraneous evidence present in the original tests, produced negative results. Students were also able to solve Puthoff and Targ's locations from the clues inadvertently included in the transcripts.
In 1980, Charles Tart claimed that a rejudging of the transcripts from one of Targ and Puthoff's experiments revealed an above-chance result. Targ and Puthoff again refused to provide copies of the transcripts, and they were not made available for study until July 1985, when it was discovered they still contained sensory cues. Marks and Christopher Scott (1986) wrote: "considering the importance for the remote viewing hypothesis of adequate cue removal, Tart's failure to perform this basic task seems beyond comprehension. As previously concluded, remote viewing has not been demonstrated in the experiments conducted by Puthoff and Targ, only the repeated failure of the investigators to remove sensory cues."
In 1982, Robert G. Jahn, then Dean of the School of Engineering at Princeton University, wrote a comprehensive review of psychic phenomena from an engineering perspective. His paper included numerous references to remote viewing studies at the time. Statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and the general scientific community.
==Scientific reception==
According to scientific research, clairvoyance is generally explained as the result of confirmation bias, expectancy bias, fraud, hallucination, self-delusion, sensory leakage, subjective validation, wishful thinking or failures to appreciate the base rate of chance occurrences and not as a paranormal power. Parapsychology is generally regarded by the scientific community as a pseudoscience. In 1988, the US National Research Council concluded "The committee finds no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years, for the existence of parapsychological phenomena."
Skeptics say that if clairvoyance were a reality, it would have become abundantly clear. They also contend that those who believe in paranormal phenomena do so for merely psychological reasons. According to David G. Myers (Psychology, 8th ed.):
The search for a valid and reliable test of clairvoyance has resulted in thousands of experiments. One controlled procedure has invited 'senders' to telepathically transmit one of four visual images to 'receivers' deprived of sensation in a nearby chamber (Bem & Honorton, 1994). The result? A reported 32 percent accurate response rate, surpassing the chance rate of 25 percent. But follow-up studies have (depending on who was summarizing the results) failed to replicate the phenomenon or produced mixed results (Bem & others, 2001; Milton & Wiseman, 2002; Storm, 2000, 2003).One skeptic, magician James Randi, had a longstanding offer of U.S. $1 million—"to anyone who proves a genuine psychic power under proper observing conditions" (Randi, 1999). French, Australian, and Indian groups have parallel offers of up to 200,000 euros to anyone with demonstrable paranormal abilities (CFI, 2003). Large as these sums are, the scientific seal of approval would be worth far more to anyone whose claims could be authenticated. To refute those who say there is no ESP, one need only produce a single person who can demonstrate a single, reproducible ESP phenomenon. So far, no such person has emerged. Randi's offer has been publicized for three decades and dozens of people have been tested, sometimes under the scrutiny of an independent panel of judges. Still, nothing. "People's desire to believe in the paranormal is stronger than all the evidence that it does not exist." Susan Blackmore, "Blackmore's first law", 2004.
Clairvoyance is considered a hallucination by mainstream psychiatry.
|
[
"David Marks (psychologist)",
"Out-of-body experience",
"Duke University",
"Charles Tart",
"Arthur Conan Doyle",
"Greenwood Publishing Group",
"sensory leakage",
"Franz Mesmer",
"Princeton University",
"P. T. Selbit",
"Rudolf Steiner",
"Sarvārthasiddhi",
"William Gregory (chemist)",
"Ivor Lloyd Tuckett",
"Astral projection",
"Thought-Forms (book)",
"Sleepwalking",
"Christian saints",
"Astral religion",
"hallucination",
"Aura (paranormal)",
"Inner eye",
"Robert Todd Carroll",
"Photoacoustic effect",
"One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge",
"C. E. M. Hansel",
"Paisios (Eznepidis)",
"Mediumship",
"Harold Gulliksen",
"Rudolf Tischner",
"Eastern Orthodoxy",
"Charles Richet",
"Zener cards",
"SRI International",
"Robert G. Jahn",
"Graham Reed (psychologist)",
"Body of light",
"List of topics characterized as pseudoscience",
"Postdiction",
"Occam's razor",
"Prophecy",
"Nature (journal)",
"Anne Catherine Emmerich",
"Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur",
"Eileen Garrett",
"United States National Research Council",
"Third eye",
"Deva (Jainism)",
"scientific community",
"Second sight",
"John Maximovitch",
"David Myers (academic)",
"Joseph Banks Rhine",
"Joseph Jastrow",
"Antony Flew",
"remote viewing",
"Harold E. Puthoff",
"Edward Charles Pickering",
"University College London",
"Henry Gordon (magician)",
"Padre Pio",
"Victor J. Stenger",
"Gabriel Urgebadze",
"James Randi",
"Massimo Pigliucci",
"delusion",
"paranormal",
"Susan Blackmore",
"extrasensory perception",
"sensory cue",
"Donald O. Hebb",
"Thomas Gilovich",
"Chris French",
"Jesus Christ",
"Charbel Makhlouf",
"Observer-expectancy effect",
"Parapsychology",
"The Psychology of the Psychic",
"retrocognition",
"Precognition",
"confirmation bias",
"Encyclopedia Britannica",
"Science Daily",
"psychic",
"Maarten Boudry",
"psychiatry",
"Postcognition",
"Remote viewing",
"oracle",
"Ann Taves",
"Joseph McCabe",
"precognition",
"de:Hellsehen",
"Synchronicity",
"subjective validation",
"Mario Bunge",
"Jainism",
"James Alcock",
"Samuel Soal",
"wishful thinking",
"Spiritualism (movement)",
"Energy (esotericism)",
"Terence Hines",
"Bloomsbury",
"Ray Hyman",
"Russell Targ",
"Joe Nickell",
"pseudoscience",
"Skeptical Inquirer",
"Paul Kurtz",
"J. Gordon Melton",
"Catholicism",
"The Skeptic's Dictionary",
"C. W. Leadbeater",
"Scientific skepticism"
] |
7,738 |
Chiropractic
|
Chiropractic () is a form of alternative medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially of the spine.
Many chiropractors (often known informally as chiros), especially those in the field's early history, have proposed that mechanical disorders of the joints, especially of the spine, affect general health, and that regular manipulation of the spine (spinal adjustment) improves general health. The main chiropractic treatment technique involves manual therapy, especially manipulation of the spine, other joints, and soft tissues, but may also include exercises and health and lifestyle counseling. A chiropractor may have a Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) degree and be referred to as "doctor" but is not a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.). While many chiropractors view themselves as primary care providers, A 2011 critical evaluation of 45 systematic reviews concluded that the data included in the study "fail[ed] to demonstrate convincingly that spinal manipulation is an effective intervention for any condition." Spinal manipulation may be cost-effective for sub-acute or chronic low back pain, but the results for acute low back pain were insufficient. There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of vertebral artery dissection, which can lead to stroke and death, from cervical manipulation.
Chiropractic is well established in the United States, Canada, and Australia. Back and neck pain are considered the specialties of chiropractic, but many chiropractors treat ailments other than musculoskeletal issues. His son B. J. Palmer helped to expand chiropractic in the early 20th century. Throughout its history, chiropractic has been controversial. Its foundation is at odds with evidence-based medicine, and is underpinned by pseudoscientific ideas such as vertebral subluxation and Innate Intelligence. which has led to negative impacts on both public vaccination and mainstream acceptance of chiropractic. The American Medical Association called chiropractic an "unscientific cult" in 1966 Chiropractic has had a strong political base and sustained demand for services. In the last decades of the twentieth century, it gained more legitimacy and greater acceptance among conventional physicians and health plans in the United States. Despite these recommendations, a small but vocal and influential number of chiropractors spread vaccine misinformation.
== Conceptual basis ==
=== Origins in "folk medicine" ===
Chiropractic is generally categorized as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM),
Although a wide diversity of ideas exist among chiropractors, Some chiropractors claim spinal manipulation can have an effect on a variety of ailments such as irritable bowel syndrome and asthma.
Chiropractic philosophy includes the following perspectives:
Holism assumes that health is affected by everything in an individual's environment; some sources also include a spiritual or existential dimension. In contrast, reductionism in chiropractic reduces causes and cures of health problems to a single factor, vertebral subluxation.
A large number of chiropractors fear that if they do not separate themselves from the traditional vitalistic concept of innate intelligence, chiropractic will continue to be seen as a fringe profession. A variant of chiropractic called naprapathy originated in Chicago in the early twentieth century.
=== "Subluxation" as a Vitalist concept ===
In science-based medicine, the term "subluxation" refers to an incomplete or partial dislocation of a joint, from the Latin luxare for 'dislocate'. While medical doctors use the term exclusively to refer to physical dislocations, Chiropractic founder D. D. Palmer imbued the word subluxation with a metaphysical and philosophical meaning drawn from pseudoscientific traditions such as Vitalism. D. D. Palmer repudiated his earlier theory that vertebral subluxations caused pinched nerves in the intervertebral spaces in favor of subluxations causing altered nerve vibration, either too tense or too slack, affecting the tone (health) of the end organ. This concept was later expanded upon by his son, B. J. Palmer, and was instrumental in providing the legal basis of differentiating chiropractic from conventional medicine.
Vertebral subluxation, a core concept of traditional chiropractic, remains unsubstantiated and largely untested, and a debate about whether to keep it in the chiropractic paradigm has been ongoing for decades. This is still a continuing source of debate within the chiropractic profession as well, with some schools of chiropractic still teaching the traditional/straight subluxation-based chiropractic, while others have moved towards an evidence-based chiropractic that rejects metaphysical foundings and limits itself to primarily neuromusculoskeletal conditions.
In 2005, the chiropractic subluxation was defined by the World Health Organization as "a lesion or dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact. The use of X-ray imaging in the case of vertebral subluxation exposes patients to harmful ionizing radiation for no evidentially supported reason. Attorney David Chapman-Smith, Secretary-General of the World Federation of Chiropractic, has stated that "Medical critics have asked how there can be a subluxation if it cannot be seen on X-ray. The answer is that the chiropractic subluxation is essentially a functional entity, not structural, and is therefore no more visible on static X-ray than a limp or headache or any other functional problem." The General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, states that the chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex "is not supported by any clinical research evidence that would allow claims to be made that it is the cause of disease."
As of 2014, the US National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states "The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction. A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness." chiropractors had begun to divide into two groups: "Straights", adherents of the Palmers' supernatural vitalist beliefs, and "Mixers" who sought to integrate Chiropractic into science-based mainstream medicine. Folk argues that "osteopathy underwent a 'Straight-Mixer' debate between traditional vitalists and a faction that embraced the new medical science".
Although mixers are the majority group, many of them retain belief in vertebral subluxation as shown in a 2003 survey of 1,100 North American chiropractors, which found that 88 percent wanted to retain the term "vertebral subluxation complex", and that when asked to estimate the percent of disorders of internal organs that subluxation significantly contributes to, the mean response was 62 percent. Chiropractors often offer conventional therapies such as physical therapy and lifestyle counseling, and it may for the lay person be difficult to distinguish the unscientific from the scientific.
===Pseudoscience versus spinal manipulation therapy===
While some chiropractors limit their practice to short-term treatment of musculoskeletal conditions, many falsely claim to be able treat a myriad of other conditions. Some dissuade patients from seeking medical care, others have pretended to be qualified to act as a family doctor.
Quackwatch, an alternative medicine watchdog, cautions against seeing chiropractors who:
Treat young children
Discourage immunization
Pretend to be a family doctor
Take full spine X-rays
Promote unproven dietary supplements
Are antagonistic to scientific medicine
Claim to treat non-musculoskeletal problems
Writing for the Skeptical Inquirer, one physician cautioned against seeing even chiropractors who solely claim to treat musculoskeletal conditions: {{blockquote|I think Spinal Manipulation Therapy (SMT) is a reasonable option for patients to try ... But I could not in good conscience refer a patient to a chiropractor... When chiropractic is effective, what is effective is not 'chiropractic': it is SMT. SMT is also offered by physical therapists, DOs, and others. These are science-based providers ... If I thought a patient might benefit from manipulation, I would rather refer him or her to a science-based provider. Chiropractic combines aspects from mainstream and alternative medicine, and there is no agreement about how to define the profession: although chiropractors have many attributes of primary care providers, chiropractic has more attributes of a medical specialty like dentistry or podiatry. It has been proposed that chiropractors specialize in nonsurgical spine care, instead of attempting to also treat other problems,
Mainstream health care and governmental organizations such as the World Health Organization consider chiropractic to be complementary and alternative medicine (CAM); Many chiropractors believe they are primary care providers, and UK chiropractors, but the length, breadth, and depth of chiropractic clinical training do not support the requirements to be considered primary care providers, Chiropractic is autonomous from and competitive with mainstream medicine, physical therapists work alongside and cooperate with mainstream medicine, and osteopathic medicine in the U.S. has merged with the medical profession. Practitioners may distinguish these competing approaches through claims that, compared to other therapists, chiropractors heavily emphasize spinal manipulation, tend to use firmer manipulative techniques, and promote maintenance care; that osteopaths use a wider variety of treatment procedures; and that physical therapists emphasize machinery and exercise.
Chiropractic diagnosis may involve a range of methods including skeletal imaging, observational and tactile assessments, and orthopedic and neurological evaluation.). In the US, their scope of practice varies by state, based on inconsistent views of chiropractic care: some states, such as Iowa, broadly allow treatment of "human ailments"; some, such as Delaware, use vague concepts such as "transition of nerve energy" to define scope of practice; others, such as New Jersey, specify a severely narrowed scope. US states also differ over whether chiropractors may conduct laboratory tests or diagnostic procedures, dispense dietary supplements, or use other therapies such as homeopathy and acupuncture; in Oregon they can become certified to perform minor surgery and to deliver children via natural childbirth. A 2003 survey of North American chiropractors found that a slight majority favored allowing them to write prescriptions for over-the-counter drugs. A 2010 survey found that 72% of Swiss chiropractors considered their ability to prescribe nonprescription medication as an advantage for chiropractic treatment.
A related field, veterinary chiropractic, applies manual therapies to animals and is recognized in many US states, but is not recognized by the American Chiropractic Association as being chiropractic. It remains controversial within certain segments of the veterinary and chiropractic professions.
No single profession "owns" spinal manipulation and there is little consensus as to which profession should administer SM, raising concerns by chiropractors that other medical physicians could "steal" SM procedures from chiropractors. Two US states (Washington and Arkansas) prohibit physical therapists from performing SM, some states allow them to do it only if they have completed advanced training in SM, and some states allow only chiropractors to perform SM, or only chiropractors and physicians. Bills to further prohibit non-chiropractors from performing SM are regularly introduced into state legislatures and are opposed by physical therapist organizations.
== Treatments ==
Spinal manipulation, which chiropractors call "spinal adjustment" or "chiropractic adjustment", is the most common treatment used in chiropractic care. More generally, spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) describes techniques where the hands are used to manipulate, massage, mobilize, adjust, stimulate, apply traction to, or otherwise influence the spine and related tissues.
There are several schools of chiropractic adjustive techniques, although most chiropractors mix techniques from several schools. The following adjustive procedures were received by more than 10% of patients of licensed US chiropractors in a 2003 survey: Chiropractic biophysics technique uses inverse functions of rotations during spinal manipulation. Koren Specific Technique (KST) may use their hands, or they may use an electric device known as an "ArthroStim" for assessment and spinal manipulations. Medicine-assisted manipulation, such as manipulation under anesthesia, involves sedation or local anesthetic and is done by a team that includes an anesthesiologist; a 2008 systematic review did not find enough evidence to make recommendations about its use for chronic low back pain.
Many other procedures are used by chiropractors for treating the spine, other joints and tissues, and general health issues. The following procedures were received by more than one-third of patients of licensed US chiropractors in a 2003 survey: Diversified technique (full-spine manipulation; mentioned in previous paragraph), physical fitness/exercise promotion, corrective or therapeutic exercise, ergonomic/postural advice, self-care strategies, activities of daily living, changing risky/unhealthy behaviors, nutritional/dietary recommendations, relaxation/stress reduction recommendations, ice pack/cryotherapy, extremity adjusting (also mentioned in previous paragraph), trigger point therapy, and disease prevention/early screening advice.
A 2010 study describing Belgian chiropractors and their patients found chiropractors in Belgium mostly focus on neuromusculoskeletal complaints in adult patients, with emphasis on the spine. A 2009 study assessing chiropractic students giving or receiving spinal manipulations while attending a United States chiropractic college found Diversified, Gonstead, and upper cervical manipulations are frequently used methods.
=== Practice guidelines ===
Reviews of research studies within the chiropractic community have been used to generate practice guidelines outlining standards that specify which chiropractic treatments are legitimate (i.e. supported by evidence) and conceivably reimbursable under managed care health payment systems. Chiropractic remains at a crossroads, and that in order to progress it would need to embrace science; the promotion by some for it to be a cure-all was both "misguided and irrational". A 2007 survey of Alberta chiropractors found that they do not consistently apply research in practice, which may have resulted from a lack of research education and skills. Specific guidelines concerning the treatment of nonspecific (i.e., unknown cause) low back pain are inconsistent between countries.
=== Effectiveness ===
Numerous controlled clinical studies of treatments used by chiropractors have been conducted, with varied results. Research published by chiropractors is distinctly biased: reviews of SM for back pain tended to find positive conclusions when authored by chiropractors, while reviews by mainstream authors did not. Chiropractic care benefits from the placebo response, but it is difficult to construct a trustworthy placebo for clinical trials of spinal manipulative therapy (SMT). The efficacy of maintenance care in chiropractic is unknown. The same review found that SMT appears to be no better than other recommended therapies. A 2011 Cochrane review found strong evidence that suggests there is no clinically meaningful difference between SMT and other treatments for reducing pain and improving function for chronic low back pain. A 2010 Cochrane review found no difference between the effects of combined chiropractic treatments and other treatments for chronic or mixed duration low back pain. A 2010 systematic review found that most studies suggest SMT achieves equivalent or superior improvement in pain and function when compared with other commonly used interventions for short, intermediate, and long-term follow-up.
Radiculopathy. A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found a statistically significant improvement in overall recovery from sciatica following SM, when compared to usual care, and suggested that SM may be considered. There is moderate quality evidence to support the use of SM for the treatment of acute lumbar radiculopathy and acute lumbar disc herniation with associated radiculopathy. There is low or very low evidence supporting SM for chronic lumbar spine-related extremity symptoms and cervical spine-related extremity symptoms of any duration and no evidence exists for the treatment of thoracic radiculopathy. A 2013 systematic review found that the data suggests that there are minimal short- and long-term treatment differences when comparing manipulation or mobilization of the cervical spine to physical therapy or exercise for neck pain improvement. A 2013 systematic review found that although there is insufficient evidence that thoracic SM is more effective than other treatments, it is a suitable intervention to treat some patients with non-specific neck pain. A 2011 systematic review found that thoracic SM may offer short-term improvement for the treatment of acute or subacute mechanical neck pain; although the body of literature is still weak. A 2010 Cochrane review found low quality evidence that suggests cervical manipulation may offer better short-term pain relief than a control for neck pain, and moderate evidence that cervical manipulation and mobilization produced similar effects on pain, function and patient satisfaction. A 2010 systematic review found low level evidence that suggests chiropractic care improves cervical range of motion and pain in the management of whiplash.
Headache. There is conflicting evidence surrounding the use of chiropractic SMT for the treatment and prevention of migraine headaches. A 2006 review found no rigorous evidence supporting SM or other manual therapies for tension headache. A 2005 review found that the evidence was weak for effectiveness of chiropractic manipulation for tension headache, and that it was probably more effective for tension headache than for migraine.
Extremity conditions. A 2011 systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that the addition of manual mobilizations to an exercise program for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis resulted in better pain relief than a supervised exercise program alone and suggested that manual therapists consider adding manual mobilization to optimize supervised active exercise programs. There is silver level evidence that manual therapy is more effective than exercise for the treatment of hip osteoarthritis, however this evidence could be considered to be inconclusive. There is a small amount of research into the efficacy of chiropractic treatment for upper limbs, limited to low level evidence supporting chiropractic management of shoulder pain and limited or fair evidence supporting chiropractic management of leg conditions.
Other. A 2012 systematic review found insufficient low bias evidence to support the use of spinal manipulation as a therapy for the treatment of hypertension. A 2011 systematic review found moderate evidence to support the use of manual therapy for cervicogenic dizziness. There is very weak evidence for chiropractic care for adult scoliosis (curved or rotated spine) and no scientific data for idiopathic adolescent scoliosis. A 2007 systematic review found that few studies of chiropractic care for nonmusculoskeletal conditions are available, and they are typically not of high quality; it also found that the entire clinical encounter of chiropractic care (as opposed to just SM) provides benefit to patients with cervicogenic dizziness, and that the evidence from reviews is negative, or too weak to draw conclusions, for a wide variety of other nonmusculoskeletal conditions, including ADHD/learning disabilities, dizziness, high blood pressure, and vision conditions. Other reviews have found no evidence of significant benefit for asthma, baby colic, bedwetting, carpal tunnel syndrome, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, kinetic imbalance due to suboccipital strain (KISS) in infants, menstrual cramps, insomnia, postmenopausal symptoms, As there is no evidence of effectiveness or safety for cervical manipulation for baby colic, it is not endorsed.
=== Safety ===
The World Health Organization found chiropractic care in general is safe when employed skillfully and appropriately. Indirect risks of chiropractic involve delayed or missed diagnoses through consulting a chiropractor. They have been estimated to occur in 33% to 61% of patients, and frequently occur within an hour of treatment and disappear within 24 to 48 hours; adverse reactions appear to be more common following manipulation than mobilization. The most frequently stated adverse effects are mild headache, soreness, and briefly elevated pain fatigue. Chiropractic is correlated with a very high incidence of minor adverse effects. Estimates vary widely for the incidence of these complications, A 2016 systematic review concludes that the level of reporting is unsuitable and unacceptable. Reports of serious adverse events have occurred, resulting from spinal manipulation therapy of the lumbopelvic region. Estimates for serious adverse events vary from 5 strokes per 100,000 manipulations to 1.46 serious adverse events per 10 million manipulations and 2.68 deaths per 10 million manipulations, though it was determined that there was inadequate data to be conclusive. Weak to moderately strong evidence supports causation (as opposed to statistical association) between cervical manipulative therapy (CMT) and VAS. There is insufficient evidence to support a strong association or no association between cervical manipulation and stroke. While the biomechanical evidence is not sufficient to support the statement that CMT causes cervical artery dissection (CD), clinical reports suggest that mechanical forces have a part in a substantial number of CDs and the majority of population controlled studies found an association between CMT and VAS in young people. There is controversy regarding the degree of risk of stroke from cervical manipulation. There is very low evidence supporting a small association between internal carotid artery dissection and chiropractic neck manipulation. The incidence of internal carotid artery dissection following cervical spine manipulation is unknown. The literature infrequently reports helpful data to better understand the association between cervical manipulative therapy, cervical artery dissection and stroke. The limited evidence is inconclusive that chiropractic spinal manipulation therapy is not a cause of intracranial hypotension. Cervical intradural disc herniation is very rare following spinal manipulation therapy.
Chiropractors sometimes employ diagnostic imaging techniques such as X-rays and CT scans that rely on ionizing radiation. which increases cancer risk in proportion to the amount of radiation received. Research suggests that radiology instruction given at chiropractic schools worldwide seem to be evidence-based.
=== Risk-benefit ===
A 2012 systematic review concluded that no accurate assessment of risk-benefit exists for cervical manipulation. A 1999 review of 177 previously reported cases published between 1925 and 1997 in which injuries were attributed to manipulation of the cervical spine (MCS) concluded that "The literature does not demonstrate that the benefits of MCS outweigh the risks." The professions associated with each injury were assessed. Physical therapists (PT) were involved in less than 2% of all cases, with no deaths caused by PTs. Chiropractors were involved in a little more than 60% of all cases, including 32 deaths.
A 2009 review evaluating maintenance chiropractic care found that spinal manipulation is associated with considerable harm and no compelling evidence exists to indicate that it adequately prevents symptoms or diseases, thus the risk-benefit is not evidently favorable.
=== Cost-effectiveness ===
A 2012 systematic review suggested that the use of spine manipulation in clinical practice is a cost-effective treatment when used alone or in combination with other treatment approaches. A 2011 systematic review found evidence supporting the cost-effectiveness of using spinal manipulation for the treatment of sub-acute or chronic low back pain; the results for acute low back pain were insufficient.
A 2006 systematic cost-effectiveness review found that the reported cost-effectiveness of spinal manipulation in the United Kingdom compared favorably with other treatments for back pain, but that reports were based on data from clinical trials without placebo controls and that the specific cost-effectiveness of the treatment (as opposed to non-specific effects) remains uncertain. A 2005 American systematic review of economic evaluations of conservative treatments for low back pain found that significant quality problems in available studies meant that definite conclusions could not be drawn about the most cost-effective intervention. The cost-effectiveness of maintenance chiropractic care is unknown.
Analysis of a clinical and cost utilization data from the years 2003 to 2005 by an integrative medicine independent physician association (IPA) which looked the chiropractic services utilization found that the clinical and cost utilization of chiropractic services based on 70,274 member-months over a 7-year period decreased patient costs associate with the following use of services by 60% for in-hospital admissions, 59% for hospital days, 62% for outpatient surgeries and procedures, and 85% for pharmaceutical costs when compared with conventional medicine (visit to a medical doctor primary care provider) IPA performance for the same health maintenance organization product in the same geography and time frame.
== Education, licensing, and regulation ==
Requirements vary between countries. In the U.S. chiropractors obtain a non-medical accredited diploma in the field of chiropractic. Chiropractic education in the U.S. has been criticized for failing to meet generally accepted standards of evidence-based medicine. The curriculum content of North American chiropractic and medical colleges with regard to basic and clinical sciences has little similarity, both in the kinds of subjects offered and in the time assigned to each subject. Accredited chiropractic programs in the U.S. require that applicants have 90 semester hours of undergraduate education with a grade point average of at least 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. Many programs require at least three years of undergraduate education, and more are requiring a bachelor's degree. Canada requires a minimum three years of undergraduate education for applicants, and at least 4200 instructional hours (or the equivalent) of full-time chiropractic education for matriculation through an accredited chiropractic program. Graduates of the Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC) are formally recognized to have at least 7–8 years of university level education. The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest three major full-time educational paths culminating in either a DC, DCM, BSc, or MSc degree. Besides the full-time paths, they also suggest a conversion program for people with other health care education and limited training programs for regions where no legislation governs chiropractic. Depending on the location, continuing education may be required to renew these licenses. Specialty training is available through part-time postgraduate education programs such as chiropractic orthopedics and sports chiropractic, and through full-time residency programs such as radiology or orthopedics.
In the U.S., chiropractic schools are accredited through the Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE) while the General Chiropractic Council (GCC) is the statutory governmental body responsible for the regulation of chiropractic in the UK. The U.S. CCE requires a mixing curriculum, which means a straight-educated chiropractor may not be eligible for licensing in states requiring CCE accreditation. Today, there are 18 accredited Doctor of Chiropractic programs in the U.S., 2 in Canada, 6 in Australasia, and 5 in Europe. All but one of the chiropractic colleges in the U.S. are privately funded, but in several other countries they are in government-sponsored universities and colleges. There are an estimated 49,000 chiropractors in the U.S. (2008), 6,500 in Canada (2010), 2,500 in Australia (2000),
Chiropractors often argue that this education is as good as or better than medical physicians', but most chiropractic training is confined to classrooms with much time spent learning theory, adjustment, and marketing. The chiropractic leaders and colleges have had internal struggles.
In 2024, Oregon Public Broadcasting reported on the high debt burden of students who pursued degrees in alternative medicine. Ten different chiropractic programs were ranked among the 47 US graduate programs with highest debt to earnings ratios. Analyses by Quackwatch and the Sunlight Foundation found high rates of default on Health Education Assistance Loan (HEAL) student loans used for chiropractic programs. Among health professionals who were listed as in default on HEAL loans in 2012, 53% were chiropractors. The American Chiropractic Association (ACA) has an ethical code "based upon the acknowledgement that the social contract dictates the profession's responsibilities to the patient, the public, and the profession; and upholds the fundamental principle that the paramount purpose of the chiropractic doctor's professional services shall be to benefit the patient." The International Chiropractor's Association (ICA) also has a set of professional canons.
A 2008 commentary proposed that the chiropractic profession actively regulate itself to combat abuse, fraud, and quackery, which are more prevalent in chiropractic than in other health care professions, violating the social contract between patients and physicians.
Chiropractors, especially in America, have a reputation for unnecessarily treating patients.
The US Office of the Inspector General (OIG) estimated that for calendar year 2013, 82% of payments to chiropractors under Medicare Part B, a total of $359 million, did not comply with Medicare requirements.
In 2009, a backlash to the libel suit filed by the British Chiropractic Association (BCA) against Simon Singh inspired the filing of formal complaints of false advertising against more than 500 individual chiropractors within one 24-hour period, prompting the McTimoney Chiropractic Association to write to its members advising them to remove leaflets that make claims about whiplash and colic from their practice, to be wary of new patients and telephone inquiries, and telling their members: "If you have a website, take it down NOW" and "Finally, we strongly suggest you do NOT discuss this with others, especially patients." The libel case ended with the BCA withdrawing its suit in 2010.
== Reception ==
Chiropractic is established in the U.S., Canada, and Australia, and is present to a lesser extent in many other countries. It is viewed as a marginal and non-clinically–proven attempt at complementary and alternative medicine, which has not integrated into mainstream medicine. Most private health insurance funds in Australia cover chiropractic care, and the federal government funds chiropractic care when the patient is referred by a medical practitioner. In 2014, the chiropractic profession had a registered workforce of 4,684 practitioners in Australia represented by two major organizations – the Chiropractors' Association of Australia (CAA) and the Chiropractic and Osteopathic College of Australasia (COCA).
=== Germany ===
In Germany, chiropractic may be offered by medical doctors and alternative practitioners. Chiropractors qualified abroad must obtain a German non-medical practitioner license. Authorities have routinely required a comprehensive knowledge test for this, but in the recent past, some administrative courts have ruled that training abroad should be recognised.
=== Switzerland ===
In Switzerland, only trained medical professionals are allowed to offer chiropractic. There are 300 chiropractors in Switzerland.
=== United Kingdom ===
In the United Kingdom, there are over 2,000 chiropractors, representing one chiropractor per 29,206 people.
A 2010 study by questionnaire presented to UK chiropractors indicated only 45% of chiropractors disclosed to patients the serious risk associated with manipulation of the cervical spine and that 46% believed there was possibility patients would refuse treatment if the risks were correctly explained. However 80% acknowledged the ethical/moral responsibility to disclose risk to patients.
=== United States and Canada ===
The percentage of the population that utilizes chiropractic care at any given time generally falls into a range from 6% to 12% in the U.S. and Canada, with a global high of 20% in Alberta in 2006. In 2008, chiropractors were reported to be the most common CAM providers for children and adolescents, these patients representing up to 14% of all visits to chiropractors. Satisfaction rates are typically higher for chiropractic care compared to medical care, with a 1998 U.S. survey reporting 83% of respondents satisfied or very satisfied with their care; quality of communication seems to be a consistent predictor of patient satisfaction with chiropractors.
Utilization of chiropractic care is sensitive to the costs incurred by the co-payment by the patient. As of 2007 7% of the U.S. population is being reached by chiropractic. They were the third largest medical profession in the US in 2002, following physicians and dentists. Employment of U.S. chiropractors was expected to increase 14% between 2006 and 2016, faster than the average for all occupations.
==History==
Chiropractic's origins lie in the folk medicine practice of bonesetting, in which untrained practitioners engaged in joint manipulation or resetting fractured bones. Chiropractic is classified as a field of pseudomedicine.
Chiropractic competed with its predecessor osteopathy, another medical system based on magnetic healing; both systems were founded by charismatic midwesterners in opposition to the conventional medicine of the day, and both postulated that manipulation improved health. Although initially keeping chiropractic a family secret, in 1898 Palmer began teaching it to a few students at his new Palmer School of Chiropractic. D. D. and B. J. both seriously considered declaring chiropractic a religion, which might have provided legal protection under the U.S. constitution, but decided against it partly to avoid confusion with Christian Science. Thousands of chiropractors were prosecuted for practicing medicine without a license, and D. D. and many other chiropractors were jailed. and until 1980 advised its members that it was unethical for medical doctors to associate with "unscientific practitioners". This culminated in a landmark 1987 decision, Wilk v. AMA, in which the court found that the AMA had engaged in unreasonable restraint of trade and conspiracy, and which ended the AMA's de facto boycott of chiropractic.
In recent decades chiropractic gained legitimacy and greater acceptance by medical physicians and health plans, and enjoyed a strong political base and sustained demand for services. Most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects,
Early opposition to water fluoridation included chiropractors, some of whom continue to oppose it as being incompatible with chiropractic philosophy and an infringement of personal freedom. Other chiropractors have actively promoted fluoridation, and several chiropractic organizations have endorsed scientific principles of public health. In addition to traditional chiropractic opposition to water fluoridation and vaccination, chiropractors' attempts to establish a positive reputation for their public health role are also compromised by their reputation for recommending repetitive lifelong chiropractic treatment. According to Daniel D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, subluxation is the sole cause of disease and manipulation is the cure for all diseases of the human race. A 2003 profession-wide survey A critical evaluation stated "Chiropractic is rooted in mystical concepts. This led to an internal conflict within the chiropractic profession, which continues today." Chiropractors, including D. D. Palmer, were jailed for practicing medicine without a license. For most of its existence, chiropractic has battled with mainstream medicine, sustained by antiscientific and pseudoscientific ideas such as subluxation. Collectively, systematic reviews have not demonstrated that spinal manipulation, the main treatment method employed by chiropractors, is effective for any medical condition, with the possible exception of treatment for back pain. Chiropractic remains controversial, though to a lesser extent than in past years.
|
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] |
7,739 |
Carbide
|
In chemistry, a carbide usually describes a compound composed of carbon and a metal. In metallurgy, carbiding or carburizing is the process for producing carbide coatings on a metal piece.
==Interstitial / Metallic carbides==
The carbides of the group 4, 5 and 6 transition metals (with the exception of chromium) are often described as interstitial compounds.
The long-held view is that the carbon atoms fit into octahedral interstices in a close-packed metal lattice when the metal atom radius is greater than approximately 135 pm:
When the metal atoms are hexagonal close-packed, (hcp), as the octahedral interstices lie directly opposite each other on either side of the layer of metal atoms, filling only one of these with carbon achieves 2:1 stoichiometry with the CdI2 structure.
Iron forms a number of carbides, , and . The best known is cementite, Fe3C, which is present in steels. These carbides are more reactive than the interstitial carbides; for example, the carbides of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni are all hydrolysed by dilute acids and sometimes by water, to give a mixture of hydrogen and hydrocarbons. These compounds share features with both the inert interstitials and the more reactive salt-like carbides. There exists however a mixed titanium-tin carbide, which is a two-dimensional conductor.
==Chemical classification of carbides==
Carbides can be generally classified by the chemical bonds type as follows:
salt-like (ionic),
covalent compounds,
interstitial compounds, and
"intermediate" transition metal carbides.
Examples include calcium carbide (CaC2), silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC; often called, simply, carbide when referring to machine tooling), and cementite (Fe3C), each used in key industrial applications. The naming of ionic carbides is not systematic.
===Salt-like / saline / ionic carbides===
Salt-like carbides are composed of highly electropositive elements such as the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, actinides, and group 3 metals (scandium, yttrium, and lutetium). Aluminium from group 13 forms carbides, but gallium, indium, and thallium do not. These materials feature isolated carbon centers, often described as "C4−", in the methanides or methides; two-atom units, "", in the acetylides; and three-atom units, "", in the allylides.
====Methanides====
Methanides are a subset of carbides distinguished by their tendency to decompose in water producing methane. Three examples are aluminium carbide , magnesium carbide and beryllium carbide .
Transition metal carbides are not saline: their reaction with water is very slow and is usually neglected. For example, depending on surface porosity, 5–30 atomic layers of titanium carbide are hydrolyzed, forming methane within 5 minutes at ambient conditions, following by saturation of the reaction.
Note that methanide in this context is a trivial historical name. According to the IUPAC systematic naming conventions, a compound such as NaCH3 would be termed a "methanide", although this compound is often called methylsodium. See Methyl group#Methyl anion for more information about the anion.
====Acetylides/ethynides====
Several carbides are assumed to be salts of the acetylide anion (also called percarbide, by analogy with peroxide), which has a triple bond between the two carbon atoms. Alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and lanthanoid metals form acetylides, for example, sodium carbide Na2C2, calcium carbide CaC2, and LaC2. yields methylacetylene, , and propadiene, , on hydrolysis, which was the first indication that it contains .
===Covalent carbides===
The carbides of silicon and boron are described as "covalent carbides", although virtually all compounds of carbon exhibit some covalent character. Silicon carbide has two similar crystalline forms, which are both related to the diamond structure. Boron carbide, B4C, on the other hand, has an unusual structure which includes icosahedral boron units linked by carbon atoms. In this respect boron carbide is similar to the boron rich borides. Both silicon carbide (also known as carborundum) and boron carbide are very hard materials and refractory. Both materials are important industrially. Boron also forms other covalent carbides, such as B25C.
===Molecular carbides===
Metal complexes containing C are known as metal carbido complexes. Most common are carbon-centered octahedral clusters, such as (where "Ph" represents a phenyl group) and . Similar species are known for the metal carbonyls and the early metal halides. A few terminal carbides have been isolated, such as .
Metallocarbohedrynes (or "met-cars") are stable clusters with the general formula where M is a transition metal (Ti, Zr, V, etc.).
==Related materials==
In addition to the carbides, other groups of related carbon compounds exist:
graphite intercalation compounds
alkali metal fullerides
endohedral fullerenes, where the metal atom is encapsulated within a fullerene molecule
metallacarbohedrenes (met-cars) which are cluster compounds containing C2 units.
tunable nanoporous carbon, where gas chlorination of metallic carbides removes metal molecules to form a highly porous, near-pure carbon material capable of high-density energy storage.
transition metal carbene complexes.
two-dimensional transition metal carbides: MXenes
|
[
"endohedral fullerenes",
"carbon",
"transition metal carbene complex",
"yttrium",
"zirconium",
"transition metal",
"scandium",
"peroxide",
"actinide",
"sodium carbide",
"lutetium",
"beryllium carbide",
"non-stoichiometric",
"crystal defects",
"chemistry",
"lanthanum carbide",
"Methyl group",
"tin",
"molybdenum",
"niobium",
"indium",
"tantalum",
"gallium",
"titanium carbide",
"graphite intercalation compound",
"acetylide",
"metallurgy",
"Aluminium",
"metal carbido complex",
"Kappa-carbides",
"Rock-salt structure",
"close-packing",
"alkaline earth metal",
"actinides",
"copper(I) acetylide",
"hafnium",
"cementite",
"Silicon carbide",
"vanadium",
"boride",
"uranium carbide",
"methane",
"Aluminium carbide",
"lead",
"phenyl group",
"silver acetylide",
"fullerides",
"titanium",
"chromium",
"isoelectronic",
"covalent bond",
"tungsten carbide",
"magnesium carbide",
"methylacetylene",
"metal carbonyl",
"Boron carbide",
"alkali metal",
"thallium",
"refractory",
"covalent compound",
"silicon carbide",
"lanthanoid",
"aluminium carbide",
"stoichiometries",
"propadiene",
"Metallocarbohedryne",
"MXenes",
"binary phase",
"end mill",
"boron",
"carburizing",
"Cubic crystal system",
"tunable nanoporous carbon",
"lanthanide",
"tungsten",
"interstitial compound",
"group 3 element",
"boron carbide",
"Ph",
"polyatomic ion",
"calcium carbide"
] |
7,740 |
Charles C. Krulak
|
Charles Chandler Krulak (born March 4, 1942) is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who served as the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1, 1995, to June 30, 1999. He is the son of Lieutenant General Victor H. "Brute" Krulak, who served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. He was the 13th President of Birmingham-Southern College after his stint as a non-executive director of English association football club Aston Villa.
==Early life and education==
Krulak was born in Quantico, Virginia, on March 4, 1942, the son of Amy ( Chandler) and Victor H. Krulak. He graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1960, where he was classmates with novelist John Irving. Krulak then attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating in 1964 with a bachelor's degree. Krulak also holds a master's degree in labor relations from George Washington University (1973). He is a graduate of the Amphibious Warfare School (1968); the Army Command and General Staff College (1976); and the National War College (1982).
==Marine career==
After his commissioning and graduation from The Basic School at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Krulak held a variety of command and staff positions. His command positions included: commanding officer of a platoon and two rifle companies during two tours of duty in Vietnam; commanding officer of Special Training Branch and Recruit Series at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California (1966–1968); commanding officer of Counter-Guerilla Warfare School, Northern Training Area on Okinawa (1970), Company officer at the United States Naval Academy (1970–1973); commanding officer of the Marine Barracks at Naval Air Station North Island, California (1973–1976), and commanding officer, 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines (1983–1985).
Krulak's staff assignments included: operations officer, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines (1977–1978); chief of the Combat Arms Monitor Section at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. (1978–1979); executive assistant to the Director of Personnel Management, Headquarters Marine Corps (1979–1981); Plans Office, Fleet Marine Forces Pacific, Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii (1982–1983); executive officer, 3rd Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; assistant chief of staff, maritime pre-positioning ships, 1st MEB; assistant chief of staff for operations, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; and the military assistant to the assistant secretary of defense for command, control, communications and intelligence, Office of the Secretary of Defense.
Krulak was assigned duty as the deputy director of the White House Military Office in September 1987. While serving in this capacity, he was selected for promotion to brigadier general in November 1988. He was advanced to that grade on June 5, 1989, and assigned duties as the commanding general, 10th MEB/Assistant division commander, 2nd Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force Atlantic, at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina on July 10, 1989. On June 1, 1990, he assumed duties as the commanding general, 2nd Force Service Support Group Group/Commanding general, 6th Marine Expeditionary Brigade, Fleet Marine Force Atlantic and commanded the 2d FSSG during the Gulf War. He served in this capacity until July 12, 1991, and was assigned duty as assistant deputy chief of staff for manpower and reserve affairs (personnel Management/Personnel Procurement), Headquarters Marine Corps on August 5, 1991. He was advanced to major general on March 20, 1992. Krulak was assigned as commanding general, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, on August 24, 1992, and was promoted to lieutenant general on September 1, 1992. On July 22, 1994, he was assigned as commander of Marine Forces Pacific/commanding general, Fleet Marine Force Pacific, and in March 1995 he was nominated to serve as the Commandant of the Marine Corps.
On June, 29, he was promoted to general and assumed duties as the 31st commandant on June 30, 1995. He was relieved on June 30, 1999, by General James L. Jones.
In 1997, Krulak became a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California.
===Silver Star citation===
Citation:
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star to Captain Charles Chandler Krulak, United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action while serving as Commanding Officer of Company L, Third Battalion, Third Marines, Third Marine Division, during combat operations against the enemy in the Republic of Vietnam. On 3 June 1969, during Operation Virginia Ridge, Company L was occupying ambush positions near the Demilitarized Zone west of Con Thien when the Marines came under a heavy volume of mortar fire and sustained several casualties. Although seriously wounded himself, Captain Krulak unhesitatingly left his covered position and, thinking only of the welfare of his men, fearlessly maneuvered across the fire-swept terrain to ensure that his Marines were in effective defensive locations and capable of repelling an expected ground attack. Shortly after the initial mortar attack, the Company was subjected to a second intense mortar barrage. Realizing that the determined enemy soldiers had accurate range on the Marine emplacements, and unwilling to incur additional casualties, he commenced maneuvering his men to an alternate location. Simultaneously, undaunted by the fierce barrage, Captain Krulak fearlessly moved to a dangerously exposed vantage point from which he pinpointed the principal sources of hostile fire and skillfully coordinated fixed-wing air strikes and supporting artillery fire on the enemy positions, silencing the fire. By this time, both the platoon commander and a platoon sergeant of one of his platoons had been seriously wounded. After repeatedly exposing himself to the relentless fire to supervise the evacuation of the casualties, he then personally led the platoon back to the main body of his Company across 3,000 meters of rugged mountain terrain to another patrol base and, although weak from loss of blood and the pain of his injuries, steadfastly refused medical evacuation until the arrival of another officer on the following morning. By his courage, dynamic leadership, and inspiring devotion to duty in the face of grave personal danger, Captain Krulak minimized Marine casualties and upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and of the United States Naval Service.
==Personal life==
Krulak received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1996. The Golden Plate was presented by Awards Council member and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John M. Shalikashvili, USA.
Krulak joined MBNA America in September 1999 as chief administrative officer, responsible for personnel, benefits, compensation, education, and other administrative services. Krulak has served as the Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of MBNA Europe (2001–2005) and was based at the Chester campus in the UK. He was the executive vice chairman and chief administration officer of MBNA Corporation (2004–2005). He retired from MBNA in 2005.
Following the takeover of English football club Aston Villa by MBNA Chairman Randy Lerner in August 2006 and as of September 19, 2006, Krulak joined the board of Aston Villa as non-executive director where he posted on several fans forums. Krulak was generally referred to as "The General" by fans on these boards.
Krulak also serves on the boards of ConocoPhillips, Freeport-McMoran (formerly known as Phelps Dodge Corporation) and Union Pacific Corporation. In addition, he serves on the advisory council of Hope For The Warriors, a national non-profit dedicated to provide a full cycle of non-medical care to combat wounded service members, their families, and families of the fallen from each military branch.
Krulak was elected as the 13th President of Birmingham–Southern College in Birmingham, Alabama on March 21, 2011, and retired June 1, 2015. He received an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters from Birmingham-Southern College. The Krulak Institute for Leadership, Experiential Learning, and Civic Engagement at Birmingham-Southern College is named for him.
Krulak was the Vice Chair of the Sweet Briar College Board of Directors. He joined the Board in the Summer of 2015.
==Awards and decorations==
General Krulak's decorations and medals include:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|colspan="16"|Defense Distinguished Service Medal w/ 1 bronze oak leaf cluster
|-
|colspan="4"|Navy Distinguished Service Medal w/ 1 gold award star and Dr. Todd C. Krulak, PhD., a retired freelance rave DJ who is now a professor at Samford University; and five grandchildren: Capt Brian Krulak (USMC), Katie, Mary, Matthew, and Charles.
He is the son of Lieutenant General Victor H. Krulak Sr., and the younger brother of Commander Victor H. Krulak Jr, Navy Chaplain Corps and Colonel William Krulak, United States Marine Corps Reserve. Krulak's godfather was USMC general Holland McTyeire "Howlin' Mad" Smith.
|
[
"Carl E. Mundy Jr.",
"Jefferson D. Howell",
"Sweet Briar College",
"Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia)",
"Commandant of the United States Marine Corps",
"Air Force Distinguished Service Medal",
"Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal",
"Washington, D.C.",
"Brigadier general (United States)",
"Vietnam War",
"Sons of the Revolution",
"1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade",
"Birmingham-Southern College",
"Army Command and General Staff College",
"Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"Okinawa Prefecture",
"2nd Marine Logistics Group",
"United States Secretary of Defense",
"Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation",
"Camp H.M. Smith",
"Fleet Marine Force, Pacific",
"National War College",
"Navy Commendation Medal",
"Vietnam Service Medal",
"Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge",
"Purple Heart",
"Amphibious Warfare School",
"National Defense Service Medal",
"Naval Air Station North Island",
"Union Pacific Corporation",
"Hawaii",
"association football",
"lieutenant general (United States)",
"French Legion of Honor",
"3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines",
"Tom Clancy",
"General officer",
"Operation Desert Shield",
"oak leaf cluster",
"Gulf War",
"North Carolina",
"Birmingham–Southern College",
"Marine Corps Combat Development Command",
"Marine Corps Base Quantico",
"Marine (book)",
"Meritorious Service Medal (United States)",
"Navy Distinguished Service Medal",
"Quantico, Virginia",
"American Academy of Achievement",
"Navy Unit Commendation",
"Phillips Exeter Academy",
"United States Naval Academy",
"major general (United States)",
"MBNA",
"2nd Marine Division (United States)",
"General (United States)",
"Exeter, New Hampshire",
"United States Marine Corps",
"Army Distinguished Service Medal",
"Camp Gonsalves",
"Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego",
"Joseph P. Hoar",
"James L. Jones",
"Headquarters Marine Corps",
"Hope For The Warriors",
"Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune",
"Operation Desert Storm",
"Sea Service Deployment Ribbon",
"California",
"Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge",
"Three Block War",
"Freeport-McMoran",
"battle",
"Presidential Service Badge",
"Southwest Asia Service Medal",
"Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal",
"award star",
"World War II",
"Bronze Star Medal",
"Associated Press",
"2nd Battalion, 9th Marines",
"Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation",
"Combat Action Ribbon",
"commanding officer",
"Korean War",
"John Shalikashvili",
"service star",
"Randy Lerner",
"Holland Smith",
"Haiti",
"Victor H. Krulak",
"The Basic School",
"United States Navy Chaplain Corps",
"Meritorious Unit Commendation",
"Somalia",
"Defense Distinguished Service Medal",
"White House Military Office",
"Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)",
"Hank Stackpole",
"Godparent",
"ConocoPhillips",
"Silver Star",
"MCDP 1: Warfighting",
"3rd Marine Regiment",
"Chief Executive Officer",
"Academy of Achievement",
"Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry",
"United States Marine Corps Forces, Pacific",
"Presidential Unit Citation (US)",
"John Irving",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Pacific",
"George Washington University",
"valor device"
] |
7,742 |
Compaq
|
Compaq Computer Corporation was an American information technology company founded in 1982 that developed, sold, and supported computers and related products and services. Compaq produced some of the first IBM PC compatible computers, being the second company after Columbia Data Products to legally reverse engineer the BIOS of the IBM Personal Computer. It rose to become the largest supplier of PC systems during the 1990s. The company was initially based in Harris County, Texas.
The company was formed by Rod Canion, Jim Harris, and Bill Murto, all of whom were former Texas Instruments senior managers. All three had left by 1991 under a shakeup, which saw Eckhard Pfeiffer appointed president and CEO, serving through the 1990s. Ben Rosen provided the venture capital financing for the fledgling company and served as chairman of the board for 17 years from 1983 until September 28, 2000, when he retired and was succeeded by Michael Capellas, who served as its last chairman and CEO until its merger.
Compaq was overtaken by Dell as the top global PC maker in 1999. Compaq briefly regained the top spot in 2000 before being overtaken again by Dell in 2001. Struggling to keep up in the price wars against Dell, as well as with a risky acquisition of DEC in 1998, Compaq was acquired by Hewlett-Packard (HP) for US$25 billion in 2002. The Compaq brand remained in use by HP for lower-end systems until 2013 when it was discontinued.
, the Compaq brand is currently licensed to third parties outside of the United States for use on electronics in Brazil and India. Each invested $1,000 to form the company, which was founded with the temporary name Gateway Technology. The name "COMPAQ" was said to be derived from "Compatibility and Quality" but this explanation was an afterthought. The name was chosen from many suggested by Ogilvy & Mather, it being the name least rejected. The first Compaq PC was sketched out on a placemat by Ted Papajohn while dining with the founders in a pie shop, (named House of Pies in Houston). Their first venture capital came from Benjamin M. Rosen and Sevin Rosen Funds, who helped the fledgling company secure to produce their initial computer. Overall, the founders managed to raise $25 million from venture capitalists, as this gave stability to the new company as well as providing assurances to the dealers or middlemen.
Compaq differentiated its offerings from other IBM PC clones by not focusing mainly on price, but instead concentrating on new features such as portability and better technology, at prices comparable to those of IBM's PCs. In contrast to Dell and Gateway 2000, Compaq hired veteran engineers with an average of 15 years experience, which lent credibility to Compaq's reputation of reliability among customers. Due to its partnership with Intel, Compaq was able to maintain a technological lead in the market place as it was the first one to come out with computers containing the next generation of each Intel x86 processors. The company shipped its 500,000th computer in April 1986. In 1987, Compaq hit the revenue mark, taking the least amount of time to reach that milestone.
Two key marketing executives in Compaq's early years, Jim D'Arezzo and Sparky Sparks, had come from IBM's PC Group. Other key executives responsible for the company's meteoric growth in the late 1980s and early 1990s were Ross A. Cooley, another former IBM associate, who served for many years as SVP of GM North America; Michael Swavely, who was the company's chief marketing officer in the early years, and eventually ran the North America organization, later passing along that responsibility to Cooley when Swavely retired. In the United States, Brendan A. "Mac" McLoughlin (another long time IBM executive) led the company's field sales organization after starting up the Western U.S. Area of Operations. These executives, along with other key contributors, including Kevin Ellington, Douglas Johns, Steven Flannigan, and Gary Stimac, helped the company compete against the IBM Corporation in all personal computer sales categories, after many predicted that none could compete with the behemoth.
The soft-spoken Canion was popular with employees and the culture that he built helped Compaq to attract the best talent. Instead of headquartering the company in a downtown Houston skyscraper, Canion chose a West Coast-style campus surrounded by forests, where every employee had similar offices and no-one (not even the CEO) had a reserved parking spot. At semi-annual meetings, turnout was high as any employee could ask questions to senior managers.
====Introduction of Compaq Portable====
In November 1982, Compaq announced their first product, the Compaq Portable, a portable IBM PC compatible personal computer. It was released in March 1983 at . The Compaq Portable was one of the progenitors of today's laptop; some called it a "suitcase computer" for its size and the look of its case. It was the second IBM PC compatible, being capable of running all software that would run on an IBM PC. It was a commercial success, selling 53,000 units in its first year and generating in sales revenue. The Compaq Portable was the first in the range of the Compaq Portable series. Compaq was able to market a legal IBM clone because IBM mostly used "off the shelf" parts for their PC. Furthermore, Microsoft had kept the right to license MS-DOS, the most popular and de facto standard operating system for the IBM PC, to other computer manufacturers. The only part which had to be duplicated was the BIOS, which Compaq did legally by using clean room design at a cost of .
Unlike other companies, Compaq did not bundle application software with its computers. Vice President of Sales and Service H. L. Sparks said in early 1984:
Compaq instead emphasized PC compatibility, of which Future Computing in May 1983 ranked Compaq as among the "Best" examples. "Many industry observers think [Compaq] is poised for meteoric growth", The New York Times reported in March of that year. By October, when the company announced the Compaq Plus with a hard drive, PC Magazine wrote of "the reputation for compatibility it built with its highly regarded floppy disk portable". Compaq computers remained the most compatible PC clones into 1984, and maintained its reputation for compatibility for years, even as clone BIOSes became available from Phoenix Technologies and other companies that also reverse engineered IBM's design, then sold their version to clone manufacturers.
====Compaq Deskpro====
On June 28, 1984, Compaq released the Deskpro, a 16-bit desktop computer using an Intel 8086 microprocessor running at . It was considerably faster than an IBM PC and was, like the original Compaq Portable, also capable of running IBM software. It was Compaq's first non-portable computer and began the Deskpro line of computers.
====Compaq DeskPro 386====
In 1986, Compaq introduced the Deskpro 386, the first PC based on Intel's new 80386 microprocessor. Bill Gates of Microsoft later said
The Compaq 386 computer marked the first CPU change to the PC platform that was not initiated by IBM. Compaq had concluded, according to PC, that it could do so because "IBM's DOS standard is now bigger than IBM"; IBM could not make changes to the PC architecture it had created to hurt Compaq, without also obsoleting millions of real IBM PCs. An IBM-made 386 machine reached the market almost a year later, but by that time Compaq was the leading 386 supplier with 28% market share, compared to IBM's 16%.
For the first three months after announcement, the Deskpro 386 shipped with Windows/386. This was a version of Windows 2.1 adapted for the 80386 processor. Support for the virtual 8086 mode was added by Compaq engineers. (Windows, running on top of the MS-DOS operating system, would not become a popular "operating environment" until at least the release of Windows 3.0 in 1990.)
====Compaq SystemPro====
Compaq's technical leadership and the rivalry with IBM was emphasized when the SystemPro server was launched in late 1989 – this was a true server product with standard support for a second CPU and RAID, but also the first product to feature the EISA bus, designed in reaction to IBM's MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) which was incompatible with the original AT bus.
Although Compaq had become successful by being 100 percent IBM-compatible, it decided to continue with the original AT bus—which it renamed ISA—instead of licensing IBM's MCA. Prior to developing EISA Compaq had invested significant resources into reverse engineering MCA, but its executives correctly calculated that the $80 billion already spent by corporations on IBM-compatible technology would make it difficult for even IBM to force manufacturers to adopt the new MCA design. Instead of cloning MCA, Compaq led an alliance with Hewlett Packard and seven other major manufacturers, known collectively as the "Gang of Nine", to develop EISA.
====Compaq SLT and LTE====
Development of a truly mobile successor to the Portable line began in 1986, the company releasing two stopgap products in the meantime, the SLT (Compaq's first laptop) and the Compaq Portable III (a lighter-weight, lunchbox-sized entry in the Portable line). In 1989, they introduced the LTE, their first notebook-sized laptop which competed with NEC's UltraLite and Zenith Data Systems's MinisPort. However, whereas the UltraLite and MinisPort failed to gain much uptake due to their novel but nonstandard data storage technologies, the LTE succeeded on account of its use of the conventional floppy drive and spinning hard drive, allowing users to transfer data to and from their desktop computers without any hassle. As well, Compaq began offering docking stations with the release of the LTE/386s in 1990, providing performance comparable to then-current desktop machines. Thus, the LTE was the first commercially successful notebook computer, helping launch the burgeoning industry. It was a direct influence on both Apple and IBM for the development of their own notebook computers, the PowerBook and ThinkPad, respectively.
===1990s===
By 1989, The New York Times wrote that being the first to release a 80386-based personal computer made Compaq the leader of the industry and "hurt no company more - in prestige as well as dollars - than" IBM. The company was so influential that observers and its executives spoke of "Compaq compatible". InfoWorld reported that "In the [ISA market] Compaq is already IBM's equal in being seen as a safe bet", quoting a sell-side analyst describing it as "now the safe choice in personal computers". Even rival Tandy Corporation acknowledged Compaq's leadership, stating that within the Gang of Nine "when you have 10 people sit down before a table to write a letter to the president, someone has to write the letter. Compaq is sitting down at the typewriter".
====Ouster of co-founders====
Michael S. Swavely, president of Compaq's North American division since May 1989, took a six-month sabbatical in January 1991 (which would eventually become retirement effective on July 12, 1991). Eckhard Pfeiffer, then president of Compaq International, was named to succeed him. Pfeiffer also received the title of chief operating officer, with responsibility for the company's operations on a worldwide basis, so that Canion could devote more time to strategy. Swavely's abrupt departure in January led to rumors of turmoil in Compaq's executive suite, including friction between Canion and Swavely, likely as Swavely's rival Pfeiffer had received the number two leadership position. Swavely's U.S. marketing organization was losing ground with only 4% growth for Compaq versus 7% in the market, likely due to short supplies of the LTE 386s from component shortages, rivals that undercut Compaq's prices by as much as 35%, and large customers who did not like Compaq's dealer-only policy. Pfeiffer became president and CEO of Compaq later that year, as a result of a boardroom coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen that forced co-founder Rod Canion to resign as president and CEO.
Pfeiffer had joined Compaq from Texas Instruments, and established operations from scratch in both Europe and Asia. Pfeiffer was given US$20,000 to start up Compaq Europe He started up Compaq's first overseas office in Munich in 1984. By 1990, Compaq Europe was a $2 billion business and number two behind IBM in that region, and foreign sales contributed 54 percent of Compaq's revenues. Pfeiffer, while transplanting Compaq's U.S. strategy of dealer-only distribution to Europe, was more selective in signing up dealers than Compaq had been in the U. S. such that European dealers were more qualified to handle its increasingly complex products. An analyst stated that "Compaq has made a lot of tactical errors in the last year and a half. They were trend-setters, now they are lagging". Canion initially believed that the 1990s recession was responsible for Compaq's declining sales but insisted that they would recover once the economy improved, however Pfeiffer's observation of the European market noted that it was competition as rivals could match Compaq at a fraction of the cost. Under pressure from Compaq's board to control costs as staff was ballooning at their Houston headquarters despite falling U.S. sales, while the number of non-U.S. employees had stayed constant, Compaq made its first-ever layoffs (1400 employees which was 12% of its workforce) while Pfeiffer was promoted to EVP and COO.
Rosen initiated a 14-hour board meeting, and the directors also interviewed Pfeiffer for several hours without informing Canion. At the conclusion, the board was unanimous in picking Pfeiffer over Canion. As Canion was popular with company workers, 150 employees staged an impromptu protest with signs stating "We love you, Rod." and taking out a newspaper ad saying "Rod, you are the wind beneath our wings. We love you."
====Market ascension====
Under Pfeiffer's tenure as chief executive, Compaq entered the retail computer market with the Compaq Presario as one of the first manufacturers in the mid-1990s to market a sub-$1000 PC. In order to maintain the prices it wanted, Compaq became the first first-tier computer manufacturer to utilize CPUs from AMD and Cyrix. The two price wars resulting from Compaq's actions ultimately drove numerous competitors from the market, such as Packard Bell and AST Research. From third place in 1993, Compaq had overtaken Apple Computer and even surpassed IBM as the top PC manufacturer in 1994, as both IBM and Apple were struggling considerably during that time. Compaq's inventory and gross margins were better than that of its rivals which enabled it to wage the price wars.
Compaq had decided to make a foray into printers in 1989, and the first models were released to positive reviews in 1992. However, Pfeiffer saw that the prospects of taking on market leader Hewlett-Packard (who had 60% market share) was tough, as that would force Compaq to devote more funds and people to that project than originally budgeted. Compaq ended up selling the printer business to Xerox and took a charge of $50 million.
In 1994, Compaq formed a joint venture with ADI Corporation, a Taiwanese manufacturer who produced the bulk of Compaq's monitors, to raise multiple factories in Mexico, Brazil, and Europe to assemble and store ADI's monitors. Compaq sold many of the monitors that they offered to customers of their Deskpro and Presario lines as standalone units to third-party resellers, including their popular 171FS monitor.
On June 26, 1995, Compaq reached an agreement with Cisco Systems, Inc., in order to get into networking, including digital modems, routers, and switches favored by small businesses and corporate departments, which was now a $4 billion business and the fastest-growing part of the computer hardware market. Compaq also built up a network engineering and marketing staff. John T. Rose, who previously ran Compaq's desktop PC division, took over the corporate server business from SVP Gary Stimac who had resigned. Rose had joined Compaq in 1993 from Digital Equipment Corporation where he oversaw the personal computer division and worldwide engineering, while Stimac had been with Compaq since 1982 and was one of the longest-serving executives. Senior Vice-president for North America Ross Cooley announced his resignation effective at the end of 1996. CFO Daryl J. White, who joined the company in January, 1983 resigned in May, 1996 after 8 years as CFO. Michael Winkler, who joined Compaq in 1995 to run its portable computer division, was promoted to general manager of the new PC products group. Earl Mason, hired from Inland Steel effective in May 1996, immediately made an impact as the new CFO. Under Mason's guidance, Compaq utilized its assets more efficiently instead of focusing just on income and profits, which increased Compaq's cash from to nearly in one year. Additionally, Compaq's return on invested capital (after-tax operating profit divided by operating assets) doubled to 50 percent from 25 percent in that period.
Most of Compaq's server sales were for systems that would be running Microsoft's Windows NT operating system, and indeed Compaq was the largest hardware supplier for Windows NT. Compaq was also the largest hardware supplier for SCO's Unix products, This acquisition instantly gave Compaq a presence in the higher end business computing market. The alliance between Compaq and SCO took advantage of this to put out the UnixWare NonStop Clusters product in 1998.
Minor acquisitions centered around building a networking arm and included NetWorth based in Irving, Texas and Thomas-Conrad based in Austin, Texas—both acquired in 1995. In 1997, Microcom was also acquired, based in Norwood, MA, which brought a line of modems, Remote Access Servers (RAS) and the popular Carbon Copy software.
In 1998, Compaq acquired Digital Equipment Corporation for a then-industry record of $9.6 billion. The merger made Compaq, at the time, the world's second largest computer maker in the world in terms of revenue behind IBM. When the announcement was made, it was initially viewed as a master stroke as it immediately gave Compaq a 22,000 person global service operation to help corporations handle major technological purchases (by 2001 services made up over 20% of Compaq's revenues, largely due to the Digital employees inherited from the merger), in order to compete with IBM. However it was also risky merger, as the combined company would have to lay off 2,000 employees from Compaq and 15,000 from Digital which would potentially hurt morale. Furthermore, Compaq fell behind schedule in integrating Digital's operations, which also distracted the company from its strength in low-end PCs where it used to lead the market in rolling out next-generation systems which let rival Dell grab market share. Reportedly Compaq had three consulting firms working to integrate Digital alone.
However, Pfeiffer had little vision for what the combined companies should do, or indeed how the three dramatically different cultures could work as a single entity, and Compaq struggled from strategy indecisiveness and lost focus, as a result being caught in between the low end and high end of the market. Mark Anderson, president of Strategic News Service, a research firm based in Friday Harbor, Wash. was quoted as saying, "The kind of goals he had sounded good to shareholders – like being a $50 billion company by the year 2000, or to beat I.B.M. – but they didn't have anything to do with customers. The new C.E.O. should look at everything Eckhard acquired and ask: did the customer benefit from that. If the answer isn't yes, they should get rid of it." On one hand, Compaq had previously dominated the PC market with its price war but was now struggling against Dell, which sold directly to buyers, avoiding the dealer channel and its markup, and built each machine to order to keep inventories and costs at a minimum.
====Ouster of Pfeiffer====
In early 1998, Compaq had the problem of bloated PC inventories. By summer 1998, Compaq was suffering from product-quality problems. Robert W. Stearns, SVP of Business Development, said "In [Pfeiffer's] quest for bigness, he lost an understanding of the customer and built what I call empty market share—large but not profitable", while Jim Moore, a technology strategy consultant with GeoPartners Research in Cambridge, Mass., says Pfeiffer "raced to scale without having economies of scale." The "colossus" that Pfeiffer built up was not nimble enough to adapt to the fast-changing computer industry. That year Compaq forecast demand poorly and shipped too many PCs, causing resellers to dump them at fire sale prices, and since Compaq protected resellers from heavy losses it cost them two quarters of operating profits. There were accusations that Gutsch and others sought to divide top management, although this was regarded by others as sour grapes on the part of executives who were shut out of planning that involved the acquisitions of Tandem Computers and Digital Equipment Corp. Pfeiffer reduced the size of the group working on the deal due to news leaks, saying "We cut the team down to the minimum number of people—those who would have to be directly involved, and not one person more". Robert W. Stearns, Compaq's senior vice president for business development, with responsibility for mergers and acquisitions, had opposed the acquisition of Digital as the cultural differences between both companies were too great, and complained that he was placed on the "B team" as a result.
Compaq entered 1999 with strong expectations. Fourth-quarter 1998 earnings reported in January 1999 beat expectations by six cents a share with record 48 percent growth. The company launched Compaq.com as the key for its new direct sales strategy, and planned an IPO for AltaVista toward the end of 1999 in order to capitalize on the dotcom bubble. However, by February 1999, analysts were sceptical of Compaq's plan to sell both direct and to resellers. Compaq was hit with two class-action lawsuits, as a result of CFO Earl Mason, SVP John Rose, and other executives selling of stock before a conference call with analysts, where they noted that demand for PCs was slowing down.
On April 17, 1999, just nine days after Compaq reported first-quarter profit being at half of what analysts had expected, the latest in a string of earnings disappointments, Pfeiffer was forced to resign as CEO in a coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen. Reportedly, at the special board meeting held on April 15, 1999, the directors were unanimous in dismissing Pfeiffer. The company's stock had fallen 50 percent since its all-time high in January 1999. While rival Dell had 55% growth in U.S. PC sales in the first quarter of 1999, Compaq could only manage 10%. Rosen's priority was to have Compaq catchup as an E-commerce competitor, and he also moved to streamline operations and reduce the indecision that plagued the company. Subsequent earnings releases from Compaq's rivals, Dell, Gateway, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard suggested that the problems were not affecting the whole PC industry as Pfeiffer had suggested. They began "cleaning house", as shortly afterward many of Pfeiffer's top executives resigned or were pushed out, including John J. Rando, Earl L. Mason, and John T. Rose. Rando, senior vice president and general manager of Compaq Services, was a key player during the merger discussions and the most senior executive from Digital to remain with Compaq after the acquisition closed and had been touted by some as the heir-apparent to Pfeiffer. Rando's division had performed strongly as it had sales of for the first quarter compared to in 1998, which met expectations and was anticipated to post accelerated and profitable growth going forward. At the time of Rando's departure, Compaq Services ranked third behind those of IBM and EDS, while slightly ahead of Hewlett-Packard's and Andersen Consulting, however customers switched from Digital technology-based workstations to those of HP, IBM, and Sun Microsystems. Mason, senior vice president and chief financial officer, had previously been offered the job of chief executive of Alliant Foodservice, Inc., a foodservice distributor based in Chicago, and he informed Compaq's board that he accepted the offer. Rose, senior vice president and general manager of Compaq's Enterprise Computing group, resigned effective as of June 3 and was succeeded by Tandem veteran Enrico Pesatori. Rose was reportedly upset that he was not considered for the CEO vacancy, which became apparent once Michael Capellas was named COO. While Enterprise Computing, responsible for engineering and marketing of network servers, workstations and data-storage products, reportedly accounted for one third of Compaq's revenues and likely the largest part of its profits, it was responsible for the earnings shortfall in Q1 of 1999. In addition, Rose was part of the "old guard" close to former CEO Pfeiffer, and he and other Compaq executives had been criticized at the company's annual meeting for selling stock before reporting the sales slowdown. Rose was succeeded by SVP Enrico Pesatori, who had previously worked as a senior executive at Olivetti, Zenith Data Systems, Digital Equipment Corporation, and Tandem Computers.
Pfeiffer's permanent replacement was Michael Capellas, who had been serving as Compaq's SVP and CIO for under a year. A couple months after Pfeiffer's ouster, Capellas was elevated to interim chief operating officer on June 2, 2000,
===Late 1990s–2000s===
In 1998, Compaq signed new sales and equipment alliance with NaviSite. Under the pact, Compaq agreed to promote and sell NaviSite Web hosting services. In return, NaviSite took Compaq as a preferred provider for its storage and Intel-based servers.
During November 1999, Compaq began to work with Microsoft to create the first in a line of small-scale, web-based computer systems called MSN Companions.
====Struggles====
Capellas was able to restore some of the luster lost in the latter part of the Pfeiffer era and he repaired the relationship with Microsoft which had deteriorated under his predecessor's tenure.
However Compaq still struggled against lower-cost competitors with direct sales channels such as Dell who took over the top spot of PC manufacturer from Compaq in 2001. Compaq relied significantly on reseller channels, so their criticism caused Compaq to retreat from its proposed direct sales plan, although Capellas maintained that he would use the middlemen to provide value-added services.
Compaq struggled as a result of the collapse of the dot-com bubble, which hurt sales of their high-end systems in 2001 and 2002, and they managed only a small profit in a few quarters during these years. They also accumulated $1.7 billion in short-term debt around this time. The stock price of Compaq, which was around $25 when Capellas became CEO, was trading at half that by 2002.
===Acquisition by Hewlett-Packard===
In 2002, Compaq signed a merger agreement with Hewlett-Packard for , Compaq shareholders would own 36% of the combined company while HP's would have 64%.
Both companies had to seek approval from their shareholders through separate special meetings. While Compaq shareholders unanimously approved the deal, there was a public proxy battle within HP as the deal was strongly opposed by numerous large HP shareholders, including the sons of the company founders, Walter Hewlett and David W. Packard, as well as the California Public Employees’ Retirement System (CalPERS) and the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan. Walter Hewlett only reluctantly approved the merger, in his duty as a member of the board of directors, since the merger agreement "called for unanimous board approval in order to ensure the best possible shareholder reception". David W. Packard in his opposition to the deal "[cited] massive layoffs as an example of this departure from HP’s core values...[arguing] that although the founders never guaranteed job security, 'Bill and Dave never developed a premeditated business strategy that treated HP employees as expendable.'" Packard further stated that "[[Carly_Fiorina|[Carly] Fiorina]]’s high-handed management and her efforts to reinvent the company ran counter to the company’s core values as established by the founders". The founders' families who controlled a significant amount of HP shares were further irked because Fiorina had made no attempt to reach out to them and consult about the merger, instead they received the same standard roadshow presentation as other investors. Carly Fiorina, initially seen as HP's savior when she was hired as CEO back in 1999, had seen the company's stock price drop to less than half since she assumed the position, and her job was said to be on shaky ground before the merger announcement. Detractors of the deal noted that buying Compaq was a "distraction" that would not directly help HP take on IBM's breadth or Dell Computer's direct sales model. Plus there were significant cultural differences between HP and Compaq; which made decisions by consensus and rapid autocratic styles, respectively. One of Compaq's few bright spots was its services business, which was outperforming HP's own services division.
The merger was approved by HP shareholders only after the narrowest of margins, and allegations of vote buying (primarily involving an alleged last-second back-room deal with Deutsche Bank) haunted the new company. It was subsequently disclosed that HP had retained Deutsche Bank's investment banking division in January 2002 to assist in the merger. HP had agreed to pay Deutsche Bank guaranteed, and another contingent upon approval of the merger. On August 19, 2003, the U.S. SEC charged Deutsche Bank with failing to disclose a material conflict of interest in its voting of client proxies for the merger and imposed a civil penalty of . Deutsche Bank consented without admitting or denying the findings.
Hewlett-Packard announced the completion of merger on May 3, 2002, and the merged HP-Compaq company was officially launched on May 7. Compaq's pre-merger ticker symbol was CPQ. This was combined with Hewlett-Packard's ticker symbol (HWP) to create the current ticker symbol (HPQ), which was announced on May 6.
===Post-merger===
Capellas, Compaq's last chairman and CEO, became president of the post-merger Hewlett-Packard, under chairman and CEO Carly Fiorina, to ease the integration of the two companies. However, Capellas was reported not to be happy with his role, being said not to be utilized and being unlikely to become CEO as the board supported Fiorina. Capellas stepped down as HP president on November 12, 2002, after just six months on the job, to become CEO of MCI Worldcom where he would lead its acquisition by Verizon. Capellas' former role of president was not filled as the executives who reported to him then reported directly to the CEO.
Fiorina helmed the post-merger HP for nearly three years after Capellas left. HP laid off thousands of former Compaq, DEC, HP, and Tandem employees, its stock price generally declined and profits did not perk up. Several senior executives from the Compaq side including Jeff Clarke and Peter Blackmore would resign or be ousted from the post-merger HP. Though the combination of both companies' PC manufacturing capacity initially made the post-merger HP number one, it soon lost the lead and further market share to Dell which squeezed HP on low end PCs. HP was also unable to compete effectively with IBM in the high-end server market. In addition, the merging of the stagnant Compaq computer assembly business with HP's lucrative printing and imaging division was criticized for obstructing the profitability of the printing/imaging segment. Overall, it has been suggested that the purchase of Compaq was not a good move for HP, due to the narrow profit margins in the commoditized PC business, especially in light of IBM's 2004 announcement to sell its PC division to Lenovo. The Inquirer noted that the continued low return on investment and small margins of HP's personal computer manufacturing business, now named the Personal Systems Group, "continues to be what it was in the individual companies, not much more than a job creation scheme for its employees".
In February 2005, the board of directors ousted Fiorina, with CFO Robert Wayman being named interim CEO. Former Compaq CEO Capellas was mentioned by some as a potential successor, but several months afterwards, Mark Hurd was hired as president and CEO of HP. Hurd separated the PC division from the imaging and printing division and renamed it the Personal Systems Group, placing it under the leadership of EVP Todd R. Bradley. Hewlett Packard's PC business has since been reinvigorated by Hurd's restructuring and now generates more revenue than the traditionally more profitable printers. By late 2006, HP had retaken the #1 sales position of PCs from Dell, which struggled with missed estimates and poor quality, and held that rank until supplanted in the mid-2010s by Lenovo.
Most Compaq products have been re-branded with the HP nameplate, such as the company's market leading ProLiant server line (now owned by Hewlett Packard Enterprise, which spun off from HP in 2015), while the Compaq brand was repurposed for some of HP's consumer-oriented and budget products, notably Compaq Presario PCs. HP's business computers line was discontinued in favour of the Compaq Evo line, which was initially rebranded HP Compaq but now use brands such as EliteBook and ProBook, among others. HP's Jornada PDAs were replaced by Compaq iPAQ PDAs, which were renamed HP iPAQ. Following the merger, all Compaq computers were shipped with HP software.
In May 2007, HP announced in a press release a new logo for their Compaq Division to be placed on the new model Compaq Presarios.
In 2008, HP reshuffled its business line notebooks. The "Compaq" name from its "HP Compaq" series was originally used for all of HP's business and budget notebooks. However, the HP EliteBook line became the top of the business notebook lineup while the HP Compaq B series became its middle business line. As of early 2009, the "HP ProBook" filled out HP's low end business lineup.
In 2009, HP sold part of Compaq's former headquarters to the Lone Star College System.
On August 18, 2011, then-CEO of HP Léo Apotheker announced plans for a partial or full spinoff of the Personal Systems Group. The PC unit had the lowest profit margin although it accounted for nearly a third of HP's overall revenues in 2010. HP was still selling more PCs than any other vendor, shipping 14.9 million PCs in the second quarter of 2011 (17.5% of the market according to Gartner), while Dell and Lenovo were tied for second place, each with more than a 12% share of the market and shipments of over 10 million units. However, the announcement of the PC spinoff (concurrent with the discontinuation of WebOS, and the purchase of Autonomy Corp. for $10 billion) was poorly received by the market, and after Apotheker's ouster, plans for a divestiture were cancelled. In March 2012, the printing and imaging division was merged into the PC unit. In Q2 2013, Forbes reported that Lenovo ranked ahead of HP as the world's number-one PC supplier.
The Compaq brand name was discontinued in the United States by HP in 2013. That same year, Globalk (a Brazilian-based retailer and licensing management firm) started a partnership with HP to re-introduce the brand with a new line of desktop and laptop computers. The brand has since been relicensed to Positivo Tecnologia (a Brazilian-based computer technology company) starting on April 13, 2021.
In 2015, Grupo Newsan (an Argentinian-based company) acquired the brand's license, along with a $3 million investment, and developed two new lines of Presario notebooks for the local market over the course of the year. Compaq's Argentine web site went offline in March 2019, with the last archived copy of the site being made in October 2018. It featured the same models that were introduced in 2016.
In 2018, Ossify Industries (an Indian-based company) entered a licensing agreement with HP to use the Compaq brand name for the distribution and manufacturing of Smart TV sets.
==Headquarters==
The Compaq World Headquarters campus consisted of of land which contained 15 office buildings, 7 manufacturing buildings, a product conference center, an employee cafeteria, mechanical laboratories, warehouses, and chemical handling facilities.
Instead of headquartering the company in a downtown Houston skyscraper, then-CEO and co-founder Rod Canion chose a West Coast-style campus surrounded by forests, where every employee had similar offices and no-one (not even the CEO) had a reserved parking spot.
After Canion's ouster, senior vice-president of human resources, Hans W. Gutsch, oversaw the company's facilities and security. Gutsch had an extensive security system and guard station installed on the eight floor of CCA-1, where the company's senior vice presidents had their offices. Eckhard Pfeiffer, president and CEO, introduced a whole series of executive perks to a company that had always had an egalitarian culture; for instance, he oversaw the construction of an executive parking garage, previously parking places had never been reserved.
On August 31, 1998, the Compaq Commons was opened in the headquarters campus, which featured a conference center, an employee convenience store, a wellness center, and an employee cafeteria.
Compaq's former headquarters then became HP's United States campus after Compaq was acquired by HP in 2002. From May 2002 to April 2022, the site was one of HP's largest campuses, with 7,000 employees in all six of HP's divisions. In 2009, HP sold part of Compaq's former headquarters to the Lone Star College System, and so were subsequently demolished by implosion on September 18, 2011 to make way for a new green space where the buildings once stood.
The campus was later inherited by Hewlett Packard Enterprise, one of the successor companies when HP split into two in November 2015. In 2018, Hewlett Packard Enterprise announced the sale of the entire former Compaq headquarters, which was subsequently sold to Mexican beverage distributor Mexcor in April 2022. In March 2024, a major portion of Compaq's former headquarters and HP/HPE campus was then rebranded as Viva Center by the property owner, Morales Capital Group, which plans to turn the campus into a mixed-use tech hub featuring public gathering areas, events and apartments.
==Competitors==
Compaq originally competed directly against IBM, manufacturing computer systems equivalent with the IBM PC, as well as Apple Computer. In the 1990s, as IBM's own PC division declined, Compaq faced other IBM PC Compatible manufacturers like Dell, Packard Bell, AST Research, and Gateway 2000.
By the mid-1990s, Compaq's price war had enabled it to overtake IBM and Apple, while other IBM PC Compatible manufacturers such as Packard Bell and AST were driven out from the market. Dell overtook Compaq and became the number-one supplier of PCs in 1999, which also coincided with the team's first use of BMW engines for their cars as part of a then-partnership with BMW at the time. The company sponsored the 2000 and 2001 British Grand Prix, with all of their cars and team equipment featuring prominent Compaq branding throughout among other brands. After Compaq was acquired by HP in 2002, HP inherited and continued the sponsorship deal for a few more years, replacing the Compaq branding on all cars and team equipment with the HP branding following the 2002 merger. HP then sponsored the 2002 British Grand Prix up until the 2005 British Grand Prix, the latter of which also marked the last time the team used BMW engines for their cars before switching over to Cosworth engines the following season.
|
[
"Texas Instruments",
"HP EliteBook",
"RAID",
"AltaVista",
"docking station",
"IPAQ",
"MCI Communications",
"AMD",
"Hewlett Packard Enterprise",
"Personal computer",
"AST Research",
"Harris County, Texas",
"IBM",
"International Data Corporation",
"ADI Corporation",
"x86",
"Williams FW23",
"Shenzhen",
"InfoWorld",
"Phoenix Technologies",
"venture capital financing",
"2000 British Grand Prix",
"Byte (magazine)",
"Jim Harris (entrepreneur)",
"Packard Bell",
"Williams FW22",
"Industry Standard Architecture",
"virtual 8086 mode",
"Texas State Highway 249",
"Market share of personal computer vendors",
"Carly Fiorina",
"Maynard, Massachusetts",
"Santa Cruz Operation",
"House of Pies",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"NEC",
"Hewlett-Packard",
"UnixWare",
"Deutsche Bank",
"ThinkPad",
"ticker symbol",
"Lenovo",
"Public company",
"Notebook (laptop)",
"Columbia Data Products",
"Compaq Presario",
"Gang of Nine",
"Tandy Corporation",
"clean room design",
"Compaq Portable series",
"Smart TV",
"Computergram International",
"Fortune 500",
"Sevin Rosen Funds",
"MSN Companion",
"technology company",
"List of computer system manufacturers",
"Cyrix",
"Chief information officer",
"laptop",
"Gateway, Inc.",
"Verizon",
"ZDNet",
"Microcom",
"dot-com bubble",
"Benjamin M. Rosen",
"Compaq LTE/386s",
"Microsoft",
"Compaq SLT",
"Reverse engineering",
"Computer software",
"Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan",
"Goodwill (accounting)",
"Toshiba",
"Intel 8086",
"sell-side analyst",
"Computer hardware",
"IBM PC compatible",
"UnixWare NonStop Clusters",
"Cosworth",
"Forbes",
"Compaq SystemPro",
"Lone Star College–University Park",
"Ogilvy & Mather",
"BIOS",
"Compaq LTE",
"Lone Star College System",
"Williams Racing",
"Unix operating system",
"Macworld",
"NEC UltraLite",
"Extended Industry Standard Architecture",
"Windows NT",
"Compaq Portable",
"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission",
"Intel",
"2002 British Grand Prix",
"China",
"Eckhard Pfeiffer",
"PowerBook",
"BMW",
"MS-DOS",
"The Register",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Thomas-Conrad",
"PC Magazine",
"Olivetti S.p.A.",
"HP ProBook",
"IBM Personal Computer",
"Compaq Portable III",
"Robert Wayman",
"Andersen Consulting",
"HP Inc.",
"Apple Inc.",
"Wintel",
"Michael Capellas",
"2005 British Grand Prix",
"ProLiant",
"The Champions Sun",
"NaviSite",
"Desktop computer",
"Léo Apotheker",
"Bill Murto",
"BMW engines",
"NetWorth",
"Digital Equipment Corporation",
"Houston Business Journal",
"desktop computer",
"HP ProLiant",
"Zenith Data Systems",
"Rod Canion",
"information technology",
"Positivo Tecnologia",
"NonStop (server computers)",
"Tandem Computers",
"Cisco Systems",
"chief operating officer",
"Dell",
"CalPERS",
"Formula One",
"Mark Hurd",
"All-in-one computer",
"2001 British Grand Prix",
"Gartner",
"IBM PC clone",
"Zenith MinisPort",
"Acer Inc.",
"The New York Times",
"i386",
"bundled software",
"Compaq Deskpro 386",
"Gateway 2000",
"Compaq Deskpro",
"2006 British Grand Prix",
"Micro Channel Architecture",
"Bill Gates",
"personal computer"
] |
7,751 |
CPSU (disambiguation)
|
CPSU is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990.
CPSU may also refer to:
==Schools==
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California, USA
Central Philippines State University, Negros Occidental, Philippines
Coventry Polytechnic Students Union, England
==Organizations==
Central Public Sector Undertaking, a state-owned enterprise in India
Civil and Public Services Union, an Irish trade union
Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit, a think tank in London
Communist Party of Social Justice, political party in Russia established in 2012
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1992)
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (2001)
Community and Public Sector Union, an Australian trade union
Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union
|
[
"Community and Public Sector Union",
"Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit",
"Communist Party of Social Justice",
"Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1992)",
"Central Philippines State University",
"California Polytechnic State University",
"Public sector undertakings in India",
"Communist Party of the Soviet Union (2001)",
"CPSU",
"Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"Coventry Polytechnic",
"Civil and Public Services Union"
] |
7,755 |
Cluny
|
Cluny () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is northwest of Mâcon.
The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in 910. The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The abbey was sacked by the Huguenots in 1562, and many of its valuable manuscripts were destroyed or removed.
==Geography==
The river Grosne flows northward through the commune and crosses the town.
==Population==
|
[
"Departments of France",
"Cluniac Reforms",
"Communes of the Saône-et-Loire department",
"Saône-et-Loire",
"William I of Aquitaine",
"Mâcon",
"Grosne (river)",
"Regions of France",
"Huguenots",
"Bourgogne-Franche-Comté",
"Benedictine",
"Communes of France",
"Cluny Abbey"
] |
7,756 |
Chet Atkins
|
Chester Burton Atkins (June 20, 1924 – June 30, 2001), also known as "Mister Guitar" and "the Country Gentleman", was an American musician who, along with Owen Bradley and Bob Ferguson, helped create the Nashville sound, the country music style which expanded its appeal to adult pop music fans. He was primarily a guitarist, but he also played the mandolin, fiddle, banjo, and ukulele, and occasionally sang.
Atkins's signature picking style was inspired by Merle Travis. Other major guitar influences were Django Reinhardt, George Barnes, Les Paul, and, later, Jerry Reed. In 2023, Atkins was named the 39th best guitarist of all time. Among many other honors, Atkins received 14 Grammy Awards and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. He also received nine Country Music Association awards for Instrumentalist of the Year. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, and the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum.
==Biography==
===Childhood and early life===
Atkins was born on June 20, 1924, in Luttrell, Tennessee, near Clinch Mountain. His parents divorced when he was six years old, after which he was raised by his mother. He was the youngest of three boys and a girl. He started out on the ukulele, later moving on to the fiddle, but he made a swap with his brother Lowell when he was nine: an old pistol and some chores for a guitar. He stated in his 1974 autobiography, "We were so poor and everybody around us was so poor that it was the forties before anyone even knew there had been a depression." Forced to relocate to Fortson, Georgia, outside of Columbus to live with his father because of a critical asthma condition, Atkins was a sensitive youth who became obsessed with music. Because of his illness, he was forced to sleep in a straight-back chair to breathe comfortably. On those nights, he played his guitar until he fell asleep holding it, a habit that lasted his whole life. While living in Fortson, Atkins attended the historic Mountain Hill School. He returned in the 1990s to play a series of charity concerts to save the school from demolition.
Stories have been told about the very young Chet who, when a friend or relative would come to visit and play guitar, crowded the musician and put his ear so close to the instrument that it became difficult for the visitor to play. His first guitar had a nail for a nut and was so bowed that only the first few frets could be used. He later purchased a semi-acoustic electric guitar and amplifier, but he had to travel many miles to find an electrical outlet, since his home didn't have electricity.
Later in life, he lightheartedly gave himself (along with John Knowles, Tommy Emmanuel, Steve Wariner, and Jerry Reed) the honorary degree CGP ("Certified Guitar Player").
His half-brother Jim was a successful guitarist who worked with the Les Paul Trio in New York. This early influence dramatically shaped his unique playing style.
===Early musical career===
After dropping out of high school in 1942, Atkins landed a job at WNOX (AM) (now WNML) radio in Knoxville, where he played fiddle and guitar with the singer Bill Carlisle and the comic Archie Campbell and became a member of the station's Dixieland Swingsters, a small swing instrumental combo. After three years, he moved to WLW-AM in Cincinnati, Ohio, where Merle Travis had formerly worked.
After six months, he moved to Raleigh and worked with Johnnie and Jack before heading for Richmond, Virginia, where he performed with Sunshine Sue Workman. Atkins's shy personality worked against him, as did the fact that his sophisticated style led many to doubt he was truly "country". He was fired often but was soon able to land another job at another radio station on account of his unique playing ability.
Travelling to Chicago, Atkins auditioned for Red Foley, who was leaving his star position on WLS-AM's National Barn Dance to join the Grand Ole Opry. Atkins made his first appearance at the Opry in 1946 as a member of Foley's band. He also recorded a single for Nashville-based Bullet Records that year. That single, "Guitar Blues", was fairly progressive, including a clarinet solo by the Nashville dance band musician Dutch McMillin and produced by Jim Bulleit, founder of Bullet Records. He had a solo spot on the Opry, but when that was cut, Atkins moved on to KWTO in Springfield, Missouri. Despite the support of executive Si Siman, however, he soon was fired for not sounding "country enough".
While he had not yet had a hit record for RCA Victor, his stature was growing. He began assisting Sholes as a session leader when the New York–based producer needed help organizing Nashville sessions for RCA Victor artists. Atkins's first hit single was "Mr. Sandman", followed by "Silver Bell", which he recorded as a duet with Hank Snow. His albums also became more popular. He was featured on ABC-TV's The Eddy Arnold Show in the summer of 1956 and on Country Music Jubilee in 1957 and 1958 (by then renamed Jubilee USA).
In addition to recording, Atkins was a design consultant for Gretsch, which manufactured a popular Chet Atkins line of electric guitars from 1955 to 1980. He became manager of RCA Victor's Nashville studios, eventually inspiring and seeing the completion of the legendary RCA Studio B, the first studio built specifically for the purpose of recording on the now-famous Music Row. Also later on, Chet and Owen Bradley would become instrumental in the creation of studio B's adjacent building RCA Studio A as well. and Don Gibson's "Oh Lonesome Me" and "Blue Blue Day". The once-rare phenomenon of having a country hit cross over to pop success became more common. He and Bradley had essentially put the producer in the driver's seat, guiding an artist's choice of material and the musical background. Other Nashville producers quickly copied this successful formula, which resulted in certain country hits "crossing over" to find success in the pop field.
Atkins made his own records, which usually visited pop standards and jazz, in a sophisticated home studio, often recording the rhythm tracks at RCA and adding his solo parts at home, refining the tracks until the results satisfied him. In later years, when Bradley asked how he achieved his sound, Atkins told him "it was Porter." Porter described Atkins as respectful of musicians when recording—if someone was out of tune, he would not single that person out by name. Instead, he would say something like, "we got a little tuning problem ... Everybody check and see what's going on." occasionally on a primitive radio. He was sure no one could play that articulately with just the thumb and index finger (which was exactly how Travis played), and he assumed it required the thumb and two fingers—and that was the style he pioneered and mastered.
He enjoyed jamming with fellow studio musicians, and they were asked to perform at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1960. That performance was cancelled because of rioting, but a live recording of the group (After the Riot at Newport) was released. Atkins performed by invitation at the White House for every U.S. president from John F. Kennedy through to George H. W. Bush. Atkins was a member of the Million Dollar Band during the 1980s. He is also well known for his song "Yankee Doodle Dixie", in which he played "Yankee Doodle" and "Dixie" simultaneously, on the same guitar.
Before his mentor Sholes died in 1968, Atkins had become vice president of RCA's country division. In 1987, he told Nine-O-One Network magazine that he was "ashamed" of his promotion: "I wanted to be known as a guitarist and I know, too, that they give you titles like that in lieu of money. So beware when they want to make you vice president." He had brought Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, Connie Smith, Bobby Bare, Dolly Parton, Jerry Reed, and John Hartford to the label in the 1960s and inspired and helped countless others. He took a considerable risk during the mid-1960s, when the civil rights movement sparked violence throughout the South, by signing country music's first African-American singer, Charley Pride, who sang rawer country than the smoother music Atkins had pioneered.
Atkins's biggest hit single came in 1965, with "Yakety Axe", an adaptation of "Yakety Sax", by his friend, the saxophonist Boots Randolph. He rarely performed in those days and eventually hired other RCA producers, such as Bob Ferguson and Felton Jarvis, to lessen his workload.
In later years, he returned to radio, appearing on Garrison Keillor's Prairie Home Companion program, on American Public Media radio, even picking up a fiddle from time to time, His memorial service was held at Ryman Auditorium in Nashville. He was buried at Harpeth Hills Memory Gardens in Nashville.
Atkins received numerous awards, including 14 Grammy awards and nine Country Music Association awards for Instrumentalist of the Year. In 2002, Atkins was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. This stretch of interstate runs through Fortson, where Atkins spent much of his childhood.
George Harrison was notably inspired by Atkins. This influence is shown on songs such as All My Loving.
At the age of 13, the future jazz guitarist Earl Klugh was captivated watching Atkins perform on The Perry Como Show. He was also a big influence on Doyle Dykes, and inspired Tommy Emmanuel. Johnny Winter's thumb-picking style came from Atkins' playing. Steve Howe called Atkins his favorite "all round guitarist", adding that "there are those in different areas of music who are better than him, but nobody had the same ability when it comes to being across the board. For me, it was an education to listen to what he did."
Clint Black's album Nothin' but the Taillights includes the song "Ode to Chet", which includes the lyrics "'Cause I can win her over like Romeo did Juliet, if I can only show her I can almost pick that legato lick like Chet" and "It'll take more than Mel Bay 1, 2, & 3 if I'm ever gonna play like CGP." Atkins played guitar on the track. At the end of the song, Black and Atkins had a brief conversation.
Atkins' song "Jam Man" is currently used in commercials for Esurance.
In 1967, a tribute song, "Chet's Tune", was produced for Atkins' birthday, with contributions by a long list of RCA Victor artists, including Eddy Arnold, Connie Smith, Jerry Reed, Willie Nelson, Hank Snow, and others. The song was written by the Nashville songwriter Cy Coben, a friend of Atkins. The single reached number 38 on the country charts.
In 2009, Steve Wariner released an album titled My Tribute to Chet Atkins. One song from that record, "Producer's Medley", featured Wariner's recreation of several famous songs that Atkins both produced and performed. "Producer's Medley" won the Grammy for Best Country Instrumental Performance in 2010.
==Discography==
==Industry awards==
Country Music Association
1967 Instrumentalist of the Year
1968 Instrumentalist of the Year
1969 Instrumentalist of the Year
1981 Instrumentalist of the Year
1982 Instrumentalist of the Year
1983 Instrumentalist of the Year
1984 Instrumentalist of the Year
1985 Instrumentalist of the Year
1988 Musician of the Year
Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum
Inducted in 1973
Grammy Awards
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Inductees of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
|
[
"Jim Reeves",
"country music",
"civil rights movement",
"Grammy Awards",
"Richmond, Virginia",
"Bob Ferguson (musician)",
"Four Walls (Jim Reeves song)",
"Dynamic range",
"Rolling Stone (magazine)",
"Inductees of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame",
"Bob Wills",
"Grand Ole Opry",
"RCA Victor Records",
"Eddy Arnold",
"Seven Spanish Angels",
"Rolling Stone",
"Luttrell, Tennessee",
"KWTO (AM)",
"Mr. Sandman",
"Columbia Records",
"Floyd Cramer",
"George Harrison",
"room modes",
"Owen Bradley",
"Country music",
"colorectal cancer",
"Eldon Shamblin",
"Bill Carlisle",
"Roger C. Field",
"country rock",
"Jerry Reed",
"The Browns",
"jazz",
"Billboard (magazine)",
"golden ear",
"Ann-Margret",
"Prairie Home Companion",
"fiddle",
"RCA Studio B",
"smooth jazz",
"Gretsch 6120",
"John Knowles (guitarist)",
"amateur radio",
"Johnnie and Jack",
"Nashville sound",
"RCA Victor",
"American Public Media",
"WNML (AM)",
"Playing by ear",
"EMT 140",
"Rock music",
"Nothin' but the Taillights",
"Yakety Sax",
"Hank Snow",
"Suzy Bogguss",
"Country Music Television",
"Denver, Colorado",
"Earl Klugh",
"Roger Whittaker",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Garrison Keillor",
"Lenny Breau",
"Country Music Association Awards",
"Columbus, Georgia",
"Archie Campbell (comedian)",
"Tommy Emmanuel",
"National Barn Dance",
"Interstate 185 (Georgia)",
"Ozark Jubilee",
"Cy Coben",
"Reverberation",
"White House",
"Chet Atkins discography",
"Steve Wariner",
"Carter Family",
"Les Paul",
"Gretsch",
"Gibson Guitar Corporation",
"Ryman Auditorium",
"All My Loving",
"Jethro Burns",
"Brian Setzer",
"Don Gibson",
"Dolly Parton",
"Asleep at the Wheel",
"Paul Yandell",
"Marty Stuart",
"RCA Studio A",
"Eric Johnson (guitarist, born 1954)",
"Crossover (music)",
"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame",
"Elvis Presley",
"June Carter",
"Homer and Jethro",
"Cliffs of Dover (song)",
"Vince Gill",
"Les Paul Trio",
"Cincinnati, Ohio",
"Norma Jean (singer)",
"ukulele",
"WLS (AM)",
"David Halberstam",
"Mel Bay",
"Waylon Jennings",
"Jordanaires",
"Pomona College",
"Willie Nelson",
"52nd Annual Grammy Awards",
"Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals",
"Felton Jarvis",
"Sunshine Sue",
"Everly Brothers",
"James P. Johnson",
"Nashville, Tennessee",
"Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award",
"Londonderry Air",
"Corrina, Corrina (song)",
"Nine-O-One Network Magazine",
"Inductees of the Country Music Hall of Fame",
"Grammy Award",
"Chester and Lester",
"Oh Lonesome Me",
"The Eddy Arnold Show",
"Music Row",
"Mark Knopfler",
"Nashville Sound",
"Folk music",
"rockabilly",
"Clinch Mountain",
"George Barnes (musician)",
"Porter Wagoner",
"Arthur Fiedler",
"Stephen H. Sholes",
"WLW",
"Charley Pride",
"Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance",
"Red Foley",
"LaGrange, Georgia",
"Django Reinhardt",
"Merle Travis",
"Doyle Dykes",
"Skeeter Davis",
"Bridges Auditorium",
"Johnny Gimble",
"Bill Porter (sound engineer)",
"The Carter Sisters",
"Guitar Monsters",
"And I Love You So (song)",
"Bob Ferguson (music)",
"Esurance",
"American Radio Relay League",
"Clint Black",
"Steve Howe",
"asthma",
"After the Riot in Newport",
"Bullet Records",
"Johnny Winter",
"Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum",
"Country Music Association",
"Knoxville, Tennessee",
"WSM (AM)",
"John F. Kennedy",
"Million Dollar Band (country music group)",
"Si Siman",
"He'll Have to Go",
"Dixie (song)",
"Newport Jazz Festival",
"George H. W. Bush",
"Bobby Bare",
"John Hartford",
"Yankee Doodle",
"Perry Como",
"Mister Guitar",
"Connie Smith",
"Jerry Bradley (music executive)",
"Dottie West",
"Springfield, Missouri",
"Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum",
"Pop music",
"Billboard Century Award",
"Boots Randolph"
] |
7,757 |
Conrad II (disambiguation)
|
Conrad II or Konrad II may refer to:
Conrad II, Duke of Transjurane Burgundy (, d. 876)
Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor (c. 990–1039)
Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia (probably 1003–1039)
Conrad II, Duke of Bavaria (1054–1055)
Conrad II of Italy (1074–1101)
Conrad II, Count of Luxembourg (died 1136)
Konrad II, Count of Württemberg (died 1143)
Conrad II of Dachau (died 1159)
Conrad II of Znojmo (died 1161)
Conrad II, Duke of Merania (died 1182)
Conrad II of Bohemia (died 1191)
Conrad II of Raabs (died 1191)
Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (1191–1196)
Conrad II, Margrave of Lusatia (died 1210)
Conrad II of Salzwedel (died 1241)
Conrad II (bishop of Hildesheim) (died 1249)
Conrad II of Jerusalem (1228–1254)
Konrad I, Duke of Głogów (died 1273), Konrad II of Silesia
Konrad II of Masovia (died 1294)
Conrad II of Teck (1235–1292)
Conrad II the Hunchback (1252/65–1304)
(died 1350), Count of Freiburg
(died 1401), Count of Oldenburg
Konrad II the Gray (ca. 1340–1403)
|
[
"Konrad II, Count of Württemberg",
"Conrad II (bishop of Hildesheim)",
"Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor",
"Conrad II, Duke of Bavaria",
"Conrad II, Duke of Merania",
"Conrad II of Teck",
"Conrad II, Margrave of Lusatia",
"Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia",
"Conrad II of Jerusalem",
"Conrad II of Dachau",
"Count of Freiburg",
"Count of Oldenburg",
"Conrad II of Znojmo",
"Konrad II of Masovia",
"Conrad II of Bohemia",
"Conrad II of Italy",
"Conrad II, Duke of Transjurane Burgundy",
"Konrad II the Gray",
"Conrad II, Duke of Swabia",
"Conrad II of Raabs",
"Conrad II the Hunchback",
"Conrad II, Count of Luxembourg",
"Konrad I, Duke of Głogów",
"Conrad II of Salzwedel"
] |
7,765 |
Cahiers du Cinéma
|
(, ) is a French film magazine co-founded in 1951 by André Bazin, Jacques Doniol-Valcroze, and Joseph-Marie Lo Duca. It developed from the earlier magazine Revue du Cinéma ( established in 1928) involving members of two Paris film clubs Objectif 49 (Objective 49) (Robert Bresson, Jean Cocteau, and Alexandre Astruc, among others) and the Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin (Latin Quarter Cinema Club).
Initially edited by Doniol-Valcroze and, after 1957, by Éric Rohmer (aka, Maurice Scherer), it included amongst its writers Jacques Rivette, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, and François Truffaut,
==History==
The first issue of Cahiers appeared in April 1951. Much of its head staff, including Bazin, Doniol-Valcroze, Lo Duca, and the various younger, less-established critics, had met and shared their beliefs about film through their involvement in the publication of Revue du Cinéma from 1946 until its final issue in 1948; Cahiers was created as a successor to this earlier magazine.
Early issues of Cahiers were small journals of thirty pages which bore minimalist covers, distinctive for their lack of headlines in favor of film stills on a distinctive bright yellow background. Each issue contained four or five articles (with at least one piece by Bazin in most issues), most of which were reviews of specific films or appreciations of directors, supplemented on occasion by longer theoretical essays. The first few years of the magazine's publication were dominated by Bazin, who was the de facto head of the editorial board.
Bazin intended Cahiers to be a continuation of the intellectual form of criticism that Revue had printed, which prominently featured his articles advocating for realism as the most valuable quality of cinema. As more issues of Cahiers were published, however, Bazin found that a group of young proteges and critics serving as editors underneath him were beginning to disagree with him in the pages of the magazine. Gradually, the tastes of these young critics drifted away from those of Bazin, as members of the group began to write critical appreciations of more commercial American filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks rather than the canonized French and Italian filmmakers that interested Bazin.
After the publication of Truffaut's article, Doniol-Valcroze and most of the Cahiers editors besides Bazin and Lo Duca rallied behind the rebellious authors; Lo Duca left Cahiers a year later, changed the format of Cahiers somewhat, frequently conducting interviews with directors deemed "auteurs" and voting on films in a "Council" of ten core critics. These critics came to champion non-American directors as well, writing on the mise en scène (the "dominant object of study" at the magazine) of such filmmakers as Jean Renoir, Roberto Rossellini, Kenji Mizoguchi, Max Ophüls, and Jean Cocteau, many of whom Bazin had introduced them to. The films that these critics made were experimental explorations of various theoretical, artistic, and ideological aspects of the film form, and would, along with the films of young French filmmakers outside the Cahiers circle, form the basis for the cinematic movement known as the French New Wave. Meanwhile, Cahiers underwent staff changes, as Rohmer hired new editors such as Jean Douchet to fill the roles of those editors who were now making films, while other existing editors, particularly Jacques Rivette, began to write even more for the magazine. Many of the newer critical voices (except for Rivette) largely ignored the films of the New Wave for Hollywood when they were not outright criticizing them, creating friction between much of the directorial side of the younger critics and the head editor Rohmer. A group of five Cahiers editors, including Godard and Doniol-Valcroze and led by Rivette, urged Rohmer to refocus the magazine's content on newer films such as their own. When he refused, the "gang of five" forced Rohmer out and installed Rivette as his replacement in 1963.
Rivette shifted political and social concerns farther to the left, and began a trend in the magazine of paying more attention to non-Hollywood films. The style of the journal moved through literary modernism in the early 1960s to radicalism and dialectical materialism by 1970. Moreover, during the mid-1970s the magazine was run by a Maoist editorial collective. In the mid-1970s, a review of the American film Jaws marked the magazine's return to more commercial perspectives, and an editorial turnover: (Serge Daney, Serge Toubiana, Thierry Jousse, Antoine de Baecque, and Charles Tesson). It led to the rehabilitation of some of the old Cahiers favourites, as well as some new film makers like Manoel de Oliveira, Raoul Ruiz, Hou Hsiao-hsien, Youssef Chahine, and Maurice Pialat. Recent writers have included Daney, André Téchiné, Léos Carax, Olivier Assayas, Danièle Dubroux, and Serge Le Péron.
In 1998, the Editions de l'Etoile (the company publishing Cahiers) was acquired by the press group . Traditionally losing money, the magazine attempted a make-over in 1999 to gain new readers, leading to a first split among writers and resulting in a magazine addressing all visual arts in a post-modernist approach. This version of the magazine printed ill-received opinion pieces on reality TV or video games that confused the traditional readership of the magazine. The entire editorial staff resigned, saying the change posed a threat to their editorial independence.
==Annual top 10 films list==
The magazine has compiled a list of the top 10 films of each year for much of its existence.
|
[
"Phaidon Press",
"Serge Daney",
"Le Monde",
"Alfred Hitchcock",
"Cinephilia",
"Robert Aldrich",
"Andrew Sarris",
"France",
"Kenji Mizoguchi",
"Une femme coquette",
"Sunset Boulevard (film)",
"Robert Bresson",
"Joseph-Marie Lo Duca",
"Jerry Lewis",
"Fritz Lang",
"Roberto Rossellini",
"Youssef Chahine",
"Olivier Assayas",
"Jacques Doniol-Valcroze",
"French New Wave",
"Jean-Michel Frodon",
"Alexandre Astruc",
"List of film periodicals",
"André Téchiné",
"Les Inrockuptibles",
"film magazine",
"Maoist",
"Raoul Ruiz",
"Manoel de Oliveira",
"Nicholas Ray",
"video game",
"Alain Weill",
"dialectical materialism",
"François Truffaut",
"Éric Rohmer",
"Les Echos (France)",
"Sight & Sound",
"Jacques Rivette",
"Jean-Luc Godard",
"auteur theory",
"André Bazin",
"IMDb",
"Max Ophüls",
"reality TV",
"Howard Hawks",
"Jean Cocteau",
"Paris",
"mise en scène",
"Jean Renoir",
"Claude Chabrol",
"Jaws (film)",
"Maurice Pialat",
"Xavier Niel",
"Positif (magazine)",
"Léos Carax",
"Empire (film magazine)",
"post-modernism",
"Hou Hsiao-hsien",
"Cinema of the United States"
] |
7,767 |
Circuit Zandvoort
|
Circuit Zandvoort (), known for sponsorship reasons as CM.com Circuit Zandvoort, previously known as Circuit Park Zandvoort until 2017, is a motorsport race track located in the dunes north of Zandvoort, the Netherlands, near the North Sea coast line and west of Amsterdam. It returned to the Formula One calendar in 2021 as the location of the revived Dutch Grand Prix. This partnership with Formula One will end in 2026.
== History ==
===1930s to mid 1980s===
There were plans for races at Zandvoort before World War II: the first street race was held on 3 June 1939. However, a permanent race track was not constructed until after the war, using communications roads built by the occupying German army. Contrary to popular belief John Hugenholtz cannot be credited with the design of the Zandvoort track, although he was involved as the chairman of the Nederlandse Automobiel Ren Club (Dutch Auto Racing Club) before becoming the first track director in 1949. Instead, it was 1927 Le Mans winner, S. C. H. "Sammy" Davis who was brought in as a track design advisor in July 1946 although the layout was partly dictated by the existing roads.
The first race on the circuit, the Prijs van Zandvoort, took place on 7 August 1948. The race was renamed the Grote Prijs van Zandvoort (Zandvoort Grand Prix) in 1949, then the Grote Prijs van Nederland (Dutch Grand Prix) in 1950. The 1952 race was the first to be run as a round of the World Championship, albeit to Formula Two regulations rather than Formula One regulations like all the European rounds of the championship that year; a similar situation also applied to the 1953. There was no Dutch Grand Prix in 1954, 1956 or 1957, but 1955 saw the first true Formula One race as part of the Drivers' Championship. The Dutch Grand Prix returned in 1958 and remained a permanent fixture on the F1 calendar (with the exception of 1972) through , when it was held for the last time in the 20th century.
===Since 1985===
To solve a number of problems that had made it impossible to develop and upgrade the circuit, most importantly noise pollution for Zandvoort inhabitants living closest to the track, the track management developed and adopted a plan to move the most southern part of the track away from the nearby housing estate, and rebuild a more compact track in the remaining former 'infield'. In January 1987 this plan got the necessary 'green light' when it was formally approved by the Provincial Council of North Holland. However, only a couple of months later a new problem arose: the company that commercially ran the circuit (CENAV), called in the receiver and went out of business, marking the end of 'Circuit Zandvoort'. Again the track, owned by the municipality of Zandvoort, was in danger of being permanently lost for motorsports. However, a new operating foundation, the "Stichting Exploitatie Circuit Park", was formed and started work at the realization of the track's reconstruction plans. Circuit Park Zandvoort was born and in the summer of 1989 the track was remodeled to an interim Club Circuit of , while the disposed southern part of the track was used to build a Vendorado Bungalow Park and new premises for the local football and field-hockey clubs.
In 1995, CPZ (Circuit Park Zandvoort) got the "A Status" of the government of the Netherlands and began building an international Grand Prix Circuit. This project was finished in 2001 when, after the track was redesigned to a long circuit and a new pits building was realized (by HPG, the development company of John Hugenholtz Jr., son of the former director), a new grandstand was situated along the long straight. One of the major events that is held at the circuit, along with DTM and A1GP, is the RTL Masters of Formula 3, where Formula Three cars of several national racing series compete with each other (originally called Marlboro Masters, before tobacco advertising ban). A noise restriction order was responsible for this event moving to the Belgian Circuit Zolder for 2007 and 2008. However, the race returned to its historical home in 2009.
Circuit Park Zandvoort played host to the first race in the 2006/07 season of A1 Grand Prix from 29 September–1 October 2006. On 21 August 2008, the official A1GP site reported that the 2008/09 season's first race has moved from the Mugello Circuit, Italy to Zandvoort on 4–5 October 2008 due to the delay in the building the new chassis for the new race cars. The Dutch round moved to TT Circuit Assen in 2010. A1GP bankrupted before its fifth season and the Dutch round was replaced with Superleague Formula.
In November 2018 reported that Formula One Management (FOM) had invited the owners of the Zandvoort race track to make a proposal to stage a Grand Prix race in 2020. In March 2019, it was confirmed that a letter of intent had been signed between Zandvoort and FOM to stage the Dutch Grand Prix, dependent on private funding being secured to cover the cost of hosting the race. A deadline of 31 March 2019 was set for a final decision to be made. On 14 May 2019 it was confirmed that Zandvoort would host the Dutch Grand Prix for 2020 and beyond for a duration of at least three years, with the option to host another two years beyond that.
Several alterations were made to the track by to bring it up to date with F1 standards, including adding banking to turn 14 (Arie Luyendijkbocht) and turn 3 (Hugenholtzbocht), but the layout as a whole remained the same. The municipality of Zandvoort invested four million euros into the infrastructure around the circuit to improve the accessibility to the track. On 29 August 2019, the 2020 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort was included as the fifth race on the provisional schedule, listed on 3 May 2020, between the Chinese Grand Prix and Spanish Grand Prix. The 2020 scheduled appearance was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, however F1 racing did finally return to the circuit on 5 September 2021. On 17 September 2019, it was announced that Zandvoort would host the FIA Formula 2 Championship and FIA Formula 3 Championship, replacing the series' support races at Circuit Paul Ricard.
==The circuit==
The circuit gained popularity because of its fast, sweeping corners such as Scheivlak as well as the "Tarzanbocht" (Tarzan corner) hairpin at the end of the start/finish straight. Tarzanbocht is the most famous corner in the circuit. Since there is a camber in the corner, it provides excellent overtaking opportunities. It is possible to pass around the outside as well as the easier inside lane. This corner is reportedly named after a local character who had earned the nickname of Tarzan and only wanted to give up his vegetable garden in the dunes if the track's designers named a nearby corner after him. On the other hand, many different stories about Tarzan Corner are known.
The circuit design has been modified and altered several times:
1948–1971: length
1972–1979: length
1980–1989: length
1990–1998: length
1999–2019: length
2020–present: length
===Track configurations===
File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1948.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1948–1971)
File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1973.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1972–1979)
File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1980.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1980–1989)
File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1989.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1990–1998)
File:Circuit Park Zandvoort-1999.svg|Grand Prix Circuit (1999–2019)
File:Zandvoort Circuit.png|Grand Prix Circuit (2020–present)
The corners are named as follows (the numbers correspond to the present map, starting at the start/finish line):
Tarzan corner (1)
Gerlach corner (2)
Hugenholtz corner (3)
Hunserug (4)
Nameless corner (5)
Slotemaker corner (6)
Scheivlak (7)
Masters corner (formerly Marlboro corner) (8)
Nameless corner (formerly Renault corner) (9)
CM.com corner (formerly the Vodafone corner) (10)
Hans Ernst corner 1 and Hans Ernst corner 2 (formerly Audi S corners) (11 + 12)
Nameless corner (formerly Kumho corner) (13)
Arie Luyendyk corner (formerly Bos Uit corner) (14)
The elevation difference is .
Turns 3 and 13/14 are extremely cambered corners; turn 3 has a 19-degree bank while turns 13/14 have an 18-degree bank.
==Events==
Current
April: Supercar Challenge BETCITY Voorjaarsraces
May: GT World Challenge Europe, GT2 European Series, GT4 European Series, GB3 Championship
June: Formula Regional European Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters, ADAC GT Masters, Porsche Carrera Cup Germany, Porsche Carrera Cup Benelux, FIA Masters Historic Formula One Championship Zandvoort Historic Grand Prix, Marcel Albers Memorial Trophy
July: Alpine Elf Cup Zandvoort Summer Trophy, F4 British Championship
August: Formula One Dutch Grand Prix, F1 Academy, Porsche Supercup
September: Supercar Challenge Trophy of the Dunes, Porsche Carrera Cup Benelux, Fun Cup
Former
24H Series
12H Zandvoort (2014–2016)
A1 Grand Prix (2006–2008)
ADAC Formel Masters (2012, 2014)
ADAC Formula 4 (2016, 2019, 2021–2022)
ADAC GT4 Germany (2019, 2021–2023)
ADAC TCR Germany Touring Car Championship (2016–2019)
ATS Formel 3 Cup (2002, 2012)
BMW M1 Procar Championship (1979–1980)
BOSS GP (2002, 2006, 2009–2014, 2017)
British Formula 3 International Series (1971–1973, 1984–1987, 1996)
British GT Championship (2013)
Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft (1978–1979)
Eurocup-3 (2023–2024)
European Formula 5000 Championship (1969–1970, 1973–1975)
European Formula Two Championship (1967–1968, 1979–1980)
European Touring Car Championship (1963–1975, 1977–1979)
European Truck Racing Cup (1990)
Ferrari Challenge Europe (2000, 2002)
FIA European Formula 3 Championship (1976–1983)
FIA Formula 2 Championship (2022–2023)
FIA Formula 3 Championship (2021–2022)
FIA Formula 3 European Championship (2011–2013, 2015–2018)
FIA GT3 European Championship (2011)
Formula 3 Euro Series (2003–2012)
Formula BMW ADAC (2002–2007)
Formula BMW Europe (2009–2010)
Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup (2006–2013)
Formula Renault Eurocup (2000, 2020)
Formula Volkswagen Germany (2001)
French F4 Championship (2020)
French Formula Three Championship (1978)
International Formula 3000 (1985)
Interserie (1975)
Lamborghini Super Trofeo Europe (2019, 2021)
RTL GP Masters of F3 (1991–2006, 2009–2016)
Porsche Carrera Cup France (2016, 2018, 2022)
Prototype Cup Germany (2023–2024)
Racecar Euro Series (2011)
SMP F4 Championship (2016)
Super Tourenwagen Cup (1994)
TCR Europe Touring Car Series (2021)
World Touring Car Championship
FIA WTCC Race of the Netherlands (2007)
World Touring Car Cup
FIA WTCR Race of the Netherlands (2018–2019)
W Series (2021)
==Lap records==
The official lap record for the current circuit layout is 1:11.097, set by Lewis Hamilton driving for Mercedes in the 2021 Dutch Grand Prix. The all-time fastest official track record set during a race weekend for the current Grand Prix Circuit layout is 1:08.885, set by Max Verstappen during qualifying for the aforementioned Grand Prix. As of June 2024, the fastest official race lap records at the Circuit Zandvoort are listed as:
==Fatal accidents==
In the history of the circuit, several fatal accidents have occurred.
==Cycling and running competitions==
Motor racer Willy Koppen was the first woman to participate in motor trials in the early fifties on the circuit. In August 1959 the UCI Road World Championships men's race was held at Zandvoort. André Darrigade of France won the race, Tom Simpson (Britain) was 4th.
In 1994 a large interregional amateur race cycling race was organised by HSV De Kampioen in Haarlem.
Since 2008, the course has been used as the venue for the Runner's World Zandvoort Circuit Run, a 5-kilometre road running competition. The 2010 edition of the race attracted Lornah Kiplagat, a multiple world champion, who won the ladies 5 km race.
The Cycling Zandvoort 24h race was first held on 25–26 May 2013. It is open for public for soloists and teams up to 8 riders. A 6-hours was added to the event in 2016. On 13./14. June 2015 (12:00) the Cycling Zandvoort – 24 hour race over 4307-m-laps took place.
|
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"Lola Cars",
"SMP F4 Championship",
"Shelby Daytona",
"CM (commerce)",
"Group 3 (motorsport)",
"Vodafone",
"Thomas Preining",
"FIA Masters Historic Formula One Championship",
"2014 Formula Renault seasons",
"Richard Attwood",
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"March 85B",
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"Lornah Kiplagat",
"North Sea",
"A1 Grand Prix car",
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"motorsport",
"European Formula Two Championship",
"Arie Luyendyk",
"Ford Escort (Europe)",
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"2001 Formula Volkswagen Germany season",
"Formula BMW",
"Alain Prost",
"BMW M4 DTM (naturally-aspirated)",
"Thomas Mutsch",
"Marvin Kirchhöfer",
"Kumho Tire",
"Gilles Villeneuve",
"2024 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters",
"ADAC Formel Masters",
"David Purley",
"Gabriele Piana",
"Dutch Grand Prix",
"2014 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters",
"Porsche 964",
"Marlboro (cigarette)",
"Chris Lambert (racing driver)",
"1985 Dutch Grand Prix",
"ADAC TCR Germany Touring Car Championship",
"2006 Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup",
"Audi 80",
"IAAF",
"ADAC GT4 Germany",
"2020 Dutch Grand Prix",
"Porsche Carrera Cup",
"Touring car racing",
"Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters",
"Lewis Hamilton",
"Prototype Cup Germany",
"McLaren MP4/2",
"1959 UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race",
"Adrian Zaugg",
"1980 European Formula Two Championship",
"Tecno F3",
"2004 European GT Series",
"Circuit Zolder",
"Yann Ehrlacher",
"F1 Academy",
"1994 Super Tourenwagen Cup",
"1979 Dutch Grand Prix",
"2023 GB3 Championship",
"1953 Dutch Grand Prix",
"André Darrigade",
"British GT Championship",
"race track",
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"road running",
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"2021 Dutch Grand Prix",
"TCR Touring Car",
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"BMW M4",
"Clay Regazzoni",
"S. C. H. \"Sammy\" Davis",
"Mugello Circuit",
"Ferrari 312T",
"Formula Renault",
"Reynard 923",
"Osella",
"Tom Coronel",
"2007 World Touring Car Championship",
"TCR Europe Touring Car Series",
"Nissan 200SX",
"Ferrari 312B",
"Clio Renault Sport",
"Tom Simpson",
"2022 Formula Regional European Championship",
"Tulip Rally",
"GB3 Championship",
"2023 Prototype Cup Germany",
"World Touring Car Championship",
"John Hugenholtz",
"1968 European Formula Two Championship",
"Sebastian Montoya",
"List of Reynard Motorsport cars",
"World Touring Car Cup",
"Ford Capri",
"Marcel Biehl",
"SRO GT4",
"Group A",
"Willy Koppen",
"Roger Ciapponi",
"Interserie",
"Fun Cup",
"Ford GT40",
"Group B",
"2017 FIA Formula 3 European Championship",
"Duqueine D-08",
"Felix Haas (racing driver)",
"2017 ADAC GT Masters",
"Amsterdam",
"Anthony Jurado",
"Luca Ludwig",
"V8Star Series",
"Loek Hartog",
"Chevrolet Camaro",
"Le Mans Prototype",
"Masters of Formula 3",
"Jacky Ickx",
"NASCAR Whelen Euro Series",
"1979 European Formula Two Championship",
"McLaren M10",
"Nicky Pastorelli",
"BMW 3 Series (E90)",
"European Formula 5000 Championship",
"2008-09 A1 Grand Prix season",
"Chinese Grand Prix",
"Lola T70",
"Automobiles Martini",
"Tim Schenken",
"French Formula Three Championship",
"Super 2000",
"List of Formula One circuits",
"GT World Challenge Europe",
"Dutch Supercar Challenge",
"Provincial Council of North Holland",
"Alex Dunne",
"1978 FIA European Formula 3 Championship",
"Signatech",
"Alfa Romeo 33",
"Group 2 (motorsport)",
"Prince Bernhard of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven",
"Kelvin Burt",
"Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft",
"Dallara F3 2019",
"Hans-Georg Bürger",
"Formula One",
"Porsche 911 (classic)",
"Maserati MC12",
"GT4 European Series",
"Dallara Formulino",
"Ralt RT1",
"Marcos LM600",
"Mygale FB02",
"Paul Aron",
"Toine Hezemans",
"Peter Gethin",
"Formula Junior",
"German Formula Three Championship",
"1955 Dutch Grand Prix",
"Michael Widmann",
"Tarzan",
"2022 Zandvoort Formula 2 round",
"2007–08 A1 Grand Prix of Nations, Netherlands",
"Rinaldo Capello",
"FIA Formula 3 European Championship",
"Rob Slotemaker",
"2021 ADAC Formula 4 Championship",
"Netherlands",
"de:Klaas Zwart",
"Lamborghini Super Trofeo",
"Elio de Angelis",
"1952 Dutch Grand Prix",
"Street circuit",
"2019 ADAC Formula 4 Championship",
"Porsche Carrera Cup Germany",
"Group 7 (motorsport)",
"Circuit Paul Ricard",
"Michael Funke",
"2018 Porsche Carrera Cup Germany",
"Super Tourenwagen Cup",
"2016 GT4 European Series",
"BMW M1",
"Spanish Grand Prix",
"Formula 5000",
"Zandvoort",
"W Series (championship)",
"Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile",
"2021 Zandvoort FIA Formula 3 round",
"F4 British Championship",
"2009 Formula BMW Europe season",
"Group N",
"Ian Raby",
"Audi S",
"Tatuus F4-T014",
"Heinz Schmersal",
"2021 TCR Europe Touring Car Series",
"List of Brabham racing cars",
"FIA WTCR Race of the Netherlands",
"Formula 3000",
"Jack Dex",
"Jaguar R5",
"Group 5 (motorsport)",
"TT Circuit Assen",
"GT2 European Series",
"Alpine Elf Europa Cup",
"Formula Three",
"Chris van der Drift",
"Dennis Hauger",
"Central European Time",
"Cyd Williams",
"1985 International Formula 3000 Championship",
"Max Verstappen",
"Dallara F2 2018",
"2012 ADAC Formel Masters",
"BR Engineering BR01",
"Christian Danner",
"noise pollution",
"Daylight saving time",
"Anton de Pasquale",
"2006-07 A1 Grand Prix season",
"Porsche Carrera Cup Benelux",
"Mercedes W12",
"Porsche Supercup",
"Roger Williamson",
"FIA European Formula 3 Championship (1975–1984)",
"Porsche 917",
"Elran Nijenhuis",
"2018 World Touring Car Cup",
"Chris Lambert",
"1958 Dutch Grand Prix",
"FIA Formula 2 Championship",
"Luca Rangoni",
"Mercedes-AMG F1 W12 E Performance",
"2023 Renault Clio Cup Series",
"2023 Porsche Supercup",
"Nicolas Ciamin",
"Lando Norris",
"Frederik Vesti",
"A1 Grand Prix",
"Brian Henton",
"Martin Greensall",
"Audi A6",
"North Holland",
"Brabham BT21",
"FIA Formula 3 Championship",
"Haarlem",
"Formula 4",
"1981 FIA European Formula 3 Championship",
"Eurocup-3",
"French F4 Championship",
"Lola T332",
"Formula Volkswagen Germany",
"FIA GT3 European Championship",
"Dallara F317",
"Bob Evans (racing driver)",
"Porsche 911 GT3",
"Formula Two",
"1992 Masters of Formula 3",
"RTL Group",
"Ricardo van der Ende",
"1973 Dutch Grand Prix",
"Honda Civic Type R TCR",
"1970 Dutch Grand Prix",
"British Formula 3 International Series",
"European Truck Racing Championship",
"1980 BMW M1 Procar Championship",
"Piers Courage",
"Alpine A110 (2017)",
"ADAC GT Masters",
"European Touring Car Championship",
"Supercar Challenge (series)",
"Toleman TG280",
"Tatuus",
"Renault Clio Cup",
"Super Touring",
"Italy",
"Ben Dörr",
"Group GT3",
"Renault",
"Mercedes-AMG GT",
"Lola T210",
"Frank Gardner (racing driver)",
"World War II",
"Michael Christensen (racing driver)",
"Formula Regional European Championship",
"Group 6 (motorsport)",
"1979 BMW M1 Procar Championship",
"Jacques Laffite",
"Formula Regional",
"Helmut Marko",
"2023 ADAC GT4 Germany",
"Alain Ferté",
"Eddie Cheever",
"BOSS GP",
"Central European Summer Time",
"BMW M1 Procar Championship",
"Porsche Carrera Cup France",
"Marco Wittmann",
"Motor Sport (magazine)",
"Formula 3 Euro Series",
"Group 4 (motorsport)",
"Ferrari Challenge",
"24H Series",
"Group GT1",
"1974 Rothmans 5000 European Championship",
"International Formula 3000"
] |
7,768 |
Crete Senesi
|
The Crete Senesi refers to an area of the Italian region of Tuscany immediately to the south of Siena. It consists of a range of hills and woods among villages and includes the comuni of Asciano, Buonconvento, Monteroni d'Arbia, Rapolano Terme and San Giovanni d'Asso, all within the province of Siena. They border to the north with the Chianti Senese area, to the east with Val di Chiana and to the south-west with Val d'Orcia. Nearby is also the semi-arid area known as the Accona Desert.
Crete Senesi are literally the "clays of Siena": the distinctive grey colouration of the soil gives the landscape an appearance often described as lunar. This characteristic clay, known as mattaione, represents the sediments of the Pliocene sea which covered the area between 2.5 and 4.5 million years ago. The landscape is characterized by barren and gently undulating hills, solitary oaks and cypresses, isolated farms at the top of the heights, stretches of wood and ponds of rainwater (commonly referred as fontoni, literally "big springs") in the valleys. Badlands and are typical conformations of the land.
Perhaps the most notable edifice of this area is the Abbey of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, located 10 km south of Asciano.
The region is known for its production of white truffles, and hosts a festival and a museum dedicated to the rare fungus (genus Tuber).
== Gallery ==
File:In Val d'Orcia.jpg|Cereal crops are cultivated with the aid of irrigation
File:Crete senesi presso asciano, 09.JPG|Crete Senesi in Asciano area
File:Cretesenesi panorama.jpg|Panorama with fontoni
File:Crete Senesi Calanchi.jpg|Badlands of Accona desert
File:Crete Senesi Sunset - Saltafabbro, Asciano, Siena, Italy - July 4, 2010 01.jpg|Sunset in Saltafabbro, Asciano
|
[
"Valdichiana",
"Asciano",
"Badlands",
"Monte Oliveto Maggiore",
"Buonconvento",
"comuni",
"Pliocene",
"Tuscany",
"clay",
"white truffles",
"Province of Siena",
"San Giovanni d'Asso",
"Italy",
"province of Siena",
"Val d'Orcia",
"Chianti (region)",
"Rapolano Terme",
"Accona Desert",
"Monteroni d'Arbia",
"Siena"
] |
7,770 |
Christmas tree
|
A Christmas tree is a decorated tree, usually an evergreen conifer, such as a spruce, pine or fir, associated with the celebration of Christmas. It may also consist of an artificial tree of similar appearance.
The custom was developed in Central Europe, particularly Germany and Livonia (now Estonia and Latvia), where Protestant Christians brought decorated trees into their homes. The tree was traditionally decorated with "roses made of colored paper, tinsel, apples, wafers, and confectionery". Today, there is a wide variety of traditional and modern ornaments, such as garlands, baubles, tinsel, and candy canes. An angel or star might be placed at the top of the tree to represent the Angel Gabriel or the Star of Bethlehem, respectively, from the Nativity. Edible items such as gingerbread, chocolate, and other sweets are also popular and are tied to or hung from the tree's branches with ribbons. The Christmas tree has been historically regarded as a custom of the Lutheran Churches and only in 1982 did the Catholic Church erect the Vatican Christmas Tree.
In the Western Christian tradition, Christmas trees are variously erected on days such as the first day of Advent, or even as late as Christmas Eve, depending on the country; customs of the same faith hold that it is unlucky to remove Christmas decorations, such as the Christmas tree, before Twelfth Night and, if they are not taken down on that day, it is appropriate to do so on Candlemas, the latter of which ends the Christmas-Epiphany season in some denominations.
The Christmas tree is sometimes compared with the "Yule-tree", especially in discussions of its folkloric origins. Mount Ingino Christmas Tree in Gubbio, Italy, is the tallest Christmas tree in the world. The Christmas tree was first recorded to be used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strasbourg in 1539 under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer Martin Bucer. The Moravian Christians put lighted candles on those trees." The earliest known firmly dated representation of a Christmas tree is on the keystone sculpture of a private home in Turckheim, Alsace (then part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, today part of France), with the date 1576.
===Possible predecessors===
Modern Christmas trees have been related to the "tree of paradise" of medieval mystery plays that were given on 24 December, the commemoration and name day of Adam and Eve in various countries. In such plays, a tree decorated with apples (representing fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and thus to the original sin that Christ took away) and round white wafers (to represent the Eucharist and redemption) was used as a setting for the play.
Fir trees decorated with apples served as the central prop for the paradise play, a kind of folk religious drama often performed on December 24. These props were called paradise trees, and some researchers believe they were the forerunners of the Christmas tree.
At the end of the Middle Ages, an early predecessor appears referred in the 15th century Regiment of the Cistercian Alcobaça Monastery in Portugal. The Regiment of the local high-Sacristans of the Cistercian Order refers to what may be considered the oldest references to the Christmas tree: "Note on how to put the Christmas branch, scilicet: On the Christmas eve, you will look for a large Branch of green laurel, and you shall reap many red oranges, and place them on the branches that come of the laurel, specifically as you have seen, and in every orange you shall put a candle, and hang the Branch by a rope in the pole, which shall be by the candle of the high altar."
Other sources have offered a connection between the symbolism of the first documented Christmas trees in Germany around 1600 and the trees of pre-Christian traditions. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, "The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands to symbolize eternal life was a custom of the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews. Tree worship was common among the pagan Europeans and survived their conversion to Christianity in the Scandinavian customs of decorating the house and barn with evergreens at the New Year to scare away the devil and of setting up a tree for the birds during Christmas time."
It is commonly believed that ancient Romans used to decorate their houses with evergreen trees to celebrate Saturnalia. In the poem Epithalamium by Catullus, he tells of the gods decorating the home of Peleus with trees, including laurel and cypress. Later Libanius, Tertullian, and Chrysostom speak of the use of evergreen trees to adorn Christian houses.
The Vikings and Saxons worshiped trees.
===Historical practices by region===
====Estonia, Latvia, and Germany====
Customs of erecting decorated trees in winter time can be traced to Christmas celebrations in Renaissance-era guilds in Northern Germany and Livonia. The first evidence of decorated trees associated with Christmas Day are trees in guildhalls decorated with sweets to be enjoyed by the apprentices and children. In Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia), in 1441, 1442, 1510, and 1514, the Brotherhood of Blackheads erected a tree for the holidays in their guild houses in Reval (now Tallinn) and Riga. On the last night of the celebrations leading up to the holidays, the tree was taken to the Town Hall Square, where the members of the brotherhood danced around it.
A Bremen guild chronicle of 1570 reports that a small tree decorated with "apples, nuts, dates, pretzels, and paper flowers" was erected in the guild-house for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas Day. In 1584, the pastor and chronicler Balthasar Russow in his (1584) wrote of an established tradition of setting up a decorated spruce at the market square, where the young men "went with a flock of maidens and women, first sang and danced there and then set the tree aflame".
After the Protestant Reformation, such trees are seen in the houses of upper-class Protestant families as a counterpart to the Catholic Christmas cribs. This transition from the guild hall to bourgeois family homes in the Protestant parts of Germany ultimately gives rise to the modern tradition as it developed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the present-day, the churches and homes of Protestants and Catholics feature both Christmas cribs and Christmas trees.
====Poland====
In Poland, there is a folk tradition dating back to an old Slavic pre-Christian custom of suspending a branch of fir, spruce, or pine from the ceiling rafters, called , during the time of the Koliada winter festival. The branches were decorated with apples, nuts, acorns, and stars made of straw. In more recent times, the decorations also included colored paper cutouts (), wafers, cookies, and Christmas baubles. According to old pagan beliefs, the powers of the branch were linked to good harvest and prosperity.
The custom was practiced by the peasants until the early 20th century, particularly in the regions of Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia. Most often the branches were hung above the dinner table on Christmas Eve. Beginning in the mid-19th century, the tradition over time was almost completely replaced by the later German practice of decorating a standing Christmas tree.
===18th to early 20th centuries===
====Adoption by European nobility====
In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Introduced by Fanny von Arnstein and popularized by Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg, the Christmas tree reached Vienna in 1814, during the Congress of Vienna, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In France, the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchesse d'Orléans. In Denmark, a newspaper company claims that the first attested Christmas tree was lit in 1808 by Countess Wilhemine of Holsteinborg. It was the aging countess who told the story of the first Danish Christmas tree to Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen in 1865. He had published a fairy tale called The Fir-Tree in 1844, recounting the fate of a fir tree being used as a Christmas tree.
====Adoption by country or region====
=====Germany=====
By the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper Rhineland, but it had not yet spread to rural areas. Wax candles, expensive items at the time, are found in attestations from the late 18th century.
Along the Lower Rhine, an area of Roman Catholic majority, the Christmas tree was largely regarded as a Protestant custom. As a result, it remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long period of time. The custom did eventually gain wider acceptance beginning around 1815 by way of Prussian officials who emigrated there following the Congress of Vienna.
In the 19th century, the Christmas tree was taken to be an expression of German culture and of , especially among emigrants overseas.
A decisive factor in winning general popularity was the German army's decision to place Christmas trees in its barracks and military hospitals during the Franco-Prussian War. Only at the start of the 20th century did Christmas trees appear inside churches, this time in a new brightly lit form.
=====Slovenia=====
Early Slovenian custom, dating back to around the 17th century, was to suspend the tree either upright or upside-down above the well, a corner of the dinner table, in the backyard, or from the fences, modestly decorated with fruits or not decorated at all. German brewer Peter Luelsdorf brought the first Christmas tree of the current tradition to Slovenia in 1845. He set it up in his small brewery inn in Ljubljana, the Slovenian capital. German officials, craftsmen and merchants quickly spread the tradition among the bourgeois population. The trees were typically decorated with walnuts, golden apples, carobs, and candles. At first, the Catholic majority rejected this custom because they considered it a typical Protestant tradition. However, this tradition was almost unknown to the rural population until World War I, after which the decorating of trees became common. The first decorated Christmas market was organized in Ljubljana in 1859.
After World War II, during the Yugoslavia period, spruce trees set in the public places (towns, squares, and markets) were, for political reasons, replaced with fir trees, a symbol of socialism and Slavic mythology, strongly associated with loyalty, courage, and dignity. However, spruce retained its popularity in Slovenian homes during those years and came back to public places after independence.
=====Italy=====
thumb|[[Mount Ingino Christmas Tree in Gubbio, Italy, the tallest Christmas tree in the world.
The tradition of the Christmas tree was widely adopted in Italy during the 20th century despite its Germanic origins. It appears that the first Christmas tree in Italy was erected at the Quirinal Palace towards the end of the 19th century at the behest of Queen Margherita.
=====Britain=====
Although the tradition of decorating churches and homes with evergreens at Christmas was long established, the custom of decorating an entire small tree was unknown in Britain until the 19th century. The German-born Queen Charlotte introduced a Christmas tree at a party she gave for children in 1800. The custom did not at first spread much beyond the royal family. Queen Victoria, as a child, was familiar with it and a tree was placed in her room every Christmas. In her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old princess wrote:
In the year following Victoria's marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, in 1841, the custom became even more widespread as wealthier middle-class families followed the fashion. In 1842, a newspaper advertisement for Christmas trees makes clear their smart cachet, German origins and association with children and gift-giving. An illustrated book, The Christmas Tree, describing their use and origins in detail, was on sale in December 1844.
On 2January 1846, Elizabeth Fielding (née Fox Strangways) wrote from Lacock Abbey to William Henry Fox-Talbot: "Constance is extremely busy preparing the Bohemian Xmas Tree. It is made from Caroline's description of those she saw in Germany".
In 1847, Prince Albert wrote: "I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest [his brother] and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas trees is not less than ours used to be".
A boost to the trend was given in 1848 when The Illustrated London News, in a report picked up by other papers, described the trees in Windsor Castle in detail and showed the main tree, surrounded by the royal family, on its cover. In fewer than ten years, the adoption of the tradition in middle and upper-class homes was widespread. By 1856, a northern provincial newspaper contained an advert alluding casually to them, as well as reporting the accidental death of a woman whose dress caught fire as she lit the tapers on a Christmas tree. They had not yet spread down the social scale though, as a report from Berlin in 1858 contrasts the situation there where "Every family has its own" with that of Britain, where Christmas trees were still the preserve of the wealthy or the "romantic".
Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums "who had never seen a Christmas tree" would enjoy one that year. Anti-German sentiment after World WarI briefly reduced their popularity but the effect was short-lived, and by the mid-1920s the use of Christmas trees had spread to all classes. In 1933, a restriction on the importation of foreign trees led to the "rapid growth of a new industry" as the growing of Christmas trees within Britain became commercially viable due to the size of demand. By 2013, the number of trees grown in Britain for the Christmas market was approximately eight million and their display in homes, shops and public spaces a normal part of the Christmas season.
=====Georgia=====
Georgians have their own traditional Christmas tree called Chichilaki, made from dried up hazelnut or walnut branches that are shaped to form a small coniferous tree. These pale-colored ornaments differ in height from to . Chichilakis are most common in the Guria and Samegrelo regions of Georgia near the Black Sea, but they can also be found in some stores around the capital of Tbilisi.
Georgians believe that Chichilaki resembles the famous beard of St. Basil the Great, because Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates St. Basil on 1 January.
=====The Bahamas=====
The earliest reference of Christmas trees being used in The Bahamas dates to January 1864 and is associated with the Anglican Sunday Schools in Nassau, New Providence: "After prayers and a sermon from the Rev. R. Swann, the teachers and children of St. Agnes', accompanied by those of St. Mary's, marched to the Parsonage of Rev. J. H. Fisher, in front of which a large Christmas tree had been planted for their gratification. The delighted little ones formed a circle around it singing 'Come follow me to the Christmas tree.'" The gifts decorated the trees as ornaments and the children were given tickets with numbers that matched the gifts. This appears to be the typical way of decorating the trees in 1860s Bahamas. In the Christmas of 1864, there was a Christmas tree put up in the Ladies Saloon in the Royal Victoria Hotel for the respectable children of the neighbourhood. The tree was ornamented with gifts for the children who formed a circle about it and sang the song "Oats and Beans". The gifts were later given to the children in the name of Santa Claus.
=====North America=====
The tradition was introduced to North America in the winter of 1781 by Hessian soldiers stationed in the Province of Québec (1763–1791) to garrison the colony against American attack. General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel and his wife, the Baroness von Riedesel, held a Christmas party for the officers at Sorel, Quebec, delighting their guests with a fir tree decorated with candles and fruits.
The Christmas tree became very common in the United States of America in the early 19th century. Dating from late 1812 or early 1813, the watercolor sketchbooks of John Lewis Krimmel contain perhaps the earliest depictions of a Christmas tree in American art, representing a family celebrating Christmas Eve in the Moravian tradition. The first published image of a Christmas tree appeared in 1836 as the frontispiece to The Stranger's Gift by Hermann Bokum. The first mention of the Christmas tree in American literature was in a story in the 1836 edition of The Token and Atlantic Souvenir, titled "New Year's Day", by Catherine Maria Sedgwick, where she tells the story of a German maid decorating her mistress' tree. Also, a woodcut of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, initially published in The Illustrated London News in December 1848, was copied in the United States at Christmas 1850, in Godey's Lady's Book. Godey's copied it exactly, except for the removal of the Queen's tiara and Prince Albert's moustache, to remake the engraving into an American scene. The republished Godey's image became the first widely circulated picture of a decorated evergreen Christmas tree in America. Art historian Karal Ann Marling called Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, shorn of their royal trappings, "the first influential American Christmas tree". Folk-culture historian Alfred Lewis Shoemaker states, "In all of America there was no more important medium in spreading the Christmas tree in the decade 1850–60 than Godey's Lady's Book". The image was reprinted in 1860, and by the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become even more common in America.
Several cities in the United States with German connections lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree. Windsor Locks, Connecticut, claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House, while the "First Christmas Tree in America" is also claimed by Easton, Pennsylvania, where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816. In his diary, Matthew Zahm of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, recorded the use of a Christmas tree in 1821, leading Lancaster to also lay claim to the first Christmas tree in America. Other accounts credit Charles Follen, a German immigrant to Boston, for being the first to introduce to America the custom of decorating a Christmas tree. In 1847, August Imgard, a German immigrant living in Wooster, Ohio cut a blue spruce tree from a woods outside town, had the Wooster village tinsmith construct a star, and placed the tree in his house, decorating it with paper ornaments, gilded nuts and Kuchen. German immigrant Charles Minnigerode accepted a position as a professor of humanities at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1842, where he taught Latin and Greek. Entering into the social life of the Virginia Tidewater, Minnigerode introduced the German custom of decorating an evergreen tree at Christmas at the home of law professor St. George Tucker, thereby becoming another of many influences that prompted Americans to adopt the practice at about that time. An 1853 article on Christmas customs in Pennsylvania defines them as mostly "German in origin", including the Christmas tree, which is "planted in a flower pot filled with earth, and its branches are covered with presents, chiefly of confectionary, for the younger members of the family." The article distinguishes between customs in different states, however, claiming that in New England generally "Christmas is not much celebrated", whereas in Pennsylvania and New York it is.
When Edward H. Johnson was vice president of the Edison Electric Light Company, a predecessor of General Electric, he created the first known electrically illuminated Christmas tree at his home in New York City in 1882. Johnson became the "Father of Electric Christmas Tree Lights".
The lyrics sung in the United States to the German tune begin "O Christmas tree...", giving rise to the mistaken idea that the German word (fir tree) means "Christmas tree", the German word for which is instead .
File:The Christmas Tree - Godey's Lady's Book, December 1850.jpg|Copy of an 1848 engraving of the British royal family with their tree, modified and widely published in American magazine Godey's Lady's Book, 1850.
File:1836-print-of-american-christmas-tree.jpg|First published image of a Christmas tree, frontispiece to Hermann Bokum's 1836 The Stranger's Gift
File:The Christmas tree (Boston Public Library).jpg|The Christmas tree by Winslow Homer, 1858
File:Gezin bij de kerstboom.jpg|Christmas in the Netherlands,
File:1870 ChristmasTree byEhninger HarpersBazaar.jpeg|Illustration for Harper's Bazaar, published 1 January 1870
File:Julekort, 1880.jpg|Christmas tree depicted as Christmas card by Prang & Co. (Boston) 1880
File:Komissarzhevskaya Nora.jpg|Vera Komissarzhevskaya as Nora in Ibsen's A Doll's House ( 1904). Photo by Elena Mrozovskaya.
File:Lodovico and Maria Angelica Calderara 12800u original.jpg|An Italian-American family on Christmas, 1924
===1935 to present===
Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, the Christmas tree—along with the entire celebration of the Christian holiday—was banned in the country after the October Revolution. However, the government then introduced a New-year spruce () in 1935 for the New Year holiday. It became a fully secular icon of the New Year holiday: for example, the crowning star was regarded not as a symbol of the Bethlehem Star, but as the Red star. Decorations, such as figurines of airplanes, bicycles, space rockets, cosmonauts, and characters of Russian fairy tales, were produced. This tradition persists after the fall of the USSR, with the New Year holiday outweighing the Christmas (7 January) for a wide majority of Russian people.
The Peanuts TV special A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965) was influential on the pop culture surrounding the Christmas tree. Aluminum Christmas trees were popular during the early 1960s in the US. They were satirized in the TV special and came to be seen as symbolizing the commercialization of Christmas. The term "Charlie Brown Christmas tree," describing any poor-looking or malformed little tree, also derives from the 1965 TV special, based on the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree.
File:xmas1951.jpg|A Christmas tree from 1951, in a home in New York state
File:Christmas tree with presents - 2015.JPG|Christmas tree with presents
File:Governor's Living Room.jpg|Christmas Tree in the cozy room at the Wisconsin Governor's mansion.
File:Елочное украшение "Космонавт" 1960е.JPG|A Soviet-era (1960s) New Year tree decoration depicting a cosmonaut
File:005 Weihnachtsaltar und Krippe in der Sanoker Franziskanerkirche, 2013.jpg|Christmas Trees in church
File:Chrismon tree stalbans oviedo fl.jpg|A Chrismon tree (St. Alban's Anglican Cathedral, Oviedo, Florida)
====Public Christmas trees====
Since the early 20th century, it has become common in many cities, towns, and department stores to put up public Christmas trees outdoors, such as the Macy's Great Tree in Atlanta (since 1948), the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York City, and the large Christmas tree at Victoria Square in Adelaide.
The use of fire retardant allows many indoor public areas to place real trees and be compliant with code. Licensed applicants of fire retardant solution spray the tree, tag the tree, and provide a certificate for inspection.
The United States' National Christmas Tree has been lit each year since 1923 on the South Lawn of the White House, becoming part of what evolved into a major holiday event at the White House. President Jimmy Carter lit only the crowning star atop the tree in 1979 in honor of the Americans being held hostage in Iran. This was repeated in 1980, except the tree was fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity.
In some cities, a charity event called the Festival of Trees is organized, in which multiple trees are decorated and displayed.
The giving of Christmas trees has also often been associated with the end of hostilities. After the signing of the Armistice in 1918, the city of Manchester, England, sent a tree, and £500 to buy chocolate and cakes, for the children of the much-bombarded town of Lille in northern France.
In some cases, the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in Trafalgar Square in London, where the City of Oslo, Norway, presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during World War II; in Boston, United States, where the tree is a gift from the province of Nova Scotia, in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 ammunition ship explosion that leveled the city of Halifax; and in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, where the main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of Bergen, Norway, in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from Nazi occupation. Norway also annually gifts a Christmas tree to Washington, D.C., as a symbol of friendship between Norway and the US and as an expression of gratitude from Norway for the help received from the US during World War II.
===== Gallery =====
File:Vatican Christmas Tree.jpg|Christmas tree in Vatican City.
File:Galleria Vittorio Emanuele ii Xmas (J).jpg|Christmas tree at Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, Italy.
File:Piazza Portanova Natale 2008.jpg|Christmas tree in Salerno old town, Italy.
File:Natal 2009 em Catania - 1 (4200097689).jpg|Christmas tree in Catania, Italy.
File:Vilnius Christmas Tree.jpg|Christmas tree in Vilnius old town, Lithuania.
File:Trafalgar Square Christmas tree9.jpg|Trafalgar Square Christmas tree, London, United Kingdom.
File:LEDs on a big Christmas Tree 4572.jpg|Christmas tree front of the Turku Cathedral in Turku, Finland.
File:Weihnachtsbaum Römerberg.jpg|Christmas tree on the Römerberg in Frankfurt, Germany.
File:Budapest, Erzsébet körút 43-49, Corinthia, karácsonyfa, 3.jpg|Christmas tree in Budapest, Corinthia Hotel
File:Christmas Lisbon 2005 b.JPG|Lisbon, Portugal, Christmas tree.
File:Plaza de San Juan de la Cruz (Madrid) 07.jpg|An illuminated Christmas tree in Madrid.
File:Choinka plac Zamkowy 2011.jpg|Christmas tree in Warsaw, Poland.
File:Stockholm - NK.jpg|Christmas tree in Stockholm at the NK department store
File:Christmas tree in Lugano (2018).jpg|Christmas tree in Lugano, Switzerland.
File:New Year Tree on the Minin and Pozharsky Square 04.jpg|Christmas tree on Minin and Pozharsky Square. Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
File:Christmas tree city lights.jpg|Christmas tree, Plaza, Las Cruces, New Mexico, US
File:Christmas Tree at Rockefeller Center IV.jpg|Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree, New York City, New York, US
File:2010 Boston Halifax Christmas tree on Boston Common USA 5273771973.jpg|Official Christmas Tree of Boston Massachusetts, US.
File:Christmas tree and Metropolitan Cathedral at Mexico's City zócalo.jpg|Christmas tree and Metropolitan Cathedral at Mexico City's zócalo.
File:San Martín Sacatepéquez 25.JPG|Christmas tree in San Martín Sacatepéquez, Guatemala.
File:Decoração de natal em São Vicente de Minas (3).jpg|Christmas tree in the Praça Governador Valadares, Brazil.
File:Árbol de navidad y pesebre en la Casa Rosada - 2014.jpg|Christmas tree above Nativity installed at Casa Rosada, Argentina.
File:貴賓樓前聖誕樹 - panoramio.jpg|Christmas tree in Beijing, China.
File:HK TST night Harbour City front entrance indoor stairs interior Xmas trees Nov-2013.JPG|Christmas trees in Ocean Terminal, Harbour City, Hong Kong
File:Christmas tree, Bethlehem.jpg|Christmas tree in Bethlehem, Palestine, behind it Church of the Nativity.
File:ET Bahir Dar asv2018-02 img01 Christmas tree.jpg|Christmas tree in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
File:2018 Christmas at the Vank Cathedral 08.jpg|Christmas tree at the Vank Cathedral, Iran.
File:Christmas tree on display in Delray Beach, Florida on Atlantic Avenue.jpg|Christmas tree in Delray Beach, Florida on Atlantic Avenue in 2023
File:Capistrano christmas tree.jpg|Decorative walk-through Christmas tree at Mission San Juan Capistrano festival, Southern California, December 2023
File:Las_Vegas_Aria_Christmas_Tree.jpg|Las Vegas Aria Lobby Christmas Tree
==Customs and traditions==
===Setting up and taking down===
Both setting up and taking down a Christmas tree are associated with specific dates; liturgically, this is done through the hanging of the greens ceremony. In many areas, it has become customary to set up one's Christmas tree on Advent Sunday, the first day of the Advent season. Traditionally, however, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until the evening of Christmas Eve (24 December), the end of the Advent season and the start of the twelve days of Christmastide. It is customary for Christians in many localities to remove their Christmas decorations on the last day of the twelve days of Christmastide that falls on 5 January—Epiphany Eve (Twelfth Night), although those in other Christian countries remove them on Candlemas, the conclusion of the extended Christmas-Epiphany season (Epiphanytide). According to the first tradition, those who fail to remember to remove their Christmas decorations on Epiphany Eve must leave them untouched until Candlemas, the second opportunity to remove them; failure to observe this custom is considered inauspicious.
===Decorations===
Christmas ornaments are decorations (usually made of glass, metal, wood, or ceramics) that are used to decorate a Christmas tree. The first decorated trees were adorned with apples, white candy canes and pastries in the shapes of stars, hearts and flowers. Glass baubles were first made in Lauscha, Germany in 1847, and also garlands of glass beads and tin figures that could be hung on trees. The popularity of these decorations fueled the production of glass figures made by highly skilled artisans with clay molds.
Tinsel and several types of garland or ribbon are commonly used as Christmas tree decorations. Silvered saran-based tinsel was introduced later. Delicate mold-blown and painted colored glass Christmas ornaments were a specialty of the glass factories in the Thuringian Forest, especially in Lauscha in the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers. Baubles are another common decoration, consisting of small hollow glass or plastic spheres coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide coloration.
Lighting with electric lights (Christmas lights or, in the United Kingdom, fairy lights) is commonly done. A tree-topper, typically an angel or star, completes the decoration.
In the late 1800s, home-made white Christmas trees were made by wrapping strips of cotton batting around leafless branches creating the appearance of a snow-laden tree.
In the 1940s and 1950s, popularized by Hollywood films in the late 1930s, flocking was very popular on the West Coast of the United States. There were home flocking kits that could be used with vacuum cleaners. In the 1980s, some trees were sprayed with fluffy white flocking to simulate snow.
File:Christmas tree bauble.jpg|Golden glass ball/bauble
File:A baseball-shaped snowman decoration.jpg|Snowman/baseball novelty ornament
File:Christmas Tree Bear Decoration.png|Toy bear decoration
File:Christmas baubles 08 - 01.JPG|Egg shaped glass ornament
File:Christmas baubles 08 - 12.JPG|Cloth cotton batting ornament
File:2006 Blue Room Christmas tree - closeup of ornamentation.jpg|Imitation tree snow
File:Christmas tree decorations, Brisbane, 2020, 02.jpg|Straw ornaments
File:Crochet Xmas ornaments.jpg|Crochet ornaments
File:Bombki ze wstazek.jpg|Polish baubles
File:Ornament, Christmas Tree (USA), 1850–99 (CH 18409303).jpg|Swaddled babies, 1850–1899
File:Nostalgischer Weihnachtsbaumschmuck Pappmaché Weihnachtsmann (cropped).jpg|Papier-mâché ornament
File:Weihnachten 2020 Christbaumschmuck 10.jpg|Faceted indented glass ornament
File:Weihnachten 2020 Christbaumschmuck 28.jpg|Ceramic ornament
File:Weihnachten 2020 Christbaumschmuck 22.jpg|Gablonz ornament
File:Glass icicle ornaments - clear and blue.jpg|Glass icicle ornaments
File:String of tinsel on Christmas tree.jpg|String of tinsel
File:Stringing lights on Christmas tree.jpg|Stringing lights on tree
File:Squirrel eating popcorn and cranberry garland off Christmas tree.jpg|Squirrel eating popcorn and cranberry garland off Christmas tree
==Symbolism and interpretations==
The earliest legend of the origin of a fir tree becoming a Christian symbol dates back to 723 AD, involving Saint Boniface as he was evangelizing Germany. It is said that at a pagan gathering in Geismar, where a group of people dancing under a decorated oak tree were about to sacrifice a baby in the name of Thor, Saint Boniface took an axe and called on the name of Jesus. It became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus.
==Production==
Each year, 33 to 36 million Christmas trees are produced in America, and 50 to 60 million are produced in Europe. In 1998, there were about 15,000 growers in America (a third of them "choose and cut" farms). In that same year, it was estimated that Americans spent $1.5billion on Christmas trees. By 2016, that had climbed to $2.04billion for natural trees and a further $1.86billion for artificial trees. In Europe, 75 million trees worth €2.4billion ($3.2 billion) are harvested annually.
===Natural trees===
The most commonly used species are fir (Abies), which have the benefit of not shedding their needles when they dry out, as well as retaining good foliage color and scent; but species in other genera are also used.
In northern Europe most commonly used are:
Norway spruce Picea abies (the original tree, generally the cheapest)
Silver fir Abies alba
Nordmann fir Abies nordmanniana
Noble fir Abies procera
Serbian spruce Picea omorika
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Stone pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees)
Swiss pine Pinus cembra
In North America, Central America, South America and Australia most commonly used are:
Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
Balsam fir Abies balsamea
Fraser Fir Abies fraseri
Grand fir Abies grandis
Guatemalan fir Abies guatemalensis
Noble fir Abies procera
Nordmann fir Abies nordmanniana
Red fir Abies magnifica
White fir Abies concolor
Pinyon pine Pinus edulis
Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Stone pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees)
Norfolk Island pine Araucaria heterophylla
Paraná pine Araucaria angustifolia (when young, resembles a Pine tree)
Several other species are used to a lesser extent. Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as giant sequoia, Leyland cypress, Monterey cypress, and eastern juniper. Various types of spruce tree are also used for Christmas trees (including the blue spruce and, less commonly, the white spruce); but spruces begin to lose their needles rapidly upon being cut, and spruce needles are often sharp, making decorating uncomfortable. Virginia pine is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States; however, its winter color is faded. The long-needled eastern white pine is also used there, though it is an unpopular Christmas tree in most parts of the country, owing also to its faded winter coloration and limp branches, making decorating difficult with all but the lightest ornaments. Norfolk Island pine is sometimes used, particularly in Oceania, and in Australia, some species of the genera Casuarina and Allocasuarina are also occasionally used as Christmas trees. But, by far, the most common tree is the Pinus radiata Monterey pine. Adenanthos sericeus or Albany woolly bush is commonly sold in southern Australia as a potted living Christmas tree. Hemlock species are generally considered unsuitable as Christmas trees due to their poor needle retention and inability to support the weight of lights and ornaments.
Some trees, frequently referred to as "living Christmas trees", are sold live with roots and soil, often from a plant nursery, to be stored at nurseries in planters or planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades. Others are produced in a container and sometimes as topiary for a porch or patio. However, when done improperly, the combination of root loss caused by digging, and the indoor environment of high temperature and low humidity is very detrimental to the tree's health; additionally, the warmth of an indoor climate will bring the tree out of its natural winter dormancy, leaving it little protection when put back outside into a cold outdoor climate. Often Christmas trees are a large attraction for living animals, including mice and spiders. Thus, the survival rate of these trees is low. However, when done properly, replanting provides higher survival rates.
European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside western areas where trees are often wild-harvested on public lands) there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations.
In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on tree farms. Almost all Christmas trees in the United States are grown on Christmas tree farms where they are cut after about ten years of growth and new trees planted. According to the United States Department of Agriculture's agriculture census for 2007, 21,537 farms were producing conifers for the cut Christmas tree market in America, were planted in Christmas trees.
The life cycle of a Christmas tree from the seed to a tree takes, depending on species and treatment in cultivation, between eight and twelve years. First, the seed is extracted from cones harvested from older trees. These seeds are then usually grown in nurseries and then sold to Christmas tree farms at an age of three to four years. The remaining development of the tree greatly depends on the climate, soil quality, as well as the cultivation and how the trees are tended by the Christmas tree farmer. One issue that farmers face is the destruction of pine trees by pests, such as T. piniperda.
===Artificial trees===
The first artificial Christmas trees were developed in Germany during the 19th century, though earlier examples exist. Often, the tree branches were tipped with artificial red berries which acted as candle holders.
Over the years, other styles of artificial Christmas trees have evolved and become popular. In 1930, the U.S.-based Addis Brush Company created the first artificial Christmas tree made from brush bristles. Another type of artificial tree is the aluminum Christmas tree, and later in Manitowoc, Wisconsin, where the majority of the trees were produced. Most modern artificial Christmas trees are made from plastic recycled from used packaging materials, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Trends developed in the early 2000s included optical fiber Christmas trees, which come in two major varieties; one resembling a traditional Christmas tree. One Dallas-based company offers "holographic mylar" trees in many hues. Tree-shaped objects made from such materials as cardboard, glass, ceramic or other materials can be found in use as tabletop decorations. Upside-down artificial Christmas trees became popular for a short time and were originally introduced as a marketing gimmick; they allowed consumers to get closer to ornaments for sale in retail stores and opened up floor space for more products.
Artificial trees became increasingly popular during the late 20th century. as natural trees can be a significant fire hazard. Between 2001 and 2007, artificial Christmas tree sales in the U.S. jumped from 7.3 million to 17.4 million. Currently, it is estimated that around 58% of Christmas trees used in the United States are artificial, while numbers in the United Kingdom are indicated to be around 66%.
File:Fiber-optic Christmas tree.jpg|A tree with fibre optic lights
File:White christmas tree.jpg|White Christmas tree
File:Antique feather tree2.jpg|Antique feather tree
File:Detail of artificial Christmas tree with flocking.jpg|Detail of artificial tree with flocking
File:Aluminum Christmas tree2.jpg|An Aluminum Christmas tree
File:Display of artificial Christmas trees.jpg|Artificial Christmas tree display
File:Limbs detached from an artificial Christmas tree.jpg|Detached limbs
==Environmental issues==
The debate about the environmental impact of artificial trees is ongoing. Generally, natural tree growers contend that artificial trees are more environmentally harmful than their natural counterparts.
Live trees are typically grown as a crop and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable habitat for wildlife. Alternately, live trees can be donated to livestock farmers who find that such trees uncontaminated by chemical additives are excellent fodder. In some cases, management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it sometimes involves heavy input of pesticides.
Concerns have been raised by arborists about people cutting down old and rare conifers, such as the Keteleeria evelyniana for Christmas trees.
Real or cut trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as mulch, wildlife habitat, or used to prevent erosion. Real trees are carbon-neutral, they emit no more carbon dioxide by being cut down and disposed of than they absorb while growing. However, emissions can occur from farming activities and transportation. An independent life-cycle assessment study, conducted by a firm of experts in sustainable development, states that a natural tree will generate of greenhouse gases every year (based on purchasing from home) whereas the artificial tree will produce over its lifetime. Smaller and younger trees may be replanted after each season, with the following year running up to the next Christmas allowing the tree to carry out further growth.
The use of lead stabilizer in Chinese imported trees has been an issue of concern among politicians and scientists over recent years. A 2004 study found that while in general artificial trees pose little health risk from lead contamination, there do exist "worst-case scenarios" where major health risks to young children exist. A 2008 United States Environmental Protection Agency report found that as the PVC in artificial Christmas trees aged it began to degrade. The report determined that of the fifty million artificial trees in the United States approximately twenty million were nine or more years old, the point where dangerous lead contamination levels are reached.
File:Discarded Christmas Trees in London, UK.jpg|Discarded trees by garbage dumpsters
File:Recycletree.jpg|Christmas tree recycling point ()
File:Woodchipping Christmas trees in Stuyvesant Town, New York.jpg|Woodchipping Christmas trees
== Religious issues ==
Under the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other religious holidays—were prohibited as a result of the Soviet anti-religious campaign. With the Christmas tree being prohibited in accordance with Soviet anti-religious legislation, people supplanted the former Christmas custom with New Year's trees. In 1935, the tree was brought back as New Year tree and became a secular, not a religious holiday.
Pope John Paul II introduced the Christmas tree custom to the Vatican in 1982. Although at first disapproved of by some as out of place at the centre of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican Christmas Tree has become an integral part of the Vatican Christmas celebrations, and in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI spoke of it as part of the normal Christmas decorations in Catholic homes. In 2004, Pope John Paul called the Christmas tree a symbol of Christ. This very ancient custom, he said, exalts the value of life, as in winter what is evergreen becomes a sign of undying life, and it reminds Christians of the "tree of life", an image of Christ, the supreme gift of God to humanity. In the previous year he said: "Beside the crib, the Christmas tree, with its twinkling lights, reminds us that with the birth of Jesus the tree of life has blossomed anew in the desert of humanity. The crib and the tree: precious symbols, which hand down in time the true meaning of Christmas." The Catholic Church's official Book of Blessings has a service for the blessing of the Christmas tree in a home. The Episcopal Church in The Anglican Family Prayer Book, which has the imprimatur of The Rt. Rev. Catherine S. Roskam of the Anglican Communion, has long had a ritual titled Blessing of a Christmas Tree, as well as Blessing of a Crèche, for use in the church and the home; family services and public liturgies for the blessing of Christmas trees are common in other Christian denominations as well.
Chrismon trees, which find their origin in the Lutheran Christian tradition though now used in many Christian denominations such as the Catholic Church and Methodist Church, are used to decorate churches during the liturgical season of Advent; during the period of Christmastide, Christian churches display the traditional Christmas tree in their sanctuaries.
In 2005, the city of Boston renamed the spruce tree used to decorate the Boston Common a "Holiday Tree" rather than a "Christmas Tree". The name change was reversed after the city was threatened with several lawsuits.
File:Bonifatius Donareiche.jpg|St Boniface felling the Donar Oak
File:Bezbozhnik u stanka - Run along, Lord, 1931, n. 22.jpg|A 1931 edition of the Soviet magazine , distributed by the League of Militant Atheists, depicting an Orthodox Christian priest being forbidden to cut down a tree for Christmas
|
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"lead poisoning",
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"Marxist-Leninist atheism",
"Vienna"
] |
7,772 |
Carrier battle group
|
A carrier battle group (CVBG) is a naval fleet consisting of an aircraft carrier capital ship and its large number of escorts, together defining the group. The CV in CVBG (Cruiser Voler) is the United States Navy hull classification code for an aircraft carrier.
The first naval task forces built around carriers appeared just prior to and during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was the first to assemble many carriers into a single task force, known as the Kido Butai. This task force was used with devastating effect in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The Kido Butai operated as the IJN's main carrier battle group until four of its carriers were sunk at the Battle of Midway. In contrast, the United States Navy deployed its large carriers in separate formations, with each carrier assigned its own cruiser and destroyer escorts. These single-carrier formations would often be paired or grouped together for certain assignments, most notably the Battle of the Coral Sea and Midway. By 1943, however, large numbers of fleet and light carriers became available, which required larger formations of three or four carriers. These groups eventually formed the Fast Carrier Task Force, which became the primary battle unit of the U.S. Third and Fifth Fleets.
With the construction of the large "supercarriers" of the Cold War era, the practice of operating each carrier in a single formation was revived. During the Cold War, the main role of the CVBG in case of conflict with the Soviet Union would have been to protect Atlantic supply routes between the United States and its NATO allies in Europe, while the role of the Soviet Navy would have been to interrupt these sea lanes, a fundamentally easier task. Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, a situation of dueling aircraft carriers would have been unlikely. However, a primary mission of the Soviet Navy's attack submarines was to track every allied battle group and, on the outbreak of hostilities, sink the carriers. Understanding this threat, the CVBG expended enormous resources in its own anti-submarine warfare mission.
== Carrier battle groups in crises ==
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, most uses of carrier battle groups by the United States as well as that of other Western nations have been in situations where their use has been uncontested by other comparable forces. During the Cold War, an important battle scenario was an attack against a CVBG using numerous anti-ship missiles.
===1956 Suez Crisis===
British and French carrier battle groups were involved in the 1956 Suez Crisis.
===1971 Indo-Pakistan war===
During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, India used its carrier strike group centered on to impose a naval blockade on East Pakistan. Air strikes were carried out initially on shipping in the harbors of Chittagong and Cox's Bazar, sinking or incapacitating most ships there. Further strikes were carried out on Cox's Bazar from 60 nautical miles (110 km) offshore. On the evening of 4 December, the air group again struck Chittagong harbor. Later strikes targeted Khulna and the Port of Mongla. Air strikes continued until 10 December 1971.
===1982 Falklands War===
The first attempted use of anti-ship missiles against a carrier battle group was part of Argentina's efforts against British armed forces during the Falklands War. This was the last conflict so far in which opposing belligerents employed aircraft carriers, although Argentina made little use of its sole carrier, , which was originally built in the United Kingdom as HMS Venerable and later served with the Royal Netherlands Navy (1948–1968).
===Lebanon===
The United States Sixth Fleet assembled a force of three carrier battle groups and a battleship during the Lebanese Civil War in 1983. Daily reconnaissance flights were flown over the Bekaa Valley and a strike was flown against targets in the area resulting in loss of an A-6 Intruder and an A-7 Corsair.
===Gulf of Sidra===
Carrier battle groups routinely operated in the Gulf of Sidra inside the "Line of Death" proclaimed by Libya resulting in aerial engagements in 1981, 1986 and 1989 between U.S. Navy Tomcats and Libyan Su-22 aircraft, SA-5 surface-to-air missiles and MiG-23 fighters. During the 1986 clashes, three carrier battle groups deployed to the Gulf of Sidra and ultimately two of them conducted strikes against Libya in Operation El Dorado Canyon.
===2011 military intervention in Libya===
During the international military intervention in the 2011 Libyan civil war, the French Navy deployed its aircraft carrier, , off Libya. The Charles de Gaulle was accompanied by several frigates as , , , the replenishment tanker Meuse and two nuclear attack submarines.
==Applications==
===China===
China plans to set up several carrier battle groups in the future. At present China's two aircraft carriers, the Liaoning and Shandong, use Type 055 destroyers for area air defence with anti-submarine warfare, Type 052C or Type 052D destroyers for air defense, Type 054A frigates for anti-submarine and anti-ship warfare, 1–2 Type 093 nuclear attack submarines, and 1 Type 901 supply ship. China is currently building a third carrier, as well as a nuclear-powered fourth carrier planned for construction and expected to be completed by the late 2020s. China is also building a new larger class of air defense destroyers, the Type 055.
===France===
The only serving French carrier is the , which also serves as the flagship of the Marine Nationale. The carrier battle group of the Force d'Action Navale is known as the Groupe Aéronaval (GAN) and is usually composed, in addition to the aircraft carrier, of:
a carrier air wing (Groupe Aérien Embarqué, GAE, in French), a complement composed of about 40 aircraft:
Rafale F3 (up to 30)
E-2C Hawkeye (2)
SA365 Dauphin (3) for RESCO and EC725 Caracal for CSAR (2)
one
two anti-submarine destroyers (currently FREMM ASM or )
one or two anti-air destroyers ( or )
one stealth frigate in forward patrol (usually a )
one supply ship (currently a )
This group is commanded by a rear admiral (contre-amiral, in French) on board the aircraft carrier. The commanding officer of the air group (usually a —equivalent to commander) is subordinate to the commanding officer of the aircraft carrier, a senior captain. The escort destroyers (called frigates in the French denomination) are commanded by more junior captains.
France also operates three s. While incapable of operating fixed-winged aircraft, they function as helicopter carriers and form the backbone of France's amphibious force. These ships are typically escorted by the same escorts the Charles De Gaulle uses.
===India===
Indian Navy has operated all types of aircraft carriers including CATOBAR configured Vikrant, STOVL configured Viraat and STOBAR configured Vikramaditya and Vikrant (2013) and CBGs centered on them. The Indian Navy has been operating carrier battle groups since 1961, with its first carrier battle group formed around the now decommissioned . was an updated Centaur-class light carrier originally built for the Royal Navy as , which was laid down in 1944 and commissioned in 1959. It was purchased by India in May 1987, and was decommissioned in March 2017. India commissioned in 2013 followed by the new in 2022. INS Vikramaditya is the modified , INS Vikrant is the first indigenous aircraft carrier built in India. India plans to have three carrier battle groups by 2035, each centered on Vikrant, Vikramaditya and , another planned carrier. As of 2023, the Indian Navy operates two carrier battle groups centred on INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant.
The Indian Navy's carrier battle group centred on Viraat consisted of two destroyers, usually of the (previously s), two or more frigates, usually of the , Godavari or Nilgiri classes, and one support ship.
The Carrier Battle Group (CBG) led by INS Vikramaditya includes Kolkata-class destroyers, Talwar-class frigates and INS Deepak among others. While the independent CBG of INS Vikrant is expected to consist of Visakhapatnam-class destroyers, Nilgiri-class frigates and Kamorta-class corvettes and INS Shakti.
===Italy===
The CVS–ASW (Aircraft Carrier with Anti-Submarine Warfare) is Italy's first carrier. The battle group based in Taranto called COMFORAL is formed by the carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi, two s, two support ships Etna and Elettra, and three amphibious/support ships (San Giusto, San Marco and San Giorgio).
After 2010, the Italian battle group will be formed by the new , 5–6 new warships (including destroyers Horizon and frigates FREMM), one new support ship, some minehunters and new submarines (the COMFORAL will be a reserve group).
===Russia===
Admiral Kuznetsov has been observed sailing together with a (CBGN), (CG), (ASuW), (ASW) and Krivak I/II FFG (ASW). These escorts, especially the heavily armed Kirov-class battlecruiser, use advanced sensors and carry a variety of weaponry. During Admiral Kuznetsovs deployment to Syria in November 2016 on her first combat tour, the carrier was escorted by a pair of Udaloy-class destroyers and a Kirov-class battlecruiser en route, while additional Russian Navy warships met her off Syria.
Admiral Kuznetsov is designed specifically to sail alone and carries greater firepower than her U.S. counterparts. This includes 12x SS-N-19 'Shipwreck' (long range, high speed, sea-skimming) SSMs, 24x VLS units loaded with 192 SA-N-9 'Gauntlet' SAMs, and 8x Kashtan CIWS with dual 30 mm guns, and 8x AK-630 CIWS. Compared to the 4x Phalanx CIWS and 4x Sea Sparrow launchers, each with 8 missiles carried by the Nimitz-class, Admiral Kuznetsov is well armed for both air-defence and offensive operations against hostile shipping.
===United Kingdom===
As one of the pioneers of aircraft carriers, the Royal Navy has maintained a carrier strike capability since the commissioning of in 1918. However, the capability was temporarily lost between 2010 and 2018, following the retirement of the and Harrier GR9s. During this period, the Royal Navy worked to regenerate its carrier strike capability based on the Carrier-Enabled Power Projection (CEPP) concept by ordering two Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers and the F-35B Lightning to operate from them. To maintain its skills and experience, the Royal Navy embedded personnel and ships with partner navies, in particular the United States Navy.
In 2017, the first Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carrier entered service followed by her sister ship in 2019. The first carrier strike group took to sea in September 2019 as part of an exercise known as Westlant 19. HMS Queen Elizabeth and her air group of F-35B Lightning jets operated alongside two surface escorts and a fleet tanker off the east coast of the United States. The deployment was in preparation for the first operational deployment in 2021, which is expected to involve HMS Queen Elizabeth alongside four Royal Navy escorts, two support ships and a submarine.
Under current plans, a Royal Navy carrier strike group will typically comprise a Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carrier, two air defence destroyers, two anti-submarine frigates, a submarine, solid stores ship and a fleet tanker, however the composition varies depending on the operational tasking. While Queen Elizabeth's initial deployment will be as part of an all-British carrier group, it is envisaged in the longer term that the UK's carriers will usually form the centre of a multi-national operation – in 2018, it was announced that the British and Dutch governments had come to an agreement that would see escort vessels of the Royal Netherlands Navy operating as part of the UK Carrier Strike Group. Command of the UK carrier strike group is the responsibility of Commander United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group. A June 2020 National Audit Office report however provided a critical review of the forthcoming Carrier Strike Group, especially noting the delay to the Crowsnest system.
===United States===
====Carrier strike group====
In modern United States Navy carrier air operations, a carrier strike group (CSG) normally consists of 1 aircraft carrier, 1 guided missile cruiser (for air defense), 2 LAMPS-capable warships (focusing on anti-submarine and surface warfare), and 1–2 anti-submarine destroyers or frigates. The large number of CSGs used by the United States reflects, in part, a division of roles and missions allotted during the Cold War, in which the United States assumed primary responsibility for blue-water operations and for safeguarding supply lines between the United States and Europe, while the NATO allies assumed responsibility for less costly brown- and green-water operations. The CSG has replaced the old term of carrier battle group (CVBG or CARBATGRU). The US Navy maintains 11 carrier strike groups, 10 of which are based in the United States and one that is forward deployed in Yokosuka, Japan.
====Expeditionary strike group====
An expeditionary strike group is composed of an amphibious assault ship (LHA/LHD), a dock landing ship (LSD), an amphibious transport dock (LPD), a Marine expeditionary unit, AV-8B Harrier II or, more recently Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II aircraft, CH-53E Super Stallion and CH-46E Sea Knight helicopters or, more recently, MV-22B tiltrotors. Cruisers, destroyers and attack submarines are deployed with either an Expeditionary Strike Group or a Carrier Strike Group.
====Battleship battle group====
During the period when the American navy recommissioned all four of its s, it sometimes used a similar formation centered on a battleship, referred to as a battleship battle group. It was alternately referred to as a surface action group.
The battleship battle group typically consisted of one modernized battleship, one , one or , one , three s and one auxiliary ship such as a replenishment oiler.
====Surface action group====
A surface action group is "a temporary or standing organization of combatant ships, other than carriers, tailored for a specific tactical mission".
==Underway replenishment==
Since its origins, the viability of the carrier battle group has been dependent on its ability to remain at sea for extended periods. Specialized ships were developed to provide underway replenishment of fuel (for the carrier and its aircraft), ordnance, and other supplies necessary to sustain operations. Carrier battle groups devote a great deal of planning to efficiently conduct underway replenishment to minimize the time spent conducting replenishment. The carrier can also provide replenishment on a limited basis to its escorts, but typically a replenishment ship such as a fast combat support ship (AOE) or replenishment oiler (AOR) pulls alongside a carrier and conducts simultaneous operations with the carrier on its port side and one of the escorts on its starboard side. The advent of the helicopter provides the ability to speed replenishment by lifting supplies at the same time that fueling hoses and lines are delivering other goods.
==Debate on future viability==
There is debate in naval warfare circles as to the viability of carrier battle groups in 21st century naval warfare. Proponents of the CVBG argue that it provides unmatched firepower and force projection capabilities. Opponents argue that CVBGs are increasingly vulnerable to arsenal ships and cruise missiles, especially those with supersonic or even hypersonic flight and the ability to perform radical trajectory changes to avoid anti-missile systems. It is also noted that CVBGs were designed for Cold War scenarios, and are less useful in establishing control of areas close to shore. It is argued however that such missiles and arsenal ships pose no serious threat as they would be eliminated due to increasing improvement in ship defenses such as Cooperative Engagement Capability (CEC), DEW technology and missile technology.
Additionally, carrier battle groups proved to be vulnerable to diesel-electric submarines owned by many smaller naval forces. Examples are the German U24 of the conventional 206 class which in 2001 "sank" USS Enterprise during the exercise JTFEX 01-2 in the Caribbean Sea by firing flares and taking a photograph through its periscope or the Swedish Gotland which managed the same feat in 2006 during JTFEX 06-2 by penetrating the defensive measures of Carrier Strike Group 7 undetected and snap several pictures of .
However, carriers have been called upon to be first responders even when conventional land-based aircraft were employed. During Desert Shield, the U.S. Navy sortied additional carriers to augment the on-station assets, eventually maintaining six carriers for Desert Storm. Although the U.S. Air Force sent fighters such as the F-16 to theater in Desert Shield, they had to carry bombs with them as no stores were in place for sustained operations, whereas the carriers arrived on scene with full magazines and had support ships to allow them to conduct strikes indefinitely.
The Global War on Terror has shown the flexibility and responsiveness of the carrier on multiple occasions when land-based air was not feasible or able to respond in a timely fashion. After the 11 September terrorist attacks on the U.S., carriers immediately headed to the Arabian Sea to support Operation Enduring Freedom and took up station, building to a force of three carriers. Their steaming location was closer to the targets in Afghanistan than any land-based assets and thereby more responsive. The was adapted to be a support base for special operations helicopters. Carriers were used again in Operation Iraqi Freedom and even provided aircraft to be based ashore on occasion and have done so periodically when special capabilities are needed. This precedent was established during World War II in the Battle of Guadalcanal.
Regardless of the debate over viability, the United States has made a major investment in the development of a new carrier class—the s (formerly designated CVN-X, or the X Carrier)—to replace the existing s. The new Ford-class carriers are designed to be modular and are easily adaptable as technology and equipment needed on board changes.
|
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] |
7,773 |
Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight
|
{{Infobox aircraft
| name = CH-46 Sea Knight Model 107
| image = File:CH-46 Sea Knight Helicopter.jpg
| image_caption = A US Marine Corps CH-46 of HMM-364 flies over Huntington Beach, California, in October 2011.
| aircraft_type = Transport helicopter
| national_origin = United States
| manufacturer =
| designer =
| first_flight = 22 April 1958 (V-107)
| introduction = 1964
| retired =
| status = In limited service
| primary_user = United States Marine Corps (historical)
| more_users =
| produced = 19621971
| number_built = H-46: 524
On 22 April 1958, the V-107 prototype performed its maiden flight. However, this order was later decreased to three helicopters; according to aviation author Jay P. Spenser, the cutback had been enacted in order that the U.S. Army would be able to divert funds for the development of the rival V-114 helicopter, which was also a turbine-powered tandem rotor design but substantially larger than the V-107.
During 1960, the U.S. Marine Corps evolved a requirement for a medium-lift, twin-turbine troop/cargo assault helicopter to replace the various piston-engined types that were then in widespread use with the service. That same year, American aviation company Boeing acquired Vertol, after which the group was consequently renamed Boeing Vertol. Along with the USMC's CH-46Ds, the U.S. Navy also acquired a small number of UH-46Ds for ship resupply purposes. In addition, approximately 33 CH-46As were progressively re-manufactured to the CH-46D standard. This model features new manufactured CT58-GE-16 engines, the commercial version of the upgraded engines used for the CH-46E as well as modernized avionics including a glass cockpit. The CH-46 features a fixed tricycle landing gear, complete with twin wheels on all three legs of the landing gear; this configuration results in a nose-up stance, helping to facilitate cargo loading and unloading. Two of the main landing gear were installed within protruding rear sponsons; the free interior space of the sponsons are also used to house fuel tanks, possessing a total capacity of 350 US gallons (1,438 L). The rear sponsons hold two of the three landing gear units as well as self-sealing fuel tanks.
==Operational history==
===United States===
Known colloquially as the "Phrog", the Sea Knight was used in all U.S. Marine operational environments between its introduction during the Vietnam War and its retirement in 2015. The type's longevity and reputation for reliability led to mantras such as "phrogs phorever" and "never trust a helicopter under 30". CH-46s transported personnel, evacuated wounded, supplied forward arming and refueling points (FARP), performed vertical replenishment, search and rescue, recovered downed aircraft and crews and other tasks.
====Vietnam War====
During the Vietnam War, the CH-46 was one of the prime US Marine troop transport helicopters in the theater, slotting between the smaller Bell UH-1 Iroquois and larger Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion and progressively replacing the UH-34. CH-46 operations were plagued by major technical problems; the engines, being prone to foreign object damage (FOD) from debris being ingested when hovering close to the ground and subsequently suffering a compressor stall, had a lifespan as low as 85 flight hours; on 21 July 1966, all CH-46s were grounded until more efficient filters had been fitted.
On 3 May 1967, a CH-46D at Marine Corps Air Facility Santa Ana crashed, killing all four members of the crew. Within three days the accident investigators had determined that the mounting brackets of the main transmission had failed, allowing the front and rear overlapping rotors to intermesh. All CH-46s were temporarily grounded for inspection. On 13 May, a CH-46A crashed off the coast of Vietnam when the tail pylon containing the engines, main transmission and aft rotors broke off in flight. All four crew members were killed. On 20 June, another CH-46A crashed, though two of the four-man crew survived. Once again, even though the aircraft was not recovered from the water, failure of some sort in the rear pylon was suspected. On 30 June a CH-46D at Santa Ana crashed when a rotor blade separated from the aircraft, all three of the crew survived. As a result of this latest accident, all CH-46Ds were immediately grounded, but the CH-46As continued flying. On 3 July another CH-46A crashed in Vietnam, killing all four Marines of its crew. The cause of the crash again was traced to failure of the main transmission.
On 31 August 1967, a CH-46A on a medical evacuation mission to disintegrated in midair killing all its occupants. The following day another CH-46A experienced a similar incident at Marble Mountain Air Facility leading to the type being grounded for all except emergency situations and cutting Marine airlift capacity in half. An investigation conducted by a joint Naval Air Systems Command/Boeing Vertol accident investigation team revealed that structural failures were occurring in the area of the rear pylon resulting in the rear rotor tearing off in flight and may have been the cause of several earlier losses. The team recommended structural and systems modifications to reinforce the rear rotor mount as well as installation of an indicator to detect excessive strain on critical parts of the aircraft. 80 CH-46As were shipped to Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Okinawa where they received the necessary modifications by a combined force of Marine and Boeing Vertol personnel. The modified CH-46As began returning to service in December 1967 and all had been returned to service by February 1968. Marine CH-46s participated in Operation Frequent Wind, the evacuation of Saigon, in April 1975 and the last helicopter to leave the roof of the US embassy was a CH-46 of HMM-164. By the end of US military operations in Vietnam, over a hundred Sea Knights had been lost to enemy fire.
====Post-Vietnam====
In February 1968 the Marine Corps Development and Education Command obtained several CH-46s to perform herbicide dissemination tests using HIDAL (Helicopter, Insecticide Dispersal Apparatus, Liquid) systems; testing indicated the need for redesign and further study. Tandem-rotor helicopters were often used to transport nuclear warheads; the CH-46A was evaluated to deploy Naval Special Forces with the Special Atomic Demolition Munition (SADM). Nuclear Weapon Accident Exercise 1983 (NUWAX-83), simulating the crash of a Navy CH-46E carrying 3 nuclear warheads, was conducted at the Nevada Test Site on behalf of several federal agencies; the exercise, which used real radiological agents, was depicted in a Defense Nuclear Agency-produced documentary.
U.S. Marine CH-46s were used to deploy the 8th Marine Regiment into Grenada during Operation Urgent Fury, evacuated the surviving crewmember of a downed AH-1 Cobra, and then carried infantry from the 75th Ranger Regiment to secure and evacuate U.S. students at St. George's University, though one crashed after colliding with a palm tree.
CH-46E Sea Knights were also used by the U.S. Marine Corps during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In one incident on 1 April 2003, Marine CH-46Es and CH-53Es carried U.S. Army Rangers and Special Operations troops on an extraction mission for captured Army Private Jessica Lynch from an Iraqi hospital. During the subsequent occupation of Iraq and counter-insurgency operations, the CH-46E was heavily used in the CASEVAC role, being required to maintain 24/7 availability regardless of conditions. According to authors Williamson Murray and Robert H Scales, the Sea Knight displayed serious reliability and maintenance problems during its deployment to Iraq, as well as "limited lift capabilities". Following the loss of numerous US helicopters in the Iraqi theatre, the Marines opted to equip their CH-46s with more advanced anti-missile countermeasures.
The U.S. Navy retired the type on 24 September 2004, replacing it with the MH-60S Seahawk; the Marine Corps maintained its fleet as the MV-22 Osprey was fielded. In March 2006 Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 263 (HMM-263) was deactivated and redesignated VMM-263 to serve as the first MV-22 squadron. The replacement process continued through the other medium helicopter squadrons into 2014. On 5 October 2014, the Sea Knight performed its final service flight with the U.S. Marine Corps at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar. HMM-364 was the last squadron to use it outside the United States, landing it aboard on her maiden transit. On 9 April 2015, the CH-46 was retired by the Marine Medium Helicopter Training Squadron 164, the last Marine Corps squadron to transition to the MV-22. The USMC retired the CH-46 on 1 August 2015 in a ceremony at the Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington DC. A number of CH-46s from HMX-1 were transferred to the Air Wing in late 2014. In Afghanistan the CH-46s were used by Embassy Air for secure transport of State Department personnel. The CH-46s were equipped with missile warning sensors and flare dispensers and could be armed with M240D or M2 Browning machine guns. A report in September 2019 by the State Department Inspector General found that a seat on a CH-46 for a seven-minute flight cost US$1,500 (~$ in ).
====Evacuation of Afghanistan====
Seven of the State Department Air Wing CH-46s took part in the 2021 Kabul Airlift. Prior to the complete withdrawal of U.S. forces, all seven were rendered unusable and abandoned at Kabul International Airport and are seen in many videos and pictures online. One of the CH-46s that was abandoned (BuNo 154038, c/n 2389) also took part in Operation Frequent Wind 46 years earlier. The U.S. State Department drew criticism for leaving behind the aircraft. Commenting on the issue, the U.S. State Department claimed that the helicopters were already being phased out of State Department Air Wing due to their age and the inability to support them. The seven CH-46s left behind were the only U.S. State Department aircraft left behind at Kabul International Airport.
===Canada===
The Royal Canadian Air Force procured six CH-113 Labrador helicopters for the SAR role and the Canadian Army acquired 12 of the similar CH-113A Voyageur for the medium-lift transport role. The RCAF Labradors were delivered first with the first one entering service on 11 October 1963. When the larger CH-147 Chinook was procured by the Canadian Forces in the mid-1970s, the Voyageur fleet was converted to Labrador specifications to undertake SAR missions. The refurbished Voyageurs were re-designated as CH-113A Labradors, thus a total of 15 Labradors were ultimately in service.
In 1981, a mid-life upgrade of the fleet was carried out by Boeing Canada in Arnprior, Ontario. Known as the SAR-CUP (Search and Rescue Capability Upgrade Program), the refit scheme included new instrumentation, a nose-mounted weather radar, a tail-mounted auxiliary power unit, a new high-speed rescue hoist mounted over the side door and front-mounted searchlights. A total of six CH-113s and five CH-113As were upgraded with the last delivered in 1984. Nonetheless, as a search and rescue helicopter it endured heavy use and hostile weather conditions; which had begun to take their toll on the Labrador fleet by the 1990s, resulting in increasing maintenance costs and the need for prompt replacement.
=== Sweden ===
In 1963, Sweden procured ten UH-46Bs from the US as a transport and anti-submarine helicopter for the Swedish Armed Forces, designated Hkp 4A. In 1973, a further eight Kawasaki-built KV-107s, which were accordingly designated Hkp 4B, were acquired to replace the older Piasecki H-21. During the Cold War, the fleet's primary missions were anti-submarine warfare and troop transportation. They were also frequently employed in the search and rescue role, most famously during the rescue operation of the MS Estonia after it sank in the Baltic Sea on 28 September 1994. In the 1980s, the Hkp 4A was phased out, having been replaced by the Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma; the later Kawasaki-built Sea Knights continued in operational service until 2011, they were replaced by the UH-60 Black Hawk and NH90.
===Argentina===
On 15 September 2023, Argentina's Air Force chief Gen. Xavier Issac briefed the media that Argentina had sent a letter requesting the US to approve the refurbishment of surplus CH-46s currently stored with the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group in Arizona. The availability of civilian-operated CH-46s was also being explored. They would be used to support Argentina's Antarctic bases. The CH-46s would replace two Mil Mi-171E helicopters acquired in 2010, but now not able to be repaired by Russia due to sanctions from the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
===Civilian and others===
The civilian version, designated as the BV 107-II Vertol, was developed prior to the military CH-46. It was operated commercially by New York Airways, Pan American World Airways and later on by Columbia Helicopters. pulling a hover barge, and constructing transmission towers for overhead power lines.
In December 2006, Columbia Helicopters purchased the type certificate of the Model 107 from Boeing, with the aim of eventually producing new-build aircraft themselves. In 2023, Columbia Helicopters began a program of purchasing older Model 107-II and CH-46E airframes, and refurbishing them into Model 107-IIs for sale. Columbia Helicopters has also updated old airframes into the Model 107-III. Features new manufactured CT58-GE-16 engines, the commercial version of the upgraded engines used for the CH-46E as well as modernized avionics including a glass cockpit.
CH-46F: Improved version of CH-46D, electrical distribution, com/nav update BUNO 154845-157726. Last production model in the United States. 174 built, later reverted to CH-46E.
VH-46F: Unofficial designation of standard CH-46F used by HMX-1 as VIP support transport helicopter.
CH-46X: Replacement helicopter based on the Boeing Model 360, this Advance Technology Demonstrator from the 1980s never entered production. The aircraft relied heavily on composites for its construction and had a beefier drive train to handle the twin Avco-Lycoming AL5512 engines (4,200 shp).
XH-49: Original designation of UH-46B.
===Canadian versions===
CH-113 Labrador: Search and rescue version of the Model 107-II-9 for the Royal Canadian Air Force
CH-113A Voyageur: Assault and utility transport version of the Model 107-II-28 for the Canadian Army. Later converted to CH-113A Labrador when the Canadian Forces acquired the CH-47 Chinook
===Japanese versions===
KV-107II-1 (CT58-110-1)
Utility transport version, one built from Boeing-supplied kits.
KV-107II-2 (CT58-110-1)
Commercial airline version, nine built from Boeing-supplied kits.
KV-107IIA-2 (CT58-140-1)
Improved version of the KV-107/II-2, three built.
KV-107II-3 (CT58-110-1)
Minesweeping version for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), two built.
KV-107IIA-3 (CT58-IHI-10-M1)
Uprated version of the KV-107/II-3, seven built.
KV-107II-4 (CT58-IHI-110-1)
Assault and utility transport version for the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), 41 built.
KV-107II-4A (CT58-IHI-110-1)
VIP version of the KV-107/II-4, one built.
KV-107IIA-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1)
Uprated version of the KV-107/II-4, 18 built.
KV-107II-5 (CT58-IHI-110-1)
Long-range SAR version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF), 17 built.
KV-107IIA-5 (CT58-IHI-104-1)
Uprated version of the KV-107II-5, 35 built.
KV-107II-7 (CT58-110-1)
VIP transport version, one built.
KV-107II-16
HKP 4C for Swedish Navy. Powered by Rolls-Royce Gnome H.1200 turboshaft engines, eight built.
KV-107IIA-17 (CT58-140-1)
Long-range transport version for the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, one built.
KV-107IIA-SM-1 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1)
Firefighting helicopter for Saudi Arabia, seven built.
KV-107IIA-SM-2 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1)
Aeromedical and rescue helicopter for Saudi Arabia, four built.
KV-107IIA-SM-3 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1)
VIP transport helicopter for Saudi Arabia, two built.
KV-107IIA-SM-4 (CT58-IHI-140-1M1)
Air ambulance helicopter for Saudi Arabia, three built.
===Swedish versions===
HKP 4A: Boeing Vertol 107-II-14, used originally by Air Force for search and rescue, ten built
HKP 4B: Boeing Vertol 107-II-15, mine-layer/antisubmarine warfare/search and rescue helicopter for Navy, three built and one conversion from Boeing-Vertol civil prototype
HKP 4C: Kawasaki KV-107-II-16, advanced mine-layer/ASW/SAR helicopter for Navy, eight built
HKP 4D: Rebuilt HKP 4A for Navy as SAR/ASW helicopter, four conversions
==Operators==
Helifor Canada
Columbia Helicopters
Sky Aviation Corp
===Former operators===
Canadian Army - Voyageur variant (later as CH-113A)
Royal Canadian Air Force - both CH-113 and CH-113A
103 Search and Rescue Squadron
413 Transport and Rescue Squadron
102 Composite Unit / 424 Transport and Rescue Squadron
442 Transport and Rescue Squadron
450 Transport Helicopter Squadron
Japan Air Self-Defense Force
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
Ministry of Interior
Swedish Air Force
Swedish Navy
New York Airways
Pan American Airways
United States Marine Corps
HMX-1
HMM-262
HMM-265
HMM-268
HMM-364
HMM-764
HMM-774
HMMT-164
VMR-1
United States Navy
United States Department of State
State Department Air Wing
==Notable accidents and incidents==
On 14 October 1963 New York Airways Flight 600, a Boeing Vertol 107, registration N6673D, crashed shortly after takeoff from Idlewild Airport (now JFK) en route to Newark via Wall Street. All three passengers and all three crew members died. The accident was caused by mechanical failure due to contaminated lubricants.
On 15 July 1966 in the Vietnam War during Operation Hastings, two CH-46As of HMM-164 collided at Landing Zone Crow while another, crashed into a tree avoiding the first two, resulting in 2 Marines killed. Another CH-46 of HMM-265 was shot down at the LZ later that day resulting in a further 13 Marine deaths.
On 4 June 1968, CH-46D BuNo 152533 of HMM-165 was hit by anti-aircraft fire at Landing Zone Loon and crashed killing 13 Marines.
On 14 March 1969, CH-46D BuNo 154841 of HMM-161 was hit by a B-40 rocket as it conducted a resupply and medevac mission at Landing Zone Sierra, killing 12 Marines and 1 Navy corpsman.
On 10 May 1996, a CH-46E collided in mid-air with an Bell AH-1W attack helicopter, killing fourteen (twelve Marines, one Navy sailor, and one Army soldier) aboard the two helicopters. The pilots of the CH-46E were injured. Both helicopters, of HMM-266, were operating from USS Saipan and were participating in Operation Purple Star, a joint exercise involving troops from the U.S. and the UK at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
On 2 October 1998, a CH-113 Labrador crashed near Marsoui, Quebec, after an inflight fire. All six crewmembers were killed.
On 9 December 1999, a CH-46D Sea Knight BuNo 154790 of HMM-166 crashed during a boarding exercise off the coast of San Diego, California, killing seven U.S. Marines. The pilot landed the CH-46 short on the deck of the USNS Pecos, causing the left rear tire and strut to become entangled in the safety netting at the back of the ship, which caused it to plunge into the ocean.
==Aircraft on display==
A variety of CH-46 are on display at museums in Canada, Japan, Sweden, and the United States.
Canada
Canada Aviation and Space Museum – Labrador 11301
National Air Force Museum of Canada – Labrador 11315
Greenwood Military Aviation Museum – Labrador 11308
Japan
Japan Air Self Defense Force Hamamatsu Air Base Publication Center, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan
Kakamigahara Aerospace Science Museum, Kakamigahara, Gifu, Japan
Kawasaki Vertol 107-II – Kawasaki Good Times World, within Kobe Maritime Museum, Kobe, Hyōgo, Japan.
Sweden
Aeroseum, Gothenburg, Sweden – Boeing Vertol/Kawasaki KV-107-II (CH-46), Hkp 4C, c/n 4093, Fv 04072 "72"
Swedish Air Force Museum, Linköping Sweden. Prototype BV-107-II N6679D. Bought used from Boeing in 1970.
United States
153962, 154853, 155316, 154810, 157678, 157682 – National United States Armed Forces Museum in Houston, Texas displays four Marine Corps CH-46Es in various configurations including an HMX-1 aircraft and an HH-46E "Pedro" configured for search and rescue '01' from VMR-1 Cherry Point MCAS, NC.
150954 – USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California displays HH-46A (c/n 2040) as U.S. Navy SA-46 of HC-3 on one side and VR-46 of HC-11 on the other.
151952 – National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, FL displays HH-46D (c/n 2102) as U.S. Navy HW-00 of HC-6.
153389 – Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina, has Raymond Clausen's Medal of Honor mission CH-46E (c/n 2287) as HMM-263 EG-16. The rear fuselage of BuNo 153335 was used in restoration.
153986 – National Museum of the Marine Corps Quantico, Virginia has a walk-through exhibit containing the rear half of a CH-46D displayed as the former BuNo 153986 (c/n 2337) YK-13 from HMM-364 with their logo, The Purple Fox. The front half of the aircraft was used as a training aid display for HMX-1.
153402 – New River Aviation Memorial at the front gate of Marine Corps Air Station New River, (part of Camp Lejeune) in Jacksonville, North Carolina – CH-46E (c/n 2300) as YS-02 of HMM-162 on one side and HMM-261 on the other.
153369 – National Air and Space Museum at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia has CH-46D (c/n 2265) displayed as MQ-400 of HMM-774. This aircraft is on loan from National Museum of the Marine Corps, Quantico, Virginia. The aircraft was last flown on 1 August 2015 at the Marine Corps' formal sunset ceremony for the type which was the last public showing of an airworthy Marine Corps CH-46.
154009 – Patriots Point Naval and Maritime Museum in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, has CH-46E (c/n 2360) of HMM-164.
154803 – Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, San Diego, California, USA has CH-46E (c/n 2410) as YS-09 Lady Ace 09 of HMM-165. The CH-46 took part in Operation Frequent Wind and was used to evacuate Ambassador Graham Martin, the last United States Ambassador to South Vietnam from the United States Embassy, Saigon on 30 April 1975.
156427 – Veterans Museum Dyersburg Army Air Base in Halls, Tennessee has YP-05, a CH-46E wearing the Evileyes of HMM-163.
156469 – Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona. Started life as a CH-46F, and was converted to the CH-46E standard sometime between 1975 and 1979. It is displayed as YP-12 of HMM-163 "Evileyes" Scheme; accurate to this airframe. (On loan from the National Museum of the Marine Corps.)
157688 – Classic Rotors Rotorcraft Museum in Ramona, CA. displays HH-46E '02' from VMR-1 Cherry Point MCAS N.C.
==Specifications (CH-46E)==
|
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"HMM-161",
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"overhead power line",
"amphibious helicopter",
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"vertical replenishment",
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"Hamamatsu",
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"combat support",
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"tandem rotors",
"MS Estonia",
"Canadian Army",
"Kakamigahara, Gifu",
"National Air and Space Museum",
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"rotor blade",
"USS Saipan (LHA-2)",
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"Royal Canadian Air Force",
"CH-149 Cormorant",
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"California",
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"pintle",
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"HMM-164",
"Pensacola, FL",
"fiberglass",
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"Gaspé Peninsula",
"Halls, Tennessee",
"HMM-764",
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"309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group",
"Russia",
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"search and rescue",
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"VMR-1",
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"winch",
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"transport helicopter",
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"AgustaWestland EH101",
"St. George's University",
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"Vietnam War"
] |
7,774 |
Chief of Naval Operations
|
The chief of naval operations (CNO) is the highest-ranking officer of the United States Navy. The position is a statutory office () held by an admiral who is a military adviser and deputy to the secretary of the Navy. The CNO is also a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff () and in this capacity, a military adviser to the National Security Council, the Homeland Security Council, the secretary of defense, and the president.
Despite the title, the CNO does not have operational command authority over naval forces. The CNO is an administrative position based in the Pentagon, and exercises supervision of Navy organizations as the designee of the secretary of the Navy. Operational command of naval forces falls within the purview of the combatant commanders who report to the secretary of defense.
As of 21 February 2025, the acting chief of naval operations is Admiral James W. Kilby.
==Appointment, rank, and responsibilities==
The chief of naval operations (CNO) is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the U.S. Navy unless the chairman and/or the vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. A requirement for being Chief of Naval Operations is having significant experience in joint duty assignments, which includes at least one full tour of duty in a joint duty assignment as a flag officer.
===Department of the Navy===
The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under , such as presiding over the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV), exercising supervision of Navy organizations, and other duties assigned by the secretary or higher lawful authority, or the CNO delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in OPNAV or in organizations below.
===Joint Chiefs of Staff===
The CNO is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as prescribed by and . Like the other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the CNO is an administrative position, with no operational command authority over the United States Navy forces.
Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, individually or collectively, in their capacity as military advisers, shall provide advice to the president, the National Security Council (NSC), or the secretary of defense (SECDEF) on a particular matter when the president, the NSC, or SECDEF requests such advice. Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (other than the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) may submit to the chairman advice or an opinion in disagreement with, or advice or an opinion in addition to, the advice presented by the chairman to the president, NSC, or SECDEF.
When performing her JCS duties, the CNO is responsible directly to the SECDEF, but keeps SECNAV fully informed of significant military operations affecting the duties and responsibilities of the SECNAV, unless SECDEF orders otherwise.
==History==
===Early attempts and the Aide for Naval Operations (1900–1915)===
In 1900, administrative and operational authority over the Navy was concentrated in the secretary of the Navy and bureau chiefs, with the General Board holding only advisory powers. Critics of the lack of military command authority included Charles J. Bonaparte, Navy secretary from 1905 to 1906, then-Captain Reginald R. Belknap and future admiral William Sims.
Rear Admiral George A. Converse, commander of the Bureau of Navigation (BuNav) from 1905 to 1906, reported:
However, reorganization attempts were opposed by Congress due to fears of a Prussian-style general staff and inadvertently increasing the powers of the Navy secretary, which risked infringing on legislative authority. Senator Eugene Hale, chairman of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, disliked reformers like Sims and persistently blocked attempts to bring such ideas to debate.
To circumvent the opposition, George von Lengerke Meyer, Secretary of the Navy under William Howard Taft implemented a system of "aides" on 18 November 1909. These aides lacked command authority and instead served as principal advisors to the Navy secretary. The aide for operations was deemed by Meyer to be the most important one, responsible for devoting "his entire attention and study to the operations of the fleet," and drafting orders for the movement of ships on the advice of the General Board and approval of the secretary in times of war or emergency.
The successes of Meyer's first operations aide, Rear Admiral Richard Wainwright, factored into Meyer's decision to make his third operations aide, Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske his de facto principal advisor on 10 February 1913. Fiske retained his post under Meyer's successor, Josephus Daniels, becoming the most prominent advocate for what would become the office of CNO.
===Creating the position of Chief of Naval Operations (1915)===
In 1914, Fiske, frustrated at Daniels' ambivalence towards his opinion that the Navy was unprepared for the possibility of entry into World War I, bypassed the secretary to collaborate with Representative Richmond P. Hobson, a retired Navy admiral, to draft legislation providing for the office of "a chief of naval operations". The preliminary proposal (passed off as Hobson's own to mask Fiske's involvement), in spite of Daniels' opposition, passed Hobson's subcommittee unanimously on 4 January 1915, and passed the full House Committee on Naval Affairs on 6 January.
Fiske's younger supporters expected him to be named the first chief of naval operations, and his versions of the bill provided for the minimum rank of the officeholder to be a two-star rear admiral.
In contrast, Daniels' version, included in the final bill, emphasized the office's subordination to the Navy secretary, allowed for the selection of the CNO from officers of the rank of captain, and denied it authority over the Navy's general direction:
Fiske's "end-running" of Daniels eliminated any possibility of him being named the first CNO. Nevertheless, satisfied with the change he had helped enact, Fiske made a final contribution: elevating the statutory rank of the CNO to admiral with commensurate pay. The Senate passed the appropriations bill creating the CNO position and its accompanying office on 3 March 1915, simultaneously abolishing the aides system promulgated under Meyer.
===Benson, the first CNO (1915–1919)===
Captain William S. Benson was promoted to the temporary rank of rear admiral and became the first CNO on 11 May 1915. He further assumed the rank of admiral after the passage of the 1916 Naval Appropriations Bill with Fiske's amendments, second only to Admiral of the Navy George Dewey and explicitly senior to the commanders-in-chief of the Atlantic, Pacific and Asiatic Fleets.
Unlike Fiske, who had campaigned for a powerful, aggressive CNO sharing authority with the Navy secretary, Benson demonstrated personal loyalty to Secretary Daniels and subordinated himself to civilian control, yet maintained the CNO's autonomy where necessary. While alienating reformers like Sims and Fiske (who retired in 1916), Benson's conduct gave Daniels immense trust in his new CNO, and Benson was delegated greater resources and authority.
====Achievements====
Among the organizational efforts initiated or recommended by Benson included an advisory council to coordinate high-level staff activities, composed of himself, the SECNAV and the bureau chiefs which "worked out to the great satisfaction" of Daniels and Benson; the reestablishment of the Joint Army and Navy Board in 1918 with Benson as its Navy member; and the consolidation of all matters of naval aviation under the authority of the CNO.
Benson also revamped the structure of the naval districts, transferring authority for them from SECNAV to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations under the Operations, Plans, Naval Districts division. This enabled closer cooperation between naval district commanders and the uniformed leadership, who could more easily handle communications between the former and the Navy's fleet commanders.
In the waning years of his tenure, Benson set regulations for officers on shore duty to have temporary assignments with the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations to maintain cohesion between the higher-level staff and the fleet.
====Establishing OPNAV====
Until 1916, the CNO's office was chronically understaffed. The formal establishment of the CNO's "general staff", the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV), originally called the Office for Operations, was exacerbated by Eugene Hale's retirement from politics in 1911, and skepticism of whether the CNO's small staff could implement President Wilson's policy of "preparedness" without violating American neutrality in World War I.
By June 1916, OPNAV was organized into eight divisions: Operations, Plans, Naval Districts; Regulations; Ship Movements; Communications; Publicity; and Materiel. Operations provided a link between fleet commanders and the General Board, Ship Movements coordinated the movement of Navy vessels and oversaw navy yard overhauls, Communications accounted for the Navy's developing radio network, Publicity conducted the Navy's public affairs, and the Materiel section coordinated the work of the naval bureaus.
Numbering only 75 staffers in January 1917, OPNAV increased in size following the American entry into World War I, as it was deemed of great importance to manage the rapid mobilization of forces to fight in the war. By war's end, OPNAV employed over 1462 people. The CNO and OPNAV thus gained influence over Navy administration but at the expense of the Navy secretary and bureau chiefs.
====Advisor to the president====
In 1918, Benson became a military advisor to Edward M. House, an advisor and confidant of President Wilson, joining him on a trip to Europe as the 1918 armistice with Germany was signed. His stance that the United States remain equal to Great Britain in naval power was very useful to House and Wilson, enough for Wilson to insist Benson remain in Europe until after the Treaty of Versailles was signed in July 1919.
====End of tenure====
Benson's tenure as CNO was slated to end on 10 May 1919, but this was delayed by the president at Secretary Daniels' insistence; Benson instead retired on 25 September 1919. Admiral Robert Coontz replaced Benson as CNO on 1 November 1919.
===Interwar period (1919–1939)===
The CNO's office faced no significant changes in authority during the interwar period, largely due to the Navy secretaries opting to keep executive authority within their own office. Innovations during this period included encouraging coordination in war planning process, and compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty while still keeping to the shipbuilding plan authorized by the Naval Act of 1916. and implementing the concept of naval aviation into naval doctrine.
====CNO Pratt, relationship with the General Board and Army-Navy relations====
William V. Pratt became the fifth Chief of Naval Operations on 17 September 1930, after the resignation of Charles F. Hughes. He had previously served as assistant chief of naval operations under CNO Benson. A premier naval policymaker and supporter of arms control under the Washington Naval Treaty, Pratt, despite otherwise good relations, clashed with President Herbert Hoover over building up naval force strength to treaty levels, with Hoover favoring restrictions in spending due to financial difficulties caused by the Great Depression. Under Pratt, such a "treaty system" was needed to maintain a compliant peacetime navy.
Pratt opposed centralized management of the Navy, and encouraged diversity of opinion between the offices of the Navy secretary, CNO and the Navy's General Board. To this effect, Pratt removed the CNO as an ex officio member of the General Board, concerned that the office's association with the Board could hamper diversities of opinion between the former and counterparts within the offices of the Navy secretary and OPNAV. Pratt's vision of a less powerful CNO also clashed with Representative Carl Vinson of Georgia, chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee from 1931 to 1947, a proponent of centralizing power within OPNAV. Vinson deliberately delayed many of his planned reorganization proposals until Pratt's replacement by William H. Standley to avoid the unnecessary delays that would otherwise have happened with Pratt.
Pratt also enjoyed a good working relationship with Army chief of staff Douglas MacArthur, and negotiated several key agreements with him over coordinating their services' radio communications networks, mutual interests in coastal defense, and authority over Army and Navy aviation.
====CNO Standley and the Vinson-Trammell act====
William H. Standley, who succeeded Pratt in 1933, had a weaker relationship with President Franklin D. Roosevelt than Pratt enjoyed with Hoover. Often in direct conflict with Navy secretary Claude A. Swanson and assistant secretary Henry L. Roosevelt, Standley's hostility to the latter was described as "poisonous".
Conversely, Standley successfully improved relations with Congress, streamlining communications between the Department of the Navy and the naval oversight committees by appointing the first naval legislative liaisons, the highest-ranked of which reported to the judge advocate general. Standley also worked with Representative Vinson to pass the Vinson-Trammell Act, considered by Standley to be his most important achievement as CNO. The Act authorized the President:
This effectively provided security for all Navy vessels under construction; even if new shipbuilding projects could not be initiated, shipbuilders with new classes under construction could not legally be obliged to cease operations, allowing the Navy to prepare for World War II without breaking potential limits from future arms control conferences. The Act also granted the CNO "soft oversight power" of the naval bureaus which nominally lay with the secretary of the Navy, as Standley gradually inserted OPNAV into the ship design process. Under Standley, the "treaty system" created by Pratt was abandoned.
====CNO Leahy====
Outgoing commander, Battle Force William D. Leahy succeeded Standley as CNO on 2 January 1937. Leahy's close personal friendship with President Roosevelt since his days as Navy assistant secretary, as well as good relationships with Representative Vinson and Secretary Swanson brought him to the forefront of potential candidates for the post. Unlike Standley, who tried to dominate the bureaus, Leahy preferred to let the bureau chiefs function autonomously as per convention, with the CNO acting as a primus inter pares. Leahy's views of the CNO's authority led to clashes with his predecessor; Standley even attempted to block Leahy from being assigned a fleet command in retaliation. Leahy, on his part, continued Standley's efforts to insert the CNO into the ship design process.
Swanson's ill health and assistant secretary Henry Roosevelt's death on 22 February 1936 gave Leahy unprecedented influence. Leahy had private lunches with the President frequently; during his tenure as CNO, Roosevelt had 52 meetings with him, compared with 12 with his Army counterpart, General Malin Craig, none of which were private lunches.
Leahy retired from the Navy on 1 August 1939 to become Governor of Puerto Rico, a month before the invasion of Poland.
==Official residence==
Number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The chief of naval operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence. It remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the vice president. The chief of naval operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard.
==Office of the Chief of Naval Operations==
The chief of naval operations presides over the Navy Staff, formally known as the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV).
The Office of the Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory organization within the executive part of the Department of the Navy, and its purpose is to furnish professional assistance to the secretary of the Navy (SECNAV) and the CNO in carrying out their responsibilities.
Under the authority of the CNO, the director of the Navy Staff (DNS) is responsible for day-to-day administration of the Navy Staff and coordination of the activities of the deputy chiefs of naval operations, who report directly to the CNO. The office was previously known as the assistant vice chief of naval operations (AVCNO) until 1996, when CNO Jeremy Boorda ordered its redesignation to its current name. Previously held by a three-star vice admiral, the position became a civilian's billet in 2018. The present DNS is a Vice Admiral Michael Boyle, a former 3rd Fleet commander.
==List of chiefs of naval operations==
(† - died in office)
===Aide for Naval Operations (historical predecessor office)===
===Chiefs of naval operations===
===Timeline===
|
[
"Louis A. Johnson",
"John M. Richardson (admiral)",
"Charles Frederick Hughes",
"Robert E. Coontz",
"William M. Fechteler",
"David L. McDonald",
"Robert McNamara",
"United States House Committee on Armed Services",
"Kenneth Braithwaite",
"Thomas B. Hayward",
"Great Depression",
"Gary Roughead",
"Charles E. Vreeland",
"Charles Thomas (Secretary of the Navy)",
"Neil H. McElroy",
"Caspar Weinberger",
"Jonathan W. Greenert",
"active duty",
"Submarines in the United States Navy",
"Jim Webb",
"the Pentagon",
"John Chafee",
"George C. Marshall",
"Great General Staff",
"chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff",
"United States Navy",
"George W. Anderson Jr.",
"Robert A. Lovett",
"United States Secretary of Defense",
"Organization of the United States Marine Corps",
"James D. Watkins",
"Structure of the United States Navy",
"primus inter pares",
"Michael Boorda",
"American entry into World War I",
"United States Homeland Security Council",
"William V. Pratt",
"John Howard Dalton",
"John L. Sullivan (United States Navy)",
"Jay L. Johnson",
"Edward M. House",
"George Dewey",
"Franklin D. Roosevelt",
"Ex officio member",
"United States Senate",
"United States naval districts",
"Malin Craig",
"Bradley A. Fiske",
"Edwin Denby (politician)",
"Washington, D. C.",
"John Warner",
"Treaty of Versailles",
"Claude A. Swanson",
"Richard V. Spencer",
"Lloyd Austin",
"Lower Saranac Lake",
"Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)",
"Office of the Chief of Naval Operations",
"Chief of Staff of the United States Army",
"Vice President of the United States",
"Washington Naval Treaty",
"naval aviation",
"William S. Benson",
"Charles Erwin Wilson",
"J. William Middendorf",
"Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff",
"Unified combatant command",
"United States Secretary of the Navy",
"United States Navy bureau system",
"John Connally",
"Ash Carter",
"Fred Korth",
"Ernest J. King",
"advice and consent",
"United States Congress",
"World War I",
"Richmond P. Hobson",
"William D. Leahy",
"Edward Walter Eberle",
"Admiral of the Navy",
"Joint Chiefs of Staff",
"Battle Fleet",
"United States Secretary of War",
"General Board of the United States Navy",
"Jeremy Boorda",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Henry L. Garrett III",
"Vice Chief of Naval Operations",
"Clark Clifford",
"George Whelan Anderson Jr.",
"Charles F. Hughes",
"Assistant Secretary of the Navy",
"Richard Wainwright (Spanish–American War naval officer)",
"Presidency of William Taft",
"Governor of Puerto Rico",
"New York (state)",
"Louis E. Denfeld",
"Judge Advocate General of the Navy",
"Francis P. Matthews",
"Surface warfare",
"General (United States)",
"House Committee on Naval Affairs",
"William Sims",
"James L. Holloway III",
"William J. Perry",
"Pete Hegseth",
"Carlos Del Toro",
"William Harrison Standley",
"official residence",
"invasion of Poland",
"Jonathan Greenert",
"President of the United States",
"Herbert Hoover",
"Newton D. Baker",
"Edward W. Eberle",
"Mark Esper",
"Curtis D. Wilbur",
"Naval Act of 1916",
"Chester W. Nimitz",
"James Kilby",
"Charles Edison",
"National Security Council (United States)",
"Josephus Daniels",
"United States Naval Observatory",
"James R. Schlesinger",
"Les Aspin",
"Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy",
"Ernest King",
"Paul R. Ignatius",
"Michael Mullen",
"Forrest Sherman",
"William H. Standley",
"Lynde D. McCormick",
"Thomas S. Gates Jr.",
"Washington Naval Yard",
"Paul Nitze",
"George A. Converse",
"Melvin Laird",
"Edward Hidalgo",
"Michael M. Gilday",
"USNI News",
"Robert Carney",
"Dan A. Kimball",
"Donald C. Winter",
"Naval aviation",
"William Cohen",
"Eugene Hale",
"Gordon R. England",
"John Phelan (businessman)",
"Reginald R. Belknap",
"George von Lengerke Meyer",
"Chuck Hagel",
"Elmo Zumwalt",
"Harold R. Stark",
"Battleship",
"End run",
"Admiral (United States)",
"United States National Security Council",
"Charles Francis Adams III",
"W. Graham Claytor Jr.",
"Frank Kelso",
"Charles J. Bonaparte",
"Ray Mabus",
"Sean O'Keefe",
"Leon Panetta",
"J. A. S. Grenville",
"Carl Vinson",
"United States Fleet",
"The Virginian-Pilot",
"Legal Information Institute",
"Henry L. Roosevelt",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"United States Senate Committee on Armed Services",
"Frank Carlucci",
"Robert Coontz",
"William Fechteler",
"John Lehman",
"Donald Rumsfeld",
"Armistice of 11 November 1918",
"Arleigh Burke",
"Jim Mattis",
"Number One Observatory Circle",
"Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff",
"Robert B. Carney",
"unified combatant command",
"Dick Cheney",
"Tingey House",
"Elliot Richardson",
"Richard Danzig",
"Vern Clark",
"Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)",
"The New York Times",
"Thomas Hinman Moorer",
"William Howard Taft",
"James Forrestal",
"Carlisle Trost",
"Charles Belknap Jr.",
"Douglas MacArthur",
"Harold Rainsford Stark",
"Robert Gates",
"William B. Franke",
"Frank Knox",
"William L. Ball",
"Lisa Franchetti"
] |
7,775 |
Clara Petacci
|
Clara "Claretta" Petacci (; 28 February 1912 – 28 April 1945) was a mistress of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. She was killed by Italian partisans during Mussolini's summary execution.
==Early life==
Daughter of Giuseppina Persichetti (1888–1962) and the physician Francesco Saverio Petacci (1883–1970), Clara Petacci was born into a privileged and religious family in Rome in 1912. Her father, a physician of the Holy Apostolic Palaces, became a supporter of fascism. A child when Mussolini rose to power in the 1920s, Clara Petacci idolised him from an early age. After Violet Gibson attempted to assassinate the dictator in April 1926, the 14-year-old Petacci wrote to him commenting "O, Duce, why was I not with you? ... Could I not have strangled that murderous woman?"
==Relationship with Mussolini==
Petacci had a long-standing relationship with Mussolini while he was married to Rachele Mussolini. Petacci was 28 years younger than Mussolini. They met for the first time in April 1932 when Mussolini, driving with an aide to Ostia, overtook a car occupied by the twenty-year-old Petacci and family members. She called out, "Duce! Duce!" and when he stopped, told him that she had been writing to him since her early teens.
In 1934, Petacci married Italian Air Force officer Riccardo Federici, but she parted ways with her husband when he was sent to Tokyo as Air Attaché in 1936. Petacci then became the mistress of the fifty-three-year-old Mussolini, visiting his headquarters in the , where a small apartment was reserved for her. Her infatuation with Mussolini appears to have been genuine and permanent. The affair became widely known and members of the Petacci family, notably her brother, Marcello, were able to benefit financially and professionally by influence-selling.
Part of Petacci and Mussolini's correspondence has not been released on the grounds of privacy.
==Death==
On 27 April 1945, Mussolini and Petacci were captured by partisans while traveling with a Luftwaffe convoy retreating to Germany. The German column included a number of Italian Social Republic members.
On 28 April, she and Mussolini were taken to Mezzegra and executed. One source alleges Petacci's execution was not planned and that she died throwing herself on Mussolini in a vain attempt to protect him from the bullets. On the following day, the bodies of Mussolini and Petacci were taken to Piazzale Loreto in Milan and hung upside down in front of a petrol station. The bodies were photographed as a crowd vented their rage upon them. On the same day, Clara's brother, Marcello Petacci, was also killed in Dongo by the partisans, along with fifteen other people complicit in Mussolini's escape.
After the war, the family of Petacci began civil and criminal court cases against Walter Audisio for Petacci's unlawful killing. After a lengthy legal process, an investigating judge eventually closed the case in 1967. Audisio was acquitted of murder and embezzlement on the grounds that the actions complained of occurred as an act of war against the Germans and the fascists during a period of enemy occupation.
|
[
"Milan",
"Rimini",
"iarchive:mussolininewlife0000farr",
"Riccione",
"Luftwaffe",
"R.J.B. Bosworth",
"Bloomsbury Publishing",
"Rachele Mussolini",
"Apostolic Palace",
"Giulino di Mezzegra",
"Miriam di San Servolo",
"Mistress (lover)",
"Italian resistance movement",
"Margherita Sarfatti",
"Achille Starace",
"Violet Gibson",
"Piazzale Loreto",
"Benito Mussolini",
"Italian resistance",
"fascism",
"Mezzegra",
"La Stampa",
"Italian Social Republic",
"Alessandro Pavolini",
"Elle (magazine)",
"Kingdom of Italy",
"Execution by firing squad",
"Death of Benito Mussolini",
"iarchive:mussolinilast60000mose",
"Marcello Petacci",
"Tokyo",
"Walter Audisio",
"Eva Braun",
"Grand Hotel Rimini",
"Rome",
"Cornell University",
"Palazzo Venezia"
] |
7,780 |
Costa Smeralda
|
The Costa Smeralda (, ; ; ) is a coastal area and tourist destination in northern Sardinia, Italy, with a length of some 20 km, although the term originally designated only a small stretch in the commune of Arzachena.
With white sand beaches, golf clubs, private jet and helicopter services, and exclusive hotels, the area has drawn celebrities, business and political leaders, and other affluent visitors. Costa Smeralda is one of the most expensive locations in Europe. House prices reach up to 300,000 euros ($392,200) per square meter.
The main towns and villages in the area, built according to a detailed urban plan, are Porto Cervo, Liscia di Vacca, Capriccioli, and Romazzino. Archaeological sites include the necropolis of Li Muri.
Each September the Sardinia Cup sailing regatta is held off the coast. Polo matches are held between April and October at Gershan near Arzachena.
Development of the area started in 1961, and was financed by a consortium of companies led by Prince Karim Aga Khan. Spiaggia del Principe, one of the beaches along the Costa Smeralda, was named after this Ishmaelite prince. Architects involved in the project included Michele Busiri Vici, Jacques Couëlle, Savin Couëlle, and Vietti.
|
[
"Capriccioli",
"Romazzino",
"necropolis of Li Muri",
"Liscia di Vacca",
"Polo",
"Archaeology",
"Tourist destinations of Sardinia",
"Pelorus (yacht)",
"Italy",
"sailing",
"regatta",
"Isma'ilism",
"Porto Cervo",
"Lady Moura",
"Aga Khan IV",
"Sardinia",
"Jacques Couëlle",
"urban planning",
"Michele Busiri Vici",
"Arzachena"
] |
7,781 |
Chianti
|
Chianti is an Italian red wine produced in the Chianti region of central Tuscany, principally from the Sangiovese grape. It was historically associated with a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a fiasco ("flask"; : fiaschi). However, the fiasco is now only used by a few makers of the wine; most Chianti is bottled in more standard-shaped wine bottles. In the late 19th century, Baron Bettino Ricasoli (later Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy) helped establish Sangiovese as the blend's dominant grape variety, creating the blueprint for today's Chianti wines.
The first definition of a wine area called Chianti was made in 1716. It described the area near the villages of Gaiole, Castellina and Radda; the so-called Lega del Chianti and later Provincia del Chianti (Chianti province). In 1932 the Chianti area was completely redrawn and divided into seven sub-areas: Classico, Colli Aretini, Colli Fiorentini, Colline Pisane, Colli Senesi, Montalbano and Rùfina. Most of the villages that in 1932 were added to the newly defined Chianti Classico region added in Chianti to their names, for example Greve in Chianti, which amended its name in 1972. Wines labelled Chianti Classico come from the largest sub-area of Chianti, which includes the original Chianti heartland. Only Chianti from this sub-zone may display the black rooster (gallo nero) seal on the neck of the bottle, which indicates that the producer of the wine is a member of the Chianti Classico Consortium, the local association of producers. Other variants, with the exception of Rufina north-east of Florence and Montalbano south of Pistoia, originate in the named provinces: Siena for the Colli Senesi, Florence for the Colli Fiorentini, Arezzo for the Colli Aretini and Pisa for the Colline Pisane. In 1996 part of the Colli Fiorentini sub-area was renamed Montespertoli.
During the 1970s producers started to reduce the quantity of white grapes in Chianti. In 1995 it became legal to produce a Chianti with 100% Sangiovese. For a wine to retain the name of Chianti it must be produced with at least 80% Sangiovese grapes. Aged Chianti (at least 6 months in barrel and 3 more in bottle before release, instead of 6 months aging without barreling necessary) may be labelled as Riserva. Chianti that meets more stringent requirements (lower yield, higher alcohol content and dry extract) may be labelled as Chianti Superiore, although Chianti from the Classico sub-area is not allowed in any event to be labelled as Superiore.
==History==
The earliest documentation of a "Chianti wine" dates back to the 14th century, when viticulture was known to flourish in the "Chianti Mountains" around Florence. A military league called Lega del Chianti (League of Chianti) was formed around 1250 between the townships of Castellina, Gaiole and Radda, which would lead to the wine from this area taking on a similar name. In 1398 the earliest-known record notes Chianti as a white wine, though the red wines of Chianti were also discussed around the same time in similar documents.
The first attempt to classify Chianti wine in any way came in 1427, when Florence developed a tariff system for the wines of the surrounding countryside, including an area referred to as "Chianti and its entire province".
Prior to Ricasoli, Canaiolo was emerging as the dominant variety in the Chianti blend with Sangiovese and Malvasia Bianca Lunga playing supporting roles. In the mid-19th century, Ricasoli developed a recipe for Chianti that was based primarily on Sangiovese. Though he is often credited with creating and disseminating a specific formula (typically reported as 70% Sangiovese, 20% Canaiolo, 10% Malvasia Bianca Lunga), a review of his correspondence of the time does not corroborate this.
By the late 20th century, Chianti was often associated with basic Chianti sold in a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a fiasco. However, during the same period, a group of ambitious producers began working outside the boundaries of DOC regulations to make what they believed would be a higher-quality wine. These wines eventually became known as the "Super Tuscans". Within the collective Chianti region more than 8 million cases of wines classified as DOC-level or above are produced each year. Today, most Chianti falls under two major designations of Chianti DOCG, which includes basic level Chianti, as well as that from seven designated sub-zones, and Chianti Classico DOCG. , there were of vineyards in the Chianti Classico subregion. Gran Selezione is made exclusively from a winery's own grapes grown according to stricter regulations compared to regular Chianti Classico.
=== Greater Chianti region ===
Outside of the Chianti Classico area, the wines of the Chianti sub-zone of Rufina are among the most widely recognised and exported from the Chianti region. Located in the Arno valley near the town of Pontassieve, the Rufina region includes much area in the Pomino region, an area that has a long history of wine production. The area is noted for the cool climate of its elevated vineyards located up to . The vineyard soils of the area are predominantly marl and chalk. The Florentine merchant families of the Antinori and Frescobaldi own the majority of the vineyards in Rufina. Chianti from the Rufina area is characterised by its multi-layered complexity and elegance. Chianti Classico must have a minimum alcohol level of 12% with a minimum of 7 months aging in oak, while Chianti Classicos labeled riserva must be aged at least 24 months at the winery, with a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%.
The aging for basic Chianti DOCG is much less stringent with most varieties allowed to be released to the market on 1 March following the vintage year. The sub-zones of Colli Fiorentini, Montespertoli and Rufina must be aged for a further three months and not released until 1 June. All Chianti Classicos must be held back until 1 October in the year following the vintage.
|-
! !! normal !! Classico !! Colli Aretini !! Colli Fiorentini !! Colli Senesi !! Colline Pisane !! Montalbano !! Montespertoli !! Rùfina !! Superiore
|-
| Max. grape prod. (t/ha)|| 9.0 || 7.5 || 8.0 || 8.0 || 8.0 || 8.0 || 8.0 || 8.0 || 8.0 || 7.5
|-
| Max. grape prod. (kg/vine)|| 4.0 || 3.0 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 2.2
|-
| Min. vines/ha || 3,300 || 3,350 || 3,300 || 3,300 || 3,300 || 3,300 || 3,300 || 3,300 || 3,300 ||4,000
|-
| Min. age of vineyards (years) || 3 || 4 || 4 || 4 || 4 || 4 || 4 || 4 || 4 || 4
|-
| Min. wine dry extract (g/L) || 19 || 23 || 21 || 21 || 21 || 21 || 21 || 21 || 21 || 22
|-
| Min. alcohol cont. (%) || 11.5 || 12.0 || 11.5 || 12.0 || 11.5 || 11.5 || 11.5 || 12.0 || 12.0 || 12.0
|-
| Min. aging (months) || 3 || 10 || 3 || 9 || 3 || 3 || 3 || 6 || 9 || 9
|}
Jancis Robinson notes that Chianti is sometimes called the "Bordeaux of Italy" but the structure of the wines is very different from any French wine. Chianti Superiore wines can be produced only from grapes cultivated in the Chianti wine areas except from those vineyards that are registered in the Chianti Classico sub-zone. Vineyards registered in Chianti sub-zones other than Classico can produce Chianti Superiore wines but must omit the sub-zone name on the label. Aging is calculated from 1 January after the picking. Chianti Superiore cannot be sold to the consumer before nine months of aging, of which three must be in the bottle. Therefore, it cannot be bottled before the June after picking or sold to consumers before the next September.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2004 production
|
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"Kingdom of Italy",
"Tom Stevenson",
"liter",
"Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany",
"it:Robbiano",
"aromas (wine)",
"Frescobaldi",
"Cosimo Villifranchi",
"acidity (wine)",
"body (wine)",
"Italy (wine)",
"Province of Florence",
"varietal",
"Second World War",
"marl",
"Castellina (Chianti)",
"Bettino Ricasoli",
"complexity (wine)",
"Province of Siena",
"Radda (Chianti)",
"Super Tuscans",
"alberese",
"alcohol level",
"red wine",
"Tuscan wine",
"Province of Pisa",
"Denominazione di origine controllata",
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"Barberino Val d'Elsa",
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"Risorgimento",
"most ripe (wine)",
"Uncinula necator",
"Siena",
"Brunello di Montalcino"
] |
7,783 |
Coriolis force
|
In physics, the Coriolis force is a fictitious force that acts on objects in motion within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame. In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of the object. In one with anticlockwise (or counterclockwise) rotation, the force acts to the right. Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis force is called the Coriolis effect. Though recognized previously by others, the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, in connection with the theory of water wheels. Early in the 20th century, the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology.
Newton's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in an inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference. When Newton's laws are transformed to a rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations appear. When applied to objects with masses, the respective forces are proportional to their masses. The magnitude of the Coriolis force is proportional to the rotation rate, and the magnitude of the centrifugal force is proportional to the square of the rotation rate. The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to two quantities: the angular velocity of the rotating frame relative to the inertial frame and the velocity of the body relative to the rotating frame, and its magnitude is proportional to the object's speed in the rotating frame (more precisely, to the component of its velocity that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation). The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame. These additional forces are termed inertial forces, fictitious forces, or pseudo forces. By introducing these fictitious forces to a rotating frame of reference, Newton's laws of motion can be applied to the rotating system as though it were an inertial system; these forces are correction factors that are not required in a non-rotating system.
In popular (non-technical) usage of the term "Coriolis effect", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation for each sidereal day, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is imperceptible; its effects become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean, or where high precision is important, such as artillery or missile trajectories. Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator. Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator ("clockwise") and to the left of this direction south of it ("anticlockwise"). This effect is responsible for the rotation and thus formation of cyclones .
==History==
Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his assistant Francesco Maria Grimaldi described the effect in connection with artillery in the 1651 Almagestum Novum, writing that rotation of the Earth should cause a cannonball fired to the north to deflect to the east. In 1674, Claude François Milliet Dechales described in his Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus how the rotation of the Earth should cause a deflection in the trajectories of both falling bodies and projectiles aimed toward one of the planet's poles. Riccioli, Grimaldi, and Dechales all described the effect as part of an argument against the heliocentric system of Copernicus. In other words, they argued that the Earth's rotation should create the effect, and so failure to detect the effect was evidence for an immobile Earth. The Coriolis acceleration equation was derived by Euler in 1749, and the effect was described in the tidal equations of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778.
Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. That paper considered the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference. Coriolis divided these supplementary forces into two categories. The second category contained a force that arises from the cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a particle's velocity into a plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation. Coriolis referred to this force as the "compound centrifugal force" due to its analogies with the centrifugal force already considered in category one. The effect was known in the early 20th century as the "acceleration of Coriolis", and by 1920 as "Coriolis force".
In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.
The understanding of the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure-gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood.
==Formula==
In Newtonian mechanics, the equation of motion for an object in an inertial reference frame is:
\mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a}
where \mathbf F is the vector sum of the physical forces acting on the object, m is the mass of the object, and \mathbf a is the acceleration of the object relative to the inertial reference frame.
Transforming this equation to a reference frame rotating about a fixed axis through the origin with angular velocity \boldsymbol{\omega} having variable rotation rate, the equation takes the form:
\begin{align}
\mathbf{F'} &=
\mathbf{F} - m\frac{\mathrm{d} \boldsymbol{\omega}}{\mathrm{d}t}\times\mathbf{r}' - 2m \boldsymbol{\omega}\times \mathbf{v}' - m\boldsymbol{\omega} \times (\boldsymbol{\omega} \times \mathbf{r}') \\
& = m\mathbf{a}'
\end{align}
where the prime (') variables denote coordinates of the rotating reference frame (not a derivative) and:
\mathbf F is the vector sum of the physical forces acting on the object
\boldsymbol{\omega} is the angular velocity of the rotating reference frame relative to the inertial frame
\mathbf r ' is the position vector of the object relative to the rotating reference frame
\mathbf v ' is the velocity of the object relative to the rotating reference frame
\mathbf a ' is the acceleration of the object relative to the rotating reference frame
The fictitious forces as they are perceived in the rotating frame act as additional forces that contribute to the apparent acceleration just like the real external forces. The fictitious force terms of the equation are, reading from left to right:
Euler force, -m \frac{\mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\omega}}{\mathrm{d}t} \times\mathbf{r}'
Coriolis force, -2m ( \boldsymbol{\omega} \times \mathbf{v}')
centrifugal force, -m\boldsymbol{\omega} \times (\boldsymbol{\omega} \times \mathbf{r}')
As seen in these formulas the Euler and centrifugal forces depend on the position vector \mathbf r ' of the object, while the Coriolis force depends on the object's velocity \mathbf v ' as measured in the rotating reference frame. As expected, for a non-rotating inertial frame of reference (\boldsymbol\omega=0) the Coriolis force and all other fictitious forces disappear.
===Direction of Coriolis force for simple cases===
As the Coriolis force is proportional to a cross product of two vectors, it is perpendicular to both vectors, in this case the object's velocity and the frame's rotation vector. It therefore follows that:
if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis force is zero. For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator moving north or south relative to the Earth's surface. (At any latitude other than the equator, however, the north–south motion would have a component perpendicular to the rotation axis and a force specified by the inward or outward cases mentioned below).
if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the Coriolis force is in the direction of local rotation. For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator falling downward, as in the Dechales illustration above, where the falling ball travels further to the east than does the tower. Note also that heading north in the northern hemisphere would have a velocity component toward the rotation axis, resulting in a Coriolis force to the east (more pronounced the further north one is).
if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the Coriolis force is against the direction of local rotation. In the tower example, a ball launched upward would move toward the west.
if the velocity is in the direction of rotation, the Coriolis force is outward from the axis. For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator moving east relative to Earth's surface. It would move upward as seen by an observer on the surface. This effect (see Eötvös effect below) was discussed by Galileo Galilei in 1632 and by Riccioli in 1651.
if the velocity is against the direction of rotation, the Coriolis force is inward to the axis. For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator moving west, which would deflect downward as seen by an observer.
==Intuitive explanation==
For an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force, consider an object, constrained to follow the Earth's surface and moving northward in the Northern Hemisphere. Viewed from outer space, the object does not appear to go due north, but has an eastward motion (it rotates around toward the right along with the surface of the Earth). The further north it travels, the smaller the "radius of its parallel (latitude)" (the minimum distance from the surface point to the axis of rotation, which is in a plane orthogonal to the axis), and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface. As the object moves north it has a tendency to maintain the eastward speed it started with (rather than slowing down to match the reduced eastward speed of local objects on the Earth's surface), so it veers east (i.e. to the right of its initial motion).
Though not obvious from this example, which considers northward motion, the horizontal deflection occurs equally for objects moving eastward or westward (or in any other direction). However, the theory that the effect determines the rotation of draining water in a household bathtub, sink or toilet has been repeatedly disproven by modern-day scientists; the force is negligibly small compared to the many other influences on the rotation.
==Length scales and the Rossby number==
The time, space, and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis force. Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its Rossby number (Ro), which is the ratio of the velocity, U, of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, f = 2 \omega \sin \varphi \,, and the length scale, L, of the motion:
\mathrm{Ro} = \frac{U}{fL}.
Hence, it is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces; a small Rossby number indicates a system is strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number indicates a system in which inertial forces dominate. For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, so in them the Coriolis force is negligible, and balance is between pressure and centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems the Rossby number is low, as the centrifugal force is negligible; there, the balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces. In oceanic systems the Rossby number is often around 1, with all three forces comparable.
An atmospheric system moving at U = occupying a spatial distance of L = , has a Rossby number of approximately 0.1.
A baseball pitcher may throw the ball at U = for a distance of L = . The Rossby number in this case would be 32,000 (at latitude 31°47'46.382").
Baseball players don't care about which hemisphere they're playing in. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but can travel far enough and be in the air long enough to experience the effect of Coriolis force. Long-range shells in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to, but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted. (Those fired in the Southern Hemisphere landed to the left.) In fact, it was this effect that first drew the attention of Coriolis himself.
==Simple cases==
===Tossed ball on a rotating carousel===
The figures illustrate a ball tossed from 12:00 o'clock toward the center of a counter-clockwise rotating carousel. In the first figure, the ball is seen by a stationary observer above the carousel, and the ball travels in a straight line slightly to the right of the center, because it had an initial tangential velocity given by the rotation (blue arrow) and a radial velocity given by the thrower (green arrow). The resulting combined velocity is shown as a solid red line, and the trajectory is shown as a dotted red line. In the second figure, the ball is seen by an observer rotating with the carousel, so the ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00 o'clock, and the ball trajectory has a slight curve.
===Bounced ball===
The figure describes a more complex situation where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces off the edge of the carousel and then returns to the tosser, who catches the ball. The effect of Coriolis force on its trajectory is shown again as seen by two observers: an observer (referred to as the "camera") that rotates with the carousel, and an inertial observer. The figure shows a bird's-eye view based upon the same ball speed on forward and return paths. Within each circle, plotted dots show the same time points. In the left panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) and the rail both are at fixed locations, and the ball makes a very considerable arc on its travel toward the rail, and takes a more direct route on the way back. From the ball tosser's viewpoint, the ball seems to return more quickly than it went (because the tosser is rotating toward the ball on the return flight).
On the carousel, instead of tossing the ball straight at a rail to bounce back, the tosser must throw the ball toward the right of the target and the ball then seems to the camera to bear continuously to the left of its direction of travel to hit the rail (left because the carousel is turning clockwise). The ball appears to bear to the left from direction of travel on both inward and return trajectories. The curved path demands this observer to recognize a leftward net force on the ball. (This force is "fictitious" because it disappears for a stationary observer, as is discussed shortly.) For some angles of launch, a path has portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, and Coriolis force is primarily responsible for the apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is radial from the center of rotation, and causes little deflection on these segments). When a path curves away from radial, however, centrifugal force contributes significantly to deflection.
The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel). In the right panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball bounces from is at position 1. From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions 1, 2, and 3 are occupied in sequence. At position 2, the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3, the ball returns to the tosser. Straight-line paths are followed because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied.
==Applied to the Earth==
The acceleration affecting the motion of air "sliding" over the Earth's surface is the horizontal component of the Coriolis term
-2 \, \boldsymbol{\omega} \times \mathbf{v}
This component is orthogonal to the velocity over the Earth surface and is given by the expression
\omega \, v\ 2 \, \sin \phi
where
\omega is the spin rate of the Earth
\phi is the latitude, positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in the southern hemisphere
In the northern hemisphere, where the latitude is positive, this acceleration, as viewed from above, is to the right of the direction of motion. Conversely, it is to the left in the southern hemisphere.
===Rotating sphere===
Consider a location with latitude φ on a sphere that is rotating around the north–south axis. A local coordinate system is set up with the x axis horizontally due east, the y axis horizontally due north and the z axis vertically upwards. The rotation vector, velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration expressed in this local coordinate system [listing components in the order east (e), north (n) and upward (u)] are:
\boldsymbol{ \Omega} = \omega \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ \cos \varphi \\ \sin \varphi \end{pmatrix}\ , \mathbf{ v} = \begin{pmatrix} v_{\mathrm e} \\ v_{\mathrm n} \\ v_{\mathrm u} \end{pmatrix}\ ,
\mathbf{a}_{\mathrm C } =-2\boldsymbol{\Omega} \times\mathbf{v}= 2\,\omega\, \begin{pmatrix} v_{\mathrm n} \sin \varphi-v_{\mathrm u} \cos \varphi \\ -v_{\mathrm e} \sin \varphi \\ v_{\mathrm e} \cos\varphi\end{pmatrix}\ .
When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small, and the vertical component of the Coriolis acceleration (v_e \cos\varphi) is small compared with the acceleration due to gravity (g, approximately near Earth's surface). For such cases, only the horizontal (east and north) components matter. The restriction of the above to the horizontal plane is (setting vu = 0):
\mathbf{ v} = \begin{pmatrix} v_{\mathrm e} \\ v_{\mathrm n}\end{pmatrix}\ , \mathbf{ a}_{\mathrm C} = \begin{pmatrix} v_{\mathrm n} \\ -v_{\mathrm e}\end{pmatrix}\ f\ ,
where f = 2 \omega \sin \varphi \, is called the Coriolis parameter.
By setting vn = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive φ and ω) a movement due east results in an acceleration due south; similarly, setting ve = 0, it is seen that a movement due north results in an acceleration due east. In general, observed horizontally, looking along the direction of the movement causing the acceleration, the acceleration always is turned 90° to the right (for positive φ) and of the same size regardless of the horizontal orientation.
In the case of equatorial motion, setting φ = 0° yields:
\boldsymbol{ \Omega} = \omega \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}\ ,
\mathbf{ v} = \begin{pmatrix} v_{\mathrm e} \\ v_{\mathrm n} \\ v_{\mathrm u} \end{pmatrix}\ ,
\mathbf{ a}_{\mathrm C} = -2\boldsymbol{\Omega} \times\mathbf{v} = 2\,\omega\, \begin{pmatrix} -v_{\mathrm u } \\0 \\ v_{\mathrm e} \end{pmatrix}\ .
Ω in this case is parallel to the north-south axis.
Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an upward acceleration known as the Eötvös effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due west.
===Meteorology and oceanography===
Perhaps the most important impact of the Coriolis effect is in the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In meteorology and oceanography, it is convenient to postulate a rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is stationary. In accommodation of that provisional postulation, the centrifugal and Coriolis forces are introduced. Their relative importance is determined by the applicable Rossby numbers. Tornadoes have high Rossby numbers, so, while tornado-associated centrifugal forces are quite substantial, Coriolis forces associated with tornadoes are for practical purposes negligible.
Because surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well. Many of the ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres. Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by the Coriolis effect is what creates the spiralling pattern in these gyres. The spiralling wind pattern helps the hurricane form. The stronger the force from the Coriolis effect, the faster the wind spins and picks up additional energy, increasing the strength of the hurricane.
Air within high-pressure systems rotates in a direction such that the Coriolis force is directed radially inwards, and nearly balanced by the outwardly radial pressure gradient. As a result, air travels clockwise around high pressure in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Air around low-pressure rotates in the opposite direction, so that the Coriolis force is directed radially outward and nearly balances an inwardly radial pressure gradient.
====Flow around a low-pressure area====
If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air tends to flow in towards it, but is deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis force. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. Because the Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between the pressure-gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis force acting away from the center of the low pressure.
Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the pressure gradient. This is known as geostrophic flow. On a non-rotating planet, fluid would flow along the straightest possible line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients. The geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial motions" (see below), which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be.
This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called Buys-Ballot's law. In the atmosphere, the pattern of flow is called a cyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is anticlockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there. At high altitudes, outward-spreading air rotates in the opposite direction. Cyclones rarely form along the equator due to the weak Coriolis effect present in this region.
====Inertial circles====
An air or water mass moving with speed v\, subject only to the Coriolis force travels in a circular trajectory called an inertial circle. Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of the particle, it moves with a constant speed around a circle whose radius R is given by:
R = \frac{v}{f}
where f is the Coriolis parameter 2 \Omega \sin \varphi, introduced above (where \varphi is the latitude). The time taken for the mass to complete a full circle is therefore 2\pi/f. The Coriolis parameter typically has a mid-latitude value of about 10−4 s−1; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of , the radius is with a period of about 17 hours. For an ocean current with a typical speed of , the radius of an inertial circle is . These inertial circles are clockwise in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then f is constant and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating planet, f varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles. Since the parameter f varies as the sine of the latitude, the radius of the oscillations associated with a given speed are smallest at the poles (latitude of ±90°), and increase toward the equator.
====Other terrestrial effects====
The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale oceanic and atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of robust features like jet streams and western boundary currents. Such features are in geostrophic balance, meaning that the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces balance each other. Coriolis acceleration is also responsible for the propagation of many types of waves in the ocean and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves. It is also instrumental in the so-called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean flow pattern called the Sverdrup balance.
===Eötvös effect===
The practical impact of the "Coriolis effect" is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by horizontal motion.
There are other components of the Coriolis effect. Westward-traveling objects are deflected downwards, while eastward-traveling objects are deflected upwards. This is known as the Eötvös effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by the Eötvös effect is similar to the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity and pressure suggest that it is unimportant in the hydrostatic equilibrium. However, in the atmosphere, winds are associated with small deviations of pressure from the hydrostatic equilibrium. In the tropical atmosphere, the order of magnitude of the pressure deviations is so small that the contribution of the Eötvös effect to the pressure deviations is considerable.
In addition, objects traveling upwards (i.e. out) or downwards (i.e. in) are deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect. For example, idealized numerical modeling studies suggest that this effect can directly affect tropical large-scale wind field by roughly 10% given long-duration (2 weeks or more) heating or cooling in the atmosphere. Moreover, in the case of large changes of momentum, such as a spacecraft being launched into orbit, the effect becomes significant. The fastest and most fuel-efficient path to orbit is a launch from the equator that curves to a directly eastward heading.
====Intuitive example====
Imagine a train that travels through a frictionless railway line along the equator. Assume that, when in motion, it moves at the necessary speed to complete a trip around the world in one day (465 m/s). The Coriolis effect can be considered in three cases: when the train travels west, when it is at rest, and when it travels east. In each case, the Coriolis effect can be calculated from the rotating frame of reference on Earth first, and then checked against a fixed inertial frame. The image below illustrates the three cases as viewed by an observer at rest in a (near) inertial frame from a fixed point above the North Pole along the Earth's axis of rotation; the train is denoted by a few red pixels, fixed at the left side in the leftmost picture, moving in the others \left(1\text{ day} \mathrel\overset{\land}{=} 8\text{ s}\right):
The train travels toward the west: In that case, it moves against the direction of rotation. Therefore, on the Earth's rotating frame the Coriolis term is pointed inwards towards the axis of rotation (down). This additional force downwards should cause the train to be heavier while moving in that direction.If one looks at this train from the fixed non-rotating frame on top of the center of the Earth, at that speed it remains stationary as the Earth spins beneath it. Hence, the only force acting on it is gravity and the reaction from the track. This force is greater (by 0.34%)
The above example can be used to explain why the Eötvös effect starts diminishing when an object is traveling westward as its tangential speed increases above Earth's rotation (465 m/s). If the westward train in the above example increases speed, part of the force of gravity that pushes against the track accounts for the centripetal force needed to keep it in circular motion on the inertial frame. Once the train doubles its westward speed at that centripetal force becomes equal to the force the train experiences when it stops. From the inertial frame, in both cases it rotates at the same speed but in the opposite directions. Thus, the force is the same cancelling completely the Eötvös effect. Any object that moves westward at a speed above experiences an upward force instead. In the figure, the Eötvös effect is illustrated for a object on the train at different speeds. The parabolic shape is because the centripetal force is proportional to the square of the tangential speed. On the inertial frame, the bottom of the parabola is centered at the origin. The offset is because this argument uses the Earth's rotating frame of reference. The graph shows that the Eötvös effect is not symmetrical, and that the resulting downward force experienced by an object that travels west at high velocity is less than the resulting upward force when it travels east at the same speed.
===Draining in bathtubs and toilets===
Contrary to popular misconception, bathtubs, toilets, and other water receptacles do not drain in opposite directions in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. This is because the magnitude of the Coriolis force is negligible at this scale. Forces determined by the initial conditions of the water (e.g. the geometry of the drain, the geometry of the receptacle, preexisting momentum of the water, etc.) are likely to be orders of magnitude greater than the Coriolis force and hence will determine the direction of water rotation, if any. For example, identical toilets flushed in both hemispheres drain in the same direction, and this direction is determined mostly by the shape of the toilet bowl.
Under real-world conditions, the Coriolis force does not influence the direction of water flow perceptibly. Only if the water is so still that the effective rotation rate of the Earth is faster than that of the water relative to its container, and if externally applied torques (such as might be caused by flow over an uneven bottom surface) are small enough, the Coriolis effect may indeed determine the direction of the vortex. Without such careful preparation, the Coriolis effect will be much smaller than various other influences on drain direction such as any residual rotation of the water and the geometry of the container.
====Laboratory testing of draining water under atypical conditions====
In 1962, Ascher Shapiro performed an experiment at MIT to test the Coriolis force on a large basin of water, across, with a small wooden cross above the plug hole to display the direction of rotation, covering it and waiting for at least 24 hours for the water to settle. Under these precise laboratory conditions, he demonstrated the effect and consistent counterclockwise rotation. The experiment required extreme precision, since the acceleration due to Coriolis effect is only 3\times 10^{-7} that of gravity. The vortex was measured by a cross made of two slivers of wood pinned above the draining hole. It takes 20 minutes to drain, and the cross starts turning only around 15 minutes. At the end it is turning at 1 rotation every 3 to 4 seconds.
He reported that,
Lloyd Trefethen reported clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere at the University of Sydney in five tests with settling times of 18 h or more.
===Ballistic trajectories===
The Coriolis force is important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range artillery shells. The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to bombard Paris from a range of about . The Coriolis force minutely changes the trajectory of a bullet, affecting accuracy at extremely long distances. It is adjusted for by accurate long-distance shooters, such as snipers. At the latitude of Sacramento, California, a northward shot would be deflected to the right. There is also a vertical component, explained in the Eötvös effect section above, which causes westward shots to hit low, and eastward shots to hit high.
The effects of the Coriolis force on ballistic trajectories should not be confused with the curvature of the paths of missiles, satellites, and similar objects when the paths are plotted on two-dimensional (flat) maps, such as the Mercator projection. The projections of the three-dimensional curved surface of the Earth to a two-dimensional surface (the map) necessarily results in distorted features. The apparent curvature of the path is a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth and would occur even in a non-rotating frame.
The Coriolis force on a moving projectile depends on velocity components in all three directions, latitude, and azimuth. The directions are typically downrange (the direction that the gun is initially pointing), vertical, and cross-range.
A_\mathrm{X} = -2 \omega ( V_\mathrm{Y} \cos \theta_\mathrm{lat} \sin \phi_\mathrm{az} + V_\mathrm{Z} \sin \theta_\mathrm{lat} )
A_\mathrm{Y} = 2 \omega ( V_\mathrm{X} \cos \theta_\mathrm{lat} \sin \phi_\mathrm{az} + V_\mathrm{Z} \cos \theta_\mathrm{lat} \cos \phi_\mathrm{az})
A_\mathrm{Z} = 2 \omega ( V_\mathrm{X} \sin \theta_\mathrm{lat} - V_\mathrm{Y} \cos \theta_\mathrm{lat} \cos \phi_\mathrm{az})
where
A_\mathrm{X} , down-range acceleration.
A_\mathrm{Y} , vertical acceleration with positive indicating acceleration upward.
A_\mathrm{Z} , cross-range acceleration with positive indicating acceleration to the right.
V_\mathrm{X} , down-range velocity.
V_\mathrm{Y} , vertical velocity with positive indicating upward.
V_\mathrm{Z} , cross-range velocity with positive indicating velocity to the right.
\omega = 0.00007292 rad/sec, angular velocity of the earth (based on a sidereal day).
\theta_\mathrm{lat} , latitude with positive indicating Northern hemisphere.
\phi_\mathrm{az} , azimuth measured clockwise from due North.
==Visualization==
To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic turntable can be used.
On a flat turntable, the inertia of a co-rotating object forces it off the edge. However, if the turntable surface has the correct paraboloid (parabolic bowl) shape (see the figure) and rotates at the corresponding rate, the force components shown in the figure make the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface exactly equal to the centripetal force necessary to keep the object rotating at its velocity and radius of curvature (assuming no friction). (See banked turn.) This carefully contoured surface allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation.
Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference frame rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the turntable so as to co-rotate with the turntable, with results as shown in the figure. In the left panel of the figure, which is the viewpoint of a stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling the object toward the center (bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the distance of the object from the center. A centripetal force of this form causes the elliptical motion. In the right panel, which shows the viewpoint of the rotating frame, the inward gravitational force in the rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is balanced by the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame). With these two forces balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating frame), and the motion is an inertial circle. Analysis and observation of circular motion in the rotating frame is a simplification compared with analysis and observation of elliptical motion in the inertial frame.
Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis acceleration produced is many times larger and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales than is the Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth.
In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable. The rotation has caused the planet to settle on a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force exactly balance each other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.)
The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a Foucault pendulum.
==In other areas==
===Coriolis flow meter===
A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the mass flow meter, an instrument that measures the mass flow rate and density of a fluid flowing through a tube. The operating principle involves inducing a vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes. The vibration, though not completely circular, provides the rotating reference frame that gives rise to the Coriolis effect. While specific methods vary according to the design of the flow meter, sensors monitor and analyze changes in frequency, phase shift, and amplitude of the vibrating flow tubes. The changes observed represent the mass flow rate and density of the fluid.
===Molecular physics===
In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects are therefore present, and make the atoms move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational levels, from which Coriolis coupling constants can be determined.
===Gyroscopic precession===
When an external torque is applied to a spinning gyroscope along an axis that is at right angles to the spin axis, the rim velocity that is associated with the spin becomes radially directed in relation to the external torque axis. This causes a torque-induced force to act on the rim in such a way as to tilt the gyroscope at right angles to the direction that the external torque would have tilted it. This tendency has the effect of keeping spinning bodies in their rotational frame.
=== Insect flight ===
Flies (Diptera) and some moths (Lepidoptera) exploit the Coriolis effect in flight with specialized appendages and organs that relay information about the angular velocity of their bodies. Coriolis forces resulting from linear motion of these appendages are detected within the rotating frame of reference of the insects' bodies. In the case of flies, their specialized appendages are dumbbell shaped organs located just behind their wings called "halteres".
The fly's halteres oscillate in a plane at the same beat frequency as the main wings so that any body rotation results in lateral deviation of the halteres from their plane of motion.
In moths, their antennae are known to be responsible for the sensing of Coriolis forces in the similar manner as with the halteres in flies. In both flies and moths, a collection of mechanosensors at the base of the appendage are sensitive to deviations at the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the pitch and roll planes, and at twice the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the yaw plane. The stability can result in orbits around just L4 or L5, known as tadpole orbits, where trojans can be found. It can also result in orbits that encircle L3, L4, and L5, known as horseshoe orbits.
|
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] |
7,786 |
Challenger Deep
|
The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point of the seabed of Earth, located in the western Pacific Ocean at the southern end of the Mariana Trench, in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia.
The GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names indicates that the feature is situated at and has a maximum depth of below sea level. A subsequent study revised the value to at a 95% confidence interval. However, both the precise geographic location and depth remain ambiguous, with contemporary measurements ranging from .
The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ships , whose expedition of 1872–1876 first located it, and HMS Challenger II, whose expedition of 1950–1952 established its record-setting depth. The first descent by any vehicle was conducted by the United States Navy using the bathyscaphe Trieste in January 1960. , there were 27 people who have descended to the Challenger Deep.
==Topography==
The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench, which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor. The Challenger Deep consists of three basins, each long, wide, and over in depth, oriented in echelon from west to east, separated by mounds between the basins higher. The three basins feature extends about west to east if measured at the isobath. Both the western and eastern basins have recorded depths (by sonar bathymetry) in excess of , while the center basin is slightly less deep.
Detailed sonar mapping of the western, center and eastern basins in June 2020 by the DSSV Pressure Drop combined with manned descents revealed that they undulate with slopes and piles of rocks above a bed of pelagic ooze. This conforms with the description of Challenger Deep as consisting of an elongated seabed section with distinct sub-basins or sediment-filled pools.
The accuracy of determining geographical location, and the beamwidth of (multibeam) echosounder systems, limits the horizontal and vertical bathymetric sensor resolution that hydrographers can obtain from onsite data. This is especially important when sounding in deep water, as the resulting footprint of an acoustic pulse gets large once it reaches a distant sea floor. Further, sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane. The speed is determined by the water's bulk modulus, mass, and density. The bulk modulus is affected by temperature, pressure, and dissolved impurities (usually salinity).
===1875 – HMS Challenger===
In 1875, during her transit from the Admiralty Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago to Yokohama in Japan, the three-masted sailing corvette HMS Challenger attempted to make landfall at Spanish Marianas (now Guam), but was set to the west by "baffling winds" preventing her crew from "visiting either the Carolines or the Ladrones." Their altered path took them over the undersea canyon which later became known as the Challenger Deep. Depth soundings were taken by Baillie-weighted marked rope, and geographical locations were determined by celestial navigation (to an estimated accuracy of two nautical miles). One of their samples was taken within fifteen miles of the deepest spot in all of Earth's oceans. On 23 March 1875, at sample station number #225, HMS Challenger recorded the bottom at deep, (the deepest sounding of her three-plus-year eastward circumnavigation of the Earth) at – and confirmed it with a second sounding at the same location. The Senior Scientist aboard Challenger II, Thomas Gaskell, recalled: [I]t took from ten past five in the evening until twenty to seven, that is an hour and a half, for the iron weight to fall to the sea-bottom. It was almost dark by the time the weight struck, but great excitement greeted the reading...In New Zealand, the Challenger II team gained the assistance of the Royal New Zealand Dockyard, "who managed to boost the echo sounder to record at the greatest depths". in October 1951. Using their newly improved echo sounder, they ran survey lines at right angles to the axis of the trench and discovered "a considerable area of a depth greater than " – later identified as the Challenger Deep's western basin. The greatest depth recorded was , at . Navigational accuracy of several hundred meters was attained by celestial navigation and LORAN-A. As Gaskell explained, the measurement was not more than 50 miles from the spot where the nineteenth-century Challenger found her deepest depth [...] and it may be thought fitting that a ship with the name Challenger should put the seal on the work of that great pioneering expedition of oceanography. Fisher records a total of three Vityaz sounding locations on Fig.2 "Trenches" (1963), one within yards of the 142°11.5' E location, and a third at , all with depth. The depths were considered statistical outliers, and a depth greater than 11,000 m has never been proven. Taira reports that if Vityaz depth was corrected with the same methodology used by the Japanese RV Hakuho Maru expedition of December 1992, it would be presented as , as opposed to modern depths from multibeam echosounder systems greater than with the NOAA accepted maximum of in the western basin.
===1959 – RV Stranger===
The first definitive verification of both the depth and location of the Challenger Deep (western basin) was determined by Dr. R. L. Fisher from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, aboard the 325-ton research vessel Stranger. Using explosive soundings, they recorded at/near in July 1959. Stranger used celestial and LORAN-C for navigation. LORAN-C navigation provided geographical accuracy of or better. According to another source RV Stranger using bomb-sounding surveyed a maximum depth of at . Stranger north-south zig-zag survey passed well to the east of the eastern basin southbound, and well to the west of the eastern basin northbound, thus failed to discover the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep. The maximum depth measured near longitude 142°30'E was , about 10 km west of the eastern basin's deepest point. This was an important gap in information, as the eastern basin was later reported as deeper than the other two basins.
Stranger crossed the center basin twice, measuring a maximum depth of in the vicinity of 142°22'E. At the western end of the central basin (approximately 142°18'E), they recorded a depth of .
The western basin received four transects by Stranger, recording depths of toward the central basin, near where Trieste dived in 1960 (vicinity , and where Challenger II, in 1950, recorded . At the far western end of the western basin (about 142°11'E), the Stranger recorded , some 6 km south of the location where Vityaz recorded in 1957–1958. Fisher stated: "differences in the Vitiaz [sic] and Stranger–Challenger II depths can be attributed to the [sound] velocity correction function used". The 1959 Stranger surveys of the Challenger Deep and of the Philippine Trench informed the U.S. Navy as to the appropriate site for Trieste record dive in 1960.
===1962 – RV Spencer F. Baird===
The Proa Expedition, Leg 2, returned Fisher to the Challenger Deep on 12–13 April 1962 aboard the Scripps research vessel Spencer F. Baird (formerly the steel-hulled US Army large tug LT-581) and employed a Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) to verify the extreme depths previously reported. They recorded a maximum depth of (location not available). Additionally, at location "H-4" in the Challenger Deep, the expedition cast three taut-wire soundings: on 12 April, the first cast was to 5,078 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) at in the central basin (Up until 1965, US research vessels recorded soundings in fathoms). The second cast, also on 12 April, was to 5,000+ fathoms at in the central basin. On 13 April, the final cast recorded 5,297 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) at (the western basin). They were chased off by a hurricane after only two days on-site. Once again, Fisher entirely missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep, which later proved to contain the deepest depths.
===1975–1980 – RV Thomas Washington===
The Scripps Institution of Oceanography deployed the 1,490-ton Navy-owned, civilian-crewed research vessel Thomas Washington (AGOR-10) to the Mariana Trench on several expeditions from 1975 to 1986. The first of these was the Eurydice Expedition, Leg 8 which brought Fisher back to the Challenger Deep's western basin from 28–31 March 1975. Thomas Washington established geodetic positioning by (SATNAV) with Autolog Gyro and EM Log. Bathymetrics were by a 12 kHz Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) with a single 60° beam. They mapped one, "possibly two", axial basins with a depth of . Five dredges were hauled 27–31 March, all into or slightly north of the deepest depths of the western basin. Fisher noted that this survey of the Challenger Deep (western basin) had "provided nothing to support and much to refute recent claims of depths there greater than ." While Fisher missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep (for the third time), he did report a deep depression about 150 nautical miles east of the western basin. The 25 March dredge haul at encountered , which pre-shadowed by 22 years the discovery of HMRG Deep/Sirena Deep in 1997. The deepest waters of the HMRG Deep/Sirena Deep at are centered at/near , approximately 2.65 km from Fisher's 25 March 1975 dredge haul.
On Scripps Institution of Oceanography's INDOPAC Expedition Leg 3, the chief scientist, Dr. Joseph L. Reid, and oceanographer Arnold W. Mantyla made a hydrocast of a free vehicle (a special-purpose benthic lander (or "baited camera") for measurements of water temperature and salinity) on 27 May 1976 into the western basin of the Challenger Deep, "Station 21", at at about depth. On INDOPAC Expedition Leg 9, under chief scientist A. Aristides Yayanos, Thomas Washington spent nine days from 13–21 January 1977 conducting an extensive and detailed investigation of the Challenger Deep, mainly with biological objectives. "Echo soundings were carried out primarily with a 3.5 kHz single-beam system, with a 12 kHz echosounder operated in addition some of the time" (the 12 kHz system was activated for testing on 16 January). A benthic lander was put into the western basin () on 13 January, bottoming at and recovered 50 hours later in damaged condition. Quickly repaired, it was again put down on the 15th to depth at . It was recovered on the 17th with excellent photography of amphipods (shrimp) from the Challenger Deep's western basin. The benthic lander was put down for the third and last time on the 17th, at , in the central basin at a depth of . The benthic lander was not recovered and may remain on the bottom in the vicinity of . Free traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down at eight locations from 13 to 19 January into the western basin, at depths ranging from . Both the free traps and the pressure-retaining traps brought up good sample amphipods for study. While the ship briefly visited the area of the eastern basin, the expedition did not recognize it as potentially the deepest of the three Challenger Deep basins.
Thomas Washington returned briefly to the Challenger Deep on 17–19 October 1978 during Mariana Expedition Leg 5 under chief scientist James W. Hawkins. The ship tracked to the south and west of the eastern basin, and recorded depths between . Another miss. On Mariana Expedition Leg 8, under chief scientist Yayanos, Thomas Washington was again involved, from 12–21 December 1978, with an intensive biological study of the western and central basins of the Challenger Deep. Fourteen traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down to depths ranging from ; the greatest depth was at . All of the 10,900-plus m recordings were in the western basin. The depth was furthest east at 142°26.4' E (in the central basin), about 17 km west of the eastern basin. Again, focused efforts on the known areas of extreme depths (the western and central basins) were so tight that the eastern basin again was missed by this expedition.
From 20 to 30 November 1980, Thomas Washington was on site at the western basin of the Challenger Deep, as part of Rama Expedition Leg 7, again with chief-scientist Dr. A. A. Yayanos. Yayanos directed Thomas Washington in arguably the most extensive and wide-ranging of all single-beam bathymetric examinations of the Challenger Deep ever undertaken, with dozens of transits of the western basin, and ranging far into the backarc of the Challenger Deep (northward), with significant excursions into the Pacific Plate (southward) and along the trench axis to the east. They hauled eight dredges in the western basin to depths ranging from , and between hauls, cast thirteen free vertical traps. The dredging and traps were for biological investigation of the bottom. In the first successful retrieval of a live animal from the Challenger Deep, on 21 November 1980 in the western basin at , Yayanos recovered a live amphipod from about 10,900 meters depth with a pressurized trap. Once again, other than a brief look into the eastern basin, all bathymetric and biological investigations were into the western basin.
===1976–1977 – RV Kana Keoki===
On Leg 3 of the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics' (HIG) expedition 76010303, the research vessel Kana Keoki departed Guam primarily for a seismic investigation of the Challenger Deep area, under chief scientist Donald M. Hussong. The ship was equipped with air guns (for seismic reflection soundings deep into the Earth's mantle), magnetometer, gravimeter, 3.5 kHz and 12 kHz sonar transducers, and precision depth recorders. They ran the Deep from east to west, collecting single beam bathymetry, magnetic and gravity measurements, and employed the air guns along the trench axis, and well into the backarc and forearc, from 13 to 15 March 1976. Thence they proceeded south to the Ontong Java Plateau. All three deep basins of the Challenger Deep were covered, but Kana Keoki recorded a maximum depth of . Seismic information developed from this survey was instrumental in gaining an understanding of the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Sea Plate. In 1977, Kana Keoki returned to the Challenger Deep area for wider coverage of the forearc and backarc.
===1984 – SV Takuyo===
The Hydrographic Department, Maritime Safety Agency, Japan (JHOD) deployed the newly commissioned 2,600-ton survey vessel Takuyo (HL 02) to the Challenger Deep 17–19 February 1984. Takuyo was the first Japanese ship to be equipped with the new narrowbeam SeaBeam multi-beam sonar echosounder, and was the first survey ship with multi-beam capability to survey the Challenger Deep. The system was so new that JHOD had to develop their own software for drawing bathymetric charts based on the SeaBeam digital data. In just three days, they tracked 500 miles of sounding lines, and covered about 140 km of the Challenger Deep with multibeam ensonification. Under chief scientist Hideo Nishida, they used CTD temperature and salinity data from the top of the water column to correct depth measurements, and later conferred with Scripps Institution of Oceanography (including Fisher), and other GEBCO experts to confirm their depth correction methodology. They employed a combination of NAVSAT, LORAN-C and OMEGA systems for geodetic positioning with accuracy better than . The deepest location recorded was at ; for the first time documenting the eastern basin as the deepest of the three en echelon pools. In 1993, GEBCO recognized the report as the deepest depth of the world's oceans. Technological advances such as improved multi-beam sonar would be the driving force in uncovering the mysteries of the Challenger Deep into the future.
===1986 – RV Thomas Washington===
The Scripps research vessel Thomas Washington returned to the Challenger Deep in 1986 during the Papatua Expedition, Leg 8, mounting one of the first commercial multi-beam echosounders capable of reaching into the deepest trenches, i.e. the 16-beam Seabeam "Classic". This allowed chief scientist Yayanos an opportunity to transit the Challenger Deep with the most modern depth-sounding equipment available. During the pre-midnight hours of 21 April 1986, the multibeam echosounder produced a map of the Challenger Deep bottom with a swath of about 5–7 miles wide. The maximum depth recorded was (location of depth is not available). Yayanos noted: "The lasting impression from this cruise comes from the thoughts of the revolutionary things that Seabeam data can do for deep biology."
===1988 – RV Moana Wave===
On 22 August 1988, the U.S. Navy-owned 1,000-ton research vessel Moana Wave (AGOR-22), operated by the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics (HIG), University of Hawaii, under the direction of chief scientist Robert C. Thunell from the University of South Carolina, transited northwesterly across the central basin of the Challenger Deep, conducting a single-beam bathymetry track by their 3.5 kHz narrow (30-degs) beam echosounder with a Precision Depth Recorder. In addition to sonar bathymetry, they took 44 gravity cores and 21 box cores of bottom sediments. The deepest echosoundings recorded were , with the greatest depth at 11°22′N 142°25′E in the central basin. This was the first indication that all three basins contained depths in excess of .
===1992 – RV Hakuhō Maru===
The 3,987-ton Japanese research vessel Hakuhō Maru, an Ocean Research Institute – University of Tokyo sponsored ship, on cruise KH-92-5 cast three Sea-Bird SBE-9 ultra-deep CTD (conductivity-temperature-depth) profilers in a transverse line across the Challenger Deep on 1 December 1992. The center CTD was located at , in the eastern basin, at by the SeaBeam depth recorder and by the CTD. The other two CTDs were cast 19.9 km to the north and 16.1 km to the south. Hakuhō Maru was equipped with a narrow beam SeaBeam 500 multi-beam echosounder for depth determination, and had an Auto-Nav system with inputs from NAVSAT/NNSS, GPS, Doppler Log, EM log and track display, with a geodetic positioning accuracy approaching . When conducting CTD operations in the Challenger deep, they used the SeaBeam as a single beam depth recorder. At the corrected depth was , and at the depth was ; both in the eastern basin. This may demonstrate that the basins might not be flat sedimentary pools but rather undulate with a difference of or more. Taira revealed, "We considered that a trough deeper that Vitiaz record by was detected. There is a possibility that a depth exceeding with a horizontal scale less than the beam width of measurements exists in the Challenger Deep. Since each SeaBeam 2.7-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about in diameter at depth, dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from a sonar-emitting platform seven miles above.
===1996 – RV Yokosuka===
For most of 1995 and into 1996, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) employed the 4,439-ton Research Vessel Yokosuka to conduct the testing and workup of the 11,000-meter remotely-operated vehicle (ROV) Kaikō, and the 6,500 meter ROV Shinkai. It was not until February 1996, during Yokosuka cruise Y96-06, that Kaikō was ready for its first full depth dives. On this cruise, JAMSTEC established an area of the Challenger Deep (11°10'N to 11°30'N, by 141°50'E to 143°00'Ewhich later was recognized as containing three separate pools/basins en echelon, each with depths in excess of ) toward which JAMSTEC expeditions would concentrate their investigations for the next two decades. The Yokosuka employed a 151-beam SeaBeam 2112 12 kHz multibeam echosounder, allowing search swaths 12–15 km in width at depth. The depth accuracy of Yokosuka Seabeam was about 0.1% of water depth (i.e. ± for depth). The ship's dual GPS systems attained geodetic positioning within double digit meter ( or better) accuracy.
===1998, 1999 and 2002 – RV Kairei===
Cruise KR98-01 sent JAMSTEC's two-year-old 4,517-ton Deep Sea Research Vessel RV Kairei south for a quick but thorough depth survey of the Challenger Deep, 11–13 January 1998, under chief scientist Kantaro Fujioka. Tracking largely along the trench axis of 070–250° they made five 80-km bathymetric survey tracks, spaced about 15 km apart, overlapping their SeaBeam 2112-004 (which now allowed sub-bottom profiling penetrating as much as 75 m below the bottom) while gaining gravity and magnetic data covering the entire Challenger Deep: western, central, and eastern basins.
Kairei returned in May 1998, cruise KR98-05, with ROV Kaikō, under the direction of chief scientist Jun Hashimoto with both geophysical and biological goals. Their bathymetric survey from 14–26 May was the most intensive and thorough depth and seismic survey of the Challenger Deep performed to date. Each evening, Kaikō deployed for about four hours of bottom time for biological-related sampling, plus about seven hours of vertical transit time. When Kaikō was onboard for servicing, Kairei conducted bathymetric surveys and observations. Kairei gridded a survey area about 130 km N–S by 110 km E–W. Kaikō made six dives (#71–75) all to the same location, (11°20.8' N, 142°12.35' E), near the bottom contour line in the western basin.
The regional bathymetric map made from the data obtained in 1998 shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are , , and , respectively, making the eastern depression the deepest of the three. The depth was "obtained during swath mapping ... confirmed in both N–S and E-W swaths." Speed of sound corrections were from XBT to , and CTD below .
The cross track survey of the 1999 Kairei cruise shows that the greatest depths in the eastern, central, and western depressions are , , and , respectively, which supports the results of the previous survey. During its 1998, 1999 surveys, Kairei was equipped with a GPS satellite-based radionavigation system. The United States government lifted the GPS selective availability in 2000, so during its 2002 survey, Kairei had access to non-degraded GPS positional services and achieved single-digit meter accuracy in geodetic positioning. They covered all three basins, then tracked lines of bathymetry East-West, stepping northward from the Challenger Deep in sidesteps, covering more than north into the backarc with overlapping swaths from their SeaBeam 2000 12 kHz multi-beam echosounder and MR1 towed system. They also gathered magnetic and gravity information, but no seismic data. Their primary survey instrument was the MR1 towed sonar, a shallow-towed 11/12 kHz bathymetric sidescan sonar developed and operated by the Hawaii Mapping Research Group (HMRG), a research and operational group within University of Hawaii's School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) and the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP). The MR1 is full-ocean-depth capable, providing both bathymetry and sidescan data.
Leg 7 of the Cook Expedition continued the MR-1 survey of the Mariana Trench backarc from 4 March to 12 April 2001 under chief scientist Sherman Bloomer of Oregon State University.
===2009 – RV Kilo Moana===
In May/June 2009, the US Navy-owned 3,064-ton twin-hulled research vessel Kilo Moana (T-AGOR 26) was sent to the Challenger Deep area to conduct research. Kilo Moana is civilian-crewed and operated by SOEST. It is equipped with two multibeam echosounders with sub-bottom profiler add-ons (the 191-beam 12 kHz Kongsberg Simrad EM120 with SBP-1200, capable of accuracies of 0.2–0.5% of water depth across the entire swath), gravimeter, and magnetometer. The EM-120 uses 1 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface. Each 1 degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about in diameter at depth. Whilst mapping the Challenger Deep the sonar equipment indicated a maximum depth of at an undisclosed position. Navigation equipment includes the Applanix POS MV320 V4, rated at accuracies of 0.5–2 m. RV Kilo Moana was also used as the support ship of the hybrid remotely operated underwater vehicle (HROV) Nereus that dived three times to the Challenger Deep bottom during the May/June 2009 cruise and did not confirm the sonar established maximum depth by its support ship.
===2009 – RV Yokosuka===
Cruise YK09-08 brought the JAMSTEC 4,429-ton research vessel Yokosuka back to the Mariana Trough and to the Challenger Deep June–July 2009. Their mission was a two-part program: surveying three hydrothermal vent sites in the southern Mariana Trough backarc basin near 12°57'N, 143°37'E about 130 nmi northeast of the central basin of the Challenger Deep, using the autonomous underwater vehicle Urashima. AUV Urashima dives #90–94, were to a maximum depth of 3500 meters, and were successful in surveying all three sites with a Reson SEABAT7125AUV multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and multiple water testers to detect and map trace elements spewed into the water from hydrothermal vents, white smokers, and hot spots. Kyoko OKINO from the Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, was principal investigator for this aspect of the cruise.
The second goal of the cruise was to deploy a new "10K free fall camera system" called Ashura, to sample sediments and biologics at the bottom of the Challenger Deep. The principal investigator at the Challenger Deep was Taishi Tsubouchi of JAMSTEC. The lander Ashura made two descents: on the first, 6 July 2009, Ashura bottomed at at . The second descent (on 10 July 2009) was to at . The 270 kg Ashura was equipped with multiple baited traps, a HTDV video camera, and devices to recover sediment, water, and biological samples (mostly amphipods at the bait, and bacteria and fungus from the sediment and water samples).
===2010 – USNS Sumner===
On 7 October 2010, further sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the US Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping/Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC) aboard the 4.762-ton Sumner. The results were reported in December 2011 at the annual American Geophysical Union fall meeting. Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude up to accuracy, from thousands of individual soundings around the deepest part the CCOM/JHC team preliminary determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of at , with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ± at two standard deviations (i.e. ≈ 95.4%) confidence level. A secondary deep with a depth of was located at approximately to the east at in the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep.
===2010 – RV Yokosuka===
JAMSTEC returned Yokosuka to the Challenger Deep with cruise YK10-16, 21–28 November 2010. The chief scientist of this joint Japanese-Danish expedition was Hiroshi Kitazato of the Institute of Biogeosciences, JAMSTEC. The cruise was titled "Biogeosciences at the Challenger Deep: relict organisms and their relations to biogeochemical cycles". The Japanese teams made five deployments of their 11,000-meter camera system (three to 6,000 meters – two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep) which returned with 15 sediment cores, video records and 140 scavenging amphipod specimens. The Danish Ultra Deep Lander System was employed by Ronnie Glud et al on four casts, two into the central basin of the Challenger Deep and two to 6,000 m some 34 nmi west of the central basin. The deepest depth recorded was on 28 November 2010 – camera cast CS5 – }, at a corrected depth of (the central basin).
===2013 – RV Yokosuka===
With JAMSTEC Cruises YK13-09 and YK13-12, Yokosuka hosted chief scientist Hidetaka Nomaki for a trip to New Zealand waters (YK13-09), with the return cruise identified as YK13-12. The project name was QUELLE2013; and the cruise title was: "In situ experimental & sampling study to understand abyssal biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles". They spent one day on the return trip at the Challenger Deep to obtain DNA/RNA on the large amphipods inhabiting the Deep (Hirondellea gigas). Hideki Kobayashi (Biogeos, JAMSTEC) and the team deployed a benthic lander on 23 November 2013 with eleven baited traps (three bald, five covered by insulating materials, and three automatically sealed after nine hours) into the central basin of the Challenger Deep at , depth . After an eight-hour, 46-minute stay at the bottom, they recovered some 90 individual Hirondellea gigas.
===2014 – RV Kairei===
JAMSTEC deployed Kairei to the Challenger Deep again 11–17 January 2014, under the leadership of chief scientist Takuro Nunora. The cruise identifier was KR14-01, titled: "Trench biosphere expedition for the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench". The expedition sampled at six stations transecting the central basin, with only two deployments of the "11-K camera system" lander for sediment cores and water samples to "Station C" at the deepest depth, i.e. , at . The other stations were investigated with the "Multi-core" lander, both to the backarc northward, and to the Pacific Plate southward. The 11,000-meter capable crawler-driven ROV ABIMSO was sent to 7,646 m depth about 20 nmi due north of the central basin (ABISMO dive #21) specifically to identify possible hydrothermal activity on the north slope of the Challenger Deep, as suggested by findings from Kairei cruise KR08-05 in 2008. AMISMO dives #20 and #22 were to 7,900 meters about 15 nmi north of the deepest waters of the central basin. Italian researchers under the leadership of Laura Carugati from the Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy (UNIVPM) were investigating the dynamics in virus/prokaryotes interactions in the Mariana Trench.
===2014 – RV Falkor===
From 16–19 December 2014, the Schmidt Ocean Institute's 2,024-ton research vessel Falkor, under chief scientist Douglas Bartlett from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, deployed four different untethered instruments into the Challenger Deep for seven total releases. Four landers were deployed on 16 December into the central basin: the baited video-equipped lander Leggo for biologics; the lander ARI to for water chemistry; and the probes Deep Sound 3 and Deep Sound 2. Both Deep Sound probes recorded acoustics floating at depth, until Deep Sound 3 imploded at the depth of (about above the bottom) at . The Deep Sound 2 recorded the implosion of Deep Sound 3, providing a unique recording of an implosion within the Challenger Deep depression. In addition to the loss of the Deep Sound 3 by implosion, the lander ARI failed to respond upon receiving its instruction to drop weights, and was never recovered. On 16/17 December, Leggo was returned to the central basin baited for amphipods. On the 17th, RV Falkor relocated 17 nms eastward to the eastern basin, where they again deployed both the Leggo (baited and with its full camera load), and the Deep Sound 2. Deep Sound 2 was programmed to drop to and remain at that depth during its recording of sounds within the trench. On 19 December Leggo landed at at a uncorrected depth of according to its pressure sensor readings. This reading was corrected to depth. Leggo returned with good photography of amphipods feeding on the lander's mackerel bait and with sample amphipods. Falknor departed the Challenger Deep on 19 December en route the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument to the Sirena Deep. RV Falkor had both a Kongsberg EM302 and EM710 multibeam echosounder for bathymetry, and an Oceaneering C-Nav 3050 global navigation satellite system receiver, capable of calculating geodetic positioning with an accuracy better than horizontally and vertically.
===2015 – USCGC Sequoia===
From 10 to 13 July 2015, the Guam-based 1,930-ton US Coast Guard Cutter Sequoia (WLB 215) hosted a team of researchers, under chief scientist Robert P. Dziak, from the NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), the University of Washington, and Oregon State University, in deploying PMEL's "Full-Ocean Depth Mooring", a 45-meter-long moored deep-ocean hydrophone and pressure sensor array into the western basin of the Challenger Deep. A 6-hour descent into the western basin anchored the array at of water depth, at , about 1 km northeast of Sumner deepest depth, recorded in 2010. After 16 weeks, the moored array was recovered on 2–4 November 2015. "Observed sound sources included earthquake signals (T phases), baleen and odontocete cetacean vocalizations, ship propeller sounds, airguns, active sonar and the passing of a Category 4 typhoon." The science team described their results as "the first multiday, broadband record of ambient sound at Challenger Deep, as well as only the fifth direct depth measurement".
===2016 – RV Xiangyanghong 09===
The 3,536-ton research vessel Xiangyanghong 09 deployed on Leg II of the 37th China Cruise Dayang (DY37II) sponsored by the National Deep Sea Center, Qingdao and the Institute of Deep-Sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Sanya, Hainan), to the Challenger Deep western basin area (11°22' N, 142°25' E) 4 June – 12 July 2016. As the mother ship for China's manned deep submersible Jiaolong, the expedition carried out an exploration of the Challenger Deep to investigate the geological, biological, and chemical characteristics of the hadal zone. The diving area for this leg was on the southern slope of the Challenger Deep, at depths from about . The submersible completed nine piloted dives on the northern backarc and south area (Pacific plate) of the Challenger Deep to depths from . During the cruise, Jiaolong regularly deployed gas-tight samplers to collect water near the sea bottom. In a test of navigational proficiency, Jiaolong used an Ultra-Short Base Line (USBL) positioning system at a depth more than to retrieve sampling bottles.
===2016 – RV Tansuo 01===
From 22 June to 12 August 2016 (cruises 2016S1 and 2016S2), the Chinese Academy of Sciences' 6,250-ton submersible support ship Tansuo 1 (meaning: to explore) on her maiden voyage deployed to the Challenger Deep from her home port of Sanya, Hainan Island. On 12 July 2016, the ROV Haidou-1 dived to a depth of in the Challenger Deep area. They also cast a free-drop lander, rated free-drop ocean-floor seismic instruments (deployed to ), obtained sediment core samples, and collected over 2000 biological samples from depths ranging from . The Tansuo 01 operated along the 142°30.00' longitude line, about 30 nmi east of the earlier DY37II cruise survey (see Xiangyanghong 09 above).
===2016 – RV Sonne===
In November 2016 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep area was conducted by the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ)/GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel aboard the 8,554-ton Deep Ocean Research Vessel Sonne. The results were reported in 2017. Using a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multi-beam echosounder system coupled to positioning equipment that can determine latitude and longitude the team determined that the Challenger Deep has a maximum depth of at (), with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ± at one standard deviation (≈ 68.3%) confidence level. The analysis of the sonar survey offered a grid resolution at bottom depth, so small dips in the bottom that are less than that size would be difficult to detect from the 0.5 by 1 degree sonar-emissions at the sea surface. Each 0.5-degree beam width sonar ping expands to cover a circular area about in diameter at depth. The horizontal position of the grid point has an uncertainty of ±, depending on along-track or across-track direction. This depth () and position (about to the northeast) measurements differ significantly from the deepest point determined by the Gardner et al. (2014) study. The observed depth discrepancy with the 2010 sonar mapping and Gardner et al 2014 study are related to the application of differing sound velocity profiles, which are essential for accurate depth determination. Sonne used CTD casts about 1.6 km west of the deepest sounding to near the bottom of the Challenger Deep that were used for sound velocity profile calibration and optimization. Likewise, the impact of using different projections, datum and ellipsoids during data acquisition can cause positional discrepancies between surveys.
===2016 – RV Shyian 3===
In December 2016, the CAS 3,300-ton research vessel Shiyan 3 deployed 33 broadband seismometers onto both the backarc northwest of the Challenger Deep, and onto the near southern Pacific Plate to the southeast, at depths of up to . This cruise was part of a $12 million Chinese-U.S. initiative, led by co-leader Jian Lin of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; a 5-year effort (2017–2021) to image in fine detail the rock layers in and around the Challenger Deep.
===2016 – RV Zhang Jian===
The newly launched 4,800-ton research vessel (and mothership for the Rainbow Fish series of deep submersibles), the Zhang Jian departed Shanghai on 3 December. Their cruise was to test three new deep-sea landers, one uncrewed search submersible and the new Rainbow Fish 11,000-meter manned deep submersible, all capable of diving to 10,000 meters. From 25 to 27 December, three deep-sea landing devices descended into the trench. The first Rainbow Fish lander took photographs, the second took sediment samples, and the third took biological samples. All three landers reached over 10,000 meters, and the third device brought back 103 amphipods. Cui Weicheng, director of Hadal Life Science Research Center at Shanghai Ocean University, led the team of scientists to carry out research at the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. The ship is part of China's national marine research fleet but is owned by a Shanghai marine technology company.
===2017 – RV Tansuo-1===
CAS' Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering sponsored Tansuo-1 return to the Challenger Deep 20 January – 5 February 2017 (cruise TS03) with baited traps for the capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps. On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at , newly designated Pseudoliparis swirei. They also placed four or more CTD casts into the central and eastern basins of the Challenger Deep, as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).
===2017 – RV Shinyo Maru===
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology dispatched the research vessel Shinyo Maru to the Mariana Trench from 20 January to 5 February 2017 with baited traps for the capture of fish and other macrobiology near the Challenger and Sirena Deeps. On 29 January they recovered photography and samples of a new species of snailfish from the Northern slope of the Challenger Deep at , which has been newly designated Pseudoliparis swirei.
===2017 – RV Kairei===
JAMSTEC deployed Kairei to the Challenger Deep in May 2017 for the express purpose of testing the new full-ocean depth ROV UROV11K (Underwater ROV 11,000-meter-capable), as cruise KR 17-08C, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima. The cruise title was: "Sea trial of a full depth ROV UROV11K system in the Mariana Trench". UROV11K carried a new 4K High Definition video camera system, and new sensors to monitor the hydrogen-sulfide, methane, oxygen, and hydrogen content of the water. Unfortunately, on UROV11K ascent from (at about 11°22.30'N 142°35.8 E, in the eastern basin) on 14 May 2017, the ROV's buoyancy failed at depth, and all efforts to retrieve the ROV were unsuccessful. The rate of descent and drift is not available, but the ROV bottomed to the east of the deepest waters of the eastern basin as revealed by the ship's maneuvering on 14 May. Murashima then directed the Kairei to a location about 35 nmi east of the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep to test a new "Compact Hadal Lander" which made three descents to depths from 7,498 to 8,178 m for testing the Sony 4K camera and for photography of fish and other macro-biologics.
===2018 – RV Shen Kuo===
On its maiden voyage, the 2,150-ton twin-hulled scientific research vessel Shen Kuo (also Shengkuo, Shen Ko, or Shen Quo), departed Shanghai on 25 November 2018 and returned on 8 January 2019. They operated in the Mariana Trench area, and on 13 December tested a system of underwater navigation at a depth exceeding 10,000 metres, during a field trial of the Tsaihungyuy (ultra-short baseline) system. Project leader Tsui Veichen stated that, with the Tsaihungyuy equipment at depth, it was possible to obtain a signal and determine exact geolocations. The research team from Shanghai Ocean University and Westlake University was led by Cui Weicheng, director of Shanghai Ocean University's Hadal Science and Technology Research Center (HSRC).
The equipment to be tested included a piloted submersible (not full ocean depth – depth achieved not available) and two deep-sea landers, all capable of diving to depths of 10,000 meters, as well as an ROV that can go to 4,500 meters. They took photographs and obtained samples from the trench, including water, sediment, macro-organisms and micro-organisms. Cui says, "If we can take photos of fish more than 8,145 meters under water, ... we will break the current world record. We will test our new equipment including the landing devices. They are second generation. The first generation could only take samples in one spot per dive, but this new second generation can take samples at different depths in one dive. We also tested the ultra short baseline acoustic positioning system on the manned submersible, the future of underwater navigation."
===2019 – RV Sally Ride===
In November 2019, as cruise SR1916, a NIOZ team led by chief scientist Hans van Haren, with Scripps technicians, deployed to the Challenger Deep aboard the 2,641-ton research vessel , to recover a mooring line from the western basin of the Challenger Deep. The long mooring line in the Challenger Deep consisted of top-floatation positioned around depth, two sections of Dyneema neutrally buoyant line, two Benthos acoustic releases and two sections of self-contained instrumentation to measure and store current, salinity and temperature. Around the depth position two current meters were mounted below a long array of 100 high-resolution temperature sensors. In the lower position starting above the sea floor 295 specially designed high-resolution temperature sensors were mounted, the lowest of which was above the trench floor. The mooring line was deployed and left by the NIOZ team during the November 2016 RV Sonne expedition with the intention to be recovered in late 2018 by Sonne. The acoustic commanded release mechanism near the bottom of the Challenger Deep failed at the 2018 attempt. RV Sally Ride was made available exclusively for a final attempt to retrieve the mooring line before the release mechanism batteries expired. Sally Ride arrived at the Challenger Deep on 2 November. This time a 'deep release unit' lowered by one of Sally Ride winch-cables to around 1,000 m depth pinged release commands and managed to contact the near-bottom releases. After being submerged for nearly three years, mechanical problems occurred in 15 of the 395 temperature sensors. The first results indicate the occurrence of internal waves in the Challenger Deep.
==Study of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep==
Since May 2000, with the help of non-degraded signal satellite navigation, civilian surface vessels equipped with professional dual-frequency capable satellite navigation equipment can measure and establish their geodetic position with an accuracy in the order of meters to tens of meters whilst the western, central and eastern basins are kilometers apart.
In 2014, a study was conducted regarding the determination of the depth and location of the Challenger Deep based on data collected previous to and during the 2010 sonar mapping of the Mariana Trench with a Kongsberg Maritime EM 122 multibeam echosounder system aboard USNS Sumner. This study by James. V. Gardner et al. of the Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping-Joint Hydrographic Center (CCOM/JHC), Chase Ocean Engineering Laboratory of the University of New Hampshire splits the measurement attempt history into three main groups: early single-beam echo sounders (1950s–1970s), early multibeam echo sounders (1980s – 21st century), and modern (i.e., post-GPS, high-resolution) multibeam echo sounders. Taking uncertainties in depth measurements and position estimation into account, the raw data of the 2010 bathymetry of the Challenger Deep vicinity consisting of 2,051,371 soundings from eight survey lines was analyzed. The study concludes that with the best of 2010 multibeam echosounder technologies after the analysis a depth uncertainty of ± (95% confidence level) on 9 degrees of freedom and a positional uncertainty of ± (2drms) remain and the location of the deepest depth recorded in the 2010 mapping is at . The depth measurement uncertainty is a composite of measured uncertainties in the spatial variations in sound-speed through the water volume, the ray-tracing and bottom-detection algorithms of the multibeam system, the accuracies and calibration of the motion sensor and navigation systems, estimates of spherical spreading, attenuation throughout the water volume, and so forth.
Both the RV Sonne expedition in 2016, and the RV Sally Ride expedition in 2019 expressed strong reservations concerning the depth corrections applied by the Gardner et al. study of 2014, and serious doubt concerning the accuracy of the deepest depth calculated by Gardner (in the western basin), of after analysis of their multibeam data on a grid. Dr. Hans van Haren, chief scientist on the RV Sally Ride cruise SR1916, indicated that Gardner's calculations were too deep due to the "sound velocity profiling by Gardner et al. (2014)."
In 2021, a study by Samuel F. Greenaway, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Samuel H. Umfress, Alice B. Beittel and Karl D. Wagner was published presenting a revised estimate of the maximum depth of the Challenger Deep based on a series of submersible dives conducted in June 2020. These depth estimates are derived from acoustic echo sounding profiles referenced to in-situ direct pressure measurements and corrected for observed oceanographic properties of the water-column, atmospheric pressure, gravity and gravity-gradient anomalies, and water-level effects. The study concludes according to their calculations the deepest observed seafloor depth was ± below mean sea level at a 95% confidence level at in the eastern basin. For this estimate, the error term is dominated by the uncertainty of the employed pressure sensor, but Greenaway et al. show that the gravity correction is also substantial. The Greenaway et al. study compares its results with other recent acoustic and pressure-based measurements for the Challenger Deep and concludes the deepest depth in the western basin is very nearly as deep as the eastern basin. The disagreement between the maximum depth estimates and their geodetic positions between post-2000 published depths however exceed the accompanying margins of uncertainty, raising questions regarding the measurements or the reported uncertainties.
Another 2021 paper by Scott Loranger, David Barclay and Michael Buckingham, besides a December 2014 implosion shock wave based depth estimate of , which is among the deepest estimated depths, also treatises the differences between various maximum depth estimates and their geodetic positions.
===Direct measurements===
The 2010 maximal sonar mapping depths reported by Gardner et.al. in 2014 and Greenaway et al. study in 2021 have not been confirmed by direct descent (pressure gauge/manometer) measurements at full-ocean depth. Expeditions have reported direct measured maximal depths in a narrow range.
For the western basin deepest depths were reported as by in 1960 and ± by DSV Limiting Factor in June 2020.
For the central basin the greatest reported depth is ± by DSV Limiting Factor in June 2020.
For the eastern basin deepest depths were reported as by Kaikō ROV in 1995, by ROV Nereus in 2009, by in 2012, by benthic lander "Leggo" in May 2019, and ± by DSV Limiting Factor in May 2019.
==Descents==
===Manned descents===
====1960 – Trieste====
On 23 January 1960, the Swiss-designed Trieste, originally built in Italy and acquired by the U.S. Navy, supported by the USS Wandank (ATF 204) and escorted by the USS Lewis (DE 535), descended to the ocean floor in the trench piloted by Jacques Piccard (who co-designed the submersible along with his father, Auguste Piccard) and USN Lieutenant Don Walsh. Their crew compartment was inside a spherical pressure vessel – measuring 2.16 metres in diameter suspended beneath a buoyancy tank 18.4 metres in length – which was a heavy-duty replacement (of the Italian original) built by Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany. The steel walls were thick and designed to withstand pressure of up to .
Trieste dived at/near , bottoming at ± into the Challenger Deep's western basin, as measured by an onboard manometer. Another source states the measured depth at the bottom was measured with a manometer at ±.
Navigation of the support ships was by celestial and LORAN-C with an accuracy of or less.
====2012 – Deepsea Challenger====
On 26 March 2012 (local time), Canadian film director James Cameron made a solo descent in the DSV Deepsea Challenger to the bottom of the Challenger Deep.
At approximately 05:15 ChST on 26 March (19:15 UTC on 25 March), the descent began.
At 07:52 ChST (21:52 UTC), Deepsea Challenger arrived at the bottom. The descent lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes and the recorded depth was when Deepsea Challenger touched down.
Cameron had planned to spend about six hours near the ocean floor exploring but decided to start the ascent to the surface after only 2 hours and 34 minutes. The time on the bottom was shortened because a hydraulic fluid leak in the lines controlling the manipulator arm obscured the visibility out the only viewing port. It also caused the loss of the submersible's starboard thrusters. At around 12:00 ChST (02:00 UTC on 26 March), the Deepsea Challenger website says the sub resurfaced after a 90-minute ascent, although Paul Allen's tweets indicate the ascent took only about 67 minutes. During a post-dive press conference Cameron said: "I landed on a very soft, almost gelatinous flat plain. Once I got my bearings, I drove across it for quite a distance ... and finally worked my way up the slope." The whole time, Cameron said, he didn't see any fish, or any living creatures more than an inch (2.54 cm) long: "The only free swimmers I saw were small amphipods" – shrimplike bottom-feeders.
====2019 – Five Deeps Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor====
The Five Deeps Expedition's objective was to thoroughly map and visit the deepest points of all five of the world's oceans by the end of September 2019. On 28 April 2019, explorer Victor Vescovo descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor (a Triton 36000/2 model submersible). Between 28 April and 4 May 2019, the Limiting Factor completed four dives to the bottom of Challenger Deep. The fourth dive descended to the slightly less deep "Central Pool" of the Challenger Deep (crew: Patrick Lahey, Pilot; John Ramsay, Sub Designer). The Five Deeps Expedition estimated maximum depths of ± and ± at () by direct CTD pressure measurements and a survey of the operating area by the support ship, the Deep Submersible Support Vessel DSSV Pressure Drop, with a Kongsberg SIMRAD EM124 multibeam echosounder system. The CTD measured pressure at of seawater depth was . Due to a technical problem the (uncrewed) ultra-deep-sea lander Skaff used by the Five Deeps Expedition stayed on the bottom for two and half days before it was salvaged by the Limiting Factor (crew: Patrick Lahey, Pilot; Jonathan Struwe, DNV GL Specialist) from an estimated depth of . Later in 2019, following a review of bathymetric data, and multiple sensor recordings taken by the DSV Limiting Factor and the ultra-deep-sea landers Closp, Flere and Skaff, the Five Deeps Expedition revised the maximum depth to ±.
====2020 – Ring of Fire Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor====
Caladan Oceanic's "Ring of Fire" expedition in the Pacific included six manned descents and twenty-five lander deployments into all three basins of the Challenger Deep all piloted by Victor Vescovo and further topographical and marine life survey of the entire Challenger Deep. The expedition craft used are the Deep Submersible Support Vessel DSSV Pressure Drop, Deep-Submergence Vehicle DSV Limiting Factor and the ultra-deep-sea landers Closp, Flere and Skaff.
During the first manned dive on 7 June 2020 Victor Vescovo and former US astronaut (and former NOAA Administrator) Kathryn D. Sullivan descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor.
On 12 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and mountaineer and explorer Vanessa O'Brien descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep spending three hours mapping the bottom. O'Brien said her dive scanned about a mile of desolate bottom terrain, finding that the surface is not flat, as once was thought, but sloping by about per mile, subject to verification.
On 14 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and John Rost descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor spending four hours at depth and transiting the bottom for nearly 2 miles.
On 20 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and Kelly Walsh descended to the "Western Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor spending four hours at the bottom. They reached a maximum depth of . Kelly Walsh is the son of the Trieste's captain Don Walsh who descended there in 1960 with Jacques Piccard.
On 21 June 2020, Victor Vescovo and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution researcher Ying-Tsong Lin descended to the "Central Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor. They reached a maximum depth of ±.
On 26 June 2020 Victor Vescovo and Jim Wigginton descended to the "Eastern Pool" of the Challenger Deep in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle Limiting Factor.
====2020 – Fendouzhe====
Fendouzhe (奋斗者, Striver) is a manned Chinese deep-sea submersible developed by the China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSSRC). Between 10 October and 28 November, 2020, it carried out thirteen dives in the Mariana Trench as part of a test programme. Of these, eight led to depths of more than . On 10 November 2020, the bottom of the Challenger Deep was reached by Fendouzhe with three Chinese scientists (Zhāng Wěi 张伟 [pilot], Zhào Yáng 赵洋, and Wáng Zhìqiáng 王治强) onboard whilst live-streaming the descent to a reported depth of . This makes the Fendouzhe the fourth manned submersible vehicle achieving a successful descent. The pressure hull of Fendouzhe, made from a newly developed titanium alloy, offers space for three people in addition to technical equipment. Fendouzhe is equipped with cameras made by the Norwegian manufacturer Imenco.
According to Ye Cong 叶聪, the chief designer of the submersible, China's goals for the dive aren't just scientific investigation but also the future use of deep-sea seabed resources.
====2021 – Ring of Fire 2 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor====
On 28 February 2021 Caladan Oceanic's "Ring of Fire 2" expedition arrived over the Challenger Deep and conducted manned descents and lander deployments into the Challenger Deep. At the start the (uncrewed) ultra-deep-sea lander Skaff was deployed to collect water column data by CTD for the expedition. The effects of the Pacific subducting plate crashing into the Philippine Plate was among the things researched onsite.
On 1 March 2021, the first manned descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Richard Garriott. Garriott became the 17th person to descend to the bottom.
On 2 March 2021, a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Michael Dubno.
On 5 March a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Hamish Harding. They traversed the bottom of Challenger Deep.
On 11 March 2021 a descent to the Western Pool was made by Victor Vescovo and marine botanist Nicole Yamase.
On 13 April 2021 a descent was made by deep water submersible operations expert Rob McCallum and Tim Macdonald who piloted the dive.
A 2021 descent with a Japanese citizen is planned.
All manned descents were conducted in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle DSV Limiting Factor.
====2022 - Ring of Fire 3 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor====
In July 2022 for the fourth consecutive year, Caladan Oceanic's deep submergence system, consisting of the deep submersible DSV Limiting Factor supported by the mother ship DSSV Pressure Drop, returned to the Challenger Deep for dives into the Challenger Deep.
In early July 2022, Victor Vescovo was joined by Aaron Newman as a mission specialist for a dive into the Central pool. On 5 July 2022, Tim Macdonald as pilot and Jim Kitchen as mission specialist for a dive into the Eastern pool. On 8 July 2022 Victor Vescovo was joined by Dylan Taylor as mission specialist for a dive into the Eastern pool.
Victor Vescovo (for his 15th dive into the Challenger Deep) was joined by geographer and oceanographer Dawn Wright as mission specialist on the 12 July 2022 dive to in the Western Pool. Wright operated the world's first sidescan sonar to ever operate at full-ocean depth to capture detailed imagery along short transects of the southern wall of the Western Pool.
===Uncrewed descents by ROVs===
====1996 and 1998 – Kaikō====
The remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Kaikō made many uncrewed descents to the Mariana Trench from its support ship RV Yokosuka during two expeditions in 1996 and 1998.
From 29 February to 4 March the ROV Kaiko made three dives into the central basin, Kaiko #21 – Kaiko #23, . Depths ranged from at , to at ; dives #22 & #23 to the north, and dive #21 northeast of the deepest waters of the central basin. During the 1996 measurements the temperature (water temperature increases at great depth due to adiabatic compression), salinity and water pressure at the sampling station was , 34.7‰ and , respectively at depth. The Japanese robotic deep-sea probe Kaikō broke the depth record for uncrewed probes when it reached close to the surveyed bottom of the Challenger Deep. Created by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), it was one of the few uncrewed deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than . The manometer measured depth of ± at for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken up to then. Approximately 3,000 different microbes were identified in the samples. From Nereus dive #007ROV to just south of Guam, to dive #010ROV into the Nero Deep at , the testing gradually increased depths and complexities of activities at the bottom.
Dive #011ROV, on 31 May 2009, saw the Nereus piloted on a 27.8-hour underwater mission, with about ten hours transversing the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep – from the south wall, northwest to the north wall – streaming live video and data back to its mothership. A maximum depth of was registered at . The then relocated to the western basin, where a 19.3-hour underwater dive found a maximum depth of on dive #012ROV, and on dive #014ROV in the same area (11°19.59 N, 142°12.99 E) encountered a maximum depth of . The Nereus was successful in recovering both sediment and rock samples from the eastern and the western basins with its manipulator arm for further scientific analysis. The HROV's final dive was about to the north of the Challenger Deep, in the backarc, where they dived at the TOTO Caldera (12°42.00 N, 143°31.5 E). Nereus thus became the first vehicle to reach the Mariana Trench since 1998 and the deepest-diving vehicle then in operation.
===Uncrewed descents near the Challenger Deep===
====2008 – ABISMO====
In June 2008, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) deployed the research vessel Kairei to the area of Guam for cruise KR08-05 Leg 1 and Leg 2.
On 1–3 June 2008, during Leg 1, the Japanese robotic deep-sea probe ABISMO (Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile) on dives 11–13 almost reached the bottom about east of the Challenger Deep: "Unfortunately, we were unable to dive to the sea floor because the legacy primary cable of the Kaiko system was a little bit short. The 2-m long gravity core sampler was dropped in free fall, and sediment samples of 1.6m length were obtained. Twelve bottles of water samples were also obtained at various depths..." ABISMO's dive #14 was into the TOTO caldera (12°42.7777 N, 143°32.4055 E), about 60 nmi northeast of the deepest waters of the central basin of the Challenger Deep, where they obtained videos of the hydrothermal plume. Upon successful testing to , JAMSTEC' ROV ABISMO became, briefly, the only full-ocean-depth rated ROV in existence. On 31 May 2009, the ABISMO was joined by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's HROV Nereus as the only two operational full ocean depth capable remotely operated vehicles in existence. During the ROV ABISMO's deepest sea trails dive its manometer measured a depth of ± in "Area 1" (vicinity of 12°43' N, 143°33' E).
Leg 2, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima, operated at the Challenger Deep 8–9 June 2008, testing JAMSTEC's new full ocean depth "Free Fall Mooring System," i.e. a lander. The lander was successfully tested twice to depth, taking video images and sediment samplings at , in the central basin of the Challenger Deep.
====2016 – Haidou-1====
On 23 May 2016, the Chinese submersible Haidou-1 dived to a depth of at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench, making China the third country after Japan (ROV Kaikō), and the US (HROV Nereus), to deploy a full-ocean-depth ROV. This autonomous and remotely operated vehicle has a design depth of .
====2020 – Vityaz-D====
On 8 May 2020, the Russian submersible Vityaz-D dived to a depth of at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench.
==Lifeforms==
The summary report of the expedition lists unicellular life forms from the two dredged samples taken when the Challenger Deep was first discovered. These (Nassellaria and Spumellaria) were reported in the Report on Radiolaria (1887) written by Ernst Haeckel.
On their 1960 descent, the crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing "some type of flatfish" lying on the seabed.
Many marine biologists are now skeptical of this supposed sighting, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber. The video camera on board the Kaiko probe spotted a sea cucumber, a scale worm and a shrimp at the bottom. At the bottom of the Challenger Deep, the Nereus probe spotted one polychaete worm (a multi-legged predator) about an inch long.
An analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko found large numbers of simple organisms at . While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (> 7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent taxa distinct from those in shallower ecosystems.
Most of the organisms collected were simple, soft-shelled foraminifera (432 species according to National Geographic), with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax. Eighty-five per cent of the specimens were organic, soft-shelled allogromiids, which is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20%. As small organisms with hard, calcareous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because of the high solubility of calcium carbonate in the pressurized water, scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms in the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical biosphere present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment.
On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested piezophilic microorganisms thrive in the Challenger Deep. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywherethey're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."
|
[
"SeaBeam",
"Chinese Academy of Sciences",
"Admiralty Islands",
"Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution",
"pelagic sediment",
"Mariana Trough",
"sidescan sonar",
"Dylan Taylor (executive)",
"Sedimentary basin",
"manometer",
"abyssal plain",
"Bathymetry",
"sensor array",
"Auguste Piccard",
"Polynoidae",
"United States Navy",
"Bismarck Archipelago",
"prokaryotes",
"List of submarine topographical features",
"Westlake University",
"confidence interval",
"Yap",
"backarc",
"National Geographic Society",
"Speed of sound",
"Shikoku",
"Litke Deep",
"USNS Indomitable (T-AGOS-7)",
"Occupation of Japan",
"internal wave",
"magnetometer",
"University of Washington",
"teleost",
"hydrothermal vent",
"Ulithi",
"Piezophile",
"Thomas Gaskell",
"Nereus (underwater vehicle)",
"Mariana Trench",
"The Colbert Report",
"HMS Challenger (1931)",
"RV Falkor",
"benthic lander",
"Shanghai",
"ChST",
"GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel",
"Michael Dubno",
"Soviet Union",
"Challenger expedition",
"Jacques Piccard",
"Trough (geology)",
"Pacific plate",
"Germany",
"USNS Thomas Washington (T-AGOR-10)",
"survey ship",
"NAVSAT",
"box core",
"DSV Limiting Factor",
"4K resolution",
"Ernst Haeckel",
"salinity",
"principal investigator",
"oceanic trench",
"Guam",
"sea cucumber",
"Marine Technology Society",
"Radionavigation-satellite service",
"University of South Carolina",
"geomagnetic",
"Kongsberg Gruppen",
"Don Walsh",
"biosphere",
"density",
"New Scientist",
"Horizon Deep",
"Mariana Islands",
"New Zealand",
"sensor resolution",
"satellite navigation",
"shrimp",
"Philippine Trench",
"Ultra-short baseline",
"ABISMO",
"Geodetic datum",
"taxon",
"CTD (instrument)",
"Pacific Ocean",
"Multibeam echosounder",
"gravimeter",
"USNS Sumner (T-AGS-61)",
"Dawn Wright",
"transects",
"list of people who descended to Challenger Deep",
"beam width",
"hydrophone",
"RV Kilo Moana (T-AGOR-26)",
"echo sounder",
"2003 Pacific typhoon season",
"Leptohalysis",
"GEBCO",
"Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research",
"sole (fish)",
"subduction",
"Nature Geoscience",
"Yokohama",
"LiveScience",
"Foraminifera",
"calcium carbonate",
"Emden Deep",
"Rob McCallum",
"Triton Submarines",
"flatfish",
"Caroline Islands",
"bathyscaphe",
"Hadal zone",
"Johns Hopkins University",
"mass",
"water column",
"Kaikō ROV",
"Schmidt Ocean Institute",
"geolocation",
"Kathryn D. Sullivan",
"Benthic lander",
"Federated States of Micronesia",
"circumnavigation",
"gravity",
"Kermadec Trench",
"Seabed",
"General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans",
"Circular error probable",
"Earth's mantle",
"Shanghai Ocean University",
"Spanish East Indies",
"China",
"forearc",
"steel",
"YouTube",
"Royal Navy",
"Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory",
"Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping",
"LORAN-C",
"HMS Challenger (1858)",
"Robert Thunell",
"Oregon State University",
"polychaete",
"James Cameron",
"NOAA",
"sea level",
"Satellite navigation",
"Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology",
"NBC News",
"University of Hawaii",
"DNV GL",
"gravity core",
"Satellite Transit System",
"Outlier",
"Hamish Harding",
"BRP Gregorio Velasquez (AGR 702)",
"Bathyscaphe Trieste",
"LORAN",
"Facebook",
"Vanessa O'Brien",
"China Daily",
"Jim Wigginton",
"hadal zone",
"U.S. Department of the Navy",
"USCGC Sequoia (WLB-215)",
"Fais Island",
"Trieste (bathyscaphe)",
"Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology",
"Essen",
"Nicole Yamase",
"Science (journal)",
"Paul Allen",
"remotely operated vehicle",
"Marianas Trench Marine National Monument",
"Pacific Plate",
"bulk modulus",
"Omega (navigation system)",
"Sounding line",
"seabed",
"deep submergence vehicle",
"Seismic source",
"Victor Vescovo",
"foraminifera",
"RV Sonne (2014)",
"Scripps Institution of Oceanography",
"Jiaolong (submersible)",
"pressure",
"sediment-dwelling organisms",
"Spumellaria",
"celestial navigation",
"Applanix",
"Nassellaria",
"Krupp",
"Ontong Java Plateau",
"Pseudoliparis swirei",
"amphipods",
"multi-beam sonar",
"Swathe",
"American Geophysical Union",
"The New York Times",
"allogromiid",
"Richard Garriott",
"standard deviation",
"Earth",
"Philippine Sea Plate",
"List of people who descended to Challenger Deep",
"Polytechnic University of Marche",
"remotely operated underwater vehicle",
"Sound speed profile",
"elasmobranch",
"Reophax",
"en echelon",
"seismic",
"isobath",
"bathymetry",
"diatom",
"Sirena Deep"
] |
7,787 |
Claude Louis Berthollet
|
Claude Louis Berthollet (, 9 December 1748 – 6 November 1822) was a Savoyard-French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804. He is known for his scientific contributions to the theory of chemical equilibria via the mechanism of reverse chemical reactions, and for his contribution to modern chemical nomenclature. On a practical basis, Berthollet was the first to demonstrate the bleaching action of chlorine gas, and was first to develop a solution of sodium hypochlorite as a modern bleaching agent.
==Biography==
Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749.
He started his studies at Chambéry and then in Turin where he graduated in medicine. Berthollet's great new developments in works regarding chemistry made him, in a short period of time, an active participant of the Academy of Science in 1780.
Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds.
He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO3), is known as Berthollet's Salt.
Berthollet first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785.
Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium.
Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist, Joseph Proust, on the validity of the law of definite proportions. While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to the ratio of the reactants initially taken. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority. His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811, but it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor.
Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte.
==Awards and honours==
In April, 1789 Berthollet was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1809, Berthollet was elected an associate member first class of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1820 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.
Claude-Louis Berthollet's 1788 publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published with colleagues Antoine Lavoisier, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.
A French High School located in Annecy is named after him (Lycée Claude Louis Berthollet).
File:Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique-1.jpg|1787 copy of "Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique"
File:Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique-2.jpg|Title page of "Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique"
File:Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique-3.jpg|Table of contents for "Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique"
==Personal life==
Berthollet married Marie Marguerite Baur in 1788.
Berthollet was accused of being an atheist.
He died in Arcueil, France in 1822.
|
[
"Silver nitride",
"chemical equilibria",
"Sodium hypochlorite",
"Lagrange",
"potassium chlorate",
"Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences",
"Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)",
"Joseph Proust",
"carbon monoxide poisoning",
"Duchy of Savoy",
"chemical equilibrium",
"Chemical equilibrium",
"Institut d'Égypte",
"Javel - André Citroën (Paris Métro)",
"law of definite proportions",
"Reversible reaction",
"Annecy",
"Gaspard Gourgaud",
"Talloires",
"Antoine Lavoisier",
"Non-stoichiometric compound",
"Monge",
"American Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"non-stoichiometric compound",
"chemist",
"chlorine",
"sodium hypochlorite",
"Fellow of the Royal Society",
"Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Potassium chlorate",
"Arcueil",
"Berzelius",
"French Senate",
"Society of the Friends of Truth",
"Savoyard state",
"Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau",
"charcoal-burning suicide",
"Paris",
"List of fellows of the Royal Society A, B, C",
"Napoleon",
"Kingdom of France",
"Royal Society of Edinburgh",
"dye",
"Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy",
"Berthollet",
"Lynn Hunt",
"Laplace",
"Chemical affinity",
"ammonia",
"Bleach (chemical)"
] |
7,791 |
Chilean Constitution of 1980
|
The Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile of 1980 () is the fundamental law in force in Chile. It was approved and promulgated under the military dictatorship headed by Augusto Pinochet, being ratified by the Chilean citizenry through a referendum on September 11, 1980, although being held under restrictions and without electoral registers. While 69% of the population was reported to have voted yes, the vote was questioned by hundreds of denunciations of irregularities and fraud. The constitutional text took effect, in a transitory regime, on March 11, 1981, and then entered into full force on March 11, 1990, with the return to electoral democracy. It was amended for the first time in 1989 (through a referendum), and afterward in 1991, 1994, 1997, each year from 1999 to 2001, 2003, each year from 2007 to 2015, and each year from 2017 to 2021, with the last three amendments concerning the constituent process of 2020–2022. In September 2005, under Ricardo Lagos's presidency, a large amendment of the Constitution was approved by parliamentarians, removing from the text some of the less democratic dispositions coming from Pinochet's regime, such as senators-for-life and appointed senators, as well as the armed forces' warranty of the democratic regime.
On November 15, 2019, following a series of popular protests in October 2019, a political agreement between parties with parliamentary representation called for a national referendum on the proposal of writing a new Constitution and on the mechanism to draft it. A plebiscite held on October 25, 2020, approved drafting a new fundamental charter, as well as choosing by popular vote delegates to a Constitutional Convention which was to fulfill this objective. The members of the convention were elected in May 2021, and first convened on July 4, 2021. However, on September 4, 2022, voters rejected the new constitution in the constitutional referendum. Following the rejection, the Expert Commission drafted another new constitution for the Constitutional Council to amend. However, on December 15, 2023, voters rejected the constitution in the 2023 Chilean constitutional referendum.
==Background==
The Commission for the Study of the New Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile', commonly known as the Ortúzar Commission', was a body established in 1973 by the Military Government Junta that ruled the country during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, following the coup against the Socialist President Salvador Allende. Its purpose was to draft the preliminary project for the 1980 Constitution. It met from September 24, 1973, to October 5, 1978. The name "Ortúzar Commission" is due to its chairman, Enrique Ortúzar Escobar, who previously served as Minister of Justice and Minister of Foreign Affairs during the administration of Jorge Alessandri.
The following people were part of the commission: Rafael Eyzaguirre Echeverría (secretary), Sergio Diez Urzúa, Enrique Evans de la Cuadra, Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz, Gustavo Lorca Rojas, Jorge Ovalle Quiroz, Alejandro Silva Bascuñán, Alicia Romo Román, Raúl Gormaz Molina and later on Luz Bulnes Aldunate, Raúl Bertelsen Repetto, Juan de Dios Carmona.
Despite what is commonly believed, the Ortúzar Commission was not a constituent assembly and did not draft the 1980 Constitution; rather, it merely prepared a preliminary draft that was subsequently reviewed by the Council of State and the Government Junta before being formally submitted for popular approval via a plebiscite.
Nevertheless, there is no denying the importance of the discussion carried out by the Ortúzar Commission regarding the final text of the 1980 Constitution. Although many of the commission's proposals were not adopted by the Council of State and the Government Junta, a large portion of the new Constitution's text was analyzed and debated within the commission.
==Legitimacy==
According to the law professor Camel Cazor Aliste, the Constitution of 1980 has problems of legitimacy stemming from two facts. First, the constitutional commission was not representative of the political spectrum of Chile: its members had been handpicked by the Pinochet dictatorship, and opponents of the regime had been deliberately excluded. Secondly, the constitution's approval was achieved by the government in a controversial and tightly controlled referendum in 1980. Campaigning for the referendum was irregular, with the government calling people to vote positively on the reform, and also using radio and television commercial spots, while the opposition urging people to vote negatively were only able of doing small public demonstrations, without access to television time and limited radio access. There was no electoral roll for this vote, as the register had been burned during the dictatorship. There were multiple cases of double voting, with at least 3000 CNI agents doing so.
Since the return to democracy, the constitution has been amended nearly 60 times.
A document from September 13, 1973, shows that Jaime Guzmán had by then already been tasked by the Junta to study the creation of a new constitution.
It has been argued the 1980 Constitution was designed to favor the election of right-wing legislative majorities. Several rounds of constitutional amendments have been enacted since 1989 to address this concern.
A referendum held in 2020 after waves of popular protests approved the drafting of a new constitution. In September 2022, a proposed left-wing replacement constitution was rejected, 62% to 38%. Following a second process, in December 2023, a proposed right-wing replacement was also rejected, 55.8% to 44.2%. These outcomes effectively granted the 1980 charter democratic legitimacy.
==Attempted replacement==
In July 2022, a proposed replacement constitution was submitted for national debate and general referendum, but it was rejected on September 4 despite having had the support of left-leaning President Gabriel Boric. The document had faced intense criticism that it was "too long, too left-wing and too radical", and was rejected by a margin of 62% to 38%.
On March 6, 2023, a group of experts appointed by Congress began a second attempt to prepare a preliminary draft of a new constitution. The group, with lawyer Veronica Undurraga serving as its president, was scheduled to work for three months on 12 institutional bases agreed to by lawmakers, after which the draft would be given to an elected Constitutional Council, whose members would be voted upon on May 7, 2023. At the same time, a 14-member Technical Admissibility Committee began serving as arbitrator.
On December 17, 2023, Chileans voted 55.8% to 44.2% against the second proposed constitution. President Boric stated that he would not seek a third referendum; this outcome effectively guaranteed the 1980 charter would remain in effect.
|
[
"left-wing",
"Government Junta of Chile (1973)",
"Jaime Guzmán",
"Ortúzar Commission",
"Constitution",
"Military of Chile",
"Jorge Alessandri",
"2019–2021 Chilean protests",
"Constitutional Council (Chile)",
"Constitutionalism",
"1973 Chilean coup d'état",
"political spectrum",
"Augusto Pinochet",
"Sergio Diez",
"Right-wing political parties",
"2023 Chilean constitutional referendum",
"2022 Chilean constitutional referendum",
"Veronica Undurraga",
"El Mostrador",
"Democracy",
"Gabriel Boric",
"Luz Bulnes",
"2022 proposed Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile",
"La Nación (Chile)",
"Chilean transition to democracy",
"Juan de Dios Carmona",
"2023 Chilean Constitutional Council election",
"Ricardo Lagos",
"Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz",
"Chile",
"Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–90)",
"Senator for life",
"Salvador Allende",
"Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Chile",
"Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)",
"2019 Chilean protests",
"Austral University of Chile",
"2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election",
"Revista de Derecho",
"2020 Chilean national plebiscite",
"1980 Chilean constitutional referendum",
"Expert Commission",
"Action of Rights Protection (Chile)",
"Raúl Bertelsen Repetto",
"1989 Chilean constitutional referendum",
"Constitutional Convention (Chile)",
"The Economist",
"Ministry of Justice (Chile)"
] |
7,794 |
Crystallography
|
Crystallography is the branch of science devoted to the study of molecular and crystalline structure and properties. The word crystallography is derived from the Ancient Greek word (; "clear ice, rock-crystal"), and (; "to write"). In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming 2014 the International Year of Crystallography.
Crystallography is a broad topic, and many of its subareas, such as X-ray crystallography, are themselves important scientific topics. Crystallography ranges from the fundamentals of crystal structure to the mathematics of crystal geometry, including those that are not periodic or quasicrystals. At the atomic scale it can involve the use of X-ray diffraction to produce experimental data that the tools of X-ray crystallography can convert into detailed positions of atoms, and sometimes electron density. At larger scales it includes experimental tools such as orientational imaging to examine the relative orientations at the grain boundary in materials. Crystallography plays a key role in many areas of biology, chemistry, and physics, as well new developments in these fields.
== History and timeline ==
Before the 20th century, the study of crystals was based on physical measurements of their geometry using a goniometer. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes (crystallographic axes), and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question. The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net such as a Wulff net or Lambert net. The pole to each face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its Miller index. The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established.
The discovery of X-rays and electrons in the last decade of the 19th century enabled the determination of crystal structures on the atomic scale, which brought about the modern era of crystallography. The first X-ray diffraction experiment was conducted in 1912 by Max von Laue, while electron diffraction was first realized in 1927 in the Davisson–Germer experiment and parallel work by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid. These developed into the two main branches of crystallography, X-ray crystallography and electron diffraction. The quality and throughput of solving crystal structures greatly improved in the second half of the 20th century, with the developments of customized instruments and phasing algorithms. Nowadays, crystallography is an interdisciplinary field, supporting theoretical and experimental discoveries in various domains. Modern-day scientific instruments for crystallography vary from laboratory-sized equipment, such as diffractometers and electron microscopes, to dedicated large facilities, such as photoinjectors, synchrotron light sources and free-electron lasers.
== Methodology ==
Crystallographic methods depend mainly on analysis of the diffraction patterns of a sample targeted by a beam of some type. X-rays are most commonly used; other beams used include electrons or neutrons. Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of beam used, as in the terms X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction. These three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways.
X-rays interact with the spatial distribution of electrons in the sample.
Neutrons are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the strong nuclear forces, but in addition the magnetic moment of neutrons is non-zero, so they are also scattered by magnetic fields. When neutrons are scattered from hydrogen-containing materials, they produce diffraction patterns with high noise levels, which can sometimes be resolved by substituting deuterium for hydrogen.
Electrons are charged particles and therefore interact with the total charge distribution of both the atomic nuclei and the electrons of the sample.
It is hard to focus x-rays or neutrons, but since electrons are charged they can be focused and are used in electron microscope to produce magnified images. There are many ways that transmission electron microscopy and related techniques such as scanning transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution electron microscopy can be used to obtain images with in many cases atomic resolution from which crystallographic information can be obtained. There are also other methods such as low-energy electron diffraction, low-energy electron microscopy and reflection high-energy electron diffraction which can be used to obtain crystallographic information about surfaces.
== Applications in various areas ==
=== Materials science ===
Crystallography is used by materials scientists to characterize different materials. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects. Most materials do not occur as a single crystal, but are poly-crystalline in nature (they exist as an aggregate of small crystals with different orientations). As such, powder diffraction techniques, which take diffraction patterns of samples with a large number of crystals, play an important role in structural determination.
Other physical properties are also linked to crystallography. For example, the minerals in clay form small, flat, platelike structures. Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Such mechanisms can be studied by crystallographic texture measurements. Crystallographic studies help elucidate the relationship between a material's structure and its properties, aiding in developing new materials with tailored characteristics. This understanding is crucial in various fields, including metallurgy, geology, and materials science. Advancements in crystallographic techniques, such as electron diffraction and X-ray crystallography, continue to expand our understanding of material behavior at the atomic level.
In another example, iron transforms from a body-centered cubic (bcc) structure called ferrite to a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure called austenite when it is heated. The fcc structure is a close-packed structure unlike the bcc structure; thus the volume of the iron decreases when this transformation occurs.
Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When manufacturing or using a material, it is generally desirable to know what compounds and what phases are present in the material, as their composition, structure and proportions will influence the material's properties. Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms. X-ray or neutron diffraction can be used to identify which structures are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present. Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason is related to group theory.
=== Biology ===
X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological macromolecules, particularly protein and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. The double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data. The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958, a three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis. The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of proteins and other biological macromolecules. Computer programs such as RasMol, Pymol or VMD can be used to visualize biological molecular structures.
Neutron crystallography is often used to help refine structures obtained by X-ray methods or to solve a specific bond; the methods are often viewed as complementary, as X-rays are sensitive to electron positions and scatter most strongly off heavy atoms, while neutrons are sensitive to nucleus positions and scatter strongly even off many light isotopes, including hydrogen and deuterium.
Electron diffraction has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably membrane proteins and viral capsids.
==Notation==
Coordinates in square brackets such as [100] denote a direction vector (in real space).
Coordinates in angle brackets or chevrons such as denote a family of directions which are related by symmetry operations. In the cubic crystal system for example, would mean [100], [010], [001] or the negative of any of those directions.
Miller indices in parentheses such as (100) denote a plane of the crystal structure, and regular repetitions of that plane with a particular spacing. In the cubic system, the normal to the (hkl) plane is the direction [hkl], but in lower-symmetry cases, the normal to (hkl) is not parallel to [hkl].
Indices in curly brackets or braces such as {100} denote a family of planes and their normals. In cubic materials the symmetry makes them equivalent, just as the way angle brackets denote a family of directions. In non-cubic materials, is not necessarily perpendicular to {hkl}.
== Reference literature ==
The International Tables for Crystallography is an eight-book series that outlines the standard notations for formatting, describing and testing crystals. The series contains books that covers analysis methods and the mathematical procedures for determining organic structure through x-ray crystallography, electron diffraction, and neutron diffraction. The International tables are focused on procedures, techniques and descriptions and do not list the physical properties of individual crystals themselves. Each book is about 1000 pages and the titles of the books are:
Vol A - Space Group Symmetry,
Vol A1 - Symmetry Relations Between Space Groups,
Vol B - Reciprocal Space,
Vol C - Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Tables,
Vol D - Physical Properties of Crystals,
Vol E - Subperiodic Groups,
Vol F - Crystallography of Biological Macromolecules, and
Vol G - Definition and Exchange of Crystallographic Data.
==Notable scientists==
|
[
"X-ray diffraction",
"body-centered cubic",
"deuterium",
"Durward William John Cruickshank",
"Georges Friedel",
"Space group",
"Boris Delone",
"clay",
"Neutron crystallography",
"free-electron laser",
"Otto Lehmann (physicist)",
"Olga Kennard",
"magnetic field",
"Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin",
"crystal",
"Symmetry (physics)",
"RNA",
"bracket",
"electron diffraction",
"electron backscatter diffraction",
"Electron diffraction",
"diffraction",
"Paul Heinrich von Groth",
"Phase problem",
"Liquid Crystal Institute",
"hydrogen",
"Pymol",
"Jack Dunitz",
"Low-energy electron diffraction",
"synchrotron light source",
"International Union of Crystallography",
"Herbert A. Hauptman",
"Electron crystallography",
"Normal (geometry)",
"Eleanor Dodson",
"Pierre Curie",
"Paul Peter Ewald",
"Miller index",
"Ada Yonath",
"Judith Howard",
"Allotropes of iron",
"Arthur Lindo Patterson",
"diffractometer",
"Gautam R. Desiraju",
"Aperiodic crystal",
"neutron",
"Orientation imaging microscopy",
"William Astbury",
"Charles-Victor Mauguin",
"crystal system",
"Timeline of crystallography",
"John Desmond Bernal",
"Wulff net",
"Crystal system",
"Wayne Hendrickson",
"Reflection high-energy electron diffraction",
"DNA",
"Electron density",
"high-resolution electron microscopy",
"transmission electron microscopy",
"Ancient Greek",
"Miller Index",
"face-centered cubic",
"Hugo Rietveld",
"X-ray crystallography",
"macromolecule",
"William Lawrence Bragg",
"Iron",
"protein",
"quasicrystal",
"Jerome Karle",
"Paul Scherrer",
"Michael Woolfson",
"Symmetric group",
"magnetic moment",
"Dana classification system",
"neutron diffraction",
"Constance Tipper",
"charged particle",
"reflection high-energy electron diffraction",
"Ion implantation",
"Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle",
"Rosalind Franklin",
"interdisciplinary field",
"photoinjector",
"Max Perutz",
"strong nuclear force",
"electron",
"Dan Shechtman",
"atomic nuclei",
"David Eisenberg",
"crystallographic defect",
"Max von Laue",
"oxygen",
"William Hallowes Miller",
"Louise Johnson",
"titanium",
"austenite",
"Daniel Vorländer",
"Crystal structure",
"Louis Pasteur",
"Crystallographic point group",
"Aaron Klug",
"group theory",
"Crystallographic database",
"Protein Data Bank",
"Auguste Bravais",
"Precession electron diffraction",
"Martin Julian Buerger",
"Tej P. Singh",
"Francis Crick",
"William Henry Bragg",
"Visual Molecular Dynamics",
"George Paget Thomson",
"Michael Rossmann",
"Institut Laue–Langevin",
"Crystallographic group",
"United Nations",
"Friedrich Reinitzer",
"Fractional coordinates",
"Nicolas Steno",
"Ernest Gordon Cox",
"strontium",
"X-ray",
"goniometer",
"Yevgraf Fyodorov",
"Carl Hermann",
"Christian Samuel Weiss",
"Arthur Moritz Schönflies",
"Paul Niggli",
"Friedrich Mohs",
"Open-pool Australian lightwater reactor",
"Stereographic projection",
"Davisson–Germer experiment",
"NMR crystallography",
"Point group",
"viral capsid",
"Jenny Glusker",
"membrane protein",
"RasMol",
"Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection",
"Peter Debye",
"nucleic acid",
"René Just Haüy",
"Crystallographer",
"Texture (crystalline)",
"Quasicrystal",
"Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel",
"scanning transmission electron microscopy",
"C. Arnold Beevers",
"William Barlow (geologist)",
"Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff",
"Isabella Karle",
"pole figure",
"Atomic packing factor",
"Henry Lipson",
"grain boundary",
"Charge density",
"Michael Levitt (biophysicist)",
"Kathleen Lonsdale",
"George M. Sheldrick",
"crystal structure",
"Transmission electron microscopy",
"Don Craig Wiley",
"low-energy electron diffraction",
"low-energy electron microscopy",
"Ernest-François Mallard",
"powder diffraction",
"electron microscope",
"Robert Huber",
"Johann Deisenhofer"
] |
7,796 |
Claude Auchinleck
|
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = Field Marshal
| name = Sir Claude Auchinleck
| honorific_suffix = GCB GCIE CSI DSO OBE
| image = Cecil Beaton Photographs- Political and Military Personalities; Auchinleck, Claude John Eyre IB2095 (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Portrait by Cecil Beaton,
| nickname = The Auk
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Aldershot, Hampshire, England
| death_date =
| death_place = Marrakech, Morocco
| placeofburial =
| allegiance = United Kingdom
| branch = British Indian Army Indian ArmyPakistan Army
| serviceyears = 1904–1947
| rank = Field Marshal
| servicenumber = 115611
| unit = 62nd Punjabis
| commands = Supreme Commander India and Pakistan (1947–1948)Commander-in-Chief, India (1941, 1943–1947)Middle East Command (1941–1942)Southern Command (1940)V Corps (1940)Commander-in-chief, Northern Norway (1940)IV Corps (1940)3rd Indian Infantry Division (1939)Meerut district (1938)Peshawar Brigade (1933–1936)1st Battalion, 1st Punjab Regiment (1929–1930)
| battles =
First World War
Mesopotamian campaign
Battle of Hanna
Second Battle of Kut
Fall of Baghdad
Mohmand campaign
Second World War
Norwegian campaign
North African campaign
| awards =
| relations =
| laterwork = {{plainlist|
Colonel 1st Battalion 1st Punjab Regiment (January 1933)
Colonel Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers (April 1941)
Colonel 1st Battalion 4th Bombay Grenadiers (July 1939)
Colonel 4th Bombay Grenadiers (May 1944)
Colonel 1st Punjab Regiment (1947) From there he went on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and was commissioned as an unattached second lieutenant in the Indian Army on 21 January 1903, and joined the 62nd Punjabis in April 1904. and, able to speak fluently with his soldiers, he absorbed a knowledge of local dialects and customs: this familiarity engendered a lasting mutual respect, enhanced by his own personality.
He was promoted to lieutenant on 21 April 1905, and then spent the next two years in Tibet and Sikkim before moving to Benares in 1907 where he caught diphtheria. Auchinleck was an active freemason.
==First World War==
Auchinleck saw active service in the First World War and was deployed with his regiment to defend the Suez Canal: in February 1915 he was in action against the Turks at Ismailia. He took part in a series of fruitless attacks on the Turks at the Battle of Hanna in January 1916 and was one of the few British officers in his regiment to survive these actions. he was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 21 January 1918, to temporary lieutenant-colonel on 23 May 1919 and to brevet lieutenant-colonel on 15 November 1919 for his "distinguished service in Southern and Central Kurdistan" on the recommendation of the Commander-in-Chief of the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force.
==Between the world wars==
Auchinleck attended the Staff College, Quetta, between 1920 and 1921. They had no children.
Auchinleck became temporary deputy assistant quartermaster general at Army Headquarters in February 1923 and then second-in-command of his regiment, which in the 1923 reorganisation of the Indian Army had become the 1st Punjab Regiment, in September 1925. he was appointed to command his regiment. he became an instructor at the Staff College, Quetta in February 1930 where he remained until April 1933.
He was promoted to temporary brigadier on 1 July 1933 and given command of the Peshawar Brigade, which was active in the pacification of the adjacent tribal areas during the Mohmand and Bajaur Operations between July and October 1933: during his period of command he was mentioned in despatches. and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Star of India on 8 May 1936. until September 1936 when he was appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff and Director of Staff Duties in Delhi. He was then appointed to command the Meerut District in India in July 1938. In 1938 Auchinleck was appointed to chair a committee to consider the modernisation, composition and re-equipment of the British Indian Army: the committee's recommendations formed the basis of the 1939 Chatfield Report which outlined the transformation of the Indian Army – it grew from 183,000 in 1939 to over 2,250,000 men by the end of the war.
==Second World War==
===Norway 1940===
On the outbreak of war, Auchinleck was appointed to command the Indian 3rd Infantry Division, but in January 1940 was summoned to the United Kingdom to command IV Corps, the only time in the war that a wholly British corps was commanded by an Indian Army officer. He received promotion to acting lieutenant general on 1 February 1940 and to the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 16 March 1940. In May 1940 Auchinleck took over command of the Anglo-French ground forces during the Norwegian campaign, responsible for the defence of Southern England, where the expected invasion would come from. The recently vacated V Corps was taken over by Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery, who disliked Auchinleck intensely, possibly due to his disdain for the Indian Army and its officers. The relationship between the two future field marshals was not easy, with Montgomery later writing:
Many of Montgomery's actions in the next few weeks and months could be considered as insubordination, with one incident in particular standing out, when Montgomery went over Auchinleck's head directly to the Adjutant-General on issues related to officers and men being transferred to and from Montgomery's V Corps. Auchinleck returned to India in January 1941 to assume his new appointment, in which position he was also appointed to the Executive Council of the Viceroy of India and appointed ADC General to the King, a ceremonial position he was to hold until after the end of the war. In April he succeeded Lieutenant General [Sir Travers Clarke as colonel of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers.
In April 1941, RAF Habbaniya was threatened by the new pro-Axis regime of Rashid Ali. This large Royal Air Force station was west of Baghdad in Iraq and General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command, was reluctant to intervene, despite the urgings of Winston Churchill, because of his pressing commitments in the Western Desert and Greece. Auchinleck, however, acted decisively, sending the 1st Battalion of the King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) by air to Habbaniya and shipping the 10th Indian Infantry Division by sea to Basra. Wavell was prevailed upon by London to send Habforce, a relief column, from the British Mandate of Palestine but by the time it arrived in Habbaniya on 18 May the Anglo-Iraqi War was virtually over.
===North Africa July 1941 – August 1942===
Following the see-saw of Allied and Axis successes and reverses in North Africa, Auchinleck was appointed to succeed General Sir Archibald Wavell as Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command in July 1941; Wavell took up Auchinleck's post as Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, swapping jobs with him.
As Commander-in-Chief Middle East, Auchinleck, based in Cairo, held responsibility not just for North Africa but also for Persia and the Middle East. He launched an offensive in the Western Desert, Operation Crusader, in November 1941: despite some tactical reverses during the fighting which resulted in Auchinleck replacing the Eighth Army commander Alan Cunningham with Neil Ritchie, by the end of December the besieged garrison of Tobruk had been relieved and Rommel obliged to withdraw to El Agheila. Auchinleck appears to have believed that the enemy had been defeated, writing on 12 January 1942 that the Axis forces were "beginning to feel the strain" and were "hard pressed".
In fact the Axis forces had managed to withdraw in good order and a few days after Auchinleck's optimistic appreciation, having reorganised and been reinforced, struck at the dispersed and weakened British forces, driving them back to the Gazala positions near Tobruk. The British Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), General Sir Alan Brooke, wrote in his diary that it was "nothing less than bad generalship on the part of Auchinleck. He has been overconfident and has believed everything his overoptimistic [DMI] Shearer has told him". Brooke commented that Auchinleck "could have been one of the finest of commanders" but lacked the ability to select the men to serve him. Brooke sent him one of his best armoured division commanders Richard McCreery, whose advice was ignored in favour of that of Auchinleck's controversial chief of operations, Major-General Dorman-Smith.
Rommel's attack at the Battle of Gazala of 26 May 1942 resulted in a significant defeat for the British. Auchinleck's appreciation of the situation written to Ritchie on 20 May had suggested that the armoured reserves be concentrated in a position suitable to meet both a flanking attack around the south of the front or a direct attack through the centre (which was the likelihood more favoured by Auchinleck). In the event, Ritchie chose a more dispersed and rearward positioning of his two armoured divisions and when the attack in the centre came, it proved to be a diversion and the main attack, by Rommel's armoured formations, came round the southern flank. Poor initial positioning and subsequent handling and coordination of Allied formations by Ritchie and his corps commanders resulted in their heavy defeat and the Eighth Army retreating into Egypt; Tobruk fell to the Axis on 21 June 1942.
On 24 June Auchinleck stepped in to take direct command of the Eighth Army, having lost confidence in Neil Ritchie's ability to control and direct his forces. Auchinleck discarded Ritchie's plan to stand at Mersa Matruh, deciding to fight only a delaying action there, while withdrawing to the more easily defendable position at El Alamein. Here Auchinleck tailored a defence that took advantage of the terrain and the fresh troops at his disposal, stopping the exhausted German/Italian advance in the First Battle of El Alamein. Enjoying a considerable superiority of material and men over the weak German/Italian forces, Auchinleck organised a series of counter-attacks. Poorly conceived and badly coordinated, these attacks achieved little.
"The Auk", as he was known, appointed a number of senior commanders who proved to be unsuitable for their positions, and command arrangements were often characterised by bitter personality clashes. Auchinleck was an Indian Army officer and was criticised for apparently having little direct experience or understanding of British and Dominion troops. Dorman-Smith was regarded with considerable distrust by many of the senior commanders in Eighth Army. By July 1942 Auchinleck had lost the confidence of Dominion commanders and relations with his British commanders had become strained.{{#tag:ref|Alanbrooke in a footnote to his diary entry of 30 January wrote: "Auchinleck, to my mind, had most of the qualifications to make him one of the finest of commanders, but unfortunately he lacked the most important of all – the ability to select the men to serve him. The selection of Corbett as his Chief of Staff, Dorman-Smith as his chief advisor, and (Eric) Shearer as his head of intelligence service contributed most of all to his downfall" He was replaced as Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command by General Sir Harold Alexander (later Field Marshal The Earl Alexander of Tunis).
Joseph M. Horodyski and Maurice Remy both praise Auchinleck as an underrated military leader who contributed the most to the successful defence of El Alamein and consequently the final defeat of Rommel in Africa. The two historians also criticize Churchill for the unreasonable decision to put the blame on Auchinleck and to relieve him.
===India 1942–1945===
Churchill offered Auchinleck command of the newly created Persia and Iraq Command (this having been separated from Alexander's command), but Auchinleck declined this post, as he believed that separating the area from the Middle East Command was not good policy and the new arrangements would not be workable. He set his reasons out in his letter to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff dated 14 August 1942. Instead he returned to India, where he spent almost a year "unemployed" before in June 1943 being again appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army.
General Wavell meanwhile having been appointed Viceroy, on this appointment it was announced that responsibility for the prosecution of the war with Japan would move from the Commander-in-Chief India to a newly created South East Asia Command. However, the appointment of the new command's Supreme Commander, Acting Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, was not announced until August 1943 and until Mountbatten could set up his headquarters and assume control (in November), Auchinleck retained responsibility for operations in India and Burma while conducting a review and revision of Allied plans based on the decisions taken by the Allied Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Quadrant Conference, which ended in August.
Following Mountbatten's arrival, Auchinleck, as Commander-in-Chief India once more, was responsible for the internal security of India, the defence of the North West Frontier and the buildup of India as a base, including most importantly the reorganisation of the Indian Army, the training of forces destined for SEAC and the lines of communication carrying men and material to the forward areas and to China. Auchinleck made the supply of Fourteenth Army, with probably the worst lines of communication of the war, his immediate priority; as Sir William Slim, commander of the Fourteenth Army, was later to write:
===Divorce===
Auchinleck suffered a personal disappointment when his wife Jessie left him for his friend, Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse. Peirse and Auchinleck had been students together at the Imperial Defence College, but that was long before. Peirse was now Allied Air Commander-in-Chief, South-East Asia, and also based in India. The affair became known to Mountbatten in early 1944, and he passed the information to the Chief of the RAF, Sir Charles Portal, hoping that Peirse would be recalled. The affair was common knowledge by September 1944, and Peirse was neglecting his duties. Mountbatten sent Peirse and Lady Auchinleck back to England on 28 November 1944, where they lived together at a Brighton hotel. Peirse had his marriage dissolved, and Auchinleck obtained a divorce in 1946. Auchinleck was reportedly very badly affected. According to his sister, he was never the same after the break-up. He always carried a photograph of Jessie in his wallet even after the divorce.
==Partition of India and later years==
Auchinleck continued as Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army after the end of the war helping, though much against his own convictions, to prepare the future Indian and Pakistani armies for the Partition of India: in November 1945 he was forced to commute the more serious judicial sentences awarded against officers of the Indian National Army in face of growing unease and unrest both within the Indian population, and the British Indian Army. but he refused to accept a peerage, lest he be thought associated with a policy (i.e. Partition) that he thought fundamentally dishonourable.
When partition was effected in August 1947, Auchinleck was appointed Supreme Commander of all British forces remaining in India and Pakistan and remained in this role until the winding up and closure of the Supreme H.Q. at the end of November 1947.
After a brief period in Italy in connection with an unsuccessful business project, Auchinleck retired to London, where he occupied himself with a number of charitable and business interests and became a respectably skilled watercolour painter. In 1960 he settled in Beccles in the county of Suffolk, remaining there for seven years until, at the age of eighty-four, he decided to emigrate and set up home in Marrakesh, where he died on 23 March 1981.
==Memorials==
Auchinleck is buried in Ben M'Sik European Cemetery, Casablanca, in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot in the cemetery, next to the grave of Raymond Steed who was the second youngest non-civilian Commonwealth casualty of the Second World War.
A memorial plaque was erected in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. A bronze statue of Auchinleck can be seen on Broad Street adjacent to Auchinleck House, Five Ways, Birmingham.
==Awards and decorations==
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1 January 1945)
Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (20 December 1940)
War Cross (Czechoslovakia, 1944)
Order of the Star of Nepal (Nepal, 1945)
Knight Grand Cross of Order of St Olav (Norway, 19 March 1948)
==Publications==
.
(Auchinleck's Official Middle East Despatch published after the war in )
.
(Auchinleck's Official Middle East Despatch published after the war in )
.
(Auchinleck's Official Indo-Burma Despatch published after the war in )
|
[
"Indian 6th Infantry Division",
"Thomas Corbett (Indian Army officer)",
"John Rylands Library",
"Mersa Matruh",
"world war",
"Meerut district",
"Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell",
"Rashid Ali",
"Casablanca",
"St Paul's Cathedral",
"10th Indian Infantry Division",
"Mention in Despatches",
"Acting rank",
"Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Indian Empire",
"Aldershot",
"Marrakech",
"Tobruk",
"Mentioned in Despatches",
"Ottoman Empire",
"First World War",
"Vice Admiral (Royal Navy)",
"History of the Second World War",
"brigadier",
"Hampshire",
"Staff College, Quetta",
"Cecil Beaton",
"Raymond Steed",
"Southern England",
"Northern Norway",
"Battle of Hanna",
"Alan Cunningham",
"Wellington College, Berkshire",
"Governor-General of Pakistan",
"Sikkim",
"Czechoslovak War Cross 1939–1945",
"Royal Horse Artillery",
"Bangalore",
"Travers Edwards Clarke",
"Ismailia",
"Commonwealth War Graves Commission",
"Viceroy of India",
"Fall of Baghdad (1917)",
"Battle of Gazala",
"Beccles",
"62nd Punjabis",
"Tibet",
"mentioned in despatches",
"Richard O'Connor",
"Distinguished Service Order",
"Governor-General of India",
"Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)",
"1945 New Year Honours",
"General (United Kingdom)",
"British Indian Army",
"Major-general (United Kingdom)",
"Cairo",
"Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers",
"Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis",
"Order of the Star of Nepal",
"British Raj",
"Aide-de-camp general",
"Mesopotamian campaign",
"Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein",
"Quadrant Conference",
"Morocco",
"Chindits",
"Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath",
"diphtheria",
"Eighth Army (United Kingdom)",
"Supreme Commander's Headquarters (India and Pakistan)",
"Chief of the Imperial General Staff",
"Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke",
"Varanasi",
"Axis capture of Tobruk",
"V Corps (United Kingdom)",
"Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford",
"Air Chief Marshal",
"El Alamein",
"Pakistan Army",
"1st Punjab Regiment",
"Second Battle of Kut",
"Peshawar Brigade",
"Francis Nosworthy",
"United Kingdom",
"Egypt",
"Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)",
"HMSO",
"Field marshal (United Kingdom)",
"Travers Clarke",
"Commander-in-Chief, India",
"British Army",
"Blue Funnel Line",
"Winston Churchill",
"Indian Army",
"Rommel",
"Burkes Peerage",
"Suez Canal",
"Greenock",
"Companion of the Order of the Star of India",
"Raid on the Suez Canal",
"Ben M'Sik European Cemetery",
"Basra",
"County Fermanagh",
"Legion of Merit",
"Southern Command (United Kingdom)",
"Pen and Sword Books",
"Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945",
"Dominion of Pakistan",
"Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside",
"Aden",
"IV Corps (United Kingdom)",
"Order of the Bath",
"Battle of France",
"Ernle Chatfield, 1st Baron Chatfield",
"Field marshal (UK)",
"King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster)",
"Anglo-Iraqi War",
"Partition of India",
"Crowthorne",
"Croix de Guerre",
"Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces",
"Mandatory Palestine",
"Norwegian campaign",
"Military history of the North-West Frontier",
"First Battle of El Alamein",
"Eagle House School",
"70th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)",
"Richard McCreery",
"Officer of the Order of the British Empire",
"Western Desert Campaign",
"Richard Peirse",
"Grasse",
"Iraq",
"Robert Cassels",
"Neil Ritchie",
"Order of St. Olav",
"Order of the Star of India",
"Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma",
"North African campaign",
"Operation Sea Lion",
"Order of the British Empire",
"Perthshire",
"Orion Publishing Group",
"Order of St Olav",
"Adjutant-General to the Forces",
"Brevet (military)",
"French Riviera",
"Fourteenth Army (United Kingdom)",
"Middle East Command",
"Operation Crusader",
"Second World War",
"lieutenant-colonel",
"Commander-in-chief",
"Second Mohmand Campaign",
"King of Nepal",
"Indian National Army",
"Royal Military College, Sandhurst",
"Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)",
"Marrakesh",
"Persia and Iraq Command",
"freemason",
"colonel",
"Mohmand campaign of 1935",
"Army Headquarters, India",
"Bernard Montgomery",
"Iran",
"Virtuti Militari",
"Tacoma, Washington",
"Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)",
"Operation Torch",
"The Spokesman-Review",
"Earl Alexander of Tunis",
"Major (rank)",
"Royal College of Defence Studies",
"Delhi",
"4th Bombay Grenadiers",
"Dunkirk evacuation",
"RAF Habbaniya",
"Harold Alexander",
"Order of the Indian Empire",
"Eric Dorman-Smith",
"William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim",
"Habforce"
] |
7,797 |
Camilla Hall
|
Camilla Christine Hall (March 24, 1945 – May 17, 1974) was a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), a small, far-left militant group that committed violent acts between 1973 and 1975. They assassinated Marcus Foster, Superintendent of the Oakland Public Schools and the first black superintendent of any major school system, kidnapped heiress Patty Hearst, and committed armed robbery of banks.
Hall, one of the majority of white members in the group, died on May 17, 1974, with five other SLA members in a shootout with the Los Angeles Police Department in that city. Both her parents, George Fridolph Hall (1908–2000) and Lorena (Daeschner) Hall (1911–1995), were academics with positions at Gustavus Adolphus College in Saint Peter from 1938 to 1952. In addition, her father was a minister in the Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church and later the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.
Camilla Hall was the only surviving child of four. Firstborn son Terry died of congenital heart disease in 1948; Peter died in 1951, and Nan died in 1962, both of a congenital kidney disease. The family seemed burdened by grief.
In 1952, the Hall family moved to what is now Tanzania in East Africa. George and Lorena Hall taught in schools and did mission work, while Camilla and Nan played with the native children. In 1954, when Camilla was nine, the family returned to Saint Peter because of seven-year-old Nan's poor health. While Camilla attended elementary school in Minnesota and lived with relatives, her birth family moved to Montclair, New Jersey.
In Minnesota, Hall attended Washburn High School in Minneapolis, where she was involved in many activities. The 1963 Washburn Yearbook states, "Candy was a member of Blue Tri, Class Play, Poplars Staff, Quill Club, Forensics, Pep Club, and Hall of Fame".
In June 1968, Hall returned to Minneapolis, where she was a caseworker for the Hennepin County, Minnesota welfare office. In 1968, Hall was 23 years old. She carefully monitored the political situation in America, including the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago where there was so much violence. Although Hall didn't express dissatisfaction at being an artist, she decided to move again.
Hall moved to Berkeley in northern California in February 1971, which had become a center of political activism and social movements. In May 1971, Hall moved into an apartment complex on Channing Way where she met Patricia Soltysik.
In Berkeley, Hall continued being politically active. She participated in the People's Park reoccupation during the summer of 1972, following the shootings there the year before. She and Soltysik became involved with the Venceremos prison outreach project, through which they became associates of two white men, Russ Little and Willie Wolfe, who were also assisting in prisoner outreach.
In October 1972, Hall traveled to Europe. She stayed with friends while she traveled for three months. Once she returned to California, she continued being politically active. Through her association with Soltysik, Little, and Wolfe, she became a founding member of the Symbionese Liberation Army, a small, radical leftist group.
==Funeral==
Hall's parents held a funeral for their daughter on May 23, 1974, at St. John's Lutheran Church, in Lincolnwood, Illinois, a Chicago suburb, where he was pastor. Seven of his fellow Lutheran ministers conducted the service. Camilla Hall's name was not mentioned. Her ashes were buried on August 19, 1974, in a small country graveyard where her late siblings were buried, who each died before she was 16. Her parents also have plots there.
|
[
"Los Angeles",
"Washburn High School",
"Marcus Foster",
"Evangelical Lutheran Church in America",
"Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church",
"Gustavus Adolphus College",
"Joe Remiro",
"St. Peter, Minnesota",
"Los Angeles, California",
"Angela Atwood",
"Lincolnwood, Illinois",
"Nancy Ling Perry",
"Concord, California",
"People's Park (Berkeley)",
"Eugene McCarthy presidential campaign, 1968",
"Patricia Soltysik",
"Symbionese Liberation Army",
"Russell Little (SLA)",
"peace movement",
"Patty Hearst",
"Los Angeles Police Department",
"University of Minnesota",
"Saint Peter, Minnesota",
"Gunshot wound",
"Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam",
"Duluth, Minnesota",
"Thero Wheeler",
"1968 Democratic National Convention",
"Willie Wolfe",
"Venceremos (political organization)"
] |
7,800 |
Clone
|
Clone or Clones or Cloning or Cloned or The Clone may refer to:
==Places==
Clones, County Fermanagh, Ireland
Clones, County Monaghan, a town in Ireland
Clones railway station, Ireland
==Biology==
Clone (B-cell), a lymphocyte clone, the massive presence of which may indicate a pathological condition
Clone (cell biology), a group of identical cells that share a common ancestry
Clonal plant, the result of asexual, vegetative reproduction when a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant
Cloning, the production of any organism whose genetic information is identical to that of a parent organism from which it was created
==Computing and technology==
Clone (computing), computer hardware or software designed to function in the same way as an original
Video game clone, a software game or game franchise heavily inspired by another
Clones (video game), a video game clone Lemmings
Clone (Java method), a method in the Java programming language for object duplication
Clone (Linux system call), in C, whereby a process creates a copy of itself
Clone, a popular term for a replica, particularly when referring to "recreations" of rare and desirable variants of collector cars
Clone, a popular term for an unlicensed, reverse engineered copy of a firearm produced in another nation (although the term can also apply to a simple direct copy, created under license)
Clone tool, a tool used in image manipulation programs
Phone cloning, the copying of identity from one cellular device to another
Quantum cloning, the replication of a quantum state
==Mathematics==
Clone (algebra), a collection of functions with certain properties
Clone (voting), in voting systems analysis, a candidate identical to one already present in an election
==Arts, entertainment, and media==
===Comics===
Clone (comic), a 2012–2014 comic book series
"Clone Saga", a storyline from Marvel Comics' Spider-Man comic books
===Films===
Cloned (film), a 1997 made-for-television film
Clone (2010 film), originally released as Womb
, an American film directed by Lamar Card, featuring Michael Greene, Gregory Sierra and Otis Young
===Television===
, a 2001–2002 Brazilian telenovela
Clone (TV series), a 2008 BBC comedy series
, a 2010 Spanish-language telenovela
Clone High, a 2002 American animated TV show
Clone Wars, a war set in the Star Wars universe that takes place during the prequel trilogy and some of its related media
===Literature===
Clones (anthology), a 1998 short-story anthology edited by Jack Dann and Gardner Dozois
"The Clone", a 1959 short story by Theodore L. Thomas
The Clone, a 1965 novel by Theodore L. Thomas and Kate Wilhelm
===Music===
====Albums====
Clone (Leo Kottke and Mike Gordon album), 2002
Clone (Threshold album), 1998
Clones (album), a 2003 album by The Neptunes
====Songs====
"Clone", a song by Gojira from their album Terra Incognita
"Clone", a song by Metric from their album Synthetica
"Clone", a song by Vision of Disorder from their album Imprint
"Clones" (Ash song), a 2004 single from Irish alternative rock band Ash
"Clones", a song by Chevelle from their album Hats Off to the Bull
"Clones", a song by Cult of Luna from their album The Beyond
"Clones", a song by The Roots on the album Illadelph Halflife
"Clones (We're All)", a song recorded by Alice Cooper on his Flush the Fashion album
===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===
Clone Wars (disambiguation)
Clones (video game), a 2010 video game
|
[
"Clone (Linux system call)",
"Clone Wars (disambiguation)",
"Video game clone",
"Clone tool",
"Clone (2010 film)",
"Clone (Leo Kottke and Mike Gordon album)",
"Clones (album)",
"Clone (computing)",
"Clonal (disambiguation)",
"Clon (disambiguation)",
"Kate Wilhelm",
"Synthetica",
"Clone (Threshold album)",
"Cloning",
"Clone (algebra)",
"replica",
"Clones (We're All)",
"Clone Saga",
"Phone cloning",
"List of animals that have been cloned",
"Cloning (disambiguation)",
"Cloned (film)",
"The Beyond (album)",
"Imprint (Vision of Disorder album)",
"Clone (cell biology)",
"Clones, County Monaghan",
"Clones, County Fermanagh",
"Clones railway station",
"Clone (TV series)",
"vegetative reproduction",
"Clones (video game)",
"Clone (voting)",
"Clones (anthology)",
"Hats Off to the Bull",
"Illadelph Halflife",
"Clones (Ash song)",
"Theodore L. Thomas",
"El clon",
"Clone (comic)",
"Clone High",
"firearm",
"Clone (Java method)",
"Lamar Card",
"Clone (B-cell)",
"Quantum cloning",
"O Clone",
"Terra Incognita (Gojira album)"
] |
7,801 |
Critical psychology
|
Critical psychology is a perspective on psychology that draws extensively on critical theory. Critical psychology challenges the assumptions, theories and methods of mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychological understandings in different ways.
The field of critical psychology does not fall under a monolithic category. One can observe different starting points of critiques, similarities, as well as substantial differences. Thus, critical psychology should be perceived as an “umbrella term” that includes various critiques against the status quo of mainstream psychology. A common theme of critical approaches in psychology is the assessment of the social effects of psychological theories and practices. Critical psychology is a movement that challenges psychology to work towards emancipation and social justice, and that opposes the uses of psychology to perpetuate oppression and injustice.
Critical psychologists believe that mainstream psychology fails to consider how power differences and discrimination between social classes and groups can impact an individual's or a group's mental and physical well-being. Mainstream psychology does this only in part by attempting to explain behavior at the individual level. However, it largely ignores institutional racism, postcolonialism and deficits in social justice for minority groups based on differences in observable characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, religious minority, sexual orientation, or disability.
==Origins==
Psychology, draws a history filled with theoretical and political conflict. Within its history various stream of critiques have emerged, some of them sharing similarities, as well as different starting points and substantial differences. Criticisms of mainstream psychology consistent with current critical psychology usage have existed since psychology's modern development in the late 19th century. Use of the term critical psychology started in the 1970s at the Freie Universität Berlin. The German branch of critical psychology predates and has developed largely separately from the rest of the field. As of May 2007, only a few works have been translated into English. The German Critical Psychology movement is rooted in the post-war student revolt of the late 1960s; see German student movement. Marx's Critique of Political Economy played an important role in the German branch of the student revolt, which was centered in West Berlin. At that time, the capitalist city of West Berlin was surrounded by communist-ruled East Germany, and represented a "hot spot" of political and ideological controversy for the revolutionary German students. The sociological foundations of critical psychology are decidedly Marxist.
===Klaus Holzkamp===
One of the most important and sophisticated books in the German development of the field is the (Foundations of Psychology) by Klaus Holzkamp, who might be considered the theoretical founder of German critical psychology. Holzkamp wrote two books on theory of science and one on sensory perception before publishing the in 1983. Holzkamp believed his work provided a solid paradigm for psychological research because he viewed psychology as a pre-paradigmatic scientific discipline (T.S. Kuhn had used the term "pre-paradigmatic" for social science).
Holzkamp mostly based his sophisticated attempt to provide a comprehensive and integrated set of categories defining the field of psychological research on Aleksey Leontyev's approach to cultural–historical psychology and activity theory. Leontyev had seen human action as a result of biological as well as cultural evolution and, drawing on Marx's materialist conception of culture, stressed that individual cognition is always part of social action which in turn is mediated by man-made tools (cultural artifacts), language and other man-made systems of symbols, which he viewed as a major distinguishing feature of human culture and, thus, human cognition. Another important source was Lucien Séve's theory of personality, which provided the concept of "social activity matrices" as mediating structure between individual and social reproduction. At the same time, the systematically integrated previous specialized work done at Free University of Berlin in the 1970s by critical psychologists who also had been influenced by Marx, Leontyev, and Seve. This included books on animal behavior/ethology, sensory perception, and cognition. He also incorporated ideas from Freud's psychoanalysis and Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology into his approach.
One core result of Holzkamp's historical and comparative analysis of human reproductive action, perception and cognition is a very specific concept of meaning that identifies symbolic meaning as historically and culturally constructed, purposeful conceptual structures that humans create in close relationship to material culture and within the context of historically specific formations of social reproduction.
Coming from this phenomenological perspective on culturally mediated and socially situated action, Holzkamp launched a methodological attack on behaviorism (which he termed S–R (stimulus–response) psychology) based on linguistic analysis, showing in minute detail the rhetorical patterns by which this approach to psychology creates the illusion of "scientific objectivity" while at the same time losing relevance for understanding culturally situated, intentional human actions. Against this approach, he developed his own approach to generalization and objectivity, drawing on ideas from Kurt Lewin in Chapter 9 of .
His last major publication before his death in 1995 was about learning. It appeared in 1993 and contained a phenomenological theory of learning from the standpoint of the subject. One important concept Holzkamp developed was "reinterpretation" of theories developed by conventional psychology. This meant to look at these concepts from the standpoint of the paradigm of critical psychology, thereby integrating their useful insights into critical psychology while at the same time identifying and criticizing their limiting implications, which in the case of S–R psychology were the rhetorical elimination of the subject and intentional action, and in the case of cognitive psychology which did take into account subjective motives and intentional actions, methodological individualism.
The first part of the book thus contains an extensive look at the history of psychological theories of learning and a minute re-interpretation of those concepts from the perspective of critical psychology, which focuses on intentional action situated in specific socio-historical/cultural contexts. The conceptions of learning he found most useful in his own detailed analysis of "classroom learning" came from cognitive anthropologists Jean Lave (situated learning) and Edwin Hutchins (distributed cognition).
The book's second part contained an extensive analysis on the modern state's institutionalized forms of "classroom learning" as the cultural–historical context that shapes much of modern learning and socialization. In this analysis, he heavily drew upon Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish. Holzkamp felt that classroom learning as the historically specific form of learning does not make full use of student's potentials, but rather limits her or his learning potentials by a number of "teaching strategies." Part of his motivation for the book was to look for alternative forms of learning that made use of the enormous potential of the human psyche in more fruitful ways. Consequently, in the last section of the book, Holzkamp discusses forms of "expansive learning" that seem to avoid the limitations of classroom learning, such as apprenticeship and learning in contexts other than classrooms.
This search culminated in plans to write a major work on life leadership in the specific historical context of modern (capitalist) society. Due to his death in 1995, this work never got past the stage of early (and premature) conceptualizations, some of which were published in the journals Forum Kritische Psychologie and Argument.
===1960s–1970s===
In the 1960s and 1970s the term radical psychology was used by psychologists internationally to denote a branch of the field which rejected mainstream psychology's focus on the individual as the basic unit of analysis and sole source of psychopathology. Instead, radical psychologists examined the role of society in causing and treating problems and looked towards social change as an alternative to therapy to treat mental illness and as a means of preventing psychopathology. Within psychiatry the term anti-psychiatry was often used and now British activists prefer the term critical psychiatry. Critical psychology is currently the preferred term for the discipline of psychology keen to find alternatives to the way the discipline of psychology reduces human experience to the level of the individual and thereby strips away possibilities for radical social change.
===1990s===
Starting in the 1990s a new wave of books started to appear on critical psychology, the most influential being the edited book Critical Psychology by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky. Various introductory texts to critical psychology written in the United Kingdom have tended to focus on discourse, but this has been seen by some proponents of critical psychology as a reduction of human experience to language which is as politically dangerous as the way mainstream psychology reduces experience to the individual mind. Attention to language and ideological processes, others would argue, is essential to effective critical psychology – it is not simply a matter of applying mainstream psychological concepts to issues of social change.
===Ian Parker===
In 1999 Ian Parker published an influential manifesto in both the online journal Radical Psychology and the Annual Review of Critical Psychology. This manifesto argues that critical psychology should include the following four components:
Systematic examination of how some varieties of psychological action and experience are privileged over others, how dominant accounts of "psychology" operate ideologically and in the service of power;
Study of the ways in which all varieties of psychology are culturally historically constructed, and how alternative varieties of psychology may confirm or resist ideological assumptions in mainstream models;
Study of forms of surveillance and self-regulation in everyday life and the ways in which psychological culture operates beyond the boundaries of academic and professional practice; and
Exploration of the way everyday "ordinary psychology" structures academic and professional work in psychology and how everyday activities might provide the basis for resistance to contemporary disciplinary practices.
===Critical psychology today===
There are a few international journals devoted to critical psychology and critical discussions in Psychology, including Psychology in Society, Theory & Psychology, Culture & Psychology, Feminism & Psychology, Human Development, Annual Review of Critical Psychology and the no longer published International Journal of Critical Psychology (continued in the journal Subjectivity) and Radical Psychology Journal (published for ten years until its final issue in 2011). The journals still tend to be directed to an academic audience, though the Annual Review of Critical Psychology and Psychology in Society runs as an open-access online journal. There are close links between critical psychologists and critical psychiatrists in Britain through the Asylum Collective. David Smail was one of the founders of The Midlands Psychology Group, a critical psychology collective who produced a manifesto for a social materialist psychology of distress. Critical psychology courses and research concentrations are available at Manchester Metropolitan University, York St John University, the University of East London, the University of Edinburgh, the University of KwaZulu Natal, the City University of New York Graduate Center, the University of West Georgia, Point Park University, University of Guelph, York University, and Prescott College. Undergraduate concentrations can also be found at the California Institute of Integral Studies, Prescott College, and at the University of Notre Dame Australia (Fremantle).
==Extensions==
Like many critical applications, critical psychology has expanded beyond Marxist and feminist roots to benefit from other critical approaches. Consider ecopsychology and transpersonal psychology. Critical psychology and related work has also sometimes been labelled radical psychology and liberation psychology. In the field of developmental psychology, the work of Erica Burman has been influential.
Various sub-disciplines within psychology have begun to establish their own critical orientations. Perhaps the most extensive are critical health psychology, community psychology, and social psychology.
== Aims of Critical Psychology ==
Central themes of critical psychology is the concept of “oppression” and “emancipation”. Critical psychology reflects not only on the connection of mainstream psychology with power, but also work toward emancipation (or liberation). Oppression refers to “a state of asymmetric power relations characterized by domination, subordination, and resistance, where the dominating persons or groups exercise their power by restricting access to material resources and by implanting in the subordinated persons or groups fear or self-deprecating views about themselves”. Emancipation (or liberation) refer to the possibilities of individuals within the social inequalities, doing justice to both, individual and societal domains. Consequently, the aims of critical psychology is the understanding of “oppression” and “liberation” in relation with “Power”.
The spectrum through which the aims of critical psychology is expressed is divided into three different levels of intervention : The micro-level, meso-level, and macro level. Critical theoretical psychology (a), and critical empirical psychology (c) refers to the theoretical understanding and development of the field, while critical theoretical psychology with practical emancipatory intention, (b) and critical applied psychology (d), has to do with practice and move toward a social change.
==Internationally==
An early international overview of critical psychology perspectives can be found in Critical Psychology: Voices for Change, edited by Tod Sloan (Macmillan, 2000). In 2015, Ian Parker edited the Handbook of Critical Psychology.
===Germany===
At FU-Berlin, critical psychology was not really seen as a division of psychology and followed its own methodology, trying to reformulate traditional psychology on an unorthodox Marxist base and drawing from Soviet ideas of cultural–historical psychology, particularly Aleksey Leontyev. Some years ago the department of critical psychology at FU-Berlin was merged into the traditional psychology department.
An April 2009 issue of the journal Theory & Psychology (edited by Desmond Painter, Athanasios Marvakis, and Leendert Mos) is devoted to an examination of German critical psychology.
===South Africa===
The complex sociopolitical history of South Africa, and its relationship with mainstream psychology, created a setting in which critical psychology could be impactful. South Africa is a good example of a context in which mainstream psychology positioned itself alongside neo-colonialism, racism, and capitalist exploitation - during the country's Apartheid era - which led to the need for critical alternatives within the field that could challenge ideological complicities. During apartheid, mainstream psychology supported the oppressive political system - some psychologists actively and others passively. In the early 1980s, at the height of apartheid, progressive white psychologists and a growing number of black psychologists began to research and practice alternative programmes to critique and resist mainstream psychology's role in perpetuating apartheid in South Africa. Secondly, once critical psychologists in South Africa revealed the ideological flaws in mainstream psychology within the country's context, work began to reconfigure the field as a progressive and socially relevant practice with theoretical and methodological approaches that could benefit all members of South African society. Critical psychology in South Africa is therefore mostly applied as a theoretical approach.
===United States and Canada===
The doctoral program in Critical Social/Personality Psychology and Environmental Psychology at the CUNY Graduate Center and the doctoral program in Critical Psychology at Point Park University, in Pittsburgh, PA are the only critical psychology specific doctoral programs in the United States. Prescott College in Prescott, Arizona offers an online Master's program in Critical Psychology and Human Services and has a critically oriented undergraduate program. The California Institute of Integral Studies in San Francisco also offers the Bachelor's Completion Program with a minor in Critical Psychology, and critical perspectives are sometimes encountered in traditional universities, perhaps especially within community psychology programs. The University of West Georgia offers a Ph.D. in Consciousness and Society with critical psychology being one of the main three theoretical orientations. North American efforts include the 1993 founding of RadPsyNet, the 1997 publication of Critical Psychology: An Introduction (edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky; expanded 2009 edition edited by Dennis Fox, Isaac Prilleltensky, and Stephanie Austin), the 2001 Monterey Conference on Critical Psychology, and in underlying themes of many contributions to the Journal of Social Action in Counseling and Psychology.
|
[
"distributed cognition",
"Prescott College",
"Point Park University",
"sexual orientation",
"Power (philosophy)",
"Aleksey Leontyev",
"Marxist",
"gender",
"socialization",
"Ian Parker (psychologist)",
"institutional racism",
"Theory & Psychology",
"Kurt Lewin",
"Theory",
"discrimination",
"Psychopolitical validity",
"social psychology",
"Lucien Sève",
"York University",
"University of East London",
"Discipline and Punish",
"T.S. Kuhn",
"York St John University",
"University of Guelph",
"ethnicity",
"critical psychiatry",
"critical theory",
"minority groups",
"David Smail (psychologist)",
"emancipation",
"University of West Georgia",
"postcolonialism",
"phenomenology (philosophy)",
"paradigm",
"methodological individualism",
"Radical Psychology Network",
"religious minority",
"social justice",
"transpersonal psychology",
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"psychology",
"disability",
"California Institute of Integral Studies",
"situated learning",
"ethology",
"motivation",
"Michel Foucault",
"Cultural-historical activity theory",
"health psychology",
"activity theory",
"Edwin Hutchins",
"anti-psychiatry",
"cognition",
"well-being",
"Rhetoric of therapy",
"West Berlin",
"Manchester Metropolitan University",
"Marx",
"sensory perception",
"Graduate Center, CUNY",
"University of Notre Dame Australia",
"liberation psychology",
"German student movement",
"East Germany",
"International Society of Critical Health Psychology",
"Freie Universität Berlin",
"social science",
"community psychology",
"University of Edinburgh",
"Jean Lave",
"Positive psychology",
"cultural–historical psychology",
"psychoanalysis",
"Klaus Holzkamp",
"Erica Burman",
"Merleau-Ponty",
"University of KwaZulu Natal"
] |
7,803 |
Crossfire
|
A crossfire (also known as interlocking fire) is a military term for the siting of weapons (often automatic weapons such as assault rifles or sub-machine guns) so that their arcs of fire overlap. This tactic came to prominence in World War I.
Siting weapons this way is an example of the application of the defensive principle of mutual support. The advantage of siting weapons that mutually support one another is that it is difficult for an attacker to find a covered approach to any one defensive position. Use of armour, air support, indirect fire support, and stealth are tactics that may be used to assault a defensive position. However, when combined with land mines, snipers, barbed wire, and air cover, crossfire became a difficult tactic to counter in the early 20th century.
== Early modern warfare ==
The concept of overlapping arcs of fire drove major developments in the use of cannon in early modern Europe. The star fort forced attackers approaching the walls into the overlapping enfilade of the protruding bastions; attempts to achieve a similar effect through maneuver on the battlefield were limited by the weight and size of the artillery of the time. The earliest experiments in mobile artillery, such as the leather cannon, were generally flawed due to the limitations of the materials science of the period, but eventually gave rise to the regimental gun.
Perhaps the most famous example of crossfire tactics in early modern warfare occurred in the final stages of the First Battle of Breitenfeld. Swedish cavalry under Gustavus Adolphus outflanked and seized the artillery pieces of the Imperial army. As the battle had progressed, the Imperial guns were now well-positioned to fire upon the bulk of the Imperial army, and the crossfire of Swedish and captured cannon shattered the Imperial forces.
==Trench warfare==
The tactic of using overlapping arcs of fire came to prominence during World War I where it was a feature of trench warfare. Machine guns were placed in groups, called machine-gun nests, and they protected the front of the trenches. Many people died in futile attempts to charge across the no man's land where these crossfires were set up. After these attacks many bodies could be found in the no man's land.
=="Caught in the crossfire"==
To be "caught in the crossfire" is an expression that often refers to unintended casualties (bystanders, etc.) who were killed or wounded by being exposed to the gunfire of a battle or gun fight, such as in a position to be hit by bullets of either side. The phrase has come to mean any injury, damage or harm (physical or otherwise) caused to a third party due to the action of belligerents (collateral damage).
|
[
"sub-machine gun",
"arc of fire",
"Military camouflage",
"Holy Roman Empire",
"Swedish Empire",
"barbed wire",
"leather cannon",
"indirect fire support",
"Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)",
"World War I",
"Gustavus Adolphus",
"Close air support",
"collateral damage",
"air cover",
"land mine",
"Machine gun",
"Armoured fighting vehicle",
"trench warfare",
"machine-gun nest",
"enfilade",
"star fort",
"regimental gun",
"no man's land",
"automatic weapon",
"sniper",
"bastion",
"cannon",
"assault rifle"
] |
7,805 |
CNO
|
CNO may refer to:
C/N0, the carrier-to-noise-density ratio of a signal
Casualty notification officer, a person responsible for informing relatives of death or injury
Chief networking officer, a business role
Chief nursing officer, a nursing management position
Chief of Naval Operations, the head of the United States Navy
Chino Airport, in California, IATA symbol: CNO
Chronic nuisance ordinance, a law that aims to evict tenants for reporting crime
CNO cycle, a stellar nuclear fusion reaction
Coconut oil, an edible oil
Computer network operations, the optimization and use of digital telecommunications
CNO Financial Group, an American financial services holding company
CNO (gene), which encodes the protein cappuccino homolog
Clozapine N-oxide, a synthetic ligand which activates a receptor
Fulminate, a chemical compound containing the ion
|
[
"Coconut oil",
"Chief networking officer",
"C/N0",
"CNO Financial Group",
"CNO (gene)",
"Casualty notification officer",
"Chino Airport",
"Computer network operations",
"Chief nursing officer",
"Chief of Naval Operations",
"Receptor activated solely by a synthetic ligand",
"Chronic nuisance ordinance",
"Fulminate",
"CNO cycle",
"Clozapine N-oxide"
] |
7,806 |
Cruising (maritime)
|
Cruising is a maritime activity that involves staying aboard a watercraft for extended periods of time when the vessel is traveling on water at a steady speed. Cruising generally refers to leisurely trips on yachts and luxury cruiseships, with durations varying from day-trips to months-long round-the-world voyages.
==History==
Boats were almost exclusively used for working purposes prior to the nineteenth century. In 1857, the philosopher Henry David Thoreau, with his book Canoeing in Wilderness chronicling his canoe voyaging in the wilderness of Maine, is considered the first to convey the enjoyment of spiritual and lifestyle aspects of cruising.
The modern conception of cruising for pleasure was first popularised by the Scottish explorer and sportsman John MacGregor. He was introduced to the canoes and kayaks of the Native Americans on a camping trip in 1858, and on his return to the United Kingdom constructed his own 'double-ended' canoe in Lambeth. The boat, nicknamed 'Rob Roy' after a famous relative of his, was built of lapstrake oak planking, decked in cedar covered with rubberized canvas with an open cockpit in the center. He cruised around the waterways of Britain, Europe and the Middle East and wrote a popular book about his experiences, A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe.
In 1866, Macgregor was a moving force behind the establishment of the Royal Canoe Club, the first club in the world to promote pleasure cruising. The first recorded regatta was held on April 27, 1867, and it received Royal patronage in 1873. The latter part of the century saw cruising for leisure being enthusiastically taken up by the middle class. The author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote An Inland Voyage in 1877 as a travelogue on his canoeing trip through France and Belgium. Stevenson and his companion, Sir Walter Grindlay Simpson travelled in two 'Rob Roys' along the Oise River and witnessed the Romantic beauty of rural Europe.
The Canadian-American Joshua Slocum was one of the first people to carry out a long-distance sailing voyage for pleasure, circumnavigating the world between 1895 and 1898. Despite opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum rebuilt a derelict sloop Spray and sailed her single-handed around the world. His book Sailing Alone Around the World was a classic adventure, and inspired many others to take to the seas.
Other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and instruction to prospective cruisers. Key among these during the post World War II period are Electa and Irving Johnson, Miles and Beryl Smeeton, Bernard Moitessier, Peter Pye, and Eric and Susan Hiscock. During the 1970s - 1990s Robin Lee Graham, Lin and Larry Pardey, Annie Hill, Herb Payson, Linda and Steve Dashew, Margaret and Hal Roth, and Beth Leonard & Evans Starzinger have provided inspiration for people to set off voyaging.
The development of ocean crossing rallies, most notably the ARC (Atlantic Rally for Cruisers), have encouraged less experienced sailors to undertake ocean crossings. These rallies provide a group of sailors crossing the same ocean at the same time with safety inspections, weather information and social functions.
==Types of boats used==
Cruising is done on both sail and power boats, monohulls and multihulls although sail predominates over longer distances, as ocean-going power boats are considerably more expensive to purchase and operate. The size of the typical cruising boat has increased over the years and is currently in the range of 10 to 15 metres (33 to 50 feet) although smaller boats have been used in around-the-world trips, but are generally not recommended given the dangers involved. Many cruisers are "long term" and travel for many years, the most adventurous among them circle the globe over a period of three to ten years. Many others take a year or two off from work and school for shorter trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle.
== Types ==
=== Blue-water and coastal cruising ===
Blue-water cruising which is defined as long term open sea cruising is more involved and inherently more dangerous than coastal cruising.
Before embarking on an open-ocean voyage, planning and preparation will include studying charts, weather reports/warnings, almanacs and navigation books of the route to be followed. In addition, supplies need to be stocked (including fresh water and fuel), navigation instruments checked and the ship itself needs to be inspected and the crew needs to be given exact instruction on the jobs are expected to perform (e.g. the watch, which is generally 4 hours on and 4 hours off, navigation, steering, rigging sails, ...). In addition, the crew needs to be well trained at working together and with the ship in question. Finally, the sailor must be mentally prepared for dealing with harsh situations. There have been many well-documented cases where sailors had to be rescued simply because they were not sufficiently prepared (the sailors as well as the ship) or lacked experience for their venture and ran into serious trouble.
Sailing near the coast (coastal cruising) gives a certain amount of safety. A ship is always granted 'innocent passage' through the country (most countries usually claim up to off the coast). When this method is practiced however, if the ship needs to stop (e.g. for repairs), a trip to a customs checkpoint to have passports checked would be required.
=== River cruising ===
Voyage along inland waterways are called river cruises, which often involved stopping at multiple ports along the way. As many cities and towns are built around rivers and historically have relied on maritime transport, river cruise docks are frequently located in the center of cities and towns.
According to Douglas Ward, "A river cruise represents life in the slow lane, sailing along at a gentle pace, soaking up the scenery, with plentiful opportunities to explore riverside towns and cities en route. It is a supremely calming experience, an antidote to the pressures of life in a fast-paced world, in surroundings that are comfortable without being fussy or pretentious, with good food and enjoyable company."
River cruising is a major component of the tourist industry in many parts of the world.
== Equipment ==
Cruisers use a variety of equipment and techniques to make their voyages possible, or simply more comfortable.
The use of wind vane self-steering was common on long-distance cruising yachts but is increasingly being supplemented or replaced by electrical auto-pilots.
Though in the past many cruisers had no means of generating electricity on board and depended on kerosene and dry-cell batteries, today electrical demands are much higher and nearly all cruisers have electrical devices such as lights, communications equipment and refrigeration. Although most boats can generate power from their inboard engines, an increasing number carry auxiliary generators. Carrying sufficient fuel to power engine and generator over a long voyage can be a problem, so many cruising boats are equipped with other ancillary generating devices such as solar panels, wind turbines and towed turbines. Cruisers choosing to spend extended time in very remote locations with minimal access to marinas can opt to equip their vessels with watermakers (reverse-osmosis seawater desalination units) used to convert sea water to potable fresh water.
Satellite communications are becoming more common on cruising boats. Many boats are now equipped with satellite telephone systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in certain areas. Many cruisers still use short wave maritime SSB and amateur radio, which has no running costs. These radios provide two-way voice communications, can receive weather fax graphics or GRIB files via a laptop computer, and with a compatible modem (e.g. PACTOR) can send and receive email at very slow speed. Such emails are usually limited to basic communication using plain text, without HTML formatting or attachments.
Awareness of impending weather conditions is particularly important to cruising sailors who are often far from safe harbours and need to steer clear of dangerous weather conditions. Most cruising boats are equipped with a barometer or a weather station that records barometric pressure as well as temperature and provides rudimentary forecasting. For more sophisticated weather forecasting, cruisers rely on their ability to receive forecasts by radio, phone or satellite.
In order to avoid collisions with other vessels, cruisers rely on a maintaining a regular watch schedule. At night, color-coded running lights help determine the position and orientation of vessels. Radar and AIS systems are often employed to detect vessels positions and movement in all conditions (day, night, rain and fog).
Cruisers navigate using paper charts and radar. Modern yachts are often also equipped with a chartplotter which enables the use of electronic charts and is linked to GPS satellites that provide position reports. Some chartplotters have the ability to interface charts and radar images. Those that still wish to work with traditional charts as well as with GPS may do so using a Yeoman Plotter. Certain advanced sailing vessels have a completely automated sailing system which includes a plotter, as well as course correcting through a link with the ship's steering organs (e.g. sails, propeller). One such device can be found at the Maltese Falcon.
There are also sails made with cruising in mind. Sailing downwind is always enjoyable, but there is a vast difference as to how easy it is to manage - especially short-handed. This is where furling sails come into play, and these vary from the more specialized types of furling spinnakers to combined products such as the blue water runner-type of sails.
==Expense==
Purchasing and maintaining a yacht can be costly. Most cruising sailors do not own a house and consider their boat their home during the duration of their cruise. Many cruisers find they spend, on average, 4% of their boat's purchase price annually on boat maintenance.
Like living a conventional life on land, the cost of cruising is variable. How much a person ends up spending depends largely on their spending habits (for example, eating out a lot and frequenting marinas vs. preparing local foods aboard and anchoring out) and the type of boat (fancy modern production boats are very expensive to purchase and maintain, while low-key cruising boats often involve much lower expenses). Most long-term cruisers prefer to live a simple life, usually with far lower expenses than people who live ashore.
An alternative solution is to sail on someone else's yacht. Those who know how to sail can sometimes find boats looking for an extra crewmember for a long trip, while some non-sailors are also able to find boats willing to carry a hitch-hiker. Crew-finding websites exist to help match-up people looking for a crossing with yachts with a berth available or looking for a temporary crewmember, Find a Crew for example. Another common tactic for finding a yacht is to visit local yacht clubs and marinas and get to know the sailors there, in the hope that one of them will be able to provide a berth.
== Safety ==
Travel by water brings hazards: collision, weather, and equipment failure can lead to dangerous situations such as a sinking or severely disabled and dangerous vessel. For this reason many long-distance cruising yachts carry with them emergency equipment such as SARTs, EPIRBs and liferafts or proactive lifeboats. Medical emergencies are also of concern, as a medical emergency can occur on a long passage when the closest port is over a week away. For this reason before going cruising many people go through first aid training and carry medical kits. In some parts of the world (e.g., near the Horn of Africa) piracy can be a problem.
== Other kinds of maritime cruising ==
A booze cruise is a pleasure outing on a ship or boat involving a significant amount of drinking. It may have originated during Prohibition, when Americans would take "cruises to nowhere" to enjoy alcohol, which could legally be served on board once outside American territorial waters.
Camp cruising, also known as beach cruising or gunkhole cruising, is a form of cruising in which sailors sail from point to point in an open or semi-enclosed boat, generally remaining within sight of land. Camp cruisers either camp ashore ("camp cruising" or "beach cruising"), or aboard the boat at anchor. The boats used may be specialized cruising dinghies, small keelboats, trailer sailers or general purpose daysailing or racing boats pressed into service for the purpose.
Commute cruising, also known as seasonal cruising, is becoming increasingly popular. Commute cruisers live aboard and sail for a few months at a time, exploring new or favorite areas, then leave the vessel in a new location or maybe return it to the same location, travel home for a few months, and return to the vessel to continue cruising during favorable seasons. This type of cruising is somewhat akin to owning a second home that travels by sea and allows for a dual lifestyle.
Daysailing is recreational sailing that does not involve racing or cruising. Many racers refer to all non-racers as "cruisers", including dinghy and small keelboat sailors who primarily focus on daysailing.
LGBT sailing cruising is a type of specialized recreational boat cruising tour organized by cruising operators in many regions of the world. Trips are organized for the LGBT community to provide a unique experience within a "safe space" where travelers can explore new places.
Expedition cruising, where the trips can be a combination of scientists working and tourists along for the adventure, or where scientists lead a group of tourists in order for the tourists to observe animals, plants or natural phenomena.
Travel on cruise ships may be referred to as cruising. Those who take frequent cruise ship vacations may be called cruisers.
|
[
"Spinnaker",
"satellite telephone",
"keelboat",
"William F. Buckley Jr.",
"France",
"Communications satellite",
"sailboat",
"EPIRB",
"trailer sailer",
"Simpson baronets",
"maritime transport",
"Alan Villiers",
"single-handed sailing",
"chartplotter",
"Circumnavigation",
"tourist industry",
"Rob Roy canoe",
"passport",
"Budapest",
"river cruise",
"cruiseship",
"Royal Canoe Club",
"fresh water",
"Shorthanded sailing",
"automated sailing system",
"yacht",
"amateur radio",
"Prohibition in the United States",
"Belgium",
"SART",
"The Cruising Association",
"Gunkholing",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"yacht club",
"Oise River",
"San Blas Islands",
"GRIB",
"multihull",
"regatta",
"Lambeth",
"Electric boat",
"watercraft",
"Miles and Beryl Smeeton",
"Jacques Cousteau",
"piracy",
"Dinghy racing",
"Irving Johnson",
"Hal Roth",
"HTML",
"High frequency",
"Territorial waters",
"Radar",
"single-sideband modulation",
"Dinghy sailing",
"reverse-osmosis",
"circumnavigation",
"Automatic identification system",
"Lifeboat (shipboard)",
"Panama",
"River cruise",
"Atlantic Rally for Cruisers",
"marina",
"Henry David Thoreau",
"Steve Dashew",
"Evans Starzinger",
"Indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"Robin Lee Graham",
"canoe",
"Romanticism",
"Bernard Moitessier",
"Robert Louis Stevenson",
"Maritime mobile amateur radio",
"Photovoltaic module",
"innocent passage",
"kerosene",
"Yeoman Plotter",
"watermaker",
"PACTOR",
"Cabin cruiser",
"motorboat",
"travel literature",
"radar",
"Annie Hill",
"Sailboat",
"wind turbine",
"The Maltese Falcon (yacht)",
"GPS",
"cruise ship",
"Joshua Slocum",
"Find a Crew",
"Boat building",
"Dinghy",
"Lin and Larry Pardey",
"Peter Pye",
"John MacGregor (sportsman)",
"weather",
"monohull",
"electricity",
"Self-steering gear",
"inland waterway",
"Battery (electricity)",
"An Inland Voyage"
] |
7,807 |
Cavitation
|
Cavitation in fluid mechanics and engineering normally is the phenomenon in which the static pressure of a liquid reduces to below the liquid's vapor pressure, leading to the formation of small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid. When subjected to higher pressure, these cavities, called "bubbles" or "voids", collapse and can generate shock waves that may damage machinery. These shock waves are strong when they are very close to the imploded bubble, but rapidly weaken as they propagate away from the implosion. Cavitation is a significant cause of wear in some engineering contexts. Collapsing voids that implode near to a metal surface cause cyclic stress through repeated implosion. This results in surface fatigue of the metal, causing a type of wear also called "cavitation". The most common examples of this kind of wear are to pump impellers, and bends where a sudden change in the direction of liquid occurs.
Cavitation is usually divided into two classes of behavior. Inertial (or transient) cavitation is the process in which a void or bubble in a liquid rapidly collapses, producing a shock wave. It occurs in nature in the strikes of mantis shrimp and pistol shrimp, as well as in the vascular tissues of plants. In manufactured objects, it can occur in control valves, pumps, propellers and impellers.
Non-inertial cavitation is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is forced to oscillate in size or shape due to some form of energy input, such as an acoustic field. The gas in the bubble may contain a portion of a different gas than the vapor phase of the liquid. Such cavitation is often employed in ultrasonic cleaning baths and can also be observed in pumps, propellers, etc.
Since the shock waves formed by collapse of the voids are strong enough to cause significant damage to parts, cavitation is typically an undesirable phenomenon in machinery. It may be desirable if intentionally used, for example, to sterilize contaminated surgical instruments, break down pollutants in water purification systems, emulsify tissue for cataract surgery or kidney stone lithotripsy, or homogenize fluids. It is very often specifically prevented in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers, and eliminating cavitation is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics. However, it is sometimes useful and does not cause damage when the bubbles collapse away from machinery, such as in supercavitation.
== Physics ==
=== Inertial cavitation ===
Inertial cavitation was first observed in the late 19th century, considering the collapse of a spherical void within a liquid. When a volume of liquid is subjected to a sufficiently low pressure, it may rupture and form a cavity. This phenomenon is coined cavitation inception and may occur behind the blade of a rapidly rotating propeller or on any surface vibrating in the liquid with sufficient amplitude and acceleration. A fast-flowing river can cause cavitation on rock surfaces, particularly when there is a drop-off, such as on a waterfall.
Vapor gases evaporate into the cavity from the surrounding medium; thus, the cavity is not a vacuum at all, but rather a low-pressure vapor (gas) bubble. Once the conditions which caused the bubble to form are no longer present, such as when the bubble moves downstream, the surrounding liquid begins to implode due its higher pressure, building up momentum as it moves inward. As the bubble finally collapses, the inward momentum of the surrounding liquid causes a sharp increase of pressure and temperature of the vapor within. The bubble eventually collapses to a minute fraction of its original size, at which point the gas within dissipates into the surrounding liquid via a rather violent mechanism which releases a significant amount of energy in the form of an acoustic shock wave and as visible light. At the point of total collapse, the temperature of the vapor within the bubble may be several thousand Kelvin, and the pressure several hundred atmospheres.
The physical process of cavitation inception is similar to boiling. The major difference between the two is the thermodynamic paths that precede the formation of the vapor. Boiling occurs when the local temperature of the liquid reaches the saturation temperature, and further heat is supplied to allow the liquid to sufficiently phase change into a gas. Cavitation inception occurs when the local pressure falls sufficiently far below the saturated vapor pressure, a value given by the tensile strength of the liquid at a certain temperature.
In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation "bubbles" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate. This surface can be provided by the sides of a container, by impurities in the liquid, or by small undissolved microbubbles within the liquid. It is generally accepted that hydrophobic surfaces stabilize small bubbles. These pre-existing bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed to a pressure below the threshold pressure, termed Blake's threshold. The presence of an incompressible core inside a cavitation nucleus substantially lowers the cavitation threshold below the Blake threshold.
The vapor pressure here differs from the meteorological definition of vapor pressure, which describes the partial pressure of water in the atmosphere at some value less than 100% saturation. Vapor pressure as relating to cavitation refers to the vapor pressure in equilibrium conditions and can therefore be more accurately defined as the equilibrium (or saturated) vapor pressure.
Non-inertial cavitation is the process in which small bubbles in a liquid are forced to oscillate in the presence of an acoustic field, when the intensity of the acoustic field is insufficient to cause total bubble collapse. This form of cavitation causes significantly less erosion than inertial cavitation, and is often used for the cleaning of delicate materials, such as silicon wafers.
Other ways of generating cavitation voids involve the local deposition of energy, such as an intense focused laser pulse (optic cavitation) or with an electrical discharge through a spark. These techniques have been used to study the evolution of the bubble that is actually created by locally boiling the liquid with a local increment of temperature.
===Hydrodynamic cavitation===
Hydrodynamic cavitation is the process of vaporisation, bubble generation and bubble implosion which occurs in a flowing liquid as a result of a decrease and subsequent increase in local pressure. Cavitation will only occur if the local pressure declines to some point below the saturated vapor pressure of the liquid and subsequent recovery above the vapor pressure. If the recovery pressure is not above the vapor pressure then flashing is said to have occurred. In pipe systems, cavitation typically occurs either as the result of an increase in the kinetic energy (through an area constriction) or an increase in the pipe elevation.
Hydrodynamic cavitation can be produced by passing a liquid through a constricted channel at a specific flow velocity or by mechanical rotation of an object through a liquid. In the case of the constricted channel and based on the specific (or unique) geometry of the system, the combination of pressure and kinetic energy can create the hydrodynamic cavitation cavern downstream of the local constriction generating high energy cavitation bubbles.
Based on the thermodynamic phase change diagram, an increase in temperature could initiate a known phase change mechanism known as boiling. However, a decrease in static pressure could also help one pass the multi-phase diagram and initiate another phase change mechanism known as cavitation. On the other hand, a local increase in flow velocity could lead to a static pressure drop to the critical point at which cavitation could be initiated (based on Bernoulli's principle). The critical pressure point is vapor saturated pressure. In a closed fluidic system where no flow leakage is detected, a decrease in cross-sectional area would lead to velocity increment and hence static pressure drop. This is the working principle of many hydrodynamic cavitation based reactors for different applications such as water treatment, energy harvesting, heat transfer enhancement, food processing, etc.
There are different flow patterns detected as a cavitation flow progresses: inception, developed flow, supercavitation, and choked flow. Inception is the first moment that the second phase (gas phase) appears in the system. This is the weakest cavitating flow captured in a system corresponding to the highest cavitation number. When the cavities grow and becomes larger in size in the orifice or venturi structures, developed flow is recorded. The most intense cavitating flow is known as supercavitation where theoretically all the nozzle area of an orifice is filled with gas bubbles. This flow regime corresponds to the lowest cavitation number in a system. After supercavitation, the system is not capable of passing more flow. Hence, velocity does not change while the upstream pressure increase. This would lead to an increase in cavitation number which shows that choked flow occurred.
The process of bubble generation, and the subsequent growth and collapse of the cavitation bubbles, results in very high energy densities and in very high local temperatures and local pressures at the surface of the bubbles for a very short time. The overall liquid medium environment, therefore, remains at ambient conditions. When uncontrolled, cavitation is damaging; by controlling the flow of the cavitation, however, the power can be harnessed and non-destructive. Controlled cavitation can be used to enhance chemical reactions or propagate certain unexpected reactions because free radicals are generated in the process due to disassociation of vapors trapped in the cavitating bubbles.
Orifices and venturi are reported to be widely used for generating cavitation. A venturi has an inherent advantage over an orifice because of its smooth converging and diverging sections, such that it can generate a higher flow velocity at the throat for a given pressure drop across it. On the other hand, an orifice has an advantage that it can accommodate a greater number of holes (larger perimeter of holes) in a given cross sectional area of the pipe.
The cavitation phenomenon can be controlled to enhance the performance of high-speed marine vessels and projectiles, as well as in material processing technologies, in medicine, etc. Controlling the cavitating flows in liquids can be achieved only by advancing the mathematical foundation of the cavitation processes. These processes are manifested in different ways, the most common ones and promising for control being bubble cavitation and supercavitation. The first exact classical solution should perhaps be credited to the well-known solution by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1868. The earliest distinguished studies of academic type on the theory of a cavitating flow with free boundaries and supercavitation were published in the book Jets, wakes and cavities followed by Theory of jets of ideal fluid. Widely used in these books was the well-developed theory of conformal mappings of functions of a complex variable, allowing one to derive a large number of exact solutions of plane problems. Another venue combining the existing exact solutions with approximated and heuristic models was explored in the work Hydrodynamics of Flows with Free Boundaries that refined the applied calculation techniques based on the principle of cavity expansion independence, theory of pulsations and stability of elongated axisymmetric cavities, etc. and in Dimensionality and similarity methods in the problems of the hydromechanics of vessels.
A natural continuation of these studies was recently presented in The Hydrodynamics of Cavitating Flows – an encyclopedic work encompassing all the best advances in this domain for the last three decades, and blending the classical methods of mathematical research with the modern capabilities of computer technologies. These include elaboration of nonlinear numerical methods of solving 3D cavitation problems, refinement of the known plane linear theories, development of asymptotic theories of axisymmetric and nearly axisymmetric flows, etc. As compared to the classical approaches, the new trend is characterized by expansion of the theory into the 3D flows. It also reflects a certain correlation with current works of an applied character on the hydrodynamics of supercavitating bodies.
Hydrodynamic cavitation can also improve some industrial processes. For instance, cavitated corn slurry shows higher yields in ethanol production compared to uncavitated corn slurry in dry milling facilities.
This is also used in the mineralization of bio-refractory compounds which otherwise would need extremely high temperature and pressure conditions since free radicals are generated in the process due to the dissociation of vapors trapped in the cavitating bubbles, which results in either the intensification of the chemical reaction or may even result in the propagation of certain reactions not possible under otherwise ambient conditions.
===Acoustic cavitation and ultrasonic cavitation===
Inertial cavitation can also occur in the presence of an acoustic field. Microscopic gas bubbles that are generally present in a liquid will be forced to oscillate due to an applied acoustic field. If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse. Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the rarefaction in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh-like void to occur.
Ultrasonic cavitation inception will occur when the acceleration of the ultrasound source is enough to produce the needed pressure drop. This pressure drop depends on the value of the acceleration and the size of the affected volume by the pressure wave. The dimensionless number that predicts ultrasonic cavitation is the Garcia-Atance number. High power ultrasonic horns produce accelerations high enough to create a cavitating region that can be used for homogenization, dispersion, deagglomeration, erosion, cleaning, milling, emulsification, extraction, disintegration, and sonochemistry.
===Aerodyamic cavitation===
Although predominant in liquids, cavitation exists to an extent in gas as it has fluid dynamics at high speeds. For example, a bullet with a flat tip moves faster underwater as it creates cavitation compared to a bullet with a sharp tip. A dune shape is very useful for managing aerodynamic cavitation. The shape of a dune provides minimal resistance to the wind. With small dunes installed on the surfaces of aircraft and other high speed vehicles, friction against the air decreases by several times. The dune surface pushes the air upwards, underneath and behind areas where the air pressure drops, reducing friction. The dune may increase frontal resistance, but that will be compensated for by a decrease in the total friction area, as also happens with an underwater bullet. As a result, the speed of the aircraft or vehicle will increase significantly.
==Applications==
===Chemical engineering===
In industry, cavitation is often used to homogenize, or mix and break down, suspended particles in a colloidal liquid compound such as paint mixtures or milk. Many industrial mixing machines are based upon this design principle. It is usually achieved through impeller design or by forcing the mixture through an annular opening that has a narrow entrance orifice with a much larger exit orifice. In the latter case, the drastic decrease in pressure as the liquid accelerates into a larger volume induces cavitation. This method can be controlled with hydraulic devices that control inlet orifice size, allowing for dynamic adjustment during the process, or modification for different substances. The surface of this type of mixing valve, against which surface the cavitation bubbles are driven causing their implosion, undergoes tremendous mechanical and thermal localized stress; they are therefore often constructed of extremely strong and hard materials such as stainless steel, Stellite, or even polycrystalline diamond (PCD).
Cavitating water purification devices have also been designed, in which the extreme conditions of cavitation can break down pollutants and organic molecules. Spectral analysis of light emitted in sonochemical reactions reveal chemical and plasma-based mechanisms of energy transfer. The light emitted from cavitation bubbles is termed sonoluminescence.
Use of this technology has been tried successfully in alkali refining of vegetable oils.
Hydrophobic chemicals are attracted underwater by cavitation as the pressure difference between the bubbles and the liquid water forces them to join. This effect may assist in protein folding.
===Biomedical===
Cavitation plays an important role for the destruction of kidney stones in shock wave lithotripsy. Currently, tests are being conducted as to whether cavitation can be used to transfer large molecules into biological cells (sonoporation). Nitrogen cavitation is a method used in research to lyse cell membranes while leaving organelles intact.
Cavitation plays a key role in non-thermal, non-invasive fractionation of tissue for treatment of a variety of diseases and can be used to open the blood-brain barrier to increase uptake of neurological drugs in the brain.
Cavitation also plays a role in HIFU, a thermal non-invasive treatment methodology for cancer.
In wounds caused by high velocity impacts (like for example bullet wounds) there are also effects due to cavitation. The exact wounding mechanisms are not completely understood yet as there is temporary cavitation, and permanent cavitation together with crushing, tearing and stretching. Also the high variance in density within the body makes it hard to determine its effects.
Ultrasound sometimes is used to increase bone formation, for instance in post-surgical applications.
It has been suggested that the sound of "cracking" knuckles derives from the collapse of cavitation in the synovial fluid within the joint.
Cavitation can also form Ozone micro-nanobubbles which shows promise in dental applications.
===Cleaning===
In industrial cleaning applications, cavitation has sufficient power to overcome the particle-to-substrate adhesion forces, loosening contaminants. The threshold pressure required to initiate cavitation is a strong function of the pulse width and the power input. This method works by generating acoustic cavitation in the cleaning fluid, picking up and carrying contaminant particles away in the hope that they do not reattach to the material being cleaned (which is a possibility when the object is immersed, for example in an ultrasonic cleaning bath). The same physical forces that remove contaminants also have the potential to damage the target being cleaned.
=== Food and beverage ===
==== Eggs ====
Cavitation has been applied to egg pasteurization. A hole-filled rotor produces cavitation bubbles, heating the liquid from within. Equipment surfaces stay cooler than the passing liquid, so eggs do not harden as they did on the hot surfaces of older equipment. The intensity of cavitation can be adjusted, making it possible to tune the process for minimum protein damage.
==== Vegetable oil production ====
Cavitation has been applied to vegetable oil degumming and refining since 2011 and is considered a proven and standard technology in this application. The implementation of hydrodynamic cavitation in the degumming and refining process allows for a significant reduction in process aid, such as chemicals, water and bleaching clay, use.
=== Biofuels ===
==== Biodiesel ====
Cavitation has been applied to Biodiesel production since 2011 and is considered a proven and standard technology in this application. The implementation of hydrodynamic cavitation in the transesterification process allows for a significant reduction in catalyst use, quality improvement and production capacity increase.
==Cavitation damage==
Cavitation is usually an undesirable occurrence. In devices such as propellers and pumps, cavitation causes a great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations, and a loss of efficiency. Noise caused by cavitation can be particularly undesirable in naval vessels where such noise may render them more easily detectable by passive sonar. Cavitation has also become a concern in the renewable energy sector as it may occur on the blade surface of tidal stream turbines.
When the cavitation bubbles collapse, they force energetic liquid into very small volumes, thereby creating spots of high temperature and emitting shock waves, the latter of which are a source of noise. The noise created by cavitation is a particular problem for military submarines, as it increases the chances of being detected by passive sonar.
Although the collapse of a small cavity is a relatively low-energy event, highly localized collapses can erode metals, such as steel, over time. The pitting caused by the collapse of cavities produces great wear on components and can dramatically shorten a propeller's or pump's lifetime.
After a surface is initially affected by cavitation, it tends to erode at an accelerating pace. The cavitation pits increase the turbulence of the fluid flow and create crevices that act as nucleation sites for additional cavitation bubbles. The pits also increase the components' surface area and leave behind residual stresses. This makes the surface more prone to stress corrosion.
===Pumps and propellers===
Major places where cavitation occurs are in pumps, on propellers, or at restrictions in a flowing liquid.
As an impeller's (in a pump) or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or submarine) blades move through a fluid, low-pressure areas are formed as the fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades. The faster the blade moves, the lower the pressure can become around it. As it reaches vapor pressure, the fluid vaporizes and forms small bubbles of gas. This is cavitation. When the bubbles collapse later, they typically cause very strong local shock waves in the fluid, which may be audible and may even damage the blades.
Cavitation in pumps may occur in two different forms:
====Suction cavitation====
Suction cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low-pressure/high-vacuum condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller. This vapor is carried over to the discharge side of the pump, where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure. This imploding action occurs violently and attacks the face of the impeller. An impeller that has been operating under a suction cavitation condition can have large chunks of material removed from its face or very small bits of material removed, causing the impeller to look spongelike. Both cases will cause premature failure of the pump, often due to bearing failure. Suction cavitation is often identified by a sound like gravel or marbles in the pump casing.
Common causes of suction cavitation can include clogged filters, pipe blockage on the suction side, poor piping design, pump running too far right on the pump curve, or conditions not meeting NPSH (net positive suction head) requirements.
In automotive applications, a clogged filter in a hydraulic system (power steering, power brakes) can cause suction cavitation making a noise that rises and falls in synch with engine RPM. It is fairly often a high pitched whine, like set of nylon gears not quite meshing correctly.
====Discharge cavitation====
Discharge cavitation occurs when the pump discharge pressure is extremely high, normally occurring in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point. The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out the discharge. As the liquid flows around the impeller, it must pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump housing at extremely high flow velocity. This flow velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the housing wall (similar to what occurs in a venturi), which turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the pump housing. In addition, due to the high pressure conditions, premature failure of the pump's mechanical seal and bearings can be expected. Under extreme conditions, this can break the impeller shaft.
Discharge cavitation in joint fluid is thought to cause the popping sound produced by bone joint cracking, for example by deliberately cracking one's knuckles.
====Cavitation solutions====
Since all pumps require well-developed inlet flow to meet their potential, a pump may not perform or be as reliable as expected due to a faulty suction piping layout such as a close-coupled elbow on the inlet flange. When poorly developed flow enters the pump impeller, it strikes the vanes and is unable to follow the impeller passage. The liquid then separates from the vanes causing mechanical problems due to cavitation, vibration and performance problems due to turbulence and poor filling of the impeller. This results in premature seal, bearing and impeller failure, high maintenance costs, high power consumption, and less-than-specified head and/or flow.
To have a well-developed flow pattern, pump manufacturer's manuals recommend about (10 diameters?) of straight pipe run upstream of the pump inlet flange. Unfortunately, piping designers and plant personnel must contend with space and equipment layout constraints and usually cannot comply with this recommendation. Instead, it is common to use an elbow close-coupled to the pump suction which creates a poorly developed flow pattern at the pump suction.
With a double-suction pump tied to a close-coupled elbow, flow distribution to the impeller is poor and causes reliability and performance shortfalls. The elbow divides the flow unevenly with more channeled to the outside of the elbow. Consequently, one side of the double-suction impeller receives more flow at a higher flow velocity and pressure while the starved side receives a highly turbulent and potentially damaging flow. This degrades overall pump performance (delivered head, flow and power consumption) and causes axial imbalance which shortens seal, bearing and impeller life.
To overcome cavitation:
Increase suction pressure if possible.
Decrease liquid temperature if possible.
Throttle back on the discharge valve to decrease flow-rate.
Vent gases off the pump casing.
===Control valves===
Cavitation can occur in control valves. If the actual pressure drop across the valve as defined by the upstream and downstream pressures in the system is greater than the sizing calculations allow, pressure drop flashing or cavitation may occur. The change from a liquid state to a vapor state results from the increase in flow velocity at or just downstream of the greatest flow restriction which is normally the valve port. To maintain a steady flow of liquid through a valve the flow velocity must be greatest at the vena contracta or the point where the cross sectional area is the smallest. This increase in flow velocity is accompanied by a substantial decrease in the fluid pressure which is partially recovered downstream as the area increases and flow velocity decreases. This pressure recovery is never completely to the level of the upstream pressure. If the pressure at the vena contracta drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid bubbles will form in the flow stream. If the pressure recovers after the valve to a pressure that is once again above the vapor pressure, then the vapor bubbles will collapse and cavitation will occur.
===Spillways===
When water flows over a dam spillway, the irregularities on the spillway surface will cause small areas of flow separation in a high-speed flow, and, in these regions, the pressure will be lowered. If the flow velocities are high enough the pressure may fall to below the local vapor pressure of the water and vapor bubbles will form. When these are carried downstream into a high pressure region the bubbles collapse giving rise to high pressures and possible cavitation damage.
Experimental investigations show that the damage on concrete chute and tunnel spillways can start at clear water flow velocities of between , and, up to flow velocities of , it may be possible to protect the surface by streamlining the boundaries, improving the surface finishes or using resistant materials.
When some air is present in the water the resulting mixture is compressible and this damps the high pressure caused by the bubble collapses. If the flow velocities near the spillway invert are sufficiently high, aerators (or aeration devices) must be introduced to prevent cavitation. Although these have been installed for some years, the mechanisms of air entrainment at the aerators and the slow movement of the air away from the spillway surface are still challenging.
The spillway aeration device design is based upon a small deflection of the spillway bed (or sidewall) such as a ramp and offset to deflect the high flow velocity flow away from the spillway surface. In the cavity formed below the nappe, a local subpressure beneath the nappe is produced by which air is sucked into the flow. The complete design includes the deflection device (ramp, offset) and the air supply system.
===Engines===
Some larger diesel engines suffer from cavitation due to high compression and undersized cylinder walls. Vibrations of the cylinder wall induce alternating low and high pressure in the coolant against the cylinder wall. The result is pitting of the cylinder wall, which will eventually let cooling fluid leak into the cylinder and combustion gases to leak into the coolant.
It is possible to prevent this from happening with the use of chemical additives in the cooling fluid that form a protective layer on the cylinder wall. This layer will be exposed to the same cavitation, but rebuilds itself. Additionally a regulated overpressure in the cooling system (regulated and maintained by the coolant filler cap spring pressure) prevents the forming of cavitation.
From about the 1980s, new designs of smaller gasoline engines also displayed cavitation phenomena. One answer to the need for smaller and lighter engines was a smaller coolant volume and a correspondingly higher coolant flow velocity. This gave rise to rapid changes in flow velocity and therefore rapid changes of static pressure in areas of high heat transfer. Where resulting vapor bubbles collapsed against a surface, they had the effect of first disrupting protective oxide layers (of cast aluminium materials) and then repeatedly damaging the newly formed surface, preventing the action of some types of corrosion inhibitor (such as silicate based inhibitors). A final problem was the effect that increased material temperature had on the relative electrochemical reactivity of the base metal and its alloying constituents. The result was deep pits that could form and penetrate the engine head in a matter of hours when the engine was running at high load and high speed. These effects could largely be avoided by the use of organic corrosion inhibitors or (preferably) by designing the engine head in such a way as to avoid certain cavitation inducing conditions.
==In nature==
===Geology===
Some hypotheses relating to diamond formation posit a possible role for cavitation—namely cavitation in the kimberlite pipes providing the extreme pressure needed to change pure carbon into the rare allotrope that is diamond. The loudest three sounds ever recorded, during the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, are now understood as the bursts of three huge cavitation bubbles, each larger than the last, formed in the volcano's throat. Rising magma, filled with dissolved gasses and under immense pressure, encountered a different magma that compressed easily, allowing bubbles to grow and combine.
===Vascular plants===
Cavitation can occur in the xylem of vascular plants.
===Spore dispersal in plants===
Cavitation plays a role in the spore dispersal mechanisms of certain plants. In ferns, for example, the fern sporangium acts as a catapult that launches spores into the air. The charging phase of the catapult is driven by water evaporation from the annulus cells, which triggers a pressure decrease. When the compressive pressure reaches approximately 9MPa, cavitation occurs. This rapid event triggers spore dispersal due to the elastic energy released by the annulus structure. The initial spore acceleration is extremely large – up to 10 times the gravitational acceleration.
===Marine life===
Just as cavitation bubbles form on a fast-spinning boat propeller, they may also form on the tails and fins of aquatic animals. This primarily occurs near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is low.
Cavitation may limit the maximum swimming speed of powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna. Dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are painful. Tuna have bony fins without nerve endings and do not feel pain from cavitation. They are slowed down when cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage.
Some sea animals have found ways to use cavitation to their advantage when hunting prey. The pistol shrimp snaps a specialized claw to create cavitation, which can kill small fish. The mantis shrimp (of the smasher variety) uses cavitation as well in order to stun, smash open, or kill the shellfish that it feasts upon.
Thresher sharks use 'tail slaps' to debilitate their small fish prey and cavitation bubbles have been seen rising from the apex of the tail arc.
===Coastal erosion===
In the last half-decade, coastal erosion in the form of inertial cavitation has been generally accepted. Bubbles in an incoming wave are forced into cracks in the cliff being eroded. Varying pressure decompresses some vapor pockets which subsequently implode. The resulting pressure peaks can blast apart fractions of the rock.
== History ==
As early as 1754, the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) speculated about the possibility of cavitation. In 1859, the English mathematician William Henry Besant (1828–1917) published a solution to the problem of the dynamics of the collapse of a spherical cavity in a fluid, which had been presented by the Anglo-Irish mathematician George Stokes (1819–1903) as one of the Cambridge [University] Senate-house problems and riders for the year 1847. In 1894, Irish fluid dynamicist Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) studied the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in boiling liquids and in constricted tubes.
The term cavitation first appeared in 1895 in a paper by John Isaac Thornycroft (1843–1928) and Sydney Walker Barnaby (1855–1925)—son of Sir Nathaniel Barnaby (1829 – 1915), who had been Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy—to whom it had been suggested by the British engineer Robert Edmund Froude (1846–1924), third son of the English hydrodynamicist William Froude (1810–1879). Early experimental studies of cavitation were conducted in 1894–5 by Thornycroft and Barnaby and by the Anglo-Irish engineer Charles Algernon Parsons (1854–1931), who constructed a stroboscopic apparatus to study the phenomenon. Thornycroft and Barnaby were the first researchers to observe cavitation on the back sides of propeller blades.
In 1917, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) extended Besant's work, publishing a mathematical model of cavitation in an incompressible fluid (ignoring surface tension and viscosity), in which he also determined the pressure in the fluid. The mathematical models of cavitation which were developed by British engineer Stanley Smith Cook (1875–1952) and by Lord Rayleigh revealed that collapsing bubbles of vapor could generate very high pressures, which were capable of causing the damage that had been observed on ships' propellers. Experimental evidence of cavitation causing such high pressures was initially collected in 1952 by Mark Harrison (a fluid dynamicist and acoustician at the U.S. Navy's David Taylor Model Basin at Carderock, Maryland, USA) who used acoustic methods and in 1956 by Wernfried Güth (a physicist and acoustician of Göttigen University, Germany) who used optical Schlieren photography.
In 1944, Soviet scientists Mark Iosifovich Kornfeld (1908–1993) and L. Suvorov of the Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute (now: the Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia) proposed that during cavitation, bubbles in the vicinity of a solid surface do not collapse symmetrically; instead, a dimple forms on the bubble at a point opposite the solid surface and this dimple evolves into a jet of liquid. This jet of liquid damages the solid surface. This hypothesis was supported in 1951 by theoretical studies by Maurice Rattray Jr., a doctoral student at the California Institute of Technology. Kornfeld and Suvorov's hypothesis was confirmed experimentally in 1961 by Charles F. Naudé and Albert T. Ellis, fluid dynamicists at the California Institute of Technology.
A series of experimental investigations of the propagation of strong shock wave (SW) in a liquid with gas bubbles, which made it possible to establish the basic laws governing the process, the mechanism for the transformation of the energy of the SW, attenuation of the SW, and the formation of the structure, and experiments on the analysis of the attenuation of waves in bubble screens with different acoustic properties were begun by pioneer works of Soviet scientist prof.V.F. Minin at the Institute of Hydrodynamics (Novosibirsk, Russia) in 1957–1960, who examined also the first convenient model of a screen - a sequence of alternating flat one-dimensional liquid and gas layers. In an experimental investigations of the dynamics of the form of pulsating gaseous cavities and interaction of SW with bubble clouds in 1957–1960 V.F. Minin discovered that under the action of SW a bubble collapses asymmetrically with the formation of a cumulative jet, which forms in the process of collapse and causes fragmentation of the bubble.
|
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"Nathaniel Barnaby",
"spillway",
"kimberlite",
"Emerson Process Management",
"cell (biology)",
"emulsion",
"Sound",
"tracheid",
"YouTube",
"Cracking joints",
"homogenize",
"evapotranspiration",
"pistol shrimp",
"flow velocity",
"sap",
"Hermann von Helmholtz",
"diamond",
"bullet",
"water cooling",
"William Froude",
"Board of Invention and Research",
"protein folding",
"Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet",
"sonochemistry",
"Blood–brain barrier",
"Pascal (unit)",
"coastal erosion",
"Net positive suction head",
"Dispersion (chemistry)",
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"dune",
"polycrystalline diamond",
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"Suction",
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"dolphins",
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"passive sonar"
] |
7,808 |
Cyprinodontiformes
|
Cyprinodontiformes is an order of ray-finned fish, comprising mostly small, freshwater fish. Many popular aquarium fish, such as killifish and live-bearers, are included. They are closely related to the Atheriniformes and are occasionally included with them. A colloquial term for the order as a whole is toothcarps, though they are not actually close relatives of the true carps – the latter belong to the superorder Ostariophysi, while the toothcarps are Acanthopterygii.
The families of Cyprinodontiformes can be informally divided into three groups based on reproductive strategy: viviparous and ovoviviparous (all species give live birth), and oviparous (all species are egg-laying). The live-bearing groups differ in whether the young are carried to term within (ovoviviparous) or without (viviparous) an enclosing eggshell. Phylogenetically however, one of the two suborders – the Aplocheiloidei – contains oviparous species exclusively, as do two of the four superfamilies of the other suborder (the Cyprinodontoidea and Valencioidea of the Cyprinodontoidei). Vivipary and ovovivipary have evolved independently from oviparous ancestors, the latter possibly twice.
The oldest fossil record of the group is the extinct ?Cyprinodon primulus, a nomen vanum known from isolated fossil scales from the Late Paleocene of Argentina. Its exact taxonomic identity is uncertain, although it is generally considered to at least be a true cyprinodontiform.
==Description==
Some members of this order are notable for inhabiting extreme environments, such as saline or very warm waters, heavily polluted waters, rain water pools devoid of minerals and made acidic by decaying vegetation, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur.
They are typically carnivores, and often live near the surface, where the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages. Scheel (1968) observed the gut contents were invariably ants, others have reported insects, worms and aquatic crustaceans. Aquarium specimens are invariably seen eating protozoans from the water column and the surfaces of leaves, however these are not apparent as stomach contents. Many members of the family Cyprinodontidae (the pupfishes) eat plant material as well and some have adapted to a diet very high in algae to the point where one, the Flagfish also known as American flagfish, is a renowned algae eater in the aquarium, in spite of belonging to an order of fishes that do not generally consume any plant material. In addition, killifish derive some of the carotenoids and other chemicals required to make their body pigments from pollen grains on the surface of and in the gut of insects they eat from the surface of the water; this can be simulated in culture by the use of special color enhancing foods that contain these compounds.
Although the Cyprinodontiformes are a diverse group, most species contained within are small to medium-sized fish, with small mouths, large eyes, a single dorsal fin, and a rounded caudal fin. The largest species is the cuatro ojos (Anableps dowei), which measures in length, while the smallest, the least killifish (Heterandria formosa), is just long as an adult.
==Systematics==
Based on Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes (2025):
CYPRINODONTIFORMES
Suborder Aplocheiloidei (all oviparous)
Family Aplocheilidae - Asian killifishes
Family Nothobranchiidae - African killifishes
Family †Kenyaichthyidae (Miocene of Kenya)
Family Rivulidae - New World killifishes
Suborder Cyprinodontoidei
Family Pantanodontidae - spine killifishes (oviparous)
Family Fundulidae - topminnows (oviparous)
Family Cyprinodontidae - pupfishes (oviparous)
Family Profundulidae - Middle American killifishes (oviparous)
Family Goodeidae - splitfins or goodeids (largely viviparous)
Family Fluviphylacidae - American lampeyes (oviparous)
Family Anablepidae - four-eyed fish (largely ovoviviparous)
Family Poecilidae - livebearers (viviparous)
Family Aphaniidae - Oriental killifishes (oviparous)
Family Valenciidae - Valencia toothcarps (oviparous)
Family Procatopodidae - African lampeyes (oviparous)
The family Aplocheilidae has been expanded by some authorities to include all the killifishes with three subfamilies, Aplocheilinae, Cynolebiinae and Nothobranchiinae, but this is not the classification adopted in the 5th Edition of Fishes of the World.
=== Phylogeny ===
Based on:
|
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"Profundulidae",
"Viviparity",
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"Cyprinodontoidei",
"Late Paleocene",
"carotenoids"
] |
7,810 |
Church of the Holy Sepulchre
|
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, also known as the Church of the Resurrection, is a fourth-century church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. The church is the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Some consider it the holiest site in Christianity and it has been an important pilgrimage site for Christians since the fourth century.
According to traditions dating to the fourth century, the church contains both the site where Jesus was crucified at Calvary, or Golgotha, and the location of Jesus's empty tomb, where he was buried and, according to Christian belief, resurrected. Both locations are considered immensely holy sites by Christians. In earlier times, the site was used as a Jewish burial ground, upon which a pagan temple was built. The church and rotunda was built under Constantine in the 4th century and destroyed by al-Hakim in 1009. Al-Hakim's son allowed Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos to reconstruct the church, which was completed in 1048. After it was captured by the Crusaders in 1099, it continued to undergo modifications, resulting in a significant departure from the original structure. Several renovations and restorations were made under the Ottomans. Control of the church itself is shared among several Christian denominations and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for over 160 years, and some for much longer. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopian Orthodox churches. Directly adjacent to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the Church of the Redeemer, marking a Lutheran presence at the site.
==Name==
The church was named either for the Resurrection of Jesus, or for his tomb, which is at its focal point.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is also known as the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre and the Holy Sepulchre.
Eastern Christians also call it the Church of the Resurrection and the Church of the Anastasis, Anastasis being Greek for Resurrection.
==History==
===Background (1st–4th centuries)===
After the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 during the First Jewish–Roman War, Jerusalem had been reduced to ruins. In AD 130, the Roman emperor Hadrian began the building of a Roman colony, the new city of , on the site. About AD 135, he ordered that a cave containing a rock-cut tomb
In 327, Constantine and Helena separately commissioned the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem to commemorate the birth of Jesus.
===Damage and destruction (614–1009)===
The Constantinian sanctuary in Jerusalem was destroyed by a fire in May of 614, when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II,
After Jerusalem came under Islamic rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction or use as living quarters. A story reports that the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony, but at the time of prayer, turned away from the church and prayed outside. He feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius of Alexandria adds that Umar wrote a decree saying that Muslims would not inhabit this location. The building suffered severe damage from an earthquake in 746. Some partial repairs followed. Christian Europe reacted with shock: it was a spur to expulsions of Jews and, later on, the Crusades.
===Reconstruction (11th century)===
In wide-ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027–1028, an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (al-Hakim's son) agreed to allow the rebuilding and redecoration of the church. The rebuilding was finally completed during the tenures of Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Jerusalem in 1048. As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was reopened and the khutba sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name. The chapels were east of the court of resurrection (when reconstructed, the location of the tomb was under open sky), where the western wall of the great basilica had been. They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties of free movement among shrines in the city streets. The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ. They have been described as "a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature" since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica. Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the 11th century found much of the sacred site in ruins.
===Crusader period (1099–1244)===
====Background====
Many historians maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Seljuk invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was also of concern, if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095. The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway. The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abbasids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099.
====Crusaders: reconstruction (12th century) and ownership====
By the Crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been where Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, but there is no evidence of the site's identification before the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to 11th-century repairs by Monomachos.
The Crusaders began to refurnish the church in Romanesque style and added a bell tower.
The royal tombs were looted during the Khwarizmian sack of Jerusalem in 1244 but probably remained mostly intact until 1808 when a fire damaged the church. The tombs may have been destroyed by the fire, or during renovations by the Greek Orthodox custodians of the church in 1809–1810. The remains of the kings may still be in unmarked pits under the church's pavement.
The church was lost to Saladin, Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244. During the Holy Week of 1757, Orthodox Christians reportedly took over some of the Franciscan-controlled church. This may have been the cause of the sultan's firman (decree) later developed into the Status Quo.
A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the rotunda to collapse and smashing the Aedicule's exterior decoration. The rotunda and the Aedicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–10 by architect Nikolaos Ch. Komnenos of Mytilene in the contemporary Ottoman Baroque style. The interior of the antechamber, now known as the Chapel of the Angel, was partly rebuilt to a square ground plan in place of the previously semicircular western end.
Another decree in 1853 from the sultan solidified the existing territorial division among the communities and solidified the Status Quo for arrangements to "remain in their present state", requiring consensus to make even minor changes.{{efn|name=ladder|The need for total agreement for even minor changes is exemplified in the 'immovable ladder' under one of the church's windows; it has remained in the same position since at least 1757, aside from two occasions of temporary removal.
===British Mandate period===
By the time of the British Mandate for Palestine following the end of World War I, the cladding of red limestone applied to the Aedicule by Komnenos had deteriorated badly and was detaching from the underlying structure; from 1947 until restoration work in 2016–17, it was held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British authorities.
====Chapel of St. Vartan====
East of the Chapel of Saint Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a second-century drawing of a Roman pilgrim ship, two low walls supporting the platform of Hadrian's second-century temple, and a higher fourth-century wall built to support Constantine's basilica. After the excavations of the early 1970s, the Armenian authorities converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of Saint Helena. The existence of the original limestone cave walls within the Aedicule was confirmed, and a window was created to view this from the inside. Members of the National Technical University of Athens were present. Initially, only a layer of debris was visible. This was cleared in the next day, and a partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved was revealed.
====2020 pandemic====
On 25 March 2020, Israeli health officials ordered the site closed to the public due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the keeper of the keys, it was the first such closure since 1349, during the Black Death. Clerics continued regular prayers inside the building, and it reopened to visitors two months later, on 24 May.
====Crusader altar slab discovered (2022)====
During church renovations in 2022, a stone slab covered in modern graffiti was moved from a wall, revealing Cosmatesque-style decoration on one face. According to an IAA archaeologist, the decoration was once inlaid with pieces of glass and fine marble; it indicates that the relic was the front of the church's high altar from the Crusader era (c. 1149), which was later used by the Greek Orthodox until being damaged in the 1808 fire.
==Description==
===Parvis (courtyard)===
The courtyard facing the entrance to the church is known as the parvis. Two streets open into the parvis: St Helena Road (west) and Suq ed-Dabbagha (east). Around the parvis are a few smaller structures.
South of the parvis, opposite the church:
Broken columns—once forming part of an arcade—stand opposite the church, at the top of a short descending staircase stretching over the entire breadth of the parvis. In the 13th century, the tops of the columns were removed and sent to Mecca by the Khwarezmids.
The Gethsemane Metochion, a small Greek Orthodox monastery (metochion).
On the eastern side of the parvis, south to north:
The Monastery of St Abraham (Greek Orthodox), next to the Suq ed-Dabbagha entrance to the parvis.
The Chapel of St John the Evangelist (Armenian Orthodox)
The Chapel of St Michael and the Chapel of the Four Living Creatures (both are disputed between the Copts and Ethiopians), giving access to Deir es-Sultan (also disputed), a rooftop monastery surrounding the dome of the Chapel of St Helena.
North of the parvis, in front of the church façade or against it:
Chapel of the Franks (Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows): a blue-domed Roman Catholic Crusader chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows, which once provided exclusive access to Calvary. The chapel marks the 10th Station of the Cross (the stripping of Jesus's garments).
Oratory of St. Mary of Egypt: a Greek Orthodox oratory and chapel, directly beneath the Chapel of the Franks, dedicated to St. Mary of Egypt.
The tomb (including a ledgerstone) of Philip d'Aubigny aka Philip Daubeney (died 1236), a knight, tutor, and royal councillor to Henry III of England and signer of Magna Carta—is placed in front of, and between, the church's two original entrance doors, of which the eastern one is walled up. It is one of the few tombs of crusaders and other Europeans not removed from the Church after the Khwarizmian capture of Jerusalem in 1244. In the 1900s, during a fight between the Greeks and Latins, some monks damaged the tomb by throwing stones from the roof. A stone marker was placed on his tomb in 1925, sheltered by a wooden trapdoor that hides it from view.
A group of three chapels borders the parvis on its west side. They originally formed the baptistery complex of the Constantinian church. The southernmost chapel was the vestibule, the middle chapel the baptistery, and the north chapel the chamber in which the patriarch chrismated the newly baptized before leading them into the rotunda north of this complex. Now they are dedicated as (from south to north)
The Chapel of St. James the Just (Greek Orthodox),
The Chapel of St. John the Baptist (Greek Orthodox),
The Chapel of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Greek Orthodox; at the base of the bell tower).
===Bell tower===
The 12th-century Crusader bell tower is just south of the Rotunda, to the left of the entrance. Its upper level was lost in a 1545 collapse. In 1719, another two storeys were lost.
===Façade and entrance===
The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved arched doors. Today, only the left-hand entrance is currently accessible, as the right doorway has long since been bricked up. The entrance to the church leads to the south transept, through the crusader façade in the parvis of a larger courtyard. This is found past a group of streets winding through the outer Via Dolorosa by way of a souq in the Muristan. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death.
According to their own family lore, the Muslim Nuseibeh family has been responsible for opening the door as an impartial party to the church's denominations already since the seventh century. However, they themselves admit that the documents held by various Christian denominations only mention their role since the 12th century, in the time of Saladin, which is the date more generally accepted. After retaking Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin entrusted the Joudeh family with the key to the church, which is made of iron and long; the Nuseibehs either became or remained its doorkeepers. which has a statue of Mary with an 18th-century bust; this middle altar marks the 13th Station of the Cross.
On the ground floor, just underneath the Golgotha chapel, is the Chapel of Adam. According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried. According to some, the blood of Christ ran down the cross and through the rocks to fill Adam's skull. Through a window at the back of the 11th-century apse, the rock of Calvary can be seen with a crack traditionally held to be caused by the earthquake that followed Jesus's death; some scholars claim it is the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock.
Behind the Chapel of Adam is the Greek Treasury (Treasury of the Greek Patriarch). Some of its relics, such as a 12th-century crystal mitre, were transferred to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Museum (the Patriarchal Museum) on Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Street.
===Stone of Anointing===
Just inside the entrance to the church is the Stone of Anointing (also Stone of the Anointing or Stone of Unction), which tradition holds to be where Jesus's body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea, though this tradition is only attested since the crusader era (notably by the Italian Dominican pilgrim Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in 1288), and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction.
The wall was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; it blocks the view of the rotunda, separates the entrance from the catholicon, sits on top of four of the now empty and desecrated Crusader graves and is no longer structurally necessary. Opinions differ as to whether it is to be seen as the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and located between the 11th and 12th stations on Calvary. that has traditionally been used by the church's Muslim doorkeepers, along with some Christian clergy, as well as electrical wiring. To the right of the entrance is a wall along the ambulatory containing the staircase leading to Golgotha. Further along the same wall is the entrance to the Chapel of Adam.
===Rotunda and Aedicule===
The rotunda is the building of the larger dome located on the far west side. In the centre of the rotunda is a small chapel called the Aedicule in English, from the Latin , in reference to a small shrine. The Aedicule has two rooms: the first holds a relic called the Angel's Stone, which is believed to be a fragment of the large stone that sealed the tomb; the second, smaller room contains the tomb of Jesus. Possibly to prevent pilgrims from removing bits of the original rock as souvenirs, by 1555, a surface of marble cladding was placed on the tomb to prevent further damage to the tomb. To its rear, in the Coptic Chapel, constructed of iron latticework, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox. Historically, the Georgians also retained the key to the Aedicule.
To the right of the sepulchre on the northwestern edge of the rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition, which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.
Though not within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre compound, directly adjacent to it is the Church of the Redeemer, marking a Lutheran presence at the site.
The catholicon's iconostasis demarcates the Orthodox sanctuary behind it, to its east.
The iconostasis is flanked to the front by two episcopal thrones: the southern seat (cathedra) is the patriarchal throne of the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem, and the northern seat is for an archbishop or bishop. (There is also a popular claim that both are patriarchal thrones, with the northern one being for the patriarch of Antioch – which has been described as a misstatement, however.) marked by a stone canopy (the Station of the Holy Women) and a large modern wall mosaic. From here one can enter the Armenian monastery, which stretches over the ground and first upper floor of the church's southeastern part.
===Syriac Chapel with Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea===
West of the Aedicule, to the rear of the Rotunda, is the Syriac Chapel with the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, located in a Constantinian apse and containing an opening to an ancient Jewish rock-cut tomb. This chapel is where the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays.
The Syriac Orthodox Chapel of Saint Joseph of Arimathea and Saint Nicodemus. On Sundays and feast days it is furnished for the celebration of Mass. It is accessed from the Rotunda, by a door west of the Aedicule.
====First-century tomb====
On the far side of the chapel is the low entrance to an almost complete first-century Jewish tomb, initially holding six kokh-type funeral shafts radiating from a central chamber, two of which are still exposed. Although this space was discovered relatively recently and contains no identifying marks, some believe that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were buried here. Since Jews always buried their dead outside the city, the presence of this tomb seems to prove that the Holy Sepulchre site was outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion.
===Franciscan area north of the Aedicule===
The Franciscan Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene – The chapel, an open area, indicates the place where Mary Magdalene met Jesus after his resurrection.
The Franciscan Chapel of the Apparition (Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament), directly north of the above – in memory of Jesus's meeting with his mother after the Resurrection, a non-scriptural tradition.
===Arches of the Virgin===
The Arches of the Virgin are seven arches (an arcade) at the northern end of the north transept, which is to the catholicon's north.
Disputed by the Orthodox and the Latin, the area is used to store ladders.
Over the years the Greek-Orthodox patriarchate placed several icons along the arcade. Dating mostly to the 19th century and designed in Orthodox Post-Byzantine style, they were restored in 2021.
===Prison of Christ===
In the northeast side of the complex, there is the Prison of Christ, alleged to be where Jesus was held. The Greek Orthodox are showing pilgrims yet another place where Jesus was allegedly held, the similarly named Prison of Christ in their , located near the Church of Ecce Homo, between the Second and Third Stations of the Via Dolorosa. The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation at the Second Station of the Via Dolorosa as the Prison of Christ. A cistern among the ruins beneath the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ. To reconcile the traditions, some allege that Jesus was held in the Mount Zion cell in connection with his trial by the Jewish high priest, at the Praetorium in connection with his trial by the Roman governor Pilate, and near the Golgotha before crucifixion.
===Ambulatory===
The chapels in the ambulatory are, from north to south: the Greek Chapel of Saint Longinus (named after Longinus), the Armenian Chapel of the Division of Robes, the entrance to the Chapel of Saint Helena, and the Greek Chapel of the Derision.
===Chapel of Saint Helena===
Chapel of Saint Helena – between the Chapel of the Division of Robes and the Greek Chapel of the Derision are stairs descending to the Chapel of Saint Helena. The Armenians, who own it, call it the Chapel of St. Gregory the Illuminator, after the saint who brought Christianity to the Armenians.
===Chapel of Saint Vartan===
Chapel of St Vartan (or Vardan) Mamikonian – on the north side of the Chapel of Saint Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of Saint Vartan. The latter chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica. These areas are open only on request.
===Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross===
Chapel of the Invention of the Cross (named for the Invention (Finding) of the Holy Cross) – another set of 22 stairs from the Chapel of Saint Helena leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found.
==Status Quo==
===Ottoman decrees===
An Ottoman decree of 1757 helped establish a status quo upholding the state of affairs for various Holy Land sites.
The status quo was upheld in Sultan Abdülmecid I's firman (decree) of 1852/53, which pinned down the now-permanent statutes of property and the regulations concerning the roles of the different denominations and other custodians.
The primary custodians are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic churches. The Greek Orthodox act through the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as well as through the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. Roman Catholics act through the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox also acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures in and around the building.
None of these controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned door-keeping responsibilities to the Muslim Nusaybah family. The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved doors. Despite occasional disagreements, religious services take place in the Church with regularity and coexistence is generally peaceful. An example of concord between the Church custodians is the full restoration of the Aedicule from 2016 to 2017.
===Interdenominational issues===
The establishment of the modern Status Quo in 1853 did not halt controversy and occasional violence.
In 1902, 18 friars were hospitalized and some monks were jailed after the Franciscans and Greeks disagreed over who could clean the lowest step of the Chapel of the Franks. In the aftermath, the Greek patriarch, Franciscan custos, Ottoman governor and French consul general signed a convention that both denominations could sweep it.
On a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fight. In another incident in 2004, during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.
On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out when a Greek monk was ejected from the building by a rival faction. Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers. On Sunday, 9 November 2008, a clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks during celebrations for the Feast of the Cross.
== Issues with Israeli authorities ==
=== Tax and land disputes ===
In February 2018, the church was closed following a tax dispute over 152 million euros of uncollected taxes on church properties. The city hall stressed that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and all other churches are exempt from the taxes, with the changes only affecting establishments like "hotels, halls and businesses" owned by the churches.
There was a lock-in protest against an Israeli legislative proposal which would expropriate church lands that had been sold to private companies since 2010, a measure which church leaders assert constitutes a serious violation of their property rights and the Status Quo. In a joint official statement the church authorities protested what they considered to be the peak of a systematic campaign in:
The 2018 taxation affair does not cover any church buildings or religious related facilities (because they are exempt by law), but commercial facilities such as the Notre Dame Hotel which was not paying the municipal property tax, and any land which is owned and used as a commercial land. The church leaders have said that such a bill will make it harder for them to sell church-owned lands. According to The Jerusalem Post:
{{Blockquote|The stated aim of the bill is to protect homeowners against the possibility that private companies will not extend their leases of land on which their houses or apartments stand.
In June 2019, a number of Christian denominations in Jerusalem raised their voice against the Supreme Court's decision to uphold the sale of three properties by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to Ateret Cohanim – an organization that seeks to increase the number of Jews living in the Old City and East Jerusalem. The church leaders warned that if the organization gets to control the sites, Christians could lose access to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In June 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the sale and ended the legal battle.
==Connection to Roman temple==
The site of the church had been a temple to Jupiter or Venus built by Hadrian before Constantine's edifice was built. Hadrian's temple had been located there because it was the junction of the main north–south road with one of the two main east–west roads and directly adjacent to the forum (now the location of the Muristan, which is smaller than the former forum). The forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north–south road with the other main east–west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east–west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Alexander Nevsky Church complex of the Russian Mission in Exile).
From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure and that the Triportico and Rotunda roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further. Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall of the temple itself would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it) if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made.
==Location==
The New Testament describes Jesus's tomb as being outside the city wall, as was normal for burials across the ancient world, which were regarded as unclean. Today, the site of the Church is within the current walls of the old city of Jerusalem. It has been well documented by archaeologists that in the time of Jesus, the walled city was smaller and the wall then was to the east of the current site of the Church. In other words, the city had been much narrower in Jesus's time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well.
The area immediately to the south and east of the sepulchre was a quarry and outside the city during the early first century as excavations under the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer across the street demonstrated.
The church is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Old City of Jerusalem.
The Christian Quarter and the (also Christian) Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem are both located in the northwestern and western part of the Old City, due to the fact that the Holy Sepulchre is located close to the northwestern corner of the walled city. The adjacent neighbourhood within the Christian Quarter is called the Muristan, a term derived from the Persian word for hospital – Christian pilgrim hospices have been maintained in this area near the Holy Sepulchre since at least the time of Charlemagne.
==Influence==
From the ninth century onward, the construction of churches inspired by the Anastasis was extended across Europe. One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem.
Several churches and monasteries in Europe, for instance, in Germany and Russia, and at least one church in the United States have been wholly or partially modelled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other holy places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land. They include the ("Holy Tomb") of Görlitz, constructed between 1481 and 1504, the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow Oblast, constructed by Patriarch Nikon between 1656 and 1666, and Mount St. Sepulchre Franciscan Monastery built by the Franciscans in Washington, DC in 1898.
Author Andrew Holt writes that the church is the most important in all Christendom.
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7,811 |
Cernunnos
|
Cernunnos is a Celtic god whose name is only clearly attested once, on the 1st-century CE Pillar of the Boatmen from Paris, where it is associated with an image of an aged, antlered figure with torcs around his horns.
Through the Pillar of the Boatmen, the name "Cernunnos" has been used to identify the members of an iconographic cluster, consisting of depictions of an antlered god (often aged and with crossed legs) associated with torcs, ram-horned (or ram-headed) serpents, symbols of fertility, and wild beasts (especially deer). The use of the name this way is common, though not uncontroversial. As many as 25 depictions of the Cernunnos-type have been identified. Though this iconographic group is best attested in north-eastern Gaul, depictions of the god have been identified as far off as Italy (Val Camonica) and Denmark (Gundestrup).
Cernunnos has been variously interpreted as a god of fertility, of the underworld, and of bi-directionality. His cult (attested iconographically as early as the 4th century BCE) seems to have been largely unaffected by the Roman conquest of Gaul, during which he remained unassimilated to the Roman pantheon. Cernunnos has been tentatively linked with Conall Cernach, a hero of medieval Irish mythology, and some later depictions of cross-legged and horned figures in medieval art.
==Name==
===Pillar of the Boatmen===
The Pillar of the Boatmen is a Gallo-Roman carved pillar discovered in 1711 under the choir of Notre-Dame de Paris. It is a religious monument, with depictions of Roman gods (Jupiter, Vulcan, and Castor and Pollux) alongside native Gaulish deities (such as Esus and Smertrios), dedicated by a corporation of boatmen from the city of Lutetia (Roman Paris). The dedication dates it to the reign of Tiberius (14-37 CE). Legends below the images identify the Roman and Gaulish deities by name. In fact, this is the only monument on which Celtic deities are identified by name with captions.
Above the antlered figure is a one-word legend. When information about the pillar was published in 1711, this legend was reported as "Cernunnos". However, the block is now badly damaged. Many of the letters are only partially visible; the letter "C" is entirely gone. The reading from 1711 has sometimes been mistrusted. Joseph Vendryes and Whatmough argue (following the Dacia inscription) that it read "Cernennos". was sceptical about the existence of the final "s".
A wax tablet from Dacia records a decree of 167 CE dissolving one ("collegium of Jupiter Cernenus"), a funerary association. David Fickett-Wilbar identifies this as a reference to Cernunnos, though he comments that it "tells us nothing about the deity other than his name". a hypothesis that has been followed my Michael Altjohann. Le Roux is also sceptical that it is a reference to Cernunnos, as she thinks the interpretatio of Cernunnos as the Roman god Jupiter is unlikely.
===Etymology===
The earliest etymology, proposed by Alfred Holder, connected Cernunnos's name with a Celtic word for horn, a reflex of proto-Indo-European * ("horn, hoof"). Hence, Holder analysed the name as "The Horned God". This etymology has the advantage of a close link with Cernunnos's iconography. However, Ernst Windisch and Leo Weisgerber pointed out that ablaut form of the proto-Indo-European root in Celtic is rather than .
Weisgerber proposed that the theonym derived from proto-Celtic ("angle, excrescence"),{{efn|Attested by Old Irish ("angle, corner"), Middle Welsh ("corner, jaw, cheek, side"), Middle Breton ("top"), Cornish ("Cornwall").
==Iconography==
A large number of images of an antlered figure, similar to that depicted on the Pillar of the Boatmen, have been found. These depict a male figure, often aged, with crossed legs, with antlers atop his head, who is associated with ram-horned (or ram-headed) serpents, torcs, symbols of fertility, and wild beasts (especially deer). At least twenty-five images have been connected with Cernunnos in this way.{{efn|The Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae lists 25 images of Cernunnos. Pierre Lambrechts and Michael Altjohann have even argued that no such well-defined cluster of attributes exists in the archaeological record. More recently, Altjohann has argued that the attributes of the Cernunnos type are freely correlated with other non-Cernunnos types, and that therefore no clearly defined god called Cernunnos can be identified within Roman Gaul. Engraved onto a rock at the prehistoric site of Val Camonica is a tall figure with antlers atop is head, arms in orans position, and a torc around his right arm. Besides him, on his right, are a ram-horned serpent and a smaller man (ithyphallic, arms in orans position). The archaeological evidence for images of deities in Gaul is scant before the Roman conquest. The drawing from Valcamonica dates to 4th century BCE. José Maria Blázquez has argued that a painted vase, dating to the 2nd century BCE, from the Celtiberian site of Numantia, gives another early representation of Cernunnos.
After Christianisation, images of Cernunnos were the subject of iconoclastic destruction. A statue of Cernunnos from Verteuil (Charente, France) was beheaded and the horns of Cernunnos on the Reims altar seem to have been purposefully chipped off. The figure identified as Cernunnos on the 9th-century Clonmacnoise north cross appears to have horns and crossed legs; Fickett-Wilbar argues that these are misidentified ornamental motifs.
===Attributes and associations===
The cross-legged pose of Cernunnos has occasioned much comment. Elaborate diffusionist theories have been proposed to explain the origin of this particular motif. The closest parallel to the Gundestrup scene is given on the Lyon cup, where Cernunnos is surrounded by a deer, a hound, and a (hornless) snake.
|File:Gundestrupkarret2.jpg
|The full scene from Plate A of the Gundestrup Cauldron.
|File:Musée d'Aquitaine - Buste du dieu Cernunnos.jpg
|Three-headed bust of Cernunnos from Condat-sur-Trincou, Dordogne. The central head wears a torc and has holes for antlers. with the possible exception of the Dacia inscription. However, even when paired with Roman deities (as on the Reims altar), Cernunnos's iconography is distinctly Celtic.
Cernunnos does not appear in any ancient sources under his native name. Rankin has also suggested that Cernunnos and Smertrios lay behind the Greek historian Timaeus's description of a cult of the Dioscuri among the oceanic Celts, though Andreas Hofeneder regards this as unprovable.
==Cernunnos and later mythology==
===Conall Cernach===
Conall is a hero of the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. The companion and foster brother of Cúchulainn, he appears in such stories as Táin Bó Cúailnge, and several tales involving Fraích (such as Táin Bó Fraích and Fled Bricrenn). Conall's byname "Cernach" has been linked with Old Irish word (with the meanings of "excrescence, angle", "plate", and "victory"). Through this root, there have been attempts to connect Conall with Cernunnos.
===Other mythologies===
Cernunnos has also been suggested to have survived in other legends. Justin Favrod suggests that a fertility festival (perhaps involving deer costumes), held on the 1 January in some Celtic countries and suppressed by the church after Christianisation, represented a festival to Cernunnos. Gwilherm Berthou equated Cernunnos with the mythical Breton , protector of cattle.
==Neopaganism and Wicca==
Within Neopaganism, specifically the Wiccan tradition, the Horned God is a deity that is believed to be the equal to the Great Goddess and syncretizes various horned or antlered gods from various cultures. The name Cernunnos became associated with the Wiccan Horned God through the adoption of the writings of Margaret Murray, an Egyptologist and folklorist of the early 20th century. Murray, through her Witch-cult hypothesis, believed that the various horned deities found in Europe were expressions of a "proto-horned god" and in 1931 published her theory in The God of the Witches. Her work was considered highly controversial at the time, but was adopted by Gerald Gardner in his development of the religious movement of Wicca.
Within the Wiccan tradition, the Horned God reflects the seasons of the year in an annual cycle of life, death and rebirth and his imagery is a blend of the Gaulish god Cernunnos, the Greek god Pan, The Green Man motif, and various other horned spirit imagery.
|
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7,816 |
Click consonant
|
Click consonants, or clicks, are speech sounds that occur as consonants in many languages of Southern Africa and in three languages of East Africa. Examples familiar to English-speakers are the tut-tut (British spelling) or tsk! tsk! (American spelling) used to express disapproval or pity (IPA ), the tchick! used to spur on a horse (IPA ), and the clip-clop! sound children make with their tongue to imitate a horse trotting (IPA ). However, these paralinguistic sounds in English are not full click consonants, as they only involve the front of the tongue, without the release of the back of the tongue that is required for clicks to combine with vowels and form syllables.
Anatomically, clicks are obstruents articulated with two closures (points of contact) in the mouth, one forward and one at the back. The enclosed pocket of air is rarefied by a sucking action of the tongue (in technical terminology, clicks have a lingual ingressive airstream mechanism). The forward closure is then released, producing what may be the loudest consonants in the language, although in some languages such as Hadza and Sandawe, clicks can be more subtle and may even be mistaken for ejectives.
==Phonetics and IPA notation==
Click consonants occur at six principal places of articulation. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) provides five letters for these places (there is as yet no dedicated symbol for the sixth).
The easiest clicks for English speakers are the dental clicks written with . These are sharp (high-pitched) squeaky sounds made by sucking on the front teeth. A simple dental click is used in English to express pity or to shame someone, or to call a cat or other animal, and is written tut! in British English and tsk! in American English. In many cultures around the Mediterranean a simple dental click is used for "no" in answer to a direct question. They are written with the letter c in Zulu and Xhosa.
Next most familiar to English speakers are the lateral clicks, which are written with . They are also squeaky sounds, though less sharp than , made by sucking on the molars on either side (or both sides) of the mouth. A simple lateral click is made in English to get a horse moving, and is conventionally written tchick!. They are written with the letter x in Zulu and Xhosa.
Then there are the bilabial clicks, written with . These are lip-smacking sounds, but often without the pursing of the lips found in a kiss, that occur in words in only a few languages.
The above clicks sound like affricates, in that they involve a lot of friction. The next two families of clicks are more abrupt sounds that do not have this friction.
With the alveolar clicks, written with , the tip of the tongue is pulled down abruptly and forcefully from the roof of the mouth, sometimes using a lot of jaw motion, and making a hollow pop! like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle. Something like these sounds may be used for a 'clip-clop' sound as noted above. These sounds can be quite loud. They are written with the letter q in Zulu and Xhosa.
The palatal clicks, , are made with a flat tongue that is pulled backward rather than downward, and are sharper cracking sounds than the clicks, like sharply snapped fingers. They are not found in Zulu but are very common in the San languages of southern Africa.
Finally, the retroflex clicks are poorly known, being attested from only a single language, Central !Kung. The tongue is curled back in the mouth, and they are both fricative and hollow sounding, but descriptions of these sounds vary between sources. This may reflect dialect differences. They are perhaps most commonly written , but that is an ad hoc transcription. The expected IPA letter is ( with retroflex tail), and the IPA supported the addition of that letter to Unicode.
Technically, these IPA letters transcribe only the forward articulation of the click, not the entire consonant. As the Handbook states,
Thus technically is not a consonant, but only one part of the articulation of a consonant, and one may speak of "ǂ-clicks" to mean any of the various click consonants that share the place of articulation. In practice, however, the simple letter has long been used as an abbreviation for , and in that role it is sometimes seen combined with diacritics for voicing (e.g. for ), nasalization (e.g. for ), etc. These differing transcription conventions may reflect differing theoretical analyses of the nature of click consonants, or attempts to address common misunderstandings of clicks.
==Languages with clicks==
=== Southern Africa ===
Clicks occur in all three Khoisan language families of southern Africa, where they may be the most numerous consonants. To a lesser extent they occur in three neighbouring groups of Bantu languages—which borrowed them, directly or indirectly, from Khoisan. In the southeast, in eastern South Africa, Eswatini, Lesotho, Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique, they were adopted from a Tuu language (or languages) by the languages of the Nguni cluster (especially Zulu, Xhosa and Phuthi, but also to a lesser extent Swazi and Ndebele), and spread from them in a reduced fashion to the Zulu-based pidgin Fanagalo, Sesotho, Tsonga, Ronga, the Mzimba dialect of Tumbuka and more recently to Ndau and urban varieties of Pedi, where the spread of clicks continues. The second point of transfer was near the Caprivi Strip and the Okavango River where, apparently, the Yeyi language borrowed the clicks from a West Kalahari Khoe language; a separate development led to a smaller click inventory in the neighbouring Mbukushu, Kwangali, Gciriku, Kuhane and Fwe languages in Angola, Namibia, Botswana and Zambia. These sounds occur not only in borrowed vocabulary, but have spread to native Bantu words as well, in the case of Nguni at least partially due to a type of word taboo called hlonipha. Some creolised varieties of Afrikaans, such as Oorlams, retain clicks in Khoekhoe words.
=== East Africa ===
Three languages in East Africa use clicks: Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania, and Dahalo, an endangered South Cushitic language of Kenya that has clicks in only a few dozen words. It is thought the latter may remain from an episode of language shift.
=== Damin ===
The only non-African language known to have clicks as regular speech sounds is Damin, a ritual code once used by speakers of Lardil in Australia. In addition, one consonant in Damin is the egressive equivalent of a click, using the tongue to compress the air in the mouth for an outward (egressive) "spurt".
== Use ==
===Spread of clicks from loanwords===
Once clicks are borrowed into a language as regular speech sounds, they may spread to native words, as has happened due to hlonipa word-taboo in the Nguni languages. In Gciriku, for example, the European loanword tomate (tomato) appears as cumáte with a click , though it begins with a t in all neighbouring languages. It has also been argued that click phonemes have been adopted into some languages through the process of hlonipha, women refraining from saying certain words and sounds that were similar to the name of their husband, sometimes replacing local sounds by borrowing clicks from a nearby language.
=== Marginal usage of clicks ===
Scattered clicks are found in ideophones and mimesis in other languages, such as Kongo , Mijikenda and Hadza (Hadza does not otherwise have labial clicks). Ideophones often use phonemic distinctions not found in normal vocabulary.
English and many other languages may use bare click releases in interjections, without an accompanying rear release or transition into a vowel, such as the dental "tsk-tsk" sound used to express disapproval, or the lateral tchick used with horses. In a number of languages ranging from the central Mediterranean to Iran, a bare dental click release accompanied by tipping the head upwards signifies "no". Libyan Arabic apparently has three such sounds. A voiceless nasal back-released velar click is used throughout Africa for backchanneling. This sound starts off as a typical click, but the action is reversed and it is the rear velar or uvular closure that is released, drawing in air from the throat and nasal passages.
Lexical clicks occasionally turn up elsewhere. In West Africa, clicks have been reported allophonically, and similarly in French and German, faint clicks have been recorded in rapid speech where consonants such as and overlap between words. In Rwanda, the sequence may be pronounced either with an epenthetic vowel, , or with a light bilabial click, —often by the same speaker.
Speakers of Gan Chinese from Ningdu county, as well as speakers of Mandarin from Beijing and Jilin and presumably people from other parts of the country, produce flapped nasal clicks in nursery rhymes with varying degrees of competence, in the words for 'goose' and 'duck', both of which begin with in Gan and until recently began with in Mandarin as well. In Gan, the nursery rhyme is,
天上一隻鵝 'a goose in the sky'
地下一隻鴨 'a duck on the ground'
鵝生鵝蛋鵝孵鵝 'a goose lays a goose egg, a goose hatches a goose'
鴨生鴨蛋鴨孵鴨 'a duck lays a duck egg, a duck hatches a duck'
where the onsets are all pronounced .
Occasionally other languages are claimed to have click sounds in general vocabulary. This is usually a misnomer for ejective consonants, which are found across much of the world.
=== Position in word ===
For the most part, the Southern African Khoisan languages only use root-initial clicks. Hadza, Sandawe and several Bantu languages also allow syllable-initial clicks within roots. In no language does a click close a syllable or end a word, but since the languages of the world that happen to have clicks consist mostly of CV syllables and allow at most only a limited set of consonants (such as a nasal or a glottal stop) to close a syllable or end a word, most consonants share the distribution of clicks in these languages.
=== Number of click-types in languages ===
Most languages of the Khoesan families (Tuu, Kxʼa and Khoe) have four click types: or variants thereof, though a few have three or five, the last supplemented with either bilabial or retroflex . Hadza and Sandawe in Tanzania have three, . Yeyi is the only Bantu language with four, , while Xhosa and Zulu have three, , and most other Bantu languages with clicks have fewer.
==Types of clicks==
Like other consonants, clicks can be described using four parameters: place of articulation, manner of articulation, phonation (including glottalisation) and airstream mechanism. As noted above, clicks necessarily involve at least two closures, which in some cases operate partially independently: an anterior articulation traditionally represented by the special click symbol in the IPA—and a posterior articulation traditionally transcribed for convenience as oral or nasal, voiced or voiceless, though such features actually apply to the entire consonant. The literature also describes a contrast between velar and uvular rear articulations for some languages.
In some languages that have been reported to make this distinction, such as Nǁng, all clicks have a uvular rear closure, and the clicks explicitly described as uvular are in fact cases where the uvular closure is independently audible: contours of a click into a pulmonic or ejective component, in which the click has two release bursts, the forward (click-type) and then the rearward (uvular) component. "Velar" clicks in these languages have only a single release burst, that of the forward release, and the release of the rear articulation isn't audible. However, in other languages all clicks are velar, and a few languages, such as Taa, have a true velar–uvular distinction that depends on the place rather than the timing of rear articulation and that is audible in the quality of the vowel.
Regardless, in most of the literature the stated place of the click is the anterior articulation (called the release or influx), whereas the manner is ascribed to the posterior articulation (called the accompaniment or efflux). The anterior articulation defines the click type and is written with the IPA letter for the click (dental , alveolar , etc.), whereas the traditional term 'accompaniment' conflates the categories of manner (nasal, affricated), phonation (voiced, aspirated, breathy voiced, glottalised), as well as any change in the airstream with the release of the posterior articulation (pulmonic, ejective), all of which are transcribed with additional letters or diacritics, as in the nasal alveolar click, or or—to take an extreme example—the voiced (uvular) ejective alveolar click, .
The size of click inventories ranges from as few as three (in Sesotho) or four (in Dahalo), to dozens in the Kxʼa and Tuu (Northern and Southern Khoisan) languages. Taa, the last vibrant language in the latter family, has 45 to 115 click phonemes, depending on analysis (clusters vs. contours), and over 70% of words in the dictionary of this language begin with a click.
Clicks appear more stop-like (sharp/abrupt) or affricate-like (noisy) depending on their place of articulation: In southern Africa, clicks involving an apical alveolar or laminal postalveolar closure are acoustically abrupt and sharp, like stops, whereas labial, dental and lateral clicks typically have longer and acoustically noisier click types that are superficially more like affricates. In East Africa, however, the alveolar clicks tend to be flapped, whereas the lateral clicks tend to be more sharp.
==Transcription==
The five click places of articulation with dedicated symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are labial , dental , palatal ("palato-alveolar") , (post)alveolar ("retroflex") and lateral . In most languages, the alveolar and palatal types are abrupt; that is, they are sharp popping sounds with little frication (turbulent airflow). The labial, dental and lateral types, on the other hand, are typically noisy: they are longer, lip- or tooth-sucking sounds with turbulent airflow, and are sometimes called affricates. (This applies to the forward articulation; both may also have either an affricate or non-affricate rear articulation as well.) The apical places, and , are sometimes called "grave", because their pitch is dominated by low frequencies; whereas the laminal places, and , are sometimes called "acute", because they are dominated by high frequencies. (At least in the Nǁng language and Juǀʼhoan, this is associated with a difference in the placement of the rear articulation: "grave" clicks are uvular, whereas "acute" clicks are pharyngeal.) Thus the alveolar click sounds something like a cork pulled from a bottle (a low-pitch pop), at least in Xhosa; whereas the dental click is like English tsk! tsk!, a high-pitched sucking on the incisors. The lateral clicks are pronounced by sucking on the molars of one or both sides. The labial click is different from what many people associate with a kiss: the lips are pressed more-or-less flat together, as they are for a or an , not rounded as they are for a .
The most populous languages with clicks, Zulu and Xhosa, use the letters c, q, x, by themselves and in digraphs, to write click consonants. Most Khoisan languages, on the other hand (with the notable exceptions of Naro and Sandawe), use a more iconic system based on the pipe . (The exclamation point for the "retroflex" click was originally a pipe with a subscript dot, along the lines of ṭ, ḍ, ṇ used to transcribe the retroflex consonants of India.) There are also two main conventions for the second letter of the digraph as well: voicing may be written with g and uvular affrication with x, or voicing with d and affrication with g (a convention of Afrikaans). In two orthographies of Juǀʼhoan, for example, voiced is written g! or dq, and !x or qg. In languages without , such as Zulu, may be written gq.
was proposed as the IPA letter for a palatal click by Daniel Jones, but in his writing he called it 'velar', which was evidently misunderstood by other phoneticians. A replacement of was proposed by Clement Doke, and of by Beach. (The former is not supported by Unicode, and is here substituted with an arrow.) Doke and Beach used additional or modified letters for voiced and nasal clicks, but these did not catch on.
The labial and palatal clicks do not occur in written Bantu languages. However, the palatal clicks have been romanised in Naron, Juǀʼhõasi and !Xun, where they have been written , and , respectively. In the 19th century, they were sometimes written , which might be source of the Doke letter .
There are a few less-well-attested articulations. A reported subapical retroflex articulation in Grootfontein !Kung turns out to be alveolar with lateral release, ; Ekoka !Kung has a fricated alveolar click with an s-like release, provisionally transcribed ; and Sandawe has a "slapped" alveolar click, provisionally transcribed (in turn, the lateral clicks in Sandawe are more abrupt and less noisy than in southern Africa). However, the Khoisan languages are poorly attested, and it is quite possible that, as they become better described, more click articulations will be found.
Formerly when a click consonant was transcribed, two symbols were used, one for each articulation, and connected with a tie bar. This is because a click such as was analysed as a voiced uvular rear articulation pronounced simultaneously with the forward ingressive release . The symbols may be written in either order, depending on the analysis: or . However, a tie bar was not often used in practice, and when the manner is tenuis (a simple ), it was often omitted as well. That is, = = = = . Regardless, elements that do not overlap with the forward release are usually written according to their temporal order: Prenasalisation is always written first ( = = ), and the non-lingual part of a contour is always written second ( = = ).
However, it is common to analyse clicks as simplex segments, despite the fact that the front and rear articulations are independent, and to use diacritics to indicate the rear articulation and the accompaniment. At first this tended to be for , based on the belief that the rear articulation was velar; but as it has become clear that the rear articulation is often uvular or even pharyngeal even when there is no velar–uvular contrast, voicing and nasalisation diacritics more in keeping with the IPA have started to appear: for .
In practical orthography, the voicing or nasalisation is sometimes given the anterior place of articulation: dc for and mʘ for , for example.
In the literature on Damin, the clicks are transcribed by adding to the homorganic nasal: .
==Places of articulation==
Places of articulation are often called click types, releases, or influxes, though 'release' is also used for the accompaniment/efflux. There are seven or eight known places of articulation, not counting slapped or egressive clicks. These are (bi)labial affricated , or "bilabial"; laminal denti-alveolar affricated , or "dental"; apical (post)alveolar plosive , or "alveolar"; laminal palatal plosive , or "palatal"; laminal palatal affricated (known only from Ekoka !Kung); subapical postalveolar , or "retroflex" (only known from Central !Kung and possibly Damin); and apical (post)alveolar lateral , or "lateral".
Languages illustrating each of these articulations are listed below. Given the poor state of documentation of Khoisan languages, it is quite possible that additional places of articulation will turn up. No language is known to contrast more than five.
Extra-linguistically, Coatlán Zapotec of Mexico uses a linguolabial click, , as mimesis for a pig drinking water, and several languages, such as Wolof, use a velar click , long judged to be physically impossible, for backchanneling and to express approval. An extended dental click with lip pursing or compression ("sucking-teeth"), variable in sound and sometimes described as intermediate between and , is found across West Africa, the Caribbean and into the United States.
The exact place of the alveolar clicks varies between languages. The lateral, for example, is alveolar in Khoekhoe but postalveolar or even palatal in Sandawe; the central is alveolar in Nǀuu but postalveolar in Juǀʼhoan.
===Names found in the literature===
The terms for the click types were originally developed by Bleek in 1862. Since then there has been some conflicting variation. However, apart from "cerebral" (retroflex), which was found to be an inaccurate label when true retroflex clicks were discovered, Bleek's terms are still considered normative today. Here are the terms used in some of the main references.
The dental, lateral and bilabial clicks are rarely confused, but the palatal and alveolar clicks frequently have conflicting names in older literature, and non-standard terminology is fossilized in Unicode. However, since Ladefoged & Traill (1984) clarified the places of articulation, the terms listed under Vosser (2013) in the table above have become standard, apart from such details as whether in a particular language and are alveolar or postalveolar, or whether the rear articulation is velar, uvular or pharyngeal, which again varies between languages (or may even be contrastive within a language).
==Manners of articulation==
Click manners are often called click accompaniments or effluxes, but both terms have met with objections on theoretical grounds.
There is a great variety of click manners, both simplex and complex, the latter variously analysed as consonant clusters or contours. With so few click languages, and so little study of them, it is also unclear to what extent clicks in different languages are equivalent. For example, the of Khoekhoe, of Sandawe and of Hadza may be essentially the same phone; no language distinguishes them, and the differences in transcription may have more to do with the approach of the linguist than with actual differences in the sounds. Such suspected allophones/allographs are listed on a common row in the table below.
Some Khoisan languages are typologically unusual in allowing mixed voicing in non-click consonant clusters/contours, such as , so it is not surprising that they would allow mixed voicing in clicks as well. This may be an effect of epiglottalised voiced consonants, because voicing is incompatible with epiglottalisation.
===Phonation===
As do other consonants, clicks vary in phonation. Oral clicks are attested with four phonations: tenuis, aspirated, voiced and breathy voiced (murmured). Nasal clicks may also vary, with plain voiced, breathy voiced / murmured nasal, aspirated and unaspirated voiceless clicks attested (the last only in Taa). The aspirated nasal clicks are often said to have 'delayed aspiration'; there is nasal airflow throughout the click, which may become voiced between vowels, though the aspiration itself is voiceless. A few languages also have pre-glottalised nasal clicks, which have very brief prenasalisation but have not been phonetically analysed to the extent that other types of clicks have.
All languages have nasal clicks, and all but Dahalo and Damin also have oral clicks. All languages but Damin have at least one phonation contrast as well.
===Complex clicks===
Clicks may be pronounced with a third place of articulation, glottal. A glottal stop is made during the hold of the click; the (necessarily voiceless) click is released, and then the glottal hold is released into the vowel. Glottalised clicks are very common, and they are generally nasalised as well. The nasalisation cannot be heard during the click release, as there is no pulmonic airflow, and generally not at all when the click occurs at the beginning of an utterance, but it has the effect of nasalising preceding vowels, to the extent that the glottalised clicks of Sandawe and Hadza are often described as prenasalised when in medial position. Two languages, Gǀwi and Yeyi, contrast plain and nasal glottalised clicks, but in languages without such a contrast, the glottalised click is nasal. Miller (2011) analyses the glottalisation as phonation, and so considers these to be simple clicks.
Various languages also have prenasalised clicks, which may be analysed as consonant sequences. Sotho, for example, allows a syllabic nasal before its three clicks, as in nnqane 'the other side' (prenasalised nasal) and seqhenqha 'hunk'.
There is ongoing discussion as to how the distinction between what were historically described as 'velar' and 'uvular' clicks is best described. The 'uvular' clicks are only found in some languages, and have an extended pronunciation that suggests that they are more complex than the simple ('velar') clicks, which are found in all. Nakagawa (1996) describes the extended clicks in Gǀwi as consonant clusters, sequences equivalent to English st or pl, whereas Miller (2011) analyses similar sounds in several languages as click–non-click contours, where a click transitions into a pulmonic or ejective articulation within a single segment, analogous to how English ch and j transition from occlusive to fricative but still behave as unitary sounds. With ejective clicks, for example, Miller finds that although the ejective release follows the click release, it is the rear closure of the click that is ejective, not an independently articulated consonant. That is, in a simple click, the release of the rear articulation is not audible, whereas in a contour click, the rear (uvular) articulation is audibly released after the front (click) articulation, resulting in a double release.
These contour clicks may be linguo-pulmonic, that is, they may transition from a click (lingual) articulation to a normal pulmonic consonant like (e.g. ); or linguo-glottalic and transition from lingual to an ejective consonant like (e.g. ): that is, a sequence of ingressive (lingual) release + egressive (pulmonic or glottalic) release. In some cases there is a shift in place of articulation as well, and instead of a uvular release, the uvular click transitions to a velar or epiglottal release (depending on the description, or ). Although homorganic does not contrast with heterorganic in any known language, they are phonetically quite distinct (Miller 2011).
Implosive clicks, i.e. velar , uvular , and de facto front-closed palatal are not only possible but easier to produce than modally voiced clicks. However, they are not attested in any language.
Apart from Dahalo, Damin and many of the Bantu languages (Yeyi and Xhosa being exceptions), 'click' languages have glottalized nasal clicks. Contour clicks are restricted to southern Africa, but are very common there: they are found in all members of the Tuu, Kxʼa and Khoe families, as well as in the Bantu language Yeyi.
===Variation among languages===
In a comparative study of clicks across various languages, using her own field work as well as phonetic descriptions and data by other field researchers, Miller (2011) posits 21 types of clicks that contrast in manner or airstream. The homorganic and heterorganic affricated ejective clicks do not contrast in any known language, but are judged dissimilar enough to keep separate. Miller's conclusions differ from those of the primary researcher of a language; see the individual languages for details.
Taa (ǃXóõ) and Nǁng (Nǀuu) are Tuu languages, from the two branches of that family.
ǂʼAmkoe (ǂHoan) and Juǀʼhoan (ǃKung) are Kxʼa languages, from the two branches of that family.
Korana and Gǀui (Gǁana) are Khoe languages, from the two branches of that family.
(all spoken primarily in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana; Khoekhoe is similar to Korana except it has lost ejective )
Sandawe and Hadza are language isolates spoken in Tanzania
Dahalo is a Cushitic language of Kenya
Xhosa and Yeyi are Bantu languages, from the two geographic areas of that family that have acquired clicks.
(Zulu is similar to Xhosa apart from not having )
Damin was an initiation jargon in northern Australia.
Each language below is illustrated with Ʞ as a placeholder for the different click types. Under each language are the orthography (in italics, with old forms in parentheses), the researchers' transcription (in ), or allophonic variation (in [brackets]). Some languages also have labialised or prenasalised clicks in addition to those listed below.
Yeyi also has prenasalised . The original researchers believe that and are allophones.
A DoBeS (2008) study of the Western ǃXoo dialect of Taa found several new manners: creaky voiced (the voiced equivalent of glottalised oral), breathy-voiced nasal, prenasalised glottalised (the voiced equivalent of glottalised) and a (pre)voiced ejective. These extra voiced clicks reflect Western ǃXoo morphology, where many nouns form their plural by voicing their initial consonant. DoBeS analyses most Taa clicks as clusters, leaving nine basic manners (marked with asterisks in the table). This comes close to Miller's distinction between simple and contour clicks, shaded light and medium grey in the table.
==Phonotactics==
Languages of the southern African Khoisan families only permit clicks at the beginning of a word root. However, they also restrict other classes of consonant, such as ejectives and affricates, to root-initial position. The Bantu languages, Hadza and Sandawe allow clicks within roots.
In some languages, all click consonants within known roots are the same phoneme, as in Hadza cikiringcingca 'pinkie finger', which has three tenuis dental clicks. Other languages are known to have the occasional root with different clicks, as in Xhosa ugqwanxa 'black ironwood', which has a slack-voiced alveolar click and a nasal lateral click.
No natural language allows clicks at the ends of syllables or words, but then no languages with clicks allows many consonants at all in those positions. Similarly, clicks are not found in underlying consonant clusters apart from /Cw/ (and, depending on the analysis, /Cχ/), as languages with clicks do not have other consonant clusters than that. Due to vowel elision, however, there are cases where clicks are pronounced in cross-linguistically common types of consonant clusters, such as Xhosa Snqobile, from Sinqobile (a name), and isXhosa, from isiXhosa (the Xhosa language).
Like other articulatorily complex consonants, clicks tend to be found in lexical words rather than in grammatical words, but this is only a tendency. In Nǁng, for example, there are two sets of personal pronouns, a full one without clicks and a partial set with clicks (ńg 'I', á 'thou', í 'we all', ú 'you', vs. nǀǹg 'I', gǀà 'thou', gǀì 'we all', gǀù 'you'), as well as other grammatical words with clicks such as ǁu 'not' and nǀa 'with, and'.
===The back-vowel constraint===
In several languages, including Nama and Juǀʼhoan, the alveolar click types and only occur, or preferentially occur, before back vowels, whereas the dental and palatal clicks occur before any vowel. The effect is most noticeable with the high front vowel . In Nama, for example, the diphthong is common but is rare after alveolar clicks, whereas the opposite is true after dental and palatal clicks. This is a common effect of uvular or uvularised consonants on vowels in both click and non-click languages. In Taa, for example, the back-vowel constraint is triggered by both alveolar clicks and uvular stops, but not by palatal clicks or velar stops: sequences such as and are rare to non-existent, whereas sequences such as and are common. The back-vowel constraint is also triggered by labial clicks, though not by labial stops. Clicks subject to this constraint involve a sharp retraction of the tongue during release.
Miller and colleagues (2003) used ultrasound imaging to show that the rear articulation of the alveolar clicks () in Nama is substantially different from that of palatal and dental clicks. Specifically, the shape of the body of the tongue in palatal clicks is very similar to that of the vowel , and involves the same tongue muscles, so that sequences such as involved a simple and quick transition. The rear articulation of the alveolar clicks, however, is several centimetres further back, and involves a different set of muscles in the uvular region. The part of the tongue required to approach the palate for the vowel is deeply retracted in , as it lies at the bottom of the air pocket used to create the vacuum required for click airstream. This makes the transition required for much more complex and the timing more difficult than the shallower and more forward tongue position of the palatal clicks. Consequently, takes 50 ms longer to pronounce than , the same amount of time required to pronounce .
Languages do not all behave alike. In Nǀuu, the simple clicks trigger the and allophones of and , whereas do not. All of the affricated contour clicks, such as , do as well, as do the uvular stops . However, the occlusive contour clicks pattern like the simple clicks, and does not trigger the back-vowel constraint. This is because they involve tongue-root raising rather than tongue-root retraction in the uvular-pharyngeal region. However, in Gǀwi, which is otherwise largely similar, both and trigger the back-vowel constraint (Miller 2009).
==Click genesis and click loss==
One genetic study concluded that clicks, which occur in the languages of the genetically divergent populations Hadza and !Kung, may be an ancient element of human language. However, this conclusion relies on several dubious assumptions (see Hadza language), and most linguists assume that clicks, being quite complex consonants, arose relatively late in human history. How they arose is not known, but it is generally assumed that they developed from sequences of non-click consonants, as they are found allophonically for doubly articulated consonants in West Africa, for sequences that overlap at word boundaries in German, Such developments have also been posited in historical reconstruction. For example, the Sandawe word for 'horn', , with a lateral affricate, may be a cognate with the root found throughout the Khoe family, which has a lateral click. This and other words suggests that at least some Khoe clicks may have formed from consonant clusters when the first vowel of a word was lost; in this instance * > * > .
On the other side of the equation, several non-endangered languages in vigorous use demonstrate click loss. For example, the East Kalahari languages have lost clicks from a large percentage of their vocabulary, presumably due to Bantu influence. As a rule, a click is replaced by a consonant with close to the manner of articulation of the click and the place of articulation of the forward release: alveolar click releases (the family) tend to mutate into a velar stop or affricate, such as ; palatal clicks (the family) tend to mutate into a palatal stop such as , or a post-alveolar affricate ; and dental clicks (the family) tend to mutate into an alveolar affricate .
==Difficulty==
Clicks are often presented as difficult sounds to articulate within words. However, children acquire them readily; a two-year-old, for example, may be able to pronounce a word with a lateral click with no problem, but still be unable to pronounce . Lucy Lloyd reported that after long contact with the Khoi and San, it was difficult for her to refrain from using clicks when speaking English.
|
[
"voiced alveolar click",
"Korana language",
"hlonipa",
"ideophone",
"Tuu languages",
"Khoekhoe language",
"lateral consonant",
"Unicode",
"Damin",
"French language",
"postalveolar consonant",
"stop consonant",
"Kenya",
"Wolof language",
"Zambia",
"affricate",
"ǂHoan language",
"Bulgarian language",
"Armenian language",
"Ekoka !Kung",
"Daniel Jones (phonetician)",
"glottal stop",
"Advanced and retracted tongue root",
"Avoidance speech",
"palatal click",
"Kuhane language",
"phonation",
"Lardil language",
"Tumbuka language",
"Mbukushu language",
"Namibia",
"Tonga language (Zambia)",
"Airstream mechanism",
"West Africa",
"Oorlams Creole",
"Gciriku language",
"Levantine Arabic",
"Rainer Vossen",
"pharyngeal consonant",
"Angola",
"creolised",
"postalveolar click",
"ǂʼAmkoe language",
"southern Africa",
"alveolar click",
"Greek language",
"backchannel (linguistics)",
"Sandawe language",
"hlonipha",
"Mexico",
"Mijikenda language",
"Coatlán Zapotec",
"ǁXegwi language",
"linguolabial",
"obstruent",
"click letters",
"voiced consonant",
"consonants",
"elision",
"dental click",
"bilabial click",
"Bilabial click",
"Yeyi language",
"Naro language",
"millisecond",
"nasal consonant",
"Sotho language",
"root word",
"Turkish language",
"dental consonant",
"Swazi language",
"contour (linguistics)",
"back vowel",
"Mozambique",
"alveolar consonant",
"Zimbabwe",
"ultrasound imaging",
"Kongo language",
"manner of articulation",
"Ejective-contour click",
"interjection",
"Jilin",
"Nasal click consonant",
"pidgin",
"International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)",
"tenuis dental click",
"Fanagalo",
"breathy voice",
"Click letter",
"Fwe language",
"Cushitic languages",
"Ningdu",
"place of articulation",
"Caprivi Strip",
"uvular consonant",
"Sublaminal lower alveolar click",
"Kwangali language",
"Pedi language",
"velar consonant",
"Linguistic typology",
"aspirated consonant",
"rarefaction",
"Alveolar click",
"Central !Kung",
"List of phonetics topics",
"apical consonant",
"tenuis consonant",
"Catalan language",
"mimesis",
"slack voice",
"Libyan Arabic",
"Back-released click",
"Zulu language",
"retracted tongue root",
"ejective consonant",
"Vertical bar",
"homorganic",
"retroflex click",
"Maltese language",
"Tanzania",
"syllable",
"Lesotho",
"East Africa",
"Douglas Martyn Beach",
"Palatal click",
"Phuthi language",
"Grootfontein !Kung",
"tut-tut",
"Gǀwi dialect",
"lexical words",
"Clicking noise",
"ǀXam language",
"paralinguistic",
"labial consonant",
"flap consonant",
"Glottalised click",
"Persian language",
"International Phonetic Alphabet",
"Clement Martyn Doke",
"Xhosa language",
"Bantu languages",
"Place of articulation",
"back-released velar click",
"Retroflex click",
"Epiglottal consonant",
"Pulmonic-contour click consonant",
"Ejective-contour click consonant",
"Specials (Unicode block)",
"lateral click",
"Sesotho phonology",
"Nasal click",
"Sprachbund",
"Ronga language",
"labial click",
"domed click",
"English language",
"Southern Ndebele language",
"Juǀʼhoan language",
"Ndau language",
"Khoe languages",
"Backchannel (linguistics)",
"Hadza language",
"Fricated alveolar click",
"Gǀwi language",
"Sesotho language",
"Dahalo language",
"Romanian language",
"Kwadi language",
"Tenuis consonant",
"nasal lateral click",
"velar click",
"Lucy Lloyd",
"South Africa",
"laminal consonant",
"slapped click",
"Australia",
"Khoisan languages",
"doubly articulated consonant",
"Kxʼa languages",
"Swati language",
"Okavango River",
"Pulmonic-contour click",
"grammatical word",
"Olea capensis",
"Gan Chinese",
"Juǀʼhoan dialect",
"Rwanda language",
"Nguni languages",
"consonant cluster",
"Sicilian language",
"personal pronoun",
"Taa language",
"Lateral click",
"language shift",
"language isolate",
"Nama language",
"digraph (orthography)",
"Eswatini",
"sucking-teeth",
"Southern Africa",
"Dental click",
"Botswana",
"airstream mechanism",
"Tsonga language",
"linguolabial click",
"Egressive sound",
"Nǁng language"
] |
7,817 |
The Cider House Rules
|
The Cider House Rules (1985) is a novel by American writer John Irving, a Bildungsroman that was later adapted into a 1999 film and a stage play by Peter Parnell. The story, set in the pre– and post–World War II era, tells of a young man, Homer Wells, growing up under the guidance of Dr. Wilbur Larch, an obstetrician and abortion provider. The story relates his early life at Larch's orphanage in Maine and follows Homer as he eventually leaves the nest and comes of age.
==Plot==
Homer Wells is shown growing up in an orphanage where he spends his childhood trying to be "of use" as a medical assistant to director Dr. Wilbur Larch, whose history is told in flashbacks: After a traumatic misadventure with a prostitute as a young man, Wilbur turns his back on sex and love, choosing instead to help women with unwanted pregnancies give birth and then keeping the babies in an orphanage.
He makes a point of maintaining an emotional distance from the orphans, so that they can more easily make the transition into an adoptive family, but when it becomes clear that Homer is going to spend his childhood at the orphanage, Wilbur trains the orphan as an obstetrician and comes to love him like a son.
Wilbur's and Homer's lives are complicated by the abortions Wilbur provides. Wilbur came to this work reluctantly, but is driven by having seen the horrors of back-alley operations. Homer, upon learning Wilbur's secret, considers it morally wrong.
As a young man, Homer befriends a young couple, Candy Kendall and Wally Worthington, who come to St. Cloud's for an abortion. Homer leaves the orphanage, and returns with them to Wally's family's orchard in Heart's Rock, near the Maine coast. Wally and Homer become best friends and Homer develops a secret love for Candy. Wally goes off to serve in the Second World War and his plane is shot down over Burma. He is declared missing by the military, but Homer and Candy both believe he is dead and move on with their lives, which includes beginning a romantic relationship. When Candy becomes pregnant, they go back to St. Cloud's Orphanage, where their son is born and named Angel.
Subsequently, Wally is found in Burma and returns home, paralyzed from the waist down. He is still able to have sexual intercourse but is sterile due to an infection caught in Burma. Homer and Candy lie to the family about Angel's parentage, claiming that Homer had adopted him. Wally and Candy marry shortly afterward, but Candy and Homer maintain a secret affair that lasts some 15 years.
Many years later, teenaged Angel falls in love with Rose, the daughter of the head migrant worker at the apple orchard. Rose becomes pregnant by her father, and Homer aborts her fetus. Homer decides to return to the orphanage after Wilbur's death, to work as the new director. Though he maintains his distaste for abortions, he continues Dr. Larch's legacy of performing the procedure for those in need, and he dreams of the day when abortions are legal.
The name "The Cider House Rules" refers to the list of rules that migrant workers are supposed to follow at the Ocean View Orchards. However, none of them can read, and they are completely unaware of the rules – which have been posted for years.
A subplot follows the character Melony, who grew up alongside Homer in the orphanage. She was Homer's first girlfriend. After Homer leaves the orphanage, so does she in an effort to find him. She eventually becomes an electrician and takes a female lover, Lorna. Melony is stoic, who refuses to press charges against a man who brutally broke her nose and arm. She intends to later take revenge. She is the catalyst that transforms Homer from his comfortable, but not entirely admirable position, at the apple orchard into Dr. Larch's replacement.
==Background==
Wally's experience getting shot down over Burma was based in part on that of Irving's biological father (whom he never met), who was shot down over Burma and survived.
==Film adaptation==
The novel was adapted into a film of the same name released in 1999 directed by Lasse Hallström. It starred Tobey Maguire as Homer Wells.
|
[
"Peter Parnell",
"A Prayer for Owen Meany",
"The Cider House Rules (film)",
"Bildungsroman",
"William Morrow and Company",
"migrant worker",
"orphan",
"Hardcover",
"obstetrician",
"prostitute",
"Coming of age",
"Bildungsromane",
"World War II",
"Lasse Hallström",
"flashback (continuity)",
"Burma",
"John Irving",
"The Hotel New Hampshire",
"Tobey Maguire"
] |
7,818 |
Consumer
|
A consumer is a person or a group who intends to order, or use purchased goods, products, or services primarily for personal, social, family, household and similar needs, who is not directly related to entrepreneurial or business activities. The term most commonly refers to a person who purchases goods and services for personal use.
==Rights==
"Consumers, by definition, include us all", said President John F. Kennedy, offering his definition to the United States Congress on March 15, 1962. This speech became the basis for the creation of World Consumer Rights Day, now celebrated on March 15. In his speech, John Fitzgerald Kennedy outlined the integral responsibility to consumers from their respective governments to help exercise consumers' rights, including:
The right to safety: To be protected against the marketing of goods that are hazardous to health or life.
The right to be informed: To be protected against fraudulent, deceitful, or grossly misleading information, advertising, labeling, or other practices, and to be given the facts he needs to make an informed choice.
The right to choose: To be assured, wherever possible, access to a variety of products and services at competitive prices; and in those industries in which competition is not workable and Government regulation is substituted, an assurance of satisfactory quality and service at fair prices.
The right to seek redressal: Consumers have the right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices and exploitation. If any damage is done to a consumer, he has the right to get compensation depending on the degree of damage.
The right to represent: Thus, the Act has enabled us as consumers to have the right to represent in the consumer courts.
==Economics and marketing==
In an economy, a consumer buys goods or services primarily for consumption and not for resale or for commercial purposes. Consumers pay some amount of money (or equivalent) for goods or services.) then consume (use up). As such, consumers play a vital role in the economic system of a capitalist system
and form a fundamental part of any economy.
Without consumer demand, producers would lack one of the key motivations to produce: to sell to consumers. The consumer also forms one end of the chain of distribution.
Recently in marketing, instead of marketers generating broad demographic profiles and Fisio-graphic profiles of market segments, marketers have started to engage in personalized marketing, permission marketing, and mass customization to target potential consumers.
Largely due to the rise of the Internet, consumers are shifting more and more toward becoming prosumers, consumers who are also producers (often of information and media on the social web) - they influence the products created (e.g. by customization, crowdfunding or publishing their preferences), actively participate in the production process, or use interactive products.
==Law and politics==
The law primarily uses a notion of the consumer in relation to consumer protection laws, and the definition of consumer is often restricted to living persons (not corporations or businesses) and excludes commercial users. A typical legal rationale for protecting the consumer is based on the notion of policing market failures and inefficiencies, such as inequalities of bargaining power between a consumer and a business. As all potential voters are also consumers, consumer protection has a clear political significance.
Concern over the interests of consumers has spawned consumer activism, where organized activists do research, education and advocacy to improve the offer of products and services. Consumer education has been incorporated into some school curricula. There are also various non-profit publications, such as Which?, Consumer Reports and Choice magazine, dedicated to assist in consumer education and decision making.
In India, the Consumer Protection Act of 1986 differentiates the consumption of a commodity or service for personal use or to earn a livelihood. Only consumers are protected per this act and any person, entity or organization purchasing a commodity for commercial reasons are exempted from any benefits of this act.{{cite web
| url = http://www.consumerdaddy.com/a-23-consumer-customer.htm
| title = Consumer vs Customer
| publisher = Consumerdaddy.com
| access-date = 2010-03-10
| quote = The consumer protection act 1986 of India, is a little more generous with the word 'Consumer'. According to this law, a consumer is not only a person who uses the product for domestic personal use, but also one who uses the product to earn his daily livelihood.
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100406020320/http://www.consumerdaddy.com/a-23-consumer-customer.htm
| archive-date = 2010-04-06
| url-status = dead
|
[
"Which?",
"Consumer behaviour",
"Consumer culture",
"prosumer",
"distribution (marketing)",
"Consumer organization",
"Consumer debt",
"market segmentation",
"Alpha consumer",
"demographic profile",
"Informed consumer",
"Consumers' co-operative",
"Consumer leverage ratio",
"Capitalism",
"Consumerism",
"United States Congress",
"consumer protection",
"commerce",
"Consumption (disambiguation)",
"Customer",
"Consumer culture theory",
"personalized marketing",
"social web",
"economic system",
"social",
"Internet",
"Consumer Reports",
"Service (economics)",
"John F. Kennedy",
"Sales",
"mass customization",
"Alexander Chayanov",
"Consumer rights",
"Consumer Protection Act, 1986",
"Born to Buy: The Commercialized Child and the New Consumer Culture",
"Production (economics)",
"interactive products",
"market failure",
"Consumer education",
"permission marketing",
"Consumer choice",
"marketing",
"Consumption (economics)",
"consumer goods in the Soviet Union",
"Choice (Australian magazine)",
"crowdfunding",
"economy",
"goods",
"consumer activism",
"production (economics)",
"Consumer reporting agency",
"demand"
] |
7,819 |
Cactus
|
{{Automatic taxobox
|fossil_range = Late Eocene - Recent
|image =
File:Various Cactaceae.jpg|275px
poly 1 743 270 749 299 461 517 314 597 0 5 0 Opuntia cochenillifera
poly 270 750 318 849 600 842 521 314 303 462 Cephalocereus senilis
poly 599 3 521 308 603 849 755 1094 739 1513 793 1570 942 1566 948 1041 1118 1020 1295 673 1283 506 1167 482 1208 313 1298 146 1277 0 Carnegiea gigantea
poly 1166 481 1401 526 1650 463 1653 3 1281 0 1300 143 1210 311 Mammillaria longimamma
poly 1 744 2 1465 94 1421 143 1357 211 1330 292 1386 267 1241 208 1029 327 863 267 749 Rhipsalis paradoxa
poly 296 1383 211 1028 328 864 324 851 597 844 751 1091 741 1377 Ferocactus hamatacanthus
poly 1122 1022 1277 1082 1416 1111 1654 1098 1654 465 1401 526 1287 506 1296 675 Echinopsis oxygona
poly 950 1042 942 1564 897 1569 909 1820 985 1810 1071 1737 1103 1808 1283 1798 1458 1762 1549 1846 1654 1844 1654 1099 1416 1113 1279 1083 1119 1022 Selenicereus grandiflorus
poly 1 1905 157 1893 261 1920 286 2363 2 2361 Echinocereus pectinatus
poly 264 1920 159 1890 1 1906 2 1469 94 1422 144 1355 210 1330 290 1384 742 1379 738 1509 743 1586 730 1627 768 1744 694 1835 653 1906 511 1958 507 2140 556 2237 621 2257 619 2363 287 2363 Leuchtenbergia principis
poly 621 2363 625 2257 559 2235 510 2137 515 1958 653 1908 767 1744 732 1626 743 1588 739 1516 790 1572 898 1569 907 1817 986 1811 1072 1740 1099 1807 1214 1806 1223 1963 1137 2194 1132 2363 Disocactus ackermannii
poly 1216 1804 1290 1798 1458 1762 1546 1848 1653 1845 1654 2363 1135 2361 1141 2193 1227 1963 Melocactus intortus
|image_caption = Various Cactaceae from Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon v. 2 1892
|taxon = Cactaceae
|authority = Juss. Cacti occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes. They are native to the Americas, ranging from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north, with the exception of Rhipsalis baccifera, which is also found in Africa and Sri Lanka. Cacti are adapted to live in very dry environments, including the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on Earth. Because of this, cacti show many adaptations to conserve water. For example, almost all cacti are succulents, meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts adapted to store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of most cacti where this vital process takes place. Most species of cacti have lost true leaves, retaining only spines, which are highly modified leaves. As well as defending against herbivores, spines help prevent water loss by reducing air flow close to the cactus and providing some shade. In the absence of true leaves, cacti's enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis.
Cactus spines are produced from specialized structures called areoles, a kind of highly reduced branch. Areoles are an identifying feature of cacti. As well as spines, areoles give rise to flowers, which are usually tubular and multipetaled. Many cacti have short growing seasons and long dormancies and are able to react quickly to any rainfall, helped by an extensive but relatively shallow root system that quickly absorbs any water reaching the ground surface. Cactus stems are often ribbed or fluted with a number of ribs which corresponds to a number in the Fibonacci numbers (2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 etc.). This allows them to expand and contract easily for quick water absorption after rain, followed by retention over long drought periods. Like other succulent plants, most cacti employ a special mechanism called "crassulacean acid metabolism" (CAM) as part of photosynthesis. Transpiration, during which carbon dioxide enters the plant and water escapes, does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but instead occurs at night. The plant stores the carbon dioxide it takes in as malic acid, retaining it until daylight returns, and only then using it in photosynthesis. Because transpiration takes place during the cooler, more humid night hours, water loss is significantly reduced.
Many smaller cacti have globe-shaped stems, combining the highest possible volume for water storage with the lowest possible surface area for water loss from transpiration. The tallest{{efn|group=Note|The tallest living cactus is a specimen of Pachycereus pringlei. The tallest cactus ever measured was an armless saguaro cactus which blew over in a windstorm in July 1986; it was tall. They also used to corral animals. The woody parts of cacti, such as Cereus repandus and Echinopsis atacamensis, are used in buildings and in furniture. The frames of wattle and daub houses built by the Seri people of Mexico may use parts of the saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea). The very fine spines and hairs (trichomes) of some cacti were used as a source of fiber for filling pillows and in weaving.
==Conservation==
All cacti are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which "lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled." Control is exercised by making international trade in most specimens of cacti illegal unless permits have been issued, at least for exports. Some exceptions are allowed, e.g., for "naturalized or artificially propagated plants". Some cacti, such as all Ariocarpus and Discocactus species, are included in the more restrictive Appendix I,
Conservation of cacti can be in situ or ex situ. In situ conservation involves preserving habits through enforcement of legal protection and the creation of specially protected areas such as national parks and reserves. Examples of such protected areas in the United States include Big Bend National Park, Texas; Joshua Tree National Park, California; and Saguaro National Park, Arizona. Latin American examples include Parque Nacional del Pinacate, Sonora, Mexico and Pan de Azúcar National Park, Chile. Ex situ conservation aims to preserve plants and seeds outside their natural habitats, often with the intention of later reintroduction. Botanical gardens play an important role in ex situ conservation; for example, seeds of cacti and other succulents are kept in long-term storage at the Desert Botanical Garden, Arizona.
==Cultivation==
The popularity of cacti means many books are devoted to their cultivation. Cacti naturally occur in a wide range of habitats and are then grown in many countries with different climates, so precisely replicating the conditions in which a species normally grows is usually not practical. A broad distinction can be made between semidesert cacti and epiphytic cacti, which need different conditions and are best grown separately. This section is primarily concerned with the cultivation of semidesert cacti in containers and under protection, such as in a greenhouse or in the home, rather than cultivation outside in the ground in those climates that permit it. For the cultivation of epiphytic cacti, see Cultivation of Schlumbergera (Christmas or Thanksgiving cacti), and Cultivation of epiphyllum hybrids.
===Growing medium===
The purpose of the growing medium is to provide support and to store water, oxygen and dissolved minerals to feed the plant. In the case of cacti, there is general agreement that an open medium with a high air content is important. When cacti are grown in containers, recommendations as to how this should be achieved vary greatly; Miles Anderson says that if asked to describe a perfect growing medium, "ten growers would give 20 different answers". Roger Brown suggests a mixture of two parts commercial soilless growing medium, one part hydroponic clay and one part coarse pumice or perlite, with the addition of soil from earthworm castings. The general recommendation of 25–75% organic-based material, the rest being inorganic such as pumice, perlite or grit, is supported by other sources. However, the use of organic material is rejected altogether by others; Hecht says that cacti (other than epiphytes) "want soil that is low in or free of humus", and recommends coarse sand as the basis of a growing medium.
===Watering===
Semi-desert cacti need careful watering. General advice is hard to give, since the frequency of watering required depends on where the cacti are being grown, the nature of the growing medium, and the original habitat of the cacti. Brown says that more cacti are lost through the "untimely application of water than for any other reason" and that even during the dormant winter season, cacti need some water. Other sources say that water can be withheld during winter (November to March in the Northern Hemisphere). Another issue is the hardness of the water; where it is necessary to use hard water, regular re-potting is recommended to avoid the build up of salts. The general advice given is that during the growing season, cacti should be allowed to dry out between thorough waterings. A water meter can help in determining when the soil is dry.
===Light and temperature===
Although semi-desert cacti may be exposed to high light levels in the wild, they may still need some shading when subjected to the higher light levels and temperatures of a greenhouse in summer. Allowing the temperature to rise above is not recommended. The minimum winter temperature required depends very much on the species of cactus involved. For a mixed collection, a minimum temperature of between and is often suggested, except for cold-sensitive genera such as Melocactus and Discocactus. Some cacti, particularly those from the high Andes, are fully frost-hardy when kept dry (e.g. Rebutia minuscula survives temperatures down to in cultivation) and may flower better when exposed to a period of cold.
===Propagation===
Cacti can be propagated by seed, cuttings or grafting. Seed sown early in the year produces seedlings that benefit from a longer growing period. Seed is sown in a moist growing medium and then kept in a covered environment, until 7–10 days after germination, to avoid drying out. A very wet growing medium can cause both seeds and seedlings to rot. A temperature range of is suggested for germination; soil temperatures of around promote the best root growth. Low light levels are sufficient during germination, but afterwards semi-desert cacti need higher light levels to produce strong growth, although acclimatization is needed to conditions in a greenhouse, such as higher temperatures and strong sunlight.
Reproduction by cuttings makes use of parts of a plant that can grow roots. Some cacti produce "pads" or "joints" that can be detached or cleanly cut off. Other cacti produce offsets that can be removed. Otherwise, stem cuttings can be made, ideally from relatively new growth. It is recommended that any cut surfaces be allowed to dry for a period of several days to several weeks until a callus forms over the cut surface. Rooting can then take place in an appropriate growing medium at a temperature of around .
Grafting is used for species difficult to grow well in cultivation or that cannot grow independently, such as some chlorophyll-free forms with white, yellow or red bodies, or some forms that show abnormal growth (e.g., cristate or forms). For the host plant (the stock), growers choose one that grows strongly in cultivation and is compatible with the plant to be propagated: the scion. The grower makes cuts on both stock and scion and joins the two, binding them together while they unite. Various kinds of graft are used—flat grafts, where both scion and stock are of similar diameters, and cleft grafts, where a smaller scion is inserted into a cleft made in the stock.
Commercially, huge numbers of cacti are produced annually. For example, in 2002 in Korea alone, 49 million plants were propagated, with a value of almost US$9 million. Most of them (31 million plants) were propagated by grafting.
===Pests and diseases===
A range of pests attack cacti in cultivation. Those that feed on sap include mealybugs, living on both stems and roots; scale insects, generally only found on stems; whiteflies, which are said to be an "infrequent" pest of cacti; red spider mites, which are very small but can occur in large numbers, constructing a fine web around themselves and badly marking the cactus via their sap sucking, even if they do not kill it; and thrips, which particularly attack flowers. Some of these pests are resistant to many insecticides, although there are biological controls available. Roots of cacti can be eaten by the larvae of sciarid flies and fungus gnats. Slugs and snails also eat cacti.
Fungi, bacteria and viruses attack cacti, the first two particularly when plants are over-watered. Fusarium rot can gain entry through a wound and cause rotting accompanied by red-violet mold. "Helminosporium rot" is caused by Bipolaris cactivora ( Helminosporium cactivorum); Phytophthora species also cause similar rotting in cacti. Fungicides may be of limited value in combating these diseases. Several viruses have been found in cacti, including cactus virus X. These appear to cause only limited visible symptoms, such as chlorotic (pale green) spots and mosaic effects (streaks and patches of paler color). However, in an Agave species, cactus virus X has been shown to reduce growth, particularly when the roots are dry. There are no treatments for virus diseases.
|
[
"Behbahan",
"xerophytes",
"Ant",
"Opuntia stricta",
"Bee",
"fruit",
"Selenicereus undatus",
"nopal",
"cactus virus X",
"bat",
"opuntia",
"Carl Linnaeus",
"Pereskia aculeata",
"houseplant",
"shrub",
"Galápagos Islands",
"Caryophyllales",
"Eocene",
"Aztecs",
"Echinopsis atacamensis",
"Early Cretaceous",
"Brazil",
"Africa",
"Peniocereus",
"Hypanthium",
"Hawaii",
"digestive tract",
"Plant stem",
"Rhodes University",
"Echinocactus platyacanthus",
"carbon dioxide",
"Myrtillocactus",
"Canada",
"type (biology)",
"succulent plant",
"Echinocereus pectinatus",
"Ferocactus cylindraceus",
"auxin",
"hard water",
"epiphyllum hybrid",
"Nahuatl",
"Floral symmetry",
"Astrophytum capricorne",
"Ovary (plants)",
"isotopic signature",
"C3 carbon fixation",
"Cephalocereus senilis",
"Didiereaceae",
"Bolivia",
"tepal",
"sepal",
"monophyly",
"crassulacean acid metabolism",
"bird pollination",
"Pen (enclosure)",
"Bipolaris cactivora",
"transpiration",
"Rhipsalis",
"Australian Weeds Committee",
"chlorophyll",
"Fusarium oxysporum",
"Disocactus",
"habit (biology)",
"Eulychnia",
"Copiapoa",
"Mammillaria elongata",
"Singapore Botanic Gardens",
"Areole",
"Atacama Desert",
"Serra da Capivara National Park",
"grafting",
"Weeds of National Significance",
"International Organization for Succulent Plant Study",
"Root",
"Coquimbo",
"Late Cretaceous",
"Australia",
"saguaro",
"Opuntioideae",
"Cereus repandus",
"Iran",
"Selenicereus",
"Echinocactus grusonii",
"Ovary (botany)",
"Melocactus",
"British Columbia",
"herbal medicine",
"Miquihuana, Tamaulipas",
"Diego Rivera",
"areole",
"Arabian Peninsula",
"petal",
"Neoraimondia",
"Mexican golden eagle",
"Cylindropuntia",
"Opuntia",
"petals",
"New World",
"Zimapan",
"Molecular phylogenetics",
"Seri people",
"Transpiration",
"stamen",
"plant",
"pumice",
"List of North American deserts",
"Tetranychus urticae",
"Mammillaria rekoi",
"growing medium",
"Rhipsalideae",
"Plant cuticle",
"Sciaridae",
"enzyme",
"Magnolia Press",
"acclimatization",
"Alberta",
"Bird migration",
"polyploid",
"Echinopsis",
"basal (phylogenetics)",
"Paraphyly",
"Andes",
"Epiphyte",
"Tenochtitlan",
"Echinopsis lageniformis",
"Saint Peter",
"Galápagos tortoise",
"stock (grafting)",
"Ancient Greek",
"Bark (botany)",
"Chile",
"Fibonacci numbers",
"xeriscaping",
"Pereskia",
"chloroplast",
"Oligocene",
"Stoma (botany)",
"vacuole",
"Hummingbird",
"biological control",
"Trunk (botany)",
"herbarium",
"trichome",
"Cutting (plant)",
"nectar",
"Mammillaria",
"scion (grafting)",
"Insecticide resistance",
"re-potting",
"wikt:Tenochtitlan",
"Frailea",
"crassulean acid metabolism",
"Fungicides",
"Hylocereeae",
"Blossfeldia liliputiana",
"Opuntia cochenillifera",
"Classification of the Cactaceae",
"humus",
"Upiga virescens",
"cultivar",
"Shoot (botany)",
"Agave",
"Opuntia chlorotica",
"Leuchtenbergia principis",
"Leuenbergeria",
"midden",
"Philip Miller",
"fungus gnat",
"Discocactus",
"CITES",
"Circumscription (taxonomy)",
"Echinocereus",
"hydroponic",
"chlorotic",
"Slug",
"succulent",
"Desert Botanical Garden",
"Zootaxa",
"Euphorbiaceae",
"Epiphyllum hybrid",
"meristem",
"Old World",
"North America",
"Arizona",
"Thorns, spines, and prickles",
"Browningia candelaris",
"sepals",
"pollinator",
"leaf",
"Pollination",
"San Diego County Fair",
"flowers",
"Aizoaceae",
"Cactoblastis cactorum",
"Botanical garden",
"suffix",
"Stenocereus eruca",
"Pan de Azúcar National Park",
"Rebutia minuscula",
"scale insect",
"Carnegiea gigantea",
"Blossfeldia",
"Aztec codices",
"Pitaya",
"cochineal",
"Mexico",
"cleistogamy",
"taproot",
"Argentina",
"Ferocactus latispinus",
"Cochineal",
"Saguaro National Park",
"branch",
"Caatinga",
"Theophrastus",
"axillary bud",
"Selenicereus grandiflorus",
"mealybug",
"Big Bend National Park",
"stem succulent",
"Crassulacean acid metabolism",
"whitefly",
"Joshua Tree National Park",
"Ferocactus",
"eudicots",
"Ground tissue",
"Mammillaria longimamma",
"Sonoran Desert",
"Succulent plant",
"Rebutia",
"Echinopsis oxygona",
"cardoon",
"seed",
"West Indies",
"Hatiora",
"Pachycereus pringlei",
"cactus fence",
"Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity",
"Rhipsalis baccifera",
"El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve",
"Miocene",
"Gondwana",
"Cellular respiration",
"Maihuenioideae",
"Ferocactus pilosus",
"Gymnocalycium",
"epiphyte",
"Opuntia ficus-indica",
"Callus (cell biology)",
"malic acid",
"South America",
"Organ (biology)",
"Sclerocactus papyracanthus",
"Antoine Laurent de Jussieu",
"monophyletic",
"Peru",
"Stenocereus thurberi",
"Leaf",
"3-phosphoglycerate",
"drought",
"Ariocarpus",
"Schlumbergera",
"Schlumbergera truncata",
"Phytotaxa",
"bird",
"carbohydrate",
"Hylocereus",
"Catholic Church",
"Curt Backeberg",
"Central America",
"photosynthesis",
"Stigma (botany)",
"coastal plains",
"Stenocereus queretaroensis",
"Native American Church",
"Peyote",
"clade",
"Maihuenia poeppigii",
"Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus",
"cladogram",
"water conservation",
"Carmine",
"pollination syndrome",
"Rhipsalis paradoxa",
"David Hunt (botanist)",
"stoma",
"Species Plantarum",
"Pelecyphora strobiliformis",
"glochid",
"Cactoideae",
"convergent evolution",
"Cereus (plant)",
"Computational phylogenetics",
"Radiocarbon dating",
"Internode (botany)",
"Fasciation",
"Americas",
"Cleistocactus",
"Datura ferox",
"CGIAR",
"Sri Lanka",
"Lophocereus schottii",
"bract",
"Pliocene",
"Patagonia",
"Cephalocereus",
"wattle and daub",
"Ferocactus hamatacanthus",
"Algeria",
"Pachycereus",
"Saguaro",
"growing season",
"Receptacle (botany)",
"cladode",
"India",
"flower",
"Melocactus intortus",
"New Mexico",
"thrips",
"Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi",
"perlite",
"Pereskiopsis",
"Copiapoa atacamensis",
"California",
"Neowerdermannia vorwerkii",
"Disocactus ackermannii",
"Sicily",
"snail",
"Mediterranean region",
"coat of arms of Mexico",
"Gynoecium",
"Frida Kahlo",
"Maihuenia",
"Palisade cell",
"Maihueniopsis",
"Madagascar",
"Ferocactus echidne",
"Conserved name",
"spine (botany)",
"Rhodocactus",
"Psychoactive drug",
"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants",
"Photosynthesis",
"Pereskioideae",
"pitaya",
"Pilosocereus",
"mescaline",
"Opuntia microdasys",
"Rhodocactus grandifolius",
"Mexico City",
"herbivore"
] |
7,820 |
CCC
|
CCC may refer to:
== Arts and entertainment ==
CCC, the production code for the 1970 Doctor Who serial The Ambassadors of Death
Color Climax Corporation, a Danish pornography producer
Comics Campaign Council, a British pressure group against horror comics
=== Music ===
Canadian Chamber Choir
== Christianity ==
Calvinist Cadet Corps, mentoring organization
Campus Crusade for Christ, later Cru (Christian organization), interdenominational
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Celestial Church of Christ, an African Church
China Christian Council, Protestant organization
Christian Cultural Center, non-denominational, New York City, US
Clearwater Christian College, Florida, US
Colorado Community Church, interdenominational, U.S.
Community Christian College, Redlands, California, U.S.
== Companies ==
Canadian Commercial Corporation, supporting exporters
Canterbury of New Zealand, a sports apparel company
CCC Film, a film production company in Germany
Color Climax Corporation, a Danish pornography company
Commodity Credit Corporation, US corporation supporting farmers
Consolidated Contractors Company, Middle East
Cooper Cameron Corporation, later Cameron International
Copyright Clearance Center, a U.S. company
Crane Carrier Company, a U.S. truck manufacturer
Cwmni Cyfyngedig Cyhoeddus, a Welsh form of public limited company
== Education ==
=== In the U.S. ===
California Community Colleges System
Camden County College, New Jersey
Cayuga Community College, New York
City Colleges of Chicago
Clackamas Community College, Oregon City, Oregon
Clatsop Community College, Clatsop County, Oregon
Clearwater Central Catholic High School, Florida
Clinton Community College (Iowa), Clinton, Iowa
Clovis Community College (California), Clovis, California
Clovis Community College (New Mexico), Clovis, New Mexico
Club Coordination Council, University of Notre Dame, Indiana student union
Coahoma Community College, Mississippi
Coconino County Community College, Flagstaff, Arizona
Columbia College Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Cuyahoga Community College, Ohio
=== In other places ===
Canadian Computing Competition
Castleknock Community College, Carpenterstown, Dublin, Ireland
Cebu Central Colleges, later University of Cebu, Philippines
Centro de Capacitación Cinematográfica, film school in Mexico City
City College of Calamba, Philippines
Cooloola Christian College, Gympie, Queensland, Australia
Corpus Christi College (disambiguation), several colleges
== Law ==
California Coastal Commission
China Compulsory Certificate, a safety mark
Citizens' Committee for Children
Corruption and Crime Commission of Western Australia
Cox's Criminal Cases, law reports
Crime and Corruption Commission, Queensland, Australia
=== Civil authorities ===
Chittagong City Corporation, Bangladesh
== Organizations and organizing ==
=== Conservation ===
California Conservation Corps
Cetacean Conservation Center, Chile
Civilian Conservation Corps, US work program 1933–42
Climate Change Committee, UK
=== Politics ===
Center for Community Change, US
Christchurch City Council, local government authority for Christchurch in New Zealand
Citizens Coalition For Change, a Zimbabwean political party
Climate Change Coalition, Australian political party
Command for Hunting Communists, 1960s Brazilian paramilitary terrorist group
Communist Combatant Cells, a 1980s Belgian terrorist organization
Communist Committee of Cabinda, a separatist group in the Cabinda exclave of Angola
Council of Conservative Citizens, a US white separatist organization
Customs Cooperation Council, an intergovernmental organization
National Coloured Congress, previously the Cape Coloured Congress (CCC)
== Science and technology ==
Comb ceramic culture
Conformal cyclic cosmology, a cosmological model
Countercurrent chromatography, a chromatographic technique
Cryogenic current comparator, precision ammeter
cccDNA (covalently closed circlular DNA), a special form of DNA
CCC, a codon for the amino acid proline
=== Computing ===
Chaos Computer Club, hacker organisation
Citizen Cyberscience Centre, based in Switzerland
Computational Complexity Conference, academic conference
Corsham Computer Centre, UK Royal Navy
Color Cell Compression, an algorithm
=== Mathematics ===
Cartesian closed category, a concept in category theory
CCC, Roman numeral for 300
Countable chain condition, in order theory
CCCn, cube-connected cycles of order n in graph theory
=== Medicine ===
Continuous curvilinear capsulorhexis, a type of cataract surgery
Clinical Care Classification System, US standardized nursing terminology
== Sport ==
CONCACAF Champions Cup, Continental Football Tournament
Annual California Coast Classic Bike Tour
Cascade Collegiate Conference, U.S.
Annual Cascade Cycling Classic, U.S. race
CCC Pro Team, cycling team, Poland
Central Connecticut Conference, U.S.
Colombo Cricket Club, Sri Lanka
Commonwealth Coast Conference, former name of the US college athletic conference now known as the Conference of New England
Compton Cricket Club, a California exhibition cricket club
County cricket club
Courmayeur - Champex - Chamonix, a 101 km running race along the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc
Cross Country Canada, skiing governing body
Northern California Junior College Conference, originally called the California Coast Conference
== Other uses ==
California Correctional Center, a US state prison
Carly Colón or Carlito Caribbean Cool (born 1979), Puerto Rican wrestler
Cash Conversion Cycle, in management accounting
Colorado Convention Center, US
Crescent City Connection, twin cantilever bridges
Jardines del Rey Airport, Cuba, by IATA code
The Capacity to Combat Corruption (CCC) Index, a report by Americas Quarterly magazine
William Ralston Balch (1852 – 1923), American journalist who wrote by the pseudonym C. C. C.
|
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"Triple C's",
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"300 (number)",
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"Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc",
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"Customs Cooperation Council",
"China Christian Council",
"University of Cebu",
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"Americas Quarterly",
"Clinical Care Classification System",
"proline",
"Canterbury of New Zealand",
"Countable chain condition",
"Clearwater Christian College",
"Copyright Clearance Center",
"Cetacean Conservation Center",
"Citizens Coalition For Change",
"California Coast Classic Bike Tour",
"CCCC (disambiguation)",
"Conformal cyclic cosmology",
"Castleknock Community College",
"Canadian Computing Competition",
"City College of Calamba",
"Citizens' Committee for Children",
"Columbia College Chicago",
"Cuyahoga Community College",
"Colorado Community Church",
"Comb ceramic culture",
"Cascade Cycling Classic",
"Countercurrent chromatography",
"Chaos Computer Club",
"Cryogenic current comparator",
"Calvinist Cadet Corps",
"Command for Hunting Communists",
"Communist Committee of Cabinda",
"Cameron International",
"City Colleges of Chicago",
"Cash Conversion Cycle",
"Jardines del Rey Airport",
"Centro de Capacitación Cinematográfica",
"Citizen Cyberscience Centre",
"Color Cell Compression",
"Cooloola Christian College"
] |
7,821 |
Civilian Conservation Corps
|
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a voluntary government work relief program that ran from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men ages 18–25 and eventually expanded to ages 17–28. The CCC was a major part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal that supplied manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state, and local governments. The CCC was designed to supply jobs for young men and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. There was eventually a smaller counterpart program for unemployed women called the She-She-She Camps, which were championed by Eleanor Roosevelt.
Robert Fechner was the first director of this agency, succeeded by James McEntee following Fechner's death. The largest enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Through the course of its nine years in operation, three million young men took part in the CCC, which provided them with shelter, clothing, and food, together with a monthly wage of $30 (), $25 of which () had to be sent home to their families.
The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs. Sources written at the time claimed an individual's enrollment in the CCC led to improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC also led to a greater public awareness and appreciation of the outdoors and the nation's natural resources, and the continued need for a carefully planned, comprehensive national program for the protection and development of natural resources.
The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans. Approximately 15,000 Native Americans took part in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression.
By 1942, with World War II raging and the draft in effect, the need for work relief declined, and Congress voted to close the program.
==Founding==
As governor of New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale, known as the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA). It was started in early 1932 to "use men from the lists of the unemployed to improve our existing reforestation areas." In its first year alone, more than 25,000 unemployed New Yorkers were active in its paid conservation work. Long interested in conservation, as president Roosevelt proposed a full-scale national program to Congress on March 21, 1933:
He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, workwear, and medical care in exchange for their work in the national forests and other government properties. The Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5, 1933, which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, a former labor union official who served until 1939. The organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. The order directed that the program be supervised jointly by four government departments: Labor, which recruited the young men; War, which operated the camps; the Agriculture; and Interior, which organized and supervised the work projects. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative from each of those departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program. To overcome opposition from labor unions, which wanted no training programs started when so many of their members were unemployed, Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, as director of the Corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to see that there was no job training involved beyond simple manual labor.
==U.S. Army==
Officers from the U.S. Army were in charge of the camps, but there was no military training. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General Douglas MacArthur, was placed in charge of the program. Initially, about 3,800 of the Regular Army's 13,000 officers and 4,600 of its 120,000 enlisted men were assigned in the spring of 1933 to administer the CCC. The troops were pulled from just about every source possible, but usually from the Army’s combat regiments and battalions, and Army instructors on duty with ROTC, Organized Reserve, and National Guard organizations. In at least one case each, district personnel were drawn from an engineer regiment and an Air Corps group. MacArthur soon said that the number of Regular Army personnel assigned to the CCC was affecting military readiness.
Only 575 Organized Reserve officers initially received orders for CCC duty. CCC tours were initially six months long, but were later lengthened to one year. In July 1933, the War Department ordered that Regular Army officers assigned as instructors with ROTC and Organized Reserve units be returned to their former duties. By the end of September 1933, the number of Regular officers on CCC duty had dropped to about 2,000 and the number of Reservists had increased to 2,200. By June 1934, only 400 Regular officers remained on CCC duty, and by October, Reserve officers had assumed command of almost all CCC companies and sub-districts. Effective on 1 January 1938, the War Department limited the number of Regular officers assigned to CCC duty to only 117.
Due to a ruling that Reserve officers on CCC duty had to have the same housing and subsistence benefits as Regular officers, President Roosevelt directed that all Reservists be relieved from CCC duty effective 1 July 1939. The changeover was complete by September 1939, but it was a change largely in name only because many of the Reservists merely took off their uniforms and continued their jobs with the CCC as civilians, albeit with lower pay.
The Army found numerous benefits in the program. Through the CCC, the Regular Army could assess the leadership performance of both Regular and Reserve officers. In mobilizing, clothing, feeding, and controlling thousands of men, the CCC provided lessons which the Army used in developing its wartime mobilization plans for training camps. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals and sergeants. The CCC also provided command experience to Reserve officers, who normally interacted almost exclusively with other officers during training and did not have the chance to lead large numbers of enlisted men. Future Chief of Staff of the Army General George C. Marshall "embraced" the CCC, unlike many of his brother officers.
==History==
An implicit goal of the CCC was to restore morale in an era of 25% unemployment for all men and much higher rates for poorly educated teenagers. Jeffrey Suzik argues in "'Building Better Men':
The CCC Boy and the Changing Social Ideal of Manliness" that the CCC provided an ideology of manly outdoor work to counter the Depression, as well as cash to help the family budget. Through a regime of heavy manual labor, civic and political education, and an all-male living and working environment, the CCC tried to build "better men" who would be economically independent and self-reliant. By 1939, there was a shift in the ideal from the hardy manual worker to the highly trained citizen soldier ready for war.
===Early years, 1933–1937===
The legislation and mobilization of the program occurred quite rapidly. Roosevelt made his request to Congress on March 21, 1933; the legislation was submitted to Congress the same day; Congress passed it by voice vote on March 31; Roosevelt signed it the same day, then issued an executive order on April 5 creating the agency, appointing Fechner its director, and assigning War Department corps area commanders to begin enrollment. The first CCC enrollee was selected April 8, and lists of unemployed men were subsequently supplied by state and local welfare and relief agencies for immediate enrollment. On April 17, the first camp, NF-1, Camp Roosevelt, was established at George Washington National Forest near Luray, Virginia. On June 18, the first of 161 soil erosion control camps was opened in Clayton, Alabama. By July 1, 1933, there were 1,463 working camps with 250,000 junior enrollees 18–25 years of age; 28,000 veterans; 14,000 Native Americans; and 25,000 adults in the Local Experienced Men (LEM) program.
===Enrollees===
The typical CCC enrollee was a U.S. citizen, unmarried, unemployed male, 18–25 years of age. Normally his family was on local relief. Each enrollee volunteered and, upon passing a physical exam and/or a period of conditioning, was required to serve a minimum six-month period, with the option to serve as many as four periods, or up to two years if employment outside the Corps was not possible. Enrollees worked 40 hours per week over five days, sometimes including Saturdays if poor weather dictated. In return they received $30 per month () with a compulsory allotment of $25 (about ) sent to a family dependent, as well as housing, food, clothing, and medical care.
====Veterans Conservation Corps====
Following the second Bonus Army march on Washington, D.C., President Roosevelt amended the CCC program on May 11, 1933, to include work opportunities for veterans. Veteran qualifications differed from the junior enrollee; one needed to be certified by the Veterans Administration by an application. They could be any age, and married or single as long as they were in need of work. Veterans were generally assigned to entire veteran camps. Enrollees were eligible for the following "rated" positions to help with camp administration: senior leader, mess steward, storekeeper and two cooks; assistant leader, company clerk, assistant educational advisor and three second cooks. These men received additional pay ranging from $36 to $45 per month depending on their rating.
===Camps===
Each CCC camp was located in the area of particular conservation work to be performed and organized around a complement of up to 200 civilian enrollees in a designated numbered "company" unit. The CCC camp was a temporary community in itself, structured to have barracks (initially Army tents) for 50 enrollees each, officer/technical staff quarters, medical dispensary, mess hall, recreation hall, educational building, lavatory and showers, technical/administrative offices, tool room/blacksmith shop and motor pool garages.
The company organization of each camp had a dual-authority supervisory staff: firstly, Department of War personnel or Reserve officers (until July 1, 1939), a "company commander" and junior officer, who were responsible for overall camp operation, logistics, education and training; and secondly, ten to fourteen technical service civilians, including a camp "superintendent" and "foreman", employed by either the Departments of Interior or Agriculture, responsible for the particular fieldwork. Also included in camp operation were several non-technical supervisor LEMs, who provided knowledge of the work at hand, "lay of the land," and paternal guidance for inexperienced enrollees. Enrollees were organized into work detail units called "sections" of 25 men each, according to the barracks they resided in. Each section had an enrollee "senior leader" and "assistant leader" who were accountable for the men at work and in the barracks.
===Work classifications===
The CCC performed 300 types of work projects in nine approved general classifications:
Structural improvements: bridges, fire lookout towers, service buildings
Transportation: truck trails, minor roads, foot trails and airfields
Erosion control: check dams, terracing, and vegetable covering
Flood control: irrigation, drainage, dams, ditching, channel work, riprapping
Forest culture: tree planting, fire prevention, fire pre-suppression, firefighting, insect and disease control
Landscape and recreation: public camp and picnic ground development, lake and pond site clearing and development
Range: stock driveways, elimination of predatory animals
Wildlife: stream improvement, fish stocking, food and cover planting
Miscellaneous: emergency work, surveys, mosquito control
The responses to this seven-month experimental conservation program were enthusiastic. On October 1, 1933, Director Fechner was directed to arrange for the second period of enrollment. By January 1934, 300,000 men were enrolled. In July 1934, this cap was increased by 50,000 to include men from Midwest states that had been affected by drought. The temporary tent camps had also developed to include wooden barracks. An education program had been established, emphasizing job training and literacy. Level of education for the enrollee averaged 3% illiterate; 38% had less than eight years of school; 48% did not complete high school; and 11% were high school graduates. Enrollment peaked at the end of 1935, when there were 500,000 men in 2,600 camps in operation in every state. All received equal pay and housing. Black leaders lobbied to secure leadership roles. Adult white men held the major leadership roles in all the camps. Director Fechner refused to appoint Black adults to any supervisory positions except that of education director in the all-Black camps.
===Indian Division===
The CCC operated a separate division for members of federally recognized tribes: the "Indian Emergency Conservation Work Division" (IECW or CCC-ID). Native men from reservations worked on roads, bridges, clinics, shelters, and other public works near their reservations. Although they were organized as groups classified as camps, no permanent camps were established for Native Americans. Instead, organized groups moved with their families from project to project and were provided with an additional rental allowance. The CCC often provided the only paid work, as many reservations were in remote rural areas. Enrollees had to be between the ages of 17 and 35.
During 1933, about half the male heads of households on the Sioux reservations in South Dakota were employed by the CCC-ID. With grants from the Public Works Administration (PWA), the Indian Division built schools and conducted a road-building program in and around many reservations to improve infrastructure. The mission was to reduce erosion and improve the value of Indian lands. Crews built dams of many types on creeks, then sowed grass on the eroded areas from which the damming material had been taken. They built roads and planted shelter-belts on federal lands. The steady income helped participants regain self-respect, and many used the funds to improve their lives. John Collier, the federal Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Daniel Murphy, the director of the CCC-ID, both based the program on Indian self-rule and the restoration of tribal lands, governments, and cultures. The next year, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which ended allotments and helped preserve tribal lands, and encouraged tribes to re-establish self-government.
Collier said of the CCC-Indian Division, "no previous undertaking in Indian Service has so largely been the Indians' own undertaking". Educational programs trained participants in gardening, stock raising, safety, native arts, and some academic subjects. IECW differed from other CCC activities in that it explicitly trained men in skills to be carpenters, truck drivers, radio operators, mechanics, surveyors, and technicians. With the passage of the National Defense Vocational Training Act of 1941, enrollees began participating in defense-oriented training. The government paid for the classes and after students completed courses and passed a competency test, guaranteed automatic employment in defense work. A total of 85,000 Native Americans were enrolled in this training. This proved valuable social capital for the 24,000 alumni who later served in the military and the 40,000 who left the reservations for city jobs supporting the war effort.
===Expansion, 1935–1936===
Responding to public demand to alleviate unemployment, Congress approved the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, on April 8, 1935, which included continued funding for the CCC program through March 31, 1937. The age limit was expanded to 17–28 to include more men. April 1, 1935, to March 31, 1936, was the period of greatest activity and work accomplished by the CCC program. Enrollment peaked at 505,782 in about 2,900 camps by August 31, 1935, followed by a reduction to 350,000 enrollees in 2,019 camps by June 30, 1936. During this period the public response to the CCC program was overwhelmingly popular. A Gallup poll of April 18, 1936, asked: "Are you in favor of the CCC camps?"; 82% of respondents said "yes", including 92% of Democrats and 67% of Republicans.
===Change of purpose, 1937–1938===
On June 28, 1937, the Civilian Conservation Corps was legally established and transferred from its original designation as the Emergency Conservation Work program. Funding was extended for three more years by Public Law No. 163, 75th Congress, effective July 1, 1937. Congress changed the age limits to 17–23 years old and changed the requirement that enrollees be on relief to "not regularly in attendance at school, or possessing full-time employment." The 1937 law mandated the inclusion of vocational and academic training for a minimum of 10 hours per week. Students in school were allowed to enroll during summer vacation. During this period, the CCC forces contributed to disaster relief following 1937 floods in New York, Vermont, and the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys, and response and clean-up after the 1938 hurricane in New England.
===From conservation to defense, 1939–1940===
In 1939 Congress ended the independent status of the CCC, transferring it to the control of the Federal Security Agency. The National Youth Administration, U.S. Employment Service, the Office of Education, and the Works Progress Administration also had some responsibilities. About 5,000 reserve officers serving in the camps were affected, as they were transferred to federal Civil Service, and military ranks and titles were eliminated. Despite the loss of overt military leadership in the camps by July 1940, with war underway in Europe and Asia, the government directed an increasing number of CCC projects to resources for national defense. It developed infrastructure for military training facilities and forest protection. By 1940 the CCC was no longer wholly a relief agency, was rapidly losing its non-military character, and it was becoming a system for work-training, as its ranks had become increasingly younger and inexperienced.
===Decline and disbandment 1941–1942===
Although the CCC was probably the most popular New Deal program, it never was authorized as a permanent agency. The program was reduced in scale as the Depression waned and employment opportunities improved. After conscription began in 1940, fewer eligible young men were available. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Roosevelt administration directed all federal programs to emphasize the war effort. Most CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction.
The CCC disbanded one year earlier than planned, as the 77th United States Congress ceased funding it. Operations were formally concluded at the end of the federal fiscal year on June 30, 1942. The end of the CCC program and closing of the camps involved arrangements to leave the incomplete work projects in the best possible state, the separation of about 1,800 appointed employees, the transfer of CCC property to the War and Navy Departments and other agencies, and the preparation of final accountability records. Liquidation of the CCC was ordered by Congress by the Labor-Federal Security Appropriation Act (56 Stat. 569) on July 2, 1942, and virtually completed on June 30, 1943. Liquidation appropriations for the CCC continued through April 20, 1948.
Some former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as Civilian Public Service camps where conscientious objectors performed "work of national importance" as an alternative to military service. Other camps were used to hold Japanese, German and Italian Americans interned under the Western Defense Command's Enemy Alien Control Program, as well as Axis prisoners of war. Most of the Japanese American internment camps were built by the people held there. After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for public lands organized their own seasonal fire crews, modeled after the CCC. These have performed a firefighting function formerly done by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience for young people. Approximately 47 young men have died while in this line of duty.
==Museums==
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at DeSoto State Park, Fort Payne, Alabama
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum and Memorial, at Monte Sano State Park, Huntsville, Alabama
Colossal Cave Mountain Park, Vail, Arizona
Conservation Corps State Museum at Camp San Luis Obispo, San Luis Obispo, California
North East States Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Camp Conner, Stafford, Connecticut
Florida Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Highlands Hammock State Park, Sebring, Florida
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Vogel State Park, Blairsville, Georgia
Civilian Conservation Corps Camp in Kokeʻe State Park, Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii
Starved Rock State Park (CCC Section in the visitors' center) Oglesby, Illinois
Black Hawk State Historic Site, Rock Island, Illinois (The Refectory, located in the east end of Watch Tower Lodge houses a permanent exhibit on the Civilian Conservation Corps.)
Iowa Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Backbone State Park, Strawberry Point, Iowa
Houghton's Pond, Blue Hills Reservation, Milton, Massachusetts
Michigan Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Roscommon, Michigan
Bear Brook State Park Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Camp Historic District, Allenstown, New Hampshire
New York State Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Gilbert Lake State Park, New Lisbon, New York
Masker Museum at Promised Land State Park, Greentown, Pennsylvania
Lou and Helen Adams Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Parker Dam State Park, Huston Township, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Lake Greenwood State Recreation Area, Ninety Six, South Carolina
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Pocahontas State Park, Chesterfield, Virginia
Civilian Conservation Corps Legacy, Edinburg, Virginia
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Rhinelander, Wisconsin
West Virginia CCC Museum, Harrison County, West Virginia
Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Guernsey State Park, Guernsey, Wyoming
James F. Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum
Civilian Conservation Corps History Center at the Minnesota Discovery Center Museum in Chisholm Minnesota
==Notable alumni and administrators==
David "Stringbean" Akeman, enrollee, country music singer
Norman Borlaug, leader, agronomist, Nobel Peace Prize recipient
Raymond Burr, enrollee, actor
Borden Deal, enrollee
Hutton Gibson, author
Archie Green, enrollee, folklorist
Henry Gurke, enrollee
Ralph Hauenstein. Army officer in charge of camp
Hubert D. Humphreys, historian
Aldo Leopold, former technical forester, ecologist, environmentalist
Stanley Makowski, enrollee
Walter Matthau, enrollee, actor
Robert Mitchum, enrollee, actor
Archie Moore, enrollee, the Light Heavyweight Boxing Champion of the World
Stan Musial, enrollee, professional baseball player
Edward R. Roybal, enrollee, politician
Red Schoendienst, enrollee, baseball player/manager
Dan White, enrollee, American actor in vaudeville, theater, radio, film and television
Conrad L. Wirth, U.S. administrator, National Park Service supervisor of CCC Program
Chuck Yeager, enrollee, test pilot
Alvin C. York, a project superintendent
==Statues==
In several cities where CCC workers worked, statues were erected to commemorate them.
==In media==
Pride of the Bowery (1940), the fourth movie in the East Side Kid series, is a movie about friendship, trouble, and boxing at a CCC camp.
The American Experience PBS series showcased documentaries on American history; it portrayed the life in Civilian Conservation Corps in 2009, in the first episode of Season 22.
Jeanette Ingold's novel Hitch (2012) is a young adult book about a teenager in the CCC.
==Inspired programs==
The CCC program was never officially terminated. Congress provided funding for closing the remaining camps in 1942 with the equipment being reallocated. It became a model for conservation programs that were implemented in the period after World War II. Present-day corps are national, state, and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16–25) in community service, training, and educational activities. The nation's approximately 113 corps programs operate in 41 of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. During 2004, they enrolled more than 23,000 young people. The Corps Network, known originally as the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (NASCC), works to expand and enhance corps-type programs throughout the country. The Corps Network began in 1985 when the nation's first 24 Corps directors banded together to secure an advocate at the federal level and a repository of information on how best to start and manage a corps. Early financial assistance from the Ford, Hewlett and Mott Foundations was critical to establishing the association.
Similar active programs in the United States are: the National Civilian Community Corps, part of the AmeriCorps program, a team-based national service program in which young adults ages 18–26 spend 10 months working for non-profit and government organizations; and the Civilian Conservation Corps, USA, (CCCUSA) managed by its president, Thomas Hark, in 2016. Hark, his co-founder Mike Rama, currently the Deputy Director of the Corporate Eco Forum (CEF) founded by M. R. Rangaswami, and their team of strategic advisors have reimagined the federal Civilian Conservation Corps program of the 1930s as a private, locally governed, national social franchise. The goal of this recently established CCCUSA is to enroll a million young people annually, building a core set of values in each enrollee, who will then become the catalyst in their own communities and states to create a more civil society and stronger nation.
===Student Conservation Association===
The CCC program became a model for the creation of team-based national service youth conservation programs such as the Student Conservation Association (SCA). The SCA, founded in 1959, is a nonprofit organization that offers conservation internships and summer trail crew opportunities to more than 4,000 people each year.
===California Conservation Corps===
In 1976, Governor of California Jerry Brown established the California Conservation Corps. This program had many similar characteristics - residential centers, high expectations for participation, and emphasis on hard work on public lands. Young adults from different backgrounds were recruited for a term of one year. Corps members attended a training session called the Corpsmember Orientation Motivation Education and Training (COMET) program before being assigned to one of the various centers. Project work is also similar to the original CCC of the 1930s - work on public forests, state and federal parks.
=== Nevada Conservation Corps ===
The Nevada Conservation Corps is a non-profit organization that partners with public land management agencies such as the Bureau of Land Management, United States Forest Service, National Park Service, and Nevada State Parks to complete conservation and restoration projects throughout Nevada. Conservation work includes fuel reductions through thinning, constructing and maintaining trails, invasive species removal, and performing biological surveys. The Nevada Conservation Corps was created through the Great Basin Institute and is part of the AmeriCorps program.
===Minnesota Conservation Corps===
Conservation Corps Minnesota & Iowa provides environmental stewardship and service-learning opportunities to youth and young adults while accomplishing conservation, natural resource management projects and emergency response work through its Young Adult Program and the Summer Youth Program. These programs emphasize the development of job and life skills by conservation and community service work.
===Montana Conservation Corps===
The Montana Conservation Corps (MCC) is a non-profit organization with a mission to equip young people with the skills and values to be vigorous citizens who improve their communities and environment. Collectively, MCC crews contribute more than 90,000 work hours each year. The MCC was established in 1991 by Montana's Human Resource Development Councils in Billings, Bozeman and Kalispell. Originally, it was a summer program for disadvantaged youth, although it has grown into an AmeriCorps-sponsored non-profit organization with six regional offices that serve Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, North Dakota, and South Dakota. All regions also offer Montana YES (Youth Engaged in Service) summer programs for teenagers who are 14 to 17 years old.
===Texas Conservation Corps===
Established in 1995, Environmental Corps, now Texas Conservation Corps (TxCC), is an American YouthWorks program which allows youth, ages 17 to 28, to contribute to the restoration and preservation of parks and public lands in Texas. The only conservation corps in Texas, TxcC is a nonprofit corporation based in Austin, Texas, which serves the entire state. Their work ranges from disaster relief to trail building to habitat restoration. TxCC has done projects in national, state, and city parks.
===Washington Conservation Corps===
The Washington Conservation Corps (WCC) is a sub-agency of the Washington State Department of Ecology. It employs men and women 18 to 25 years old in a program to protect and enhance Washington's natural resources. WCC is a part of the AmeriCorps program.
===Vermont Youth Conservation Corps===
The Vermont Youth Conservation Corps (VYCC) is a non-profit, youth service and education organization that hires Corps Members, aged 16–24, to work on high-priority conservation projects in Vermont. Through these work projects, Corps Members develop a strong work ethic, strengthen their leadership skills, and learn how to take personal responsibility for their actions. VYCC Crews work at VT State Parks, U.S. Forest Service Campgrounds, in local communities, and throughout the state's backcountry. The VYCC has also given aid to a similar program in North Carolina, which is currently in its infancy.
===Youth Conservation Corps===
The Youth Conservation Corps is a youth conservation program present in federal lands around the country. The program gives youth aged 13–17 the opportunity to participate in conservation projects in a team setting. YCC programs are available in land managed by the National Park Service, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service. Projects can last up to 10 weeks and typically run over the summer. Some YCC programs are residential, meaning the participants are given housing on the land they work on. Projects may necessitate youth to camp in backcountry settings in order to work on trails or campsites. Most require youth to commute daily or house youth for only a few days a week. Youth are typically paid for their work. YCC programs contribute to the maintenance of public lands and instill a value for hard work and the outdoors in those who participate.
===Conservation Legacy===
Conservation Legacy is a non-profit employment, job training, and education organization with locations across the United States including Arizona Conservation Corps in Tucson and Flagstaff, Arizona; Conservation Corps New Mexico in Las Cruces, New Mexico; Southwest Conservation Corps in Durango and Salida, Colorado; and Southeast Conservation Corps in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Conservation Legacy also operates an AmeriCorps VISTA team serving to improve the environment and economies of historic mining communities in the American West and Appalachia. Conservation Legacy also hosts the Environmental Stewards Program - providing internships with federal, state, municipal and NGO land management agencies nationwide. Conservation Legacy formed as a merger of the Southwest Youth Corps, San Luis Valley Youth Corps, The Youth Corps of Southern Arizona, and Coconino Rural Environmental Corps.
Conservation Legacy engages young adults ages 14 to 26 and U.S. military veterans of all ages in personal and professional development experiences involving conservation projects on public lands. Corp members live, work, and learn in teams of six to eight for terms of service ranging from 3 months to 1 year.
=== Sea Ranger Service ===
The Sea Ranger Service is a social enterprise, based in Netherlands, that has taken its inspiration from the Civilian Conservation Corps in running a permanent youth training program, supported by veterans, to manage ocean areas and carry out underwater landscape restoration. Unemployed youths are trained up as Sea Rangers during a bootcamp and subsequently offered full-time employment to manage and regenerate Marine Protected Areas and aid ocean conservation. The Sea Ranger Service works in close cooperation with the Dutch government and national maritime authorities.
=== Aina Corps ===
The Aina Corps performed environmental restoration work in Hawaii in 2020, funded by the CARES Act.
=== American Climate Corps ===
The American Climate Corps is an organization created by the Joe Biden administration. It was inspired by the Civilian Conservation Corps and aims to mobilize young people to stop climate change, while giving them a job at the same time. It is financed from the Inflation Reduction Act and the federal budget. It should have 9,000 members by the end of June 2024. Later, the number of participants should rise to 20,000.
|
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7,822 |
Caribbean Sea
|
The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the North Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere, located south of the Gulf of Mexico and southwest of the Sargasso Sea. It is bounded by the Greater Antilles to the north from Cuba to Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles to the east from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad and Tobago, South America to the south from the Venezuelan coastline to the Colombian coastline, and Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula to the west from Panama to Mexico. The geopolitical region around the Caribbean Sea, including the numerous islands of the West Indies and adjacent coastal areas in the mainland of the Americas, is known as the Caribbean.
The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas on Earth and has an area of about . The sea's deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays: the Gulf of Gonâve, the Gulf of Venezuela, the Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, the Gulf of Paria and the Gulf of Honduras.
The Caribbean Sea has the world's second-largest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs along the Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras coasts.
==History==
The name Caribbean derives from the Caribs, one of the region's dominant native people at the time of European contact during the late-15th century. After Christopher Columbus landed in The Bahamas in 1492 and later discovered some of the islands in the Caribbean, the Spanish term Antillas applied to the lands; stemming from this, the Sea of the Antilles became a common alternative name for the "Caribbean Sea" in various European languages. Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed during the first century of European colonization.
From the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region distinguished the "South Sea" (the Pacific Ocean south of the isthmus of Panama) from the "North Sea" (the Caribbean Sea north of the same isthmus).
The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until after 1492, when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters to find a sea route to Asia. At that time, the Americas were generally unknown to most Europeans, although they had been visited in the 10th century by the Vikings. After Columbus's discovery of the islands, the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures (initially Spain, then later England, the Dutch Republic, France, Courland and Denmark). After colonization of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European-based marine trading and transports. The commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard.
the area is home to 22 island territories and borders 12 continental countries.
==Extent==
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows:
On the North. In the Windward Channel – a line joining Caleta Point (74°15′W) in Cuba and Pearl Point (19°40′N) in Haiti. In the Mona Passage – a line joining Cape Engaño and the extreme of Agujereada () in Puerto Rico.
Eastern limits. From Point San Diego (Puerto Rico) northward along the meridian thereof (65°39′W) to the 100-fathom line, thence eastward and southward, in such a manner that all islands, shoals and narrow waters of the Lesser Antilles are included in the Caribbean Sea as far as but not including Trinidad. From before Trinidad to Baja Point () in Venezuela.
Although Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados are on the same continental shelf, they are considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than in the Caribbean Sea.
==Geology==
The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea on the Caribbean Plate. The Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to north of Trinidad and Tobago, which is in the Atlantic. This arc was formed by a collision of the South American Plate with the Caribbean Plate. It included active and extinct volcanoes such as Mount Pelee, the Quill on Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands, La Soufrière in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Morne Trois Pitons on Dominica. The larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc.
thumb|upright=1.4|The [[Terrain cartography|shaded relief map of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico area It is assumed the proto-Caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period and, in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin, decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Sea's formation began in the Triassic. Powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico's west coast, forming siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the current area of the Gulf of Mexico, creating a vast shallow pool. Deep basins emerged in the Caribbean during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of the basins marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean and contributed to the destruction of Pangaea at the end of the late Jurassic. During the Cretaceous, the Caribbean acquired a shape close to today's. In the early Paleogene, due to marine regression, the Caribbean became separated from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the lands of Cuba and Haiti. The Caribbean remained like this for most of the Cenozoic until the Holocene, when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean.
The Caribbean's floor is composed of suboceanic sediments of deep red clay in the deep basins and troughs. On continental slopes and ridges, calcareous silts are found. Clay minerals have likely been deposited by the mainland river Orinoco and the Magdalena River. Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico have thicknesses of about . Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic (250 million years ago) and the lower layers from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic.
The Caribbean seafloor is divided into five basins separated from one another by underwater ridges and mountain ranges. Atlantic Ocean water enters the Caribbean through the Anegada Passage between the Lesser Antilles and the Virgin Islands and the Windward Passage between Cuba and Haiti. The Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean. The deepest points of the sea lie in Cayman Trough, with depths reaching approximately . Despite that, the Caribbean Sea is considered a relatively shallow sea compared with other bodies of water. The pressure of the South American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of the Lesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity, and a very serious eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 caused many casualties.
The Caribbean seafloor is also the home of two oceanic trenches: the Cayman Trench and the Puerto Rico Trench, which put the area at a high risk of earthquakes. Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generating tsunamis, which could have devastating effects on the Caribbean islands. Scientific data reveals that during the past 500 years, the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude. Most recently, a 7.1-magnitude earthquake struck Haiti, on January 12, 2010.
List of islands in the Caribbean
==Oceanography==
The hydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity. Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at the surface do not exceed . In the past 50 years, the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974, a cold phase with peaks during 1974–1976 and 1984–1986, and, finally, a warming phase with an increase in temperature of per year. Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena of El Niño and La Niña. The salinity of the seawater is about 3.6%, and its density is . The surface water color is blue-green to green.
The Caribbean's depth in its wider basins and deep-water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic deepwater is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deepwater of its sea. The surface water (30 m; 100 ft) acts as an extension of the northern Atlantic as the Guiana Current and part of the North Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east. On the western side of the sea, the trade winds influence a northerly current, which causes an upwelling and a rich fishery near Yucatán.
==Ecology==
The Caribbean is the home of about 9% of the world's coral reefs, covering about , most of which are located off the Caribbean islands and the Central American coast. Among them, the Belize Barrier Reef stands out, with an area of , which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996. It forms part of the Great Mayan Reef (also known as the MBRS) and, being more than in length, is the world's second longest. It runs along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras.
Since 2005, unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasingly threatening the coral reefs. Coral reefs support some of the most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems. When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants called zooxanthellae, which are symbiotic partners living within the coral polyp tissues, die off. These plants provide food for the corals and give them their color. The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants is called coral bleaching and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef. More than 42% of corals are completely bleached, and 95% are experiencing some type of whitening. Historically, the Caribbean is thought to contain 14% of the world's coral reefs.
The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities as fishing and scuba diving, and they provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations of US$3.1–4.6 billion. Continued destruction of the reefs could severely damage the region's economy. The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region came into effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean by forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas. Currently, the convention has been ratified by 15 countries. Also, several charitable organizations have been formed to preserve Caribbean marine life, such as Sea Turtle Conservancy, which seeks to study and protect sea turtles while educating about them.
In connection with the foregoing, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico conducted a regional study funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and Venezuela) plus Jamaica participated. The study's findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead have been identified in the coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea. Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the past 150 years. Project results were presented in Vienna at the forum "Water Matters", and the 2011 General Conference of that multilateral organization.
After the Mediterranean Sea, the Caribbean Sea is the second-most-polluted sea. Pollution in the form of up to 300,000 tonnes of solid garbage dumped into the Caribbean Sea each year is progressively endangering marine ecosystems, wiping out species, and harming the livelihoods of local people, who rely primarily on tourism and fishing.
==Climate==
The climate of the Caribbean is driven by the low latitude and tropical ocean currents that run through it. The principal ocean current is the North Equatorial Current, which enters the region from the tropical Atlantic. The climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years.
Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents (cool upwelling keep the ABC islands arid). Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rainforest and semi-arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curaçao, as well as the northern tip of Yucatán
Tropical cyclones are a threat to the nations that rim the Caribbean Sea. While landfalls are infrequent, the resulting loss of life and property damage makes them a significant hazard to life in the Caribbean. Tropical cyclones that impact the Caribbean often develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way west across the Atlantic Ocean toward the Caribbean, while other storms develop in the Caribbean itself. The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June through November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average around nine tropical storms form each year, with five reaching hurricane strength. According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900.
==Flora and fauna==
The region has a high level of biodiversity and many species are endemic to the Caribbean.
===Vegetation===
The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography, soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity. Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients. It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic. For example, guaiac wood (Guaiacum officinale), the flower of which is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose (Pereskia quisqueyana) which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala. The mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize. The caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito) grows throughout the Caribbean. In coastal zones there are coconut palms and in lagoons and estuaries are found thick areas of black mangrove and red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle).
In shallow water flora and fauna is concentrated around coral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity. Leeward sides of lagoons provide areas of growth for sea grasses. Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to . Another type shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to . In brackish water of harbours and estuaries at depths less than widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) grows. Representatives of three species belonging to the genus Halophila, (Halophila baillonii, Halophila engelmannii and Halophila decipiens) are found at depths of up to except for Halophila engelmani which does not grow below and is confined to the Bahamas, Florida, the Greater Antilles and the western part of the Caribbean. Halophila baillonii has been found only in the Lesser Antilles.
===Fauna===
Marine biota in the region have representatives of both the Indian and Pacific oceans which were caught in the Caribbean before the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama four million years ago. In the Caribbean Sea there are around 1,000 documented species of fish, including sharks (bull shark, tiger shark, silky shark and Caribbean reef shark), flying fish, giant oceanic manta ray, angel fish, spotfin butterflyfish, parrotfish, Atlantic Goliath grouper, tarpon and moray eels. Throughout the Caribbean there is industrial catching of lobster and sardines (off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula).
There are 90 species of mammals in the Caribbean including sperm whales, humpback whales and dolphins. The island of Jamaica is home to seals and manatees. The Caribbean monk seal which lived in the Caribbean is considered extinct. Solenodons and hutias are mammals found only in the Caribbean; only one extant species is not endangered.
There are 500 species of reptiles (94% of which are endemic). Islands are inhabited by some endemic species such as rock iguanas and American crocodile. The blue iguana, endemic to the island of Grand Cayman, is endangered. The green iguana is invasive to Grand Cayman. The Mona ground iguana which inhabits the island of Mona, Puerto Rico, is endangered. The rhinoceros iguana from the island of Hispaniola which is shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic is also endangered. The region has several types of sea turtle (loggerhead, green turtle, hawksbill, leatherback turtle, Atlantic ridley and olive ridley). Some species are threatened with extinction. Their populations have been greatly reduced since the 17th century – the number of green turtles has declined from 91 million to 300,000 and hawksbill turtles from 11 million to less than 30,000 by 2006.
All 170 of the amphibian species that live in the region are endemic. The habitats of almost all members of the toad family, poison dart frogs, tree frogs and leptodactylidae (a type of frog) are limited to only one island. The golden coqui is in serious threat of extinction.
In the Caribbean, 600 species of birds have been recorded, of which 163 are endemic such as todies, Fernandina's flicker and palmchat. The American yellow warbler is found in many areas, as is the green heron. Of the endemic species 48 are threatened with extinction including the Puerto Rican amazon, and the Zapata wren. According to BirdLife International in 2006 in Cuba 29 species of bird were in danger of extinction and two species officially extinct. The black-fronted piping guan is endangered. The Antilles along with Central America lie in the flight path of migrating birds from North America so the size of populations is subject to seasonal fluctuations. Parrots and bananaquits are found in forests. Over the open sea can be seen frigatebirds and tropicbirds.
==Economy and human activity==
The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period. The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million per year. The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for of fish a year.
Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution. The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10% of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea.
The Caribbean region supports a large tourism industry. The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991–1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists. Tourism based upon scuba diving and snorkeling on coral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies.
==Gallery==
File:Jamaica sunrise.JPG|Sunrise over the south beach of Jamaica
File:Village Gran Roque.jpg|Los Roques Archipelago, Venezuela
File:Marie Galante - on the beach (407689602).jpg|Marie Galante, Guadeloupe
File:Strand Auf Klein Curacao (213574363).jpeg|Beach of Curaçao
File:Mona Island, Puerto Rico.JPG|Mona Island, Puerto Rico
File:Palm Beach, Aruba (4901990402).jpg|Palm Beach, Aruba
File:Beach Of Cayo Coco (108034377).jpeg|Cayo Coco, Cuba
File:Grosse Roche Beach in Saint-Marc, Haiti.jpg|Saint-Marc, Haiti
File:Sunset over the Caribbean Sea.jpg|Sunset in the Caribbean Sea
|
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"Coco River",
"Mayagüez",
"Cayman Islands",
"territories",
"Jurassic",
"Magdalena River",
"Barbados",
"Maracaibo",
"Seabed",
"Geopolitics",
"Panama",
"Chetumal",
"Puerto la Cruz",
"BirdLife International",
"Intra-Americas Sea",
"Clay minerals",
"blue-green",
"American crocodile",
"Atlantic",
"Santa Marta",
"isthmus",
"Bluefields",
"Gulf of Darién",
"Gulf of Mexico",
"Ibero-America",
"volcanoes",
"Halodule wrightii",
"Atlantic ridley",
"The Bahamas",
"sea turtle",
"Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands",
"Cenozoic",
"Haiti",
"Mount Pelee",
"Belize Barrier Reef",
"Chagres River",
"World Heritage Site",
"moray eels",
"Curaçao",
"Cretaceous",
"Antillas",
"Barcelona, Venezuela",
"Kingstown",
"snorkeling",
"mahogany",
"Brades",
"Great Mayan Reef",
"brackish water",
"migrating birds",
"Guadeloupe",
"French colonial empire",
"La Ceiba",
"Venezuela",
"earthquake",
"Port-au-Prince",
"sea grass",
"fauna",
"hutias",
"fishing",
"International Hydrographic Organization",
"List of islands in the Caribbean",
"Avicennia germinans",
"Florida",
"tree frogs",
"silky shark",
"Europe",
"Triassic",
"Zapata wren",
"Dominica",
"rhinoceros iguana",
"Los Roques Archipelago",
"frigatebirds",
"toad",
"Mexico",
"sedimentary rock",
"humpback whale",
"Eleutherodactylus jasperi",
"History of the Netherlands",
"Punto Fijo",
"marine regression",
"Piracy in the Caribbean",
"Caribbean",
"flora",
"Couva",
"Guantánamo",
"Christopher Columbus",
"Rhizophora mangle",
"Windward Passage",
"Orinoco",
"mainland",
"Hispaniola",
"Ruppia maritima",
"Halophila",
"tropical rainforest",
"Guiana Current",
"Morne Trois Pitons",
"England",
"spotfin butterflyfish",
"Paleozoic",
"Caribbean Plate",
"West Indies",
"coconut palms",
"Motagua River",
"manatees",
"Danish colonization of the Americas",
"Gondwana",
"List of Caribbean islands",
"Puerto Cabello",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"rifting",
"scuba diving",
"Point San Diego",
"Mesozoic",
"Curonian colonization of the Americas",
"green iguana",
"calcareous",
"Willemstad",
"South America",
"La Niña",
"parrotfish",
"Cuba",
"Halophila baillonii",
"silt",
"North Equatorial Current",
"Quintana Roo",
"coral reefs",
"Little Bay, Montserrat",
"Mesoamerican Barrier Reef",
"Sea Turtle Conservancy",
"Riohacha",
"Central America",
"Sea",
"Guaiacum officinale",
"Gulf of Paria",
"Underwater diving",
"Kralendijk",
"MBRS",
"tropical",
"Great South Sea",
"mammal",
"Yucatán",
"Western Hemisphere",
"supercontinent",
"Puerto Rico",
"Paleogene",
"The Independent",
"Chrysophyllum cainito",
"Puerto Cortes",
"Parrots",
"Americas",
"gulf",
"Havana",
"black-fronted piping guan",
"Grand Cayman",
"Pomacanthidae",
"salinity",
"deep red clay",
"Yucatán Channel",
"Aruba",
"Maracay",
"Coral bleaching",
"poison dart frogs",
"Castries",
"Pacific Ocean",
"hawksbill",
"Latin America",
"International Atomic Energy Agency",
"bananaquits",
"Indian Ocean",
"leptodactylidae",
"Halophila decipiens",
"green heron",
"US$",
"El Niño",
"Trinidad and Tobago",
"dolphin",
"Maya civilization",
"olive ridley sea turtle",
"tody",
"polyp (zoology)",
"pollution",
"biota (ecology)",
"lagoons",
"Belize",
"Belize City",
"Ponce, Puerto Rico",
"Limón Province",
"sediments",
"Scarborough, Tobago",
"Cayman Trench",
"Lesser Antilles",
"countries",
"Puerto Rican amazon",
"San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago",
"amphibian",
"Island Caribs",
"ratified",
"Cyclura",
"15th century",
"green",
"Syringodium filiforme",
"Caribbean reef shark",
"Dominican Republic",
"hydrology",
"Cumaná",
"sardines",
"Tropical cyclones",
"upwelling",
"tropical savanna",
"siliciclastic",
"La Soufrière (volcano)",
"Santiago de los Caballeros",
"Bahamas",
"Cancún",
"Saint-Marc",
"Gulf Stream",
"List of Caribbean Countries",
"Port of Spain",
"arid",
"Euramerica",
"National Hurricane Center",
"tourism",
"Hispanic America",
"Mount Pelée",
"Newfoundland"
] |
7,824 |
Colin Maclaurin
|
Colin Maclaurin (; ; February 1698 – 14 June 1746) was a Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra. He is also known for being a child prodigy and holding the record for being the youngest professor. The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, is named after him.
Owing to changes in orthography since that time (his name was originally rendered as M'Laurine), his surname is alternatively written MacLaurin.
==Early life==
Maclaurin was born in Kilmodan, Argyll. His father, John Maclaurin, minister of Glendaruel, died when Maclaurin was in infancy, and his mother died before he reached nine years of age. He was then educated under the care of his uncle, Daniel Maclaurin, minister of Kilfinan. A child prodigy, he entered university at age 11.
==Academic career==
At eleven, Maclaurin, a child prodigy at the time, entered the University of Glasgow. He graduated Master of Arts three years later by defending a thesis on the Power of Gravity, and remained at Glasgow to study divinity until he was 19, when he was elected professor of mathematics in a ten-day competition at Marischal College and University in Aberdeen. This record as the world's youngest professor endured until March 2008, when the record was officially given to Alia Sabur.
In the vacations of 1719 and 1721, Maclaurin went to London, where he became acquainted with Isaac Newton, Benjamin Hoadly, Samuel Clarke, Martin Folkes, and other philosophers. He was admitted as a member of the Royal Society.
In 1722, having provided a locum for his class at Aberdeen, he travelled on the Continent as tutor to George Hume, the son of Alexander Hume, 2nd Earl of Marchmont. During their time in Lorraine, he wrote his essay on the percussion of bodies (Demonstration des loix du choc des corps), which gained the prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724. Upon the death of his pupil at Montpellier, Maclaurin returned to Aberdeen.
In 1725, Maclaurin was appointed deputy to the mathematical professor at the University of Edinburgh, James Gregory (brother of David Gregory and nephew of the esteemed James Gregory), upon the recommendation of Isaac Newton. On 3 November of that year Maclaurin succeeded Gregory, and went on to raise the character of that university as a school of science. Newton was so impressed with Maclaurin that he had offered to pay his salary himself.
==Contributions to mathematics==
Maclaurin used Taylor series to characterize maxima, minima, and points of inflection for infinitely differentiable functions in his Treatise of Fluxions. Maclaurin attributed the series to Brook Taylor, though the series was known before to Newton and Gregory, and in special cases to Madhava of Sangamagrama in fourteenth century India.
Nevertheless, Maclaurin received credit for his use of the series, and the Taylor series expanded around 0 is sometimes known as the Maclaurin series.
Maclaurin also made significant contributions to the gravitation attraction of ellipsoids, a subject that furthermore attracted the attention of d'Alembert, A.-C. Clairaut, Euler, Laplace, Legendre, Poisson and Gauss. Maclaurin showed that an oblate spheroid was a possible equilibrium in Newton's theory of gravity. The subject continues to be of scientific interest, and Nobel Laureate Subramanyan Chandrasekhar dedicated a chapter of his book Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium to Maclaurin spheroids.
Independently from Euler and using the same methods, Maclaurin discovered the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He used it to sum powers of arithmetic progressions, derive Stirling's formula, and to derive the Newton–Cotes numerical integration formulas which includes Simpson's rule as a special case. This publication preceded by two years Cramer's publication of a generalization of the rule to n unknowns, now commonly known as Cramer's rule.
==Personal life==
In 1733, Maclaurin married Anne Stewart, the daughter of Walter Stewart, the Solicitor General for Scotland, by whom he had seven children. His eldest son John Maclaurin studied law, was a Senator of the College of Justice, and became Lord Dreghorn; he was also joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Maclaurin actively opposed the Jacobite rising of 1745 and superintended the operations necessary for the defence of Edinburgh against the Highland army. Maclaurin compiled a diary of his exertions against the Jacobites, both within and without the city. When the Highland army entered the city, however, he fled to York, where he was invited to stay by the Archbishop of York.
On his journey south, Maclaurin fell from his horse, and the fatigue, anxiety, and cold to which he was exposed on that occasion laid the foundations of dropsy. He returned to Edinburgh after the Jacobite army marched south, but died soon after his return.
He is buried at Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh. The simple table stone is inscribed simply "C. M. Nat MDCXCVIII Ob MDCCXLVI" and stands close to the south-west corner of the church but is supplemented by a more wordy memorial on the outer wall of the church.
The mathematician and former MIT President Richard Cockburn Maclaurin was from the same family.
The Maclaurin Society (MacSoc), the Mathematics and Statistics Society at Glasgow University, is named in his honour.
Colin MacLaurin Road within Edinburgh University's King's Buildings complex is named in his honour.
==Notable works==
Some of his important works are:
Geometria Organica – 1720
De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus – 1720
Treatise on Fluxions – 1742 (763 pages in two volumes. The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods.)
Treatise of Algebra – 1748 (two years after his death.)
Account of Newton's Discoveries – Incomplete upon his death and published in 1748
Colin Maclaurin was the name used for the new Mathematics and Actuarial Mathematics and Statistics Building at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.
File:MacLaurin - Treatise of algebra, 1753 - 1429142.jpg|French edition of the Treatise of algebra (1748)
File:MacLaurin, Colin – Account of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophical discoveries, 1749 – BEIC 743185.jpg|French edition of the Account of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophical discoveries (1749)
|
[
"Mathematician",
"Cayley's sextic",
"Madhava of Sangamagrama",
"Cowal",
"Kilmodan",
"Duchy of Lorraine",
"Pierre Louis Maupertuis",
"Robert Simson",
"PDF",
"Martin Folkes",
"MIT",
"Kingdom of Great Britain",
"Isaac Newton",
"dropsy",
"Samuel Clarke",
"Mathematical Association",
"Greyfriars Kirkyard",
"Solicitor General for Scotland",
"Jacobite rising of 1745",
"French Academy of Sciences",
"orthography",
"Hans Sloane",
"Cramer's paradox",
"child prodigy",
"David Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan",
"Euler",
"Heriot-Watt University",
"Ivor Grattan-Guinness",
"Royal Society",
"Benjamin Hoadly (physician)",
"Jacobitism",
"Taylor series",
"Maclaurin series",
"Maclaurin–Cauchy test",
"Hesse configuration",
"Montpellier",
"Maclaurin spheroid",
"elliptic integral",
"Sinusoidal spiral",
"Archbishop of York",
"James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)",
"Senator of the College of Justice",
"Edinburgh",
"algebra",
"Gabriel Cramer",
"Brook Taylor",
"Cramer's rule",
"Argyll",
"mathematician",
"Alia Sabur",
"Gazetteer for Scotland",
"University of Aberdeen",
"Subramanyan Chandrasekhar",
"Glendaruel",
"Robert Adam",
"Maclaurin's inequality",
"Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan",
"Alexander Hume, 2nd Earl of Marchmont",
"Royal Society of Edinburgh",
"Marischal College",
"James Ferguson (Scottish astronomer)",
"Stetson University",
"Simpson's rule",
"Divinity (academic discipline)",
"University of Glasgow",
"Leicester",
"Euler–Maclaurin formula",
"Alexis Clairaut",
"Stirling's formula",
"Master of Arts",
"University of Edinburgh",
"arithmetic progression",
"James Gregory (mathematician)",
"Trisectrix of Maclaurin",
"Scotland",
"York",
"David Gregory (mathematician)",
"geometry",
"King's Buildings",
"Richard Cockburn Maclaurin",
"John Maclaurin, Lord Dreghorn",
"Braikenridge–Maclaurin theorem",
"mathematics"
] |
7,825 |
Celestial globe
|
Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated.
There is an issue regarding the "handedness" of celestial globes. If the globe is constructed so that the stars are in the positions they actually occupy on the imaginary celestial sphere, then the star field will appear reversed on the surface of the globe (all the constellations will appear as their mirror images). This is because the view from Earth, positioned at the centre of the celestial sphere, is of the gnomonic projection inside of the celestial sphere, whereas the celestial globe is orthographic projection as viewed from the outside. For this reason, celestial globes are often produced in mirror image, so that at least the constellations appear as viewed from Earth. This ambiguity is famously evident in the astronomical ceiling of New York City's Grand Central Terminal, whose inconsistency was deliberately left uncorrected though it was noticed shortly after installation.
Some modern celestial globes address this problem by making the surface of the globe transparent. The stars can then be placed in their proper positions and viewed through the globe, so that the view is of the inside of the celestial sphere. However, the proper position from which to view the sphere would be from its centre, but the viewer of a transparent globe must be outside it, far from its centre. Viewing the inside of the sphere from the outside, through its transparent surface, produces serious distortions. Opaque celestial globes that are made with the constellations correctly placed, so they appear as mirror images when directly viewed from outside the globe, are often viewed in a mirror, so the constellations have their familiar appearances. Written material on the globe, e.g., constellation names, is printed in reverse, so it can easily be read in the mirror.
Before Copernicus's 16th-century discovery that the Solar System is "heliocentric rather than geocentric and geostatic" (that the Earth orbits the Sun and not the other way around) "the stars have been commonly, though perhaps not universally, perceived as though attached to the inside of a hollow sphere enclosing and rotating about the earth". Working under the incorrect assumption that the cosmos was geocentric the second-century Greek astronomer Ptolemy composed the Almagest in which "the movements of the planets could be accurately represented by means of techniques involving the use of epicycles, deferents, eccentrics (whereby planetary motion is conceived as circular with respect to a point displaced from Earth), and equants (a device that posits a constant angular rate of rotation with respect to a point displaced from Earth)". Guided by these ideas astronomers of the Middle Ages, Muslim and Christian alike, created celestial globes to "represent in a model the arrangement and movement of the stars". No stars are depicted on the globe, but it shows over 40 classical Greek constellations in substantial detail. In the 1990s, two smaller celestial globes from antiquity became public: one from brass measuring held by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, and one from gilt silver measuring privately held by the Kugel family.]]
A 17th-century celestial globe was made by Diya' ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan). It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland. It is encircled by a meridian ring and a horizon ring. The latitude angle of 32° indicates that the globe was made in the Lahore workshop. This specific "workshop claims 21 signed globes—the largest number from a single shop" making this globe a good example of celestial globe production at its peak. The globe itself has been manufactured in one piece, so as to be seamless.
There are grooves which encircle the surface of the globe that create 12 sections of 30° which pass through the ecliptic poles. While they are no longer used in astronomy today, they are called "ecliptic latitude circles" and help astronomers of the Arabic and Greek worlds find the co-ordinates of a particular star. Each of the 12 sections corresponds to a house in the zodiac.
|
[
"planet",
"Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum",
"Sun",
"The Book of Fixed Stars",
"Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli",
"Press Trust of India",
"Orthographic projection (cartography)",
"apparent place",
"Ptolemy",
"Dresden",
"Muhammad Saleh Thattvi",
"Farnese Atlas",
"Abu'l-Hasan (artist)",
"Gaius Sulpicius Gallus",
"Christianity",
"Book of Fixed Stars",
"ecliptic",
"Muslims",
"Almagest",
"Moon",
"gnomonic projection",
"Atlas (mythology)",
"Metropolitan Museum of Art",
"Heliocentrism",
"Armillary sphere",
"celestial sphere",
"Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon",
"Maragheh",
"Jahangir",
"Valencia",
"Cicero",
"Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi",
"Grand Central Terminal",
"Geocentric model",
"Celestial sphere",
"De sphaera mundi",
"National Museum of Scotland",
"astrolabe",
"zodiac",
"Thales of Miletus",
"Earth",
"star",
"Solar System",
"chirality",
"Geostationary orbit",
"constellation",
"Opacity (optics)",
"Nicolaus Copernicus",
"Lahore",
"transparency and translucency"
] |
7,827 |
Covenant-breaker
|
Covenant-breaker is a term used in the Baháʼí Faith to refer to a person who has been excommunicated from the Baháʼí community for breaking the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh, meaning actively promoting schism in the religion or otherwise opposing the legitimacy of the chain of succession of leadership. Excommunication among Baháʼís is rare and not used for transgressions of community standards, intellectual dissent, or conversion to other religions. Instead, it is the most severe punishment, reserved for suppressing organized dissent that threatens the unity of believers.
Currently, the Universal House of Justice has the sole authority to declare a person a Covenant-breaker, and once identified, all Baháʼís are expected to shun them, even if they are family members. According to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Covenant-breaking is a contagious disease. The Baháʼí writings forbid association with Covenant-breakers and Baháʼís are urged to avoid their literature, thus providing an exception to the Baháʼí principle of independent investigation of truth. Most Baháʼís are unaware of the small Baháʼí divisions that exist.
Dr. Mikhail Sergeev wrote about the Baháʼí practice of excommunication,
The three largest attempts at alternative leadership—whose followers are considered Covenant-breakers—were from Subh-i-Azal, Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí, and Charles Mason Remey. Others were declared Covenant-breakers for actively opposing or disobeying the head of the religion, or maliciously attacking the Baháʼí administration after leaving it.
==Definition==
Covenant-breaking does not refer to attacks from non-Baháʼís or former Baháʼís. Rather, it is in reference to internal campaigns of opposition where the Covenant-breaker is seen as challenging the unity of the Baháʼí Faith, causing internal division, or by claiming or supporting an alternate succession of authority or administrative structure. The central purpose of the covenant is to prevent schism and dissension.
In a letter to an individual dated 23 March 1975, the Universal House of Justice wrote:
The term Covenant-breaker (Arabic: ناقضين) was first used by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá during his ministry to describe partisans of his half-brother Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí, who challenged his leadership, although the concept of expulsion from the community of believers and avoidance of contact with them is rooted in the direct instruction and practices of Baháʼu'lláh. In ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament, he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the first Guardian, defined it as an institution, and also called for the election of the Universal House of Justice. ʻAbdul-Bahá defined in the same manner opposition to these two institutions as Covenant-breaking and advised all Baháʼís to shun anyone opposing the Covenant: "...one of the greatest and most fundamental principles of the Cause of God is to shun and avoid entirely the Covenant-breakers, for they will utterly destroy the Cause of God, exterminate His Law and render of no account all efforts exerted in the past."
==Categorization==
=== Included categories of people ===
Most Covenant-breakers are involved in schismatic groups, but not always. For example, a Baháʼí who refuses to follow guidance on treatment of Covenant-breakers is at risk of being named one. One article}}
Beyond this, many other relationships to the Baháʼí Faith exist, both positive and negative. Covenant-breaking does not apply to most of them. The following is a partial list of those who could not rightly be termed Covenant-breakers:
Members of other religions or no religion—with or without any particular relationship to the Baháʼí Faith.
Baháʼís who simply leave the religion. (see above)
Baháʼís who, in the estimation of the head of the religion have insufficiently understood the nature of the covenant from the start. These are sometimes "disenrolled" and are considered to have never actually been Baháʼís, given their fundamental diversion from this core Baháʼí doctrine.
===Bábís===
Bábís are generally regarded as another religion altogether and not necessarily seen as covenant-breakers, since strictly speaking covenant-breaking presumes that one has submitted oneself to a covenant and then broken it. As Bábís never recognized or swore allegiance to Baháʼu'lláh, they are not Covenant-breakers of Baháʼu'lláh's covenant.
Shoghi Effendi did inform Baháʼís that they should avoid contact with followers and descendents of Subh-i-Azal, Baháʼu'lláh's half-brother, on the basis of Azal's attempts to poison him, and his followers' active opposition to Baháʼís, writing that "No intelligent and loyal Baha'i would associate with a descendant of Azal, if he traced the slightest breath of criticism of our Faith, in any aspect, from that person. In fact these people should be strenuously avoided as having an inherited spiritual disease -- the disease of Covenant-breaking!".
==Shoghi Effendi's immediate family==
Through the influence of Bahíyyih Khánum, the eldest daughter of Baháʼu'lláh, everyone in the household initially rallied around Shoghi Effendi after the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. For several years his brother Husayn and several cousins served him as secretaries. The only ones publicly opposing him were Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí and his followers, who were declared Covenant-breakers by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Contrary to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's specific instruction, certain family members established illicit links with those whom ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had declared Covenant-breakers. After Bahíyyih Khánum died in 1932, Shoghi Effendi's eldest sister – Ruhangiz – married Nayyer Effendi Afnan, a son of Siyyid Ali Afnan, stepson of Baháʼu'lláh though Furughiyyih. The children of Furughiyyih sided with Muhammad ʻAlí and opposed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, leaving only ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's own children as faithful among the descendants of Baháʼu'lláh. Moojan Momen describes these events as follows:
{{quote|All remained quiescent until the late 1930s when the case of the House of Bahá'u'lláh (q.v.) arose in Iraq. Shoghi Effendi asked Husayn Afnán (d. 1952), the son of Sayyid `Alí, to resign a high post that he held with the Iraqi government so that he would not be placed in the position of endorsing that government's actions in the case. Husayn refused and was expelled; one-by-one his brothers Faydí, Hasan, and Nayyir (Nayyir-`Alí, d. 1952) were also expelled.
Events then proceeded rapidly. A series of marriages, engineered, according to Shoghi Effendi (MB), by Nayyir, occurred, linking the grandchildren of `Abdu'l-Bahá with the expelled sons of Sayyid `Alí Afnán.
===Expulsions===
In 1944 Shoghi Effendi announced the expulsion of Munib Shahid, the grandson of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's through Ruha, for marrying into the family of an enemy of the Baháʼís. In April 1945, he announced the expulsion of Husayn Ali, his brother, for joining the other Covenant-breakers. In a 1950 Shoghi Effendi sent another cable expelling the family of Ruha, another daughter of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá for showing "open defiance", and in December 1951 he announced a "fourth alliance" of members of the family of Siyyid Ali marrying into Ruha's family, and that his brother Riaz was included among the Covenant-breakers.
In 1953 he cabled about Ruhi Afnan corresponding with Mirza Ahmad Sohrab, selling property of Baháʼu'lláh, and publicly "misrepresenting the teachings and deliberately causing confusion in minds of authorities and the local population".
==Resultant groups==
Most of the groups regarded by the larger group of Baháʼís as Covenant-breakers originated in the claims of Charles Mason Remey to the Guardianship in 1960. The Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá states that Guardians should be lineal descendants of Baháʼu'lláh, that each Guardian must select his successor during his lifetime, and that the nine Hands of the Cause of God permanently stationed in the Holy Land must approve the appointment by majority vote. Baháʼís interpret lineal descendency to mean physical familial relation to Baháʼu'lláh, of which Mason Remey was not.
Almost all of Baháʼís accepted the determination of the Hands of the Cause that upon the death of Shoghi Effendi, he died "without having appointed his successor". There was an absence of a valid descendant of Baháʼu'lláh who could qualify under the terms of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will. Later the Universal House of Justice, initially elected in 1963, made a ruling on the subject that it was not possible for another Guardian to be appointed.
In 1960 Remey, a Hand of the Cause himself, retracted his earlier position, and claimed to have been coerced. He claimed to be the successor to Shoghi Effendi. He and the small number of people who followed him were expelled from the mainstream Baháʼí community by the Hands of the Cause. Those close to Remey claimed that he went senile in old age, and by the time of his death he was largely abandoned, with his most prominent followers fighting amongst themselves for leadership.
The largest group of the remaining followers of Remey, members of the "Orthodox Baháʼí Faith", believe that legitimate authority passed from Shoghi Effendi to Mason Remey to Joel Marangella. They, therefore, regard the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel to be illegitimate, and its members and followers to be Covenant-breakers.
In 2009, Jeffery Goldberg and Janice Franco, both from the mainstream Baháʼí community, joined the Orthodox Baháʼí Faith. Both of them were declared as Covenant-breakers and shunned. Goldberg's wife was told to divorce her husband.
The present descendants of expelled members of Baháʼu'lláh's family have not specifically been declared Covenant-breakers, though they mostly do not associate themselves with the Baháʼí religion.
A small group of Baháʼís in Northern New Mexico believe that these descendants are eligible for appointment to the Guardianship and are waiting for such a direct descendant of Baháʼu'lláh to arise as the rightful Guardian.
Enayatullah (Zabih) Yazdani was designated a Covenant-breaker in June 2005, after many years of insisting on his views that Mason Remey was the legitimate successor to Shoghi Effendi and of accepting Donald Harvey as the third guardian. He is now the fifth guardian of a small group of Baháʼís and resides in Australia.
There is also a small group in Montana, originally inspired by Leland Jensen, who claimed a status higher than that of the Guardian. His failed apocalyptic predictions and unsuccessful efforts to reestablish the Guardianship and the administration were apparent by his death in 1996. A dispute among Jensen's followers over the identity of the Guardian resulted in another division in 2001.
===American opposition===
Juan Cole, an American professor of Middle Eastern history who had been a Baháʼí for 25 years, left the religion in 1996 after being approached by a Continental Counselor about his involvement in a secret email list that was organizing opposition to certain Baháʼí institutions and policies. Cole was never labeled a Covenant-breaker, because he claimed to be a Unitarian-Universalist upon leaving. He went on to publish three papers in journals in 1998, 2000, and 2002. These heavily criticized the Baháʼí administration in the United States and suggested cult-like tendencies, particularly regarding the requirement of pre-publication review and the practice of shunning Covenant-breakers. For example, Cole wrote in 1998, "Baha’is, like members of The Watchtower and other cults, shun those who are excommunicated." In 2000, he wrote: "Baha'i authorities... keep believers in line by appealing to the welfare and unity of the community, and if these appeals fail then implicit or explicit threats of disfellowshipping and even shunning are invoked. ... Shunning is the central control mechanism in the Baha'i system" In 2002, he wrote: "Opportunistic sectarian-minded officials may have seen this... as a time when they could act arbitrarily and harshly against intellectuals and liberals, using summary expulsion and threats of shunning".
Moojan Momen, a Baháʼí author, reviewed 66 exit narratives of former Baháʼís, and identified 1996 (Cole's departure) to 2002 as a period of "articulate and well-educated" apostates that used the newly available Internet to connect with each other and form a community with its own "mythology, creed and salvation stories becoming what could perhaps be called an anti-religion". According to Momen, the narrative among these apostates of a "fiercely aggressive religion where petty dictators rule" is the opposite experience of most members, who see "peace as a central teaching", "consultative decision-making", and "mechanisms to guard against individuals attacking the central institutions of the Bahá'í Faith or creating schisms." On the practice of shunning, Momen writes that it is "rarely used and is only applied after prolonged negotiations fail to resolve the situation. To the best knowledge of the present author it has been used against no more than a handful of individuals in over two decades and to only the first of the apostates described below [Francesco Ficicchia] more than twenty-five years ago - although it is regularly mentioned in the literature produced by the apostates as though it were a frequent occurrence."
|
[
"Moojan Momen",
"Universal House of Justice",
"Guardian (Baháʼí Faith)",
"Subh-i-Azal",
"Mason Remey",
"Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá",
"List of former Baháʼís",
"Munib Shahid",
"WP:NOTRS",
"Hands of the Cause",
"Baháʼí administration",
"The Watchtower",
"Níkú",
"Baháʼu'lláh",
"Mirza Ahmad Sohrab",
"Charles Mason Remey",
"Hands of the Cause of God",
"Sobhi Fazl'ollah Mohtadi",
"Orthodox Baháʼí Faith",
"Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh",
"Baháʼu'lláh's family",
"Bahíyyih Khánum",
"lineal primogeniture",
"Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí",
"Ruth White (Baháʼí author)",
"Oneworld Publications",
"Abd al-Hosayn Ayati",
"Juan Cole",
"ʻAbdu'l-Bahá",
"Institution of the Counsellors",
"Religion (journal)",
"Baháʼí divisions",
"Shoghi Effendi",
"Julia Lynch Olin",
"Baháʼí Faith",
"Baháʼí review",
"Holy Land",
"List of excommunicated Baháʼís",
"Unitarian-Universalism",
"Elsevier",
"Excommunication",
"Bábís"
] |
7,828 |
Concord, Michigan
|
Concord is a village in Jackson County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 1,050 at the 2010 census. The village is within Concord Township.
Settled in 1831, much of the village's downtown area is designated as part of the Concord Village Historic District. The village is located along M-60 about southwest of Jackson.
==History==
Concord first received a post office in 1836. It was incorporated as a village in 1871.
The Michigan Historical Center operates a museum in Concord called the Mann House. The Mann House is an excellent example of typical middle-class domestic architecture of the early 1880s and features the family's sleigh and buggy as well as Jackson's Michigan State Prison made furniture.
== Government ==
Concord is a general-law village incorporated within the Concord Township.
==Geography==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and (7.41%) is water.
The village is located within the T3S R3W survey township.
==Demographics==
Concord Community Schools (Enrollment 900) participate in Class C and Division 4 of MHSAA athletics. Their teams are known as the Yellow Jackets and play in the Big 8 Conference. The schools' colors are purple and gold. The boys' cross country and track & field teams both claimed MHSAA State Championships during the 2009–10 school year, as well as back to back MHSAA State Championships in the 2014 and 2015 school years. In 2011 and 2012, the boys cross country team won back to back MHSAA State Championships.
===2010 census===
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,050 people, 412 households, and 293 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 484 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 99.0% White, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 0.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population.
There were 412 households, of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.6% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.9% were non-families. 25.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.02.
The median age in the village was 40.9 years. 26% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.7% were from 45 to 64; and 15.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.
===2000 census===
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,101 people, 428 households, and 308 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 499 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 97.91% White, 0.09% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.73% Asian, 0.64% from other races, and 0.36% from two or more races. 0.82% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 428 households, out of which 34.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.09.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 28.1% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.7 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $46,500, and the median income for a family was $54,531. Males had a median income of $39,167 versus $23,594 for females. The per capita income for the village was $19,348. About 4.8% of families and 5.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.1% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over.
|
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"Michigan State Prison",
"Jackson, Michigan",
"U.S. state",
"Town council",
"Concord Township, Michigan",
"Concord Community Schools (Michigan)",
"Jackson County, Michigan",
"Eastern Time Zone",
"ZIP Code",
"Village (United States)",
"2020 United States census",
"M-60 (Michigan highway)",
"Geographic Names Information System",
"2010 United States Census",
"Concord Village Historic District (Concord, Michigan)",
"United States Geological Survey",
"List of counties in Michigan",
"Municipal clerk",
"United States Census Bureau",
"Federal Information Processing Standard",
"Mann House (Concord, Michigan)",
"Area code 517",
"Civil township",
"Michigan",
"survey township",
"2010 United States census"
] |
7,829 |
Chaos Computer Club
|
The Chaos Computer Club (CCC) is Europe's largest association of hackers
The four-day conference Gulaschprogrammiernacht in Karlsruhe is with more than 1,500 participants the second largest annual event.
Another yearly CCC event taking place on the Easter weekend is the Easterhegg, which is more workshop oriented than the other events.
The CCC often uses the c-base station located in Berlin as an event location or as function rooms.
=== Publications and outreach ===
The CCC publishes the irregular magazine Datenschleuder (data slingshot) since 1984.
The Berlin chapter produces a monthly radio show called which picks up various technical and political topics in a two-hour talk radio show. The program is aired on a local radio station called and on the internet.
Other programs have emerged in the context of Chaosradio, including radio programs offered by some regional Chaos Groups and the podcast spin-off CRE by Tim Pritlove.
Many of the chapters of CCC participate in the volunteer project Chaos macht Schule which supports teaching in local schools. Its aims are to improve technology and media literacy of pupils, parents, and teachers.
CCC members are present in big tech companies and in administrative instances. One of the spokespersons of the CCC, as of 1986, Andy Müller-Maguhn, was a member of the executive committee of the ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) between 2000 and 2002.
=== CryptoParty ===
The CCC sensitises and introduces people to the questions of data privacy. Some of its local chapters support or organize so called CryptoParties to introduce people to the basics of practical cryptography and internet anonymity.
==History==
=== Founding ===
The CCC was founded in West Berlin on 12 September 1981 at a table which had previously belonged to the Kommune 1 in the rooms of the newspaper Die Tageszeitung by Wau Holland and others in anticipation of the prominent role that information technology would play in the way people live and communicate.
=== BTX-Hack ===
The CCC became world-famous in 1984 when they drew public attention to the security flaws of the German Bildschirmtext computer network by causing it to debit DM 134,000 () in a Hamburg bank in favor of the club. The money was returned the next day in front of the press. Prior to the incident, the system provider had failed to react to proof of the security flaw provided by the CCC, claiming to the public that their system was safe. Bildschirmtext was the biggest commercially available online system targeted at the general public in its region at that time, run and heavily advertised by the German telecommunications agency Deutsche Bundespost which also strove to keep up-to-date alternatives out of the market.
=== Karl Koch ===
In 1987, the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to make international headlines. A group of German hackers led by Karl Koch, who was loosely affiliated with the CCC, was arrested for breaking into US government and corporate computers, and then selling operating-system source code to the Soviet KGB.
This incident was portrayed in the movie 23.
=== GSM-Hack ===
In April 1998, the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of a GSM customer card, breaking the COMP128 encryption algorithm used at that time by many GSM SIMs.
=== Project Blinkenlights ===
In 2001, the CCC celebrated its twentieth birthday with an interactive light installation dubbed Project Blinkenlights that turned the building Haus des Lehrers in Berlin into a giant computer screen. A follow-up installation, Arcade, was created in 2002 by the CCC for the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Later in October 2008 CCC's Project Blinkenlights went to Toronto, Ontario, Canada with project Stereoscope.
=== Schäuble fingerprints ===
In March 2008, the CCC acquired and published the fingerprints of German Minister of the Interior Wolfgang Schäuble. The magazine also included the fingerprint on a film that readers could use to fool fingerprint readers. This was done to protest the use of biometric data in German identity devices such as e-passports.
=== Staatstrojaner affair ===
The Staatstrojaner (Federal Trojan horse) is a computer surveillance program installed secretly on a suspect's computer, which the German police uses to wiretap Internet telephony. This "source wiretapping" is the only feasible way to wiretap in this case, since Internet telephony programs will usually encrypt the data when it leaves the computer. The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany has ruled that the police may only use such programs for telephony wiretapping, and for no other purpose, and that this restriction should be enforced through technical and legal means.
On 8 October 2011, the CCC published an analysis of the Staatstrojaner software. The software was found to have the ability to remote control the target computer, to capture screenshots, and to fetch and run arbitrary extra code. The CCC says that having this functionality built in is in direct contradiction to the ruling of the constitutional court.
In addition, there were a number of security problems with the implementation. The software was controllable over the Internet, but the commands were sent completely unencrypted, with no checks for authentication or integrity. This leaves any computer under surveillance using this software vulnerable to attack. The captured screenshots and audio files were encrypted, but so incompetently that the encryption was ineffective. All captured data was sent over a proxy server in the United States, which is problematic since the data is then temporarily outside the German jurisdiction.
The CCC's findings were widely reported in the German press. This trojan has also been nicknamed R2-D2 because the string "C3PO-r2d2-POE" was found in its code; According to a Sophos analysis, the trojan's behavior matches that described in a confidential memo between the German Landeskriminalamt and a software firm called ; the memo was leaked on WikiLeaks in 2008. The 64-bit Windows version installs a digitally signed driver, but signed by the non-existing certificate authority "Goose Cert". DigiTask later admitted selling spy software to governments.
The Federal Ministry of the Interior released a statement in which they denied that R2-D2 has been used by the Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA); this statement however does not eliminate the possibility that it has been used by state-level German police forces. The BKA had previously announced however (in 2007) that they had somewhat similar trojan software that can inspect a computer's hard drive. This decision was revoked in February 2012.
As a result of his role in the expulsion, board member Andy Müller-Maguhn was not reelected for another term.
=== Phone authentication systems ===
The CCC has repeatedly warned phone users of the weakness of biometric identification in the wake of the 2008 Schäuble fingerprints affair. In their "hacker ethics" the CCC includes "protect people data", but also "Computers can change your life for the better". The club regards privacy as an individual right: the CCC does not discourage people from sharing or storing personal information on their phones, but advocates better privacy protection, and the use of specific browsing and sharing techniques by users.
==== Apple TouchID ====
From a photograph of the user's fingerprint on a glass surface, using "easy everyday means", the biometrics hacking team of the CCC was able to unlock an iPhone 5S.
==== Samsung S8 iris recognition ====
The Samsung Galaxy S8's iris recognition system claims to be "one of the safest ways to keep your phone locked and the contents private" as "patterns in your irises are unique to you and are virtually impossible to replicate", as quoted in official Samsung content. However, in some cases, using a high resolution photograph of the phone owner's iris and a lens, the CCC claimed to be able to trick the authentication system.
==Fake Chaos Computer Club France==
The Chaos Computer Club France (CCCF) was a fake hacker organisation created in 1989 in Lyon (France) by Jean-Bernard Condat, under the command of Jean-Luc Delacour, an agent of the Direction de la surveillance du territoire governmental agency. The primary goal of the CCCF was to watch and to gather information about the French hacker community, identifying the hackers who could harm the country. Journalist said that this organization also worked with the French National Gendarmerie.
The CCCF had an electronic magazine called Chaos Digest (ChaosD). Between 4 January 1993 and 5 August 1993, seventy-three issues were published ().
|
[
"Die Tageszeitung",
"SIGINT (conference)",
"human rights",
"Der Spiegel",
"Information privacy",
"Chaosdorf",
"Bildschirmtext",
"wiretap",
"COMP128",
"Netzpolitik.org",
"Toronto",
"Wau Holland",
"Sophos",
"BBC News",
"Landeskriminalamt",
"KGB",
"Chaos Communication Congress",
"Haus des Lehrers",
"Heise Online",
"Hacker culture",
"iris recognition",
"C-base",
"Deutsche Bundespost",
"Wolfgang Schäuble",
"jurisdiction",
"Tim Pritlove",
"Wau Holland Foundation",
"Federal Criminal Police Office (Germany)",
"media literacy",
"Lyon",
"Karlsruhe",
"Federal Constitutional Court of Germany",
"Congress Center Hamburg",
"ICANN",
"GSM",
"Cologne",
"R2-D2",
"Internet telephony",
"Karl Koch (hacker)",
"Gendarmerie Nationale (France)",
"computer surveillance",
"Gulaschprogrammiernacht",
"Direction de la surveillance du territoire",
"c-base",
"WikiLeaks",
"Jean-Bernard Condat",
"Federal Constitutional Court",
"Federal Ministry of the Interior (Germany)",
"Bibliothèque nationale de France",
"Chaos Esports Club",
"encryption",
"Datenschleuder",
"Digital identity",
"Security hacker",
"Ontario",
"Biometric passport",
"Daniel Domscheit-Berg",
"WP:ALT",
"freedom of information",
"Nongovernmental organization",
"cyberespionage",
"open-source software",
"West Berlin",
"The Guardian",
"hacker culture",
"Hamburg",
"23 (film)",
"Plaintext",
"esports",
"DACH",
"Digitalcourage",
"Subscriber Identity Module",
"Deutsche Mark",
"talk radio",
"Tron (hacker)",
"Project Blinkenlights",
"Easterhegg",
"West Germany",
"Chaos Communication Camp",
"fingerprint reader",
"Kommune 1",
"Digital edition",
"Hacker (computer security)",
"screenshots",
"Bavarian language",
"hacker ethic",
"eingetragener Verein",
"Phrack",
"Oktoberfest",
"Minister of the Interior (Germany)",
"certificate authority",
"Trojan horse (computing)",
"Andy Müller-Maguhn"
] |
7,830 |
Convention (norm)
|
A convention influences a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, social norms, or other criteria, often taking the form of a custom.
In physical sciences, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called conventional if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a convention, for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values.
== General ==
A convention is a selection from among two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants. Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community. For instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands. Some conventions are explicitly legislated; for example, it is conventional in the United States and in Germany that motorists drive on the right side of the road, whereas in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Nepal, India and the United Kingdom motorists drive on the left. The standardization of time is a human convention based on the solar cycle or calendar. The extent to which justice is conventional (as opposed to natural or objective) is historically an important debate among philosophers.
The nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion. Quine, Davidson, and David Lewis published influential writings on the subject. Lewis's account of convention received an extended critique in Margaret Gilbert's On Social Facts (1989), where an alternative account is offered. Another view of convention comes from Ruth Millikan's Language: A Biological Model (2005), once more against Lewis.
According to David Kalupahana, The Buddha described conventions—whether linguistic, social, political, moral, ethical, or even religious—as arising dependent on specific conditions. According to his paradigm, when conventions are considered absolute realities, they contribute to dogmatism, which in turn leads to conflict. This does not mean that conventions should be absolutely ignored as unreal and therefore useless. Instead, according to Buddhist thought, a wise person adopts a Middle Way without holding conventions to be ultimate or ignoring them when they are fruitful.
== Customary or social conventions ==
=== Social ===
In sociology, a social rule refers to any social convention commonly adhered to in a society. These rules are not written in law or otherwise formalized. In social constructionism, there is a great focus on social rules. It is argued that these rules are socially constructed, that these rules act upon every member of a society, but at the same time, are re-produced by the individuals.
Sociologists representing symbolic interactionism argue that social rules are created through the interaction between the members of a society. The focus on active interaction highlights the fluid, shifting character of social rules. These are specific to the social context, a context that varies through time and place. That means a social rule changes over time within the same society. What was acceptable in the past may no longer be the case. Similarly, rules differ across space: what is acceptable in one society may not be so in another.
Social rules reflect what is acceptable or normal behaviour in any situation. Michel Foucault's concept of discourse is closely related to social rules as it offers a possible explanation how these rules are shaped and change. It is the social rules that tell people what is normal behaviour for any specific category. Thus, social rules tell a woman how to behave in a womanly manner, and a man, how to be manly. Other such rules are as follows:
Strangers being introduced shake hands, as in Western societies, but:
Bow toward each other, in Korea, Japan and China
Wai each other in Thailand
Do not bow at each other, in the Jewish tradition
In the United States, eye contact, a nod of the head toward each other, and a smile, with no bowing; the palm of the hand faces sideways, neither upward nor downward, in a business handshake.
Present business cards to each other, in business meetings (both-handed in Japan)
Click heels together, while saluting in some military contexts
In most places it's always polite to ask before kissing or hugging, this is called public display of affection.
A property norm is to place things back where we found them.
A property norm is used to identify which commodities are accepted as money.
A sexual norm can refer to a personal or a social norm. Most cultures have social norms regarding sexuality, and define normal sexuality to consist only of certain sex acts between individuals who meet specific criteria of age, consanguinity, race/ethnicity, and/or social role and socioeconomic status. In the west outside the traditional norm between consenting adults what is considered not normal is what falls under what is regarded as paraphilia or sexual perversion.
A form of marriage, polygyny or polyandry, is right or wrong in a given society, as is homosexual marriage considered wrong in many of the societies. A religious more for an example is that a woman or man must not cohabitate, live together, when romantically involved until they have gotten married. Adultery is considered wrong that is not violating sexual fidelity when there is union of a couple in marriage.
A men's and women's dress code.
Avoid using rude hand gestures like pointing at people, swear words, offensive language etc., in some societies
In the Middle East, never displaying the sole of the foot toward another, as this would be seen as a grave insult.
In many schools, though seats for students are not assigned they are still "claimed" by certain students, and sitting in someone else's seat is considered an insult.
To reciprocate when something is done for us.
Etiquette norms, like asking to be excused from the gathering's table, be ready to pay for your bill particularly in the case you asked people to dinner, it is a faux pas to refuse an offer of food as a guest.
Contraception norms, not to limit access to them by women who require it, some cultures limit contraception.
Recreational drug use restrictions on access or as popularly accepted in the culture where it is used as an example alcohol, nicotine, cannabis and hashish, there is a disincentive and prohibition for controlled substances where use and sale is prohibited like MDMA and party drugs.
The belief that certain forms of discrimination are unethical because they take something away from the person by restrictions and by being ostracised. Furthermore, can "Restrict women's and girls' rights, access to empowerment opportunities and resources".
A person has a duty of care for the aged persons within the family.
An gentlemen's agreement, or gentleman's agreement, is an informal and legally non-binding agreement between two or more parties. We follow through on our business dealings, when we say we will do something then we do it and will not falter to do so.
If you are going to be punctual, notify friends or acquaintances if you will be late. for social responsibility or to prevent harm. See the parable of the Good Samaritan.
Do not go to a non-fast food restaurant or bar unless you have enough to make a good tip, depending on the place.
Examples of US social norms or customs turned into laws include the following:
People under 21 cannot buy alcohol.
You must be 16 to drive.
Firearms are legal and relatively accessible to anyone who wants one.
In a city you cannot cross the street wherever you like, you must use a zebra crossing. You can be fined if the police catch you breaking this rule.
It is a social norm to provide tips in the US to waitresses and waiters.
There are numerous gender-specific norms that influence society:
Girls should wear pink; boys should wear blue.
Men should be strong and not show any emotion.
Women should be caring and nurturing.
Men should do repairs at the house and be the one to work and make money; while women are expected to take care of the housework and children.
A man should pay for the woman's meal when going out to dinner.
Men should open doors for women at bars, clubs, workplace, and should clear the way for the exit.
== Government ==
In government, convention is a set of unwritten rules that participants in the government must follow. These rules can be ignored only if justification is clear, or can be provided. Otherwise, consequences follow. Consequences may include ignoring some other convention that has until now been followed. According to the traditional doctrine (Dicey), conventions cannot be enforced in courts, because they are non-legal sets of rules. Convention is particularly important in the Westminster System of government, where many of the rules are unwritten.
|
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"Conventional landing gear",
"outline of physical science",
"Conventional insulin therapy",
"polygyny",
"paraphilia",
"discrimination",
"justice",
"symbolic interactionism",
"Recreational drug use",
"Donald Davidson (philosopher)",
"society",
"religious vows",
"commodity money",
"Willard van Orman Quine",
"Gotama Buddha",
"Dependent arising",
"Unconventional wind turbines",
"Margaret Gilbert",
"Etiquette",
"David Lewis (philosopher)",
"Conventionalism",
"philosopher",
"Conventional treatment",
"Conventionally grown",
"law",
"discourse",
"Naturalism (philosophy)",
"Middle Way",
"Michel Foucault",
"Norm of reciprocity",
"List of alcohol laws of the United States",
"Pledge of Allegiance",
"Conventional wastewater treatment",
"public display of affection",
"family values",
"Conventional superconductor",
"Ruth Millikan",
"Unconventional computing",
"aged care",
"promise",
"sexual norm",
"polyandry",
"Trope (literature)",
"Bowing (social)",
"Masculinity",
"Objectivity (philosophy)",
"Non-conventional trademark",
"Forms of government",
"Nodding",
"Types of marriages",
"dress code",
"Conventional electrical unit",
"Gratuity",
"marriage",
"Westminster System",
"Left- and right-hand traffic",
"marriage vow",
"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
"Conventional pollutant",
"David Kalupahana",
"Conventional tillage",
"punctual",
"A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English",
"gentlemen's agreement",
"social norm",
"Femininity",
"social constructionism",
"Obscenity",
"Conventional sex",
"curtsey",
"Profanity",
"parable of the Good Samaritan",
"Conventional wisdom",
"birth control",
"Standard (disambiguation)",
"De facto standard",
"Unconventional superconductor",
"Thai greeting",
"nonviolence"
] |
7,832 |
Complete metric space
|
In mathematical analysis, a metric space is called complete (or a Cauchy space) if every Cauchy sequence of points in has a limit that is also in .
Intuitively, a space is complete if there are no "points missing" from it (inside or at the boundary). For instance, the set of rational numbers is not complete, because e.g. \sqrt{2} is "missing" from it, even though one can construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers that converges to it (see further examples below). It is always possible to "fill all the holes", leading to the completion of a given space, as explained below.
==Definition==
Cauchy sequence
A sequence x_1, x_2, x_3, \ldots of elements from X of a metric space (X, d) is called Cauchy if for every positive real number r > 0 there is a positive integer N such that for all positive integers m, n > N, d(x_m, x_n) < r.
Complete space
A metric space (X, d) is complete if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied:
Every Cauchy sequence of points in X has a limit that is also in X.
Every Cauchy sequence in X converges in X (that is, to some point of X).
Every decreasing sequence of non-empty closed subsets of X, with diameters tending to 0, has a non-empty intersection: if F_n is closed and non-empty, F_{n+1} \subseteq F_n for every n, and \operatorname{diam}\left(F_n\right) \to 0, then there is a unique point x \in X common to all sets F_n.
==Examples==
The space \Q of rational numbers, with the standard metric given by the absolute value of the difference, is not complete.
Consider for instance the sequence defined by
x_1 = 1\; and \;x_{n+1} = \frac{x_n}{2} + \frac{1}{x_n}.
This is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, but it does not converge towards any rational limit: If the sequence did have a limit x, then by solving x = \frac{x}{2} + \frac{1}{x} necessarily x^2 = 2, yet no rational number has this property.
However, considered as a sequence of real numbers, it does converge to the irrational number \sqrt{2}.
The open interval , again with the absolute difference metric, is not complete either.
The sequence defined by x_n = \tfrac{1}{n} is Cauchy, but does not have a limit in the given space.
However the closed interval unit interval| is complete; for example the given sequence does have a limit in this interval, namely zero.
The space \R of real numbers and the space \C of complex numbers (with the metric given by the absolute difference) are complete, and so is Euclidean space \R^n, with the usual distance metric.
In contrast, infinite-dimensional normed vector spaces may or may not be complete; those that are complete are Banach spaces.
The space C of continuous real-valued functions on a closed and bounded interval is a Banach space, and so a complete metric space, with respect to the supremum norm.
However, the supremum norm does not give a norm on the space C of continuous functions on , for it may contain unbounded functions.
Instead, with the topology of compact convergence, C can be given the structure of a Fréchet space: a locally convex topological vector space whose topology can be induced by a complete translation-invariant metric.
The space Qp of p-adic numbers is complete for any prime number p.
This space completes Q with the p-adic metric in the same way that R completes Q with the usual metric.
If S is an arbitrary set, then the set of all sequences in S becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences \left(x_n\right) and \left(y_n\right) to be \tfrac{1}{N} where N is the smallest index for which x_N is distinct from y_N or 0 if there is no such index.
This space is homeomorphic to the product of a countable number of copies of the discrete space S.
Riemannian manifolds which are complete are called geodesic manifolds; completeness follows from the Hopf–Rinow theorem.
==Some theorems==
Every compact metric space is complete, though complete spaces need not be compact. In fact, a metric space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. This is a generalization of the Heine–Borel theorem, which states that any closed and bounded subspace S of is compact and therefore complete.
Let (X, d) be a complete metric space. If A \subseteq X is a closed set, then A is also complete. Let (X, d) be a metric space. If A \subseteq X is a complete subspace, then A is also closed.
If X is a set and M is a complete metric space, then the set B(X, M) of all bounded functions from to M is a complete metric space. Here we define the distance in B(X, M) in terms of the distance in M with the supremum norm
d(f, g) \equiv \sup\{d[f(x), g(x)]: x \in X\}
If X is a topological space and M is a complete metric space, then the set C_b(X, M) consisting of all continuous bounded functions f : X \to M is a closed subspace of B(X, M) and hence also complete.
The Baire category theorem says that every complete metric space is a Baire space. That is, the union of countably many nowhere dense subsets of the space has empty interior.
The Banach fixed-point theorem states that a contraction mapping on a complete metric space admits a fixed point. The fixed-point theorem is often used to prove the inverse function theorem on complete metric spaces such as Banach spaces.
==Completion==
For any metric space M, it is possible to construct a complete metric space M′ (which is also denoted as \overline{M}), which contains M as a dense subspace. It has the following universal property: if N is any complete metric space and f is any uniformly continuous function from M to N, then there exists a unique uniformly continuous function f′ from M′ to N that extends f. The space M' is determined up to isometry by this property (among all complete metric spaces isometrically containing M), and is called the completion of M.
The completion of M can be constructed as a set of equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences in M. For any two Cauchy sequences x_{\bull} = \left(x_n\right) and y_{\bull} = \left(y_n\right) in M, we may define their distance as
d\left(x_{\bull}, y_{\bull}\right) = \lim_n d\left(x_n, y_n\right)
(This limit exists because the real numbers are complete.) This is only a pseudometric, not yet a metric, since two different Cauchy sequences may have the distance 0. But "having distance 0" is an equivalence relation on the set of all Cauchy sequences, and the set of equivalence classes is a metric space, the completion of M. The original space is embedded in this space via the identification of an element x of M' with the equivalence class of sequences in M converging to x (i.e., the equivalence class containing the sequence with constant value x). This defines an isometry onto a dense subspace, as required. Notice, however, that this construction makes explicit use of the completeness of the real numbers, so completion of the rational numbers needs a slightly different treatment.
Cantor's construction of the real numbers is similar to the above construction; the real numbers are the completion of the rational numbers using the ordinary absolute value to measure distances. The additional subtlety to contend with is that it is not logically permissible to use the completeness of the real numbers in their own construction. Nevertheless, equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences are defined as above, and the set of equivalence classes is easily shown to be a field that has the rational numbers as a subfield. This field is complete, admits a natural total ordering, and is the unique totally ordered complete field (up to isomorphism). It is defined as the field of real numbers (see also Construction of the real numbers for more details). One way to visualize this identification with the real numbers as usually viewed is that the equivalence class consisting of those Cauchy sequences of rational numbers that "ought" to have a given real limit is identified with that real number. The truncations of the decimal expansion give just one choice of Cauchy sequence in the relevant equivalence class.
For a prime p, the -adic numbers arise by completing the rational numbers with respect to a different metric.
If the earlier completion procedure is applied to a normed vector space, the result is a Banach space containing the original space as a dense subspace, and if it is applied to an inner product space, the result is a Hilbert space containing the original space as a dense subspace.
==Topologically complete spaces==
Completeness is a property of the metric and not of the topology, meaning that a complete metric space can be homeomorphic to a non-complete one. An example is given by the real numbers, which are complete but homeomorphic to the open interval , which is not complete.
In topology one considers completely metrizable spaces, spaces for which there exists at least one complete metric inducing the given topology. Completely metrizable spaces can be characterized as those spaces that can be written as an intersection of countably many open subsets of some complete metric space. Since the conclusion of the Baire category theorem is purely topological, it applies to these spaces as well.
Completely metrizable spaces are often called topologically complete. However, the latter term is somewhat arbitrary since metric is not the most general structure on a topological space for which one can talk about completeness (see the section Alternatives and generalizations). Indeed, some authors use the term topologically complete for a wider class of topological spaces, the completely uniformizable spaces.
A topological space homeomorphic to a separable complete metric space is called a Polish space.
==Alternatives and generalizations==
Since Cauchy sequences can also be defined in general topological groups, an alternative to relying on a metric structure for defining completeness and constructing the completion of a space is to use a group structure. This is most often seen in the context of topological vector spaces, but requires only the existence of a continuous "subtraction" operation. In this setting, the distance between two points x and y is gauged not by a real number \varepsilon via the metric d in the comparison d(x, y) < \varepsilon, but by an open neighbourhood N of 0 via subtraction in the comparison x - y \in N.
A common generalisation of these definitions can be found in the context of a uniform space, where an entourage is a set of all pairs of points that are at no more than a particular "distance" from each other.
It is also possible to replace Cauchy sequences in the definition of completeness by Cauchy nets or Cauchy filters. If every Cauchy net (or equivalently every Cauchy filter) has a limit in X, then X is called complete. One can furthermore construct a completion for an arbitrary uniform space similar to the completion of metric spaces. The most general situation in which Cauchy nets apply is Cauchy spaces; these too have a notion of completeness and completion just like uniform spaces.
|
[
"geodesic manifold",
"product topology",
"Fréchet space",
"universal property",
"equivalence relation",
"Metric space",
"topological group",
"Continuous function (topology)",
"decimal expansion",
"topological space",
"unit interval",
"normed vector space",
"Erwin Kreyszig",
"topological vector space",
"open neighbourhood",
"if and only if",
"Heine–Borel theorem",
"nowhere dense",
"open subset",
"Distinct (mathematics)",
"dense subspace",
"sequence",
"Field (mathematics)",
"Hilbert space",
"contraction mapping",
"Filter (set theory)",
"Banach space",
"p-adic number",
"topology",
"uniform space",
"metric space",
"mathematical analysis",
"inverse function theorem",
"discrete space",
"isometry",
"union (set theory)",
"Baire space",
"uniformly continuous function",
"inner product space",
"Diameter of a set",
"Euclidean space",
"Euclidean distance",
"Separable space",
"complex number",
"locally convex topological vector space",
"integer",
"Intersection (set theory)",
"total ordering",
"mathematical proof",
"Serge Lang",
"countable",
"isomorphism",
"Polish space",
"Georg Cantor",
"closed interval",
"Cauchy sequence",
"homeomorphic",
"subtraction",
"up to",
"real number",
"absolute value",
"rational number",
"dimension (vector space)",
"totally bounded",
"Construction of the real numbers",
"Banach fixed-point theorem",
"Uniform space",
"Cauchy space",
"metric (mathematics)",
"prime number",
"Interior (topology)",
"fixed point (mathematics)",
"irrational number",
"closed subset",
"Compact space",
"Net (mathematics)",
"Baire category theorem",
"empty set",
"supremum norm",
"continuous functions on a compact Hausdorff space",
"open interval",
"Square root of 2",
"field extension",
"completely uniformizable space",
"compact convergence",
"bounded function",
"set (mathematics)",
"Riemannian manifold",
"Limit of a sequence",
"Pseudometric space",
"completely metrizable space",
"equivalence class",
"Hopf–Rinow theorem"
] |
7,833 |
The Amazing Criswell
|
Jeron Criswell King (August 18, 1907 – October 4, 1982), known by his stage-name The Amazing Criswell (), was an American psychic known for wildly inaccurate predictions. In person, he went by Charles Criswell King, and was sometimes credited as Jeron King Criswell.
Criswell was flamboyant, with spit curled hair, a stentorian style of speaking, and a sequined tuxedo. He owned a coffin in which he claimed to sleep. He grew up in a troubled family in Indiana with relatives who owned a funeral home, and frequently stated he became comfortable with sleeping in caskets in the storeroom.
He appeared in two films directed by Ed Wood—Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957) and Night of the Ghouls (1959)—and also appeared in Orgy of the Dead (1965), which was written by Wood.
==Early life==
Criswell claimed he never actually talked until the age of four. During a thunderstorm he first spoke, making his first prediction, "the rain will stop." From this point on he was talkative, often placing himself center stage at any opportunity.
==Career==
Criswell said he had once worked as a radio announcer and news broadcaster. He began buying time on a local Los Angeles television station in the early 1950s to run infomercials for his Criswell Family Vitamins. To fill the time, he began his "Criswell Predicts" part of the show. This made him a minor off-beat celebrity in Los Angeles and around Hollywood, and his friendship with old show-business people such as Mae West and rising fringe celebrities such as Korla Pandit made Criswell an entertaining presence at parties. His fame brought him appearances on Tonight Starring Jack Paar (1957–1962).
He published predictions in three issues of Spaceway magazine (February 1955, April 1955, and June 1955), as well as in a weekly syndicated newspaper article starting on September 6, 1951. He later published three books of predictions; From Now to the Year 2000, Your Next Ten Years, and Forbidden Predictions.
He also recorded a long playing record, Your Incredible Future (which was later released on CD), featuring 84 minutes of his predictions in his own voice.
Criswell appeared in the movies of writer and director Ed Wood.
After Criswell's death, his longtime friend Paul Marco released Criswell's song "Someone Walked Over My Grave" on a 7" record which was recorded by Criswell as a memorial song he only wanted released posthumously.
===Filmography, recording and television appearances===
==Predictions==
Criswell's predictions were nationally syndicated and he appeared on the television show Criswell Predicts on KLAC Channel 13 (now KCOP-13) in Los Angeles as well as being recorded for syndication. His announcer was Bob Shields, who later played the judge on The Judge. Criswell wore heavy makeup in public after his live program was broadcast in Los Angeles. Only selected people were allowed in the KCOP studio during his broadcast.
Criswell wrote several books of predictions, including 1968's Criswell Predicts: From Now to the Year 2000. In it, he claimed that Denver, Colorado, would be struck by a ray from space that would cause all metal to adopt the qualities of rubber, leading to horrific accidents at amusement parks. He predicted mass cannibalism and the end of planet Earth, which he set as happening on August 18, 1999
Sources say that Criswell never claimed to be a real psychic; however, those who knew him, including actress and fellow Plan 9 alumna Maila Nurmi ("Vampira"), believed he was. According to writer Charles A. Coulombe, whose family rented an apartment from him, Criswell told Coulombe's father had the gift, but [I] lost it when I started taking money for it."
==Private life==
Criswell married a former speakeasy dancer named Halo Meadows, who once appeared on You Bet Your Life, and whom Coulombe describes as "quite mad": "Mrs Criswell had a huge standard poodle (named "Buttercup") which she was convinced was the reincarnation of her cousin Thomas. She spent a great deal of time sunbathing ... which, given her size, was not too pleasing a sight."
Mae West used Criswell as her personal psychic; he once predicted her rise to President of the United States, whereupon she, Criswell and George Liberace, the brother of showman Liberace, would take a rocket to the Moon. It is said that West sold Criswell her old luxury cars for five dollars.
==Legacy==
In 1955, Mae West wrote and recorded a song called "Criswell Predicts" for her album The Fabulous Mae West
In 1994, Criswell was portrayed in the Tim Burton biopic Ed Wood by actor Jeffrey Jones.
In 1997, several actors, including Sean Phillip Mabrey, have played Criswell in Plan 9 from Outer Space: The Musical, written by David G. Smith.
In 1999, the film Devil Girls featured a portrayal of Criswell by Rob Gorden.
In 2000, the song "Criswell Predicts" by pop punk band Groovie Ghoulies appeared on their album Travels with My Amp.
In 2005, Criswell and the Plan 9 cast were lampooned in an episode of the television series, Deadly Cinema, and clips of this episode were featured in the documentary, Vampira: The Movie.
In 2006, Craig Brown played Criswell in Plan Live from Outer Space, a stage adaptation of Plan 9 from Outer Space which won a Canadian Comedy Award the following year.
In 2009, a teaser trailer was released by Darkstone Entertainment for the John Johnson film Plan 9, a remake of Plan 9 from Outer Space. The voice of popular television horror host Mr. Lobo can be heard narrating the trailer as Criswell. He also portrayed Criswell in the film, in a much larger role in this re-imagining of the original Ed Wood story. In addition, for the purpose of promoting the film on the internet, Mr. Lobo has produced 62 episodes of Criswell Predicts! which is a parody and homage to Criswell's original television program of the same name sans the exclamation mark.
In 2013, the song "Criswell Predicts" by pop-punk band Hey Mister! appeared on their EP A Trip for Biscuits.
|
[
"President of the United States",
"Princeton, Indiana",
"poodle",
"KCOP",
"horror host",
"infomercials",
"Jeffrey Jones",
"1959 in film",
"George Liberace",
"Tim Burton",
"wikt:stentorian",
"Assassination of John F. Kennedy",
"Maila Nurmi",
"1965 in television",
"Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery",
"Los Angeles, California",
"1970 in television",
"sequin",
"1963 in television",
"Groovie Ghoulies",
"Kiss curl",
"Indiana",
"Human cannibalism",
"reincarnation",
"Frederick De Cordova",
"Orgy of the Dead",
"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson",
"Denver, Colorado",
"coffin",
"1996 in film",
"YouTube",
"Ed Wood",
"1965 in film",
"It Came from Hollywood",
"Halo Meadows",
"The Judge (TV series)",
"Plan 9 from Outer Space",
"Black tie",
"Paul Marco",
"Liberace",
"Stephen C. Apostolof",
"Mr. Lobo",
"Global catastrophe scenarios",
"1994 in film",
"John F. Kennedy",
"You Bet Your Life",
"1982 in film",
"Night of the Ghouls",
"The Fabulous Mae West",
"Burbank, California",
"Natural rubber",
"The Onion",
"Charles A. Coulombe",
"Ed Wood (film)",
"2007 in television",
"1957 in film",
"Ernie Fosselius",
"radio announcer",
"Korla Pandit",
"St. Louis Post-Dispatch",
"speakeasy",
"Hardware Wars",
"psychic",
"Andrew Solt",
"Mae West",
"Jack Paar",
"Tonight Starring Jack Paar",
"Sun tanning",
"Cinema Insomnia"
] |
7,834 |
Chain reaction
|
A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events.
Chain reactions are one way that systems which are not in thermodynamic equilibrium can release energy or increase entropy in order to reach a state of higher entropy. For example, a system may not be able to reach a lower energy state by releasing energy into the environment, because it is hindered or prevented in some way from taking the path that will result in the energy release. If a reaction results in a small energy release making way for more energy releases in an expanding chain, then the system will typically collapse explosively until much or all of the stored energy has been released.
A macroscopic metaphor for chain reactions is thus a snowball causing a larger snowball until finally an avalanche results ("snowball effect"). This is a result of stored gravitational potential energy seeking a path of release over friction. Chemically, the equivalent to a snow avalanche is a spark causing a forest fire. In nuclear physics, a single stray neutron can result in a prompt critical event, which may finally be energetic enough for a nuclear reactor meltdown or (in a bomb) a nuclear explosion.
Another metaphor for a chain reaction is the domino effect, named after the act of domino toppling, where the simple action of toppling one domino leads to all dominoes eventually toppling, even if they are significantly larger.
Numerous chain reactions can be represented by a mathematical model based on Markov chains.
==Chemical chain reactions==
=== History ===
In 1913, the German chemist Max Bodenstein first put forth the idea of chemical chain reactions. If two molecules react, not only molecules of the final reaction products are formed, but also some unstable molecules which can further react with the parent molecules with a far larger probability than the initial reactants. (In the new reaction, further unstable molecules are formed besides the stable products, and so on.)
In 1918, Walther Nernst proposed that the photochemical reaction between hydrogen and chlorine is a chain reaction in order to explain what is known as the quantum yield phenomena. This means that one photon of light is responsible for the formation of as many as 106 molecules of the product HCl. Nernst suggested that the photon dissociates a Cl2 molecule into two Cl atoms which each initiate a long chain of reaction steps forming HCl.
In 1923, Danish and Dutch scientists J. A. Christiansen and Hendrik Anthony Kramers, in an analysis of the formation of polymers, pointed out that such a chain reaction need not start with a molecule excited by light, but could also start with two molecules colliding violently due to thermal energy as previously proposed for initiation of chemical reactions by van' t Hoff. Semyonov shared the Nobel Prize in 1956 with Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, who independently developed many of the same quantitative concepts.
===Typical steps===
The main types of steps in chain reaction are of the following types.
Initiation
Br2 → 2 Br• (thermal) or Br2 + hν → 2 Br• (photochemical)
each Br atom is a free radical, indicated by the symbol "•" representing an unpaired electron.
Propagation (here a cycle of two steps)
Br• + H2 → HBr + H•
H• + Br2 → HBr + Br•
the sum of these two steps corresponds to the overall reaction H2 + Br2 → 2 HBr, with catalysis by Br• which participates in the first step and is regenerated in the second step.
Retardation (inhibition)
H• + HBr → H2 + Br•
this step is specific to this example, and corresponds to the first propagation step in reverse.
Termination 2 Br• → Br2
recombination of two radicals, corresponding in this example to initiation in reverse.
As can be explained using the steady-state approximation, the thermal reaction has an initial rate of fractional order (3/2), and a complete rate equation with a two-term denominator (mixed-order kinetics).
H• + O2 → •OH + •O•
•O• + H2 → •OH + H•
In chain-growth polymerization, the propagation step corresponds to the elongation of the growing polymer chain. Chain transfer corresponds to transfer of the activity from this growing chain, whose growth is terminated, to another molecule which may be a second growing polymer chain. For polymerization, the kinetic chain length defined above may differ from the degree of polymerization of the product macromolecule.
Polymerase chain reaction, a technique used in molecular biology to amplify (make many copies of) a piece of DNA by in vitro enzymatic replication using a DNA polymerase.
===Acetaldehyde pyrolysis and rate equation===
The pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) of acetaldehyde, CH3CHO (g) → CH4 (g) + CO (g), proceeds via the Rice-Herzfeld mechanism:
Initiation (formation of free radicals):
CH3CHO (g) → •CH3 (g) + •CHO (g) k1
The methyl and CHO groups are free radicals.
Propagation (two steps):
•CH3 (g) + CH3CHO (g) → CH4 (g) + •CH3CO (g) k2
This reaction step provides methane, which is one of the two main products.
•CH3CO (g) → CO (g) + •CH3 (g) k3
The product •CH3CO (g) of the previous step gives rise to carbon monoxide (CO), which is the second main product.
The sum of the two propagation steps corresponds to the overall reaction CH3CHO (g) → CH4 (g) + CO (g), catalyzed by a methyl radical •CH3.
Termination:
•CH3 (g) + •CH3 (g) → C2H6 (g) k4
This reaction is the only source of ethane (minor product) and it is concluded to be the main chain ending step.
Although this mechanism explains the principal products, there are others that are formed in a minor degree, such as acetone (CH3COCH3) and propanal (CH3CH2CHO).
Applying the Steady State Approximation for the intermediate species CH3(g) and CH3CO(g), the rate law for the formation of methane and the order of reaction are found:
The process can also be used to detect radiation that initiates the process, as the passage of a single particles can be amplified to large discharges. This is the mechanism of a Geiger counter and also the visualization possible with a spark chamber and other wire chambers.
==Avalanche breakdown in semiconductors==
An avalanche breakdown process can happen in semiconductors, which in some ways conduct electricity analogously to a mildly ionized gas. Semiconductors rely on free electrons knocked out of the crystal by thermal vibration for conduction. Thus, unlike metals, semiconductors become better conductors the higher the temperature. This sets up conditions for the same type of positive feedback—heat from current flow causes temperature to rise, which increases charge carriers, lowering resistance, and causing more current to flow. This can continue to the point of complete breakdown of normal resistance at a semiconductor junction, and failure of the device (this may be temporary or permanent depending on whether there is physical damage to the crystal). Certain devices, such as avalanche diodes, deliberately make use of the effect.
==Living organisms==
Examples of chain reactions in living organisms include excitation of neurons in epilepsy and lipid peroxidation. In peroxidation, a lipid radical reacts with oxygen to form a peroxyl radical (L• + O2 → LOO•). The peroxyl radical then oxidises another lipid, thus forming another lipid radical (LOO• + L–H → LOOH + L•). A chain reaction in glutamatergic synapses is the cause of synchronous discharge in some epileptic seizures.
|
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"molecular biology",
"atomic bomb",
"dielectric breakdown",
"Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff",
"Steady state (chemistry)",
"polymer",
"Enrico Fermi",
"Chain termination",
"Active center (polymer science)",
"impact ionization",
"hydrogen",
"lightning",
"chemical",
"avalanche diode",
"enzyme",
"avalanche breakdown",
"electric arc",
"electric field",
"Rube Goldberg machine",
"thermodynamic equilibrium",
"atom",
"chain of events",
"Chain initiation",
"Order of reaction",
"neutron",
"Chicago Pile-1",
"molecules",
"gravitational energy",
"indium",
"kinetic chain length",
"DNA",
"nuclear chain reaction",
"domino toppling",
"Leo Szilard",
"snowball effect",
"chlorine",
"in vitro",
"Polymerase chain reaction",
"chain-growth polymerization",
"catalysis",
"Geiger counter",
"nuclear reactor",
"free radical",
"Catalysis",
"Walther Nernst",
"Keith J. Laidler",
"photoelectron",
"lipid peroxidation",
"photon",
"acetone",
"nuclear reaction",
"corona discharge",
"photochemistry",
"Cyril Norman Hinshelwood",
"positive feedback",
"Hendrik Anthony Kramers",
"methane",
"nuclear fission",
"prompt critical",
"chain transfer",
"ethane",
"pyrolysis",
"HCl",
"rate equation",
"degree of polymerization",
"Multiple-vehicle collision",
"carbon monoxide",
"Radical (chemistry)",
"Recombination (chemistry)",
"DNA polymerase",
"John Cockcroft",
"beryllium",
"mathematical model",
"quantum yield",
"Nikolay Semyonov",
"leader (spark)",
"Cascading failure",
"electron avalanche",
"Ernest Walton",
"wire chamber",
"Chain propagation",
"DNA replication",
"Markov chain",
"spark chamber",
"electric spark",
"Propionaldehyde",
"domino effect",
"Max Bodenstein",
"acetaldehyde",
"Streamer discharge"
] |
7,837 |
Caddie
|
In golf, a caddie (or caddy) is a companion to the player, providing both practical support and strategic guidance on the course. Caddies are responsible for carrying the player’s bag, managing clubs, and assisting with basic course maintenance like repairing divots and raking bunkers. Their role extends well beyond these physical tasks, going into emotional and behavioural moral support. Whether at local clubs, public courses, or prestigious tournaments—caddies offer valuable insight on course strategy, advising on everything from club selection to reading greens and evaluating weather conditions. They often serve as a steadying presence, offering encouragement and helping players maintain focus under pressure.
Caddies are trusted for their course knowledge, adaptability, and close understanding of a player’s game, and their role is integral at every level of play. In professional and amateur golf alike, caddies often build lasting partnerships with players, developing a rapport that contributes to overall performance.
Other nicknames for the role are looper or jock.
==Etymology==
The Scots word caddie or was derived in the 17th century from the French word cadet and originally meant a student military officer. It later came to refer to someone who did odd jobs. By the 19th century, it had come to mean someone who carried clubs for a golfer, or in its shortened form, cad, a man of disreputable behaviour.
==History==
The first recorded use of a caddie was in Edinburgh in 1681 by the future James VII of Scotland when taking part in the first international golf contest.
==Earnings==
Caddies pay is variable and is usually based on an allocated percentage share of prize money. At a professional level, caddies work in a high level partnership with golfers, some work as contractors to individual players in events. In 2020, caddies on the PGA European Tour became eligible to earn bonuses through sponsors' logos on their gear.
In 2024, Golf Digest reported that Scottie Scheffler’s caddie Ted Scott earned $2.6 million over the season with the world number 1.
Caddying fees range throughout courses across the world, however is a popular role for low handicap golfers which can provide opportunities to work with a variety of people.
==In popular culture==
Caddies have been depicted in television, films, and books, including:
The Caddy, a 1953 musical comedy film starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis
McAuslan in the Rough, a 1974 short story by George MacDonald Fraser in which a disreputable Scottish soldier caddies for his regimental sergeant major
Caddyshack, a 1980 comedy film featuring Bill Murray
Brown's Requiem, a 1981 crime novel by James Ellroy, who worked as a caddie while writing his first books
The Legend of Bagger Vance, a 2000 film based on the 1995 book by Steven Pressfield, The Legend of Bagger Vance: A Novel of Golf and the Game of Life, features Vance as an angelic caddie.
The Greatest Game Ever Played, a 2005 film about 1913 US open where Francis Ouimet (Shia LaBeouf) wins with his caddie Eddie Lowery (Josh Flitter).
Loopers: The Caddie's Long Walk, a 2018 documentary narrated by Bill Murray
|
[
"The Seattle Times",
"Scots language",
"Rake (stock character)",
"Jim \"Bones\" Mackay",
"McAuslan in the Rough",
"Jerry Lewis",
"Shia LaBeouf",
"Caddie Hall of Fame",
"The Legend of Bagger Vance (novel)",
"Golf bag",
"The Greatest Game Ever Played",
"moral support",
"Oxford University Press",
"Merriam-Webster Dictionary",
"1913 U.S. Open (golf)",
"Eddie Lowery",
"Loopers: The Caddie's Long Walk",
"golf",
"The Caddy",
"sv:Lista över golftermer",
"Steven Pressfield",
"Oxford Dictionaries (website)",
"Bill Murray",
"Merriam-Webster, Incorporated",
"Golf Digest",
"Francis Ouimet",
"George MacDonald Fraser",
"James Ellroy",
"James VII of Scotland",
"Caddyshack",
"The Legend of Bagger Vance",
"Golf club",
"Brown's Requiem (novel)",
"PGA European Tour",
"Josh Flitter",
"Dean Martin"
] |
7,839 |
Stellar corona
|
A corona (: coronas or coronae) is the outermost layer of a star's atmosphere. It is a hot but relatively dim region of plasma populated by intermittent coronal structures known as solar prominences or filaments.
The Sun's corona lies above the chromosphere and extends millions of kilometres into outer space. Coronal light is typically obscured by diffuse sky radiation and glare from the solar disk, but can be easily seen by the naked eye during a total solar eclipse or with a specialized coronagraph. Spectroscopic measurements indicate strong ionization in the corona and a plasma temperature in excess of , much hotter than the surface of the Sun, known as the photosphere.
is, in turn, derived .
== History ==
In 1724, French-Italian astronomer Giacomo F. Maraldi recognized that the aura visible during a solar eclipse belongs to the Sun, not to the Moon. In 1809, Spanish astronomer José Joaquín de Ferrer coined the term 'corona'. Based on his own observations of the 1806 solar eclipse at Kinderhook (New York), de Ferrer also proposed that the corona was part of the Sun and not of the Moon. English astronomer Norman Lockyer identified the first element unknown on Earth in the Sun's chromosphere, which was called helium (from Greek 'sun'). French astronomer Jules Jenssen noted, after comparing his readings between the 1871 and 1878 eclipses, that the size and shape of the corona changes with the sunspot cycle. In 1930, Bernard Lyot invented the "coronograph" (now "coronagraph"), which allows viewing the corona without a total eclipse. In 1952, American astronomer Eugene Parker proposed that the solar corona might be heated by myriad tiny 'nanoflares', miniature brightenings resembling solar flares that would occur all over the surface of the Sun.
=== Historical theories ===
The high temperature of the Sun's corona gives it unusual spectral features, which led some in the 19th century to suggest that it contained a previously unknown element, "coronium". Instead, these spectral features have since been explained by highly ionized iron (Fe-XIV, or Fe13+). Bengt Edlén, following the work of Walter Grotrian in 1939, first identified the coronal spectral lines in 1940 (observed since 1869) as transitions from low-lying metastable levels of the ground configuration of highly ionised metals (the green Fe-XIV line from Fe13+ at , but also the red Fe-X line from Fe9+ at ).
The "F-corona" is named for the Fraunhofer spectrum of absorption lines in ordinary sunlight, which are preserved by reflection off small material objects. The F-corona is faint near the Sun itself, but drops in brightness only gradually far from the Sun, extending far across the sky and becoming the zodiacal light. The F-corona is recognized to arise from small dust grains orbiting the Sun; these form a tenuous cloud that extends through much of the Solar System.
The "K-corona" is named for the fact that its spectrum is a continuum, with no major spectral features. It is sunlight that is Thomson-scattered by free electrons in the hot plasma of the Sun's outer atmosphere. The continuum nature of the spectrum arises from Doppler broadening of the Sun's Fraunhofer absorption lines in the reference frame of the (hot and therefore fast-moving) electrons. Although the K-corona is a phenomenon of the electrons in the plasma, the term is frequently used to describe the plasma itself (as distinct from the dust that gives rise to the F-corona).
The "E-corona" is the component of the corona with an emission-line spectrum, either inside or outside the wavelength band of visible light. It is a phenomenon of the ion component of the plasma, as individual ions are excited by collision with other ions or electrons, or by absorption of ultraviolet light from the Sun.
== Physical features ==
The Sun's corona is much hotter (by a factor from 150 to 450) than the visible surface of the Sun: the corona's temperature is 1 to 3 million kelvin compared to the photosphere's average temperature – around . The corona is far less dense than the photosphere, and produces about one-millionth as much visible light. The corona is separated from the photosphere by the relatively shallow chromosphere. The exact mechanism by which the corona is heated is still the subject of some debate, but likely possibilities include episodic energy releases from the pervasive magnetic field and magnetohydrodynamic waves from below. The outer edges of the Sun's corona are constantly being transported away, creating the "open" magnetic flux entrained in the solar wind.
The corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the Sun. During periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the equatorial regions, with coronal holes covering the polar regions. However, during the Sun's active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, though it is most prominent in areas with sunspot activity. The solar cycle spans approximately 11 years, from one solar minimum to the following minimum. Since the solar magnetic field is continually wound up due to the faster rotation of mass at the Sun's equator (differential rotation), sunspot activity is more pronounced at solar maximum where the magnetic field is more twisted. Associated with sunspots are coronal loops, loops of magnetic flux, upwelling from the solar interior. The magnetic flux pushes the hotter photosphere aside, exposing the cooler plasma below, thus creating the relatively dark sun spots.
High-resolution X-ray images of the Sun's corona photographed by Skylab in 1973, by Yohkoh in 1991–2001, and by subsequent space-based instruments revealed the structure of the corona to be quite varied and complex, leading astronomers to classify various zones on the coronal disc.
Astronomers usually distinguish several regions, as described below.
===Active regions===
Active regions are ensembles of loop structures connecting points of opposite magnetic polarity in the photosphere, the so-called coronal loops. They generally distribute in two zones of activity, which are parallel to the solar equator. The average temperature is between two and four million kelvin, while the density goes from 109 to 1010 particles per cubic centimetre.
Active regions involve all the phenomena directly linked to the magnetic field, which occur at different heights above the Sun's surface:
====Coronal loops====
Coronal loops are the basic structures of the magnetic solar corona. These loops are the closed-magnetic flux cousins of the open-magnetic flux that can be found in coronal holes and the solar wind. Loops of magnetic flux well up from the solar body and fill with hot solar plasma. Due to the heightened magnetic activity in these coronal loop regions, coronal loops can often be the precursor to solar flares and CMEs.
The solar plasma that feeds these structures is heated from under to well over 106 K from the photosphere, through the transition region, and into the corona. Often, the solar plasma will fill these loops from one point and drain to another, called foot points (siphon flow due to a pressure difference, or asymmetric flow due to some other driver).
When the plasma rises from the foot points towards the loop top, as always occurs during the initial phase of a compact flare, it is defined as chromospheric evaporation. When the plasma rapidly cools and falls toward the photosphere, it is called chromospheric condensation. There may also be symmetric flow from both loop foot points, causing a build-up of mass in the loop structure. The plasma may cool rapidly in this region (for a thermal instability), its dark filaments obvious against the solar disk or prominences off the Sun's limb.
Coronal loops may have lifetimes in the order of seconds (in the case of flare events), minutes, hours or days. Where there is a balance in loop energy sources and sinks, coronal loops can last for long periods of time and are known as steady state or quiescent coronal loops (example).
Coronal loops are very important to our understanding of the current coronal heating problem. Coronal loops are highly radiating sources of plasma and are therefore easy to observe by instruments such as TRACE. An explanation of the coronal heating problem remains as these structures are being observed remotely, where many ambiguities are present (i.e., radiation contributions along the line-of-sight propagation). In-situ measurements are required before a definitive answer can be determined, but due to the high plasma temperatures in the corona, in-situ measurements are, at present, impossible. The next mission of the NASA Parker Solar Probe will approach the Sun very closely, allowing more direct observations.
====Large-scale structures====
Large-scale structures are very long arcs which can cover over a quarter of the solar disk but contain plasma less dense than in the coronal loops of the active regions.
They were first detected in the June 8, 1968, flare observation during a rocket flight.
The large-scale structure of the corona changes over the 11-year solar cycle and becomes particularly simple during the minimum period, when the magnetic field of the Sun is almost similar to a dipolar configuration (plus a quadrupolar component).
====Interconnections of active regions====
The interconnections of active regions are arcs connecting zones of opposite magnetic field, of different active regions. Significant variations of these structures are often seen after a flare.
====Filament cavities====
Filament cavities are zones which look dark in the X-rays and are above the regions where Hα filaments are observed in the chromosphere. They were first observed in the two 1970 rocket flights which also detected coronal holes.
===Coronal holes===
Coronal holes are unipolar regions which look dark in the X-rays since they do not emit much radiation. These are wide zones of the Sun where the magnetic field is unipolar and opens towards the interplanetary space. The high speed solar wind arises mainly from these regions.
In the UV images of the coronal holes, some small structures, similar to elongated bubbles, are often seen as they were suspended in the solar wind. These are the coronal plumes. More precisely, they are long thin streamers that project outward from the Sun's north and south poles.
===The quiet Sun===
The solar regions which are not part of active regions and coronal holes are commonly identified as the quiet Sun.
The equatorial region has a faster rotation speed than the polar zones. The result of the Sun's differential rotation is that the active regions always arise in two bands parallel to the equator and their extension increases during the periods of maximum of the solar cycle, while they almost disappear during each minimum. Therefore, the quiet Sun always coincides with the equatorial zone and its surface is less active during the maximum of the solar cycle. Approaching the minimum of the solar cycle (also named butterfly cycle), the extension of the quiet Sun increases until it covers the whole disk surface excluding some bright points on the hemisphere and the poles, where there are coronal holes.
===Alfvén surface===
The Alfvén surface is the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal.
Researchers were unsure exactly where the Alfvén critical surface of the Sun lay. Based on remote images of the corona, estimates had put it somewhere between 10 and 20 solar radii from the surface of the Sun. On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface.
==Variability of the corona==
A portrait, as diversified as the one already pointed out for the coronal features, is emphasized by the analysis of the dynamics of the main structures of the corona, which evolve at differential times. Studying coronal variability in its complexity is not easy because the times of evolution of the different structures can vary considerably: from seconds to several months. The typical sizes of the regions where coronal events take place vary in the same way, as it is shown in the following table.
===Flares===
Flares take place in active regions and are characterized by a sudden increase of the radiative flux emitted from small regions of the corona. They are very complex phenomena, visible at different wavelengths; they involve several zones of the solar atmosphere and many physical effects, thermal and not thermal, and sometimes wide reconnections of the magnetic field lines with material expulsion.
Flares are impulsive phenomena, of average duration of 15 minutes, and the most energetic events can last several hours. Flares produce a high and rapid increase of the density and temperature.
An emission in white light is only seldom observed: usually, flares are only seen at extreme UV wavelengths and into the X-rays, typical of the chromospheric and coronal emission.
In the corona, the morphology of flares is described by observations in the UV, soft and hard X-rays, and in Hα wavelengths, and is very complex. However, two kinds of basic structures can be distinguished:
Compact flares, when each of the two arches where the event is happening maintains its morphology: only an increase of the emission is observed without significant structural variations. The emitted energy is of the order of 1022 – 1023 J.
Flares of long duration, associated with eruptions of prominences, transients in white light and two-ribbon flares: in this case the magnetic loops change their configuration during the event. The energies emitted during these flares are of such great proportion they can reach 1025 J.
As for temporal dynamics, three different phases are generally distinguished, whose duration are not comparable. The durations of those periods depend on the range of wavelengths used to observe the event:
An initial impulsive phase, whose duration is on the order of minutes, strong emissions of energy are often observed even in the microwaves, EUV wavelengths and in the hard X-ray frequencies.
A maximum phase
A decay phase, which can last several hours.
Sometimes also a phase preceding the flare can be observed, usually called as "pre-flare" phase.
===Coronal mass ejections===
Often accompanying large solar flares and prominences are coronal mass ejections (CME). These are enormous emissions of coronal material and magnetic field that travel outward from the Sun at up to 3000 km/s, containing roughly 10 times the energy of the solar flare or prominence that accompanies them. Some larger CMEs can propel hundreds of millions of tons of material into interplanetary space at roughly 1.5 million kilometers an hour.
==Stellar coronae==
Coronal stars are ubiquitous among the stars in the cool half of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. These coronae can be detected using X-ray telescopes. Some stellar coronae, particularly in young stars, are much more luminous than the Sun's. For example, FK Comae Berenices is the prototype for the FK Com class of variable star. These are giants of spectral types G and K with an unusually rapid rotation and signs of extreme activity. Their X-ray coronae are among the most luminous (Lx ≥ 1032 erg·s−1 or 1025W) and the hottest known with dominant temperatures up to 40 MK. showed that F-, G-, K- and M-stars have chromospheres and often coronae much like the Sun.
The O-B stars, which do not have surface convection zones, have a strong X-ray emission. However these stars do not have coronae, but the outer stellar envelopes emit this radiation during shocks due to thermal instabilities in rapidly moving gas blobs.
Also A-stars do not have convection zones but they do not emit at the UV and X-ray wavelengths. Thus they appear to have neither chromospheres nor coronae.
==Physics of the corona==
The matter in the external part of the solar atmosphere is in the state of plasma, at very high temperature (a few million kelvin) and at very low density (of the order of 1015 particles/m3).
According to the definition of plasma, it is a quasi-neutral ensemble of particles which exhibits a collective behaviour.
The composition is similar to that in the Sun's interior, mainly hydrogen, but with much greater ionization of its heavier elements than that found in the photosphere. Heavier metals, such as iron, are partially ionized and have lost most of the external electrons. The ionization state of a chemical element depends strictly on the temperature and is regulated by the Saha equation in the lowest atmosphere, but by collisional equilibrium in the optically thin corona. Historically, the presence of the spectral lines emitted from highly ionized states of iron allowed determination of the high temperature of the coronal plasma, revealing that the corona is much hotter than the internal layers of the chromosphere.
The corona behaves like a gas which is very hot but very light at the same time: the pressure in the corona is usually only 0.1 to 0.6 Pa in active regions, while on the Earth the atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, approximately a million times higher than on the solar surface. However it is not properly a gas, because it is made of charged particles, basically protons and electrons, moving at different velocities. Supposing that they have the same kinetic energy on average
(for the equipartition theorem), electrons have a mass roughly times smaller than protons, therefore they acquire more velocity. Metal ions are always slower. This fact has relevant physical consequences either on radiative processes (that are very different from the photospheric radiative processes), or on thermal conduction.
Furthermore, the presence of electric charges induces the generation of electric currents and high magnetic fields.
Magnetohydrodynamic waves (MHD waves) can also propagate in this plasma, even though it is still not clear how they can be transmitted or generated in the corona.
===Radiation===
Coronal plasma is optically thin and therefore transparent to the electromagnetic radiation that it emits and to that coming from lower layers. The plasma is very rarefied and the photon mean free path overcomes by far all the other length-scales, including the typical sizes of common coronal features.
Electromagnetic radiation from the corona has been identified coming from three main sources, located in the same volume of space:
The K-corona (K for , "continuous" in German) is created by sunlight Thomson scattering off free electrons; doppler broadening of the reflected photospheric absorption lines spreads them so greatly as to completely obscure them, giving the spectral appearance of a continuum with no absorption lines.
The F-corona (F for Fraunhofer) is created by sunlight bouncing off dust particles, and is observable because its light contains the Fraunhofer absorption lines that are seen in raw sunlight; the F-corona extends to very high elongation angles from the Sun, where it is called the zodiacal light.
The E-corona (E for emission) is due to spectral emission lines produced by ions that are present in the coronal plasma; it may be observed in broad or forbidden or hot spectral emission lines and is the main source of information about the corona's composition.
===Thermal conduction===
In the corona thermal conduction occurs from the external hotter atmosphere towards the inner cooler layers. Responsible for the diffusion process of the heat are the electrons, which are much lighter than ions and move faster, as explained above.
When there is a magnetic field the thermal conductivity of the plasma becomes higher in the direction which is parallel to the field lines rather than in the perpendicular direction.
A charged particle moving in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field line is subject to the Lorentz force which is normal to the plane individuated by the velocity and the magnetic field. This force bends the path of the particle. In general, since particles also have a velocity component along the magnetic field line, the Lorentz force constrains them to bend and move along spirals around the field lines at the cyclotron frequency.
If collisions between the particles are very frequent, they are scattered in every direction. This happens in the photosphere, where the plasma carries the magnetic field in its motion. In the corona, on the contrary, the mean free-path of the electrons is of the order of kilometres and even more, so each electron can do a helicoidal motion long before being scattered after a collision. Therefore, the heat transfer is enhanced along the magnetic field lines and inhibited in the perpendicular direction.
In the direction longitudinal to the magnetic field, the thermal conductivity of the corona is The problem first emerged after the identification of unknown spectral lines in the solar spectrum with highly ionized iron and calcium atoms.
The high temperatures require energy to be carried from the solar interior to the corona by non-thermal processes, because the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing directly from the solar photosphere (surface), which is at about , to the much hotter corona at about 1 to 3 MK (parts of the corona can even reach ).
Between the photosphere and the corona, the thin region through which the temperature increases is known as the transition region. It ranges from only tens to hundreds of kilometers thick. Energy cannot be transferred from the cooler photosphere to the corona by conventional heat transfer as this would violate the second law of thermodynamics. An analogy of this would be a light bulb raising the temperature of the air surrounding the bulb to a temperature greater than that of the bulb's glass surface. Hence, some other manner of energy transfer must be involved in the heating of the corona.
The amount of power required to heat the solar corona can easily be calculated as the difference between coronal radiative losses and heating by thermal conduction toward the chromosphere through the transition region. It is about 1 kilowatt for every square meter of surface area on the Sun's chromosphere, or 1/ of the amount of light energy that escapes the Sun.
Many coronal heating theories have been proposed, but two theories have remained as the most likely candidates: wave heating and magnetic reconnection (or nanoflares). Through most of the past 50 years, neither theory has been able to account for the extreme coronal temperatures.
In 2012, high resolution (<0.2″) soft X-ray imaging with the High Resolution Coronal Imager aboard a sounding rocket revealed tightly wound braids in the corona. It is hypothesized that the reconnection and unravelling of braids can act as primary sources of heating of the active solar corona to temperatures of up to 4 million kelvin. The main heat source in the quiescent corona (about 1.5 million kelvin) is assumed to originate from MHD waves.
NASA's Parker Solar Probe is intended to approach the Sun to a distance of approximately 9.5 solar radii to investigate coronal heating and the origin of the solar wind. It was successfully launched on August 12, 2018 and by late 2022 had completed the first 13 of more than 20 planned close approaches to the Sun.
===Wave heating theory===
The wave heating theory, proposed in 1949 by Évry Schatzman, proposes that waves carry energy from the solar interior to the solar chromosphere and corona. The Sun is made of plasma rather than ordinary gas, so it supports several types of waves analogous to sound waves in air. The most important types of wave are magneto-acoustic waves and Alfvén waves. Magneto-acoustic waves are sound waves that have been modified by the presence of a magnetic field, and Alfvén waves are similar to ultra low frequency radio waves that have been modified by interaction with matter in the plasma. Both types of waves can be launched by the turbulence of granulation and super granulation at the solar photosphere, and both types of waves can carry energy for some distance through the solar atmosphere before turning into shock waves that dissipate their energy as heat.
One problem with wave heating is delivery of the heat to the appropriate place. Magneto-acoustic waves cannot carry sufficient energy upward through the chromosphere to the corona, both because of the low pressure present in the chromosphere and because they tend to be reflected back to the photosphere. Alfvén waves can carry enough energy, but do not dissipate that energy rapidly enough once they enter the corona. Waves in plasmas are notoriously difficult to understand and describe analytically, but computer simulations, carried out by Thomas Bogdan and colleagues in 2003, seem to show that Alfvén waves can transmute into other wave modes at the base of the corona, providing a pathway that can carry large amounts of energy from the photosphere through the chromosphere and transition region and finally into the corona where it dissipates it as heat.
Another problem with wave heating has been the complete absence, until the late 1990s, of any direct evidence of waves propagating through the solar corona. The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in 1997 with the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) for long periods of time with stable photometry. Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 millihertz (mHz, corresponding to a wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat.
It is not yet known exactly how much wave energy is available to heat the corona. Results published in 2004 using data from the TRACE spacecraft seem to indicate that there are waves in the solar atmosphere at frequencies as high as (10 second period). Measurements of the temperature of different ions in the solar wind with the UVCS instrument aboard SOHO give strong indirect evidence that there are waves at frequencies as high as , well into the range of human hearing. These waves are very difficult to detect under normal circumstances, but evidence collected during solar eclipses by teams from Williams College suggest the presences of such waves in the 1– range.
Recently, Alfvénic motions have been found in the lower solar atmosphere and also in the quiet Sun, in coronal holes and in active regions using observations with AIA on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory.
These Alfvénic oscillations have significant power, and seem to be connected to the chromospheric Alfvénic oscillations previously reported with the Hinode spacecraft.
Solar wind observations with the Wind spacecraft have recently shown evidence to support theories of Alfvén-cyclotron dissipation, leading to local ion heating.
===Magnetic reconnection theory===
The magnetic reconnection theory relies on the solar magnetic field to induce electric currents in the solar corona. The currents then collapse suddenly, releasing energy as heat and wave energy in the corona. This process is called "reconnection" because of the peculiar way that magnetic fields behave in plasma (or any electrically conductive fluid such as mercury or seawater). In a plasma, magnetic field lines are normally tied to individual pieces of matter, so that the topology of the magnetic field remains the same: if a particular north and south magnetic pole are connected by a single field line, then even if the plasma is stirred or if the magnets are moved around, that field line will continue to connect those particular poles. The connection is maintained by electric currents that are induced in the plasma. Under certain conditions, the electric currents can collapse, allowing the magnetic field to "reconnect" to other magnetic poles and release heat and wave energy in the process.
Magnetic reconnection is hypothesized to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in the Solar System. Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50– across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this "magnetic carpet", so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of "microflares" that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy.
The idea that nanoflares might heat the corona was proposed by Eugene Parker in the 1980s but is still controversial. In particular, ultraviolet telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona. The additional energy not accounted for could be made up by wave energy, or by gradual magnetic reconnection that releases energy more smoothly than micro-flares and therefore does not appear well in the TRACE data. Variations on the micro-flare hypothesis use other mechanisms to stress the magnetic field or to release the energy, and are a subject of active research in 2005.
===Spicules (type II)===
For decades, researchers believed spicules could send heat into the corona. However, following observational research in the 1980s, it was found that spicule plasma did not reach coronal temperatures, and so the theory was discounted.
As per studies performed in 2010 at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado, in collaboration with the Lockheed Martin's Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory (LMSAL) and the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics of the University of Oslo, a new class of spicules (TYPE II) discovered in 2007, which travel faster (up to 100 km/s) and have shorter lifespans, can account for the problem. These jets insert heated plasma into the Sun's outer atmosphere.
The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory and NASA's Focal Plane Package for the Solar Optical Telescope on the Japanese Hinode satellite were used to test this hypothesis. The high spatial and temporal resolutions of the newer instruments reveal this coronal mass supply.
According to analysis in 2011 by de Pontieu and colleagues, these observations reveal a one-to-one connection between plasma that is heated to millions of degrees and the spicules that insert this plasma into the corona.
|
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Chrono Cross
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is a 1999 role-playing video game developed and published by Square for the PlayStation video game console. It is set in the same world as Chrono Trigger, which was released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Chrono Cross was designed primarily by scenarist and director Masato Kato, who had help from other designers who also worked on Chrono Trigger, including art director Yasuyuki Honne and composer Yasunori Mitsuda. Nobuteru Yūki designed the characters of the game.
The story of Chrono Cross focuses on a teenage boy named Serge and a theme of parallel worlds. Faced with an alternate reality in which he died as a child, Serge endeavors to discover the truth of the two worlds' divergence. The flashy thief Kid and many other characters assist him in his travels around the tropical archipelago El Nido. Struggling to uncover his past and find the mysterious Frozen Flame, Serge is chiefly challenged by Lynx, a shadowy antagonist working to apprehend him.
Upon its release in Japan in 1999 and North America in 2000, Chrono Cross received widespread acclaim, earning a perfect 10.0 score from GameSpot. Chrono Cross was later re-released for the PlayStation Network in Japan in July 2011, and in North America four months later. Touching the monster switches perspectives to a battle screen, in which players can physically attack, use "Elements", defend, or run away from the enemy. Battles are turn-based, allowing the player unlimited time to select an action from the available menu. For both the playable characters and the computer-controlled enemies, each attack reduces their number of hit points (a numerically based life bar), which can be restored through some Elements. When a playable character loses all hit points, he or she faints. If all the player's characters fall in battle, the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter—except for specific storyline-related battles that allow the player to lose. Chrono Cross's developers aimed to break new ground in the genre, and the game features several innovations. Rounding out the notable facets of Chrono Cross's gameplay are the New Game+ option and multiple endings. As in Chrono Trigger, players who have completed the game may choose to start the game over using data from the previous session. Character levels, learned techniques, equipment, and items gathered copy over, while acquired money and some story-related items are discarded. On a New Game+, players can access twelve endings. Scenes viewed depend on players' progress in the game before the final battle, which can be fought at any time in a New Game+ file.
==Plot==
===Characters===
Chrono Cross features a diverse cast of 45 party members. Each character is outfitted with an innate Element affinity and three unique special abilities that are learned over time. If taken to the world opposite their own, characters react to their counterparts (if available). Many characters tie in to crucial plot events. Since it is impossible to obtain all 45 characters in one playthrough, players must replay the game to witness everything. Through use of the New Game+ feature, players can ultimately obtain all characters on one save file.
Serge, the game's protagonist, is a 17-year-old boy who lives in the fishing village of Arni. One day, he slips into an alternate world in which he drowned ten years before. Determined to find the truth behind the incident, he follows a predestined course that leads him to save the world. He is assisted by Kid, a feisty, skilled thief who seeks the mythical Frozen Flame. Portrayed as willful and tomboyish due to her rough, thieving past, she helps Serge sneak into Viper Manor in order to obtain the Frozen Flame. Kid vows to find and defeat Lynx, an anthropomorphic panther who burned down her adopted mother's orphanage.
Lynx, a cruel agent of the supercomputer FATE, is bent on finding Serge and using his body as part of a greater plan involving the Frozen Flame. Lynx travels with Harle, a mysterious, playful girl dressed like a harlequin. Harle was sent by the Dragon God to shadow Lynx and one day steal the Frozen Flame from Chronopolis, a task she painfully fulfills despite being smitten with Serge.
To accomplish this goal, Harle helps Lynx manipulate the Acacia Dragoons, the powerful militia governing the islands of El Nido. As the Dragoons maintain order, they contend with Fargo, a former Dragoon turned pirate captain who holds a grudge against their leader, General Viper. Though tussling with Serge initially, the Acacia Dragoons—whose ranks include the fierce warriors Karsh, Zoah, Marcy, and Glenn—later assist him when the militaristic nation of Porre invades the archipelago. The invasion brings Norris and Grobyc to the islands, a heartful commander of an elite force and a prototype cyborg soldier, respectively, as they too seek the Frozen Flame.
===Story===
The game begins with Serge located in El Nido, a tropical archipelago inhabited by ancient natives, mainland colonists, and beings called Demi-humans. Serge slips into an alternate dimension in which he drowned on the beach ten years prior, and meets the thief, "Kid". As his adventure proceeds from here, Serge is able to recruit a multitude of allies to his cause. While assisting Kid in a heist at Viper Manor to steal the Frozen Flame, he learns that ten years before the present, the universe split into two dimensions—one in which Serge lived, and one in which he perished. Through Kid's Astral Amulet charm, Serge travels between the dimensions. At Fort Dragonia, with the use of a Dragonian artifact called the Dragon Tear, Lynx switches bodies with Serge. Unaware of the switch, Kid confides in Lynx, who stabs her as the real Serge helplessly watches. Lynx boasts of his victory and banishes Serge to a strange realm called the Temporal Vortex. He takes Kid under his wing, brainwashing her to believe the real Serge (in Lynx's body) is her enemy. Serge escapes with help from Harle, although his new body turns him into a stranger in his own world, with all the allies he had gained up to that point abandoning him due to his new appearance. Discovering that his new body prevents him from traveling across the dimensions, he sets out to regain his former body and learn more of the universal split that occurred ten years earlier, gaining a new band of allies along the way. He travels to a forbidden lagoon known as the Dead Sea—a wasteland frozen in time, dotted with futuristic ruins. At the center, he locates a man named Miguel and presumably Home world's Frozen Flame. Charged with guarding the Dead Sea by an entity named FATE, Miguel and three visions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca from Chrono Trigger explain that Serge's existence dooms Home world's future to destruction at the hands of Lavos. To prevent Serge from obtaining the Frozen Flame, FATE destroys the Dead Sea.
Able to return to Another world, Serge allies with the Acacia Dragoons against Porre and locates that dimension's Dragon Tear, allowing him to return to his human form. He then enters the Sea of Eden, Another world's physical equivalent of the Dead Sea, finding a temporal research facility from the distant future called Chronopolis. Lynx and Kid are inside; Serge defeats Lynx and the supercomputer FATE, allowing the six Dragons of El Nido to steal the Frozen Flame and retire to Terra Tower, a massive structure raised from the sea floor. Kid falls into a coma, and Harle bids the party goodbye to fly with the Dragons. Serge regroups his party and tends to Kid, who remains comatose. Continuing his adventure, he obtains and cleanses the corrupted Masamune sword from Chrono Trigger. He then uses the Dragon relics and shards of the Dragon Tears to create the mythic Element Chrono Cross. The spiritual power of the Masamune later allows him to lift Kid from her coma. At Terra Tower, the prophet of time, revealed to be Belthasar from Chrono Trigger, visits him with visions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca. Serge learns that the time research facility Chronopolis created El Nido thousands of years ago after a catastrophic experimental failure drew it to the past. The introduction of a temporally foreign object in history caused the planet to pull in a counterbalance from a different dimension. This was Dinopolis, a city of Dragonians—parallel universe descendants of Chrono Trigger's Reptites. The institutions warred and Chronopolis subjugated the Dragonians. Humans captured their chief creation—the Dragon God, an entity capable of controlling nature.
Chronopolis divided this entity into six pieces and created an Elements system. FATE then terraformed an archipelago, erased the memories of most of Chronopolis's staff, and sent them to inhabit and populate its new paradise. Thousands of years later, a panther demon attacked a three-year-old Serge. His father took him to find assistance at Marbule, but Serge's boat blew off course due to a raging magnetic storm caused by Schala. Schala, the princess of the Kingdom of Zeal, had long ago accidentally fallen to a place known as the Darkness Beyond Time and began merging with Lavos, the chief antagonist of Chrono Trigger. Schala's storm nullified Chronopolis's defenses and allowed Serge to contact the Frozen Flame; approaching it healed Serge but corrupted his father, turning him into Lynx. A circuit in Chronopolis then designated Serge "Arbiter", simultaneously preventing FATE from using the Frozen Flame by extension. The Dragons were aware of this situation, creating a seventh Dragon under the storm's cover named Harle, who manipulated Lynx to steal the Frozen Flame for the Dragons.
After Serge returned home, FATE sent Lynx to kill Serge, hoping that it would release the Arbiter lock. Ten years after Serge drowned, the thief Kid—presumably on Belthasar's orders—went back in time to save Serge and split the dimensions. FATE, locked out of the Frozen Flame again, knew that Serge would one day cross to Another world and prepared to apprehend him. Lynx switched bodies with Serge to dupe the biological check of Chronopolis on the Frozen Flame. Belthasar then reveals that these events were part of a plan he had orchestrated named Project Kid. Serge continues to the top of Terra Tower and defeats the Dragon God. Continuing to the beach where the split in dimensions had occurred, Serge finds apparitions of Crono, Marle, and Lucca once more. They reveal that Belthasar's plan was to empower Serge to free Schala from melding with Lavos, lest they evolve into the "Time Devourer", a creature capable of destroying spacetime. Lucca explains that Kid is Schala's clone, sent to the modern age to take part in Project Kid. Serge uses a Time Egg—given to him by Belthasar—to enter the Darkness Beyond Time and vanquish the Time Devourer, separating Schala from Lavos and restoring the dimensions to one. Thankful, Schala muses on evolution and the struggle of life and returns Serge to his home, noting that he will forget the entire adventure. She then seemingly records the experience in her diary, noting she will always be searching for Serge in this life and beyond, signing the entry as Schala "Kid" Zeal, implying that she and Kid have merged and became whole again. A wedding photo of Kid and an obscured male sits on the diary's desk. Scenes then depict a real-life Kid searching for someone in a modern city, intending to make players entertain the possibility that their own Kid is searching for them. The ambiguous ending leaves the events of the characters' lives following the game up to interpretation.
===Relation to Radical Dreamers===
Chrono Cross employs story arcs, characters, and themes from Radical Dreamers, a Satellaview side story to Chrono Trigger released in Japan. Radical Dreamers is an illustrated text adventure which was created to wrap up an unresolved plot line of Chrono Trigger. Though it borrows from Radical Dreamers in its exposition, Chrono Cross is not a remake of Radical Dreamers, but a larger effort to fulfill that game's purpose; the plots of the games are irreconcilable. A notable difference between the two games is that Magus—present in Radical Dreamers as Gil—is absent from Chrono Cross. Director Masato Kato originally planned for Magus to appear in disguise as Guile, but scrapped the idea due to plot difficulties. In the DS version of Chrono Trigger, Kato teases the possibility of an amnesiac Magus.
==Development==
Square began planning Chrono Cross immediately after the release of Xenogears in 1998 (which itself was originally conceived as a sequel to the SNES game). Chrono Trigger's scenario director Masato Kato had brainstormed ideas for a sequel as early as 1996, following the release of Radical Dreamers. Kato thought Dreamers was released in a "half-finished state", and wanted to continue the story of the character Kid. The event team originally envisioned a short game, and planned a system by which players would befriend any person in a town for alliance in battle. Art director Nobuteru Yuuki initially wanted the characters to appear in a more chibi format with diminutive proportions. The demands of the art style led to Square merging the Final Fantasy VIII team into that of Chrono Cross two months before the Japanese release.
The Chrono Cross team devised an original battle system using a stamina bar and Elements. Hiromichi Tanaka likened the Elements system to card games, hoping players would feel a sense of complete control in battle. The North American version of Cross required three months of translation and two months of debugging before release. He also added instances of wordplay and alliteration to compensate for difficult Japanese jokes. Although the trademark Chrono Cross was registered in the European Union, the game was not released in Europe.
After the game was done, the team was merged with those behind Parasite Eve II, Brave Fencer Musashi and Mana to make Final Fantasy XI. The programming for the game endured as the basis for the engine of Final Fantasy XI. Mitsuda cited visual inspiration for songs: "All of my subjects are taken from scenery. I love artwork." To complement the theme of parallel worlds, he gave Another and Home respectively dark and bright moods, and hoped players would feel the emotions of "'burning soul,' 'lonely world,' and 'unforgettable memories'". In 2005, Square Enix reissued the soundtrack due to popular demand. Earlier that year, Mitsuda announced a new arranged Chrono Cross album, scheduled for release in July 2005. Mitsuda's contract with Square gave him ownership and full rights to the soundtrack of Chrono Cross. It was delayed, and at a Play! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006, he revealed it would feature acoustic music and would be "out within the year", later backtracking and alleging a 2007 release date. Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a finished track on his personal website in January 2009, and has stated the album will be released to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the Japanese debut of Cross. Music from Chrono Cross has been featured in the September 2009 Symphonic Fantasies concerts, part of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series conducted by Arnie Roth. That same year, the Chrono Cross theme "Scars of Time" was voted first place in Hardcore Gaming 101's "Best Video Game Music of All Time" poll. "Scars of Time" was also featured in 2012 by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores.
==Release and reception==
Chrono Cross received critical acclaim, it shipped 850,000 units in Japan and 650,000 abroad by 2003. Critics praised the game's complex plot, innovative battle system, varied characters, moving score, vibrant graphics, and success in breaking convention with its predecessor. Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Chrono Cross a Gold Award, scoring it 10/10/9.5 in their three reviewer format with the first review declaring the game to be "a masterpiece, plain and simple". GameSpot awarded the game a perfect 10, one of only sixteen games in the 40,000 games listed on GameSpot to have been given the score, and its Console Game of the Year Award for 2000. IGN gave the game a score of 9.7, and Cross appeared 89th in its 2008 Top 100 games list. Famitsu rated the game 36 out of 40 from four reviewers. Producer Hiromichi Tanaka and director Masato Kato were aware of the changes in development, specifically intending to provide an experience different from Chrono Trigger.
During the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Chrono Cross for the "Game of the Year", "Console Game of the Year", and "Console Role-Playing" awards.
==Legacy==
On December 9, 2021, a cross-over event between Chrono Cross and the free-to-play RPG Another Eden was released. A collaborative effort between Chrono writer Kato and composer Mitsuda, the game features elements similar to the Chrono series, such as talking frog protagonists and time-travel elements. Titled Complex Dream, the event introduces several Chrono Cross characters, including Serge, Kid, and Harle, as well as gameplay elements from the series such as element magic and combo techs.
=== Remaster ===
Publications began discussion of a possible remastered version of Chrono Cross in September 2021, when a security flaw allowed for a web developer to see an internal listing of current and upcoming video games in Nvidia's GeForce Now database, which included a never-announced Chrono Cross Remastered. Nvidia later confirmed that the list was real, but that the games listed were speculative, and may or may not end up getting a final release. A second Nvidia leak occurred the following November, which again listed Chrono Cross Remastered, this time with a December 2021 release date. Further comments on the game's existence also arose in November; Video Games Chronicle reported Nick Baker of the XboxEra podcast could confirm prior reports of its existence, and game website Gematsu separately confirmed the game's existence. On December 4, 2021, Square Enix announced a cross over event between Chrono Cross and mobile game Another Eden; the announcement spurred more discussion on a remaster, considering Square was reviving the game for the first time in 20 years, and writer Masato Kato worked on both games.
A remaster of the game, titled Chrono Cross: The Radical Dreamers Edition, was announced on February 9, 2022, during a Nintendo Direct presentation, being slated for release on April 7, 2022, for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One. The remaster of the title includes quality-of-life updates such as the ability to disable encounters, in addition to an enhanced OST. The remaster is also bundled with the text adventure game Radical Dreamers, previously only available to Japanese players through the Satellaview peripheral for the Super Famicom. Masato Kato, Yasunori Mitsuda, Nobuteru Yuuki, and Hiromichi Tanaka were brought in to lightly polish the game's dialogue, music, character art, and mechanics, respectively. Tanaka revealed that the game's assets, stored on magnetic tape after development ceased in 1999, were lost in the intervening years, causing him to rely on a personal backup he had maintained for certain aspects of his polishing work. The work demanded close scrutiny to ensure no original details were missed.
On February 22, 2023, Square-Enix released an update patch for the remaster on all systems it released for which has fixed some of the various gameplay issues with the remaster, as well as updating several performance aspects of the game including increasing the game's framerate to 60fps.
===Sequel===
In 2001, Hironobu Sakaguchi revealed the company's staff wanted to develop a new game and were discussing script ideas. Although Kato was interested in a new title, the project had not been greenlighted. Square then registered a trademark for Chrono Break worldwide, causing speculation concerning a new sequel. Nothing materialized, and the trademark was dropped in the United States on November 13, 2003, though it still stands in Japan and the European Union. Kato later returned to Square Enix as a freelancer to work on Children of Mana and Dawn of Mana. Mitsuda also expressed interest in scoring a new Chrono series game. The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the "Top Ten Sequels in Demand", naming the games "steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue" and asking "what's the damn holdup?!" In Electronic Gaming Monthly's June 2008 "Retro Issue", writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to. In the May 1, 2009, issue of Famitsu, Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most-wanted sequels by the magazine's readers. At E3 2009, SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked, "If people want a sequel, they should buy more!"
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7,843 |
Planned economy
|
A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economy-wide economic plans and production plans. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, participatory or Soviet-type forms of economic planning. The level of centralization or decentralization in decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.
Socialist states based on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have adopted some degree of market socialism. Market abolitionist socialism replaces factor markets with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various socially owned economic enterprises that make up the economy. More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.
== Overview ==
In the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic world, "compulsory state planning was the most characteristic trade condition for the Egyptian countryside, for Hellenistic India, and to a lesser degree the more barbaric regions of the Seleucid, the Pergamenian, the southern Arabian, and the Parthian empires". Scholars have argued that the Incan economy was a flexible type of command economy, centered around the movement and utilization of labor instead of goods. One view of mercantilism sees it as involving planned economies.
The Soviet-style planned economy in Soviet Russia evolved in the wake of a continuing existing World War I war-economy as well as other policies, known as war communism (1918–1921), shaped to the requirements of the Russian Civil War of 1917–1923. These policies began their formal consolidation under an official organ of government in 1921, when the Soviet government founded Gosplan. However, the period of the New Economic Policy ( to ) intervened before the planned system of regular five-year plans started in 1928. Leon Trotsky was one of the earliest proponents of economic planning during the NEP period. Trotsky argued that specialization, the concentration of production and the use of planning could "raise in the near future the coefficient of industrial growth not only two, but even three times higher than the pre-war rate of 6% and, perhaps, even higher". According to historian Sheila Fitzpatrick, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation.
After World War II (1939–1945) France and Great Britain practiced dirigisme – government direction of the economy through non-coercive means. The Swedish government planned public-housing models in a similar fashion as urban planning in a project called Million Programme, implemented from 1965 to 1974. Some decentralized participation in economic planning occurred across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.
=== Relationship with socialism ===
In the May 1949 issue of the Monthly Review titled "Why Socialism?", Albert Einstein wrote:
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.
While socialism is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve ex-ante coordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically so that the use of the surplus product is controlled by the producers. The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the socialist calculation debate.
=== Computational economic planning ===
In 1959 Anatoly Kitov proposed a distributed computing system (Project "Red Book", ) with a focus on the management of the Soviet economy. Opposition from the Defence Ministry killed Kitov's plan.
In 1971 the socialist Allende administration of Chile launched Project Cybersyn to install a telex machine in every corporation and organization in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government. The data was also fed into a computer-simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for real-time observation and management of the overall economy. The prototype-stage of the project showed promise when it was used to redirect supplies around a trucker's strike, but after CIA-backed Augusto Pinochet led a coup in 1973 that established a military dictatorship under his rule the program was abolished and Pinochet moved Chile towards a more liberalized market economy.
In their book Towards a New Socialism (1993), the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from Wake Forest University claim to demonstrate how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free-market economies and also morally desirable.
In the Soviet Union, Anatoly Kitov had proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organization of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centers in 1959. Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962 OGAS economy management network project. Soviet cybernetician, Viktor Glushkov argued that his OGAS information network would have delivered a fivefold savings return for the Soviet economy over the first fifteen-year investment.
Salvador Allende's socialist government pioneered the 1970 Chilean distributed decision support system Project Cybersyn in an attempt to move towards a decentralized planned economy with the experimental viable system model of computed organisational structure of autonomous operative units through an algedonic feedback setting and bottom-up participative decision-making in the form of participative democracy by the Cyberfolk component.
== Central planning ==
=== Advantages ===
The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations have compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy. However, according to Michael Ellman, the reality of this, at least regarding infant mortality, varies depending on whether official Soviet or WHO definitions are used.
The state can begin building massive heavy industries at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of gross national income dedicated to private consumption down from 80% to 50%. As a result of this development, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector due to the labor shortage.
=== Disadvantages ===
==== Economic instability ====
Studies of command economies of the Eastern Bloc in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that contrary to the expectations of both groups they showed greater fluctuations in output than market economies during the same period.
==== Inefficient resource distribution ====
Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the economic calculation problem and local knowledge problem, respectively. These distinct aspects were also present in the economic thought of Michael Polanyi.
Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy to subjective value theory while attacking the labor theory of value, the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized as spontaneous order. Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According to Tibor Machan, "[w]ithout a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals".
Historian Robert Vincent Daniels regarded the Stalinist period to represent an abrupt break with Lenin's government in terms of economic planning in which an deliberated, scientific system of planning that featured former Menshevik economists at Gosplan had been replaced with a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucratic waste, bottlenecks and shortages. Stalin's formulations of national plans in terms of physical quantity of output was also attributed by Daniels as a source for the stagnant levels of efficiency and quality.
==== Suppression of economic democracy and self-management ====
Economist Robin Hahnel, who supports participatory economics, a form of socialist decentralized planned economy, notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom. Furthermore, Hahnel states:
Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power. whereas a command economy necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry while also having this type of regulation. In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.
This is contested by some Marxists. Decentralized planning has been proposed as a basis for socialism and has been variously advocated by anarchists, council communists, libertarian Marxists and other democratic and libertarian socialists who advocate a non-market form of socialism, in total rejection of the type of planning adopted in the economy of the Soviet Union.
Most of a command economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the chain of command, with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies. Leon Trotsky believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and who understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy. Therefore, they would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.
Historians have associated planned economies with Marxist–Leninist states and the Soviet economic model. Since the 1980s, it has been contested that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment. The further distinction of an administrative-command system emerged as a new designation in some academic circles for the economic system that existed in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy. The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored in Chile between 1971 and 1973 with the development of Project Cybersyn and by Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich, head of the Department of Technical Physics in Kiev in 1962.
While both economic planning and a planned economy can be either authoritarian or democratic and participatory, democratic socialist critics argue that command economies under modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice. Indicative planning is a form of economic planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. In some predominantly market-oriented and Western mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system.
== Decentralized planning ==
A decentralized-planned economy, occasionally called horizontally planned economy due to its horizontalism, is a type of planned economy in which the investment and allocation of consumer and capital goods is explicated accordingly to an economy-wide plan built and operatively coordinated through a distributed network of disparate economic agents or even production units itself. Decentralized planning is usually held in contrast to centralized planning, in particular the Soviet-type economic planning of the Soviet Union's command economy, where economic information is aggregated and used to formulate a plan for production, investment and resource allocation by a single central authority. Decentralized planning can take shape both in the context of a mixed economy as well as in a post-capitalist economic system. This form of economic planning implies some process of democratic and participatory decision-making within the economy and within firms itself in the form of industrial democracy. Computer-based forms of democratic economic planning and coordination between economic enterprises have also been proposed by various computer scientists and radical economists.
Decentralized planning has been a feature of anarchist and socialist economics. Variations of decentralized planning such as economic democracy, industrial democracy and participatory economics have been promoted by various political groups, most notably anarchists, democratic socialists, guild socialists, libertarian Marxists, libertarian socialists, revolutionary syndicalists and Trotskyists. Trotsky had urged economic decentralisation between the state, oblast regions and factories during the NEP period to counter structural inefficiency and the problem of bureaucracy.
=== Models ===
==== Negotiated coordination ====
Economist Pat Devine has created a model of decentralized economic planning called "negotiated coordination" which is based upon social ownership of the means of production by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with the allocation of consumer and capital goods made through a participatory form of decision-making by those at the most localized level of production. Moreover, organizations that utilize modularity in their production processes may distribute problem solving and decision making.
==== Participatory planning ====
The planning structure of a decentralized planned economy is generally based on a consumers council and producer council (or jointly, a distributive cooperative) which is sometimes called a consumers' cooperative. Producers and consumers, or their representatives, negotiate the quality and quantity of what is to be produced. This structure is central to guild socialism, participatory economics and the economic theories related to anarchism.
=== Practice ===
==== Kerala ====
Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented in various regions and states in India, most notably in Kerala. Local level planning agencies assess the needs of people who are able to give their direct input through the Gram Sabhas (village-based institutions) and the planners subsequently seek to plan accordingly.
==== Revolutionary Catalonia ====
Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.
== Portrayals in fiction ==
The 1888 novel Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia. Other literary portrayals of planned economies include Yevgeny Zamyatin's We (1924).
|
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] |
7,844 |
Chimpanzee
|
The chimpanzee (; Pan troglodytes), also simply known as the chimp, is a species of great ape native to the forests and savannahs of tropical Africa. It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee. The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is thus humans' closest living relative.
The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing for males and for females and standing .
The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more.
The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range. The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties, circus acts and stage shows. Although chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role. Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in the United States. Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success.
==Etymology==
The English word chimpanzee is first recorded in 1738. It is derived from Vili ci-mpenze or Tshiluba language chimpenze, with a meaning of "ape", or "mockman". The colloquialism "chimp" was most likely coined some time in the late 1870s. The genus name Pan derives from the Greek god, while the specific name troglodytes was taken from the Troglodytae, a mythical race of cave-dwellers. Another Dutch anatomist, Peter Camper, dissected specimens from Central Africa and Southeast Asia in the 1770s, noting the differences between the African and Asian apes. The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach classified the chimpanzee as Simia troglodytes by 1775. Another German naturalist, Lorenz Oken, coined the genus Pan in 1816. The bonobo was recognised as distinct from the chimpanzee by 1933.
===Evolution===
Despite a large number of Homo fossil finds, Pan fossils were not described until 2005. Existing chimpanzee populations in West and Central Africa do not overlap with the major human fossil sites in East Africa, but chimpanzee fossils have now been reported from Kenya. This indicates that both humans and members of the Pan clade were present in the East African Rift Valley during the Middle Pleistocene.
According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at George Washington University, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, split from the human line about 8 million years ago; then bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago. Another 2017 genetic study suggests ancient gene flow (introgression) between 200,000 and 550,000 years ago from the bonobo into the ancestors of central and eastern chimpanzees.
===Subspecies and population status===
Four subspecies of the chimpanzee have been recognised, with the possibility of a fifth:
Central chimpanzee or the tschego (Pan troglodytes troglodytes), found in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with about 140,000 individuals existing in the wild.
Western chimpanzee (P. troglodytes verus), found in Ivory Coast, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Ghana with about 52,800 individuals still in existence.
Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee (P. troglodytes ellioti (also known as P. t. vellerosus)),
Eastern chimpanzee (P. troglodytes schweinfurthii), found in the Central African Republic, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia, with approximately 180,000–256,000 individuals still existing in the wild.
Southeastern chimpanzee, P. troglodytes marungensis, in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Colin Groves argues that this is a subspecies, created by enough variation between the northern and southern populations of P. t. schweinfurthii, (compared to 20,383 in the human proteome). The DNA sequences of humans and chimpanzees are very similar and the difference in protein number mostly arises from incomplete sequences in the chimpanzee genome. Both species differ by about 35 million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events and various chromosomal rearrangements. Typical human and chimpanzee protein homologs differ in an average of only two amino acids. About 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein. Duplications of small parts of chromosomes have been the major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material; about 2.7% of the corresponding modern genomes represent differences, produced by gene duplications or deletions, since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. Wild adult males weigh between , and females weigh between . In exceptional cases, certain individuals may considerably exceed these measurements, standing over on two legs and weighing up to in captivity.
The chimpanzee is more robustly built than the bonobo but less than the gorilla. The arms of a chimpanzee are longer than its legs and can reach below the knees. The hands have long fingers with short thumbs and flat fingernails. The feet are adapted for grasping, and the big toe is opposable. The pelvis is long with an extended ilium. A chimpanzee's head is rounded with a prominent and prognathous face and a pronounced brow ridge. It has forward-facing eyes, a small nose, rounded non-lobed ears and a long mobile upper lip. Additionally, adult males have sharp canine teeth. Like all great apes, it has a dental formula of , that is, two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars on both halves of each jaw. Chimpanzees lack the prominent sagittal crest and associated head and neck musculature of gorillas.
Chimpanzee bodies are covered by coarse hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. Chimpanzees lose more hair as they age and develop bald spots. The hair of a chimpanzee is typically black but can be brown or ginger. As they get older, white or grey patches may appear, particularly on the chin and lower region. Facial pigmentation increases with age and exposure to ultraviolet light. Females develop swelling pink skin when in oestrus.
Chimpanzees are adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion. Arboreal locomotion consists of vertical climbing and brachiation. On the ground, chimpanzees move both quadrupedally and bipedally. These movements appear to have similar energy costs. As with bonobos and gorillas, chimpanzees move quadrupedally by knuckle-walking, which probably evolved independently in Pan and Gorilla. Their muscles are 50% stronger per weight than those of humans due to higher content of fast twitch muscle fibres, one of the chimpanzee's adaptations for climbing and swinging. According to Japan's Asahiyama Zoo, the grip strength of an adult chimpanzee is estimated to be , while other sources claim figures of up to .
==Ecology==
The chimpanzee is a highly adaptable species. It lives in a variety of habitats, including dry savanna, evergreen rainforest, montane forest, swamp forest, and dry woodland-savanna mosaic. In Gombe, the chimpanzee mostly uses semideciduous and evergreen forest as well as open woodland. At Bossou, the chimpanzee inhabits multistage secondary deciduous forest, which has grown after shifting cultivation, as well as primary forest and grassland. At Taï, it is found in the last remaining tropical rain forest in Ivory Coast. The chimpanzee has an advanced cognitive map of its home range and can repeatedly find food. The chimpanzee builds a sleeping nest in a tree in a different location each night, never using the same nest more than once. Chimpanzees sleep alone in separate nests except for infants or juvenile chimpanzees, which sleep with their mothers. A study in Budongo Forest, Uganda found that 64.5% of their feeding time concentrated on fruits (84.6% of which being ripe), particularly those from two species of Ficus, Maesopsis eminii, and Celtis gomphophylla. In addition, 19% of feeding time was spent on arboreal leaves, mostly Broussonetia papyrifera and Celtis mildbraedii. While the chimpanzee is mostly herbivorous, it does eat honey, soil, insects, birds and their eggs, and small to medium-sized mammals, including other primates. Insect species consumed include the weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda, Macrotermes termites, and honey bees.
Despite the fact that chimpanzees are known to hunt and to collect both insects and other invertebrates, such food actually makes up a very small portion of their diet, from as little as 2% yearly to as much as 65 grams of animal flesh per day for each adult chimpanzee in peak hunting seasons. This also varies from troop to troop and year to year. However, in all cases, the majority of their diet consists of fruits, leaves, roots, and other plant matter. Female chimpanzees appear to consume much less animal flesh than males, according to several studies. Jane Goodall documented many occasions within Gombe Stream National Park of chimpanzees and western red colobus monkeys ignoring each other despite close proximity.
Chimpanzees do not appear to directly compete with gorillas in areas where they overlap. When fruit is abundant, gorilla and chimpanzee diets converge, but when fruit is scarce gorillas resort to vegetation. The two apes may also feed on different species, whether fruit or insects. Interactions between them can range from friendly and even stable social bonding, to avoidance, to aggression and even predation of infants on the part of chimpanzees.
===Mortality and health===
The average lifespan of a wild chimpanzee is relatively short. They usually live less than 15 years, although individuals that reach 12 years may live an additional 15 years. On rare occasions, wild chimpanzees may live nearly 60 years. Captive chimpanzees tend to live longer than most wild ones, with median lifespans of 31.7 years for males and 38.7 years for females. The oldest-known male captive chimpanzee to have been documented lived to 66 years, and the oldest female, Little Mama, was nearly 80 years old.
Leopards prey on chimpanzees in some areas. It is possible that much of the mortality caused by leopards can be attributed to individuals that have specialised in killing chimpanzees. There is at least one record of chimpanzees killing a leopard cub after mobbing it and its mother in their den. Four chimpanzees could have fallen prey to lions at Mahale Mountains National Park. Although no other instances of lion predation on chimpanzees have been recorded, lions likely do kill chimpanzees occasionally, and the larger group sizes of savanna chimpanzees may have developed as a response to threats from these big cats. Chimpanzees may react to lions by fleeing up trees, vocalising, or hiding in silence.
Chimpanzees and humans share only 50% of their parasite and microbe species. This is due to the differences in environmental and dietary adaptations; human internal parasite species overlap more with omnivorous, savanna-dwelling baboons. The chimpanzee is host to the louse species Pediculus schaeffi, a close relative of P. humanus, which infests human head and body hair. By contrast, the human pubic louse Pthirus pubis is closely related to Pthirus gorillae, which infests gorillas. A 2017 study of gastrointestinal parasites of wild chimpanzees in degraded forest in Uganda found nine species of protozoa, five nematodes, one cestode, and one trematode. The most prevalent species was the protozoan Troglodytella abrassarti.
==Behaviour==
Recent studies have suggested that human observers influence chimpanzee behaviour. One suggestion is that drones, camera traps, and remote microphones should be used to record and monitor chimpanzees rather than direct human observation.
===Group structure===
Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from around 15 to more than 150 members but spend most of their time traveling in small, temporary groups consisting of a few individuals. These groups may consist of any combination of age and sexes. Both males and females sometimes travel alone. This fission–fusion society may include groups of four types: all-male, adult females and offspring, adults of both sexes, or one female and her offspring. These smaller groups emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organised to hunt for meat, while a group consisting of lactating females serves to act as a "nursery group" for the young. However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, "in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest," is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is caused mainly by the large measure of individual autonomy that individuals have within their fission-fusion social groups.
Male chimpanzees exist in a linear dominance hierarchy. Top-ranking males tend to be aggressive even during dominance stability. This is probably due to the chimpanzee's fission-fusion society, with male chimpanzees leaving groups and returning after extended periods of time. With this, a dominant male is unsure if any "political maneuvering" has occurred in his absence and must re-establish his dominance. Thus, a large amount of aggression occurs within five to fifteen minutes after a reunion. During these encounters, displays of aggression are generally preferred over physical attacks.
Males maintain and improve their social ranks by forming coalitions, which have been characterised as "exploitative" and based on an individual's influence in agonistic interactions. Being in a coalition allows males to dominate a third individual when they could not by themselves, as politically apt chimpanzees can exert power over aggressive interactions regardless of their rank. Coalitions can also give an individual male the confidence to challenge a dominant or larger male. The more allies a male has, the better his chance of becoming dominant. However, most changes in hierarchical rank are caused by dyadic interactions.
Low-ranking males frequently switch sides in disputes between more dominant individuals. Low-ranking males benefit from an unstable hierarchy and often find increased sexual opportunities if a dispute or conflict occurs. While chimpanzee social structure is often referred to as patriarchal, it is not entirely unheard of for females to forge coalitions against males. There is also at least one recorded case of females securing a dominant position over males in their respective troop, albeit in a captive environment. Social grooming appears to be important in the formation and maintenance of coalitions. It is more common among adult males than either between adult females or between males and females.
Chimpanzees have been described as highly territorial and will frequently kill other chimpanzees, although Margaret Power wrote in her 1991 book The Egalitarians that the field studies from which the aggressive data came, Gombe and Mahale, used artificial feeding systems that increased aggression in the chimpanzee populations studied. Thus, the behaviour may not reflect innate characteristics of the species as a whole. Patrols from smaller groups are more likely to avoid contact with their neighbours. Patrols from large groups even take over a smaller group's territory, gaining access to more resources, food, and females.
===Mating and parenting===
Chimpanzees mate throughout the year, although the number of females in oestrus varies seasonally in a group. Female chimpanzees are more likely to come into oestrus when food is readily available. Oestrous females exhibit sexual swellings. Chimpanzees are promiscuous: during oestrus, females mate with several males in their community, while males have large testicles for sperm competition. Other forms of mating also exist. A community's dominant males sometimes restrict reproductive access to females. A male and female can form a consortship and mate outside their community. In addition, females sometimes leave their community and mate with males from neighboring communities. These alternative mating strategies give females more mating opportunities without losing the support of the males in their community. Females sometimes practice infanticide. This may be related to the dominance hierarchy in females or may simply be pathological.
Inbreeding was studied in a relatively undisturbed eastern chimpanzee community that displayed substantial bisexual philopatry. Despite an increased inbreeding risk incurred by females who do not disperse before reaching reproductive age, these females were still able to avoid producing inbred offspring. The gestation period is eight months. Male chimpanzees continue to associate with the females they impregnated and interact with and support their offspring. Newborn chimpanzees are helpless. For example, their grasping reflex is not strong enough to support them for more than a few seconds. For their first 30 days, infants cling to their mother's bellies. Infants are unable to support their own weight for their first two months and need their mothers' support.
When they reach five to six months, infants ride on their mothers' backs. They remain in continual contact for the rest of their first year. When they reach two years of age, they are able to move and sit independently and start moving beyond the arms' reach of their mothers. By four to six years, chimpanzees are weaned and infancy ends. The juvenile period for chimpanzees lasts from their sixth to ninth years. Juveniles remain close to their mothers, but interact an increasing amount with other members of their community. Adolescent females move between groups and are supported by their mothers in agonistic encounters. Adolescent males spend time with adult males in social activities like hunting and boundary patrolling.
===Communication===
Chimpanzees use facial expressions, postures, and sounds to communicate with each other. Chimpanzees have expressive faces that are important in close-up communications. When frightened, a "full closed grin" causes nearby individuals to be fearful, as well. Playful chimpanzees display an open-mouthed grin. Chimpanzees may also express themselves with the "pout", which is made in distress, the "sneer", which is made when threatening or fearful, and "compressed-lips face", which is a type of display. When submitting to a dominant individual, a chimpanzee crunches, bobs, and extends a hand. When in an aggressive mode, a chimpanzee swaggers bipedally, hunched over and arms waving, in an attempt to exaggerate its size. While travelling, chimpanzees keep in contact by beating their hands and feet against the trunks of large trees, an act that is known as "drumming". They also do this when encountering individuals from other communities.
Vocalisations are also important in chimpanzee communication. The most common call in adults is the "pant-hoot", which may signal social rank and bond along with keeping groups together. Pant-hoots are made of four parts, starting with soft "hoos", the introduction; that gets louder and louder, the build-up; and climax into screams and sometimes barks; these die down back to soft "hoos" during the letdown phase as the call ends. While both adults and infants are taken, adult male colobus monkeys will attack the hunting chimps. When caught and killed, the meal is distributed to all hunting party members and even bystanders.
=== Wound care ===
A 2022 study reported that chimpanzees crushed and applied insects to their own wounds and the wounds of other chimpanzees.
==Intelligence==
Chimpanzees display numerous signs of intelligence, from the ability to remember symbols In one study, two young chimpanzees showed retention of mirror self-recognition after one year without access to mirrors. Chimpanzees have been observed to use insects to treat their own wounds and those of others. They catch them and apply them directly to the injury. Chimpanzees also display signs of culture among groups, with the learning and transmission of variations in grooming, tool use and foraging techniques leading to localized traditions.
A 30-year study at Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute has shown that chimpanzees are able to learn to recognise the numbers 1 to 9 and their values. The chimpanzees further show an aptitude for eidetic memory, demonstrated in experiments in which the jumbled digits are flashed onto a computer screen for less than a quarter of a second. One chimpanzee, Ayumu, was able to correctly and quickly point to the positions where they appeared in ascending order. Ayumu performed better than human adults who were given the same test.
In controlled experiments on cooperation, chimpanzees show a basic understanding of cooperation, and recruit the best collaborators. In a group setting with a device that delivered food rewards only to cooperating chimpanzees, cooperation first increased, then, due to competitive behaviour, decreased, before finally increasing to the highest level through punishment and other arbitrage behaviours.
Great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognisable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age.
Chimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to a dying or dead group member. When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays, and touching of the corpse. In one case chimpanzees cared for a dying elder, then attended and cleaned the corpse. Afterward, they avoided the spot where the elder died and behaved in a more subdued manner. Mothers have been reported to carry around and groom their dead infants for several days.
Experimenters now and then witness behaviour that cannot be readily reconciled with chimpanzee intelligence or theory of mind. Wolfgang Köhler, for instance, reported insightful behaviour in chimpanzees, but he likewise often observed that they experienced "special difficulty" in solving simple problems. Researchers also reported that, when faced with a choice between two persons, chimpanzees were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that chimpanzees lack theory of mind.
===Tool use===
Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools. They modify sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them when foraging for termites and ants, nuts, honey, algae or water. Despite the lack of complexity, forethought and skill are apparent in making these tools. Chimpanzees have used stone tools since at least 4,300 years ago.
A chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first nonhuman animal reported making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound. At Taï, chimpanzees simply use their hands to extract termites.
Chimpanzees also fish for ants using the same tactic. Some forethought in this activity is apparent, as these tools are not found together or where the nuts are collected. Nut cracking is also difficult and must be learned.
West African chimpanzees in Senegal were found to sharpen sticks with their teeth, which were then used to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees. An eastern chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel. Chimpanzees living in Tanzania were found to deliberately choose plants that provide materials that produce more flexible tools for termite fishing.
Whilst experimental studies on captive chimpanzees have found that many of their species-typical tool-use behaviours can be individually learnt by each chimpanzees, a 2021 study on their abilities to make and use stone flakes, in a similar way as hypothesised for early hominins, did not find this behaviour across two populations of chimpanzees—suggesting that this behaviour is outside the chimpanzee species-typical range.
===Language===
Scientists have attempted to teach human language to several species of great ape. One early attempt by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in the 1960s involved spending 51 months teaching American Sign Language to a chimpanzee named Washoe. The Gardners reported that Washoe learned 151 signs, and had spontaneously taught them to other chimpanzees, including her adopted son, Loulis. Over a longer period of time, Washoe was reported to have learned over 350 signs.
Debate is ongoing among scientists such as David Premack about chimpanzees' ability to learn language. Since the early reports on Washoe, numerous other studies have been conducted, with varying levels of success. One involved a chimpanzee jokingly named Nim Chimpsky (in allusion to the theorist of language Noam Chomsky), trained by Herbert Terrace of Columbia University. Although his initial reports were quite positive, in November 1979, Terrace and his team, including psycholinguist Thomas Bever, re-evaluated the videotapes of Nim with his trainers, analyzing them frame by frame for signs, as well as for exact context (what was happening both before and after Nim's signs). In the reanalysis, Terrace and Bever concluded that Nim's utterances could be explained merely as prompting on the part of the experimenters, as well as mistakes in reporting the data. "Much of the apes' behaviour is pure drill", he said. "Language still stands as an important definition of the human species." In this reversal, Terrace now argued Nim's use of ASL was not like human language acquisition. Nim never initiated conversations himself, rarely introduced new words, and mostly imitated what the humans did. More importantly, Nim's word strings varied in their ordering, suggesting that he was incapable of syntax. Nim's sentences also did not grow in length, unlike human children whose vocabulary and sentence length show a strong positive correlation.
==Human relations==
===In culture===
Chimpanzees are rarely represented in African culture, as people find them "too close for comfort". The Gio people of Liberia and the Hemba people of the Congo make chimpanzee masks. Gio masks are crude and blocky, and worn when teaching young people how not to behave. The Hemba masks have a smile that suggests drunken anger, insanity or horror and are worn during rituals at funerals, representing the "awful reality of death". The masks may also serve to guard households and protect both human and plant fertility. Stories have been told of chimpanzees kidnapping and raping women.
In Western popular culture, chimpanzees have occasionally been stereotyped as childlike companions, sidekicks or clowns. They are especially suited for the latter role on account of their prominent facial features, long limbs and fast movements, which humans often find amusing. Accordingly, entertainment acts featuring chimpanzees dressed up as humans with lip-synchronised human voices have been traditional staples of circuses, stage shows and TV shows like Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp (1970–1972) and The Chimp Channel (1999). From 1926 until 1972, London Zoo, followed by several other zoos around the world, held a chimpanzees' tea party daily, inspiring a long-running series of advertisements for PG Tips tea featuring such a party. Animal rights groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive.
thumb|upright|Poster for the 1931 film Aping Hollywood. Media like this relied on the novelty of performing apes to carry their gags. Outside their range, chimpanzees are popular as [[exotic pets despite their strength and aggression. Even in places where keeping non-human primates as pets is illegal, the exotic pet trade continues to prosper, leading to injuries from attacks.
===Use in research===
Hundreds of chimpanzees have been kept in laboratories for research. Most such laboratories either conduct or make the animals available for invasive research, defined as "inoculation with an infectious agent, surgery or biopsy conducted for the sake of research and not for the sake of the chimpanzee, and/or drug testing". Research chimpanzees tend to be used repeatedly over decades for up to 40 years, unlike the pattern of use of most laboratory animals. Two federally funded American laboratories use chimpanzees: the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Southwest National Primate Center in San Antonio, Texas. Five hundred chimpanzees have been retired from laboratory use in the US and live in animal sanctuaries in the US or Canada. However, in 2007, the NIH made the moratorium permanent.
Other researchers argue that chimpanzees either should not be used in research, or should be treated differently, for instance with legal status as persons. Pascal Gagneux, an evolutionary biologist and primate expert at the University of California, San Diego, argues, given chimpanzees' sense of self, tool use, and genetic similarity to human beings, studies using chimpanzees should follow the ethical guidelines used for human subjects unable to give consent. Stuart Zola, director of the Yerkes laboratory, disagrees. He told National Geographic: "I don't think we should make a distinction between our obligation to treat humanely any species, whether it's a rat or a monkey or a chimpanzee. No matter how much we may wish it, chimps are not human." Trials already under way were however allowed to run their course. Chimpanzees including the female Ai have been studied at the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University, Japan, formerly directed by Tetsuro Matsuzawa, since 1978. 12 chimpanzees are currently held at the facility.
Two chimpanzees have been sent into outer space as NASA research subjects. Ham, the first great ape in space, was launched in the Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961, and survived the suborbital flight. Enos, the third primate to orbit Earth after Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov, flew on Mercury-Atlas 5 on 29 November of the same year.
===Field study===
Jane Goodall undertook the first long-term field study of the chimpanzee, begun in Tanzania at Gombe Stream National Park in 1960. Other long-term studies begun in the 1960s include Adriaan Kortlandt's in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Toshisada Nishida's in Mahale Mountains National Park in Tanzania. Current understanding of the species' typical behaviours and social organisation has been formed largely from Goodall's ongoing 60-year Gombe research study.
===Attacks===
Chimpanzees have attacked humans. In Uganda, several attacks on children have happened, some of them fatal. Some of these attacks may have been due to the chimpanzees being intoxicated (from alcohol obtained from rural brewing operations) and becoming aggressive towards humans. Human interactions with chimpanzees may be especially dangerous if the chimpanzees perceive humans as potential rivals. At least six cases of chimpanzees snatching and eating human babies are documented.
A chimpanzee's strength and sharp teeth mean that attacks, even on adult humans, can cause severe injuries. This was evident after the attack and near death of former NASCAR driver St. James Davis, who was mauled by two escaped chimpanzees while he and his wife were celebrating the birthday of their former pet chimpanzee. Another example of chimpanzees being aggressive toward humans occurred in 2009 in Stamford, Connecticut, when a , 13-year-old pet chimpanzee named Travis attacked his owner's friend, who lost her hands, eyes, nose, and part of her maxilla from the attack.
===Human immunodeficiency virus===
Two primary classes of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 occurs mostly in west Africa. Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from other primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the subspecies P. t. troglodytes of southern Cameroon. Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of HIV, found in the sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau. Chimpanzees are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.
The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzee habitats have been limited by deforestation in both West and Central Africa. Road building has caused habitat degradation and fragmentation of chimpanzee populations and may allow poachers more access to areas that had not been seriously affected by humans. Although deforestation rates are low in western Central Africa, selective logging may take place outside national parks.
Chimpanzees are a common target for poachers. In Ivory Coast, chimpanzees make up 1–3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets. They are also taken, often illegally, for the pet trade and are hunted for medicinal purposes in some areas. Farmers sometimes kill chimpanzees that threaten their crops; others are unintentionally maimed or killed by snares meant for other animals.
Infectious diseases are a main cause of death for chimpanzees. They succumb to many diseases that afflict humans because the two species are so similar. As the human population grows, so does the risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees.
|
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"stage show",
"red-tailed monkey",
"penis",
"Dyad (sociology)",
"introgression",
"National Geographic News",
"evergreen",
"microbe",
"oestrus",
"theory of mind",
"language acquisition",
"Ham (chimpanzee)",
"Zambia",
"The Chimp Channel",
"syntax",
"human",
"eidetic memory",
"Uganda",
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"clade",
"brow ridge",
"Thomas Bever",
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"pith",
"Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire",
"Toshisada Nishida",
"incisors",
"King Kong",
"Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee",
"Maesopsis eminii",
"intestinal parasite",
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"arboreal",
"Pan troglodytes verus",
"The Lantern",
"Adriaan Kortlandt",
"Burundi",
"Eastern chimpanzee",
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"woodland",
"Kinshasa",
"Little Mama",
"Infanticide in primates",
"UCSC Genome Browser",
"Smithsonian Institution",
"Guinea",
"Enos (chimpanzee)",
"Cameroon",
"Ai (chimpanzee)",
"chimpanzees' tea party",
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"national park",
"herbivorous",
"blue duiker",
"National Museum of Natural History",
"circus",
"Yerkes National Primate Research Center",
"semideciduous",
"human immunodeficiency virus",
"Mutation",
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"Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii",
"Middle Pleistocene",
"trematode",
"pregnancy",
"premolars",
"sooty mangabey",
"bonobo",
"Flipper (1964 TV series)",
"John Bland-Sutton",
"louse",
"Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species",
"Celtis mildbraedii",
"protozoa",
"New York Daily News",
"Planet of the Apes (1968 film)",
"NCBI",
"American Sign Language",
"Cape bushbuck",
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"Animal sanctuary",
"animal culture",
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"poaching",
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"dominance hierarchy",
"Pan troglodytes troglodytes",
"terrestrial locomotion",
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"Kasakela chimpanzee community",
"bushmeat",
"parasite",
"gorilla",
"exotic pet",
"Emory University",
"Inbreeding",
"Mercury-Redstone 2",
"Stingless bees",
"Western red colobus",
"Gherman Titov",
"tropical Africa",
"Jane Goodall",
"Broussonetia papyrifera",
"Thumb",
"Ghana",
"post-traumatic stress disorder",
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"resin",
"Great ape language",
"tickling",
"Senegal bushbaby",
"honey bee",
"Nicolaes Tulp",
"Nim Chimpsky",
"Columbia University",
"cooperative pulling paradigm",
"popular culture",
"Lassie",
"Unmanned aerial vehicle",
"IUCN Red List",
"Liberia",
"nematode",
"Ilium (bone)",
"Taï National Park",
"Pant-hoot (call)",
"Caesar (Planet of the Apes)",
"Loulis",
"Virunga National Park",
"Travis (chimpanzee)",
"South Sudan",
"Peter Camper",
"Bornean orangutan",
"prognathous",
"Primate Research Institute",
"East African Rift",
"Central chimpanzee",
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"clowns",
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"Chimpanzee (film)",
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"sexual swelling",
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"Primate archaeology",
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"termite",
"Conquest of the Planet of the Apes",
"Laughter in animals",
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"Skeletal muscle",
"Celtis gomphophylla",
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"frugivore",
"sagittal crest",
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"Chimp Crazy",
"montane forest",
"shifting cultivation",
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"Yuri Gagarin",
"Tanzania",
"sperm competition",
"Senegal",
"promiscuous",
"Malay language",
"Rijswijk",
"alternative mating strategy",
"lion",
"cestode",
"sidekick",
"Jerry Was a Man",
"Great Ape Project",
"Mercury-Atlas 5",
"Chimp Empire",
"Affe mit Schädel",
"amino acid",
"Nigeria",
"Vili language",
"yellow baboon",
"Pthirus gorillae",
"honey",
"tschego",
"Vorbis",
"The Wild Thornberrys",
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"Homo",
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"squirrel",
"brachiation",
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"biological uplift",
"Biomedical Primate Research Centre",
"simian immunodeficiency virus",
"Tool use by animals",
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"Jacobus Bontius",
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"Western chimpanzee",
"Pan (god)",
"Pan troglodytes ellioti",
"bush babies",
"Hemba people",
"Chromosomal translocation",
"dental formula",
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"sister taxon",
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"deciduous forest",
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"cognitive map",
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"omnivorous",
"Washoe (chimpanzee)",
"patriarchal",
"Gabon",
"swamp forest",
"hunting",
"Sierra Leone",
"Mahale Mountains National Park",
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"red colobus",
"Hominidae",
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"ape",
"David Premack",
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"endangered",
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"Central African Republic",
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"Copulation (zoology)",
"George Washington University",
"Inbreeding avoidance"
] |
7,845 |
Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
|
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) is an inherited neurological disorder that affects the peripheral nerves responsible for transmitting signals between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body.
This is the most common inherited neuropathy that can cause various sensory and motor symptoms, including numbness, tingling, weakness and muscle atrophy, pain, and progressive foot deformities over time. In some cases, CMT also affects nerves controlling automatic bodily functions like sweating and balance. Symptoms typically start in the feet and legs before spreading to the hands and arms. While some individuals may experience minimal symptoms, others may face significant physical limitations. Currently, there is no cure for CMT; however, treatments such as physical therapy, orthopedic devices, surgery, and medications can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.
CMT is caused by mutations in over 100 different genes, which disrupt the function of nerve cells' axons (responsible for transmitting signals) and their myelin sheaths (which insulate and accelerate signal transmission). When these components are damaged, nerve signal transmission slows down or becomes impaired, leading to problems with muscle control and sensory feedback. The condition was first identified in 1886 by Doctors Jean-Martin Charcot and Pierre Marie of France and Howard Henry Tooth of the United Kingdom.
== Signs and symptoms ==
The symptoms of CMT often appear in childhood and adolescence, but in some cases, they may not develop until adulthood. The severity and progression of symptoms can vary widely between individuals even among members of the same family. as can difficulty chewing, swallowing, and speaking (due to atrophy of vocal cords). A tremor can develop as muscles waste. Pregnancy has been known to exacerbate CMT, as well as severe emotional stress. Patients with CMT must avoid periods of prolonged immobility, such as when recovering from a secondary injury, as prolonged periods of limited mobility can drastically accelerate symptoms of CMT.
Pain is a common symptom experienced by individuals with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, often resulting from postural abnormalities, skeletal deformities, muscle fatigue, and cramping. This pain can typically be managed through a combination of physical therapy, orthopedic interventions, and the use of corrective or assistive devices. In cases where these approaches do not provide sufficient relief, analgesic medications may be necessary to alleviate discomfort and improve quality of life.
Although the disease is typically slowly progressive and not life-threatening, the degree of disability can vary. Some people may live relatively normal lives with mild symptoms, while others may require orthopedic supports, physical therapy, or even surgery to manage complications.
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A) can also include mild enlargement or hypertrophy of leg muscles, particularly the calves, alongside typical symptoms of distal muscle weakness and atrophy. However, this muscle enlargement typically represents pseudohypertrophy due to fatty tissue infiltration rather than actual muscle growth.
This hypertrophic type of CMT is not caused by the muscles enlarging directly, but by pseudohypertrophy of the legs as fatty tissue enters the leg muscles.
== Causes and Genetics ==
Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease is an inherited neurological disorder primarily caused by genetic mutations that disrupt critical proteins within peripheral nerves. These mutations predominantly affect proteins essential for the structure and function of the myelin sheath, including peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22), myelin protein zero (P0/MPZ), connexin32 (Cx32/GJB1), and periaxin (PRX), leading to demyelination. Additionally, mutations in proteins involved in axonal integrity, such as neurofilament light chain (NF-L), dynamin 2 (DNM2), ganglioside-induced differentiation-associated protein 1 (GDAP1), and mitofusin 2 (MFN2), can cause axonal forms of CMT. Due to the close interaction between Schwann cells (which produce myelin) and axons, mutations affecting Schwann cells often result in secondary axonal degeneration, further complicating disease progression. Ultimately, the pathogenesis of CMT involves the disruption of essential cellular processes, including protein synthesis, sorting, intracellular transport, protein degradation, and mitochondrial function, highlighting the complex molecular mechanisms underlying this disorder.
In some forms like X-linked CMT (CMTX), mutations in the GJB1 gene lead to dysfunction in gap junctions within Schwann cells, further impairing nerve signal transmission.
== Classification ==
Charcot–Marie–Tooth (CMT) disease is a genetically heterogeneous disorder, meaning that it can be caused by mutations in many different genes.
To date, dozens of genes have been linked to various forms of CMT, reflecting the complexity of its molecular basis. As a result, CMT is classified into several major types, such as CMT1, CMT2, CMT4, CMTX, and intermediate forms, based on the pattern of inheritance and whether the primary defect affects the myelin sheath or the axon. CMT1 involves demyelination and is most caused by duplication of the PMP22 gene, while CMT2 is primarily axonal and frequently linked to mutations in genes such as MFN2 or NEFL. X-linked and autosomal recessive forms, like CMTX and CMT4, are also recognized and often associated with more severe or early-onset symptoms.
Each type is further divided into subtypes, defined by the specific gene that is mutated. This genetic classification helps guide diagnosis, prognosis, and, potentially, the development of targeted therapies
CMT2D is one of more than 31 recognized subtypes of Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease type 2 (CMT2) and is diagnosed when both motor and sensory deficits are present—such as loss of sensation caused by degeneration of sensory axons. In cases where only motor symptoms are observed without sensory involvement, the condition is classified as distal hereditary motor neuropathy type V (dHMN-V). The reason behind the variability in sensory involvement among patients with GARS1-related neuropathy remains unclear.
Symptoms of CMT2D typically include muscle weakness, loss of sensation, reduced reflexes, and muscle atrophy, which are similar to those seen in both CMT1 and other CMT2 variants. The severity and combination of symptoms vary widely among patients, particularly regarding the extent of sensory involvement. and is thought to be caused by aberrant gain-of-function missense mutations.
Many different mutations have been found in CMT2D patients, and how mutations in GARS1 cause CMT2D remains unclear. However, mutant glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS) is thought to interfere with transmembrane receptors, causing motor disease, and that mutations in the gene could disrupt the ability of GlyRS to interact with its cognate RNA, disrupting protein production. The GARS1 mutations present in CMT2D cause a deficient amount of glycyl-tRNA in cells, preventing the elongation phase of protein synthesis. Elongation is a key step in protein production, so when a deficiency of glycyl-tRNA exists, protein synthesis is unable to continue at glycine sites. GARS1 mutations also stall initiation of translation due to a stress response that is induced by glycine addition failure. By stalling elongation and initiation of translation, CMT2D mutations in GARS1 cause translational repression, meaning that overall translation is inhibited.
GARS1-associated axonal neuropathy is a progressive condition that deteriorates over time. Although the precise mechanisms driving the chronic neurodegeneration caused by mutant glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS) remain unclear, one proposed theory involves disrupted vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling. The mutant GlyRS aberrantly interacts with neuronal transmembrane receptors, such as neuropilin 1 (Nrp1) and VEGF receptors, interfering with normal signaling pathways and contributing to the development of neuropathy.The mutation can appear in the GJB1 gene coding for the connexin 32 protein, a gap junction protein expressed in Schwann cells. Because this protein is also present in oligodendrocytes, demyelination can appear in the CNS as well.
Schwann cells create the myelin sheath by wrapping their plasma membranes around the axon.
Demyelinating Schwann cells cause abnormal axon structure and function. They may cause axon degeneration, or they may simply cause axons to malfunction.
==Diagnosis==
Charcot–Marie–Tooth (CMT) disease can be diagnosed using a combination of three primary methods: nerve conduction studies, nerve biopsy, and genetic testing. Nerve conduction studies assess the velocity of electrical impulses traveling through nerves, whereas nerve biopsy entails the examination of small samples of nerve tissue. Genetic testing can conclusively diagnose CMT by identifying specific mutations linked to the condition. however, but not all the genetic markers for CMT are known. Initial signs of CMT often include lower leg weakness, such as foot drop, and foot deformities like high arches or hammertoes. However, these symptoms alone do not provide enough information for a diagnosis. Individuals showing signs of CMT should be referred to a neurologist or rehabilitation medicine specialist for further evaluation and treatment.During a physical examination, the physician may assess muscle strength such as asking the patient to walk on their heels or resist applied pressure on their legs and check for sensory loss and reduced deep-tendon reflexes, such as the knee-jerk response. A detailed family history is also important, as CMT is an inherited condition. While the absence of a family history does not rule out CMT, it can help the physician distinguish it from other causes of neuropathy, such as diabetes, toxin exposure, or certain medications.
== Treatment and Management ==
There is no cure for CMT, but its symptoms can be managed to maintain quality of life. Physical and occupational therapy can help preserve muscle strength, flexibility, and mobility
Orthopedic devices like ankle-foot orthoses (AFOs) are commonly used to correct foot drop and improve gait. In some cases, surgical interventions may be necessary to straighten toes, lower arches, or fuse joints to enhance stability. Pain management may involve physical therapy, assistive devices, or medications for neuropathic pain. Patients are advised to avoid prolonged immobility, which can accelerate disease progression. Certain drugs, such as vincristine (a chemotherapy agent), should be avoided altogether in CMT patients due to their known toxicity to nerves. Regular follow-up with healthcare providers is essential to adapt care as the disease progresses.
== History ==
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease was first discovered in 1886 by three scientists: the Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), and his assistant Pierre Marie (1853–1940), In their original publication, titled “Concerning a Special Form of Progressive Muscular Atrophy,” Charcot and Marie acknowledged that similar cases had been previously published in medical literature
Their findings described hereditary neuropathy, marked by gradual muscle wasting and diminished sensation in the extremities.This crucial discovery helped establish CMT as a distinct clinical entity, differentiating it from other neuromuscular conditions such as muscular dystrophies. Over the years, advancements in neurogenetics have led to the identification of various genetic mutations responsible for the disease, significantly enhancing our understanding of its pathogenesis and classification.
Charcot also noted that prior descriptions of the disease were neither objective nor thorough. Most of the earlier accounts merely mentioned that CMT was hereditary. As a result, Charcot felt it was essential to provide a comprehensive description of the disease, ensuring that it received the attention it deserved.
|
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"action potential",
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"pes cavus",
"Acetabulum",
"connexin 32"
] |
7,846 |
Central pontine myelinolysis
|
Central pontine myelinolysis is a neurological condition involving severe damage to the myelin sheath of nerve cells in the pons (an area of the brainstem). It is predominately iatrogenic (treatment-induced), and is characterized by acute paralysis, dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), dysarthria (difficulty speaking), and other neurological symptoms.
Central pontine myelinolysis was first described as a disorder in 1959. The original paper described four cases with fatal outcomes, and the findings on autopsy. The disease was described as a disease of alcoholics and malnutrition.
Since this original description, demyelination in other areas of the central nervous system associated with osmotic stress has been described outside the pons (extrapontine). Osmotic demyelination syndrome is the term used for both central pontine myelinolysis and extrapontine myelinolysis.
Central pontine myelinolysis, and osmotic demyelination syndrome, present most commonly as a complication of treatment of patients with profound hyponatremia (low sodium), which can result from a varied spectrum of conditions, based on different mechanisms. It occurs as a consequence of a rapid rise in serum tonicity following treatment in individuals with chronic, severe hyponatremia who have made intracellular adaptations to the prevailing hypotonicity.
==Signs and symptoms==
Symptoms depend on the regions of the brain involved. Prior to its onset, patients may present with the neurological signs and symptoms of hyponatraemic encephalopathy such as nausea and vomiting, confusion, headache and seizures. These symptoms may resolve with normalisation of the serum sodium concentration. Three to five days later, a second phase of neurological manifestations occurs correlating with the onset of myelinolysis. Observable immediate precursors may include seizures, disturbed consciousness, gait changes, and decrease or cessation of respiratory function.
The classical clinical presentation is the progressive development of spastic quadriparesis, pseudobulbar palsy, and emotional lability (pseudobulbar affect), with other more variable neurological features associated with brainstem damage. These result from a rapid myelinolysis of the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts in the brainstem.
In about ten per cent of people with central pontine myelinolysis, extrapontine myelinolysis is also found. In these cases symptoms of Parkinson's disease may be generated. Apart from rapid correction of hyponatraemia, there are case reports of central pontine myelinolysis in association with hypokalaemia, anorexia nervosa when feeding is started, patients undergoing dialysis and burn victims. There is a case report of central pontine myelinolysis occurring in the context of refeeding syndrome, in the absence of hyponatremia. In these instances, occurrence may be entirely unrelated to hyponatremia or rapid correction of hyponatremia. It could affect patients who take some prescription medicines that are able to cross the blood-brain barrier and cause abnormal thirst reception - in this scenario the central pontine myelinolysis is caused by polydipsia leading to low blood sodium levels (hyponatremia).
In schizophrenic patients with psychogenic polydipsia, inadequate thirst reception leads to excessive water intake, severely diluting serum sodium. With this excessive thirst combined with psychotic symptoms, brain damage such as central pontine myelinolysis may result from hyperosmolarity caused by excess intake of fluids, (primary polydipsia) although this is difficult to determine because such patients are often institutionalised and have a long history of mental health conditions.
It has been observed following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
Central pontine myelinolysis may also occur in patients prone to hyponatremia affected by:
Severe liver disease (e.g., cirrhosis)
Liver transplant
Alcoholism
Hypokalemia
People with serum sodium <105 mEq/L
Severe burns
Malnutrition
Anorexia nervosa
Severe electrolyte disorders
HIV/AIDS
hyperemesis gravidarum
Hyponatremia due to peritoneal dialysis
Wernicke encephalopathy
==Pathophysiology==
The currently accepted theory states that the brain cells adjust their osmolarities by changing levels of certain osmolytes like inositol, betaine, and glutamine in response to varying serum osmolality. In the context of chronic low plasma sodium (hyponatremia), the brain compensates by decreasing the levels of these osmolytes within the cells, so that they can remain relatively isotonic with their surroundings and not absorb too much fluid. The reverse is true in hypernatremia, in which the cells increase their intracellular osmolytes so as not to lose too much fluid to the extracellular space.
With correction of the hyponatremia with intravenous fluids, the extracellular tonicity increases, followed by an increase in intracellular tonicity. When the correction is too rapid, not enough time is allowed for the brain's cells to adjust to the new tonicity, namely by increasing the intracellular osmoles mentioned earlier. If the serum sodium levels rise too rapidly, the increased extracellular tonicity will continue to drive water out of the brain's cells. This can lead to cellular dysfunction and central pontine myelinolysis.
==Diagnosis==
It can be diagnosed clinically in the appropriate context, but may be difficult to confirm radiologically using conventional imaging techniques. Changes are more prominent on MRI than on CT, but often take days or weeks after acute symptom onset to develop. Imaging by MRI typically demonstrates areas of hyperintensity on T2-weighted images.
==Treatment==
To minimise the risk of this condition developing from its most common cause, overly rapid reversal of hyponatremia, the hyponatremia should be corrected at a rate not exceeding 10 mmol/L/24 h or 0.5 mEq/L/h; or 18 mEq/L/48hrs; thus avoiding demyelination.
Once osmotic demyelination has begun, there is no cure or specific treatment. Care is mainly supportive. Alcoholics are usually given vitamins to correct for other deficiencies. The favourable factors contributing to the good outcome in central pontine myelinolysis without hyponatremia were: concurrent treatment of all electrolyte disturbances, early intensive care unit involvement at the advent of respiratory complications, early introduction of feeding including thiamine supplements with close monitoring of the electrolyte changes and input. Animal studies suggest that inositol reduces the severity of osmotic demyelination syndrome if given before attempting to correct chronic hyponatraemia. Further study is required before using inositol in humans for this purpose.
==Prognosis==
Though traditionally the prognosis is considered poor, a good functional recovery is possible. All patients at risk of developing refeeding syndrome should have their electrolytes closely monitored, including sodium, potassium, magnesium, glucose and phosphate. despite severe initial clinical manifestations and a tendency by the intensivists to underestimate a possible favorable evolution.
While some patients die, most survive and of the survivors, approximately one-third recover; one-third are disabled but are able to live independently; one-third are severely disabled. Permanent disabilities range from minor tremors and ataxia to signs of severe brain damage, such as spastic quadriparesis and locked-in syndrome. Some improvements may be seen over the course of the first several months after the condition stabilizes.
The degree of recovery depends on the extent of the original axonal damage.
|
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"primary polydipsia",
"inositol",
"Blood–brain barrier",
"hyponatraemia",
"pons",
"pseudobulbar palsy",
"polydipsia",
"globus pallidus",
"betaine",
"neuron",
"alcoholism",
"Schizophrenia",
"glutamine",
"hyperemesis gravidarum",
"pseudobulbar affect",
"hematopoietic stem cell transplantation",
"HIV/AIDS",
"myelin sheath",
"Malnutrition",
"Anorexia nervosa",
"quadriparesis",
"iatrogenic",
"Primary polydipsia",
"dysarthria",
"Hypokalemia",
"Osmotic concentration",
"malnutrition",
"cirrhosis",
"Magnetic resonance imaging",
"hyponatremia",
"sodium",
"intravenous fluids",
"serum (blood)",
"Wernicke encephalopathy",
"refeeding syndrome",
"corticobulbar",
"alcoholics",
"osmolarity",
"Chronic (medicine)",
"Alcohol use disorder",
"Alcoholism",
"institutionalised",
"ataxia",
"putamen",
"tonicity",
"Neurology",
"corticospinal",
"dysphagia",
"locked-in syndrome",
"Parkinson's disease",
"peritoneal dialysis",
"spastic quadriparesis"
] |
7,849 |
Crystallographic defect
|
A crystallographic defect is an interruption of the regular patterns of arrangement of atoms or molecules in crystalline solids. The positions and orientations of particles, which are repeating at fixed distances determined by the unit cell parameters in crystals, exhibit a periodic crystal structure, but this is usually imperfect. Several types of defects are often characterized: point defects, line defects, planar defects, bulk defects. Topological homotopy establishes a mathematical method of characterization.
==Point defects==
Point defects are defects that occur only at or around a single lattice point. They are not extended in space in any dimension. Strict limits for how small a point defect is are generally not defined explicitly. However, these defects typically involve at most a few extra or missing atoms. Larger defects in an ordered structure are usually considered dislocation loops. For historical reasons, many point defects, especially in ionic crystals, are called centers: for example a vacancy in many ionic solids is called a luminescence center, a color center, or F-center. These dislocations permit ionic transport through crystals leading to electrochemical reactions. These are frequently specified using Kröger–Vink notation.
Vacancy defects are lattice sites which would be occupied in a perfect crystal, but are vacant. If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom. The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy. In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy, because they experience attraction from atoms in the surroundings. A vacancy (or pair of vacancies in an ionic solid) is sometimes called a Schottky defect.
Interstitial defects are atoms that occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is usually not an atom. They are generally high energy configurations. Small atoms (mostly impurities) in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as hydrogen in palladium.
A nearby pair of a vacancy and an interstitial is often called a Frenkel defect or Frenkel pair. This is caused when an ion moves into an interstitial site and creates a vacancy.
Due to fundamental limitations of material purification methods, materials are never 100% pure, which by definition induces defects in crystal structure. In the case of an impurity, the atom is often incorporated at a regular atomic site in the crystal structure. This is neither a vacant site nor is the atom on an interstitial site and it is called a substitutional defect. The atom is not supposed to be anywhere in the crystal, and is thus an impurity. In some cases where the radius of the substitutional atom (ion) is substantially smaller than that of the atom (ion) it is replacing, its equilibrium position can be shifted away from the lattice site. These types of substitutional defects are often referred to as off-center ions. There are two different types of substitutional defects: Isovalent substitution and aliovalent substitution. Isovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of the same oxidation state as the ion it is replacing. Aliovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of a different oxidation state than the ion it is replacing. Aliovalent substitutions change the overall charge within the ionic compound, but the ionic compound must be neutral. Therefore, a charge compensation mechanism is required. Hence either one of the metals is partially or fully oxidised or reduced, or ion vacancies are created.
Antisite defects occur in an ordered alloy or compound when atoms of different type exchange positions. For example, some alloys have a regular structure in which every other atom is a different species; for illustration assume that type A atoms sit on the corners of a cubic lattice, and type B atoms sit in the center of the cubes. If one cube has an A atom at its center, the atom is on a site usually occupied by a B atom, and is thus an antisite defect. This is neither a vacancy nor an interstitial, nor an impurity.
Topological defects are regions in a crystal where the normal chemical bonding environment is topologically different from the surroundings. For instance, in a perfect sheet of graphite (graphene) all atoms are in rings containing six atoms. If the sheet contains regions where the number of atoms in a ring is different from six, while the total number of atoms remains the same, a topological defect has formed. An example is the Stone Wales defect in nanotubes, which consists of two adjacent 5-membered and two 7-membered atom rings.
Amorphous solids may contain defects. These are naturally somewhat hard to define, but sometimes their nature can be quite easily understood. For instance, in ideally bonded amorphous silica all Si atoms have 4 bonds to O atoms and all O atoms have 2 bonds to Si atom. Thus e.g. an O atom with only one Si bond (a dangling bond) can be considered a defect in silica. Moreover, defects can also be defined in amorphous solids based on empty or densely packed local atomic neighbourhoods, and the properties of such 'defects' can be shown to be similar to normal vacancies and interstitials in crystals.
Complexes can form between different kinds of point defects. For example, if a vacancy encounters an impurity, the two may bind together if the impurity is too large for the lattice. Interstitials can form 'split interstitial' or 'dumbbell' structures where two atoms effectively share an atomic site, resulting in neither atom actually occupying the site.
==Line defects==
Line defects can be described by gauge theories.
Dislocations are linear defects, around which the atoms of the crystal lattice are misaligned.
There are two basic types of dislocations, the edge dislocation and the screw dislocation. "Mixed" dislocations, combining aspects of both types, are also common.
Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.
The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice.
The presence of dislocation results in lattice strain (distortion). The direction and magnitude of such distortion is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector (b). For an edge type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the screw type it is parallel. In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed crystallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one interatomic spacing.
Dislocations can move if the atoms from one of the surrounding planes break their bonds and rebond with the atoms at the terminating edge.
It is the presence of dislocations and their ability to readily move (and interact) under the influence of stresses induced by external loads that leads to the characteristic malleability of metallic materials.
Dislocations can be observed using transmission electron microscopy, field ion microscopy and atom probe techniques.
Deep-level transient spectroscopy has been used for studying the electrical activity of dislocations in semiconductors, mainly silicon.
Disclinations are line defects corresponding to "adding" or "subtracting" an angle around a line. Basically, this means that if you track the crystal orientation around the line defect, you get a rotation. Usually, they were thought to play a role only in liquid crystals, but recent developments suggest that they might have a role also in solid materials, e.g. leading to the self-healing of cracks.
==Planar defects==
Grain boundaries occur where the crystallographic direction of the lattice abruptly changes. This usually occurs when two crystals begin growing separately and then meet.
Antiphase boundaries occur in ordered alloys: in this case, the crystallographic direction remains the same, but each side of the boundary has an opposite phase: For example, if the ordering is usually ABABABAB (hexagonal close-packed crystal), an antiphase boundary takes the form of ABABBABA.
Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but the common example is in close-packed structures. They are formed by a local deviation of the stacking sequence of layers in a crystal. An example would be the ABABCABAB stacking sequence.
A twin boundary is a defect that introduces a plane of mirror symmetry in the ordering of a crystal. For example, in cubic close-packed crystals, the stacking sequence of a twin boundary would be ABCABCBACBA.
On planes of single crystals, steps between atomically flat terraces can also be regarded as planar defects. It has been shown that such defects and their geometry have significant influence on the adsorption of organic molecules
==Bulk defects==
Three-dimensional macroscopic or bulk defects, such as pores, cracks, or inclusions
Voids — small regions where there are no atoms, and which can be thought of as clusters of vacancies
Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase. These are often called precipitates.
==Mathematical classification methods==
A successful mathematical classification method for physical lattice defects, which works not only with the theory of dislocations and other defects in crystals but also, e.g., for disclinations in liquid crystals and for excitations in superfluid 3He, is the topological homotopy theory.
==Computer simulation methods==
Density functional theory, classical molecular dynamics and kinetic Monte Carlo
simulations are widely used to study the properties of defects in solids with computer simulations.
Simulating jamming of hard spheres of different sizes and/or in containers with non-commeasurable sizes using the Lubachevsky–Stillinger algorithm
can be an effective technique for demonstrating some types of crystallographic defects.
|
[
"molecular dynamics",
"atom probe",
"Stone Wales defect",
"silicon",
"Vacancy defect",
"precipitate",
"off-center ions",
"Anti-phase domain",
"Interstitial defect",
"single crystal",
"Bjerrum defect",
"F-center",
"Amorphous",
"hexagonal close-packed",
"Hagen Kleinert",
"Frenkel defect",
"Hermann Schmalzried",
"twin boundary",
"Disclination",
"Crystal",
"dangling bond",
"Crystal structure",
"kinetic Monte Carlo",
"molybdenum disulfide",
"disclination",
"Stacking fault",
"transmission electron microscopy",
"graphene",
"palladium",
"molecule",
"malleability",
"interstitial site",
"hydrogen",
"Density functional theory",
"Close-packing",
"Crystallographic defects in diamond",
"cubic close-packed",
"Fracture",
"Lubachevsky–Stillinger algorithm",
"Deep-level transient spectroscopy",
"field ion microscopy",
"Semiconductor",
"crystal structure",
"Dislocation",
"dislocation",
"atom",
"homotopy",
"Kröger–Vink notation",
"Grain boundary",
"Schottky defect",
"silica",
"Burgers vector"
] |
7,850 |
Chomsky normal form
|
In formal language theory, a context-free grammar, G, is said to be in Chomsky normal form (first described by Noam Chomsky) if all of its production rules are of the form:
A → BC, or
A → a, or
S → ε,
where A, B, and C are nonterminal symbols, the letter a is a terminal symbol (a symbol that represents a constant value), S is the start symbol, and ε denotes the empty string. Also, neither B nor C may be the start symbol, and the third production rule can only appear if ε is in L(G), the language produced by the context-free grammar G.
Every grammar in Chomsky normal form is context-free, and conversely, every context-free grammar can be transformed into an equivalent one which is in Chomsky normal form and has a size no larger than the square of the original grammar's size.
==Converting a grammar to Chomsky normal form==
To convert a grammar to Chomsky normal form, a sequence of simple transformations is applied in a certain order; this is described in most textbooks on automata theory.
The presentation here follows Hopcroft, Ullman (1979), but is adapted to use the transformation names from Lange, Leiß (2009). Each of the following transformations establishes one of the properties required for Chomsky normal form.
===START: Eliminate the start symbol from right-hand sides===
Introduce a new start symbol S0, and a new rule
S0 → S,
where S is the previous start symbol.
This does not change the grammar's produced language, and S0 will not occur on any rule's right-hand side.
===TERM: Eliminate rules with nonsolitary terminals===
To eliminate each rule
A → X1 ... a ... Xn
with a terminal symbol a being not the only symbol on the right-hand side, introduce, for every such terminal, a new nonterminal symbol Na, and a new rule
Na → a.
Change every rule
A → X1 ... a ... Xn
to
A → X1 ... Na ... Xn.
If several terminal symbols occur on the right-hand side, simultaneously replace each of them by its associated nonterminal symbol.
This does not change the grammar's produced language.
S0 → b | b | b | b | C
B → ' | ' | | ε | C | C
C → b | c
A → a | ε
In this grammar, all ε-rules have been "inlined at the call site".
In the next step, they can hence be deleted, yielding the grammar:
S0 → AbB | Ab | bB | b | C
B → AA | A | AC | C
C → b | c
A → a
This grammar produces the same language as the original example grammar, viz. {ab,aba,abaa,abab,abac,abb,abc,b,ba,baa,bab,bac,bb,bc,c}, but has no ε-rules.
===UNIT: Eliminate unit rules===
A unit rule is a rule of the form
A → B,
where A, B are nonterminal symbols.
To remove it, for each rule
B → X1 ... Xn,
where X1 ... Xn is a string of nonterminals and terminals, add rule
A → X1 ... Xn
unless this is a unit rule which has already been (or is being) removed. The skipping of nonterminal symbol B in the resulting grammar is possible due to B being a member of the unit closure of nonterminal symbol A.
===Order of transformations===
When choosing the order in which the above transformations are to be applied, it has to be considered that some transformations may destroy the result achieved by other ones. For example, START will re-introduce a unit rule if it is applied after UNIT. The table shows which orderings are admitted.
Moreover, the worst-case bloat in grammar size depends on the transformation order. Using |G| to denote the size of the original grammar G, the size blow-up in the worst case may range from |G|2 to 22 |G|, depending on the transformation algorithm used. to define the Chomsky normal form is:
A formal grammar is in Chomsky reduced form if all of its production rules are of the form:
A \rightarrow\, BC or
A \rightarrow\, a,
where A, B and C are nonterminal symbols, and a is a terminal symbol. When using this definition, B or C may be the start symbol. Only those context-free grammars which do not generate the empty string can be transformed into Chomsky reduced form.
=== Floyd normal form ===
In a letter where he proposed a term Backus–Naur form (BNF), Donald E. Knuth implied a BNF "syntax in which all definitions have such a form may be said to be in 'Floyd Normal Form'",
\langle A \rangle ::= \, \langle B \rangle \mid \langle C \rangle or
\langle A \rangle ::= \, \langle B \rangle \langle C \rangle or
\langle A \rangle ::=\, a,
where \langle A \rangle, \langle B \rangle and \langle C \rangle are nonterminal symbols, and a is a terminal symbol,
because Robert W. Floyd found any BNF syntax can be converted to the above one in 1961. But he withdrew this term, "since doubtless many people have independently used this simple fact in their own work, and the point is only incidental to the main considerations of Floyd's note." While Floyd's note cites Chomsky's original 1959 article, Knuth's letter does not.
== Application ==
Besides its theoretical significance, CNF conversion is used in some algorithms as a preprocessing step, e.g., the CYK algorithm, a bottom-up parsing for context-free grammars, and its variant probabilistic CKY.
|
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"Start symbol (formal languages)",
"Greibach normal form",
"Noam Chomsky",
"expression (mathematics)",
"production (computer science)",
"automata theory",
"Donald E. Knuth",
"Equivalence (formal languages)",
"inlining",
"Robert W. Floyd",
"CYK algorithm",
"formal language",
"C (programming language)",
"context-free grammar",
"Context free grammar",
"Pumping lemma for context-free languages",
"compiler front-end",
"Kuroda normal form",
"terminal symbol",
"bottom-up parsing",
"exponentiation",
"parser",
"formal grammar",
"Backus–Naur form",
"nonterminal symbol",
"Algol60",
"empty string"
] |
7,851 |
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
|
The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force, as nine specific nations have not ratified the treaty.
==History==
=== Background ===
The movement for international control of nuclear weapons began in 1945, with a call from Canada and the United Kingdom for a conference on the subject. In June 1946, Bernard Baruch, an emissary of President Harry S. Truman, proposed the Baruch Plan before the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, which called for an international system of controls on the production of atomic energy. The plan, which would serve as the basis for U.S. nuclear policy into the 1950s, was rejected by the Soviet Union as a US ploy to cement its nuclear dominance.
Between the Trinity nuclear test of 16 July 1945 and the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) on 5 August 1963, 499 nuclear tests were conducted. Much of the impetus for the PTBT, the precursor to the CTBT, was rising public concern surrounding the size and resulting nuclear fallout from underwater and atmospheric nuclear tests, particularly tests of powerful thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs). The Castle Bravo test of 1 March 1954, in particular, attracted significant attention as the detonation resulted in fallout that spread over inhabited areas and sickened a group of Japanese fishermen. Between 1945 and 1963, the US conducted 215 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 219, the UK conducted 21, and France conducted 4.
In 1954, following the Castle Bravo test, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India issued the first appeal for a "standstill agreement" on testing, which was soon echoed by the British Labour Party. Negotiations on a comprehensive test ban, primarily involving the US, UK, and the Soviet Union, began in 1955 following a proposal by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Of primary concern throughout the negotiations, which would stretch—with some interruptions—to July 1963, was the system of verifying compliance with the test ban and detecting illicit tests. On the Western side, there were concerns that the Soviet Union would be able to circumvent any test ban and secretly leap ahead in the nuclear arms race. These fears were amplified following the US Rainier shot of 19 September 1957, which was the first contained underground test of a nuclear weapon. Though the US held a significant advantage in underground testing capabilities, there was worry that the Soviet Union would be able to covertly conduct underground tests during a test ban, as underground detonations were more challenging to detect than above-ground tests. On the Soviet side, conversely, the on-site compliance inspections demanded by the US and UK were seen as amounting to espionage. Disagreement over verification would lead to the Anglo-American and Soviet negotiators abandoning a comprehensive test ban (i.e., a ban on all tests, including those underground) in favor of a partial ban, which would be finalized on 25 July 1963. The PTBT, joined by 123 states following the original three parties, banned detonations for military and civilian purposes underwater, in the atmosphere, and outer space.
The PTBT had mixed results. On the one hand, enactment of the treaty was followed by a substantial drop in the atmospheric concentration of radioactive particles. On the other hand, nuclear proliferation was not halted entirely (though it may have been slowed) and nuclear testing continued at a rapid clip. Compared to the 499 tests from 1945 to the signing of the PTBT, 436 tests were conducted over the ten years following the PTBT. Furthermore, US and Soviet underground testing continued "venting" radioactive gas into the atmosphere. Additionally, though underground testing was generally safer than above-ground testing, underground tests continued to risk the leaking of radionuclides, including plutonium, into the ground. From 1964 through 1996, the year of the CTBT's adoption, an estimated 1,377 underground nuclear tests were conducted. The final non-underground (atmospheric or underwater) test was conducted by China in 1980.
The PTBT has been seen as a step towards the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, which directly referenced the PTBT. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, and acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament. However, India, Pakistan, and Israel have declined to sign the NPT on the grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory as it places limitations on states that do not have nuclear weapons while making no efforts to curb weapons development by declared nuclear weapons states.
=== A comprehensive ban ===
In 1974, a step towards a comprehensive test ban was made with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), ratified by the US and Soviet Union, which banned underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons. In April 1976, the two states reached agreement on the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (PNET), which concerns nuclear detonations outside the weapons sites discussed in the TTBT. As in the TTBT, the US and Soviet Union agreed to bar peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs) at these other locations with yields above 150 kilotons, as well as group explosions with total yields over 1,500 kilotons. To verify compliance, the PNET requires that states rely on national technical means of verification, share information on explosions, and grant on-site access to counterparties. The TTBT and PNET entered into force on 11 December 1990.
In October 1977, the US, UK, and Soviet Union returned to negotiations over a test ban. These three nuclear powers made notable progress in the late 1970s, agreeing to terms on a ban on all testing, including a temporary prohibition on PNEs, but continued disagreements over the compliance mechanisms led to an end to negotiations ahead of Ronald Reagan's inauguration as president in 1981.
Partially pressured by the protests causing the shutdown of the Semipalatinsk Test Site, in October 1991, the Soviet Union announced another unilateral testing moratorium. Three days before its expiration, George H. W. Bush signed into law a reciprocal testing moratorium. President Bill Clinton later repeatedly extended this until the 1996 Treaty signature opening.
The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996. It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996.
In the aftermath, and leadup to the 2000 United States presidential election, Republican candidates such as George W. Bush and John McCain voiced their opposition to the CTBT, but support for the testing moratorium. Following Bush's election victory, there was speculation testing would resume, pointing to the CTBT's "supreme national interest" provision where nations may withdraw if they feel their security is threatened by deteriorating warheads.
In October 2023, Russian president Vladimir Putin stated that since the United States had not ratified the CTBT, consideration could be given to withdrawing Russia's ratification of the treaty. Later in the month, a law revoking ratification of the CTBT was passed by the Russian parliament. On 2 November, Putin officially signed into law the withdrawal of ratification of the treaty.
==Negotiations==
Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until the end of the Cold War in 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests. With strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993.
===Adoption===
Extensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes. However, the Conference on Disarmament, in which negotiations were being held, did not succeed in reaching consensus on the adoption of the text. Under the direction of Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer, Australia then sent the text to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, where it was submitted as a draft resolution. On 10 September 1996, the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted by a large majority, exceeding two-thirds of the General Assembly's Membership.
===Obligations===
(Article I):
Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control.
Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion.
==Status==
The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996. when it was signed by 71 states, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states. , 178 states have ratified the CTBT and another nine states have signed but not ratified it.
The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT's negotiations between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time. , nine Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it; while Russia signed and ratified the treaty but subsequently withdrew its ratification prior to its entry into force.
==Monitoring==
Geophysical and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: forensic seismology, hydroacoustics, infrasound, and radionuclide monitoring. The first three forms of monitoring are known as wave-form measurements. Seismic monitoring is performed with a system of 50 primary stations located throughout the world, with 120 auxiliary stations in signatory states. Hydroacoustic monitoring is performed with a system of 11 stations that consist of hydrophone triads to monitor for underwater explosions. Hydroacoustic stations can use seismometers to measure T-waves from possible underwater explosions instead of hydrophones. The best measurement of hydroacoustic waves has been found to be at a depth of 1000 m. Infrasound monitoring relies on changes in atmospheric pressure caused by a possible nuclear explosion, with 41 stations certified as of August 2019. One of the biggest concerns with infrasound measurements is noise due to exposure from wind, which can affect the sensor's ability to measure if an event occurred. Together, these technologies are used to monitor the ground, water, and atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion.
Radionuclide monitoring takes the form of either monitoring for radioactive particulates or noble gases as a product of a nuclear explosion. Radioactive particles emit radiation that can be measured by any of the 80 stations located throughout the world. They are created from nuclear explosions that can collect onto the dust that is moved from the explosion. If a nuclear explosion took place underground, noble gas monitoring can be used to verify whether or not a possible nuclear explosion took place. Noble gas monitoring relies on measuring increases in radioactive xenon gas. Different isotopes of xenon include 131mXe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe. All four monitoring methods make up the International Monitoring System (IMS). Statistical theories and methods are integral to CTBT monitoring providing confidence in verification analysis. Once the Treaty enters into force, on-site inspections will be conducted where concerns about compliance arise.
The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in Vienna, Austria, was created to build the verification framework, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, the creation of an international data centre (IDC), and development of the on-site Inspection capability. The CTBTO is responsible for collecting information from the IMS and distribute the analyzed and raw data to member states to judge whether or not a nuclear explosion occurred through the IDC. Parameters such as determining the location where a nuclear explosion or test took place is one of the things that the IDC can accomplish. If a member state chooses to assert that another state had violated the CTBT, they can request an on-site inspection to take place to verify.
The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe. As of May 2012, more than 260 facilities have been certified. The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis. The data are sent to states that have signed the Treaty.
== Possible violations ==
=== Fission yields ===
In 2020, the United States alleged that Russia had, between 1996 and 2019, carried out an unspecified number of low-yield nuclear test in underground facilities. It also alleged that China's 2019 expansion of the Lop Nur test site would allow similar secret testing.
The United States also stated the 2019 Nyonoksa radiation accident and explosion in Russia involved a "nuclear reaction" i.e. a fission yield, which could be considered in violation of the Treaty despite not being an intentional test.
Extremely small fission yields are created during some National Ignition Facility experiments (see below).
=== Inertial confinement fusion ===
==== Laser-driven ====
There is a question surrounding whether the experiments of inertial confinement fusion facilities around the world, which initiate thermonuclear fusion in small deuterium-tritium pellets, qualify under the Treaty's total ban on the undertaking of all "nuclear explosions". John Nuckolls, the Livermore scientist credited as one of the pioneers of the field of ICF, himself described the fusion of less than one milligram of deuterium-tritium as an "explosion".
The American National Ignition Facility, the French Laser Mégajoule, and the Russian ISKRA-5, all have a dual-use, supporting scientific research for both peaceful purposes, and for the continual verification and maintenance of their countries' thermonuclear weapon stockpile.
In the 1990s, the Treaty, and especially the "zero-yield" non-criticality standard for weapons-related fission testing, was the impetus for the American Stockpile Stewardship and Management Program. Under this program, computational and experimental fusion research facilities were funded for weapon verification, including the magnetic confinement Z Pulsed Power Facility, and the inertial laser implosion OMEGA laser and the 1997 National Ignition Facility. In 1999 the US Department of Energy, in response to concern from Senator Tom Harkin, stated “NIF experiments are not considered nuclear explosions” and that “the large size of the facilities required to achieve inertial confinement fusion rules out weaponization”. In 1998, Princeton policy researchers published "The question of pure fusion explosions under the CTBT". They sought a ban on testing above 1014 neutrons, and on the use of tritium, which enhances the yield approximately twenty-fold versus deuterium-deuterium reactions, and forms the majority of the fusion yield in boosted and thermonuclear weapons. These were not adopted, and fusion yield has increased 11,000 times since then.
In 2022, the NIF achieved 3.15 MJ and for the first time an energy gain greater than one, equivalent to the chemical explosion of 752 grams of TNT, or three sticks of dynamite, and on a timescale of nanoseconds instead of a chemical explosive's milliseconds. This led to increased concern over the status of such experiments under the Treaty, and the development of pure fusion weapons. Experiments on fusion in hypervelocity projectiles dates back to 1980. This approach has been demonstrated commercially by the startup company First Light Fusion.
== Subsequent non-signatory nuclear tests ==
Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996, India, Pakistan, and North Korea, all non-signatories. India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998. North Korea carried out six announced tests, one each in 2006, 2009, 2013, two in 2016 and one in 2017. All six North Korean tests were picked up by the International Monitoring System set up by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission. A North Korean test is believed to have taken place in January 2016, evidenced by an "artificial earthquake" measured as a magnitude 5.1 by the U.S. Geological Survey. The first successful North Korean hydrogen bomb test supposedly took place in September 2017. It was estimated to have an explosive yield of 120 kilotons.
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] |
7,885 |
Dance
|
Dance is an art form, consisting of sequences of body movements with aesthetic and often symbolic value, either improvised or purposefully selected. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements or by its historical period or place of origin. Dance is typically performed with musical accompaniment, and sometimes with the dancer simultaneously using a musical instrument themselves.
There are two different types of dance: theatrical and participatory dance. Both types of dance may have special functions, whether social, ceremonial, competitive, erotic, martial, sacred or liturgical. Dance is not solely restricted to performance, as dance is used as a form of exercise and occasionally training for other sports and activities. Dance performances and dancing competitions are found across the world exhibiting various different styles and standards.
== Theatrical and participatory dance ==
Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle, usually a performance upon a stage by virtuoso dancers. It often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or it may interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed and performed in a theatre setting but it is not a requirement. Examples are Western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance such as Bharatanatyam, and Chinese and Japanese song and dance dramas, such as the dragon dance. Most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre.
Participatory dance, whether it be a folk dance, a social dance, a group dance such as a line, circle, chain or square dance, or a partner dance, such as in Western ballroom dancing, is undertaken primarily for a common purpose, such as social interaction or exercise, or building flexibility of participants rather than to serve any benefit to onlookers. Such dance seldom has any narrative. A group dance and a corps de ballet, a social partner dance and a pas de deux, differ profoundly. Even a solo dance or interpretive dance may be undertaken solely for the satisfaction of the dancer. Participatory dancers often all employ the same movements and steps but, for example, in the rave culture of electronic dance music, vast crowds may engage in free dance, uncoordinated with those around them. On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the particular dances people may or must participate.
== History ==
Archaeological evidence for early dance includes 10,000-years-old paintings in Madhya Pradesh, India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures, dated . It has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from one generation to the next. The use of dance in ecstatic trance states and healing rituals (as observed today in many contemporary indigenous cultures) is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance.
References to dance can be found in very early recorded history; Greek dance (choros) is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch and Lucian. The Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms. In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, and the earliest Chinese word for "dance" is found written in the oracle bones. Dance is described in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals.
During the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra (literally "the text of dramaturgy") is one early text. It mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture. A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and the Bollywood entertainment industry. Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, and ethnic dance.
== Music ==
Dance is generally, but not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music. Some dance (such as tap dance or gumboot dance) may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of (or in addition to) music. Many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together. Notable examples of traditional dance-music couplings include the jig, waltz, tango, disco, and salsa. Some musical genres have a parallel dance form such as baroque music and baroque dance; other varieties of dance and music may share nomenclature but developed separately, such as classical music and classical ballet. The choreography and music are meant to complement each other, to express a story told by the choreographer and dancers.
== Rhythm ==
Rhythm and dance are deeply linked in history and practice. The American dancer Ted Shawn wrote; "The conception of rhythm which underlies all studies of the dance is something about which we could talk forever, and still not finish." A musical rhythm requires two main elements; a regularly-repeating pulse (also called the "beat" or "tactus") that establishes the tempo, and a pattern of accents and rests that establishes the character of the metre or basic rhythmic pattern. The basic pulse is roughly equal in duration to a simple step or gesture.
Dances generally have a characteristic tempo and rhythmic pattern. The tango, for example, is usually danced in time at approximately 66 beats per minute. The basic slow step, called a "slow", lasts for one beat, so that a full "right–left" step is equal to one measure. The basic forward and backward walk of the dance is so counted – "slow-slow" – while many additional figures are counted "slow – quick-quick".
Repetitive body movements often depend on alternating "strong" and "weak" muscular movements. Given this alternation of left-right, of forward-backward and rise-fall, along with the bilateral symmetry of the human body, many dances and much music are in duple and quadruple meter. Since some such movements require more time in one phase than the other – such as the longer time required to lift a hammer than to strike – some dance rhythms fall into triple metre. Occasionally, as in the folk dances of the Balkans, dance traditions depend heavily on more complex rhythms. Complex dances composed of a fixed sequence of steps require phrases and melodies of a certain fixed length to accompany that sequence.
Musical accompaniment arose in the earliest dance, so that ancient Egyptians attributed the origin of the dance to the divine Athotus, who was said to have observed that music accompanying religious rituals caused participants to move rhythmically and to have brought these movements into proportional measure. The idea that dance arises from musical rhythm, was found in renaissance Europe, in the works of the dancer Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro. Pesaro speaks of dance as a physical movement that arises from and expresses inward, spiritual motion agreeing with the "measures and perfect concords of harmony" that fall upon the human ear, writes;
Thoinot Arbeau's celebrated 16th-century dance-treatise Orchésographie, indeed, begins with definitions of over eighty distinct drum-rhythms.
Dance has been represented through the ages as having emerged as a response to music yet, as Lincoln Kirstein implied, it is at least as likely that primitive music arose from dance. Shawn concurs, stating that dance "was the first art of the human race, and the matrix out of which all other arts grew" and that even the "metre in our poetry today is a result of the accents necessitated by body movement, as the dancing and reciting was performed simultaneously"
Hence, Shawn asserts, "it is quite possible to develop the dance without music and... music is perfectly capable of standing on its own feet without any assistance from the dance", nevertheless the "two arts will always be related and the relationship can be profitable both to the dance and to music", the precedence of one art over the other being a moot point. The common ballad measures of hymns and folk-songs takes their name from dance, as does the carol, originally a circle dance. Many purely musical pieces have been named "waltz" or "minuet", for example, while many concert dances have been produced that are based upon abstract musical pieces, such as 2 and 3 Part Inventions, Adams Violin Concerto and Andantino. Similarly, poems are often structured and named after dances or musical works, while dance and music have both drawn their conception of "measure" or "metre" from poetry.
Shawn quotes with approval the statement of Dalcroze that, while the art of musical rhythm consists in differentiating and combining time durations, pauses and accents "according to physiological law", that of "plastic rhythm" (i.e. dance) "is to designate movement in space, to interpret long time-values by slow movements and short ones by quick movements, regulate pauses by their divers successions and express sound accentuations in their multiple nuances by additions of bodily weight, by means of muscular innervations".
Shawn points out that the system of musical time is a "man-made, artificial thing.... a manufactured tool, whereas rhythm is something that has always existed and depends on man not at all", being "the continuous flowing time which our human minds cut up into convenient units", suggesting that music might be revivified by a return to the values and the time-perception of dancing.
The early-20th-century American dancer Helen Moller stated that "it is rhythm and form more than harmony and color which, from the beginning, has bound music, poetry and dancing together in a union that is indissoluble."
== Approaches ==
=== Theatrical ===
Concert dance, like opera, generally depends for its large-scale form upon a narrative dramatic structure. The movements and gestures of the choreography are primarily intended to mime the personality and aims of the characters and their part in the plot. Such theatrical requirements tend towards longer, freer movements than those usual in non-narrative dance styles. On the other hand, the ballet blanc, developed in the 19th century, allows interludes of rhythmic dance that developed into entirely "plotless" ballets in the 20th century and that allowed fast, rhythmic dance-steps such as those of the petit allegro. A well-known example is The Cygnets' Dance in act two of Swan Lake.
The ballet developed out of courtly dramatic productions of 16th- and 17th-century France and Italy and for some time dancers performed dances developed from those familiar from the musical suite, all of which were defined by definite rhythms closely identified with each dance. These appeared as character dances in the era of romantic nationalism.
Ballet reached widespread vogue in the romantic era, accompanied by a larger orchestra and grander musical conceptions that did not lend themselves easily to rhythmic clarity and by dance that emphasised dramatic mime. A broader concept of rhythm was needed, that which Rudolf Laban terms the "rhythm and shape" of movement that communicates character, emotion and intention, while only certain scenes required the exact synchronisation of step and music essential to other dance styles, so that, to Laban, modern Europeans seemed totally unable to grasp the meaning of "primitive rhythmic movements", a situation that began to change in the 20th century with such productions as Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring with its new rhythmic language evoking primal feelings of a primitive past.
Indian classical dance styles, like ballet, are often in dramatic form, so that there is a similar complementarity between narrative expression and "pure" dance. In this case, the two are separately defined, though not always separately performed. The rhythmic elements, which are abstract and technical, are known as nritta. Both this and expressive dance (nritya), though, are closely tied to the rhythmic system (tala). Teachers have adapted the spoken rhythmic mnemonic system called bol to the needs of dancers.
Japanese classical dance-theatre styles such as Kabuki and Noh, like Indian dance-drama, distinguish between narrative and abstract dance productions. The three main categories of kabuki are jidaimono (historical), sewamono (domestic) and shosagoto (dance pieces). Somewhat similarly, Noh distinguishes between Geki Noh, based around the advancement of plot and the narration of action, and Furyū Noh, dance pieces involving acrobatics, stage properties, multiple characters and elaborate stage action.
=== Participatory and Social ===
Social dances, those intended for participation rather than for an audience, may include various forms of mime and narrative, but are typically set much more closely to the rhythmic pattern of music, so that terms like waltz and polka refer as much to musical pieces as to the dance itself. The rhythm of the dancers' feet may even form an essential part of the music, as in tap dance. African dance, for example, is rooted in fixed basic steps, but may also allow a high degree of rhythmic interpretation: the feet or the trunk mark the basic pulse while cross-rhythms are picked up by shoulders, knees, or head, with the best dancers simultaneously giving plastic expression to all the elements of the polyrhythmic pattern.
== Cultural traditions ==
=== Africa ===
Dance in Africa is deeply integrated into society and major events in a community are frequently reflected in dances: dances are performed for births and funerals, weddings and wars. Traditional dances impart cultural morals, including religious traditions and sexual standards; give vent to repressed emotions, such as grief; motivate community members to cooperate, whether fighting wars or grinding grain; enact spiritual rituals; and contribute to social cohesiveness.
Thousands of dances are performed around the continent. These may be divided into traditional, neotraditional, and classical styles: folkloric dances of a particular society, dances created more recently in imitation of traditional styles, and dances transmitted more formally in schools or private lessons.
=== Asia ===
All Indian classical dances are to varying degrees rooted in the Natyashastra and therefore share common features: for example, the mudras (hand positions), some body positions, leg movement and the inclusion of dramatic or expressive acting or abhinaya. Indian classical music provides accompaniment and dancers of nearly all the styles wear bells around their ankles to counterpoint and complement the percussion.
There are now many regional varieties of Indian classical dance. Dances like "Odra Magadhi", which after decades-long debate, has been traced to present day Mithila, Odisha region's dance form of Odissi (Orissi), indicate influence of dances in cultural interactions between different regions.
The Punjab area overlapping India and Pakistan is the place of origin of Bhangra. It is widely known both as a style of music and a dance. It is mostly related to ancient harvest celebrations, love, patriotism or social issues. Its music is coordinated by a musical instrument called the 'Dhol'. Bhangra is not just music but a dance, a celebration of the harvest where people beat the dhol (drum), sing Boliyaan (lyrics) and dance. It developed further with the Vaisakhi festival of the Sikhs.
The dances of Sri Lanka include the devil dances (yakun natima), a carefully crafted ritual reaching far back into Sri Lanka's pre-Buddhist past that combines ancient "Ayurvedic" concepts of disease causation with psychological manipulation and combines many aspects including Sinhalese cosmology. Their influence can be seen on the classical dances of Sri Lanka.
Indonesian dances reflect the richness and diversity of Indonesian ethnic groups and cultures. There are more than 1,300 ethnic groups in Indonesia, it can be seen from the cultural roots of the Austronesian and Melanesian peoples, and various cultural influences from Asia and the west. Dances in Indonesia originate from ritual movements and religious ceremonies, this kind of dance usually begins with rituals, such as war dances, shaman dances to cure or ward off disease, dances to call rain and other types of dances. With the acceptance of dharma religion in the 1st century in Indonesia, Hinduism and Buddhist rituals were celebrated in various artistic performances. Hindu epics such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata and also the Panji became the inspiration to be shown in a dance-drama called "Sendratari" resembling "ballet" in the western tradition. An elaborate and highly stylized dance method was invented and has survived to this day, especially on the islands of Java and Bali. The Javanese Wayang wong dance takes footage from the Ramayana or Mahabharata episodes, but this dance is very different from the Indian version, indonesian dances do not pay as much attention to the "mudras" as Indian dances: even more to show local forms. The sacred Javanese ritual dance Bedhaya is believed to date back to the Majapahit period in the 14th century or even earlier, this dance originated from ritual dances performed by virgin girls to worship Hindu Gods such as Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu. In Bali, dance has become an integral part of the sacred Hindu Dharma rituals. Some experts believe that Balinese dance comes from an older dance tradition from Java. Reliefs from temples in East Java from the 14th century feature crowns and headdresses similar to the headdresses used in Balinese dance today. Islam began to spread to the Indonesian archipelago when indigenous dances and dharma dances were still popular. Artists and dancers still use styles from the previous era, replacing stories with more Islamic interpretations and clothing that is more closed according to Islamic teachings.
The dances of the Middle East are usually the traditional forms of circle dancing which are modernized to an extent. They would include dabke, tamzara, Assyrian folk dance, Kurdish dance, Armenian dance and Turkish dance, among others. All these forms of dances would usually involve participants engaging each other by holding hands or arms (depending on the style of the dance). They would make rhythmic moves with their legs and shoulders as they curve around the dance floor. The head of the dance would generally hold a cane or handkerchief.
=== Europe and North America ===
Folk dances vary across Europe and may date back hundreds or thousands of years, but many have features in common such as group participation led by a caller, hand-holding or arm-linking between participants, and fixed musical forms known as caroles. Some, such as the maypole dance are common to many nations, while others such as the céilidh and the polka are deeply-rooted in a single culture. Some European folk dances such as the square dance were brought to the New World and subsequently became part of American culture.
Ballet developed first in Italy and then in France from lavish court spectacles that combined rhythm, drama, poetry, song, costumes and dance. Members of the court nobility took part as performers. During the reign of Louis XIV, himself a dancer, dance became more codified. Professional dancers began to take the place of court amateurs, and ballet masters were licensed by the French government. The first ballet dance academy was the Académie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy), opened in Paris in 1661. Shortly thereafter, the first institutionalized ballet troupe, associated with the academy, was formed; this troupe began as an all-male ensemble but by 1681 opened to include women as well.
=== Latin America ===
Dance is central to Latin American social life and culture. Brazilian Samba, Argentinian tango, and Cuban salsa are internationally popular partner dances, and other national dances—merengue, cueca, plena, jarabe, joropo, marinera, cumbia, bachata and others—are important components of their respective countries' cultures. Traditional Carnival festivals incorporate these and other dances in enormous celebrations.
Dance has played an important role in forging a collective identity among the many cultural and ethnic groups of Latin America. Dance served to unite the many African, European, and indigenous peoples of the region.
Dance is taught to all ages ranging from two years old to the adult level outside of a professional dance setting. Typically this dance education is seen in dance studio businesses across the world. Some K-12 public schools have provided the opportunity for students to take beginner level dance classes, as well as participate in dance teams that perform at school events.
== Occupations ==
=== Dancers ===
Professional dancers are usually employed on contract or for particular performances or productions. The professional life of a dancer is generally one of constantly changing work situations, strong competitive pressure and low pay. Consequently, professional dancers often must supplement their incomes to achieve financial stability. In the U.S. many professional dancers belong to unions (such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, Screen Actors Guild and Actors' Equity Association) that establish working conditions and minimum salaries for their members. Professional dancers must possess large amounts of athleticism. To lead a successful career, it is advantageous to be versatile in many styles of dance, have a strong technical background and to use other forms of physical training to remain fit and healthy.
=== Teachers ===
Dance teachers typically focus on teaching dance performance, or coaching competitive dancers, or both. They typically have performance experience in the types of dance they teach or coach. For example, dancesport teachers and coaches are often tournament dancers or former dancesport performers. Dance teachers may be self-employed, or employed by dance schools or general education institutions with dance programs. Some work for university programs or other schools that are associated with professional classical dance (e.g., ballet) or modern dance companies. Others are employed by smaller, privately owned dance schools that offer dance training and performance coaching for various types of dance.
=== Choreographers ===
Choreographers are the ones that design the dancing movements within a dance, they are often university trained and are typically employed for particular projects or, more rarely may work on contract as the resident choreographer for a specific dance company.
== Competitions ==
A dance competition is an organized event in which contestants perform dances before a judge or judges for awards, and in some cases, monetary prizes. There are several major types of dance competitions, distinguished primarily by the style or styles of dances performed. Dance competitions are an excellent setting to build connections with industry leading faculty members, adjudicators, choreographers and other dancers from competing studios. A typical dance competition for younger pre-professional dancers can last anywhere between two and four days, depending whether it is a regional or national competition.
The purpose of dance competitions is to provide a fun and educative place for dancers and give them the opportunity to perform their choreographed routines from their current dance season onstage. Oftentimes, competitions will take place in a professional setting or may vary to non-performance spaces, such as a high school theatre. The results of the dancers are then dictated by a credible panel of judges and are evaluated on their performance than given a score. As far as competitive categories go, most competitions base their categories according to the dance style, age, experience level and the number of dancers competing in the routine. Major types of dance competitions include:
Dancesport, which is focused exclusively on ballroom and latin dance.
Competitive dance, in which a variety of theater dance styles, such as acrobatics, ballet, jazz, hip-hop, lyrical, stepping, and tap, are permitted.
Commercial Dance, consisting of as hip hop, jazz, locking, popping, breakdancing, contemporary etc.
== Health ==
=== Footwear ===
In most forms of dance the foot is the source of movement, and in some cases require specific shoes to aid in the health, safety ability of the dancer, depending on the type of dance, the intensity of the movements, and the surface that will be danced on.
Dance footwear can be potentially both supportive and or restrictive to the movement of the dancer. The effectiveness of the shoe is related to its ability to help the foot do something it is not intended to do, or to make easier a difficult movement. Such effects relate to health and safety because of the function of the equipment as unnatural to the bodies usual mobility.
==== Ballet ====
Ballet is notable for the risks of injury due to the biomechanics of the ankle and the toes as the main support for the rest of the movements. With the pointe shoe, the design specifically brings all of the toes together to allow the toes to be stood on for longer periods of time.
There are accessories associated with pointe shoes that help to mitigate injury and soothe pain while dancing, including things such as toe pads, toe tape, and cushions.
=== Body image ===
Dancers are publicly thought to be very preoccupied with their body image to fit a certain mold in the industry. Research indicates that dancers do have greater difficulty controlling their eating habits as a large quantity strive for the art-form's ideal body mass. Some dancers often resort to abusive tactics to maintain a certain image. Common scenarios include dancers abusing laxatives for weight control and end up falling into unhealthy eating disorders. Studies show that a large quantity of dancers use at least one method of weight control including over exercising and food restriction. The pressure for dancers to maintain a below average weight affects their eating and weight controlling behaviours and their life-style. Due to its artistic nature, dancers tend to have many hostile self-critical tendencies. Commonly seen in performers, it is likely that a variety of individuals may be resistant to concepts of self-compassion.
=== Eating disorders ===
In North America, eating disorders present a significant public health challenge, with an estimated 10% of young girls affected. Those engaged in aesthetic-focused sports like dance face even greater risks due to intense pressures for a slender physique. Eating disorders in dancers are generally very common. Through data analysis and studies published, sufficient data regarding the percentage and accuracy dancers have of realistically falling into unhealthy disordered eating habits or the development of an eating disorder were extracted. Dancers, in general, have a higher risk of developing eating disorders than the general public, primarily falling into anorexia nervosa and EDNOS. Research has yet to distinguish a direct correlation regarding dancers having a higher risk of developing bulimia nervosa. Studies concluded that dancers overall have a three times higher risk of developing eating disorders, more specifically anorexia nervosa and EDNOS.
== Dance on social media ==
Dance has become a popular form of content across many social media platforms, including TikTok. During 2020, TikTok dances offered the opportunity for isolated individuals to interact and connect with one another through a virtual format. Since its debut in 2017, the app has also attracted a small but growing audience of professional dancers in their early 20s to 30s. While the majority of this demographic is more accustomed to performing onstage, this app introduced a new means to generate professional exposure.
== Gallery ==
File:Fresco Villa dei Misteri 28.JPG|A satyr dancing. A fresco from the cubiculum in the Villa of the Mysteries. From Pompeii. Date: 80 to 70 BCE
File:Irish dancers in team costume, Davis Academy, USA.jpg|Folk dance – a trio of Irish Stepdancers performing in competition
File:TÜRKA Vanemuise suures majas -- tants Kodukotus.JPG|Folk dance in Estonia
File:NwFusionAngelaLeap.jpg|A contemporary dancer performs a stag split leap.
File:NWFusion7.jpg|Dance partnering – a male dancer assists a female dancer in performing an arabesque, as part of a classical pas de deux.
File:FrontAerial.gif|Acrobatic dance – an acro dancer performs a front aerial.
File:ToeRise.jpg|A dancer performs a "toe rise", in which she rises from a kneeling position to a standing position on the tops of her feet.
File:Jitterbug Wolcott FSA.jpg|Social dance – dancers at a juke joint dance the Jitterbug, an early 20th century dance that would go on to influence swing, jive, and jazz dance.
File:Tanzturnier_28.JPG|Latin Ballroom dancers perform the Tango.
File:Bootsa.jpg|Gumboot dance evolved from the stomping signals used as coded communication between labourers in South African mines.
File:Harlekin Columbine Tivoli Denmark.jpg|Harlequin and Columbina from the mime theater in Copenhagen, Denmark
File:Popping dancer.gif|A hip-hop dancer demonstrates popping.
File:Striptease pole dancing in Belovskaya, Belgorodskaya Oblast, Russia.jpg|Erotic dance – a pole dancer performs a routine.
File:Spark Fire Dance in Art on Ice 2014-3.jpg|Prop dance – a fire dancer performance
File:Imdt01.jpg|Modern dance – a dancer performs a leg split while balanced on the back of her partner.
File:Belogolovtsev Abderahman.jpg|Stage dance – a professional dancer at the Bolshoi Theatre
File:La bailaora Josefa Vargas (1840).jpg|A nineteenth century artist's representation of a Flamenco dancer
File:Պար_Գառնում.jpg|Ritual dance – Armenian folk dancers celebrate a neo-pagan new year.
File:Samba Atlason Jakobsdottir 0509.JPG|A latin ballroom couple perform a Samba routine at a dancesport event.
File:Polonezkoy_08859_nevit.jpg|Folk dance – some dance traditions travel with immigrant communities, as with this festival dance performed by a Polish community in Turkey.
File:Fuori asse alla seconda.jpg|A ballet dancer performs a standing side split.
File:Breakdancer - Faneuil Hall cropped.jpg|Street dance – a Breakdancer performs a handstand trick.
File:Odissi Performance DS.jpg|Indian classical dancer
File:Ballet Class 3 (237261875).jpeg|Ballet class of young girls wearing leotards and skirts in 2017
File:Tari Kebagh, 2017.jpg|Kebagh dance from Pagar Alam, Indonesia
File:50 tahun LKB Saraswati, Jakarta.jpg|Balinese dance
|
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7,886 |
Drew Barrymore
|
Drew Blythe Barrymore (born February 22, 1975) but after backlash, reversed the decision the same month. Her other business ventures include a range of wines, homeware and clothing. She has released four books including her memoir Little Girl Lost (1990) and her photobook Find It in Everything (2014), both of which were New York Times bestsellers.
==Early life==
===Ancestry===
Drew Blythe Barrymore was born on February 22, 1975, in Culver City, California, to actor John Drew Barrymore and aspiring actress Jaid Barrymore (born Ildikó Jaid Makó), who was born in a displaced persons camp in Brannenburg, West Germany, to Hungarian World War II refugees. Through her father, Barrymore has three older half-siblings, including actor John Blyth Barrymore. Her parents divorced in 1984.
Barrymore was born into an acting family. All of her paternal great-grandparents, Maurice and Georgie Drew Barrymore, Maurice and Mae Costello (née Altschuk), and her paternal grandparents, John Barrymore and Dolores Costello, were actors, with John being arguably the most acclaimed actor of his generation. and a great-great-granddaughter of Irish-born John and English-born Louisa Lane Drew, all of whom were also actors. She is a great-grandniece of Broadway idol John Drew Jr. and silent film actor, writer and director Sidney Drew.
Barrymore's godmothers are actress Sophia Loren and Lee Strasberg's widow, Anna Strasberg; Barrymore described her relationship with the latter as one that "would become so important to me as a kid because she was so kind and nurturing." Her godfather is filmmaker Steven Spielberg.
Barrymore's first name, Drew, was the maiden name of her paternal great-grandmother Georgie Drew, and her middle name, Blythe, was derived from the birth surname (Blyth) of her great-grandfather who later took the stage name of Maurice Barrymore.
===Childhood===
Barrymore grew up on Poinsettia Place in West Hollywood, until she moved to Sherman Oaks at the age of seven. In her 2015 memoir Wildflower, she says she spoke "like a valley girl" because she grew up in Sherman Oaks. She moved back to West Hollywood on becoming emancipated at age 14. She attended elementary school at Fountain Day School in West Hollywood and Country School. In the wake of her sudden stardom, Barrymore endured a notoriously troubled childhood. She was a regular at Studio 54 as a young girl, and her nightlife and constant partying became a popular subject with the media. She was placed in rehab at 13, A suicide attempt at 14 put her back in rehab, followed by a three-month stay with singer David Crosby and his wife. The stay was precipitated, Crosby said, because she "needed to be around some people that were committed to sobriety." Barrymore described this period of her life for Little Girl Lost. After a successful juvenile court petition for emancipation, she moved into her own apartment at the age of 15. E.T. was the highest-grossing film of the 1980s and made Barrymore one of the most famous child actors of the time. She won the Young Artist Award for Best Young Supporting Actress and was nominated for the Rising Star Award at the British Academy Film Awards. In the eighth season of Saturday Night Live, she became the youngest person to guest-host the series at 7 years old. Barrymore said that "nobody treated me like a kid there" and she didn't feel different than any other cast member despite her age.
In the 1984 film adaptation of Stephen King's 1980 novel Firestarter, Barrymore played a girl with pyrokinesis, and the target of a secret government agency known as The Shop. That year, she also played a young girl divorcing her famous parents in Irreconcilable Differences and was nominated for her first Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. In his review in the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert wrote: "Barrymore is the right actress for this role precisely because she approaches it with such grave calm."
Barrymore endured a troubled youth and continued acting during the decade. She starred in the anthology horror film Cat's Eye, also written by King. It received positive reviews and Barrymore was nominated for a Young Artist Award for Best Leading Young Actress. For Dangerous Liaisons, Barrymore declined the role of Cecile, which went to Uma Thurman. Barrymore starred in the romance film See You in the Morning. Vincent Canby of The New York Times criticized the "fashionable phoniness" of the film, but positively singled out Barrymore. In Far from Home, she played a teenager who gets stranded with her father in a small, remote desert town. The film went largely unnoticed by audiences and received negative reviews from critics, who dismissed the sexual portrayal of her role.
===1990–1999: Leading roles and stardom ===
Barrymore's rebelliousness played itself out on screen and in print. She played a poor teenage girl in Poison Ivy, which was a box-office bomb, but was popular on video and cable. Her character "Ivy" was ranked at #6 on the list of the top 26 "bad girls" of all time by Entertainment Weekly. Barrymore was 17 when she posed nude with her then-fiancé, actor Jamie Walters, for the cover of the July issue of Interview magazine; she also appeared nude in pictures inside the issue.
In Guncrazy, Barrymore played a teenager who kills her abusive stepfather. and Barrymore was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film. She played the younger sister of a murdered ballerina in No Place to Hide and a writer followed by what is apparently her evil twin in Doppelganger. Both films were panned by critics and failed to find an audience. She appeared in the western film Bad Girls, which follows four former prostitutes on the run following a justifiable homicide and prison escape. Roger Ebert, in his review for the film, wrote for Chicago Sun-Times: "What a good idea, to make a Western about four tough women. And what a sad movie."
Barrymore posed nude for the January 1995 issue of Playboy. Soon after, her godfather Steven Spielberg gave her a quilt for her 20th birthday with a note that read, "Cover yourself up." Barrymore later said that she would not let her own child make the same choice she did.
While appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman, Barrymore climbed onto the desk, flashed her breasts to David Letterman and gave him a kiss on the cheek as a birthday gift. In the late 1990s, Barrymore re-established her image and continued to be a highly bankable star.
In Boys on the Side, Barrymore played a pregnant girl attempting to escape from her abusive boyfriend. It was a box office success and was positively received by critics. In the superhero film Batman Forever, she played one of the two female assistants for Two-Face (Tommy Lee Jones).
Barrymore had a small role in Wes Craven's slasher film Scream (1996). She read the film's script and was interested in being involved, approaching the production team herself to request a role. The producers were quick to take advantage of her unexpected interest and signed her to play the lead role of Sidney Prescott. However, after unexpected commitments, Barrymore played Casey Becker in a minor role and Neve Campbell took the leading one. Scream was released to critical acclaim and made $173 million worldwide. She was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress.
In The Wedding Singer (1998), Barrymore played a waitress in love with the titular character, played by Adam Sandler. Variety found the film to be a "spirited, funny and warm saga" that serves them up "in a new way that enhances their most winning qualities". Budgeted at $18 million, the film grossed $123.3 million internationally. In Home Fries (1998), Barrymore played a pregnant woman unknowingly falling for the stepson of the late father of her baby. She starred in the historical drama film Ever After (1998), which made $98 million and was inspired by the fairy tale Cinderella. Roger Ebert said about Barrymore and the film: "she can hold the screen and involve us in her characters".
Barrymore voiced the titular anthropomorphic Jack Russell terrier in the Christmas television film Olive, the Other Reindeer and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award. After establishing Flower Films, Barrymore and Nancy Juvonen produced the company's first film, Never Been Kissed, in which Barrymore played an insecure copy editor for the Chicago Sun-Times and a high school student. While reviews from critics were mixed, CNN noted: "There are two words which describe why this film works: Drew Barrymore. Her comedic timing and willingness to go all out in her quest for a laugh combine to make Never Been Kissed a gratifying movie-going experience". The film was a commercial success, grossing $84.5 million.
===2000–2008: Established actress ===
In Charlie's Angels, Barrymore, Cameron Diaz and Lucy Liu played the trio of investigators in Los Angeles. The film was a major box office success and helped solidify Barrymore's standing in her production company as one of the film's producers.
Barrymore starred in George Clooney's directorial debut Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, based on the autobiography of television producer Chuck Barris. Barrymore reprised her role in Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle Summing up Barrymore's appeal, Roger Ebert, in his review for the film, remarked that Barrymore displayed a "smiling, coy sincerity", in what he described as an "ingratiating and lovable" film. 50 First Dates was a commercial success; it made US$120.9 million in North America and US$196.4 million worldwide.In the 2005 American remake adaptation of the 1997 British film Fever Pitch, Barrymore played the love interest of an immature schoolteacher (Jimmy Fallon). The film grossed a modest US$50 million worldwide and had generally favorable reviews by critics who felt it "has enough charm and on-screen chemistry between [Fallon and Barrymore] to make it a solid hit". Barrymore starred in the 2006 animated film Curious George, based on the book series of the same name. She and Hugh Grant starred in Music and Lyrics, which focuses on the relationship that evolves between a former pop music idol and an aspiring writer as they struggle to compose a song for a reigning pop diva. The romantic comedy, released in February 2007, received largely positive reviews, with The Washington Post finding the two to be "great together" in it. The film was a commercial success, grossing US$145 million globally.
In Curtis Hanson's poker film Lucky You, Barrymore played an aspiring singer and the subject of the affections of a talented player. In Raja Gosnell's film Beverly Hills Chihuahua, Barrymore voiced the titular character, a richly pampered pet who gets dognapped in Mexico and has to escape from an evil Doberman.
=== 2009–2019: Directorial debut and television roles ===
Barrymore starred in the ensemble romantic comedy He's Just Not That Into You, which received mixed reviews, partly due to her limited time on screen, while it grossed US$178 million worldwide. She played Edith Bouvier Beale, the daughter of Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale (Jessica Lange) in the HBO film Grey Gardens, which is based on the 1975 documentary film. The television film was a huge success, winning five Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards. Rolling Stone writer Peter Travers found Barrymore to be a "revelation" in her role. Barrymore was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film and the Screen Actors Guild for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries.
Barrymore starred in her directorial debut film Whip It. It follows a high-schooler (Elliot Page) ditching the teen beauty pageant scene and participating in an Austin roller derby league. Barrymore worked with screenwriter Shauna Cross for months on script revisions, with Barrymore pushing her to "avoid her story's tidier prospects, to make things 'more raw and open ended.'" While the film found limited box office receipts, it was favorably received; according to review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, critics agreed that her "directorial debut has enough charm, energy, and good-natured humor to transcend its many cliches". For her venture, Barrymore garnered nominations for a Bronze Horse at the Stockholm Film Festival and for the EDA Female Focus Award at the 2009 Alliance of Women Film Journalists. In Everybody's Fine, Barrymore played the daughter of a recently widowed retiree (Robert De Niro). The drama flopped at the box office, but Stephen Holden for The New York Times considered Barrymore "as ingenuous as ever" in what he described as a "small role."
Barrymore starred with Justin Long in Nanette Burstein's film Going the Distance. It follows a couple dealing the ups and downs of a long-distance relationship, while commuting between New York City and San Francisco. It garnered generally mixed reviews by critics, who summed it as "timelier and a little more honest than most romantic comedies", and budgeted at US$32 million, the film made US$40 million at the worldwide box office.
On August 2, 2011, Barrymore directed the music video for the song "Our Deal," for the band Best Coast, which features Chloë Grace Moretz, Miranda Cosgrove, Tyler Posey, Donald Glover, Shailene Woodley and Alia Shawkat. Barrymore starred in the biopic film Big Miracle, which covers Operation Breakthrough, the 1988 international effort to rescue gray whales from being trapped in ice near Point Barrow, Alaska. Her character, Rachel Kramer, is based on Greenpeace activist Cindy Lowry. Despite a positive critical reception, the film flopped at the box office.
In Blended, Barrymore played a recently divorced woman ending up on a family resort with a widower (Sandler). Film critic James Berardinelli dismissed the "hit-and-miss humor" of the story and wrote that "as [Sandler and Barrymore] are concerned, the third time is definitely not the charm", as part of an overall lukewarm critical response. The film ultimately grossed US$128 million worldwide. She and Toni Collette starred in Miss You Already (2015), as two long-time friends whose relationship is put to the test when one starts a family and the other becomes ill. Reviewers embraced the film, while it received a limited theatrical release.
In the Netflix original television series Santa Clarita Diet, Barrymore played a real estate agent who, after experiencing a physical transformation into a zombie, starts craving human flesh. Along with co-star Timothy Olyphant, Barrymore served as an executive producer on the single-camera series, which was favorably received upon its premiere; Rolling Stone felt that "much of [the series' laughs] comes down to the uncrushable Drew Barrymore charm" and furthermore remarked: "The show is a welcome comeback for Barrymore, the eternally beloved grunge-era wild thing—it's not just her big move into TV, but her first high-profile performance anywhere in years. In a way, it circles back to the roles she was doing in the early [90s], playing deadly vixens in flicks like Guncrazy or Doppelganger".
===2020–present: The Drew Barrymore Show ===
Barrymore starred in Jamie Babbit's film The Stand In. It was set to premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2020, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On September 14, 2020, Barrymore launched a syndicated daytime talk show, The Drew Barrymore Show, which is also available on Spotify in a podcast format. On December 4, 2020, she appeared as a guest star on Martha Knows Best. On March 11, 2021, Barrymore said she was taking an indefinite hiatus from acting. She wrote a cookbook with chef Pilar Valdes entitled Rebel Homemaker, which was a New York Times bestseller. In June 2021, she launched Drew Magazine, a quarterly released lifestyle magazine by publisher Bauer Media USA. Barrymore was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time magazine in 2023.
In September 2023, Barrymore announced she would continue her syndicated TV talk show despite the ongoing WGA strike, writing, "I own this choice", when explaining her reasoning via social media. While SAG had stated that as the host of the show she was not under any obligation to strike, her show continued without unionized writing staff. Audience members showing support for the Writer's Guild were kicked out of the studio and had any WGA pins confiscated. Due to these events, the National Book Foundation removed Barrymore from being the host of the then upcoming 74th National Book Awards. Barrymore apologized for her actions later that week in a video on Instagram, claiming that, "I believe there's nothing I can do or say in this moment to make it OK." Barrymore deleted the apology video from her account following criticism. A spokesperson for CBS Media Ventures said, "We support Drew's decision to pause the show's return and understand how complex and difficult this process has been for her."
==Media image==
Barrymore became a CoverGirl Cosmetics' model and spokeswoman in 2007. In February 2015, she became one of the faces of CoverGirl, alongside Queen Latifah and Taylor Swift. The company partnered with her because "she emulates the iconic image of CoverGirl with her fresh, natural beauty and energetic yet authentic spirit," said Esi Eggleston Bracey, vice president and general manager of CoverGirl Cosmetics North America. She brought not only her personality into this endorsement but also her creative side, as she also helped create the ads. She was No. 1 on People's annual 100 Most Beautiful People list in 2007. She was named the new face for the Gucci jewelry line. Barrymore signed a contract with IMG Models New York City. She is a spokeswoman for Crocs.
In May 2007, Barrymore was named Ambassador Against Hunger for the United Nations World Food Programme and later donated $1 million to the cause. As a guest photographer for a magazine series called "They Shoot New York", she appeared on the cover holding a Pentax K1000 film camera. She expressed hopes of exposing her work in a gallery one day, as she had documented the most recent decade of her life with a Pentax camera.
Barrymore launched a women's fashion line in fall 2017 in conjunction with Amazon.com called Dear Drew, which featured a pop-up shop in New York City that opened in November. She became the Chief Gifting Officer for Etsy in January 2024.
==Personal life==
Barrymore, then-16, was briefly engaged to 25-year-old Leland Hayward, III, the grandson of producer Leland Hayward, in 1991.
Barrymore, then-17, was in a relationship with 23-year-old Jamie Walters from 1992 to 1993. He proposed to her with a diamond ring in a 1967 Chevrolet Chevelle and planned to marry in spring of 1993. Walters and Barrymore have tattoos of the other's name; Walters has her name in a cross on his upper right shoulder blade and Barrymore has his name, along with her mother's name, in a banner flown by a cherub on her lower back. In 2023, Barrymore spoke positively of Walters while interviewing Tori Spelling, who played Walters' love interest on Beverly Hills, 90210, on her talk show.
Barrymore, then-19, began dating 31-year-old Jeremy Thomas, a Los Angeles-based business owner from Wales, in early 1994. Thomas had been allowing Barrymore, who had been receiving treatment for alcoholism on and off for several years at that point, to drink at The Room, his bar on Cahuenga Boulevard, despite being underage. On March 20, 1994, after six weeks of dating, the two impulsively married at around 5:30 am at The Room, paying a 24-hour minister to perform the ceremony. Barrymore wore a white slip dress and combat boots. Barrymore began dating MTV host and comedian Tom Green in 1999. They were engaged in July 2000 and married a year later.
In 2002, Barrymore began dating the Strokes drummer Fabrizio Moretti shortly after they met at a concert. She began dating Justin Long, but they broke up in July 2008.
Barrymore began dating Will Kopelman, an art consultant and the son of Arie L. Kopelman, once the chief operating officer of the French fashion house Chanel in February 2011. Kopelman proposed to Barrymore in Sun Valley, Idaho later that year, in December, while the two were on a Christmas vacation, and media outlets reported on their engagement in January 2012. They married on June 2, 2012, in a garden-themed Jewish ceremony at her home in Montecito, California and Barrymore wore a Chanel wedding gown. Barrymore gave birth to their first child three months later, and their second child in 2014. During her marriage to Kopelman, Barrymore expressed an interest in converting to Judaism, his faith, calling it a "beautiful faith," but never did. Barrymore announced her separation from Kopelman on April 2, 2016. They filed for divorce on July 15, 2016 and it was finalized on August 3, 2016. In 2020, Barrymore told People she would never get married again. Kopelman married Vogue director Alexandra "Allie" Michler in 2021 and Barrymore has spoken positively of her relationship with Michler, saying she is a wonderful stepmother. Barrymore moved to Manhattan in 2023 so that her children could be closer to Kopelman.
Barrymore practices meditation.
In an interview with Contactmusic.com in 2003, Barrymore said: "Do I like women sexually? Yeah, I do. Totally. I have always considered myself bisexual. I love a woman's body. I think a woman and a woman together are beautiful, just as a man and a woman together are beautiful. Being with a woman is like exploring your own body, but through someone else".
Barrymore is the godmother of Frances Bean Cobain, the daughter of Kurt Cobain and Courtney Love.
Barrymore eats a plant-based diet, and reportedly convinced Cardi B to try veganism. Since 2023, she has resided in Manhattan.
==Acting credits and accolades==
Barrymore's films compiled a worldwide box office gross that stood at over US$2.3 billion. According to The Hollywood Reporters annual Star Salary Top 10, she was tied for eighth place on the top ten list of actresses' salaries, commanding 10 to 12 million dollars per film in 2006.
Barrymore became the youngest person to host Saturday Night Live, having hosted on November 20, 1982, at seven years of age, a record that remains unbroken . On February 3, 2007, Barrymore hosted SNL for the fifth time, becoming the second female host (after Candice Bergen) in the show's history to do so.
In 1999, Barrymore was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award commemorating her outstanding achievements within the film industry as a child actress. For her contributions to the film industry, she received a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004. It is located at 6925 Hollywood Boulevard.
|
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"poker",
"John Drew Barrymore",
"Shauna Cross",
"the Strokes",
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"Tyler Posey",
"Miss You Already",
"Maurice Costello",
"Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles",
"Cameron Diaz",
"Gunsmoke",
"single-camera",
"cookbook",
"Montecito, California",
"People (American magazine)",
"West Hollywood, California",
"World Food Programme",
"Christian cross",
"AP News",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Kurt Cobain",
"Lucky You (film)",
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"dog food",
"Chanel",
"Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture",
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"The Guardian",
"anthropomorphic",
"Elliot Page",
"List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars",
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"plant-based diet",
"film industry",
"Alia Shawkat",
"Emancipation of minors",
"Christmas",
"Contactmusic.com",
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"Tom Green",
"Hugh Grant",
"Elle (magazine)",
"box-office bomb",
"World War II",
"Ben Stiller",
"Chloë Grace Moretz",
"Tori Spelling",
"Doppelganger (1993 film)",
"E. P. Dutton",
"Associated Press",
"Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle",
"61st Academy Awards",
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"Georgiana Drew",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie",
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"Robert De Niro",
"Tommy Lee Jones",
"West Germany",
"juvenile court",
"No Place to Hide (1993 film)",
"Edith Ewing Bouvier Beale",
"Donald Glover",
"9/11",
"Beverly Donofrio",
"Flixster",
"Cardi B",
"HBO",
"Time (magazine)",
"See You in the Morning (film)",
"Grey Gardens (2009 film)",
"Charlie's Angels (2000 film)",
"The Drew Barrymore Show",
"He's Just Not That Into You (film)",
"Point Barrow, Alaska",
"2015 Toronto International Film Festival",
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"meditation",
"Lionel Barrymore",
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"zombie",
"Irreconcilable Differences",
"Time 100",
"NBC",
"veganism",
"Big Miracle",
"Spotify",
"Curious George",
"Cable television",
"The Wedding Singer",
"Neve Campbell",
"Lee Strasberg"
] |
7,888 |
D. W. Griffith
|
{{Infobox person
| name = D. W. Griffith
| image = David Wark Griffith portrait.jpg
| caption = Griffith in 1922
| birth_name = David Wark Griffith
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Oldham County, Kentucky, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Hollywood, California, U.S.
| resting_place = Mount Tabor Methodist Church Graveyard,Centerfield, Kentucky, U.S.
| occupation =
| years_active = 1895–1931
| spouse = {{plainlist|*
he pioneered many aspects of film editing and expanded the art of the narrative film.
To modern audiences, Griffith is known primarily for directing the 1915 film The Birth of a Nation. One of the most financially successful films of all time and considered a landmark by film historians, it has attracted much controversy for its degrading portrayals of African Americans, its glorification of the Ku Klux Klan, and support for the Confederacy. The film led to riots in several major cities all over the United States and the NAACP attempted to have it banned. Griffith made his next film Intolerance (1916) as an answer to critics, who he felt unfairly maligned his work.
Together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks, Griffith founded the studio United Artists in 1919 with the goal of enabling actors and directors to make films on their own terms, as opposed to the terms of commercial studios. Several of Griffith's later films were successful, including Broken Blossoms (1919), Way Down East (1920), and Orphans of the Storm (1921), but the high costs he incurred for production and promotion often led to commercial failure. He had made roughly 500 films by the time of The Struggle (1931), his final feature, and all but three were completely silent.
==Early life==
Griffith was born on January 22, 1875, a Confederate Army colonel in the American Civil War who was elected as a Kentucky state legislator, and Mary Perkins (née Oglesby). Griffith was raised as a Methodist, and he attended a one-room schoolhouse, where he was taught by his older sister Mattie. His father died when he was 10, and the family struggled with poverty.
When Griffith was 14, his mother abandoned the farm and moved the family to Louisville, Kentucky; there she opened a boarding house, which was unsuccessful. Griffith then left high school to help support the family, taking a job in a dry goods store and later in a bookstore. He began his creative career as an actor in touring companies. Meanwhile, he was learning how to become a playwright, but he had little success. Only one of his plays was accepted for a performance. He traveled to New York City in 1907 in an attempt to sell a script to Edison Studios producer Edwin Porter;
== Early film career ==
In 1908, Griffith accepted a role as a stage extra in Professional Jealousy for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, where he met cameraman Billy Bitzer. In 1908, Biograph's main director Wallace McCutcheon Sr. fell ill, and his son Wallace McCutcheon Jr. took his place. McCutcheon Jr. did not bring the studio success;
His short In Old California (1910) was the first film shot in Hollywood, California. Four years later, he produced and directed his first feature film Judith of Bethulia (1914), one of the early films to be produced in the U.S. Biograph believed that longer features were not viable at this point. According to Lillian Gish, the company thought that "a movie that long would hurt [the audience's] eyes".
Griffith left Biograph because of company resistance to his goals and his cost overruns on the film. He took his company of actors with him and joined the Mutual Film Corporation. There he co-produced The Life of General Villa, a silent biographical-action movie starring Pancho Villa as himself, shot on location in Mexico during a civil war. He formed a studio with Majestic Studios manager Harry Aitken, which became known as Reliance-Majestic Studios and later was renamed Fine Arts Studios. His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in the Triangle Film Corporation along with Thomas H. Ince and Keystone Studios' Mack Sennett. The Triangle Film Corporation was headed by Aitken, who was released from the Mutual Film Corporation, The film was a success, but its depiction of slavery, the Ku Klux Klan, race relations in the American Civil War, and the Reconstruction era of the United States aroused much controversy. It was based on Thomas Dixon Jr.'s 1905 novel The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan, which casts Southern slavery as benign, the enfranchisement of freedmen as a corrupt plot by the Republican Party, and the Ku Klux Klan as a band of heroes restoring the rightful order. This view of the era was popular at the time and was endorsed for decades by historians of the Dunning School, but it met with strong criticism from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other groups.
The NAACP attempted to stop showings of the film. This ban was successful in some cities, but nonetheless it was shown widely and became the most successful box-office attraction of its time. It is considered among the first "blockbuster" motion pictures, and it broke all box-office records that had been established until then. "They lost track of the money it made", Lillian Gish remarked in a Kevin Brownlow interview.
Audiences in some major northern cities rioted over the film's racial content and the violence. Griffith's indignation at efforts to censor or ban the film motivated him the following year to produce Intolerance, in which he portrayed the effects of intolerance in four different historical periods: the Fall of Babylon; the Crucifixion of Jesus; the events surrounding the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (during religious persecution of French Huguenots); and a modern story. Intolerance was not a financial success; it did not bring in enough profits to cover the lavish road show that accompanied it. Griffith put a huge budget into the film's production that could not be recovered in its box office. He mostly financed Intolerance himself, which contributed to his financial ruin for the rest of his life.
Griffith's production partnership was dissolved in 1917, and he went to Artcraft, part of Paramount Pictures, and then to First National Pictures (1919–1920). At the same time, he founded United Artists together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks; the studio was based on allowing actors to control their own interests rather than being dependent upon commercial studios.
He continued to make films, but he never again achieved box-office grosses as high as either The Birth of a Nation or Intolerance.
== Later film career ==
Although United Artists survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived. While some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him. Griffith features from this period include Broken Blossoms (1919), Way Down East (1920), Orphans of the Storm (1921), Dream Street (1921), One Exciting Night (1922), The White Rose (1923), America (1924) and Isn't Life Wonderful (1924). Of these, the first three were successes at the box office. Griffith was forced to leave United Artists after Isn't Life Wonderful (1924) failed at the box office.
He made Lady of the Pavements (1929), a part sound film, and only two full-sound films: Abraham Lincoln (1930) and The Struggle (1931). Neither was successful, and after The Struggle, he never made another film.
In 1936, director Woody Van Dyke, who had worked as Griffith's apprentice on Intolerance, asked Griffith to help him shoot the famous earthquake sequence for San Francisco, but Griffith was not given any film credit. Starring Clark Gable, Jeanette MacDonald and Spencer Tracy, it was the top-grossing film of the year.
In 1939, the producer Hal Roach hired Griffith to produce Of Mice and Men (1939) and One Million B.C. (1940). He wrote to Griffith: "I need help from the production side to select the proper writers, cast, et cetera, and to help me generally in the supervision of these pictures."
Although Griffith eventually disagreed with Roach over the production and departed, Roach later insisted that some of the scenes in the completed film were directed by Griffith. This movie was the final production in which Griffith was involved. However, cast members' accounts recall Griffith directing only the screen tests and costume tests. When Roach advertised the film in late 1939 with Griffith listed as producer, Griffith asked that his name be removed.
Griffith was for decades held in awe by many members of the film industry. He was presented with an honorary Oscar by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1936. In 1946, he made an impromptu visit to the film location of David O. Selznick's epic western Duel in the Sun, where some of his veteran actors—Lillian Gish, Lionel Barrymore and Harry Carey—were cast members. Gish and Barrymore found their mentor's presence distracting, and they became self-conscious; in response, Griffith hid behind the scenery when the two were filming their scenes.
== Death ==
On the morning of July 23, 1948, Griffith was discovered unconscious in the lobby at the Knickerbocker Hotel in Los Angeles, where he had been living alone. He died of a cerebral hemorrhage on the way to a Hollywood hospital. In 1950, The Directors Guild of America provided a stone and bronze monument for his grave site.
== Legacy ==
Griffith has a controversial legacy. Despite criticism, he was a widely celebrated and respected public figure during his life, and modern film historians continue to recognize him for his contributions to the craft of filmmaking. Nevertheless, many critics during his lifetime, as well as in the decades since his death, have characterized him and his work (most notably The Birth of a Nation) as upholding white supremacist ideals. Historians frequently cite The Birth of a Nation as a major factor in the KKK's revival in the 20th century, and it remains controversial to this day.
Performer and director Charlie Chaplin called Griffith "The Teacher of Us All". Filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock, Lev Kuleshov, Jean Renoir, Cecil B. DeMille, King Vidor, Victor Fleming, Raoul Walsh, Carl Theodor Dreyer, and Stanley Kubrick have praised Griffith. Sergei Eisenstein expressed his admiration for Griffith as an "outstanding master", but criticized Birth of a Nation, calling it "disgraceful propaganda of racial hatred towards the colored people".
Griffith seems to have been one of the first to understand how certain film techniques could be used to create an expressive language; it gained popular recognition with the release of The Birth of a Nation (1915). His early shorts —such as Biograph's The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912), show that Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heightened mood and tension. In making Intolerance, Griffith opened new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditional narrative.
In the 1951 Philco Television Playhouse episode "The Birth of the Movies", events from Griffith's film career were depicted. Griffith was played by John Newland.
In 1953 the Directors Guild of America (DGA) instituted the D. W. Griffith Award, its highest honor. However, on December 15, 1999, then DGA President Jack Shea and the DGA National Board announced that the award would be renamed as the "DGA Lifetime Achievement Award". They stated that, although Griffith was extremely talented, they felt his film The Birth of a Nation had "helped foster intolerable racial stereotypes", and that it was thus better not to have the top award in his name.
On February 8, 1960, Griffith was posthumously awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, which is located at 6535 Hollywood Boulevard.
In 1975, Griffith was honored on a 10-cent postage stamp by the United States.
In 2008 the Hollywood Heritage Museum hosted a screening of Griffith's early films to commemorate the centennial of his start in film.
On January 22, 2009, the Oldham History Center in La Grange, Kentucky, opened a 15-seat theatre in Griffith's honor. The theatre features a library of available Griffith films.
In 2024, East West Players in Los Angeles produced Unbroken Blossoms, a world premier play by Philip W. Chung about the making of Broken Blossoms. Griffith was portrayed by actor Arye Gross.
== Film preservation ==
Griffith has six films preserved on the United States National Film Registry deemed as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant": Lady Helen's Escapade, A Corner in Wheat (both 1909), The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912), The Birth of a Nation (1915), Intolerance (1916) and Broken Blossoms (1919).
|
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"David O. Selznick"
] |
7,890 |
Dune
|
A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, flat regions covered with wind-swept sand or dunes, with little or no vegetation, are called ergs or sand seas. Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, but most kinds of dunes are longer on the stoss (upflow) side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and have a shorter slip face in the lee side. The valley or trough between dunes is called a dune slack.
Dunes are most common in desert environments, where the lack of moisture hinders the growth of vegetation that would otherwise interfere with the development of dunes. However, sand deposits are not restricted to deserts, and dunes are also found along sea shores, along streams in semiarid climates, in areas of glacial outwash, and in other areas where poorly cemented sandstone bedrock disintegrates to produce an ample supply of loose sand. Subaqueous dunes can form from the action of water flow (fluvial processes) on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries, and the sea-bed.
Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Artificial dunes are sometimes constructed to protect coastal areas. The dynamic action of wind and water can sometimes cause dunes to drift, which can have serious consequences. For example, the town of Eucla, Western Australia, had to be relocated in the 1890s because of dune drift.
The modern word "dune" came into English from French around 1790, which in turn came from Middle Dutch dūne. which are all deposits of the same type of materials. Dunes are generally defined as greater than 7 cm tall and may have ripples, while ripples are deposits that are less than 3 cm tall. A draa is a very large aeolian landform, with a length of several kilometers and a height of tens to hundreds of meters, and which may have superimposed dunes.
Dunes are made of sand-sized particles, and may consist of quartz, calcium carbonate, snow, gypsum, or other materials. The upwind/upstream/upcurrent side of the dune is called the stoss side; the downflow side is called the lee side. Sand is pushed (creep) or bounces (saltation) up the stoss side, and slides down the lee side. A side of a dune that the sand has slid down is called a slip face (or slipface).
The Bagnold formula gives the speed at which particles can be transported.
==Aeolian dunes==
===Aeolian dune shapes===
Five basic dune types are recognized: crescentic, linear, star, dome, and parabolic. Dune areas may occur in three forms: simple (isolated dunes of basic type), compound (larger dunes on which smaller dunes of same type form), and complex (combinations of different types). They form separate crescents when the sand supply is comparatively small. When the sand supply is greater, they may merge into barchanoid ridges, and then transverse dunes (see below).
====Transverse dunes====
Abundant barchan dunes may merge into barchanoid ridges, which then grade into linear (or slightly sinuous) transverse dunes, so called because they lie transverse, or across, the wind direction, with the wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge crest. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes.
====Parabolic====
U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. These dunes are formed from blowout dunes where the erosion of vegetated sand leads to a U-shaped depression. The elongated arms are held in place by vegetation; the largest arm known on Earth reaches 12 km. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their crests point upwind. The bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.
In plan view, these are U-shaped or V-shaped mounds of well-sorted, very fine to medium sand with elongated arms that extend upwind behind the central part of the dune. There are slipfaces that often occur on the outer side of the nose and on the outer slopes of the arms.
These dunes often occur in semiarid areas where the precipitation is retained in the lower parts of the dune and underlying soils. The stability of the dunes was once attributed to the vegetative cover but recent research has pointed to water as the main source of parabolic dune stability. The vegetation that covers them—grasses, shrubs, and trees—help anchor the trailing arms. In inland deserts, parabolic dunes commonly originate and extend downwind from blowouts in sand sheets only partly anchored by vegetation. They can also originate from beach sands and extend inland into vegetated areas in coastal zones and on shores of large lakes.
Most parabolic dunes do not reach heights higher than a few tens of metres except at their nose, where vegetation stops or slows the advance of accumulating sand.
Simple parabolic dunes have only one set of arms that trail upwind, behind the leading nose. Compound parabolic dunes are coalesced features with several sets of trailing arms. Complex parabolic dunes include subsidiary superposed or coalesced forms, usually of barchanoid or linear shapes.
Parabolic dunes, like crescent dunes, occur in areas where very strong winds are mostly unidirectional. Although these dunes are found in areas now characterized by variable wind speeds, the effective winds associated with the growth and migration of both the parabolic and crescent dunes probably are the most consistent in wind direction.
The grain size for these well-sorted, very fine to medium sands is about 0.06 to 0.5 mm. Parabolic dunes have loose sand and steep slopes only on their outer flanks. The inner slopes are mostly well packed and anchored by vegetation, as are the corridors between individual dunes. Because all dune arms are oriented in the same direction, and, the inter-dune corridors are generally swept clear of loose sand, the corridors can usually be traversed in between the trailing arms of the dune. However to cross straight over the dune by going over the trailing arms, can be very difficult. Also, traversing the nose is very difficult as well because the nose is usually made up of loose sand without much if any vegetation.
A type of extensive parabolic dune that lacks discernible slipfaces and has mostly coarse grained sand is known as a zibar. The term zibar comes from the Arabic word to describe "rolling transverse ridges ... with a hard surface". The dunes are small, have low relief, and can be found in many places across the planet from Wyoming (United States) to Saudi Arabia to Australia. Spacing between zibars ranges from 50 to 400 metres and they do not become more than 10 metres high. The dunes form at about ninety degrees to the prevailing wind which blows away the small, fine-grained sand leaving behind the coarser grained sand to form the crest.
====Reversing dunes====
Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions. The minor slipfaces are usually temporary, as they appear after a reverse wind and are generally destroyed when the wind next blows in the dominant direction. After a draa has reached a certain size, it generally develops superimposed dune forms. They are thought to be more ancient and slower-moving than smaller dunes,
===Coastal dunes===
Coastal dunes form when wet sand is deposited along the coast and dries out and is blown along the beach. Dunes form where the beach is wide enough to allow for the accumulation of wind-blown sand, and where prevailing onshore winds tend to blow sand inland. The three key ingredients for coastal dune formation are a large sand supply, winds to move said sand supply, and a place for the sand supply to accumulate. Obstacles—for example, vegetation, pebbles and so on—tend to slow down the wind and lead to the deposition of sand grains. These small "incipient dunes or "shadow dunes" tend to grow in the vertical direction if the obstacle slowing the wind can also grow vertically (i.e., vegetation). Coastal dunes expand laterally as a result of lateral growth of coastal plants via seed or rhizome. Models of coastal dunes suggest that their final equilibrium height is related to the distance between the water line and where vegetation can grow. Coastal dunes can be classified by where they develop, or begin to take shape. Dunes are commonly grouped into either the Primary Dune Group or the Secondary Dune Group. Different locations around the globe have dune formations unique to their given coastal profile.
Coastal sand dunes can provide privacy and/or habitats to support local flora and fauna. Animals such as sand snakes, lizards, and rodents can live in coastal sand dunes, along with insects of all types. Often the vegetation of sand dunes is discussed without acknowledging the importance that coastal dunes have for animals. Further, some animals, such as foxes and feral pigs can use coastal dunes as hunting grounds to find food. Birds are also known to utilize coastal dunes as nesting grounds. All these species find the coastal environment of the sand dune vital to their species' survival.
Over the course of time coastal dunes may be impacted by tropical cyclones or other intense storm activity, dependent on their location. Recent work has suggested that coastal dunes tend to evolve toward a high or low morphology depending on the growth rate of dunes relative to storm frequency. During a storm event, dunes play a significant role in minimizing wave energy as it moves onshore. As a result, coastal dunes, especially those in the foredune area affected by a storm surge, will retreat or erode. To counteract the damage from tropical activity on coastal dunes, short term post-storm efforts can be made by individual agencies through fencing to help with sand accumulation.
How much a dune erodes during any storm surge is related to its location on the coastal shoreline and the profile of the beach during a particular season. In those areas with harsher winter weather, during the summer a beach tends to take on more of a convex appearance due to gentler waves, while the same beach in the winter may take on more of a concave appearance. As a result, coastal dunes can get eroded much more quickly in the winter than in the summer. The converse is true in areas with harsher summer weather.
There are many threats to these coastal communities. Some coastal dunes, for example ones in San Francisco, have been completely altered by urbanization; reshaping the dune for human use. This puts native species at risk. Another danger, in California and places in the UK specifically, is the introduction of invasive species. Plant species, such as Carpobrotus edulis, were introduced from South Africa in an attempt to stabilize the dunes and provide horticultural benefits, but instead spread taking land away from native species. Ammophila arenaria, known as European beachgrass, has a similar story, though it has no horticulture benefits. It has great ground coverage and, as intended, stabilized the dunes but as an unintended side effect prevented native species from thriving in those dunes. One such example is the dune field at Point Reyes, California. There are now efforts to get rid of both of these invasive species.
====Ecological succession on coastal dunes====
As a dune forms, plant succession occurs. The conditions on an embryo dune are harsh, with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry, and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells. Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune. For example, in the United Kingdom these pioneer species are often marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses. These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the foredune, typically having deep roots which reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma, reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a foredune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are heather, heaths and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching. Coniferous forests and heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems.
Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks' soil to be waterlogged where only marsh plants can survive. In Europe these plants include: creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow iris, reeds, and rushes. As for vertebrates in European dunes, natterjack toads sometimes breed here.
==== Coastal dune floral adaptations ====
Dune ecosystems are extremely difficult places for plants to survive. This is due to a number of pressures related to their proximity to the ocean and confinement to growth on sandy substrates. These include:
Little available soil moisture
Little available soil organic matter/nutrients/water
Harsh winds
Salt spray
Erosion/shifting and sometimes burial or exposure (from shifting)
Tidal influences
Plants have evolved many adaptations to cope with these pressures:
Deep taproot to reach water table (Pink Sand Verbena)
Shallow but extensive root systems
Rhizomes
Prostrate growth form to avoid wind/salt spray (Abronia spp., Beach Primrose)
Krummholz growth form (Monterrey Cypress-not a dune plant but deals with similar pressures)
Thickened cuticle/Succulence to reduce moisture loss and reduce salt uptake (Ambrosia/Abronia spp., Calystegia soldanella)
Pale leaves to reduce insolation (Artemisia/Ambrosia spp.)
Thorny/Spiky seeds to ensure establishment in vicinity of parent, reduces chances of being blown away or swept out to sea (Ambrosia chamissonis)
===Gypsum dunes===
In deserts where large amounts of limestone mountains surround a closed basin, such as at White Sands National Park in south-central New Mexico, occasional storm runoff transports dissolved limestone and gypsum into a low-lying pan within the basin where the water evaporates, depositing the gypsum and forming crystals known as selenite. The crystals left behind by this process are eroded by the wind and deposited as vast white dune fields that resemble snow-covered landscapes. These types of dune are rare, and only form in closed arid basins that retain the highly soluble gypsum that would otherwise be washed into the sea.
===Nabkha dunes===
A nabkha, or coppice dune, is a small dune anchored by vegetation. They usually indicate desertification or soil erosion, and serve as nesting and burrow sites for animals.
==Sub-aqueous dunes==
Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope in typical bedform construction. In the case of sub-aqueous barchan dunes, sediment is lost by their extremities, known as horns.
These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in wavelength and height. The shape of a dune gives information about its formation environment. For instance, rivers produce asymmetrical ripples, with the steeper slip face facing downstream. Ripple marks preserved in sedimentary strata in the geological record can be used to determine the direction of current flow, and thus an indication of the source of the sediments.
Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding.
==Lithified dunes==
A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the colour of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in Zion National Park in the western United States.
A slang term, used in the southwest US, for consolidated and hardened sand dunes is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain traction on the rock.
==Desertification==
Sand dunes can have a negative impact on humans when they encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move via a few different means, all of them helped along by wind. One way that dunes can move is by saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a bouncing ball. When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other particles and cause them to move as well, in a process known as creep. With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet flows. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of metres through such sheet flows. Also as in the case of snow, sand avalanches, falling down the slipface of the dunes—that face away from the winds—also move the dunes forward.
Sand threatens buildings and crops in Africa, the Middle East, and China. Drenching sand dunes with oil stops their migration, but this approach uses a valuable resource and is quite destructive to the dunes' animal habitats. Sand fences might also slow their movement to a crawl, but geologists are still analyzing results for the optimum fence designs. Preventing sand dunes from overwhelming towns, villages, and agricultural areas has become a priority for the United Nations Environment Programme. Planting dunes with vegetation also helps to stabilise them.
==Conservation==
Dune habitats provide niches for highly specialized plants and animals, including numerous rare species and some endangered species. Due to widespread human population expansion, dunes face destruction through land development and recreational usages, as well as alteration to prevent the encroachment of sand onto inhabited areas. Some countries, notably the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, and Sri Lanka have developed significant programs of dune protection through the use of sand dune stabilization. In the U.K., a Biodiversity Action Plan has been developed to assess dunes loss and to prevent future dunes destruction.
==Examples==
===Africa===
Alexandria Coastal Dunefields, in the Eastern Cape, South Africa
Witsand Nature Reserve in the Kalahari Desert, South Africa
The white dunes of De Hoop Nature Reserve, South Africa
The dunes of the Suguta Valley, a desert part of the Great Rift Valley in northwestern Kenya
The dunes of the Danakil Depression, northeastern Ethiopia toward the border with Eritrea
The dunes of Sossusvlei in the greater Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia
Chad Basin National Park in northern Nigeria
The coastal dunes of Iona National Park in the southwesternmost part of Angola
Khawa dunes in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, the southwesternmost part of Botswana
La Dune Rose in the city of Gao in northern Mali near the Niger River
Erg Aoukar in southeastern Mauritania extending into Mali
Erg Chech in southwestern Algeria and northern Mali
Erg Chebbi and Erg Chigaga in southern Morocco
Grand Erg Oriental in northeastern Algeria and southern Tunisia
Grand Erg Occidental in western Algeria
The Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq in southwestern Libya
The Corralejo dunes in the Canary Islands, Spain
The Rebiana Sand Sea in southeastern Libya
The Great Sand Sea in southeastern Libya and southwestern Egypt
The Selima Sand Sheet in northwestern Sudan
The dunes of the Bayuda Desert in northern Sudan
The dunes of the Lompoul Desert in northwestern Senegal
The coastal dunes of Bazaruto Island, Mozambique
Erg du Djourab in northern Chad
The dunes of the Mourdi Depression in northeastern Chad
The dunes of Tin Toumma Desert, in southeastern Niger
Grand Erg de Bilma in the Ténéré, in northern Niger
The dunes of Oursi in the Sahel Region, northern Burkina Faso
Tanzania's Shifting Sands near Olduvai Gorge
===Asia===
Sunset view dunes in the Alankuda village on Kalpitiya peninsula in Sri Lanka.
The dunes in the Thar Desert in India and Pakistan
Tottori Sand Dunes, Tottori Prefecture, Japan
Rig-e Jenn in the Central Desert of Iran.
Rig-e Lut in the Southeast of Iran.
The Ilocos Norte Sand Dunes in the Philippines, particularly Paoay Sand Dunes.
Moreeb Dune in Liwa Oasis, United Arab Emirates, used as an arena for drag motor sports and Sandboarding.
Gumuk Pasir Parangkusumo near Parangtritis beach in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Lautan Pasir, a volcanic dune in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, Indonesia.
Mui Ne, Vietnam.
Wahiba Sands, Oman
Teri, red dune complex in southern India
The dunes of the Taklamakan Desert in southwest Xinjiang in Northwest China
Tukulans of the Central Yakutian Lowland, Russia
===Europe===
The Dunes of Dyuni, near Pomorie, Bulgaria, vast area of sand dunes in the Burgas Province
The Dune of Pilat, not far from Bordeaux, France, is the largest known sand dune in Europe
The Dunes of Piscinas, in the south west of Sardinia island.
Sands of Forvie within the Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
Oxwich Dunes, near Swansea, is on the Gower Peninsula in Wales.
Winterton Dunes – Norfolk, England
Słowiński National Park, Poland
Siedlec Desert, Poland
Starczynów Desert, now mostly forested dunes, Poland
Sand dunes of Lemnos, Lesbos Prefecture, Greece
Akrotiri Sand Dune, Lemesos, Cyprus
Råbjerg mile, Northern Jutland, Denmark
Thy National Park, North Denmark Region, Denmark
Dunes of Corrubedo, Spain
Cresmina Dune, Portugal
Northern Littoral Natural Park, Portugal
Dune of Salir, Portugal
São Jacinto Dunes Natural Reserve, Portugal
Rëra e Hedhur in Shëngjin, Albania
De Hoge Veluwe National Park, Veluwe, Netherlands
Kootwijkerzand, Veluwe, Netherlands, 7 km2
Dunes of Texel National Park, Texel, Netherlands
Zuid-Kennemerland National Park, North Holland, Netherlands
Berkheide, Netherlands
Ammothines Lemnou, Lemnos, Greece
Dunes of the Curonian Spit, Lithuania and Russia
Parnidis Dune, Vecekrugas Dune - Curonian Spit, Lithuania
Oleshky Sands, Ukraine
Ullahau, Sweden, Big Parabel Dune and dune system
===North America===
==== Canada ====
Victoria Island Sand Dunes,160 km North West of Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, Canada. Approximately 600 square kilometers, the largest in Canada, third largest in North America and the largest in the Arctic. There are two lakes with direct access to the Dunes from float planes.
The Athabasca Sand Dunes, located in the Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Saskatchewan.
Carcross Desert near Carcross, Yukon
==== United States ====
Alaska:
Nogahabara Sand Dunes in western Alaska.
Great Kobuk Sand Dunes, Kobuk Valley National Park, Alaska
California:
The Cadiz Dunes in the Mojave Trails National Monument in California.
The Kelso Dunes in the Mojave Desert of California.
Eureka Valley Sand Dunes and Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes in Death Valley National Park, California.
Algodones Dunes near Brawley, California.
Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, on the central coast of California.
Cat Dune in the Cronese Mountains is a rare type of dune called a sand ramp.
Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado.
The Great Dune found in Cape Henlopen State Park in Lewes, Delaware.
Bruneau Dunes State Park – Owyhee Desert, Idaho
Indiana Dunes National Park, Indiana, on the south shore of Lake Michigan.
Herring Cove, Race Point and The Province Lands bicycle path in Provincetown, Massachusetts as part of the US National Park Service of the Cape Cod National Seashore.
Michigan:
Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake Michigan.
Warren Dunes State Park, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake Michigan.
Grand Sable Dunes, in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan.
Hoffmaster State Park – Muskegon, Michigan
Silver Lake State Park — a sand dunes that allows off-road vehicle use located near Mears, Michigan.
Grey Cloud Dunes- Minnesota
White Sands National Park, New Mexico.
Jockey's Ridge State Park – on the Outer Banks, North Carolina.
Beaver Dunes State Park near Beaver, Oklahoma.
Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area near Florence, Oregon, on the Pacific Coast.
Monahans Sandhills State Park near Odessa, Texas.
Little Sahara Recreation Area, Utah.
The Killpecker sand dunes of the Red Desert in southwestern Wyoming.
==== Mexico ====
Samalayuca Dunes, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico
===South America===
Argentina:
Duna Federico Kirbus in Catamarca Province, Argentina
Villa Gesell in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
Brazil:
Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in the state of Maranhão, Brazil
Ilha Comprida Environmental Protection Area in the state of São Paulo, Brazil
Joaquina Beach Dunes in Florianópolis, in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil
Jericoacoara National Park, in the state of Ceará, Brazil
Genipabu in Natal, Brazil
Chile:
Cerro Medanoso in Atacama Region, Chile
Colún Beach, Valdivian Coastal Reserve in Chile
, Chile
, urban dune in Iquique, Chile
Peru:
Cerro Blanco in Nazca Province, Peru
Huacachina in Ica Region, Peru
Medanos de Coro National Park near the town of Coro, in Falcón State, Venezuela
===Oceania===
Simpson Desert sand dunes in the Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia, Australia
Coorong National Park in South Australia, Australia
Lincoln National Park in South Australia, Australia
Coffin Bay National Park in South Australia, Australia
Fraser Island in Queensland, Australia
Cronulla sand dunes in New South Wales, Australia
Stockton Beach in New South Wales, Australia
Lancelin sand dunes in Western Australia, Australia
Te Paki sand dunes near Cape Reinga, New Zealand
===World's highest dunes===
===Sand dune systems===
(coastal dunes featuring succession)
Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Alberta and Saskatchewan
Ashdod Sand Dune, Israel
Bamburgh Dunes, Northumberland, England
Bradley Beach, New Jersey
Circeo National Park, a Mediterranean dune area on the southwest coast of the Lazio region of Italy
Cronulla sand dunes, NSW, Australia
Crymlyn Burrows, Wales
Dawlish Warren, Devon, England
Fraser Island, Queensland Australia, largest sand island in the world
Indiana Dunes National Park, Indiana
Kenfig Burrows, Wales
Margam burrows, Wales
Murlough Sand Dunes, Newcastle, Co Down, Northern Ireland
Morfa Harlech sand dunes, Gwynedd, Wales
Newborough Warren, North Wales
Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, near North Bend, Oregon
Penhale Sands, Cornwall, England
Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan
Sandy Island Beach State Park, Richland, New York
Studland, Dorset, England
Thy National Park, North Denmark Region, Denmark
Winterton, Norfolk, England
Woolacombe, Devon, England
Ynyslas Sand Dunes, Wales
===Extraterrestrial dunes===
Dunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown. Dunes are common on Mars and in the equatorial regions of Titan.
Titan's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20–30 km. The regions are not topographically confined, resembling sand seas. These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west-to-east wind flow. The sand is likely composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in.
Dunes are a popular theme in science fiction, featuring in depictions of dry Desert planets appearing as early as the 1956 film Forbidden Planet and Frank Herbert's 1965 novel Dune. The environment of the desert planet Arrakis (also known as Dune) in the Dune franchise Dune in turn inspired the Star Wars franchise, which includes prominent theme of dunes on fictional planets such as Tatooine, Geonosis, and Jakku.
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"Lesbos Prefecture",
"Bamburgh Dunes",
"Cross-bedding",
"Norfolk",
"Albania",
"creep (sand dunes)",
"Lithuania",
"Idaho",
"Senegal",
"Indonesia",
"Pomorie",
"Rub' al Khali",
"saltation (geology)",
"Swansea",
"Middle Dutch",
"Mourdi Depression",
"Sardinia",
"humus",
"landform",
"slipface",
"Atacama Region",
"Cronese Mountains",
"Owyhee Desert",
"Brawley, California",
"Idehan Murzuq",
"Olduvai Gorge",
"loess",
"Falcón State",
"gravel",
"Sossusvlei",
"Erg Chebbi",
"Dasht-e Lut",
"Ashdod Sand Dune",
"Minnesota",
"World Heritage Site",
"rare species",
"South Australia",
"Alexandria Coastal Dunefields",
"Places of interest in the Death Valley area",
"Indiana Dunes National Park",
"County Down",
"Thar Desert",
"Bayuda Desert",
"soil pH",
"De Hoge Veluwe National Park",
"Newcastle, County Down",
"soil organic matter",
"avalanche",
"Rig-e Jenn",
"Venezuela",
"Ningxia Province",
"Japan",
"natterjack toad",
"Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park",
"New Jersey",
"pioneer species",
"Botswana",
"Bazaruto Island",
"France",
"New South Wales",
"Morfa Harlech sand dunes",
"Denmark",
"Santa Catarina (state)",
"White Sands National Park",
"Ralph Bagnold",
"Namibia",
"nitrogen",
"Ynyslas Sand Dunes",
"Northumberland",
"sea wort grass",
"United Nations Environment Programme",
"Grand Sable Dunes",
"Netherlands",
"heathland",
"Aberdeenshire",
"Tottori Sand Dunes",
"Mexico",
"Margam burrows",
"bouncing ball",
"canal",
"Internet Archive",
"De Hoop Nature Reserve",
"Tunisia",
"Erg Chech",
"Médanos (geology)",
"Argentina",
"desert",
"Niger",
"Sahel Region",
"Jockey's Ridge State Park",
"Yogyakarta",
"water table",
"Gower Peninsula",
"Morocco",
"Great Sand Dunes National Park",
"Western Desert (Egypt)",
"Khawa, Botswana",
"Dyuni",
"Ceará",
"yellow iris",
"Lompoul desert",
"Carcross Desert",
"United Kingdom",
"Egypt",
"Northern Jutland",
"England",
"Northwest China",
"Sandboarding",
"Maranhão",
"Old West",
"Ilocos Norte",
"Queensland",
"Monterrey Cypress",
"Coffin Bay National Park",
"Gao",
"Desert planet",
"Odessa, Texas",
"Tottori Prefecture",
"bedform",
"Cresmina Dune",
"Wales",
"Ethiopia",
"Bordeaux",
"Curonian Spit",
"Newborough Warren",
"Arbus, Sardinia",
"Geonosis",
"Outer Banks",
"Red Desert (Wyoming)",
"Shëngjin",
"Lancelin, Western Australia",
"Ilha Comprida Environmental Protection Area",
"Provincetown, Massachusetts",
"Great Rift Valley",
"Biodiversity Action Plan",
"Quaternary glaciation",
"Studland",
"Lut Desert",
"Niger River",
"Lewes, Delaware",
"Siedlec Desert",
"Tatooine",
"Great Bilma Erg",
"Peru",
"salt spray",
"underwater",
"Erg Aoukar",
"Utah",
"permafrost",
"Sweden",
"seaweed",
"DK (publisher)",
"Genipabu",
"Sand fence",
"Southern Africa",
"Mauritania",
"Silver Lake State Park (Michigan)",
"Pakistan",
"Villa Gesell",
"Dune of Pyla",
"Cornwall",
"Limassol District",
"Termit Massif Reserve",
"Brisbane",
"Słowiński National Park",
"Bagnold formula",
"Sudan",
"Calluna",
"Wahiba Sands",
"blowout (geology)",
"North Holland",
"Natal, Rio Grande do Norte",
"Seif dune",
"Philippines",
"Bulgaria",
"Eureka Valley Sand Dunes",
"Huacachina",
"Nazca Province",
"Winterton Dunes",
"Northern Territory",
"stoma",
"Richland, New York",
"Mars",
"Veluwe",
"Carcross, Yukon",
"Cronulla sand dunes",
"Greece",
"Ullahau",
"Dune (novel)",
"Namib Desert",
"Badain Jaran Desert",
"conifer",
"Outwash plain",
"Sri Lanka",
"International Space Station",
"University of Georgia Press",
"Point Reyes",
"Ukraine",
"Portugal",
"estuary",
"paha (landform)",
"Cape Reinga",
"Algeria",
"Mozambique",
"vortex",
"Taklamakan Desert",
"sea",
"Selenite (mineral)",
"Krummholz",
"India",
"New Mexico",
"Chad",
"root nodules",
"Arcachon",
"Eritrea",
"Berkheide",
"Salir do Porto",
"tropical cyclone",
"Erg Chigaga",
"Warren Dunes State Park",
"Jakku",
"California",
"foredune",
"Samalayuca Dune Fields",
"Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park",
"Tanzania",
"North Bend, Oregon",
"Italy",
"Stockton Beach",
"Medanos de Coro National Park",
"Simpson Desert",
"U.S. Geological Survey",
"sheet flow",
"Dunhuang",
"United Arab Emirates",
"Arabic",
"Liwa Oasis",
"rhizome",
"National Park Service",
"South Africa",
"Parangtritis",
"North Wales",
"Dry lake",
"Antidune",
"Buenos Aires Province",
"Jericoacoara National Park",
"Woolacombe",
"Lazio",
"Duna Federico Kirbus",
"Fiambalá",
"Kootwijk",
"Mali",
"Rhizome",
"Great Sand Sea",
"Algodones Dunes",
"gypsum",
"Akrotiri Peninsula (Cyprus)",
"Eastern Cape",
"Kalpitiya Peninsula",
"Lincoln National Park",
"North Denmark Region",
"Grand Erg Oriental",
"gorse",
"Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park"
] |
7,891 |
David Lynch
|
David Keith Lynch (January 20, 1946 – January 16, 2025) was an American filmmaker, visual artist, musician, and actor. Widely considered one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, Lynch was often called a "visionary" and was acclaimed for films often distinguished by their surrealist and experimental qualities. In a career spanning more than five decades, he received numerous accolades, including the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement at the Venice Film Festival in 2006 and an Academy Honorary Award in 2019.
Lynch studied painting and made short films before making his first feature, the independent body horror film Eraserhead (1977), which found success as a midnight movie. He earned critical acclaim and nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for the biographical drama The Elephant Man (1980), the mystery thriller Blue Velvet (1986), and the neo-noir Mulholland Drive (2001). For his romantic crime drama Wild at Heart (1990), he received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. He also directed the space opera Dune (1984), the neo-noir Lost Highway (1997), the road movie The Straight Story (1999), and the experimental thriller Inland Empire (2006).
Lynch and Mark Frost created the ABC surrealist horror-mystery series Twin Peaks (1990–1991), for which he received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. Lynch co-wrote and directed its film prequel, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992) and a third season in 2017. His acting career included roles on Twin Peaks, The Cleveland Show (2010–2013), and Louie (2012), and in the films Lucky (2017) and The Fabelmans (2022). He directed music videos for Chris Isaak, X Japan, Moby, Interpol, Nine Inch Nails and Donovan, and commercials for Dior, YSL, Gucci and the New York City Department of Sanitation.
Lynch also worked as a musician, releasing solo albums, and as a furniture designer, cartoonist, animator, photographer, and author. A practitioner of Transcendental Meditation, he founded the David Lynch Foundation to fund meditation lessons for at-risk populations. A lifelong smoker, he died from complications of emphysema after being evacuated from his home due to the January 2025 Southern California wildfires.
==Early life and education ==
{{quote box|width=20em|quote=My childhood was elegant homes, tree-lined streets, the milkman, building backyard forts, droning airplanes, blue skies, picket fences, green grass, cherry trees. Middle America as it's supposed to be. But on the cherry tree there's this pitch oozing out – some black, some yellow, and millions of red ants crawling all over it. I discovered that if one looks a little closer at this beautiful world, there are always red ants underneath. Because I grew up in a perfect world, other things were a contrast. |source= The first film he saw was Henry King's Wait till the Sun Shines, Nellie (1952). His father, Donald Walton Lynch (1915–2007), was a research scientist working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and his mother, Edwina "Sunny" Lynch (née Sundholm; 1919–2004), was an English language tutor. Two of Lynch's maternal great-grandparents were Finnish-Swedish immigrants who arrived in the U.S. during the 19th century. He recalled that his father "would drive me through the woods in his green Forest Service truck, over dirt roads, through the most beautiful forests where the trees are very tall and shafts of sunlight come down and in the mountain streams the rainbow trout leap out and their little trout sides catch glimpses of light. Then my father would drop me in the woods and go off. It was a weird, comforting feeling being in the woods." He was raised as a Presbyterian. The Lynch family often moved around according to where the USDA assigned Donald: Lynch moved with his parents to Sandpoint, Idaho, when he was two months old; two years later, after his brother John was born, the family moved to Spokane, Washington. Lynch's sister Martha was born there. The family then moved to Durham, North Carolina, Boise, Idaho, and Alexandria, Virginia.
At Francis C. Hammond High School in Alexandria, Lynch did not excel academically, having little interest in schoolwork, but he was popular with other students, and after leaving he decided that he wanted to study painting at college. He began his studies at the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design in Washington, D.C., before transferring in 1964 to the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston with roommate musician Peter Wolf. He left after only a year, saying, "I was not inspired AT ALL in that place." He instead decided that he wanted to travel around Europe for three years with his friend Jack Fisk, who was similarly unhappy with his studies at Cooper Union. They had some hopes that they could train in Europe with Austrian expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka at his school. Upon reaching Salzburg, however, they found that Kokoschka was not available. Disillusioned, they returned to the United States after spending only two weeks in Europe. which at the time he felt was a lot of money, to produce Six Men Getting Sick. This led to a commission from one of his fellow students, the wealthy H. Barton Wasserman, who offered him $1,000 () to create a film installation in his home. Spending $478 of that on the second-hand Bolex camera "of [his] dreams", Lynch produced a new animated short but, upon getting the film developed, realized that the result was a blurred, frameless print. He later said, "So I called up [Wasserman] and said, 'Bart, the film is a disaster. The camera was broken and what I've done hasn't turned out.' And he said, 'Don't worry, David, take the rest of the money and make something else for me. Just give me a print.' End of story." where he began studying filmmaking at the AFI Conservatory, a place he later called "completely chaotic and disorganized, which was great ... you quickly learned that if you were going to get something done, you would have to do it yourself. They wanted to let people do their thing." Not long into Eraserheads production, Lynch and Peggy amicably separated and divorced, and he began living full-time on set. In 1977, Lynch married Jack Fisk's sister Mary Fisk. Lynch tried to get it entered into the Cannes Film Festival, but while some reviewers liked it, others felt it was awful, and it was not selected for screening. Reviewers from the New York Film Festival also rejected it, but it screened at the Los Angeles Film Festival, where Ben Barenholtz, the distributor of the Elgin Theater, heard about it. Stanley Kubrick said it was one of his all-time favorite films.
Lynch was still contractually obligated to produce two other projects for De Laurentiis, the first a planned sequel to Dune, which due to the film's failure never went beyond the script stage. Blue Velvet was a critical and commercial success, winning the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Film and earning Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director. David Thomson recalls seeing it for the first time: "The occasion stood as the last moment of transcendence I had felt at the movies—until The Piano. What I mean by that is a kind of passionate involvement with both the story and the making of a film, so that I was simultaneously moved by the enactment on the screen and by discovering that a new director had made the medium alive and dangerous again."
=== 1990–1999: Twin Peaks and film work ===
Lynch met the television producer Mark Frost and they started working together on a biopic of Marilyn Monroe based on Anthony Summers's book The Goddess: The Secret Lives of Marilyn Monroe, but it never got off the ground. After identifying the murderer and moving from Thursday to Saturday night, Twin Peaks continued for several more episodes, but was canceled after a ratings drop. Lynch, who disliked the direction that writers and directors took in the later episodes, directed the final episode. He ended it with a cliffhanger (like season one had), later saying, "that's not the ending. That's the ending that people were stuck with." Calling its plot a "strange blend" of "a road picture, a love story, a psychological drama and a violent comedy", Lynch departed substantially from the novel, changing the ending and incorporating numerous references to The Wizard of Oz. When it won the prize, audience members booed Lynch and the film.
After Wild at Hearts success, Lynch returned to the world of the canceled Twin Peaks, this time without Frost, to make a film that was primarily a prequel but also in part a sequel. Lynch said, "I liked the idea of the story going back and forth in time."
Meanwhile, Lynch worked on some new television shows. He and Frost created the comedy series On the Air (1992), which was canceled after three episodes aired, and he and Montgomery created the three-episode HBO miniseries Hotel Room (1993) about events that happen in one hotel room on different dates.
After his unsuccessful TV ventures, Lynch returned to film. In 1997, he released the non-linear noiresque Lost Highway, which was co-written by Barry Gifford and stars Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette. The film failed commercially and received a mixed response from critics.
Lynch then began work on a film from a script by Mary Sweeney and John E. Roach, The Straight Story, based on the true story of Alvin Straight (Richard Farnsworth), an elderly man from Laurens, Iowa, who goes on a 300-mile journey to visit his sick brother (Harry Dean Stanton) in Mount Zion, Wisconsin, by riding lawnmower. Asked why he chose this script, Lynch said, "that's what I fell in love with next", and expressed his admiration of Straight, describing him as "like James Dean, except he's old". It was named one of the best films of the year by The New York Times; Janet Maslin wrote: "Somehow it took David Lynch to lead audiences past the ultimate frontier: into a G-rated parable of spirituality and decency, seen from the unfashionable vantage point of old age. Mr. Lynch accomplished the unthinkable by putting Richard Farnsworth, in a devastatingly real and rock-solid performance, on a lawnmower at five miles per hour and still building enough drama and emotion for a great chase. Burned out on the surreal and the grotesque, Mr. Lynch faced down inevitable realities about aging and conscience."
===2000–2009: Mulholland Drive and beyond ===
In 1999, Lynch approached ABC again with ideas for a television drama. The network gave Lynch the go-ahead to shoot a two-hour pilot for the series Mulholland Drive, but disputes over content and running time led to the project being shelved indefinitely. With $7 million from the French production company StudioCanal, Lynch completed the pilot as a film, Mulholland Drive. The film, a nonlinear surrealist tale of Hollywood's dark side, stars Naomi Watts, Laura Harring, and Justin Theroux. It performed relatively well at the box office worldwide and was a critical success, earning Lynch Best Director at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival (shared with Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There) and Best Director from the New York Film Critics Association. He also received his third Academy Award nomination for Best Director. In 2016, the film was named the best film of the 21st century in a BBC poll of 177 film critics from 36 countries. Roger Ebert, who had dismissed much of Lynch's earlier work, wrote: "At last his experiment doesn't shatter the test tubes. The movie is a surrealist dreamscape in the form of a Hollywood film noir, and the less sense it makes, the more we can't stop watching it."
With the rising popularity of the Internet, Lynch decided to use it as a distribution channel, releasing several new series he had created exclusively on his website, davidlynch.com, which went online on December 10, 2001. In 2002, he created a series of online shorts, DumbLand. Intentionally crude in content and execution, the eight-episode series was later released on DVD. The same year, Lynch released a surreal sitcom, Rabbits, about a family of humanoid rabbits. Later, he made his experiments with Digital Video available in the form of the Japanese-style horror short Darkened Room. In 2006, Lynch's feature film Inland Empire was released. At three hours, it is his longest film. Like Mulholland Drive and Lost Highway, it lacks a traditional narrative structure. It stars Laura Dern, Harry Dean Stanton, and Justin Theroux, with cameos by Naomi Watts and Laura Harring as the voices of Suzie and Jane Rabbit, and a performance by Jeremy Irons. Lynch called Inland Empire "a mystery about a woman in trouble". In an effort to promote it, he made appearances with a cow and a placard bearing the slogan "Without cheese there would be no Inland Empire".
In 2009, Lynch produced a documentary Web series directed by his son Austin Lynch and friend Jason S., Interview Project. Interested in working with Werner Herzog, in 2009 Lynch collaborated on Herzog's film My Son, My Son, What Have Ye Done. With a nonstandard narrative, the film is based on a true story of an actor who committed matricide while acting in a production of the Oresteia, and stars Grace Zabriskie. In 2009, Lynch had plans to direct a documentary on Maharishi Mahesh Yogi consisting of interviews with people who knew him, but nothing came of it.
=== 2010–2019: Return to television ===
In 2010, Lynch began making guest appearances on the Family Guy spin-off The Cleveland Show as Gus the Bartender. He had been convinced to appear in the show by its lead actor, Mike Henry, a fan of Lynch who felt that his life had changed after he saw Wild at Heart. Lady Blue Shanghai is a 16-minute promotional film written, directed and edited by Lynch for Dior. It was released on the Internet in May 2010.
Lynch directed a concert by English new wave band Duran Duran on March 23, 2011. The concert was streamed live on YouTube from the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles as the kickoff to the second season of Unstaged: An Original Series from American Express. "The idea is to try and create on the fly, layers of images permeating Duran Duran on the stage", Lynch said. "A world of experimentation and hopefully some happy accidents". The animated short I Touch a Red Button Man, a collaboration between Lynch and the band Interpol, played in the background during Interpol's concert at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2011. The short, which features Interpol's song "Lights", was later made available online.
It was believed that Lynch was going to retire from the film industry; according to Abel Ferrara, Lynch "doesn't even want to make films any more. I've talked to him about it, OK? I can tell when he talks about it." But in a June 2012 interview, Lynch said he lacked the inspiration to start a new movie project, but "If I got an idea that I fell in love with, I'd go to work tomorrow". In September 2012, he appeared in the three-part "Late Show" arc on FX's Louie as Jack Dahl. In November 2012, Lynch hinted at plans for a new film while attending Plus Camerimage in Bydgoszcz, Poland, saying, "something is coming up. It will happen but I don't know exactly when". At Plus Camerimage, Lynch received a lifetime achievement award and the Key to the City from Bydgoszcz's mayor, Rafał Bruski. In a January 2013 interview, Laura Dern confirmed that she and Lynch were planning a new project, and The New York Times later reported that Lynch was working on the script. Idem Paris, a short documentary film about the lithographic process, was released online in February 2013. On June 28, 2013, a video Lynch directed for the Nine Inch Nails song "Came Back Haunted" was released. He also did photography for the Dumb Numbers's self-titled album released in August 2013.
On October 6, 2014, Lynch confirmed via Twitter that he and Frost would start shooting a new, nine-episode season of Twin Peaks in 2015, with the episodes expected to air in 2016 on Showtime. Lynch and Frost wrote all the episodes. On April 5, 2015, Lynch announced via Twitter that the project was still alive, but he was no longer going to direct because the budget was too low for what he wanted to do. On May 15, 2015, he said via Twitter that he would return to the revival, having sorted out his issues with Showtime. Showtime CEO David Nevins confirmed this, announcing that Lynch would direct every episode of the revival and that the original nine episodes had been extended to 18. Filming was completed by April 2016. The two-episode premiere aired on May 21, 2017.
While doing press for Twin Peaks, Lynch was again asked if he had retired from film and seemed to confirm that he had made his last feature film, responding, "Things changed a lot ... So many films were not doing well at the box office, even though they might have been great films and the things that were doing well at the box office weren't the things that I would want to do". Lynch later said that this statement had been misconstrued: "I did not say I quit cinema, simply that nobody knows what the future holds."
===2020–2025: Weather reports and final projects ===
Lynch did weather reports on his now-defunct website in the 2000s. He returned to doing weather reports in 2020 from his apartment in Los Angeles, along with two new series, What is David Lynch Working on Today?, which detailed him making collages, and Today's Number Is..., in which he picked a random number from 1 to 10 each day from a jar containing ten numbered ping-pong balls. In one of his weather reports, Lynch detailed a dream he had about being a German soldier shot by an American soldier on D-Day. Most of his Weather Reports featured Lynch saying he was "thinking about" songs, including songs by The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Everly Brothers, and The Platters. After his final weather report on December 16, 2022, Lynch said in an April 2023 interview that the series, along with What is David Lynch Working on Today? and Today's Number Is..., would not return, adding: "Now I can sleep longer in the morning. I had to get up very early to consult the real weather bulletin. In two years I have not missed a single one."
In June 2020, Lynch rereleased his 2002 web series Rabbits on YouTube. On July 17, 2020, his store for merchandise released a set of face masks with Lynch's art on them for the COVID-19 pandemic. In February 2022, it was announced that Lynch had been cast in Steven Spielberg's semi-autobiographical film The Fabelmans in a role Variety called "a closely guarded secret". Lynch played John Ford, whom the young Spielberg met, an encounter Spielberg considers formative. Gabriel LaBelle played Spielberg's alter ego Sammy Fabelman, and Lynch as Ford offers the young man advice on filmmaking. Lynch and the cast were nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. J. Hoberman wrote: "Mr. Lynch never made a conventional, crowd-pleasing Hollywood movie. But in 2022, he agreed to a cameo in one: Mr. Spielberg's autobiographical feature The Fabelmans, where the enigmatic if not eldritch Mr. Lynch was cast as John Ford, the maker of westerns and the grand old curmudgeon of American cinema. It was a sentimental gesture that one can only call Lynchian."
=== The Angriest Dog in the World ===
In 1983, Lynch began writing and drawing a comic strip, The Angriest Dog in the World, that featured unchanging graphics of a tethered dog so angry it could not move, alongside cryptic philosophical references. It was published from 1983 to 1992 in The Village Voice, Creative Loafing, and other tabloid and alternative publications. Lynch's alma mater, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, presented an exhibition of his work called "The Unified Field", which ran from September 12, 2014, to January 2015. Lynch was represented by Kayne Griffin Corcoran in Los Angeles, and began exhibiting his paintings, drawings, and photography with the gallery in 2011.
Lynch considered the 20th-century Irish-born British artist Francis Bacon his "number one kinda hero painter", saying, "Normally I only like a couple of years of a painter's work, but I like everything of Bacon's. The guy, you know, had the stuff."
===Music===
Lynch was involved in several music projects, many of them related to his films, including sound design for some of his films (sometimes alongside collaborators Alan Splet, Dean Hurley, and Angelo Badalamenti). His album genres included experimental rock, ambient soundscapes and, most recently, avant-garde electropop music. He produced and wrote lyrics for Julee Cruise's first two albums, Floating into the Night (1989) and The Voice of Love (1993), in collaboration with Badalamenti, who wrote the music and also produced. In 1991, Lynch directed a 30-second teaser trailer for Michael Jackson's album Dangerous at Jackson's request. He also worked on the 1998 Jocelyn Montgomery album Lux Vivens (Living Light), The Music of Hildegard von Bingen. Lynch wrote music for Wild at Heart, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, Mulholland Drive, and Rabbits. In 2001, he released BlueBob, a blues album performed by Lynch and John Neff. The album is notable for Lynch's unusual guitar playing style. He plays "upside down and backwards, like a lap guitar", and relies heavily on effects pedals. Lynch wrote several pieces for Inland Empire, including two songs, "Ghost of Love" and "Walkin' on the Sky", in which he made his public debut as a singer. In 2009, his book-CD set Dark Night of the Soul was released. In 2008, he started his own record label, David Lynch MC, which first released Fox Bat Strategy: A Tribute to Dave Jaurequi in early 2009.
In November 2010, Lynch released two electropop music singles, "Good Day Today" and "I Know", on the independent British label Sunday Best Recordings. Of the songs, he said, "I was just sitting and these notes came and then I went down and started working with Dean [Hurley] and then these few notes, 'I want to have a good day, today' came and the song was built around that". The singles were followed by an album, Crazy Clown Time, which was released in November 2011 and described as an "electronic blues album". The songs were sung by Lynch, with guest vocals on one track by Karen O of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and composed and performed by Lynch and Hurley.
On September 29, 2011, Lynch released This Train with vocalist and longtime musical collaborator Chrystabell on the La Rose Noire label. Lynch's third studio album, The Big Dream, was released in 2013 and included the single "I'm Waiting Here", with Swedish singer-songwriter Lykke Li. The Big Dreams release was preceded by TBD716, an enigmatic 43-second video featured on Lynch's YouTube and Vine accounts. For Record Store Day 2014, Lynch released The Big Dream Remix EP, which featured four songs from his album remixed by various artists. This included the track "Are You Sure" remixed by the band Bastille, which is known to have been inspired by Lynch's work for its songs and videos, especially the song "Laura Palmer".
In November 2018, a collaborative album by Lynch and Badalamenti, Thought Gang, was released on vinyl and compact disc. The album was recorded around 1993 but not released at the time. Two tracks from it appear on the soundtrack for Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me and three others were used for Twin Peaks: The Return. In May 2019, Lynch provided guest vocals on the track "Fire is Coming" by Flying Lotus. He also co-wrote the track that appears on Flying Lotus's album Flamagra. A video accompanying the song was released on April 17, 2019. In May 2021, Lynch produced a track, "I Am the Shaman", by Scottish artist Donovan. The song was released on May 10, Donovan's 75th birthday. Lynch also directed the accompanying video.
In August 2024, Lynch released his final album, Cellophane Memories, a collaboration between him and Chrystabell. He also directed videos for two tracks on the album, "Sublime Eternal Love" and "The Answers to the Questions".
===Design===
Lynch designed and constructed furniture for his 1997 film Lost Highway, including the small table in the Madison house and the VCR case. In April 1997, he presented a furniture collection at the prestigious Milan Furniture Fair. "Design and music, art and architecture—they all belong together", he said.
Working with designer Raphael Navot, architectural agency Enia, and light designer Thierry Dreyfus, Lynch conceived and designed a nightclub in Paris, Silencio. It opened in October 2011, and is a private members' club, but is free to the public after midnight. Patrons have access to concerts, films, and other performances by artists and guests. Inspired by the club of the same name in Mulholland Drive, the underground space consists of a series of rooms, each dedicated to a certain purpose or atmosphere. "Silencio is something dear to me. I wanted to create an intimate space where all the arts could come together. There won't be a Warhol-like guru, but it will be open to celebrated artists of all disciplines to come here to program or create what they want."
===Literature===
In 2006, Lynch wrote a short book, Catching the Big Fish: Meditation, Consciousness, and Creativity, which describes his creative processes, stories from his career, and the benefits he realized from his practice of Transcendental Meditation. He describes the metaphor behind the title in the introduction:
The book weaves a nonlinear autobiography with descriptions of Lynch's experiences during Transcendental Meditation. Lynch also narrated it in an audiobook.
Working with Kristine McKenna, Lynch published a biography-memoir hybrid, Room to Dream, in June 2018.
===Website===
Lynch designed his personal website, a site exclusive to paying members, where he posted short videos, his absurdist series Dumbland, interviews, and other items. The site also featured a daily weather report where Lynch gave a brief description of the weather in Los Angeles, where he resided. He continued to broadcast this report (usually no longer than 30 seconds) on his personal YouTube channel, DAVID LYNCH THEATER, along with "TODAY'S NUMBER", where he drew a random number between one and ten out of a bingo cage. Lynch also created a short film, "Rabbits", for his website.
Lynch was a coffee drinker and had his own line of special organic blends available for purchase on his website and at Whole Foods. Called "David Lynch Signature Cup", the coffee has been advertised via flyers included with several Lynch-related DVD releases, including Inland Empire and the Gold Box edition of Twin Peaks. The brand's tagline is "It's all in the beans ... and I'm just full of beans", a line Justin Theroux's character says in Inland Empire.
==Personal life==
===Relationships===
Lynch had several long-term relationships. In January 1968, he married Peggy Reavey, They filed for divorce in 1974. In June 1977, Lynch married Mary Fisk, with whom he had one child, Austin Jack Lynch, in 1982. They separated in 1985 and divorced in 1987. Sweeney also worked as Lynch's producer and co-wrote and produced The Straight Story. The two married in May 2006, but filed for divorce that June. In 2009, Lynch married actress Emily Stofle, Stofle filed for divorce in 2023. A divorce settlement agreement was reached on December 20, 2024, but the court had not issued a final divorce decree at the time of Lynch's death.
===Political and public views===
In 2009, Lynch signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski after Polanski was detained while traveling to a film festival arrest on his 1977 sexual abuse charges. The petition argued the arrest would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown "freely and safely", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door "for actions of which no-one can know the effects."
Lynch said he was "not a political person" and knew little about politics. Describing his political philosophy in 2006, he said, "at that time [the 1990s], I thought of myself as a libertarian. I believed in next to zero government. And I still would lean toward no government and not so many rules, except for traffic lights and things like this. I really believe in traffic regulations." He continued: "I'm a Democrat now. And I've always been a Democrat, really. But I don't like the Democrats a lot, either, because I'm a smoker, and I think a lot of the Democrats have come up with these rules for non-smoking."
In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Lynch endorsed Bernie Sanders, whom he described as "for the people". He voted for Sanders in the 2016 Democratic primaries and for Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson in the general election. In a June 2018 interview with The Guardian, Lynch said that Donald Trump could go down as "one of the greatest presidents in history because he has disrupted the [country] so much. No one is able to counter this guy in an intelligent way." He added: "Our so-called leaders can't take the country forward, can't get anything done. Like children, they are. Trump has shown all this." Lynch later clarified on Facebook that his words were taken out of context, saying that Trump would "not have a chance to go down in history as a great president" if he continued on the course of "causing suffering and division" and advising him to "treat all the people as you would like to be treated".
In one of his daily weather report videos in 2020, Lynch expressed support for Black Lives Matter protests following the murder of George Floyd. In a 2022 weather report, he condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine and addressed Russian president Vladimir Putin directly, telling him there was "no room for this kind of absurdity anymore" and that Putin would reap what he had sown, lifetime after lifetime.
Lynch was present with other Boy Scouts outside the White House at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy, which took place on Lynch's 15th birthday.]]
Lynch advocated Transcendental Meditation as a spiritual practice. He was initiated into Transcendental Meditation in July 1973, and practiced the technique consistently thereafter. Lynch said he met Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the TM movement, for the first time in 1975 at the Spiritual Regeneration Movement center in Los Angeles. He became close with the Maharishi during a month-long "Millionaire's Enlightenment Course" held in 2003, the fee for which was $1 million.
In July 2005, Lynch launched the David Lynch Foundation for Consciousness-Based Education and Peace, established to help finance scholarships for students in middle and high schools who are interested in learning Transcendental Meditation and to fund research on the technique and its effects on learning. Together with John Hagelin and Fred Travis, a brain researcher from Maharishi University of Management (MUM), Lynch promoted his vision on college campuses with a tour that began in September 2005. Lynch was on MUM's board of trustees and hosted an annual "David Lynch Weekend for World Peace and Meditation" there, beginning in 2005. The foundation has also funded meditation lessons for veterans and other "at-risk" populations.
Lynch was working for the building and establishment of seven buildings in which 8,000 salaried people would practice advanced meditation techniques, "pumping peace for the world". He estimated the cost at US$7 billion. As of December 2005, he had spent $400,000 of his money and raised $1 million in donations. In 2009, Lynch went to India to film interviews with people who knew the Maharishi as part of a biographical documentary.
In 2009, Lynch organized a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall for the David Lynch Foundation. On April 4, 2009, the "Change Begins Within" concert featured Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Donovan, Sheryl Crow, Eddie Vedder, Moby, Bettye LaVette, Ben Harper, and Mike Love. David Wants to Fly is a 2010 documentary by German filmmaker David Sieveking "that follows the path of his professional idol, David Lynch, into the world of Transcendental Meditation (TM)". At the end of the film, Sieveking becomes disillusioned with the TM movement.
An independent project starring Lynch called Beyond The Noise: My Transcendental Meditation Journey, directed by Dana Farley, who has severe dyslexia and attention deficit disorder, was shown at film festivals in 2011, including the Marbella Film Festival. Filmmaker Kevin Sean Michaels is one of the producers. In 2013, Lynch wrote: "Transcendental Meditation leads to a beautiful, peaceful revolution. A change from suffering and negativity to happiness and a life more and more free of any problems." In April 2022, Lynch announced a $500 million transcendental meditation world peace initiative to fund transcendental meditation for 30,000 college students. In September 2024, Lynch made his last published broadcast speech at Meditate America 2024. He discussed the Beatles' (particularly John Lennon's) practice of TM during their visit to India in 1968 and played a cover of "Across the Universe".
==Illness and death==
In August 2024, Lynch said in an interview that he had been diagnosed with emphysema in 2020 after a lifetime of smoking and had become housebound due to health risks, which he surmised would likely prevent him from directing any new projects. Three months later, he told People that he had quit smoking in 2022, having started when he was eight years old; he said he was reliant on supplemental oxygen for most daily activities and could "hardly walk across a room".
Lynch also said he could no longer leave his house, meaning that he would only be able to direct remotely. He said a project for Netflix, with working titles Wisteria and Unrecorded Night, had fallen through, but that he would like to see his unrealized projects Antelope Don't Run No More and Snootworld realized. Lynch said that month that he was working on existing projects as much as he could, and that he was in good health except for emphysema, and had no plans to retire.
In January 2025, Lynch was evacuated from his Los Angeles home due to the Southern California wildfires. These events preceded a terminal decline in his health, and he died at his daughter's home in Los Angeles on the morning of January 16, aged 78. His family posted a message reading:
His death certificate, publicly reported in February 2025, concluded that the immediate cause of death was cardiac arrest, with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease cited as the underlying cause. Dehydration was also mentioned as a significant contributor. The death certificate said he was cremated, with his ashes buried at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.
===Tributes===
Lynch's collaborators Nicolas Cage, Laura Dern, Kyle MacLachlan, Naomi Watts, and Ray Wise wrote tributes to him. MacLachlan honored Lynch with a tribute in The New York Times. He wrote: "I was willing to follow him anywhere because joining him on the journey of discovery, searching and finding together, was the whole point. I stepped out into the unknown because I knew David was floating out there with me... I will miss my dear friend. He has made my world—all of our worlds—both wonderful and strange".
Steven Spielberg wrote of directing Lynch in The Fabelmans: "Here was one of my heroes—David Lynch—playing one of my heroes [...] The world is going to miss such an original and unique voice. His films have already stood the test of time and they always will." Martin Scorsese wrote a statement that read in part, "He put images on the screen unlike anything that I or anybody else had ever seen—he made everything strange, uncanny, revelatory and new." Tributes were also paid by Judd Apatow, Mel Brooks, Francis Ford Coppola, Terry Gilliam, James Gunn, Ron Howard, Patton Oswalt, Pedro Pascal, Billy Corgan, Questlove, and Ben Stiller.
Critic Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian eulogized Lynch as "the great American surrealist". Critic Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "many films are called revelatory and visionary, but Lynch's films seem made to exemplify these terms", citing his "audacious invention and exquisite realization of symbolic details and uncanny realms".
Lynch's oft-chosen self-description was "Eagle Scout, Missoula, Montana".
Around the same time, a similar scenario occurred at Twede's Cafe in North Bend, Washington, the original location of the "Double R Diner" in Twin Peaks. As at Big Boy's, flowers, photos, and personal letters were left outside the diner.
==Artistry==
===Style===
Lynch's distinctive style blends surrealism with classic Hollywood storytelling and "pulpy" romanticism, often employing experimental filmmaking techniques alongside elements from commercial genres such as film noir, supernatural horror, soap opera, camp comedy, and erotic thriller. His films have been said to evoke a "dreamlike quality of mystery or menace" through striking visual imagery, and frequently combine "surreal or sinister elements with mundane, everyday environments". Critic Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called Lynch "the great American surrealist" and described his subversive narratives as "splitting and swirling in non sequiturs and Escher loops". Film analyst Jennifer Hudson wrote, "Like most surrealists, Lynch's language of the unexplained is the fluid language of dreams". Ryan Gilbey called Lynch "the greatest cinematic surrealist since [[Luis Buñuel|[Luis] Buñuel]]" and "the most original film-maker to emerge in postwar America".
J. Hoberman wrote that Lynch's work is characterized by "troubling juxtapositions, outlandish non sequiturs and eroticized derangement of the commonplace". Nick De Semlyen of Empire described his films as moving "back and forth between violent chaos and otherworldly beauty", and suggested that "while other filmmakers tried to wrestle order out of chaos, compacting their stories into neat three-act structures, Lynch revelled in the tumult—that feeling that life is a beautiful, terrifying mystery."
Lynch's work inspired the use of the adjective "Lynchian" to describe art or situations reminiscent of his style.
===Themes and motifs===
Lynch refused to publicly explain or assign any specific meaning to his works, preferring that viewers interpret them in their own ways. Asked how audiences should approach his films, he said: "You should not be afraid of using your intuition and feel your way through. Have the experience and trust your inner knowing of what it is."
{{quote box
| width = 25%
| align = left
| quote = I look at the world and I see absurdity all around me. People do strange things constantly, to the point that, for the most part, we manage not to see it. That's why I love coffee shops and public places—I mean, they're all out there.
| source = —David Lynch Another prominent motif is industry, with repeated imagery of "the clunk of machinery, the power of pistons, shadows of oil drills pumping, screaming woodmills and smoke billowing factories".
In The New Yorker, Dennis Lim concluded that "the primal terror of Lynch’s films is an existential one" and that "the volatility of the self and of reality" is central to his work. Lim wrote that "for Lynch, disruption is generative: trauma, the recurring subject of his films, can rupture the fabric of reality". Kite wrote that "the central mystery" of Lynch's work is rooted in overlapping "worlds" of consciousness and the resultant "perpetual folding between outside and inside". Author David Foster Wallace characterized Lynch's films as deconstructing "the weird irony of the banal". Hoberman identified a duality between "exaggerated, even saccharine innocence" and "depraved evil" in his work, Joseph Joyce of Angelus wrote, "his work could perhaps properly be understood as the marriage between Western kitsch and Eastern spirituality". Kite suggested that Lynch could be understood as "a religious or spiritual artist in a loosely categoric sense", and called his worldview "essentially monist" but punctuated by superficial duality and Gnostic conflict.
We are like the spider. We weave our life and then move along in it. We are like the dreamer who dreams and then lives in the dream. This is true for the entire universe.
All but two of Lynch's films are set in the United States, and he frequently referenced 1950s and early 1960s U.S. culture despite his works being set in later decades. Bradshaw wrote, "[n]o director ever interpreted the American Dream with more artless innocence than David Lynch", citing his work's juxtaposition of the safety of "the suburban drive and the picket fence" with "escape, danger, adventure, sex and death". Joyce wrote, "it's easy to presume that Lynch was cynic. But [...] he really did love Americana; blue jeans and slicked hair, soda fountains, Roy Orbison and, yes, milkshakes". Lynch said: "I like certain things about America and it gives me ideas. When I go around and I see things, it sparks little stories". Roman Polanski, Jacques Tati, He said that Wilder's Sunset Boulevard (1950) was one of his favorite pictures, Kubrick's Lolita (1962), Fellini's 8½ (1963), Tati's Monsieur Hulot's Holiday (1953), Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), and Herzog's Stroszek (1977). Maya Deren's 1943 experimental film Meshes of the Afternoon has also been recognized as a possible influence on Lynch. Some have suggested that Lynch's love of Hitchcock's Vertigo influenced his use of dual-identity female roles.
Edward Hopper and Francis Bacon were two of Lynch's favorite painters. Lynch also praised installation artist Edward Kienholz. Lynch said his favorite books were Frank Capra's The Name Above the Title, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, Robert Henri's The Art Spirit, Robert Flynn Johnson's Anonymous Photographs, and Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis.
===Recurring collaborators===
Lynch was noted for his collaborations with various production artists and composers on his films and other productions. He frequently worked with composer Angelo Badalamenti, film editor Mary Sweeney, casting director Johanna Ray, and actors Harry Dean Stanton, Jack Nance, Kyle MacLachlan, Catherine Coulson, Laura Dern, Naomi Watts, Isabella Rossellini, and Grace Zabriskie.
===Legacy===
Lynch was often called a "visionary". In 2007, a panel of critics convened by The Guardian announced that "after all the discussion, no one could fault the conclusion that David Lynch is the most important film-maker of the current era", and AllMovie called him "the Renaissance man of modern American filmmaking". Film critic Pauline Kael called Lynch "the first populist surrealist".
|-
| 1980
| The Elephant Man
| Paramount Pictures
|-
| 1984
| Dune
| Universal Pictures
|-
| 1986
| Blue Velvet
| De Laurentiis Entertainment Group
|-
| 1990
| Wild at Heart
| The Samuel Goldwyn Company
|-
| 1992
| Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me
| New Line Cinema
|-
| 1997
| Lost Highway
| October Films
|-
| 1999
| The Straight Story
| Buena Vista Pictures (under the Walt Disney Pictures banner)
|-
| 2001
| Mulholland Drive
| Universal Pictures
|-
| 2006
| Inland Empire
| Absurda, 518 Media
|}
=== Web series ===
=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Network
! scope="col" | Notes
! scope="col" |
|-
| 1990–1991
| Twin Peaks
| rowspan=2| ABC
| 30 episodes
| style="text-align:center;" |
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Crazy Clown Time (2011)
The Big Dream (2013)
Collaborative albums
Lux Vivens (with Jocelyn Montgomery) (1998)
BlueBOB (with John Neff) (2001)
The Air Is On Fire (with Dean Hurley) (2007)
Polish Night Music (with Marek Zebrowski) (2007)
This Train (with Chrystabell) (2011)
Somewhere in the Nowhere (with Chrystabell) (2016)
Thought Gang (with Angelo Badalamenti) (recorded 1992/93) (2018)
Cellophane Memories (with Chrystabell) (2024)
== Solo exhibitions ==
|
[
"Bonnefantenmuseum",
"The Sydney Morning Herald",
"Victor Fleming",
"Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series",
"Twin Peaks season 3",
"Monsieur Hulot's Holiday",
"Laura Harring",
"DumbLand",
"Diane Arbus",
"Libertarianism",
"final cut privilege",
"Toruń",
"Radio City Music Hall",
"In Dreams (Roy Orbison song)",
"2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries",
"Wild at Heart (novel)",
"Supernatural horror film",
"Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement",
"Louie (American TV series)",
"Peter Bradshaw",
"Philadelphia",
"Deadline Hollywood",
"Darkened Room",
"Gnostic",
"Lady Blue Shanghai",
"D-Day",
"The Platters",
"Sandpoint, Idaho",
"Bettye LaVette",
"Chris Isaak",
"cliffhanger",
"John Ford",
"miniseries",
"film noir",
"Laura Palmer",
"Kyle MacLachlan",
"Michael Jackson",
"Paul Atreides",
"North Bend, Washington",
"Eraserhead",
"The AV Club",
"Jennifer Lynch",
"road movie",
"Fondation Cartier",
"Empire Magazine",
"The New Biographical Dictionary of Film",
"John Hurt",
"Crime and Punishment",
"University Press of Mississippi",
"David Lynch bibliography",
"Maharishi Mahesh Yogi",
"American Broadcasting Company",
"Meshes of the Afternoon",
"murder of George Floyd",
"Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series",
"Anthony Summers",
"The MacDowell Colony",
"Ben Barenholtz",
"screen test",
"Democratic Party (United States)",
"Advaita Vedanta",
"development hell",
"Frederick Elmes",
"David Lynch's unrealized projects",
"FBI",
"Pedro Pascal",
"Vice News",
"Academy Awards",
"The Beatles in India",
"Billy Wilder",
"Milan Furniture Fair",
"Jean-Luc Godard",
"DV (video format)",
"Charles University",
"New York Film Festival",
"Southern Gothic",
"Non sequitur (literary device)",
"Ben Stiller",
"mystery film",
"Freedom of the City",
"Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay",
"BlackBook",
"Oresteia",
"Consequence (website)",
"Oskar Kokoschka",
"William Eggleston",
"New Line Cinema",
"psychological trauma",
"The Rocky Horror Picture Show",
"8½",
"Joel-Peter Witkin",
"Bernie Sanders",
"Francis C. Hammond High School",
"Federico Fellini",
"Patricia Arquette",
"Motion Picture Association of America",
"Came Back Haunted",
"The Washington Post",
"Across the Universe",
"AFI Catalog of Feature Films",
"David Lynch Foundation",
"Vulture.com",
"National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Film",
"Night of the Living Dead",
"experimental rock",
"The Numbers (website)",
"Blue Velvet (song)",
"1990 Cannes Film Festival",
"IMDb",
"Business Insider",
"Danger Mouse and Sparklehorse Present: Dark Night of the Soul",
"2000 U.S. presidential election",
"The New York Times",
"Easy Rider",
"Dumb Numbers",
"Dennis Hopper",
"Creative Loafing",
"Transcendental Meditation movement",
"Edward Hopper",
"Random House",
"The Scotsman",
"neo-noir",
"emphysema",
"Henry King (director)",
"BlueBOB",
"Legion of Honour",
"new wave music",
"Star Wars",
"Frank Herbert",
"Presbyterian",
"I'm Waiting Here",
"The Big Dream",
"crime fiction",
"Alexander de Cadenet",
"Jocelyn Montgomery",
"Nicolas Cage",
"Coachella",
"Rabbits (film)",
"Steven Spielberg",
"The Voice of Love (Julee Cruise album)",
"Jerzy Skolimowski",
"Queensland Gallery of Modern Art",
"Hypebeast (website)",
"David Thomson (film critic)",
"People (magazine)",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Arrakis",
"Roman Polanski sexual abuse case",
"Mount Zion, Wisconsin",
"Justin Theroux",
"Eddie Vedder",
"Bydgoszcz",
"Ringo Starr",
"occultism",
"Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)",
"César Award for Best Foreign Film",
"The Harder They Come",
"Alexandria, Virginia",
"University of California, Berkeley Libraries",
"ambient music",
"Yeah Yeah Yeahs",
"Mike Love",
"WGAw",
"M. C. Escher",
"Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts",
"U.S. Department of Agriculture",
"Werner Herzog",
"Lolita (1962 film)",
"Gabriel LaBelle",
"Laura Palmer (song)",
"Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture",
"Screen International",
"electropop",
"School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston",
"Blue Velvet (film)",
"Edward Kienholz",
"Boy Scouts of America",
"Floating into the Night",
"Dumbland",
"Peter Schneider (film executive)",
"Los Angeles Film Festival",
"cartoonist",
"The Red Ceiling",
"Johanna Ray",
"New Statesman",
"engravings",
"The Short Films of David Lynch",
"Lost Highway (film)",
"2001 Cannes Film Festival",
"Gale (publisher)",
"The Everly Brothers",
"Rowman & Littlefield",
"feudalism",
"Cannes",
"Artnet",
"Deep End (film)",
"Bob's Big Boy",
"January 2025 Southern California wildfires",
"X Japan",
"Julee Cruise",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Family Guy",
"uncanny",
"comic strip",
"Industrial Symphony No. 1",
"Twin Peaks",
"Isabella Rossellini",
"Brooksfilms",
"Spiritual Regeneration Movement",
"The Guardian",
"El Topo",
"IndieWire",
"Weather forecasting",
"Surrealist cinema",
"David Lynch filmography",
"Franz Kafka",
"cosmological dualism",
"Durham, North Carolina",
"Lykke Li",
"Pauline Kael",
"Francis Ford Coppola",
"American Film Institute",
"Karen O",
"Jacques Tati",
"Peter Wolf",
"Francis Bacon (artist)",
"Stereogum",
"Herk Harvey",
"Sunset Boulevard (film)",
"HBO",
"/Film",
"Robert Flynn Johnson",
"incest",
"Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement",
"surrealist",
"chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"Maya Deren",
"soap opera",
"Mayan Theater",
"space opera",
"Nine Inch Nails",
"The Beatles",
"Terry Gilliam",
"Hollywood film",
"Rafał Bruski",
"Pink Flamingos",
"Stanley Kubrick",
"Ronald Reagan",
"Metacritic",
"Judd Apatow",
"The Samuel Goldwyn Company",
"Yale Daily News",
"Sir Frederick Treves, 1st Baronet",
"Schleswig-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag",
"I Am the Shaman",
"Academy Honorary Award",
"BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century",
"Alfred Hitchcock",
"Swedish-speaking population of Finland",
"Marilyn Monroe",
"Barack Obama",
"Dean Hurley",
"Missoula, Montana",
"Return of the Jedi",
"Naomi Watts",
"Washington (state)",
"Rolling Stone",
"red ants",
"Six Men Getting Sick (Six Times)",
"arthouse",
"Salzburg",
"John Hagelin",
"New Music America Festival",
"Walt Disney Pictures",
"Dangerous (Michael Jackson album)",
"2012 U.S. presidential election",
"Sunday Best (music company)",
"Dior",
"University of California Press",
"Robert Henri",
"Donald Trump",
"Harry Dean Stanton",
"Camp (style)",
"Frank Booth (Blue Velvet)",
"Gary Johnson",
"List of accolades received by David Lynch",
"Riding mower",
"Roy Orbison",
"The Alphabet (film)",
"Lucky (2017 American film)",
"Brooklyn Academy of Music",
"Virgin Books",
"Questlove",
"Anthony Hopkins",
"dystopia",
"University of Texas Press",
"Moviefone",
"1984 United States presidential election",
"Wired (magazine)",
"Natural Law Party (United States)",
"Universal Pictures",
"Maharishi University of Management",
"2016 U.S. presidential election",
"The Angriest Dog in the World",
"Vice (magazine)",
"Giedi Prime",
"Roger Ebert",
"The Elephant Man (1980 film)",
"David Lynch discography",
"Primetime Emmy Award",
"Kristine McKenna",
"October Films",
"Jeremy Irons",
"James Dean",
"Flamagra",
"Giorgio Armani",
"Thought Gang",
"BlueBob",
"Journal of Film and Video",
"Leo Castelli",
"On the Air (TV series)",
"Duran Duran",
"Bastille (band)",
"Palme d'Or",
"Billy Corgan",
"Epson",
"New York City Department of Sanitation",
"Catching the Big Fish",
"Vertigo (film)",
"The New Yorker",
"Interpol (band)",
"Mike Henry (voice actor)",
"Ron Howard",
"Abel Ferrara",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Intellect Books",
"Paramount Pictures",
"Wild at Heart (film)",
"The Village Voice",
"melange (fictional drug)",
"Screen Rant",
"Joseph Merrick",
"Barry Gifford",
"Richard Corliss",
"the Upanishads",
"Idem Paris",
"Janet Maslin",
"Ronnie Rocket",
"Pitchfork (website)",
"Dino de Laurentiis",
"Corcoran School of the Arts and Design",
"The Straight Story",
"PBS Wisconsin",
"Lumberton, North Carolina",
"surrealism",
"Mark Fisher",
"Boise, Idaho",
"Streaming media",
"Sammy Fabelman",
"Brihadaranyaka Upanishad",
"Time (magazine)",
"The French as Seen by...",
"Cannes Film Festival",
"Expressionism",
"Bobby Vinton",
"The Cowboy and the Frenchman",
"Edward MacDowell Medal",
"Indiewire",
"David Foster Wallace",
"pre-production",
"The Man Who Wasn't There (2001 film)",
"Martin Scorsese",
"Mark Frost",
"body horror",
"USA Today",
"Financial Times",
"Engadget",
"Reason (magazine)",
"NME",
"Premiere (magazine)",
"Carnival of Souls",
"Inland Empire (film)",
"Polish Night Music",
"Ascential",
"Camerimage",
"Monty Montgomery (producer)",
"Unstaged",
"Irish Independent",
"Andrzej Wajda",
"Le Figaro",
"Chicago Sun-Times",
"AllMovie",
"Bill Pullman",
"Rear Window",
"Eric Bergren",
"McFarland & Company",
"Sheryl Crow",
"Alvin Straight",
"factory",
"Dune (1984 film)",
"The Cleveland Show",
"Flying Lotus",
"Middle America (US)",
"StudioCanal",
"Russian invasion of Ukraine",
"Transcendental Meditation",
"The Rolling Stones",
"The Piano",
"The Metamorphosis",
"Netflix",
"Eastern spirituality",
"The Independent",
"Inauguration of John F. Kennedy",
"Mel Brooks",
"Academy Award for Best Director",
"matricide",
"Mary Sweeney",
"Frank Daniel",
"Dune (novel)",
"Showtime (TV network)",
"Cinema of the United States",
"Dale Cooper",
"Yves Saint Laurent (brand)",
"Information Today",
"Venice Film Festival",
"Middlesbrough Institute of Modern Art",
"Vedic scripture",
"Fyodor Dostoyevsky",
"ontology",
"Kunsthallen Nikolaj",
"Spokane, Washington",
"Jack Nance",
"Gordon Cole (Twin Peaks)",
"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States",
"production company",
"Digital Spy",
"Donovan",
"Gucci",
"Walnut Creek, California",
"1,000,000,000",
"psychological thriller",
"Elgin Theater",
"sideshow",
"Yves Saint Laurent (fashion house)",
"The Fabelmans",
"The A.V. Club",
"Patton Oswalt",
"Longing (song)",
"Wait till the Sun Shines, Nellie (film)",
"Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me",
"My Son, My Son, What Have Ye Done",
"White House",
"absurdism",
"Richard Farnsworth",
"Hollywood Forever Cemetery",
"Sissy Spacek",
"George Lucas",
"British Film Institute",
"experimental film",
"Angelo Badalamenti",
"Room to Dream",
"Golden Lion",
"Sheryl Lee",
"Alan Splet",
"HOME (Manchester)",
"Another Man",
"Hotel Room",
"Assassination of John F. Kennedy",
"David Wants to Fly",
"Ben Harper",
"Paul McCartney",
"Ingmar Bergman",
"Whole Foods Market",
"key to the city",
"The Photographers' Gallery",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures",
"Victorian era",
"Laurens, Iowa",
"The Philadelphia Story (film)",
"Kevin Sean Michaels",
"Moby",
"Jack Fisk",
"HuffPost",
"blues",
"Stroszek",
"Chrystabell",
"Cellophane Memories",
"Laura Dern",
"Bolex",
"Grace Zabriskie",
"Alan Smithee",
"Vine (app)",
"Roman Polanski",
"Frank Capra",
"The Wizard of Oz",
"Coen brothers",
"J. Hoberman",
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] |
7,892 |
David Cronenberg
|
David Paul Cronenberg (born March 15, 1943) is a Canadian film director, screenwriter, producer and actor. He is a principal originator of the body horror genre, with his films exploring visceral bodily transformation, infectious diseases, and the intertwining of the psychological, physical, and technological. Cronenberg is best known for exploring these themes through sci-fi horror films such as Shivers (1975), Scanners (1981), Videodrome (1983) and The Fly (1986), though he has also directed dramas, psychological thrillers and gangster films.
Cronenberg's films have polarized critics and audiences alike; he has earned critical acclaim and has sparked controversy for his depictions of gore and violence. The Village Voice called him "the most audacious and challenging narrative director in the English-speaking world". His films have won numerous awards, including the Special Jury Prize for Crash at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, a unique award that is distinct from the Jury Prize as it is not given annually, but only at the request of the official jury, who in this case gave the award "for originality, for daring, and for audacity".
From the 2000s to the 2020s, Cronenberg collaborated on several films with Viggo Mortensen, including A History of Violence (2005), Eastern Promises (2007), A Dangerous Method (2011) and Crimes of the Future (2022). Seven of his films were selected to compete for the Palme d'Or, the most recent being The Shrouds (2024), which was screened at the 2024 Cannes Film Festival.
==Early life and education ==
David Cronenberg was born in Toronto, Ontario, on March 15, 1943. He was raised in a "middle-class progressive Jewish family". His father was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and his mother was born in Toronto; all of his grandparents were Jews from Lithuania. Milton wrote some short stories for True Detective and had a column in the Toronto Telegram for around thirty years. The Cronenberg household was full of a wide variety of books, and Cronenberg's father tried to introduce his son to art films such as The Seventh Seal, although at the time Cronenberg was more interested in western and pirate films, showing a particular affinity for those featuring Burt Lancaster.
A voracious reader from an early age, Cronenberg started off enjoying science fiction magazines like The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Galaxy, and Astounding, where he first encountered authors who would prove influential on his own work, including Ray Bradbury and Isaac Asimov, although he wouldn't encounter his primary influence, Philip K. Dick, until much later. Cronenberg also read comic books, noting his favorites were Tarzan, Little Lulu, Uncle Scrooge, Blackhawk, Plastic Man, Superman, and the original Fawcett Comics version of Captain Marvel, later known as Shazam. Although as an adult, Cronenberg feels superhero films are artistically limited, he maintains a fondness for Captain Marvel/Shazam, criticizing how he feels the character had been neglected. Cronenberg also read horror comics published by EC, which in contrast to the others, he described as "scary and bizarre and violent and nasty—the ones your mother didn't want you to have."
Early films that later proved influential on Cronenberg's career include avant-garde, horror, science fiction, and thriller films, such as Un Chien Andalou, Vampyr, War of the Worlds, Freaks, Creature from the Black Lagoon, Alphaville, Performance, and Duel. He also cited less obvious films as influences, including comedies like The Bed Sitting Room, as well as Disney cartoons such as Bambi and Dumbo. Cronenberg said he found these two Disney animated films, as well as Universal's live-action Blue Lagoon, "terrifying" which influenced his approach to horror. Cronenberg went on to say that Bambi was the "first important film" he ever saw, citing the moment when Bambi's mother died as particularly powerful. Cronenberg even wished to screen Bambi as part of a museum exhibition of his influences, but Disney refused him permission. In terms of conventional horror films that frightened him, Cronenberg cited Don't Look Now. Cronenberg made two short films, Transfer and From the Drain, with a few hundred dollars. Cronenberg, Ivan Reitman, Bob Fothergill, and Iain Ewing were inspired by Jonas Mekas and formed the Toronto Film Co-op.
==Career==
=== 1969–1979: Film debut and early work ===
After two short sketch films and two short art-house features (the black-and-white Stereo and the colour Crimes of the Future) Cronenberg went into partnership with Ivan Reitman. The Canadian government provided financing for his films throughout the 1970s. That same year he directed The Dead Zone (1983), based on Stephen King's novel of the same name, starring Christopher Walken.
Cronenberg directed The Fly (1986), starring Jeff Goldblum and Geena Davis. The film is loosely based on George Langelaan's 1957 short story of the same name and the 1958 film of the same name. It was distributed by 20th Century Fox and was a box office hit, making $60 million. Cronenberg has not generally worked within the world of big-budget, mainstream Hollywood filmmaking, although he has had occasional near misses. At one stage he was considered by George Lucas as a possible director for Return of the Jedi (1983) but turned down the offer. Peter Suschitzky was the director of photography for The Empire Strikes Back (1980), and Cronenberg remarked that Suschitzky's work in that film "was the only one of those movies that actually looked good", which was a motivating factor to work with him on Dead Ringers (1988).
Since Dead Ringers, Cronenberg has worked with Suschitzky on each of his films (see List of film director and cinematographer collaborations). Cronenberg has collaborated with composer Howard Shore on all of his films since The Brood (1979), (see List of film director and composer collaborations) with the exception of The Dead Zone (1983), which was scored by Michael Kamen. Other regular collaborators include actor Robert A. Silverman, art director Carol Spier (also his sister) sound editor Bryan Day, film editor Ronald Sanders, his sister, costume designer Denise Cronenberg, and, from 1979 until 1988, cinematographer Mark Irwin. In 2008, Cronenberg directed Shore's first opera, The Fly.
=== 1991–2002: Career fluctuations ===
Perhaps the best example of a film that straddles the line between Cronenberg's works of personal chaos and psychological confusion is his 1991 "adaptation" of Naked Lunch (1959), his literary hero William S. Burroughs' most controversial book. The novel was considered "unfilmable", and Cronenberg acknowledged that a straight translation into film would "cost 400 million dollars and be banned in every country in the world". Instead—much like in his earlier film, Videodrome—he consistently blurred the lines between what appeared to be reality and what appeared to be hallucinations brought on by the main character's drug addiction. Some of the book's "moments" (as well as incidents loosely based upon Burroughs' life) are presented in this manner within the film. Cronenberg stated that while writing the screenplay for Naked Lunch (1991), he felt a moment of synergy with Burroughs' writing style. He felt the connection between his screenwriting style and Burroughs' prose style was so strong, that he jokingly remarked that should Burroughs pass on, he might write his next novel.
Cronenberg has also appeared as an actor in other directors' films. Most of his roles are cameo appearances, as in the films Into the Night (1985), Blood and Donuts (1995), To Die For (1995), and Jason X (2002) and the television series Alias, but on occasion he has played major roles, as in Nightbreed (1990) and Last Night (1998). He has not had major roles in any of his own films, but he did put in a brief appearance as a gynecologist in The Fly; he can also be glimpsed among the sex-crazed hordes in Shivers; he can be heard as an unseen car-pound attendant in Crash; his hands can be glimpsed in eXistenZ (1999); and he appeared as a stand-in for James Woods in Videodrome.
Cronenberg has said that his films should be seen "from the point of view of the disease", and that in Shivers, for example, he identifies with the characters after they become infected with the anarchic parasites. Disease and disaster, in Cronenberg's work, are less problems to be overcome than agents of personal transformation. Of his characters' transformations, Cronenberg said, "But because of our necessity to impose our own structure of perception on things we look on ourselves as being relatively stable. But, in fact, when I look at a person I see this maelstrom of organic, chemical and electron chaos; volatility and instability, shimmering; and the ability to change and transform and transmute." Similarly, in Crash (1996), people who have been injured in car crashes attempt to view their ordeal as "a fertilizing rather than a destructive event". In 2005, Cronenberg publicly disagreed with Paul Haggis' choice of the same name for the latter's Oscar-winning film Crash (2004), arguing that it was "very disrespectful" to the "important and seminal" J. G. Ballard novel on which Cronenberg's film was based.
=== 2005–present: Resurgence ===
His thriller A History of Violence (2005) is one of his highest budgeted and most accessible to date. He has said that the decision to direct it was influenced by his having had to defer some of his salary on the low-budgeted Spider (2002), but it was one of his most critically acclaimed films to date, along with Eastern Promises (2007), a film about the struggle of one man to gain power in the Russian Mafia. Although Cronenberg has worked with a number of Hollywood stars, he remains a staunchly Canadian filmmaker, with nearly all of his films (including major studio vehicles The Dead Zone and The Fly) having been filmed in his home province Ontario. Notable exceptions include M. Butterfly (1993), most of which was shot in China, Spider, and Eastern Promises (2007), which were both filmed primarily in England, and A Dangerous Method (2011), which was filmed in Germany and Austria. Rabid and Shivers were shot in and around Montreal. Most of his films have been at least partially financed by Telefilm Canada, and Cronenberg, a vocal supporter of government-backed film projects, has said: "Every country needs [a system of government grants] to have a national cinema in the face of Hollywood".
In 2008, Cronenberg realized two extra-cinematographic projects: the exhibition Chromosomes at the Rome Film Fest, and the opera The Fly at the LaOpera in Los Angeles and Theatre Châtelet in Paris. In July 2010, Cronenberg completed production on A Dangerous Method (2011), an adaptation of Christopher Hampton's play The Talking Cure, starring Keira Knightley, Michael Fassbender, Vincent Cassel, and frequent collaborator Viggo Mortensen. The film was produced by independent British producer Jeremy Thomas. On television, he has appeared in the recurring roles of Dr. Brezzel in Season 3 of Alias, and Kovich in seasons 3, 4, and 5 of Star Trek: Discovery. He has also had main roles as Reverend Verrenger in Alias Grace, and Spencer Galloway in Slasher: Flesh & Blood.
In 2012, his film Cosmopolis competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival.
Filming for Cronenberg's next film, a satire drama entitled Maps to the Stars (2014)—with Julianne Moore, Mia Wasikowska, John Cusack, and Robert Pattinson—began on July 8, 2013, in Toronto, Ontario and Los Angeles. This was the first time Cronenberg filmed in the United States. On June 26, 2014, Cronenberg's short film The Nest was published on YouTube. The film was commissioned for "David Cronenberg – The Exhibition" at EYE Film Institute in Amsterdam and was available on YouTube for the duration of the exhibition, until September 14, 2014. Also in 2014, Cronenberg published his first novel, Consumed. In a May 2016 interview, Viggo Mortensen revealed that Cronenberg is considering retiring due to difficulty financing his film projects.
Cronenberg appears as himself in the minute-long short film The Death of David Cronenberg, shot by his daughter Caitlin, which was released digitally on September 19, 2021. In February 2021, Mortensen said Cronenberg had refined an older script he had written and hopes to film it with Mortensen that summer. He further hinted that it is a "strange film noir" and resembles Cronenberg's earlier body horror films. In April 2021, the title was revealed to be Crimes of the Future. It was shot in Greece during the summer of 2021, and competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival. Cronenberg's next film The Shrouds is set to premier at the 2024 Cannes Film Festival in competition, and be released theatrically in September 2024.
==Unrealized projects==
One of Cronenberg's earliest unproduced film concepts was Roger Pagan, Gynecologist, about a neurotic man who impersonates a medical expert. The project was initially conceived in the early 1970s in the form of a novel.
In the early 1980s Cronenberg attempted to make a film adaption of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein that took place in the modern day. Cronenberg wrote an original script for Universal after Videodrome titled Six Legs, but the film was never made although aspects were incorporated into The Fly and Naked Lunch.
Since the 1980s, Cronenberg had planned on directing a film called Red Cars, about the 1961 Grad Prix automobile race won by Phil Hill. Unable to get the project funded, he adapted his screenplay in the form of an artbook, published in 2005.
Cronenberg was offered the role of director for Witness while it was under the name Come Home, but declined as he "could never be a fan of the Amish". He was also offered the director's position for Return of the Jedi, Flashdance, Top Gun, and Beverly Hills Cop. Marc Boyman offered Cronenberg the position of director for The Incubus, but declined although this led to Boyman producing The Fly and Dead Ringers.
Cronenberg also worked for nearly a year on a version of Total Recall (1990), but experienced "creative differences" with producers Dino De Laurentiis and Ronald Shusett; a different version of the film was eventually made by Paul Verhoeven. Cronenberg related in his 1992 memoir, Cronenberg on Cronenberg that, as a fan of Philip K. Dick—author of "We Can Remember it For You Wholesale", the short story upon which the film was based— his dissatisfaction with what he envisioned the film to be and what it ended up being pained him so greatly that, for a time, he suffered a migraine just thinking about it, akin to a needle piercing his eye.
In 1993, Cronenberg signed a deal with Paragon Entertainment Corporation in which he would create a six-part television series called Crimes Against Nature for CBC Television. Cronenberg described the series as "William Burroughs meets Jean-Luc Godard's Alphaville." He started writing it on August 1, and filming was meant to begin in February 1994 using 35 mm film. The show was set in 2010 and was about members of the "Flesh Squad" police force. Carol Reynolds, the president of Paragon Entertainment, stated that each episode would cost between $500,000-600,000.
In the mid-1990s, he was attached to direct a version of American Psycho, with a screenplay adaptation by the author himself Bret Easton Ellis and with Brad Pitt starring in the role of Patrick Bateman. Cronenberg's vision of the film would have concluded with a musical number involving Barry Manilow's "Daybreak" and Bateman on the World Trade Center.
In 1998, author Patricia Anthony stated that Cronenberg would direct the adaptation of her novel Brother Termite written by John Sayles, and to be executive produced by James Cameron. The premise follows an alien race that co-exists with man on Earth, influencing human society.
In 1999, Cronenberg was reportedly interested in taking the helm of Charlie Kaufman's adaptation of Confessions of Dangerous Mind, with Sean Penn at that time circling to star. The following year, he was circling to direct Basic Instinct 2 for which he had a "good script" and Rupert Everett in the lead, but MGM said no because the actor is gay. At one stage, Cronenberg was going to make The Singing Detective as a horror film, with Al Pacino starring. In 2004, Cronenberg was attached to direct London Fields, based on Martin Amis' 1991 novel of the same name.
In the mid-2000s, Cronenberg had adapted and was planning to direct an adaptation of The White Hotel by D. M. Thomas.
For a time it appeared that, as Eastern Promises producer Paul Webster told Screen International, a sequel was in the works that would reunite the key team of Cronenberg, Steven Knight, and Viggo Mortensen. It was slated for production by Webster's new company Shoebox Films in collaboration with Focus Features, and shot in early 2013. In 2012, Cronenberg said the Eastern Promises sequel had fallen through due to budget disagreement with Focus Features.
In 2010, it was announced that Cronenberg would be directing an adaption of As She Climbed Across the Table by Jonathan Lethem. The following year, Media Rights Capital picked up the project, with Bruce Wagner set to write the script.
In the October 2011 edition of Rue Morgue, Cronenberg stated that he has written a companion piece to his 1986 remake of The Fly, which he would like to direct if given the chance. He has stated that it is not a traditional sequel, but rather a "parallel story".
As of 2022, Cronenberg was working to turn his novel Consumed into his next film.
==Personal life==
Cronenberg lives in Toronto. He married his first wife, Margaret Hindson, in 1972: their seven-year marriage ended in 1979 amidst personal and professional differences. They had one daughter, Cassandra Cronenberg. His second wife was film editor Carolyn Zeifman, to whom he was married from 1979 until her death in 2017. The couple met on the set of Rabid while she was working as a production assistant. In the book Cronenberg on Cronenberg (1992), he revealed that The Brood was inspired by events that occurred during the unraveling of his first marriage, which caused both Cronenberg and his daughter Cassandra a great deal of turmoil. The character Nola Carveth, mother of the brood, is based on Cassandra's mother. Cronenberg said that he found the shooting of the climactic scene, in which Nola was strangled by her husband, to be "very satisfying".
In a September 2013 interview, Cronenberg revealed that film director Martin Scorsese admitted to him that he was intrigued by Cronenberg's early work but was subsequently "terrified" to meet him in person. Cronenberg responded to Scorsese: "You're the guy who made Taxi Driver and you're afraid to meet me?"
In Cronenberg's later films (e.g. A History of Violence, Eastern Promises and A Dangerous Method) openly religious characters become more common. During an interview for A History of Violence, Cronenberg even chose to identify as a materialist rather than an atheist, stating, "I'm not an atheist, but for me to turn away from any aspect of the human body to me is a philosophical betrayal. And there's a lot of art and religion whose whole purpose is to turn away from the human body. I feel in my art that my mandate is to not do that."
==Filmography==
==Awards and recognition ==
Cronenberg has appeared on various "Greatest Director" lists. In 2004, Science Fiction magazine Strange Horizons named him the second greatest director in the history of the genre, ahead of better known directors such as Steven Spielberg, James Cameron, Jean-Luc Godard, and Ridley Scott. In the same year, The Guardian listed him 9th on their list of "The world's 40 best directors". In 2007, Total Film named him as the 17th greatest director of all time. Film professor Charles Derry, in his overview of the horror genre Dark Dreams, called the director one of the most important in his field, and that "no discussion of contemporary horror film can conclude without reference to the films of David Cronenberg."
Cronenberg received the Special Jury Prize at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival for Crash. In 1999, he was inducted onto Canada's Walk of Fame, awarded the Silver Bear Award at the 49th Berlin International Film Festival. and that November received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts.
In 2002, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, and was promoted to Companion of the Order of Canada (the order's highest rank) in 2014. In 2006 he was awarded the Cannes Film Festival's lifetime achievement award, the Carrosse d'Or. In 2009 Cronenberg received the Légion d'honneur from the government of France. The following year Cronenberg was named an honorary patron of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College Dublin. In 2012, he received the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal.
The opening of the "David Cronenberg: Evolution" Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) exhibition occurred on October 30, 2013. Held at the TIFF Bell Lightbox venue, the exhibition paid tribute to the director's entire filmmaking career and the festival's promotional material referred to Cronenberg as "one of Canada's most prolific and iconic filmmakers". The exhibition was shown internationally following the conclusion of the TIFF showing on January 19, 2014.
In 2014, he was made a Member of the Order of Ontario in recognition for being "Canada's most celebrated internationally acclaimed filmmaker".
In April 2018, it was announced that Cronenberg would receive the honorary Golden Lion at the 75th Venice International Film Festival.
|
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7,893 |
Dale Earnhardt
|
Ralph Dale Earnhardt (; April 29, 1951February 18, 2001) was an American professional stock car driver and racing team owner, who raced from 1975 to 2001 in the former NASCAR Winston Cup Series (now called the NASCAR Cup Series), most notably driving the No.3 Chevrolet for Richard Childress Racing. His aggressive driving style earned him the nicknames "the Intimidator", "the Man in Black" and "Ironhead"; after his son Dale Earnhardt Jr. joined the Cup Series circuit in 1999, Earnhardt was generally known by the retronyms Dale Earnhardt Sr. and Dale Sr. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest drivers in NASCAR history and was named as one of the NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers class in 1998.
The third child of racing driver Ralph Earnhardt and Martha Earnhardt, he began his career in 1975 in the World 600. Earnhardt won a total of 76 Winston Cup races over the course of his 26-year career, including crown jewel victories in four Winston 500s (1990, 1994, 1999, and 2000), three Cola-Cola 600s (1986, 1992, and 1993), three Southern 500s (1987, 1989, and 1990), the Brickyard 400 in 1995, and the 1998 Daytona 500. Along with his 76 career points wins, he has also won 24 non-points exhibition events, bringing his overall Winston Cup win total to 100, one of only four drivers in NASCAR history to do so. He is the only driver in NASCAR history to score at least one win in four different and consecutive decades (scoring his first career win in 1979, 38 wins in the 1980s, 35 wins in the 1990s, & scoring his final two career wins in 2000). He also earned seven Winston Cup championships, a record held with Richard Petty and Jimmie Johnson.
On February 18, 2001, Earnhardt died as a result of a basilar skull fracture sustained in a sudden last-lap crash during the Daytona 500. His death was regarded in the racing industry as being a crucial moment in improving safety in all aspects of car racing, especially NASCAR. He was 49 years old. Earnhardt has been inducted into numerous halls of fame, including the NASCAR Hall of Fame inaugural class in 2010.
==Biography==
===Early and personal life===
Ralph Dale Earnhardt was born on April 29, 1951, in the suburb of Kannapolis, North Carolina, as the third child of Martha ( Coleman, 1930–2021) and Ralph Earnhardt (1928–1973). Earnhardt's father was one of the best short-track drivers in North Carolina at the time and won his first and only NASCAR Sportsman Championship in 1956 at Greenville Pickens Speedway in Greenville, South Carolina. In 1963 at the age of 12, Dale Earnhardt secretly drove his father's car in one of his races and had a near victory against one of his father's closest competitors. In 1972, he raced his father at Metrolina Speedway in a race with cars from semi mod and sportsman divisions. Although Ralph did not want his son to pursue a career as a race car driver, Dale dropped out of school to pursue his dreams. Ralph was a hard teacher for Dale, and after Ralph suddenly died of a heart attack at his home in 1973 at age 45, it took many years before Dale felt as though he had finally "proven" himself to his father. Earnhardt had four siblings: two brothers, Danny (died 2021) and Randy (died 2013); and two sisters, Cathy and Kaye.
Earnhardt was married three times. In 1968, at the age of 17, Earnhardt married his first wife, Latane Brown. With her, Earnhardt fathered his first son, Kerry, a year later. Earnhardt and Brown divorced in 1970. In 1971, Earnhardt married his second wife, Brenda Gee, the daughter of NASCAR car builder Robert Gee. In his marriage with Gee, Earnhardt had two children: a daughter, Kelley King Earnhardt, in 1972, and a son, Dale Earnhardt Jr., in 1974. Not long after Dale Jr. was born, Earnhardt and Gee divorced. Earnhardt then married his third wife, Teresa Houston, in 1982. She gave birth to their daughter, Taylor Nicole Earnhardt, in 1988.
==NASCAR career==
===Early Winston Cup career (1975–1978)===
Earnhardt began his professional career in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series in 1975, making his points race debut at Charlotte Motor Speedway in North Carolina in the longest race on the Cup circuit—the 1975 World 600. He had made his Grand National debut in 1974 in an unofficial invitational exhibition race at Metrolina Speedway, where with eight laps to go he got under Richard Childress and spun out when battling for third. He drove the No. 8 Ed Negre Dodge Charger and finished 22nd in that race, just one spot ahead of his future car owner, Richard Childress. Earnhardt competed in eight more races until 1979.
===Rod Osterlund Racing (1979–1980)===
When he joined car owner Rod Osterlund Racing in a season that included a rookie class of future stars including Earnhardt, Harry Gant, and Terry Labonte in his rookie season, Earnhardt won one race at Bristol, captured four poles, scored eleven Top 5s and seventeen Top 10s, and finished seventh in the points standings despite missing four races due to a broken collarbone, winning Rookie of the Year honors.
During his sophomore season, Earnhardt, now with 20-year-old Doug Richert as his crew chief, began the season winning the Busch Clash. With wins at Atlanta, Bristol, Nashville, Martinsville, and Charlotte, Earnhardt won his first Winston Cup points championship. He is the only driver in NASCAR Cup history to follow a Rookie of the Year title with a NASCAR Winston Cup Championship the next season. He was also the third driver in NASCAR history to win both the Rookie of the Year and Winston Cup Series championship, following David Pearson (1960, 1966) and Richard Petty (1959, 1964). Ten drivers have since joined this exclusive club: Rusty Wallace (1984, 1989), Alan Kulwicki (1986, 1992), Jeff Gordon (1993, 1995), Tony Stewart (1999, 2002), Matt Kenseth (2000, 2003), Kevin Harvick (2001, 2014), Kyle Busch (2005, 2015), Joey Logano (2009, 2018, 2022, 2024), Chase Elliott (2016, 2020), and Kyle Larson (2014, 2021).
===Rod Osterlund Racing, Stacy Racing, and Richard Childress Racing (1981)===
1981 would prove to be tumultuous for the defending Winston Cup champion. Sixteen races into the season, Rod Osterlund suddenly sold his team to Jim Stacy, an entrepreneur from Kentucky who entered NASCAR in 1977. After just four races, Earnhardt fell out with Stacy and left the team. Earnhardt finished out the year driving Pontiacs for Richard Childress Racing and managed to place seventh in the final points standings. Earnhardt departed RCR at the end of the season, citing a lack of chemistry.
Earnhardt was also a color commentator for the Busch Clash, while he also drove on that same day.
===Bud Moore Engineering (1982–1983)===
The following year, at Childress's suggestion, Earnhardt joined car owner Bud Moore for the 1982 and 1983 seasons driving the No. 15 Wrangler Jeans-sponsored Ford Thunderbird (the only full-time Ford ride in his career). During the 1982 season, Earnhardt struggled. Although he won at Darlington, he failed to finish 18 of the 30 races and ended the season 12th in points, the worst of his career. He also suffered a broken kneecap at Pocono Raceway when he flipped after contact with Tim Richmond. In 1983, Earnhardt rebounded and won his first of 12 Twin 125 Daytona 500 qualifying races. He won at Nashville and at Talladega, finishing eighth in the points standings, despite failing to finish 13 of the 30 races.
===Return to Richard Childress Racing (1984–2001)===
====1984–1985====
After the 1983 season, Earnhardt returned to Richard Childress Racing, replacing Ricky Rudd in the No. 3. Rudd went to Bud Moore's No. 15, replacing Earnhardt. Wrangler sponsored both drivers at their respective teams. During the 1984 and 1985 seasons, Earnhardt went to victory lane six times, at Talladega, Atlanta, Richmond, Bristol (twice), and Martinsville, where he finished fourth and eighth in the season standings respectively.
====1986–1987====
The 1986 season saw Earnhardt win his second career Winston Cup Championship and the first owner's championship for Richard Childress Racing. He won five races and had 16 top-fives and 23 top-10s. Earnhardt successfully defended his championship the following year, going to victory lane 11 times and winning the championship by 489 points over Bill Elliott. In the process, Earnhardt set a NASCAR modern-era record of four consecutive wins and won five of the first seven races. In the 1987 season, he earned the nickname "the Intimidator", due in part to the 1987 Winston All-Star Race. During this race, Earnhardt was briefly forced into the infield grass but kept control of his car and returned to the track without giving up his lead. The maneuver is now referred to as the "Pass in the Grass", even though Earnhardt did not pass anyone while he was off the track. After The Winston, an angry fan sent Bill France Jr. a letter threatening to kill Earnhardt at Pocono, Watkins Glen, or Dover, prompting the FBI to provide security for Earnhardt on the three tracks. The investigation was closed after the races at the three tracks finished without incident. Many of Earnhardt's competitors on the racetrack disliked his personal driving style. Earnhardt's relentless pursuit of victory on the racetrack combined with his uniquely offensive driving ability led to many rivalries with fellow drivers and fines levied by NASCAR. In 1987, NASCAR began to implement a measure that was designed to incentivize less aggressive driving styles by forcing drivers who cause these undesired hazardous racing conditions to be subjected to time at the garage region during the race.
====1988–1989====
The 1988 season saw Earnhardt racing with a new sponsor, GM Goodwrench, after Wrangler Jeans dropped its sponsorship in 1987. During this season, he changed the color of his paint scheme from blue and yellow to the signature black in which the No. 3 car was painted for the rest of his life. He won three races in 1988, finishing third in the points standings behind Bill Elliott in first and Rusty Wallace in second. The following year, Earnhardt won five races, but a late spin out at North Wilkesboro arguably cost him the 1989 championship, as Rusty Wallace edged him out for it by 12 points (Earnhardt won the final race, but Wallace finished 15th when needing to finish at least 18th to win). It was his first season for the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Lumina.
====1990–1995====
The 1990 season started for Earnhardt with victories in the Busch Clash and his heat of the Gatorade Twin 125's. Near the end of the Daytona 500, he had a dominant forty-second lead when the final caution flag came out with a handful of laps to go. When the green flag waved, Earnhardt was leading Derrike Cope. On the final lap, Earnhardt ran over a piece of metal, which was later revealed as a bell housing, in turn 3, cutting down a tire. Cope, in an upset, won the race while Earnhardt finished fifth after leading 155 of the 200 laps. The No. 3 Goodwrench-sponsored Chevy team took the flat tire that cost them the win and hung it on the shop wall as a reminder of how close they had come to winning the Daytona 500. Earnhardt won nine races that season and won his fourth Winston Cup title, beating Mark Martin by 26 points. He also became the first multiple winner of the annual all-star race, The Winston. The 1991 season saw Earnhardt win his fifth Winston Cup championship. This season, he scored four wins and won the championship by 195 points over Ricky Rudd. One of his wins came at North Wilkesboro, in a race where Harry Gant had a chance to set a single-season record by winning his fifth consecutive race, breaking a record held by Earnhardt. Late in the race, Gant lost his brakes, which gave Earnhardt the chance he needed to make the pass for the win and maintain his record.
Earnhardt's only win of the 1992 season came at Charlotte, in the Coca-Cola 600, ending a 13-race win streak by Ford teams. Earnhardt finished a career-low 12th in the points for the second time in his career, with three last place finishes (Daytona and Talladega in July and Martinsville in September), and the only time he had finished that low since joining Richard Childress Racing. He still made the trip to the annual Awards Banquet with Rusty Wallace but did not have the best seat in the house. Wallace stated he and Earnhardt had to sit on the backs of their chairs to see, and Earnhardt said, "This sucks, I should have gone hunting." At the end of the year, longtime crew chief Kirk Shelmerdine left to become a driver. Andy Petree took over as crew chief. Hiring Petree turned out to be beneficial, as Earnhardt returned to the front in 1993. He once again came close to a win at the Daytona 500 and dominated Speedweeks before finishing second to Dale Jarrett on a last-lap pass. Earnhardt scored six wins en route to his sixth Winston Cup title, including wins in the first prime-time Coca-Cola 600 and The Winston, both at Charlotte, and the Pepsi 400 at Daytona. He beat Rusty Wallace for the championship by 80 points. On November 14, 1993, after the season-ending Hooters 500 at Atlanta, the race winner Wallace and 1993 series champion Earnhardt ran a dual Polish Victory Lap together while carrying #28 and #7 flags commemorating 1992 Daytona 500 winner Davey Allison and 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion Alan Kulwicki respectively, who both had died in separate plane accidents during the season.
In 1994, Earnhardt achieved a feat that he himself had believed to be impossible—he scored his seventh Winston Cup championship, tying Richard Petty. He was very consistent, scoring four wins, and after Ernie Irvan was sidelined due to a near-deadly crash at Michigan (the two were neck-and-neck at the top of the points up until the crash), won the title by over 400 points over Mark Martin. Earnhardt sealed the deal at Rockingham by winning the race over Rick Mast. It was his final NASCAR championship and his final season for the GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Lumina. Earnhardt started off the 1995 season by finishing second in the Daytona 500 to Sterling Marlin. He won five races in 1995, including his first road course victory at Sears Point. He also won the Brickyard 400 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a win he called the biggest of his career. But in the end, Earnhardt lost the championship to Jeff Gordon by 34 points. The GM Goodwrench racing team changed to Chevrolet Monte Carlos.
Earnhardt almost was ready to leave the #3 at the end of the 1995 season, according to his former crew chief Larry McReynolds. At the time, McReynolds was the crew chief for the #28 Havoline Ford Thunderbird at Robert Yates Racing. Earnhardt had actually been approached by Yates to drive the #28 for the 1995 season in place of Ernie Irvan, who was injured in a crash during the 1994 season. Instead, Robert Yates signed Dale Jarrett to a one-year deal to drive the #28. During the 1995 season, Yates was being pressed by his manufacturer to start a second team and sent a contract to Earnhardt to drive it. Earnhardt never returned the contract, and according to McReynolds the reason he did not sign was because he only wanted to drive the #28 for Yates; the team fully intended to put Irvan back behind the wheel of his old car once he was able to resume driving. Instead, Earnhardt stayed with RCR and the #3, while Jarrett was signed to drive Yates' new car, numbered 88.
====1996–1999====
1996 for Earnhardt started just like it had done in 1993—he dominated Speedweeks, only to finish second in the Daytona 500 to Dale Jarrett for the second time. He won early in the year, scoring consecutive victories at Rockingham and Atlanta. On July 28 in the DieHard 500 at Talladega, he was second in points and looking for his eighth season title, despite the departure of crew chief Andy Petree. Late in the race, Ernie Irvan lost control of his No. 28 Havoline-sponsored Ford Thunderbird, made contact with the No. 4 Kodak-sponsored Chevy Monte Carlo of Sterling Marlin, and ignited a crash that saw Earnhardt's No. 3 Chevrolet hit the tri-oval wall nearly head-on at almost 200 mph. After hitting the wall, Earnhardt's car flipped and slid across the track, in front of race traffic. His car was hit in the roof and windshield. This accident, as well as a similar accident that led to the death of Russell Phillips at Charlotte, led NASCAR to mandate the "Earnhardt Bar", a metal brace located in the center of the windshield that reinforces the roof in case of a similar crash. This bar is also required in NASCAR-owned United SportsCar Racing and its predecessors for road racing.
Rain delays had canceled the live telecast of the race, and most fans first learned of the accident during the night's sports newscasts. Video of the crash showed what appeared to be a fatal incident, but once medical workers arrived at the car, Earnhardt climbed out and waved to the crowd, refusing to be loaded onto a stretcher despite a broken collarbone, sternum, and shoulder blade. Although the incident looked like it would end his season early, Earnhardt refused to stay out of the car. The next week at Indianapolis, he started the race but exited the car on the first pit stop, allowing Mike Skinner to take the wheel. When asked, Earnhardt said that vacating the No. 3 car was the hardest thing he had ever done. The following weekend at Watkins Glen, he drove the No. 3 Goodwrench Chevrolet to the fastest time in qualifying, earning the "True Grit" pole. T-shirts emblazoned with Earnhardt's face were quickly printed up, brandishing the caption, "It Hurt So Good". Earnhardt led for most of the race and looked to have victory in hand, but fatigue took its toll and he ended up sixth behind race winner Geoff Bodine. Earnhardt did not win again in 1996 but still finished fourth in the standings behind Terry Labonte, Jeff Gordon, and Dale Jarrett, with 2 wins, 13 top fives, 17 top tens, and his last 2 career poles, with an average finish of 10.6. David Smith departed as crew chief of the No. 3 team and RCR at the end of the year for personal reasons, and he was replaced by Larry McReynolds.
In 1997, Earnhardt went winless for only the second time in his career. The only (non-points) win came during Speedweeks at Daytona in the Twin 125-mile qualifying race, his record eighth-straight win in the event. Once again in the hunt for the Daytona 500 with 10 laps to go, Earnhardt was taken out of contention by a late crash which sent his car upside down on the backstretch. He hit the low point of his year when he blacked out early in the Mountain Dew Southern 500 at Darlington in September, causing him to hit the wall. Afterward, he was disoriented, and it took several laps before he could find his pit stall. When asked, Earnhardt complained of double vision which made it difficult to pit. Mike Dillon (Richard Childress's son-in-law) was brought in to relieve Earnhardt for the remainder of the race. Earnhardt was evaluated at a local hospital and cleared to race the next week, but the cause of the blackout and double vision was never determined. Despite no wins, Earnhardt finished the season fifth in the final standings with 7 top fives and 16 top tens, with an average finish of 12.1.
On February 15, 1998, Earnhardt finally won the Daytona 500 in his 20th attempt after failing to win in his previous 19 attempts. He began the season by winning his Twin 125-mile qualifier race for the ninth straight year, and the week before was the first to drive around the track under the newly installed lights, for coincidentally 20 laps. On race day, he showed himself to be a contender early. Halfway through the race, however, it seemed that Jeff Gordon had the upper hand. But by lap 138, Earnhardt had taken the lead and thanks to a push by teammate Mike Skinner, he maintained it. Earnhardt made it to the caution-checkered flag before Bobby Labonte. Afterwards, there was a large show of respect for Earnhardt, in which every crew member of every team lined pit road to shake his hand as he made his way to victory lane. Earnhardt then drove his No. 3 into the infield grass, starting a trend of post-race celebrations. He spun the car twice, throwing grass and leaving tire tracks in the shape of a No. 3 in the grass. He then spoke about the victory, saying, "I have had a lot of great fans and people behind me all through the years and I just can't thank them enough. The Daytona 500 is ours. We won it, we won it, we won it!" The rest of the season did not go as well, and the Daytona 500 was his only victory that year. Despite that, he did almost pull off a Daytona sweep, where he was one of the contenders for the win in the first nighttime Pepsi 400, but a pit stop late in the race in which a rogue tire cost him the race win. He slipped to 12th in the point standings halfway through the season, and Richard Childress decided to make a crew chief change, taking Mike Skinner's crew chief Kevin Hamlin and putting him with Earnhardt while giving Skinner Larry McReynolds (Earnhardt's crew chief). Earnhardt finished the 1998 season eighth in the final points standings, with 1 win, 5 top fives, and 13 top tens, with an average finish of 16.2.
Before the 1999 season, fans began discussing Earnhardt's age and speculating that with his son, Dale Jr., making his Winston Cup debut, Earnhardt might be contemplating retirement. Earnhardt swept both races for the year at Talladega, leading some to conclude that his talent had become limited to the restrictor plate tracks, which require a unique skill set and an exceptionally powerful racecar to win. But halfway through the year, Earnhardt began to show some of the old spark. In the August race at Michigan, he led laps late in the race and nearly pulled off his first win on a non-restrictor-plate track since 1996. One week later, he provided NASCAR with one of its most controversial moments. At the Bristol night race, Earnhardt found himself in contention to win his first short track race since Martinsville in 1995. When a caution came out with 15 laps to go, leader Terry Labonte got hit from behind by the lapped car of Darrell Waltrip. His spin put Earnhardt in the lead with five cars between him and Labonte with five laps to go. Labonte had four fresh tires, and Earnhardt was driving on old tires, which made Earnhardt's car considerably slower. Labonte caught Earnhardt and passed him coming to the white flag, but Earnhardt drove hard into turn two, bumping Labonte and spinning him around. Earnhardt collected the win while spectators booed and made obscene gestures. "I didn't mean to turn him around, I just wanted to rattle his cage," Earnhardt said of the incident. He finished seventh in the standings that year, with 3 wins, 7 top fives, and 21 top tens, with an average finish of 12.0.
====2000====
In the 2000 season, Earnhardt had a resurgence, which was commonly attributed to neck surgery he underwent to correct a lingering injury from his 1996 Talladega crash. He scored what were considered the two most exciting wins of the year—winning by 0.010 seconds over Bobby Labonte at Atlanta, then gaining seventeen positions in the final four laps to win at Talladega, claiming his only No Bull million-dollar bonus along with his record 10th win at the track. Earnhardt also had second-place runs at Richmond and Martinsville, tracks where he had struggled through the late 1990s. On the strength of those performances, Earnhardt got to second in the standings. However, poor performances at the road course of Watkins Glen, where he wrecked coming out of the chicane, a wreck with Kenny Irwin Jr. while leading the spring race at Bristol, and mid-pack runs at intermediate tracks like Charlotte and Dover in a season dominated by the Ford Taurus in those tracks from Roush, Yates, and Penske, coupled with Bobby Labonte's extreme consistency, denied Earnhardt an eighth championship title. Earnhardt finished 2000 with two wins, 13 top fives, 24 top tens, an average finish of 9.4, and was the only driver besides Labonte to finish the season with zero DNF's.
==Death==
During the Daytona 500 at Daytona International Speedway on February 18, 2001, Earnhardt was killed in a three-car crash on the final lap of the race. He collided with Ken Schrader after making small contact with Sterling Marlin and hit the outside wall head-on. He had been blocking Schrader on the outside and Marlin on the inside at the time of the crash. Earnhardt's and Schrader's cars both slid off the track's asphalt banking into the infield grass just inside of turn 4. Seconds later, his driver Michael Waltrip won the race, with Waltrip's teammate and Earnhardt's son Dale Earnhardt Jr. finishing second. Earnhardt was pronounced dead at the Halifax Medical Center at 5:16 pm Eastern Standard Time (22:16 UTC); he was 49 years old. NASCAR president Mike Helton confirmed Earnhardt's death in a statement to the press. An autopsy conducted on February 19, 2001, concluded that Earnhardt sustained a fatal basilar skull fracture. Four days later, on February 22, public funeral services for Earnhardt were held at the Calvary Church in Charlotte, North Carolina.
=== Aftermath ===
Several press conferences were held in the days following Earnhardt's death. After driver Sterling Marlin and his relatives received hate mail and death threats from angry fans, Waltrip and Earnhardt Jr. absolved him of any responsibility.
The Daytona Beach Police Department and NASCAR opened two investigations about the crash; nearly every detail of the crash was made public. The allegations of seatbelt failure resulted in Bill Simpson's resignation from the company bearing his name, which manufactured the seatbelts used in Earnhardt's car and nearly every other NASCAR driver's car. In October 2001, NASCAR mandated drivers from its three national series to use the HANS device, which Earnhardt had refused to wear after finding it restrictive and uncomfortable.
Team owner Richard Childress made a public pledge that the number 3 would never again adorn the side of a black race car with a GM Goodwrench sponsorship, and the car was re-numbered as the #29. Childress's second-year Busch Series driver Kevin Harvick was named as Earnhardt's replacement, beginning with the 2001 Dura Lube 400 at North Carolina Speedway. Special pennants bearing the No. 3 were distributed to everyone at the track to honor Earnhardt, and the Childress team wore blank uniforms out of respect, something which disappeared quickly and was soon replaced by the previous GM Goodwrench Service Plus uniforms.
Harvick's car always displayed the Earnhardt stylized number 3 on the "B" posts (metal portion on each side of the car to the rear of the front windows) above the number 29 until the end of 2013, when he departed for Stewart-Haas Racing. The number 3 returned for the 2014 season, this time not sponsored by GM Goodwrench (which was rebranded GM Certified Service in 2011), driven by Childress's grandson Austin Dillon.
Fans began honoring Earnhardt by holding three fingers aloft on the third lap of every race, a black screen of No. 3 in the beginning of NASCAR Thunder 2002 before the EA Sports logo, and the television coverage of NASCAR on Fox and NASCAR on NBC went silent for each third lap from Rockingham to the following year's race there in honor of Earnhardt, unless on-track incidents brought out the caution flag on the third lap. Three weeks after Earnhardt's death, Harvick, driving a car that had been prepared for Earnhardt, scored his first career Cup win at Atlanta. On the final lap of the 2001 Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500, he beat Jeff Gordon by .006 seconds (the margin being 0.004 of a second closer than Earnhardt had won over Bobby Labonte at the same race a year ago) in an identical photo finish, and the images of Earnhardt's longtime gas man Danny "Chocolate" Myers crying after the victory, Harvick's tire-smoking burnout on the front stretch with three fingers held aloft outside the driver's window. Harvick would win another race at the inaugural event at Chicagoland en route to a ninth-place finish in the final points and won Rookie of the Year honors along with the 2001 NASCAR Busch Series Championship.
Dale Earnhardt, Inc. won five races in the 2001 season, beginning with Steve Park's victory in the race at Rockingham just one week after Earnhardt's death. Earnhardt Jr. and Waltrip finished first and second in the series' return to Daytona in July for the Pepsi 400, a reverse of the finish in the Daytona 500. Earnhardt Jr. also won the fall races at Dover (first post 9/11 race) and Talladega and came to an eighth-place points finish.
Earnhardt's remains were interred at his estate in Mooresville, North Carolina after a private funeral service on February 21, 2001. Dillon and his younger brother Ty Dillon drove the No. 3 in various lower level competitions for several years, including the Camping World East Series. In 2012, Austin Dillon began driving in the Nationwide Series full-time, using the No. 3; he had previously used the No. 33 while driving in that series part-time.
Richard Childress Racing entered a No. 3 in the Daytona truck race on February 13, 2010, with sponsorship from Bass Pro Shops driven by Austin Dillon. It was involved in a wreck almost identical to that which took the life of Earnhardt: being spun out, colliding with another vehicle, and being turned into the outside wall in turn number four. Dillon again returned to a No. 3 marked racecar when he started fifth in the 2012 Daytona Nationwide Series opener in an Advocare-sponsored black Chevrolet Impala. On December 11, 2013, RCR announced that Austin Dillon would drive the No. 3 car in the upcoming 2014 Sprint Cup season, bringing the number back to the series for the first time in 13 years.
Only the former International Race of Champions actually retired the No. 3, which they did in a rule change effective in 2004. Until the series folded in 2007, anyone wishing to use the No. 3 again had to use No. 03 instead.
Formula One driver Daniel Ricciardo chose the number 3 as his permanent racing number when F1's rules changed to allow drivers to choose their own numbers for 2014 and stated on Twitter that part of the reason for his choice was that he was a fan of Earnhardt's, while his helmet design features the number stylized in the same way.
==Legacy==
"Earnhardt Tower", a seating section at Daytona International Speedway was opened and named in his honor a month before his death at the track.
Earnhardt has several roads named after him, including a street in his hometown Kannapolis. Dale Earnhardt Boulevard (originally Earnhardt Road) is marked as exit 60 off Interstate 85 in North Carolina, northeast of Charlotte. Dale Earnhardt Drive is also the start of The Dale Journey Trail, a self-guided driving tour of landmarks in the lives of Earnhardt and his family. The North Carolina Department of Transportation switched the designation of a road between Kannapolis and Mooresville near the headquarters of DEI (that used to be called NC 136) with NC 3, which was in Currituck County. In addition, exit 72 off Interstate 35W, one of the entrances to Texas Motor Speedway, is named "Dale Earnhardt Way".
Between the 2004 and 2005 JGTC (renamed Super GT from 2005) season, Hasemi Sport competed in the series with a sole black G'Zox-sponsored Nissan 350Z with the same number and letterset as Earnhardt on the roof.
During the NASCAR weekend races at Talladega Superspeedway on April 29, 2006 – May 1, 2006, the DEI cars competed in identical special black paint schemes on Dale Earnhardt Day, which is held annually on his birthday—April 29. Martin Truex Jr., won the Aaron's 312 in the black car, painted to reflect Earnhardt's Intimidating Black No. 3 NASCAR Busch Grand National series car. In the Nextel Cup race on May 1, No. 8 Dale Earnhardt Jr.; No. 1 Martin Truex Jr.; and No. 15 Paul Menard competed in cars with the same type of paint scheme.
On June 18, 2006, at Michigan for the 3M Performance 400, Earnhardt Jr. ran a special vintage Budweiser car to honor his father and his grandfather Ralph Earnhardt. He finished third after rain caused the race to be cut short. The car was painted to resemble Ralph's 1956 dirt cars, and carried 1956-era Budweiser logos to complete the throwback look.
In the summer of 2007, Dale Earnhardt, Inc. (DEI) with the Dale Earnhardt Foundation, announced it will fund an annual undergraduate scholarship at Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina, for students interested in motorsports and automotive engineering. Scholarship winners are also eligible to work at DEI in internships. The first winner was William Bostic, a senior at Clemson majoring in mechanical engineering.
In 2008, on the 50th anniversary of the first Daytona 500 race, DEI and RCR teamed up to make a special COT sporting Earnhardt's 1998 Daytona 500 paint scheme to honor the tenth anniversary of his Daytona 500 victory. In a tribute to all previous Daytona 500 winners, the winning drivers appeared in a lineup on stage, in chronological order. The throwback No. 3 car stood in the infield, in the approximate position Earnhardt would have taken in the processional. The throwback car featured the authentic 1998-era design on a current-era car, a concept similar to modern throwback jerseys in other sports. The car was later sold in 1:64 and 1:24 scale models.
In 2010, the Intimidator 305 roller coaster opened at Kings Dominion in Doswell, Virginia. Named after Earnhardt, the ride's trains were modeled after his black-and-red Chevrolet. Another Intimidator coaster also opened at Carowinds in North Carolina the same year. Both were themed to Earnhardt's legacy, featuring signs, flags, various artwork, as well as replicas of the cars he drove at each location. The "Intimidator" name and all Earnhardt branding were removed from both rides in 2024 as a result of an expiring licensing agreement.
Atlanta Braves assistant coach Ned Yost was a friend of Earnhardt, and Richard Childress. When Yost was named Milwaukee Brewers manager, he changed jersey numbers, from No. 5 to No. 3 in Earnhardt's honor. (No. 3 is retired by the Braves in honor of outfielder Dale Murphy, so Yost could not make the change while in Atlanta.) When Yost was named Kansas City Royals assistant coach, he wore No. 2 for the 2010 season, even when he was named manager in May 2010, but for the 2011 season, he switched back to No. 3.
During the third lap of the 2011 Daytona 500 (a decade since Earnhardt's death), and 2021 Daytona 500 (two decades since Earnhardt's death) the commentators on FOX fell silent while fans raised three fingers in a similar fashion to the tributes throughout 2001.
The north entrance to New Avondale City Center in Arizona will bear the name Dale Earnhardt Drive. Avondale is where Earnhardt won a Cup race in 1990.
His helmet from the 1998 season is at the National Museum of American History in the Smithsonian museum in Washington D.C.
Weedeater, a sludge metal band from North Carolina, paid tribute to Earnhardt on their 2003 album Sixteen Tons, with the song "No. 3". The song is played with audio clips from television broadcasts about Earnhardt mixed in the background. He is also mentioned in a 2001 song composed by John Hiatt entitled The Tiki Bar Is Open, along with his legendary race number.
On February 28, 2016, after winning the Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 at Atlanta Motor Speedway, during his victory lap, driver Jimmie Johnson held his hand out of his window, with three fingers extended in tribute to Earnhardt. This was following Johnson's 76th Cup Series win, which tied the career mark of Earnhardt's. This is also the track where Earnhardt claimed his sixth Winston Cup Series title.
In the week of the 2021 United States Grand Prix, McLaren driver Daniel Ricciardo drove the iconic Wrangler car from 1984 as Ricciardo has been a fan of Earnhardt since he was a child. The opportunity came after he won the Italian Grand Prix that year, and McLaren CEO Zak Brown, who owns the car, promised him that he would give him a chance to drive it.
A star is named after him through International Star Registry. The star, officially named "Dale Earnhardt, Sr.," is located in the Aquila constellation at coordinates RA 19h 1m 36.36s D 16° 34′ 25.00″.
==Media==
Earnhardt appeared as himself in the movie, Stroker Ace.
He also voiced himself in King of the Hill in the episode titled, "Life in the Fast Lane, Bobby's Saga".
==Awards==
He was awarded the Order of the Long Leaf Pine by North Carolina Governor Jim Hunt in 1994.
He was inducted into the North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame in 1994.
Earnhardt was named one of NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers in 1998.
Earnhardt was posthumously named "NASCAR's Most Popular Driver" in 2001. This was the only time he received the award.
He was posthumously inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2002, a year after his death.
He was posthumously inducted in the Oceanside Rotary Club Stock Car Racing Hall of Fame at Daytona Beach in 2004.
He was posthumously inducted in the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2006.
Earnhardt was named first on ESPN's list of "NASCAR's 20 Greatest Drivers" in 2007 in front of Richard Petty.
He was posthumously inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2006.
He was posthumously inducted in the Inaugural Class of the NASCAR Hall of Fame on May 23, 2010.
He was posthumously inducted into the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 2020.
==Motorsports career results==
===NASCAR===
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)
====Winston Cup Series====
=====Daytona 500=====
====Busch Series====
==== Winston West Series ====
==== Busch North Series ====
===International Race of Champions===
(key) (Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.)
===ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series===
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)
===24 Hours of Daytona===
(key)
|
[
"Wiscasset Raceway",
"1979 World 600",
"Carolina Dodge Dealers 400",
"Talladega ARCA 500k",
"Order of the Long Leaf Pine",
"Goodwrench/Delco 200",
"1978 American 500",
"Jim Stacy",
"Pocono Raceway",
"1991 Daytona 500",
"Jay Johnson 250",
"Neil Bonnett",
"Sterling Marlin",
"Greenville Pickens Speedway",
"Granger Select 150",
"Robert Gee (nascar)",
"AC Delco 500",
"Oxford 250",
"Grand National 200",
"Roses Stores 200 (Rougemont)",
"North Carolina Highway 3",
"Virginia National Bank 500",
"TranSouth Financial 400",
"Budweiser 200 (Dover)",
"AC Delco 400",
"1999 Brickyard 400",
"Mall.com 400",
"Roses Stores 150",
"IROC XV",
"Kenny Irwin Jr.",
"Volunteer 400",
"Evergreen Speedway",
"Pepsi Southern 500",
"World Crown 200",
"Pepsi 200 (Hickory)",
"North Carolina Speedway",
"1988 Motorcraft Quality Parts 500",
"Osterlund Racing",
"Smithsonian Institution",
"1998 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Pontiac 300",
"Willow Springs Raceway",
"Joey Logano",
"Talladega DieHard 500",
"Michigan International Speedway",
"Miller 200 (Martinsville)",
"Texas 500",
"Komfort Koach 200 (fall)",
"Winston Classic",
"Ford Thunderbird",
"Northwest Speedway",
"Miller 500 (Dover)",
"Pepsi 200 (South Boston)",
"Miller High Life 400 (Spring Richmond)",
"2000 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Firecracker 200",
"1975 Champion Spark Plug 400",
"yellow",
"TranSouth 500",
"Tuborg 400",
"Pop Secret Microwave Popcorn 400",
"Hanes Activewear 500",
"1985 Daytona 500",
"MBNA 500",
"Jack Link's 500",
"Dura Lube 500 Presented by Kmart",
"2014 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series",
"Nestle 300",
"EA Sports 500",
"NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers",
"Pennsylvania 300",
"Jennerstown Speedway",
"Car of Tomorrow",
"1976 Riverside 400",
"1981 Daytona 500",
"1979 Northwestern Bank 400",
"2001 NAPA Auto Parts 500",
"Motorcraft 500",
"Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500",
"Kirk Shelmerdine",
"HANS device",
"Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum",
"All Pro 300",
"SplitFire 200",
"Busch 200 (South Boston)",
"1998 Las Vegas 400",
"Pet Dairy 150",
"Bill Schmitt",
"1991 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Charlotte Motor Speedway",
"Carolina 500",
"Federal Bureau of Investigation",
"Atlanta 300",
"Advance Auto Parts Clash",
"NAPA Autocare 500",
"True Value Oxford 250",
"Summer 500",
"1985 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Hampton Chevy 200",
"Ty Dillon",
"Tropicana 400",
"ARCA Racing Series",
"Winn-Dixie 500",
"Winchester ARCA 150",
"Matt Kenseth",
"Dodge",
"1977 Daytona 500",
"Ames/Peak 200",
"1988 Daytona 500",
"1989 Holly Farms 400",
"Goodwrench 500",
"Pontiac 200 (Darlington)",
"1984 World 600",
"1986 Delaware 500",
"Food Giant 300",
"NASCAR.com",
"Fall Classic 200",
"1995 Brickyard 400",
"The Budweiser At The Glen",
"NAPA 400",
"Busch Volunteer 500",
"Pontiac Winner's Circle 200",
"1982 Daytona 500",
"2014 Formula 1 season",
"AC Spark Plug 500",
"Budweiser 250",
"Holland NASCAR Motorsports Complex",
"2011 Daytona 500",
"Coca-Cola 300 (North Wilkesboro)",
"North Carolina Governor",
"Atlanta ARCA 500k",
"Goody's 250 (Bristol)",
"Coca-Cola 500 (Atlanta)",
"Masahiro Hasemi",
"1979 Sun-Drop Music City USA 420",
"1983 World 600",
"1995 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"IROC at Indy",
"Melling Tool 420",
"Purolator 500 (Atlanta)",
"Charlotte, North Carolina",
"Pepsi Firecracker 400",
"1997 Interstate Batteries 500",
"Buddy Baker",
"North Wilkesboro Speedway",
"1984 Winston 500",
"True Value 250",
"NASCAR Thunder 2002",
"3: The Dale Earnhardt Story",
"Richmond 500",
"Save Mart/Kragen 350",
"Southern 500",
"Texas Pete 300",
"Bristol Motor Speedway",
"Hooters 500",
"Miller 300",
"Warner W. Hodgdon Carolina 500",
"Kansas City Royals",
"Goracing.com 500",
"Tony Stewart",
"1990 Daytona 500",
"1996 Coca-Cola 600",
"Peak Performance 500",
"Budweiser 200 (Caraway)",
"1976 Dixie 500",
"2001 New Hampshire 300",
"Coca-Cola 500 (Pocono)",
"IROC XIV",
"1986 Goodwrench 500",
"Toledo ARCA 150",
"2001 24 Hours of Daytona",
"Chevrolet Lumina",
"Chevrolet Corvette C5-R",
"Hanes 500 (Fall Martinsville)",
"basilar skull fracture",
"Tioga Speedway",
"2000 Winston 500",
"1993 ARCA Hooters SuperCar Series season",
"DieHard 500 (Spring Talladega)",
"Zak Brown",
"2001 Pennzoil Freedom 400",
"2001 Protection One 400",
"Budweiser 300",
"1979 Firecracker 400",
"1982 Busch 500",
"Cardinal 250",
"1987 Daytona 500",
"Hardee's Frisco 250",
"1975 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"thatlook.com 300",
"Lowe's 200 (South Boston)",
"1980 Talladega 500",
"Southern 500 (1950–2004)",
"Weedeater (band)",
"NASCAR",
"Ken Schrader",
"1980 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"NAPA 500",
"Indianapolis Raceway Park",
"Kerry Earnhardt",
"Dura Lube 500",
"Sundrop 400",
"Winston Cup",
"Cook Out 400 (Richmond)",
"Southern 500 (1950-2004)",
"Hardee's 200 (Richmond)",
"Wrangler Sanfor-Set 400",
"Coca-Cola 200 (Rockingham)",
"Steve Park",
"Kings Dominion",
"Pontiac (automobile)",
"Bill Elliott",
"1980 CRC Chemicals Rebel 500",
"The New York Times",
"1977 Talladega 500",
"Pantry Stores 300",
"Buick",
"1994 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Miller 200 (South Boston)",
"1977 Music City USA 420",
"Pepsi 400 Presented by Meijer",
"Dixie 500",
"Southern 300",
"MBNA Platinum 400",
"Global Crossing @ The Glen",
"Autumn 150",
"Miller Genuine Draft 500 (Dover)",
"CarsDirect.com 400",
"Mountain Dew Southern 500",
"U-Can-Rent 200",
"Xfinity Series",
"1975 National 500",
"Atlanta 500",
"undergraduate",
"CarQuest 200",
"NASCAR 99",
"1983 Warner W. Hodgdon Carolina 500",
"Stock car racing",
"CRC Chemicals 500",
"Chevrolet Impala",
"1980 Richmond 400",
"Shasta Speedway",
"Ed Whitaker",
"1984 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Texas Motor Speedway",
"Sovran Bank 500",
"Miller 500 (Pocono)",
"Firecracker 400",
"Michael Waltrip",
"NASCAR's 75 Greatest Drivers",
"Kentucky",
"New England 300",
"Robert Gee (Nascar)",
"Red Carpet 200",
"Goody's 200",
"GM Goodwrench 200",
"List of members of the NASCAR Hall of Fame",
"Miller 500 (Busch race)",
"Carolina Pride / Budweiser 200",
"Miller High Life 500 (Pocono)",
"black",
"Delaware 500",
"1986 Winston 500",
"1999 Pepsi 400",
"Metrolina Speedway",
"Austin Dillon",
"1984 Firecracker 400",
"Goody's 150 (Rougemont)",
"Champion Spark Plug 400",
"1993 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Chase Elliott",
"Tri-City Pontiac 200",
"Big V Pharmacies / Castrol 250",
"Daytona ARCA 200",
"heart attack",
"1979 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Goody's 200 (Hickory)",
"1979 Gabriel 400",
"Advance Auto 200",
"AMP Energy 500",
"Oakwood Homes 500",
"Pontiac 200 (Nazareth)",
"DieHard 500 (Fall Talladega)",
"Doswell, Virginia",
"Coca-Cola 200 (South Boston)",
"Riverside Park Speedway",
"Kelley Earnhardt Miller",
"1996 Daytona 500",
"Nashville 420",
"Amoco 300",
"X-1R Firecracker 200",
"KMart/Dura Lube 400",
"Winston Western 500",
"Big Star/Nestle 200",
"Geoff Bodine",
"1999 Goody's Headache Powder 500",
"1977 Old Dominion 500",
"King of the Hill",
"Valleydale Southeastern 500",
"1981 Mason-Dixon 500",
"Hardee's 500",
"UAW-DaimlerChrysler 400",
"List of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series champions",
"1983 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Nationwise 500",
"Russell Phillips",
"Miller 400 (Richmond)",
"Pepsi 400 Presented by DeVilbiss",
"NAPA National 500",
"NAPA Auto Parts 500",
"1979 Talladega 500",
"Darlington 250",
"1992 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Coors Allen Crowe Memorial 100",
"SplitFire Spark Plug 500",
"Slick 50 300 (Busch race)",
"1975 Daytona 500",
"Valleydale Meats 500",
"Nazareth Speedway",
"Stockton 99 Speedway",
"IROC XIX",
"Winston Million",
"1979 Texas 400",
"Farm Aid on CMT 300",
"New Hampshire Motor Speedway",
"1993 Winston 500",
"Sunkist 200",
"Pepsi 400",
"Kil-Kare Spring 150",
"Champion 300",
"Mountain Dew 300",
"Roses Stores 200",
"1999 Daytona 500",
"Southern Auto Racing News 200",
"Pontiac 200 (Richmond)",
"1994 Daytona 500",
"1988 NASCAR Busch Series",
"IROC VIII",
"NASCAR's Most Popular Driver Award",
"2001 Pepsi 400",
"IROC XX",
"Coors 200 (South Boston)",
"1982 NASCAR Busch Series",
"1982 NASCAR Budweiser Late Model Sportsman Series",
"Sprint Cup Series",
"Food City 500",
"1983 Daytona 500",
"Oldsmobile",
"1990 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Jiffy Lube 300",
"Jeffrey Earnhardt",
"Coors Light 300",
"1976 National 500",
"World 600",
"NASCAR Winston West Series",
"2001 MBNA Cal Ripken Jr. 400",
"Gabriel 400",
"Poole Equipment 150",
"Interstate 85",
"Marty Robbins 420",
"2000 Coca-Cola 600",
"Ames/Splitfire 200",
"Los Angeles Times 500",
"Motorsports Hall of Fame of America",
"Spring 220",
"Gatorade Duel",
"Dixie Cup 200",
"Purolator 500 (Pocono)",
"1978 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"1979 Coca-Cola 500",
"Goodwrench 200 (Dover)",
"Aaron's 312",
"Granger Select 400",
"Portland Speedway",
"ESPN",
"Ed Negre",
"1993 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"1992 Daytona 500",
"Miller 400 (Charlotte)",
"Atlanta Journal 500",
"Miller American 400",
"IROC XVI",
"1988 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Southern Biscuit Flour 200",
"Davey Allison",
"1983 Winston Western 500",
"2000 DirecTV 500",
"Solomon Enterprises 200",
"road course",
"Indianapolis Motor Speedway",
"1975 World 600",
"Ricky Rudd",
"1978 Southern 500",
"Virginia 200",
"1976 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Budweiser 400",
"Commonwealth 200",
"1975 Los Angeles Times 500",
"Miller Time 250",
"1976 Music City USA 420",
"Automotive Hall of Fame",
"Busch Nashville 420",
"Miller Genuine Draft 500 (2nd Pocono)",
"Henley Gray",
"Las Vegas 400",
"Sportsman 200",
"Goodwrench 200",
"Motorcraft Fast Lube ARCA 500k",
"Milwaukee Brewers",
"Bobby Dale Earnhardt",
"1998 Daytona 500",
"Camping World Truck Series",
"Ford Credit 300",
"Dale Jarrett",
"Milwaukee Sentinel 200",
"L.D. Swain & Son 200",
"Carowinds",
"Exide NASCAR Select Batteries 400",
"National Museum of American History",
"1976 Southern 500",
"Mike Helton",
"Busch Series",
"Riverside International Raceway",
"1995 Daytona 500",
"Wrangler 150",
"Winston Cup Series",
"1992 Hooters 500",
"Central PA Speedway",
"IROC XVII",
"Watkins Glen International",
"1976 Mason-Dixon 500",
"Auto Club Speedway",
"Champion Spark Plug 150",
"1989 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Mountain Dew 400",
"Wendy's Big Classic 100",
"NASCAR Cup Series",
"Zerex 150",
"Pocono Organics CBD 325",
"Winn-Dixie 300 (Charlotte)",
"Toledo 125",
"Yates Racing",
"1978 Talladega 500",
"1996 Tyson Holly Farms 400",
"1979 Champion Spark Plug 400",
"Heinz Southern 500",
"Formula One",
"Kyle Busch",
"Goody's Body Pain 500",
"1989 Autoworks 500",
"Big Star/Coca-Cola 200",
"2001 MBNA Platinum 400",
"Yount 200",
"Virginia 500",
"Goody's 300",
"Clemson, South Carolina",
"Cracker Barrel 500",
"Rusty Wallace",
"Komfort Koach 200 (spring)",
"1997 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
"1979 Southern 500",
"Warner W. Hodgdon 400",
"Bill France Jr.",
"Dale Murphy",
"Daytona International Speedway",
"NAPA Riverside 400",
"1987 Holly Farms 400",
"Spring 200",
"Meridian Advantage 200",
"1982 Winston 500",
"Cracker Barrel Country Store 420",
"1988 Southern 500",
"Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500",
"Team Penske",
"Tim Richmond",
"1999 Pennzoil 400",
"Valleydale 500",
"Shoney's 200",
"1986 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Rebel 500",
"1980 Warner W. Hodgdon 400",
"Coca-Cola 600",
"Gatorade 200",
"chicane",
"2000 Daytona 500",
"GM Goodwrench Service Plus 400",
"1978 Old Dominion 500",
"Nationwide Series",
"1985 Winston Western 500",
"Ford Motor Company",
"Chevrolet",
"MBNA.com 400",
"Dale Shaw",
"1977 Cam 2 Motor Oil 400",
"1989 NASCAR Busch Series",
"1979 Southeastern 500",
"1996 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"1982 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"1999 NAPA 500",
"Western Speedway",
"List of all-time NASCAR Cup Series winners",
"WDVA 200",
"1981 Budweiser NASCAR 400",
"Bud 500",
"MBNA 400",
"Wrangler Jeans Indigo 400",
"Nashville 200 (Busch)",
"1997 California 500",
"Warner W. Hodgdon American 500",
"Miller High Life 400 (Fall Richmond)",
"Sharpie 500",
"Miller Genuine Draft 400 (Richmond)",
"IROC XXII",
"2001 Coca-Cola 600",
"Miller Genuine Draft 500 (1st Pocono)",
"1985 NASCAR Busch Series",
"NASCAR on Fox",
"1979 Daytona 500",
"Southeastern 500",
"1977 Wilkes 400",
"1982 Virginia National Bank 500",
"Miller Time 150",
"2001 Daytona 500",
"Western Auto Texas Shootout II",
"1977 Southern 500",
"Rick Mast",
"sludge metal",
"7-Eleven 150",
"Poulan Pro 500k",
"1976 Daytona 500",
"Checker Auto Parts 500",
"1976 Gwyn Staley 400",
"Yakima Speedway",
"1998 Coca-Cola 600",
"Fram Filter 500K",
"1992 Champion Spark Plug 400",
"IROC XI",
"1985 NASCAR Winston West Series",
"1987 The Winston",
"bell housing",
"1997 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Mountain Dew 200",
"1983 Talladega 500",
"Laneco 200",
"IROC VII",
"Mark Martin",
"Miller 200 (Rougemont)",
"Kyle Larson",
"Save Mart Supermarkets 300K",
"1979 Winston Western 500",
"1989 Atlanta Journal 500",
"Granger Select 200 (Louisville)",
"1991 Banquet Frozen Foods 300",
"2000 Dura Lube 300",
"1991 ARCA Permatex SuperCar Series season",
"Lee USA Speedway",
"Daytona 500",
"Motor State 400",
"1994 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"1978 World 600",
"Martinsville Speedway",
"motorsports",
"Danny \"Chocolate\" Myers",
"UAW-GM Teamwork 500",
"1997 Dura Lube 500",
"Speedweeks",
"Super GT",
"Winston Select 500",
"Oxford Plains Speedway",
"Kelly Collins",
"Old Dominion 500",
"1990 The Winston",
"1984 Talladega 500",
"2000 NAPA 500",
"1997 Coca-Cola 600",
"Dale Earnhardt Jr.",
"IROC XVIII",
"Holly Farms 400",
"1980 Firecracker 400",
"Granger Select 200 (Nashville)",
"1989 Daytona 500",
"Ernie Irvan",
"Harrah's 500",
"GM Goodwrench 500",
"1988 Pannill Sweatshirts 500",
"1975 Winston 500",
"Grand Prix of Cleveland",
"2021 Daytona 500",
"Darrell Waltrip",
"1978 Capital City 400",
"Kmart 400",
"Protecta-Liner 200",
"Peak Antifreeze 500",
"Bill Simpson (racing driver)",
"Freedlander 200",
"DeVilbiss 400",
"1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"List of Daytona 500 winners",
"Polaroid 300",
"Polish Victory Lap",
"Gwyn Staley 400",
"North Carolina Department of Transportation",
"Coors 420",
"1988 Miller High Life 400 (June)",
"Bristol International Speedway",
"Bobby Isaac Memorial 200",
"Inaugural 200",
"Andy Pilgrim",
"Jim Hunt",
"Richmond 400",
"Kevin Hamlin",
"Carpenter Chevy 150",
"Talladega 500 (Fall Race)",
"Hanes 500 (Spring Martinsville)",
"1981 Winston Western 500 (November)",
"1980 Coca-Cola 500",
"Mike Skinner (racing driver)",
"1976 Los Angeles Times 500",
"Primestar 500 (Texas)",
"Mason Day Paving 200",
"ARCA Texas 500k",
"Calvary Church (Charlotte)",
"1976 American 500",
"GM Parts 300",
"NASCAR Rookie of the Year",
"Paul Menard",
"1984 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Budweiser Shootout",
"Kil-Kare ARCA 150",
"Rockingham Speedway",
"1977 Firecracker 400",
"Miller High Life 500 (Charlotte)",
"Goody's Headache Powder 500 (Martinsville)",
"Miller Classic",
"Southern Illinois 200",
"Richard Childress Racing",
"2001 Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500",
"Budweiser 200 (Jefco)",
"Derrike Cope",
"First Union 400",
"David Pearson (NASCAR driver)",
"Daytona Beach Police Department",
"1976 World 600",
"Motorcraft Quality Parts 500",
"24 Hours of Daytona",
"IROC XIII",
"Metro Tire Centers 150",
"Mason-Dixon 500",
"Kevin Harvick",
"International Motorsports Hall of Fame",
"Budweiser 500 (fall)",
"Chevrolet Monte Carlo",
"All Pro Auto Parts 500",
"1993 The Winston",
"Richard Childress",
"1988 Miller High Life 400 (September)",
"Slick 50 500",
"American 500",
"1993 Daytona 500",
"Jennerstown Speedway Complex",
"Budweiser 200 (Bristol)",
"Mark III Vans 200",
"Checker Auto Parts/Dura Lube 500",
"Doug Richert",
"Seattle International Raceway",
"IROC XII",
"Kil-Kare Icebreaker 125",
"Daytona Beach, Florida",
"Mountain Dew 500",
"Mello Yello 500",
"Richard Petty",
"Autolite 250",
"Harry Gant",
"1976 Volunteer 400",
"Miller High Life 400 (Michigan)",
"1983 Winston 500",
"Chevrolet Monte Carlo 400",
"1977 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"All-American Speedway",
"National 500",
"Thompson Speedway Motorsports Park",
"1978 Daytona 500",
"Phoenix International Raceway",
"IROC XXIV",
"Martin Truex Jr.",
"DAPCO 200",
"Dogwood 500",
"Atlanta Motor Speedway",
"2021 United States Grand Prix",
"Larry McReynolds",
"Interstate 35W (Texas)",
"Music City USA 420",
"1997 Winston 500",
"Metro 25 Tire Centers 150",
"1975 Music City USA 420",
"Greenville, South Carolina",
"1978 Delaware 500",
"Hampton 200",
"Darlington 200 (Busch)",
"2001 Food City 500",
"Champion Batteries 150",
"Roses Stores 300",
"2000 Brickyard 400",
"Music City Motorplex",
"NASCAR 400",
"Miller Genuine Draft 400 (Michigan)",
"1980 Daytona 500",
"Dover Downs International Speedway",
"Southeastern 150",
"Andy Petree",
"1987 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Corvette Racing",
"1981 Talladega 500",
"1984 Daytona 500",
"McLaren",
"Free Service 150",
"IROC XXV",
"Bud Moore (NASCAR owner)",
"Ralph Earnhardt",
"Roush Fenway Racing",
"MBNA Gold 400",
"Death of Dale Earnhardt",
"GM Goodwrench Dealer 400",
"1992 Coca-Cola 600",
"NASCAR 2000",
"Pennzoil 400 (Homestead-Miami)",
"Wilkes 400",
"Coca-Cola World 600",
"NASCAR Busch North Series",
"1985 Summer 500",
"NASCAR All-Star Race",
"Sandhills 200",
"Budweiser",
"Banquet Frozen Foods 300",
"Capital City 500",
"Kannapolis, North Carolina",
"Mooresville, North Carolina",
"Langley Air Force Base",
"Ken Schrader Racing",
"NE Chevy 250",
"1997 Brickyard 400",
"1983 NASCAR Budweiser Late Model Sportsman Series",
"Roses Stores 200 (South Boston)",
"AC Delco 200",
"2016 Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500",
"Harvest 150",
"John Hiatt",
"2001 Dura Lube 400",
"Granger Select 200 (Hickory)",
"1980 Holly Farms 400",
"2001 Talladega 500",
"Goody's 200 (Caraway)",
"Toledo ARCA 125",
"Darlington Raceway",
"1986 Daytona 500",
"Pop Secret 400",
"Miller 150",
"Miller Genuine Draft 150",
"CMT 300",
"1977 Champion Spark Plug 400",
"Cronkrite Racing",
"1981 Winston Western 500 (January)",
"pit road",
"1999 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"1996 Brickyard 400",
"Sonoma Raceway",
"Busch 500",
"Fay's 150",
"Coordinated Universal Time",
"Infineon Raceway",
"Kroger 200 (Nationwide)",
"List of Daytona 500 pole position winners",
"Terry Labonte",
"blue",
"Detroit Gasket 200",
"Southern Illinois 250k",
"Winston 500 (Spring)",
"1993 First Union 400",
"Nationwise 150",
"Atlanta Braves",
"Jody Ridley",
"CRC Chemicals Rebel 500",
"List of motorsport terminology",
"ARCA 200",
"Havoline 250",
"Ford Taurus",
"Stroker Ace",
"The Bud At The Glen",
"Coke Zero 400",
"Mesa Marin Raceway",
"1976 Firecracker 400",
"Jiffy Lube 500k",
"2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
"1977 Winston 500",
"Lime Rock Park",
"Clemson University",
"1983 Miller High Life 500",
"Winston 200",
"Like Cola 500",
"IROC XXI",
"1975 Winston Western 500",
"Food City 250",
"Jay Johnson 200",
"Save Mart Supermarkets 300",
"Pyroil 500K",
"1998 Pepsi 400",
"1986 Firecracker 400",
"1986 Champion Spark Plug 400",
"Camping World East Series",
"Havoline",
"Bojangles' Southern 500",
"Dale Earnhardt, Inc.",
"3M Performance 400",
"Budweiser 500 (Spring Dover)",
"Tyson Holly Farms 400",
"Rod Osterlund",
"1999 Coca-Cola 600",
"Old Milwaukee 200",
"Eastern 150",
"1981 NASCAR Winston Cup Series",
"Myrtle Beach 200",
"1988 Atlanta Journal 500",
"1976 Winston 500",
"Texas Pete 200",
"White Mountain Motorsports Park",
"Kil-Kare Firecracker 125",
"2001 Brickyard 400",
"Dura Lube/Kmart 300",
"Slick 50 300",
"Mello Yello 300",
"1976 Cam 2 Motor Oil 400",
"Pennsylvania 500",
"Pepsi 420",
"Busch Light Clash at The Coliseum",
"1986 Miller High Life 400",
"Checker 500",
"1987 Winston 500",
"Busch 200 (Langley)",
"Mike Dillon (racing driver)",
"Advance Auto Parts 500 (Busch)",
"mechanical engineering",
"1980 CRC Chemicals 500",
"white flag",
"1977 World 600",
"1978 NAPA National 500",
"Kyle Petty",
"Carquest 300",
"Ronnie Thomas",
"Winston 500 (Fall)",
"Golden Corral 500",
"Monadnock Speedway",
"Budweiser At The Glen",
"California 500 Presented by NAPA",
"2021 Italian Grand Prix",
"Mello Yello 200 (Rougemont)",
"automotive",
"Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course",
"Mello Yello 200 (Hickory)",
"California Speedway",
"Volunteer 500",
"1983 Like Cola 500",
"Northwestern Bank 400",
"Gene Lovelace 200",
"Nissan 350Z",
"L.D. Swain 150",
"Nestle 200",
"North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame",
"Busch Light 300",
"Miller 400 (Michigan)",
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"Snap-On Tools ARCA 125",
"Negre Racing",
"Champion Spark Plug 500",
"1985 Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500",
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"Dodge Charger",
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"Coca-Cola 200 (North Wilkesboro)",
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"Holly Farms 200",
"Miller Lite 400",
"1998 Brickyard 400",
"Goody's Headache Powder 500 (Bristol)",
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"Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca",
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"Goody's 500 (Fall Martinsville)",
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"TranSouth 200",
"Intimidator (roller coaster)",
"Advance Auto 500",
"Dover International Speedway",
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"Bud Moore Engineering",
"Miller Time 300",
"1987 NASCAR Busch Series",
"Wrangler Jeans",
"Save Mart 300K",
"Dura Lube/Big K 400",
"Allen Crowe Memorial 100",
"Alan Kulwicki",
"1997 Daytona 500",
"Allstate 400 at The Brickyard",
"United SportsCar Racing",
"Johnny Ray (racing driver)"
] |
7,896 |
List of games based on Dune
|
A number of games have been published based on the Dune universe created by Frank Herbert.
==Card games==
Dune (1997): Collectible card game produced by Five Rings Publishing Group/Last Unicorn Games and later Wizards of the Coast. Each player leads a planetary house, "battling, conniving, and bribing its way to greatness ... players bid for powerful characters, search for the life-prolonging spice melange, avoid sandworms, engage in interstellar commerce, and, naturally, try to kill each other". Delayed by legal issues and then a corporate buyout of Last Unicorn by Wizards of the Coast, a "Limited Edition" run of 3000 copies of a core rule-book was initially published, pending Wizards of the Coast's conversion of the game to its d20 role-playing game system and a subsequent wider release. but was eventually published by Wizards of the Coast after the acquisition.
Dune: Adventures in the Imperium (2021): Modiphius Entertainment. Its release coincided with the 2021 Dune film.
==Video games==
There have been six licensed Dune-related video games released.
===Dune (1992)===
1992's Dune from Cryo Interactive/Virgin Interactive blends adventure with strategy. Loosely following the story of the 1965 Frank Herbert novel Dune and using many visual elements from the 1984 film of the same name by David Lynch, the game casts the player as Paul Atreides, with the ultimate goal of driving the Harkonnens from the planet Dune and taking control of its valuable export, the spice. Often considered to be the first "mainstream modern real-time strategy game", Dune II established many conventions of the genre. Though gameplay is similar to its predecessor, Dune 2000 features an enhanced storyline and functionality. A sequel to Dune 2000, the real-time strategy game features 3D graphics and live-action cutscenes, and casts players as Atreides, Harkonnens, or Ordos.
===Frank Herbert's Dune (2001)===
Released in 2001 by Cryo Interactive/DreamCatcher Interactive, Frank Herbert's Dune is a 3D video game based on the 2000 Sci Fi Channel miniseries of the same name. As Paul Muad'Dib Atreides, the player must become leader of the Fremen, seize control of Dune, and defeat the evil Baron Harkonnen.
===Dune Generations (2001, cancelled)===
In 2001, Cryonetworks disclosed information about Dune Generations, an online, 3D real-time strategy game set in the Dune universe. An official website for the upcoming game featured concept images, a brief background story and description of the persistent gameworld, and a list of frequently asked questions. The game would be constructed using Cryo's own online multimedia development framework SCOL.
Within "the infrastructure of a permanent and massive multiplayer world that exists online", Dune Generations would let players assume control of a dynasty in the Dune universe, with the goal of first mastering the natural resources of their own homeworlds and ultimately rising in power and influence through conflicts and alliances with other player dynasties. Each of the three available dynasty types - traders, soldiers, or mercenaries - would provide a different playing experience, all with the long-term goal of gaining control of Arrakis and its valuable spice. The game was still in the alpha testing stage in February 2002, and the project was ultimately halted after Cryo filed for bankruptcy in July.
=== Dune: Spice Wars (2022) ===
Dune: Spice Wars was released on Steam in Early Access by French development studio Shiro Games on April 26, 2022 before being fully released on September 14, 2023. The game is inspired by Dune and Dune 2 with a strong influence from the books rather than the films. It is a real-time strategy game with 4X elements.
=== Dune: Awakening (2025) ===
Dune: Awakening is an upcoming open world action survival massively multiplayer online game set on the planet Arrakis. It was announced by its publisher and developer Funcom on Gamescom Opening Night Live 2022; The first trailer was released on August 23, 2022. It is currently scheduled to be released on May 20, 2025 for PC, with ports for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S to follow.
==Online games==
There have also been many Dune-based MUDs (multi-user dimension) and browser-based online games, created and run by fans.
===Dune text room-based MMORPG===
Dune MUD is an unlicensed, online multiplayer game, a MUD active since 1992.
DuneMUSH was an unlicensed, online multiplayer game, a MUSH active in the early 1990s.
Dune II was an unlicensed, online multiplayer MUSH active in the early 1990s.
=== Behind the Dune ===
Behind the Dune is a pornographic, unlicensed, online flash single player game first released in 2016. The game is based on Dune (1992) by Cryo Interactive.
|
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] |
7,900 |
List of Dune characters
|
Dune is a science fiction media franchise that originated with the 1965 novel of the same name by American author Frank Herbert. Dune is frequently cited as the best-selling science fiction novel in history, and won the 1966 Hugo Award as well as the inaugural Nebula Award for Best Novel. Herbert wrote five sequels before his death in 1986: Dune Messiah (1969), Children of Dune (1976), God Emperor of Dune (1981), Heretics of Dune (1984) and Chapterhouse: Dune (1985).
Dune follows Paul, the scion of House Atreides, as his family is thrown into the dangerous political intrigues centered on the desert planet Arrakis, only known source of the oracular spice melange, the most important and valuable substance in the universe. The series spans 5,000 years, focusing on Paul and then his various descendants.
Dune was adapted as a 1984 film, and again in two parts, the films Dune (2021) and Dune: Part Two (2024). Additionally, the novel was adapted as a 2000 television miniseries, Frank Herbert's Dune, and the first two sequels were also adapted as a single miniseries, Frank Herbert's Children of Dune, in 2003.
Since 1999, Frank Herbert's son Brian Herbert and science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson have published 15 prequel novels, collected in the series Prelude to Dune (1999–2001), Legends of Dune (2002–2004), Heroes of Dune (2008–2023), Great Schools of Dune (2012–2016), and The Caladan Trilogy (2020–2022). They have also released two sequel novels—Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007)—which complete the original series.
== Overview ==
== Introduced in Dune (1965) ==
=== Paul Atreides ===
In Dune, Paul is the son and heir of Duke Leto Atreides and Lady Jessica, whose family is thrown into the dangerous political intrigues centered on the inhospitable desert planet Arrakis, only known source of the oracular spice melange, the most important and valuable substance in the universe. Paul has been trained by his father and several Atreides attendants in fighting and the art of war, and by his mother in some of her Bene Gesserit disciplines. Paul also possesses burgeoning prescient abilities, which are further unlocked by the inescapable exposure to melange on Arrakis. House Atreides is soon betrayed and scattered, with Leto killed, his forces devastated, and Paul and Jessica forced to flee into the open desert. They are taken in by the native Fremen, a secretive population of fierce fighters who thrive despite the scarcity of water and presence of aggressive, giant sandworms. Paul rises to lead the planetwide Fremen forces against the Imperial stranglehold over Arrakis, ultimately seizing control of the planet and deposing Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV. In Dune Messiah, Paul's empire is challenged by the conspiracies of various factions hoping to destroy him, while a jihad in his name rages across the universe. After he is blinded by a devastating weapon known as a stone burner, Paul exiles himself into the desert, per Fremen custom. Paul returns under the guise of "The Preacher" in Children of Dune, rallying against the Fremen religion and the jihad raging in his name. The Preacher is ultimately assassinated by one of Alia's guards after calling her a blasphemer.
Paul is portrayed by Kyle MacLachlan in the 1984 film adaptation Dune, The character is played by Timothée Chalamet in the 2021 film Dune and its sequel, Dune: Part Two (2024).
=== Lady Jessica ===
In Dune, Lady Jessica is the concubine of Duke Leto and the mother of his son Paul and daughter Alia. Jessica is one of the Bene Gesserit, a secretive, matriarchal order who achieve superhuman abilities through physical and mental conditioning and the use of the drug melange. Instructed by the Bene Gesserit to first conceive a daughter with Leto to further the order's centuries-long breeding program, she disobeyed out of love for Leto, and gave him a son. This seemingly minor misstep puts the Atreides bloodline on a collision course with events that will ultimately change the fate of the universe. Pregnant with Alia, Jessica flees into the desert with Paul as House Atreides is all but destroyed by the forces of the wicked Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Finding refuge with the native Fremen, she and Paul take advantage of the legends planted there by Bene Gesserit religious engineering, casting themselves as the prophesied messiah and his mother. Jessica undergoes the Fremen version of the Bene Gesserit spice agony ritual, becoming a Reverend Mother and unlocking Other Memory, the personas and memories of all her female ancestors. But doing so while pregnant subjects the unborn Alia to an onslaught of heightened awareness for which her fragile consciousness is not prepared. Jessica returns to Arrakis in Children of Dune and recognizes that Alia, who serves as regent for Paul and Chani's twin children, Leto II and Ghanima, has succumbed to the dangers of her unique birth and become possessed. Jessica escapes an assassination attempt by Alia, and trains Farad'n, the grandson of Shaddam IV, in the Bene Gesserit way.
Lady Jessica is portrayed by Francesca Annis in the 1984 film. and "warmly protective but all-too-vulnerable".
Leto is portrayed by Jürgen Prochnow in the 1984 film. William Hurt plays Leto in the 2000 miniseries. Leto is portrayed by Oscar Isaac in the 2021 film.
In 2020, Funko produced a Duke Leto figure as part of their POP! Television line. It is a vinyl figure in the Japanese chibi style, depicting Leto in armor and styled after the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film.
Leto is also a primary character in the prequel trilogies Prelude to Dune and The Caladan Trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Prelude to Dune, young Leto's mother, Helena, arranges for his father, expert bullfighter Duke Paulus Atreides, to be killed by a drugged Salusan bull so she can rule Caladan as Leto's regent. He exiles his mother to a distant convent to avoid the scandal of a public execution, and as duke takes Kailea Vernius of the industrial planet Ix as his concubine. They have a son, Victor, but grow apart, and Kailea's resentment and insecurities build. Threatened by Leto's attraction to the Bene Gesserit acolyte Jessica, Kailea attempts to kill him, but in the ensuing accident her brother Rhombur is critically injured and Victor is killed. Kailea commits suicide, and Leto takes Jessica as his concubine. Though instructed by the Bene Gesserit to bear the mourning Leto a daughter, Jessica intentionally conceives the son he desires, Paul. Leto surrounds himself with loyal and capable individuals, and comes to be known as an effective politician, a fair and just statesman, and a capable leader of his small military. The new Padishah Emperor, Shaddam IV, both admires Leto and dislikes him as a political rival. Leto's military victory over the Tleilaxu forces occupying Ix, and his role in the subsequent political censure of Shaddam, ensure Leto a vengeful enemy in the emperor.
=== Vladimir Harkonnen ===
Baron Vladimir Harkonnen is the ruthless and cunning head of House Harkonnen, centuries-old enemies of House Atreides. The Baron's intent to exterminate the Atreides line seems close to fruition as Duke Leto is lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, previously controlled by the Harkonnens. The Baron has coerced Leto's own physician, the trusted Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, to be his agent in the Atreides household. Yueh disables the protective shields around the Atreides palace and the Harkonnen forces (secretly supplemented by the seemingly unstoppable Imperial Sardaukar warriors) attack. Yueh gives a captive Leto the means to assassinate the Baron, who survives the attempt as Leto dies. Escaping into the desert and later presumed dead, Leto's son Paul reveals to his mother, Lady Jessica, that the Baron is her father. The Baron's succession plan is to install his charismatic yet deadly younger nephew, Feyd-Rautha, as ruler of Arrakis after a period of tyrannical misrule by his brutish elder nephew, Glossu Rabban, making Feyd appear to be the savior of the people. A crisis on Arrakis begins when the mysterious Muad'Dib emerges as a leader of the native Fremen tribes, uniting them against Harkonnen rule. Eventually, a series of Fremen victories against Rabban threaten to disrupt the trade of the spice, attracting the attention of Shaddam IV himself. The emperor arrives on Arrakis with several legions of his Sardaukar, and he and the Baron are shocked to discover that the Fremen warlord Muad'Dib is actually Paul Atreides. The Fremen, previously underestimated by the Harkonnens, overcome the Imperial and Harkonnen forces thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage. Paul's sister Alia, four years old but born a fully aware Fremen Reverend Mother, reveals to the Baron that he is her grandfather before she kills him with a poisoned needle called a gom jabbar.
In Children of Dune, Alia succumbs to the dangers of her unique birth and is possessed by the persona of the deceased Baron Harkonnen. As he promises his assistance in quelling the multitude of other ancestral voices assailing her, Alia gradually relinquishes control of herself to the Baron, and descends into depravity and a lust for power sure to destroy the Atreides empire from within. Eventually realizing that the Baron's consciousness has surpassed her abilities to contain him, Alia commits suicide, killing the Baron in the process.
Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in the 1984 film,
Stilgar is portrayed by Everett McGill in the 1984 film. Javier Bardem portrays Stilgar in the 2021 film McFarlane Toys released a 7" articulating action figure of Stilgar in 2020, styled after the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film. and is succeeded by Edward Atterton in its 2003 sequel. Jason Momoa portrays Duncan in the 2021 film. Chang Chen plays the character in the 2021 film.
The character also appears in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, and is resurrected as a ghola in Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune, the Brian Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series. In Prelude to Dune, a younger Baron Harkonnen consults with Yueh seeking a cure for the debilitating disease which is slowly but surely rendering him obese. Yueh is aware of no cure, but correctly suggests that the disease's source may be the Bene Gesserit. The early years of Yueh as the physician to House Atreides are also explored in the novels. In Hunters of Dune, set 5,000 years after Dune, Yueh is resurrected as a ghola to aid in the coming final battle with mankind's "great enemy." In Sandworms of Dune, the finale of the original series, the young Yueh ghola is wracked by feelings of intense guilt over the actions of the "original" Yueh. Though he does not yet possess those memories, he fears that he will repeat those mistakes. A ghola's memories are restored by subjecting the ghola to an intense personal trauma, specific to each individual, so Yueh's great fear of having his memories restored becomes the trigger used by the Bene Gesserit to unlock them. Later, Yueh kills the gestating ghola of Leto, having been tricked into believing that it was De Vries, and ultimately also kills the ghola of the Baron Harkonnen. Eleven years later, Yueh lives on the original Atreides homeworld Caladan, helping the Jessica ghola restore it to its former glory.
=== Mohiam ===
Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam is Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV's Truthsayer, and Lady Jessica's former teacher. In Dune, Mohiam subjects 15-year-old Paul Atreides to a life or death test of his humanity: he is inflicted with excruciating pain, but must exert control over his survival instinct and withstand it, or be killed instantly with a poisoned needle. Paul passes the test, having sustained more pain than anyone before him. Mohiam, though still furious at Jessica for disobeying the Sisterhood's command that she bear a daughter for their breeding scheme, is intrigued by the potential she sees in Paul and his nascent prescient abilities. Years later on Arrakis, Mohiam is shaken by her encounter with Paul's four-year-old sister Alia, who by misadventure had been born a fully aware Reverend Mother. Mohiam is further alarmed by the ritual battle-to-the-death between Paul and the Harkonnen heir, Feyd-Rautha, which could prove catastrophic for the Bene Gesserit breeding program no matter the outcome. Paul is victorious in the duel, and in seizing control of Arrakis, the only source of the all-important spice melange, gains insurmountable power over all civilization. Seeing the inevitability of the situation Paul has orchestrated, Mohiam compels Shaddam to give in to Paul's demands and relinquish the Imperial throne to him.
Twelve years later in Dune Messiah, Mohiam joins a conspiracy to topple the rule of Paul Atreides that includes the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, the Spacing Guild Navigator Edric, and even Paul's embittered consort Princess Irulan, Shaddam's daughter. Paul has sworn that only his Fremen concubine, Chani, will bear his children. Knowing that the Bene Gesserit are desperate to regain control of his bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's "wild" genes may have on their offspring, Paul makes Mohiam an offer. In exchange for Chani's guaranteed safety, and the Sisterhood's acceptance of his decision to father no heirs with Irulan, Paul offers something of the utmost value: his sperm. This is a complicated proposition for Mohiam, because artificial insemination is forbidden in the wake of the anti-technology Butlerian Jihad, and the idea of it is as horrific to the Sisterhood as the loss of the precious Atreides genes. The conspiracy ultimately fails, and Paul kills Scytale. Edric and Mohiam are executed on orders from Paul's sister Alia, despite Paul's previous instructions to spare Mohiam's life.
Mohiam is portrayed by Siân Phillips in the 1984 film, and its 2003 sequel. The character is played by Charlotte Rampling in the 2021 film Noting that the characters in Dune fit mythological archetypes, novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, writes that "Beast Rabban Harkonnen, though evil and aggressive, is essentially a fool." The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Austin Butler in its 2024 sequel. In Dune, a widespread rebellion of the native Fremen on Arrakis creates a disruption in the production of the all-important spice melange, bringing Shaddam and his court, including Irulan, to the planet to impose order. Paul Atreides leads the Fremen in an overwhelming victory over the combined Harkonnen and Imperial Sardaukar forces and seizes control of Arrakis, the only known source of the spice. Paul demands that Shaddam relinquish the Imperial throne to him or he will destroy all spice production and plunge the universe into chaos. Shaddam bristles at Paul's suggestion that he marry Irulan, but she immediately recognizes the inevitability of the situation Paul has orchestrated, and tells Shaddam, "Here's a man fit to be your son." Once Paul defeats the treacherous Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen in single combat, and Count Fenring refuses the Emperor's order to kill Paul, Shaddam capitulates.
Twelve years later in Dune Messiah, Irulan is Paul's consort and trusted advisor, but he has sworn that only his beloved concubine Chani will bear his children. Paul and Chani remain childless, however, because a resentful Irulan, Bene Gesserit-trained and doing their bidding, has been secretly feeding Chani contraceptives to prevent her from conceiving an Imperial heir. The Sisterhood are desperate to regain control of Paul's bloodline for their breeding program, and are fearful of the effect Chani's "wild" genes may have on their offspring. But when Chani begins an ancient Fremen fertility diet high in melange, Irulan loses her ability to interfere, and Chani becomes pregnant. Chani ultimately discovers not only Irulan's role in her infertility but the fact that the contraceptives have caused permanent damage and will jeopardize her pregnancy. Chani seeks to kill Irulan, but Paul forbids it. He is secretly somewhat grateful to Irulan, as he has seen through his prescience that childbirth will bring Chani's death, and so Irulan has unwittingly extended Chani's life. Chani dies giving birth to the twins Leto II and Ghanima, and a newly blinded Paul follows Fremen custom and wanders alone into the desert to die. Realizing her love for Paul, Irulan breaks ties with the Bene Gesserit and dedicates herself to his children.
Nine years later in Children of Dune, Irulan's sister Wensicia plots to assassinate Leto and Ghanima to reclaim power for House Corrino through her son, Farad'n. Irulan also serves as chief advisor to Paul's sister Alia, who reigns as Holy Regent for the twins. Irulan attempts to serve as a guide and confidante to Ghanima, but is often flustered by the adult consciousness the twins possess as a result of being pre-born and having access to Other Memory. Ghanima cares for Irulan, but Alia never trusts the princess, due to Irulan's Corrino heritage and Alia's own increasing paranoia. Irulan flees into the desert with Ghanima and Stilgar during the Fremen rebellion against Alia's tyranny. Though the other rebels are massacred, Irulan and Stilgar are imprisoned upon their capture, and presumably freed when Leto deposes Alia.
Irulan is portrayed by Virginia Madsen in the 1984 film, Giannini also dubbed himself in the Italian version of the miniseries. The character does not appear in the 2021 film, but is played by Christopher Walken in its 2024 sequel.
=== Thufir Hawat ===
Thufir Hawat is a Mentat, an individual conditioned to mimic the cognitive and analytical ability of computers, who serves as Master of Assassins and primary military strategist for Duke Leto Atreides. In Dune, the Atreides are lured to Arrakis on the pretense of taking over the lucrative spice mining operation there, but soon fall prey to a catastrophic attack by their longtime enemies the Harkonnens, whose forces are secretly bolstered by the fierce Sardaukar warriors of the emperor, Shaddam IV. Thufir is captured, and the calculating Baron Vladimir Harkonnen takes him as a replacement for his own twisted Mentat Piter De Vries, who was killed in the aftermath of the attack. The Baron hopes to channel Thufir's desire for revenge away from House Harkonnen, and keeps his abilities in check by feeding him false data, specifically, permitting him to believe that Leto's concubine Lady Jessica had been the traitor responsible for the Atreides' destruction. Thufir is also secretly administered a residual poison which requires regular doses of an antidote to prevent death.
In spite of these obstacles, Thufir attempts to bring down the Harkonnens from within. He gains the trust of the Baron's nephew and heir Feyd-Rautha by assisting him with a plot to discredit the Harkonnen slavemaster and replace him with someone loyal to Feyd. Thufir encourages the ambitions of Feyd against the Baron, which leads him to attempt to assassinate his uncle. The Baron, warned by Thufir, eludes the attempt and punishes Feyd for his failure. Later, Thufir is coerced to assassinate Leto's son, Paul Atreides. Paul suspects this, but out of gratitude for Thufir's exceptional loyalty, Paul gives him the opportunity to take anything Thufir wishes of him, even his life. Hawat chooses death from the poison rather than to betray Paul.
Thufir is portrayed by Freddie Jones in the 1984 film, and he filmed scenes for its 2024 sequel. but is portrayed by Anya Taylor-Joy in a cameo appearance in the 2024 sequel film.
=== Shadout Mapes ===
The Shadout Mapes is the mysterious Fremen housekeeper at the palace of Arakeen on Arrakis. In Dune, Duke Leto Atreides, his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica, and their son Paul arrive as Leto takes over management of the planet's lucrative spice mining operations. The Fremen begin to believe that Paul is their prophesied messiah, who is foretold to be accompanied by his Bene Gesserit mother, and when talking to Mapes, Jessica uses phrases that are part of the legend. Mapes gives Jessica a crysknife, a weapon made from the tooth of a giant sandworm that is considered holy by the Fremen and rarely seen by outsiders. Paul later saves Mapes from a deadly hunter-seeker intended to kill him, and she warns of a traitor in the Atreides household. Mapes is killed by that same traitor, Suk doctor Wellington Yueh, as the Harkonnens attack.
Mapes is portrayed by Linda Hunt in the 1984 film,
Mapes is the main character of the 2022 short story "Dune: The Edge of a Crysknife" by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, which takes place before the events of the Prelude to Dune trilogy.
=== Liet-Kynes ===
Liet-Kynes is the Imperial Planetologist of the desert planet Arrakis, and the father of Chani by his Fremen wife, Faroula. In Dune, Duke Leto Atreides meets with Kynes soon after arriving on Arrakis to take over the melange harvesting operations there. Escorted by the planet's native Fremen, Kynes is the liaison between them and the Imperials. Kynes takes personal note of Leto's son Paul, who seems to know Fremen ways intuitively, and shows signs of being a prophesied Fremen messiah. The Atreides later hear of a person or deity named "Liet" to whom all the Fremen communities give allegiance.
It is only after Leto is killed, and Paul and his mother, Lady Jessica, take refuge among the Fremen that Liet and Kynes are revealed to be the same person. He is the son of Pardot Kynes, the first Imperial Planetologist of Arrakis, and a Fremen woman, and is Chani's father. Captured by the Harkonnens and left to die in the desert without a stillsuit or water, Kynes is killed by a spice blow, an explosive eruption that is part of the melange cycle. In God Emperor of Dune, Liet-Kynes's wife and Chani's mother is identified as Faroula, "a noted herbalist among the Fremen".
Liet-Kynes is portrayed by Max von Sydow in the 1984 film,
Liet-Kynes also appears in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. That series establishes that his mother is Frieth, the sister of Stilgar. Growing up under Fremen tradition, Liet inherits his father's position as planetologist as well as his secret goal of terraforming Arrakis into a temperate planet.
=== Ramallo ===
Reverend Mother Ramallo is a spiritual leader, or Sayyadina, among the Fremen of Sietch Tabr on Arrakis, a "wild" version of a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother. In Dune, Paul Atreides and his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Jessica, flee a Harkonnen attack and find refuge among the Fremen. When Ramallo knows she is nearing the end of her life, Jessica undergoes the ritual spice agony to make her Ramallo's replacement. The Fremen ordeal to become a Reverend Mother involves ingesting the poisonous Water of Life, the exhalation of a dying sandworm. Jessica survives and shares minds with Ramallo, acquiring the older woman's life experiences and collective ancestral Other Memory, and then Ramallo dies.
Ramallo is portrayed by Italian actress Silvana Mangano in the 1984 film.
=== Harah ===
Harah is the Fremen wife of Jamis. Her first husband was Geoff, by whom she had a son, Kaleff. Jamis defeated Geoff in a ritual duel and took Harah as his own wife, and fathered her son Orlop. After Paul kills Jamis in a ritual fight to the death in Dune, Fremen custom demands that Paul inherit his possessions, including Harah and her children. Paul must take her into his household as his wife or his servant, and after a year if he has not married her, she may choose as she wishes. Paul accepts Harah as a servant. She is at first insulted by his reluctance to marry her, but dedicates herself to his service. Harah becomes very close to, and protective of, Paul's young sister Alia, who is born a fully aware Reverend Mother and pretends to be a child as she grows up among the Fremen. In Dune Messiah, Harah is married to Stilgar, and is Chani's closest friend. She is witness to the birth of Paul and Chani's twins, Leto II and Ghanima, and to Chani's subsequent death. In Children of Dune Harah dedicates herself to the care of the twins. When an adult Alia's tyranny becomes too great and endangers Leto and Ghanima, Harah goes into hiding with Stilgar, Princess Irulan and the children.
Harah is portrayed by Molly Wrynn in the 1984 film.
=== Piter De Vries ===
Piter De Vries is a Mentat, an individual conditioned to mimic the cognitive and analytical ability of computers, who serves the ruthless Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Piter has the added distinction of having been "twisted" into an amoral sadist by the Tleilaxu.
In Dune, Piter is the architect of the plan to destroy House Atreides, longtime enemy of the Harkonnens, while restoring the Baron's stewardship over the planet Arrakis. Though the personal physician of Duke Leto Atreides, Wellington Yueh, has undergone Suk conditioning which renders him incapable of inflicting harm on his patients, Piter subverts it by kidnapping and torturing Yueh's wife. Hoping to free her, Yueh betrays the Atreides, enabling a catastrophic attack by the Harkonnens and delivering Leto to the Baron. Yueh learns that his wife is already dead and is killed by Piter. Yueh, however, has given the captive Leto a false tooth filled with poison gas with which to assassinate the Baron. The Baron evades the assassination but Leto and Piter die. Piter is the creator of residual poison, a toxin which requires regular doses of an antidote to prevent death. The Baron secretly administers it to the captured Atreides Mentat Thufir Hawat as coercion to make him the replacement for Piter.
In the novel, Piter is described as "tall, though slender, and something about him suggested effeminacy". He is addicted to the drug melange possessing the blue eyes of Ibad that comes with prolonged spice consumption, in addition to the ruby red lips characteristic of those who consume sapho juice, an addictive drug which enhances Mentat capabilities.
Piter is portrayed by Brad Dourif in the 1984 film, David Dastmalchian plays the character in the 2021 film.
Piter also appears in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In the series, Piter discovers the Harkonnen heritage of Lady Jessica and her newborn son Paul, and attempts to kidnap and ransom the infant. The plot is thwarted and the secret preserved when Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam kills the Mentat and arranges for his corpse to be shipped home to the Harkonnen homeworld, Giedi Prime. An enraged Baron Harkonnen is left with no choice but to order a duplicate from the Bene Tleilax: the Mentat Piter featured in Herbert's original novel Dune.
=== Other ===
is one of Paul's loyal Fedaykin death commandos in Dune. In Dune Messiah, he is ill after fighting in Paul's jihad, but reveals to Paul evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against him. Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who, like a recording machine, can remember faces, names, and details. Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. Otheym's daughter Lichna is also killed and replaced by a Tleilaxu Face Dancer as a means to infiltrate Paul's household. Otheym is portrayed by Honorato Magalone in the 1984 film, and by Jakob Schwarz in the 2000 miniseries and its 2003 sequel.
is one of Paul's loyal Fedaykin death commandos in Dune. In Dune Messiah, he has become a fanatic of the religion which has risen around Paul, and the High Priest among its Qizarate leaders. Hoping to increase his own religious power, Korba joins a conspiracy to set off an atomic weapon called a stone burner to martyr Paul. The explosion kills hundreds of Fremen and blinds many other, including Paul himself. Korba is tried for his crimes, and executed by Stilgar. Korba is portrayed by Karel Dobrý in the 2003 miniseries.
is a spice smuggler on Arrakis. In Dune, he attends a dinner thrown by Duke Leto Atreides and his Bene Gesserit concubine Lady Jessica at their Arrakeen palace. Esmar is later killed in the Harkonnen attack on Arrakeen that effectively destroys House Atreides. Esmar is portrayed by Pavel Kríz in the 2000 miniseries.
is a spice smuggler on Arrakis like his father, Esmar Tuek. After the Harkonnen attack on Arrakeen, Staban gives sanctuary to Atreides Warmaster Gurney Halleck and his surviving troops. Gurney and his men join the smugglers, improving their organization and efficiency.
is the commander of the Imperial Sardaukar forces who arrive on Arrakis with Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV to impose order when Fremen attacks disrupt spice production on the planet. The ferocious Sardaukar soldier-fanatics are considered unstoppable, but the Fremen overcome them thanks to Paul's military strategy, their own ferocity and their ability to use sandstorms and the giant sandworms of Arrakis to their advantage. Paul uses the Bene Gesserit compulsion technique called the Voice to compel the Aramsham to humiliate himself by surrendering. However, Aramsham's Sardaukar stoicism is so great that he will not even give his name until Paul uses the Voice again. The defeat of the Sardaukar allows Paul to seize control of Arrakis and depose Shaddam.
is the Captain of the Guard for House Harkonnen, promoted from a corporal after the death of his predecessor Umman Kudu in Duke Leto Atreides' poison gas attack on Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Nefud is addicted to the drug semuta. Nefud is portrayed by Jack Nance in the 1984 film. Scytale is portrayed by Martin McDougall in the 2003 miniseries Frank Herbert's Children of Dune, As its Navigators require immense quantities of melange to navigate foldspace, the Spacing Guild has a vested interest in breaking Paul's stranglehold over the spice supply. Edric's involvement also protects the conspirators from discovery, as his prescience hides the activities of himself and those around him from other prescients, like Paul. The plot ultimately fails, and Edric and Mohiam are executed by Fremen naib Stilgar on orders from Paul's sister, Alia Atreides.
In Chapterhouse Dune, a "very powerful" Navigator is described as "one of the Edrics", suggesting a possible breeding plan or use of gholas.
=== Bijaz ===
Bijaz is a Tleilaxu dwarf in the employ of Otheym, one of the former Fedaykin death commandos of Paul Atreides. In Dune Messiah, Otheym reveals to Paul evidence of a Fremen conspiracy against him. Otheym gives Paul his dwarf Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who has the ability to remember faces, names and details like a recording machine. Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. Bijaz, actually an agent of the Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, uses a specific humming intonation to implant a command that will compel the Duncan Idaho ghola, Hayt, to kill Paul under certain circumstances. Paul's concubine Chani dies in childbirth, and Paul's reaction to her death triggers Hayt's assassination attempt. Hayt's ghola body reacts against its own programming and Duncan's full consciousness is recovered, simultaneously making him independent of Tleilaxu control. Having proven that a ghola's memories of its originator can be restored, Scytale offers Paul a ghola of Chani in exchange for Paul surrendering his empire to Tleilaxu control. Paul refuses, and Scytale is killed. Later, Bijaz approaches Paul and repeats Scytale's offer, but is killed by Duncan on Paul's order.
Bijaz is portrayed by Gee Williams in the 2003 miniseries.
=== Lichna ===
Lichna is the daughter of Otheym, one of Paul's former Fedaykin death commandos. In Dune Messiah, she is killed and impersonated by the shapeshifting Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale as a means to infiltrate Paul's household. Paul can see through the deception, but wants to see where the plot leads. Aware it is part of the conspiracy against him, Paul allows himself to be lured to Otheym's home in the city.
Lichna is portrayed by Klára Issová in the 2003 miniseries.
=== Farok ===
Farok is another of Paul's former Fedaykin. In Dune Messiah, he is one of many Fremen disillusioned by the changes Paul's regime brings to their culture, and joins the conspiracy to unseat Paul.
Farok is portrayed by Ivo Novák in the 2003 miniseries.
== Introduced in Children of Dune (1976) ==
=== Princess Wensicia ===
Princess Wensicia is the third daughter of Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV and the Bene Gesserit Anirul, and the younger sister of Princess Irulan. In Children of Dune, Shaddam is dead and Wensicia plots from exile to restore House Corrino to its former glory by wresting control of the Imperial throne from the usurper, Paul Atreides, for her son, Farad'n. She attempts to assassinate Leto II and Ghanima Atreides, Paul's twin heirs, by sending mechanically controlled Laza tigers to hunt them in the desert. Leto's growing prescience allows him to thwart the attack on himself and his sister, and he pretends to be dead to escape the increasingly murderous ambitions of his father's sister Alia. Later, Farad'n, newly trained in the Bene Gesserit ways by Paul and Alia's mother Lady Jessica, accepts an arrangement brokered by Jessica for him to marry Ghanima and share the throne. His part of the deal is to "denounce and banish" Wensicia for Leto's murder, which he does. Leto later returns and ascends the throne himself.
Wensicia is described as "fair-haired" with a "heart-shaped face," and is said to have learned "shifty trickiness" from her sister Irulan but not herself been trained by the Bene Gesserit. Shaddam IV's heir is Wensicia's son Farad'n, whose deceased father, Dalak, is related to Count Fenring.
Wensicia is portrayed by Susan Sarandon in the 2003 miniseries. Laura Fries of Variety wrote, "it’s Susan Sarandon and Alice Krige [as Lady Jessica] who steal the thunder as opposing matriarchs of the great royal houses. Although the two never catfight, their ongoing struggle to rule the Dune dynasty gives this mini a real kick." Sarandon herself said, "it's always fun to play a smart villain."
=== Other ===
is Namri's niece and Javid's cousin, who cares for Leto II while he undergoes the spice trance at Fondak. Through his prescience, Leto sees a possible future in which Sabiha is his mate, but he chooses another path. They meet again later at Shuloch, where Leto begins his transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid, and Sabiha is among the first to witness his subsequent superhuman abilities. Sabiha is portrayed by Lana Likic in the 2003 miniseries.
is the teenage Fremen boy who serves as a guide to the Preacher, a mysterious blind man who is actually Paul Atreides. Tariq is the son of Muriz, a Fremen from the outcast Sietch Fondak. Tariq is portrayed by Viliam Docolomansky in the 2003 miniseries.
is a Fremen Iduali from the outcast Sietch Fondak, and the father of Assan Tariq. In the 2003 miniseries, the mysterious Preacher, secretly a blinded Paul Atreides, publicly challenges the current state of his own religion, and Muriz stabs him to death. Muriz is in turn killed by Gurney Halleck. Muriz is portrayed by Zdenek Maryska in the miniseries.
is a Fremen warrior whom Alia Atreides takes as a lover after Stilgar joins the rebellion against her tyrannical rule. Alia sends Agarves to negotiate with Stilgar, naib of Sietch Tabr, for the return of her niece Ghanima Atreides and Princess Irulan, promising Agarves leadership of Tabr if he kills Stilgar. She uses a hidden tracker in Agarves' boots to raid the secret meeting, and Stilgar kills Agarves, as she planned.
== Introduced in God Emperor of Dune (1981) ==
=== Siona Atreides ===
Siona Atreides is the daughter of God Emperor Leto II's attendant and confidant Moneo, and a direct descendant of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n Corrino. In God Emperor of Dune, Siona objects to Leto's tyrannical stranglehold on civilization, and leads a group of like-minded dissidents determined to depose Leto by any means necessary. Leto allows her to steal secret records from his archives, and she loses ten of her cohorts to Leto's D-wolves, barely escaping with her own life. Forced to join the Fish Speakers, an all-female army who obey Leto without question, Siona is further bristled by Leto's obvious desire to breed her with the latest Duncan Idaho ghola. Leto, who over the millennia has become a human-sandworm hybrid thanks to his fusion with sandtrout, the larval stage of sandworms, tests Siona by taking her out to the middle of the desert. She is careless in the use of her stillsuit to preserve moisture, and dehydration forces her to accept Leto's offer of spice essence from his body to replenish her. Awakened to Leto's Golden Path, the prophetic vision he follows to avert humanity's complete destruction, Siona is convinced of its importance, and better understands why he has ruled so harshly. But she remains dedicated to Leto's destruction, and an errant rainstorm demonstrates for her his mortal vulnerability to water. Leto has planned a Royal Procession to travel to his wedding to the Ixian ambassador Hwi Noree, and Siona and Idaho overcome a searing mutual hatred of each other to plan his assassination. As the procession moves across a high bridge over the Idaho River, Siona's associate, the Fish Speaker Nayla, destroys the support beams with a lasgun. The bridge collapses and Leto's entourage, including Moneo and Hwi, plunge to their deaths into the river below. Leto's body rends apart in the water, the outer layer of sandtrout encysting the water and scurrying off, while the rest burns and disintegrates on the shore. A dying Leto reveals a secret aspect of his Golden Path: Siona is the result of a breeding scheme to produce a human who is invisible to prescient vision. Siona and her descendants will possess this ability, and Leto explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination or complete destruction. After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire.
=== Hwi Noree ===
Hwi Noree is the Ixian ambassador to Arrakis, and the niece of Malky, a previous Ixian ambassador who had been close to Leto II. In God Emperor of Dune, Leto is enchanted by the beautiful and charismatic Hwi, and though he realizes she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her. Raised in secret in a no-chamber, she has been bred to appeal to what remains of Leto's humanity, a process guided by Malky himself. Though his transformation into a human-sandworm hybrid makes him incapable of physical intimacy, Leto proposes marriage and Hwi agrees. Duncan Idaho also falls in love with Hwi, and they fall into bed together. The resulting rivalry only worsens the rift between Leto and Duncan, who is driven to join Siona in her assassination plot against Leto. Hwi dies with Leto when their wedding procession crosses a sabotaged bridge, which collapses into the Idaho River below.
=== Anteac ===
Bene Gesserit Truthsayer Tertius Eileen Anteac comes to Arrakis with Luyseyal in God Emperor of Dune for an audience with the God Emperor Leto II that coincides with the Royal Festival held every ten years. They receive a message from Othwi Yake, Assistant to the Ixian ambassador, that Face Dancers have infiltrated the Ixian embassy, and are planning to assassinate Leto II. They try to warn Leto, but the message does not reach his convoy in time, though the plot fails, as Anteac and Luyseyal knew it would. They achieve little in their meeting with Leto II, and he takes the priceless vial of spice-essence with which they hoped to test his mortality. Leto reminds Luyseyal of the lesson learned from past over-machined societies: "The devices themselves condition the users to employ each other the way they employ machines." Later, Leto enlists Anteac's aid in detecting the Face Dancers, who by that time have replaced everyone in the Ixian embassy except the new ambassador, Hwi Noree. In particular, Anteac identifies the duplicate of Yake, who has been killed and replicated since the original sent his warning to Anteac. Leto's chief minister Moneo Atreides suggests to the God Emperor that Anteac is a secret Mentat, a skill prohibited in the Empire by Leto himself. Leto agrees but says that it amuses him. Hwi shares her knowledge of the environment in which she was brought up with Anteac, who has been conscripted by Leto to lead a Fish Speaker assault on Ix to wrest the secret of Hwi's origins. Anteac is shocked at the knowledge that Hwi is to marry Leto, and at the same time annoyed that The Bene Gesserit had allowed so talented a woman as Hwi to pass through their training program without turning her into one of them. With Anteac's faithful assistance, Leto's forces successfully invade Ix and capture Malky, Hwi's uncle and Leto's former friend, but Anteac is killed.
Some 1,500 years later in Chapterhouse: Dune the Duncan Idaho ghola recalls his past incarnation from the time of Leto II, noting that he had met with Anteac on orders from the God Emperor to suppress the Mentat school the Bene Gesserit had hidden on Wallach IX. It is also revealed that Reverend Mother Bellonda is a descendant of Anteac's.
=== Moneo Atreides ===
Moneo Atreides is Leto II's longtime majordomo and close confidant, the descendant of one of the Duncan Idaho gholas, the father of Siona with the Fish Speaker Seyefa, and a direct descendant of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n Corrino. Like Siona, he was rebellious as a young man, leading a group of rebels dedicated to ending Leto's oppressive reign. He recognized that eliminating Leto would cast the universe into chaos, but that it would prompt a beneficial rebirth for humanity. In God Emperor of Dune, Moneo has long given up these efforts and now serves Leto with the utmost dedication, having seen the Golden Path for himself and recognized its importance in saving humanity from destruction. Moneo is killed during Leto's assassination, orchestrated by Siona and Duncan, when the bridge that Leto's procession is crossing is destroyed.
=== Nayla ===
Nayla is a fanatical Fish Speaker in the service of the God Emperor. Knowing of Siona Atreides and Duncan Idaho's plot against him, Leto has instructed Nayla to follow any order Siona gives her. When Siona tasks Nayla to assist in Leto's assassination by sabotaging the bridge he is traveling on, Nayla complies with fervor, damaging the supports with a lasgun. Leto, Hwi Noree and Moneo Atreides are among those killed in the collapse, and Duncan kills Nayla for her role in Hwi's death.
=== Chenoeh ===
Quintinius Violet Chenoeh, specially trained as an oral recorder, is sent by Syaksa to Arrakis with Tawsuoko on a fact-gathering mission in the same year as Anteac, prior to the events God Emperor of Dune. She is invited to converse with the God Emperor himself, and he is uncharacteristically indulgent of her questions and somewhat generous with his own information, however cryptic. Leto tells Chenoeh that he plans to restore "outward spiritual freedom" for mankind, and then refers to Siona Atreides as his "achievement", which the Sisterhood correctly interprets as being related to Leto's own breeding program. Leto then says, "You will return to your Superiors with my message, but these words keep secret for now. I will visit my rage upon your Sisterhood if you fail." Chenoeh complies, following Syaksa's own warning: "You must do nothing which will bring down his wrath upon us." Leto relates how he and his sister Ghanima were able to escape the disaster of Abomination, and also makes one of the earliest references to his secret journals, later found at Dar-es-Balat. He knows he will ultimately be perceived as a tyrant, and wishes to preserve his "feelings and motives... lest history distort them too much." At the same time, he warns "Beware of the truth," and shares what he calls "the greatest mystery of all time" by which he composes his life: "The only past which endures lies wordlessly within you." Leto tells Chenoeh that by virtue of his taking her into his confidence, "You will become here an integral part of my myth. Our distant cousins will pray to you for intercession with me!" He also foretells her later death during her attempt at becoming a Reverend Mother through the spice agony. Chenoeh's account of their secret conversation is found after her death, and it is later noted that "the persistent Cult of Sister Chenoeh assumes new significance because of the journals' disclosures." Chenoeh and Tawsuoko also bring back to Chapterhouse proof (in the form of a written eyewitness account of Leto's statement) that, as rumored, Leto executed nine historians four centuries prior.
=== Other ===
is the Ixian ambassador to Arrakis prior to the events of God Emperor of Dune. In this capacity he becomes a close confidant to Leto, discussing controversial subjects and challenging the God Emperor as a subtle attempt at manipulation. Malky is recalled to Ix, and replaced by Iyo Kobat. In the novel, Malky's niece, Hwi Noree, is installed as the new Ixian ambassador. Leto soon learns that she has been designed and trained to ensnare him, and that Malky was complicit in the process. Leto sends a Fish Speaker force to Ix to capture Malky, who is brought back to Arrakis and murdered by Moneo.
is a Bene Gesserit Truthsayer who comes to Arrakis with Anteac in God Emperor of Dune for an audience with the God Emperor Leto II that coincides with the Royal Festival held every ten years. They receive a message from Othwi Yake, assistant to the Ixian ambassador, that Face Dancers have infiltrated the Ixian embassy, and are planning to assassinate Leto II. Anteac and Luyseyal try to warn Leto, but the message does not reach his convoy in time, though the plot fails, as Anteac and Luyseyal knew it would. They achieve little in their meeting with Leto II, and he takes the priceless vial of spice-essence with which they hoped to test his mortality. Leto reminds Luyseyal of the lesson learned from past over-machined societies: "The devices themselves condition the users to employ each other the way they employ machines."
is a Bene Gesserit sent by Syaksa to Arrakis with Chenoeh on a fact-gathering mission the same year as Anteac, prior to the events God Emperor of Dune. In addition to the record of Chenoeh's somewhat enlightening conversations with the God Emperor, she and Chenoeh bring back to Chapterhouse proof (in the form of a written eyewitness account of Leto's statement) that, as rumored, Leto executed nine historians four centuries prior.
is a Bene Gesserit who sends Chenoeh and Tawsuoko to Arrakis on a fact-gathering mission the same year as Anteac, prior to the events God Emperor of Dune. Syaksa's warning to Chenoeh that "You must do nothing which will bring down his wrath upon us" encourages Chenoeh to obey the God Emperor's command to withhold certain of his statements from the Sisterhood. Syaksa and four other Reverend Mothers (Yitob, Mamulut, Eknekosk and Akeli) incorporate information gleaned from this mission into an "assessment of the state of the Empire" for that year. Syaksa believes that the religious character of the Fish Speakers is slowly being devolved under Leto II. She further attributes to him a motive based on the concept of hydraulic despotism, in which a government structure maintains power and control through exclusive control over a basic resource needed to live (in this case, melange), proposing that he is building the Empire toward an even greater dependence on the spice.
== Introduced in Heretics of Dune (1984) ==
=== Lucilla ===
Lucilla is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and Imprinter. In Heretics of Dune, Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Taraza sends the young and attractive Lucilla to Gammu, formerly the Harkonnen homeworld Giedi Prime, to teach the teenage Duncan Idaho ghola whom the Sisterhood is raising there. Lucilla is also tasked with binding his loyalty to her, and thus the Bene Gesserit, through imprinting, while also protecting him from the negative influence—and possible peril—presented by dissenting Bene Gesserit who believe the ghola is a danger to the Sisterhood. Extremely precocious and already having divined the fact that he is a ghola, the young Duncan nurses hatred for the Bene Gesserit, hoping to escape their control of his life. He soon blossoms, however, under the training of Lucilla and Miles Teg, a male military commander of the Bene Gesserit brought out of retirement in part to protect the ghola. An attempt is made on Duncan's life, and Teg and Lucilla flee with Duncan into the countryside. They hide in a forgotten Harkonnen no-globe, during which time Teg is able to awaken Duncan to his original memories. This occurs before Lucilla has imprinted the ghola, and his new self-awareness now makes it impossible for her to attempt it. Teg arranges an extraction by his protégé Burzmali, but they are ambushed, and Teg sacrifices himself to capture while Lucilla and Duncan escape. Duncan attempts to get off Gammu undetected in the guise of a diminutive Tleilaxu Master, but is taken hostage. Lucilla and Burzmali arrive at a Bene Gesserit safehouse, but discover that it has been taken over by the fearsome Honored Matres, a violent matriarchal order from the farthest reaches of the universe who have been wreaking havoc and destruction on Tleilaxu worlds. Lucilla manages to impersonate an Honored Matre as one of their number, escaping with Duncan and an Honored Matre prisoner, Murbella. Teg commandeers an Honored Matre no-ship and flees with Lucilla, Duncan and a captive Murbella.
In Chapterhouse: Dune, Lucilla has been transferred to the planet Lampadas to oversee a Bene Gesserit education center located there. She manages to escape before the Honored Matres destroy the planet, carrying the shared memories of its millions of Reverend Mothers. Her ship is damaged by a mine and she is forced to land on Gammu, where she takes refuge with a hidden colony of Jews, knowing that they will be sympathetic to her. The Jews had fled Earth thousands of years earlier in order to escape relentless persecution, and they now practice their religion in secret to maintain their ties to ancient history. The Bene Gesserit, with their own method of connecting to their past, have cultivated a relationship with the Jews. The leader of this settlement gives Lucilla shelter, but ultimately has to turn her over to the Honored Matres in order to save his people from destruction at their hands. Before doing so, however, he introduces Lucilla to Rebecca, a "wild" Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memories without Bene Gesserit training. Lucilla shares minds with Rebecca, who promises to take the memories of Lampadas safely back to the Sisterhood. The Honored Matres capture Lucilla and bring her before the Great Honored Matre Dama, who surprises everyone present by declining to kill her outright. Dama tries to persuade Lucilla to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets. Dama is especially interested in the Bene Gesserit ability to modify their biochemistry and render toxins harmless, prompting Lucilla to speculate that the Honored Matres were driven out of the Scattering by an enemy who used biological weapons. These conversations with Lucilla continue for weeks, and she reveals to Dama that, although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy. Dama's desire to destroy the Sisterhood is redoubled when she discovers that the Bene Gesserit teach this dangerous knowledge, and she kills Lucilla.
Lucilla is described as a near copy of the elite Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade, from her physical appearance to the sound of her voice. The two women are not directly related, but are instead the products of parallel breeding lines.
=== Miles Teg ===
Miles Teg is a Mentat and the former Supreme Bashar of the Bene Gesserit, their leading military commander. In Heretics of Dune, Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Taraza summons Teg out of retirement to take over the weapons training of the newest Duncan Idaho ghola, still a teenager, on Gammu. Teg, Duncan and Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla flee an attempt on Duncan's life, and hide in a long-forgotten Harkonnen no-globe discovered by Teg's aide, Patrin. Teg uses his strong resemblance to his ancestor Duke Leto Atreides, to whom the original Idaho was fiercely loyal, and a variety of relentless physical and mental attacks to awaken Duncan to his original memories. Teg arranges an extraction by his protégé Burzmali, but they are ambushed, and Teg sacrifices himself to capture by the Honored Matres to allow Lucilla and Duncan to escape. Teg is tortured using a T-Probe, and under the severe stress and agony produced by the probe's attempts to gain control of his body and his knowledge, his Mentat abilities and Atreides genes elevate him to a higher level of being. He is able to move faster than the eye can see by accelerating his metabolism, and he gains mild prescience, which he describes as a doubled vision which gives him intimations of danger. His accelerated speed comes at the cost of incredible energy expenditure, requiring him to consume enormous amounts of food. After escaping his captors, he finds that his safehouse had been taken over by Honored Matres, who attempt to gain his allegiance. Seeing the terrible state their constant drive for power and contempt for the masses has lowered them to, he uses his incredible speed to slaughter them and escape once more. Teg gathers a force of veterans who had served under him on previous campaigns from the bars of Ysai and captures an Honored Matre no-ship using his tactical genius and new abilities. He flees the planet with Lucilla, Duncan and a captive Honored Matre, Murbella. Journeying to Rakis, Teg hands off Duncan and Lucilla to the Bene Gesserits Sheeana and Darwi Odrade, the latter of which is revealed to be his daughter. As the others escape, Teg goads the Honored Matres, who incinerate the entire planet with their Obliterator weapons to be sure Teg is killed.
A ghola of Teg is birthed in Chapterhouse: Dune on orders from Odrade, who is now Mother Superior of the Bene Gesserit after Taraza's death in the battle at Rakis. Odrade needs Teg's military abilities to thwart the worsening threat of the Honored Matres. The Bene Gesserit later reawaken him to his full memories prematurely by using Sheeana to imprint him. As the original Teg has been trained by his mother to resist such manipulation, the attempt subjects the Teg ghola to a heightened amount of stress which also unlocks the superhuman abilities previously acquired by Teg under Honored Matre torture. A reawakened Teg leads the final assault upon the Honored Matres, but is captured when the Matres pretend to surrender. Murbella, a captive Honored Matre indoctrinated into the Bene Gesserit, kills the Honored Matre leader Logno at the same time Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Odrade is killed, and Murbella manages to secure the leadership of both groups. Teg is released, later joining Sheeana and Duncan Idaho when they escape Bene Gesserit control in a no-ship.
The adult Teg is described as 296 years old but still vital, and has a striking resemblance to his ancestor, Leto Atreides. The son of the Bene Gesserit Lady Janet Roxbrough (a Fish Speaker descendant) and Loschy Teg, a "CHOAM station factor" who was chosen for breeding by the Sisterhood for his "gene potential," Miles had been instructed in the Bene Gesserit ways by his mother before being sent to Lampadas to train as a Mentat. Teg is a military genius, having a very strong sense of honor, loyalty, and many of the characteristics of House Atreides, his ancestors. He is well known for doing the unexpected. Teg is also not a spice addict, as is common with most other people, not even resorting to the spice at old age when most others might wish to use it to extend their lives. By the time of Heretics of Dune, Teg's wife had been dead for 38 years, his grown children living elsewhere except for his eldest daughter Dimela. She and her husband Firus take control of Teg's farm when he leaves his homeworld Lernaeus, and the couple have three children. Teg had a younger brother, Sabine, who had been poisoned on Romo. In Heretics of Dune, it is revealed that Teg had fathered other children during his younger years, one of whom is Odrade.
Teg also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, Duncan and Teg run the affairs on the no-ship, being the only two passengers with experience in military leadership. Teg considers himself responsible for the security of the ship and its vital cargo of historical gholas, produced in transit from genetic material possessed by captive passenger Scytale, purportedly the last Tleilaxu Master. In Sandworms of Dune, mysterious saboteurs conduct crippling attacks on the no-ship's systems. Teg and Duncan discover that Face Dancers have infiltrated the ship, but not before they are led directly to the "Unknown Enemy" who have been stalking the ship for years: Daniel and Marty, incarnations of the ancient thinking machines Omnius and Erasmus. The critically damaged no-ship is caught in the thinking machine tachyon net, and Teg uses his accelerated metabolism to both repair the ship and launch countermeasures against the attacking machines. Though he has consumed vast quantities of melange and carbohydrates from the ship's stores to complete his task, Teg dies from massive cellular exhaustion. Duncan is unable to free the ship, and it is taken to the machine world Synchrony. En route, Duncan and Sheeana release the husk that is left of Teg's body into space, vowing that the Bashar will never be captured by the Enemy. Later, after the machines are defeated, Duncan asks Scytale for a new ghola of Teg, whom he will need at his side in his new position as the bridge between both mankind and machines.
=== Murbella ===
Murbella is a young Honored Matre who defects to the Bene Gesserit. In Heretics of Dune, the violent Honored Matres capture the teenage Duncan Idaho ghola, who is loyal to their enemies, the Bene Gesserit. Young Honored Matre Murbella is tasked to use her sexual imprinting talents to enslave Duncan to force his allegiance to them. The Tleilaxu have secretly programmed the ghola with the male equivalent to the Honored Matres' imprinting power, which is unlocked by Murbella's attempt. Duncan and Murbella imprint each other, and in her weakened condition Murbella is easily captured by the Bene Gesserit. Her new addiction to Duncan keeps Murbella subdued, and Bene Gesserit soon begin to train her as one of them, though they do not completely trust her. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Duncan and Murbella's mutual imprinting has made them reluctant lovers. Murbella collapses under the pressure of training and her pregnancy, but realizes that she admires and wants to be Bene Gesserit. Murbella submits to the spice agony to become a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother, and survives. During a Bene Gesserit attack on the Honored Matres, Murbella kills the Great Honored Matre Logno with her Bene Gesserit-enhanced fighting skills, and the Honored Matres are awed by her physical prowess. The Bene Gesserit Mother Superior Darwi Odrade is also killed, and Murbella secures the leadership of both groups, per Odrade's plan. Murbella intends to merge the two orders into a New Sisterhood, which displeases some of the Bene Gesserit. The dissenters flee Chapterhouse with Duncan, Miles Teg, and Sheeana in a no-ship, and Murbella realizes their plan too late to stop them.
Murbella also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, Murbella takes the title Mother Commander. She has four daughters by Duncan: Rinya, Janess, Tanidia and Gianne. Murbella searches her Other Memory for the origin of the Honored Matres. She discovers that they are descendants of rogue Bene Gesserits and Tleilaxu females, originally used as axlotl tanks and freed by Fish Speakers, who allied in the Scattering. Murbella also discovers that the Honored Matres' "outside enemy" are thinking machines, provoked when the Honored Matres stole technologically advanced weapons, including Obliterators, from them. In Sandworms of Dune, Murbella now knows that the sentient computer network Omnius and his thinking machine forces are coming, and attempts to rally humankind for a last stand against the thinking machines. She commissions the scientists of Ix to copy the destructive Obliterators for use on the fleet of warships she has ordered from the Spacing Guild. However, Ix is now secretly controlled by Face Dancer leader Khrone. When Murbella is ready to launch her fleet, the Obliterators and Ixian navigation devices all suddenly fail, which Murbella realizes is sabotage. The Oracle of Time appears, destroying Omnius and the thinking machines with her own armada. Murbella is reunited with Duncan, who intends to end the divide between humans and thinking machines, allowing the two to co-exist.
=== Darwi Odrade ===
Darwi Odrade is an elite Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and Atreides descendant. In Heretics of Dune, the "wild talents" of the Atreides bloodline that Odrade displays intermittently are what the Bene Gesserit both fear and desperately need. The suspicious Reverend Mother Bellonda scrutinizes Odrade continually, looking for reasons to terminate her, while Mother Superior Taraza senses that the Sisterhood needs Odrade's limited Atreides prescience to avert imminent destruction at the hands of the Honored Matres. Taraza tasks Odrade to take over the Bene Gesserit Keep on the planet Arrakis, and take under her protection the foundling girl Sheeana, who has the natural ability to control the giant sandworms. Recognizing Sheeana's value to the Sisterhood, Odrade begins training her as a Bene Gesserit acolyte. Meanwhile, an anonymous document referred to as the Atreides Manifesto surfaces, attacking all religions in the known universe except for that of the Bene Tleilax. This creates a furor with the intensely religious Tleilaxu, who have long nursed dreams of hegemony, dominating the universe with their religion. The Tleilaxu council decides to treat the Manifesto as a gift from God, and they spread it far and wide. It is later revealed that the Manifesto was in fact written by Odrade. When Taraza is killed after a showdown with the Honored Matres on Arrakis, Odrade becomes Mother Superior.
In Chapterhouse Dune (1985), Odrade is accompanied by Tamalane, Dortujla and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction, as retired Bene Gesserit Supreme Bashar Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu. With the planet about to fall, the Honored Matres activate their "weapon of last resort", turning victory into defeat and holding Odrade captive. Tamalane, Dortujla, and Suipol are killed. As planned with Odrade previously, Honored Matre-turned-Bene Gesserit Murbella travels to Junction alone, pretending to have escaped the Bene Gesserit with their unique abilities and the location of their hidden homeworld, Chapterhouse. Murbella is brought before the new Great Honored Matre Logno, who has just killed her predecessor Dama and has Odrade standing nearby, unrestrained in a gesture of contempt. Murbella provokes and kills Logno, while simultaneously the Honored Matre Elpek kills Odrade. With both of these deaths, Murbella becomes the new Mother Superior as well as Great Honored Matre, fulfilling Odrade's intentions.
Odrade is secretly the daughter of military commander Teg, and her "care with details" makes her, like Teg, most suited for duties related to security. The younger Reverend Mother and Imprinter Lucilla is described a near copy of Odrade, from her physical appearance to the sound of her voice. The two women are not directly related, but are instead the products of parallel breeding lines. As the Bene Gesserit are wary of the historical unpredictability of Atreides genes, it is noted in Heretics of Dune that her offspring receive "careful examination", and that "two of those offspring had been quietly put to death."
=== Sheeana ===
Sheeana Brugh is a young girl native to Rakis (formerly Arrakis) who possesses the unique ability to control the giant sandworms that roam the desert planet. In Heretics of Dune, Sheeana's talent is revealed after her impoverished village is wiped out by a sandworm which refuses to harm her, and then whisks her to the capital city of Keen (formerly Arrakeen) when she climbs on to its back in the long-forbidden Fremen tradition. Sheeana is soon recognized as the "sandrider" predicted by the Leto II, and worshipped by the priesthood of Rakis. As she matures to adulthood, Sheeana effectively assumes control of the priesthood. Her popularity and religious aura have increased both on and off Rakis, and the priests, believing her a prophet, are compelled to follow even her most unorthodox commands. The Bene Gesserit, who have their own plans for Sheeana and have secretly guided her education, thwart an assassination attempt on her, and unofficially take control of Sheeana, the priesthood and Rakis. Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade begins Sheeana's formal Bene Gesserit training. Mother Superior Taraza is soon pleased with Sheeana's progress, and considers a secondary plan of seeding other planets with sandworms with Sheeana's help. Rakis itself is destroyed by the vengeful Honored Matres. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Sheeana is now in charge of the project to breed sandworms on the secret Bene Gesserit world, Chapterhouse. She becomes a full Reverend Mother but remains very independent, with mysterious depths. Disagreeing with the plans of new Bene Gesserit leader Murbella, Sheeana chooses to escape Chapterhouse on an untraceable no-ship with the like-minded Duncan Idaho ghola and a number of other passengers.
Sheeana also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.
In Hunters of Dune, Sheeana and Duncan lead the no-ship in their journey to flee the Unknown Enemy that pursues them. Sheeana decides that they need to make new gholas of former heroes using the genetic material carried by the last Tleilaxu Master, Scytale.
=== Tylwyth Waff ===
Tylwyth Waff is a Tleilaxu Master and the leader of the Bene Tleilax, a secretive race of genetic manipulators who traffic in biological products such as artificial eyes, gholas, and "twisted" Mentats. Waff is described as "an elfin figure barely a meter and a half tall. Eyes, hair, and skin were shades of gray, all a stage for the oval face with its tiny mouth and line of sharp teeth". In Heretics of Dune, Waff successfully replaces High Priest Hedley Tuek with a Face Dancer duplicate loyal to the Tleilaxi, but loses control of the impostor due to its eventual complete assimilation into its new form. Traveling to Rakis, Waff decides to ally with the Bene Gesserit after he is tricked into believing that they share the secret religious beliefs of the Tleilaxu. He is killed along with the entire population of Rakis when the Honored Matres destroy the planet in revenge for Miles Teg's slaughter of their members. Meanwhile, he has a replacement ghola growing for himself in Bandalong, the capital city of the Tleilaxu homeworld, Tleilax.
Waff also appears in the sequel novels Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In Hunters of Dune, the Honored Matres who conquered Tleilax have kept several of Waff's gholas alive, but in vegetative states. In order to recover the supposedly "lost" secret to producing melange in axlotl tanks, the Lost Tleilaxu scribe Uxtal is tasked to create new gholas from Waff's genetic material. Uxtal accelerates the process artificially, and of the first batch of eight Waff gholas, seven fail to regain their memories and are viciously killed. The massacre shocks the last ghola into regaining some of Waff's memories, but not enough to recreate the melange process. Later, the Waff ghola escapes the Bene Gesserit attack on Tleilax, finding refuge with the Spacing Guild by offering Guild Navigator Edrik the genetic knowledge for the Guild to create their own, optimized sandworms to produce melange. In Sandworms of Dune, Waff alters the DNA of the sandworm's larval sandtrout stage to create an aquatic form of the worms, which are then released into the oceans of Buzzell. Adapting to their new environment, these "seaworms" quickly flourish, eventually producing a highly concentrated form of melange, dubbed "ultraspice". Waff makes a pilgrimage to Rakis, original homeworld of the sandworms, and sacrifices himself to a worm, which to him is an embodiment of God.
=== Bellonda ===
Bellonda is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother and the chief Mentat-Archivist counselor to Mother Superior Taraza in Heretics of Dune. After Taraza's death, Bellonda serves new Mother Superior Darwi Odrade in the same function in Chapterhouse: Dune. During a conversation with the Duncan Idaho ghola it is revealed that Bellonda is a descendant of Anteac, an important Reverend Mother from the time of the God Emperor Leto II.
Bellonda also appears in the sequel novel Hunters of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In the novel, Bellonda is one of the few Bene Gesserit with access to the Bene Gesserit's sensitive breeding records, and one of even fewer possessing the memories of all the Mothers Superior. Bellonda suspects that the Honored Matres had originally been Reverend Mothers sent out in the Scattering, and calculates that melange withdrawal and hypnosis had caused them to deny their origins. Bellonda is later killed in a duel by her Spice Operations Director partner and nemesis, the former Honored Matre Doria. An outraged Mother Commander Murbella, leader of the merged New Sisterhood of Bene Gesserit and Honored Matres, forces Doria to share minds with Bellonda before her memories are lost forever.
=== Taraza ===
Alma Mavis Taraza is the Bene Gesserit Mother Superior in Heretics of Dune who brings former Supreme Bashar Miles Teg reluctantly out of retirement to guard the latest Duncan Idaho ghola. Taraza blackmails Tleilaxu Master Waff to find out all he knows about the invading Honored Matres, as well as the fact that the Bene Tleilax have programmed their own agenda within the ghola. She also manages to divine that Waff is a secret Zensufi, which finally gives the Sisterhood a way to manipulate the Tleilaxu. Reverend Mother Darwi Odrade subsequently uses this knowledge of Waff's religious beliefs to form an alliance with him. As Tleilaxu axlotl tanks are the only other source of melange besides Rakis, this alliance will be essential when Taraza executes her ultimate plan: to destroy Rakis and free humanity from Leto II's own plan. The discovery of a girl with the ability to control sandworms prompts Taraza to consider a secondary plan of seeding other planets with them. The Honored Matres are goaded into attacking Rakis and Taraza is killed, but not before she is able to share Other Memory with Odrade, who escapes.
=== Burzmali ===
Alef Burzmali is Miles Teg's protégé in the Bene Gesserit military who became Supreme Bashar after Teg's retirement. In Heretics of Dune, he aids Teg in extracting the Duncan Idaho ghola and Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla from their hiding place on Gammu. When Duncan is captured by the Honored Matres, Lucilla impersonates one of them, with Burzmali playing her sexual slave, to access the building where Duncan is being held. Burzmali dies attempting to protect the planet Lampadas from a catastrophic attack by Honored Matres in Chapterhouse Dune.
=== Hedley Tuek ===
Hedley Tuek is the High Priest of the Rakian Priesthood, and a descendant of the melange smuggler Esmar Tuek. Tleilaxu Master Waff has Tuek killed and replaced by a Face Dancer, a genetically engineered mimic, but loses control of the duplicate due to its eventual complete assimilation into its new form.
=== Other ===
is the Bene Gesserit in charge of the Duncan Idaho ghola project on Gammu in Heretics of Dune. As the leader of a faction of the Sisterhood who believe that such gholas are a danger to the order and its goals, she has been subtly encouraging the ghola's failure. By the time Lucilla arrives to teach Duncan and bind his loyalty to the Sisterhood with sexual imprinting, he has already been tarnished by Schwangyu, and nurses hatred for the Bene Gesserit and a desire to escape their control. Despite Schwangyu's efforts to seduce Lucilla to her side, Duncan blossoms under the training of Lucilla and Miles Teg, and Schwangyu begins to realize that she has much underestimated Lucilla. Schwangyu betrays Teg, Lucilla, and Duncan to the Tleilaxu, allowing them to attack the keep on Gammu where Duncan is being trained, but the Tleilaxu forces kill her during the strike.
is a Bene Gesserit who is one of the Duncan Idaho ghola's first chief instructors on Gammu in the events before Heretics of Dune. Tamalane is one of Mother Superior Odrade's advisors in Chapterhouse: Dune, and accompanies Odrade, Dortujla and the acolyte Suipol to meet the Great Honored Matre Dama on Junction as Miles Teg leads a force to attack Gammu. Tamalane and her party are eventually slain by the Honored Matres, but the Bene Gesserit conquest proves successful with Murbella left as leader to both the Bene Gesserit and the Honored Matres.
is the Bene Gesserit Archivist counselor and advisor to Mother Superior Taraza in Heretics of Dune. She is one of very few sisters with access to sensitive breeding records, and is the first advisor to correctly suggest that the Tleilaxu ambition is to produce a complete prana-bindu mimic.
is the Bene Gesserit mother of Supreme Bashar Miles Teg, who teaches him the Bene Gesserit ways in his youth, prior to Heretics of Dune.
is a young Bene Gesserit acolyte whom Miles Teg meets as a child. While the Honored Matres interrogate an adult Miles with a T-Probe in Heretics of Dune, he recalls a visit from the Sisterhood to his Bene Gesserit mother, Lady Janet Roxbrough. Miles is left talking with one of the visitor's young acolytes, Carlana, who unsuccessfully tries her "fledging skills" on the eleven-year-old Teg. Miles, who has been well-instructed by his mother, can easily see through Carlana and manipulates her in return. Carlana is described as having red-blond hair, a doll's face with green-gray eyes and upturned nose, and an "inflated view of her own attractions."
is a Bene Gesserit who had been the Duncan Idaho ghola's first chief instructor prior to the events of Heretics of Dune. She had become very attached to him, but had been sent away after allowing him to discover (at age eight) that he is a ghola.
== Introduced in Chapterhouse: Dune (1985) ==
=== Rebecca ===
Rebecca is a "wild" Reverend Mother who lives among a secret community of Jews on Gammu. In Chapterhouse: Dune, Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Lucilla is fleeing the destruction of the planet Lampadas by the Honored Matres and is forced to land on Gammu. Once there, she seeks out a hidden settlement of Jews, whom she knows will give her sanctuary. They are obligated to turn her over to the Honored Matres to assure their own survival, but Lucilla, who is carrying the priceless shared-minds of all the Reverend Mothers of Lampadas, is able to share minds with Rebecca and pass on this knowledge before being captured by the Honored Matres. Rebecca and the Jews eventually escape Gammu with the Bene Gesserit forces, and Rebecca is able to pass on the 7,622,014 Lampadas shared-minds to the Sisterhood.
In the sequel novel Hunters of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, Rebecca is aboard the untraceable no-ship which Sheeana and Duncan Idaho use to flee the Bene Gesserit planet Chapterhouse. Rebecca later offers herself as a volunteer to become one of the axlotl tanks used to produce the important gholas of Paul Atreides, Leto II and others.
=== Daniel and Marty ===
Daniel and Marty are a pair of mysterious observers with advanced technological powers introduced in Chapterhouse: Dune. Duncan Idaho sees the duo in a vision and determines that they are likely Face Dancers, the shapeshifting minions of the Tleilaxu, though atypically autonomous ones. In the final chapter of the novel, Daniel and Marty observe the escape of the no-ship from Chapterhouse and confirm that they are independent Face Dancers. They acknowledge that Tleilaxu Masters created them and express some deference, but also assert their independence and indicate that their ability to absorb the memories and experiences of other people made their autonomy inevitable. Daniel and Marty hint that they observe and are familiar with various groups in the universe, and allude to their desire to capture and study the passengers of the no-ship.
Herbert's 1986 death "left fans with an über-cliffhanger" for twenty years, until his son Brian Herbert and author Kevin J. Anderson published two sequels to the original series, Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune. In "The Hidden Hand", a dying Raquella tells young Valya Harkonnen that she must grow, protect and strengthen the Sisterhood, and that Valya "will be the one to see the burning truth, and know." Raquella's granddaughter Dorotea intends to destroy the breeding program as something heretical and impure, so Valya uses the Voice to force Dorotea to kill herself. Thirty years later, Valya is Mother Superior and has grown the Sisterhood in size and power, but her carefully orchestrated plans are thwarted by mysterious Imperial soldier Desmond Hart, who perceives the Sisterhood as a growing threat to the autonomy of the Imperium. Desmond uses a "great power" granted to him by his near-death experience on Arrakis to psychically immolate Imperial Truthsayer Kasha Jinjo, whose burned body reminds Valya of Raquella's dying prediction.
In "Two Wolves", Sister Lila is revealed to be Raquella's great-great-granddaughter. With the Sisterhood desperate for more information about the dangerous prophecy which is now unfolding, Lila undergoes the dangerous Agony ritual to unlock her Other Memory and access Raquella's consciousness. Raquella speaks through her, providing more details about the prophecy that point to Desmond as the key to a coming reckoning. "Sisterhood Above All" depicts Raquella meeting and taking Valya under her wing, eventually sharing with her the secret of the forbidden technology used to maintain her vast DNA database. Recognizing that her life is waning, Raquella intends to put Valya and Dorotea through the Agony to succeed her as leaders of the Sisterhood. Valya at first refuses, and Raquella issues the ultimatum that she take care of her family issues and return as a Reverend Mother, or not at all. Once Valya is sure that her brother Griffin's death has been avenged, she self-administers the Rossak drug and survives.
==== Other ====
is an ambitious industrialist who encourages Norma Cenva's scientific pursuits. He eventually markets her inventions and helps her build a shipyard to produce her space-folding ships, and realizes the potential of the drug melange. Aurelius and Norma marry and have five children, including Adrien.Later, Aurelius and Norma's mother, the Rossak Sorceress leader Zufa Cenva, are intercepted in space by the Titan Hecate. Not knowing that Hecate is assisting the Jihad forces against the thinking machines, Zufa unleashes a telekenetic blast that kills herself, Aurelius and Hecate.
is the daughter of Rikov Butler, the governor of the planet Parmentier, and niece of the future Faykan Corrino. Introduced in Dune: The Battle of Corrin, Rayna is 11 years old when the thinking machines release a deadly retrovirus on Parmentier that kills most of the population, including her parents. She is infected and falls into a coma, but awakens days later, miraculously cured, having experienced visions of Serena Butler. Rayna begins destroying all electronics, circuitry and computerized technology, no matter how innocuous, and is soon joined by the Martyrists, a group devoted to the martyred Serena Butler, her infant son Manion, and Iblis Ginjo. They destroy even the desperately needed medical equipment at the Hospital for Incurable Diseases. Led by Rayna, the new Cult of Serena sparks a violent anti-technology crusade across the universe, and the phrase "Thou shall not make a machine in the likeness of a human mind", told to her in a vision, becomes the primary commandment in the Orange Catholic Bible.
, the Evermind, an artificial intelligence which is the leader of the thinking machines
, an independent robot who serves Omnius and is fascinated by the human race
Agamemnon, leader of the Titans, a human brain within a fearsome machine body, and biological father of Vorian Atreides
Gilbertus Albans, adopted human son of Erasmus, founder of the Order of Mentats
, a physician instrumental in fighting a catastrophic thinking machine-created plague among humans who later founds the Suk School of medicine
, the powerful leader of the telekinetic Sorceresses of Rossak, and the mother of Norma and Ticia
, daughter of Zufa Cenva and Iblis Ginjo, half-sister of Norma
, scientist who discovered the Holtzman effect, which makes interstellar space travel possible
Lord Niko Bludd, Holtzman's greedy patron
, co-pilot to Vorian Atreides
Manion Butler Sr., League of Nobles Viceroy and father of Serena Butler
Livia Butler, wife of Manion Sr. and mother of Serena, abbess of the City of Interspection
Manion Butler, "Manion the Innocent", Serena's martyred infant son
Octa Butler, Serena's sister and wife of Xavier Harkonnen
Wandra Butler, daughter of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler
Quentin (Vigar) Butler, Wandra's husband
Faykan Butler, grandson of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler, and son of Wandra and Quentin, who takes the name Faykan Corrino after the Battle of Corrin and founds the Imperial House Corrino
Rikov Butler, Faykan and Abulurd's brother, governor of Parmentier and primero of the Jihad, father of Rayna
Abulurd Butler, Faykan and Rikov's brother, who later takes the name . He defies Vorian and ignites the Atreides-Harkonnen feud.
Rayna Butler, Great-granddaughter of Xavier Harkonnen and Octa Butler who founds the Cult of Serena
, ruthless son of Aurelius Venport and Norma Cenva who founds the Foldspace Shipping Company, the precursor of the Spacing Guild
Jool Noret, legendary Ginaz mercenary
Yorek Thurr, head of the Jipol, Iblis Ginjo's secret police
Warrick, best friend of Liet-Kynes, killed while attempting the spice agony
El'him Wormrider, son of Selim
Selim Wormrider, leader of Zensunni outlaws on Arrakis and the first wormrider
Estes Atreides, Vorian's son by Leronica Tergiet, twin of Kagin
Kagin Atreides, Vorian's son by Leronica Tergiet, twin of Estes
Ajax, a Titan
Barbarossa, a Titan
Beowulf a Neo-Cymek, a new generation of human-machine hybrids created by the Titans
Chirox, reprogrammed robot used as a battle trainer on Ginaz
Dante, a Titan
, a Titan
Juno, a Titan
Tamerlane, a Titan
Tlaloc, a Titan
Xerxes, a Titan
===Introduced in Hunters of Dune (2006)===
==== Doria ====
Doria is an ambitious Honored Matre who reluctantly joins the Bene Gesserit as Murbella hopes to unite the opposing factions in Hunters of Dune. Though Doria seeks to learn the impressive skills of the Bene Gesserit, her Honored Matre impulsiveness and resistance to authority are difficult to shake. A chief advisor to Murbella, Doria is one of the few assimilated Honored Matres with access to sensitive Bene Gesserit breeding records. Doria and Bellonda are on opposite sides from the beginning. Hoping to force them to at least respect each other's differences, Murbella makes them partners managing the spice operations on Chapterhouse. Years later, Doria kills Bellonda in a final confrontation. An outraged Murbella forces Doria to share minds with Bellonda, and makes her the sole Spice Operations Director. Six years later, driven to the brink of insanity by Bellonda's incessant chatter within her mind, Doria is devoured by a sandworm.
==== Hellica ====
Hellica is the self-declared Matre Superior of the largest renegade Honored Matre force, based on the conquered planet Tleilax in the former capital Bandalong. In Hunters of Dune, Hellica forces captive Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal to employ the secret of the Tleilaxu axlotl tanks to produce increased quantities of the orange spice substitute used by the Honored Matres. When Guild Navigator Edrik seeks Uxtal's knowledge of producing melange in the tanks, Hellica's price for his expertise is Edrik's help transporting a certain cargo. He agrees, delivering by heighliner the Obliterators that destroy the planet Richese, where the Bene Gesserit are mass-producing weapons and armed battleships. Later, Hellica attempts an Obliterator attack on Chapterhouse itself, but the plan fails. Murbella's forces conquer Tleilax, and Hellica is killed, but Murbella realizes that the Matre Superior and some of her elite guard had actually been Face Dancer duplicates.
==== Other ====
is the eldest daughter of Murbella and Duncan Idaho, born a few minutes before her twin sister Janess. In Hunters of Dune, Rinya and Janess are prodigies: ambitious, impatient, and unquestionably talented, but Janess possesses just a hint more caution. Janess is obsessed with learning more about her father Duncan, and she often quotes his philosophical works. Rinya always has to be first for everything, and she demands to be allowed to undergo the spice agony, wanting to become a Reverend Mother at the age of 14, just like Sheeana had done. Though Janess tries to stop the ritual, Rinya insists, and dies in the ordeal.
is the second daughter of Murbella and Duncan Idaho, born a few minutes after her twin sister Rinya. In Hunters of Dune, Janess and Rinya are prodigies: ambitious, impatient, and unquestionably talented, but Janess possesses just a hint more caution. Janess is obsessed with learning more about her father Duncan, and she often quotes his philosophical works. Rinya always has to be first for everything, and she demands to be allowed to undergo the spice agony, wanting to become a Reverend Mother at the age of 14, just like Sheeana had done. Though Janess tries to stop the ritual, Rinya insists, and dies in the ordeal. Janess later undergoes the agony herself at age 17, and is successful. Ranked as a lieutenant in the forces of the combined Bene Gesserit/Honored Matre New Sisterhood, her first military assignment is to exterminate a renegade Honored Matre group who control a portion of the planet Gammu. Janess is later promoted to Regimental Commandant, and adopts her father's last name.
is a Bene Gesserit tasked to cultivate the Cult of Sheeana on Gammu. In Hunters of Dune, she discovers the Honored Matre plan to send Obliterators on a Spacing Guild heighliner to destroy Chapterhouse. She and some of her followers barely escape Gammu with their lives, but manage to reach Chapterhouse and warn Murbella in time. Soon after, Iriel is killed in the Bene Gesserit takeover of Gammu.
is a Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother banished to the aquatic planet Buzzell to work in the operation harvesting valuable soostones. In Hunters of Dune, Murbella's forces retake Buzzell from the conquering Honored Matres. Murbella shares minds with Corysta, learning all she can about the situation on Buzzell but also experiencing Corysta's past. She recognizes Corysta's value and loyalty and puts her in charge of the soostone operation. Corysta manages to improve the efficiency and output of the operation, which is the Sisterhood's only source of revenue besides melange, and is essential to their plan to amass arms for a final battle with the Unknown Enemy. Corysta's past is explored in the 2006 Brian Herbert/Kevin J. Anderson short story "Dune: Sea Child", in which Corysta is banished to Buzzell because she resists handing over to the Sisterhood the baby they had tasked her to conceive. The Honored Matres later conquer the planet, enslaving the Bene Gesserit there. Corysta nurtures a foundling Phibian until it, too, is taken from her by the Honored Matres when she refuses to tell them the secret location of Chapterhouse.
is an enhanced, autonomous Face Dancer who appears to serve Daniel and Marty, but has his own agenda for domination of the universe.
is a second-rank Lost Tleilaxu sent to Bandalong by Khrone in Hunters of Dune. Uxtal is tasked to pacify Honored Matre leader Hellica by producing the orange adrenaline-enhancing drug used by the Honored Matres with axlotl technology. Khrone, however, has his own agenda for domination of the universe, and has Uxtal producing gholas for him as well.
is the leader of the Lost Tleilaxu who is ultimately killed and replaced by one of Khrone's Face Dancers
is a Spacing Guild Navigator who seeks an alternate melange supply for his Navigators as the Guild begins replacing them with Ixian navigation machines.
=== Introduced in Great Schools of Dune (2012–2016) ===
==== Valya Harkonnen ====
Valya Harkonnen and her brother Griffin are the newest generation of a once-mighty family who were brought to ruin, and exiled to the ice planet Lankiveil. Their ambition is to both reclaim their family's rightful place, and avenge themselves on the Atreides, who caused their downfall. In the Great Schools of Dune series, Valya plots to rise within, and ultimately take control of, the fledgling Bene Gesserit, while galvanizing her siblings to help her visit Harkonnen vengeance on the bloodline of Vorian Atreides.
Emily Watson portrays Valya in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy, and Jessica Barden plays a younger version of the character in flashbacks.
==== Griffin Harkonnen ====
Griffin Harkonnen is a young nobleman hoping to restore his family's fortunes through service to the Landsraad. In Sisterhood of Dune (2012), his sister Valya learns that the man to blame for the downfall of the Harkonnens decades before, Vorian Atreides, has been made seemingly immortal by the thinking machines and is still alive. Bent on revenge, Griffin tracks Vorian to the desert planet Arrakis. Vorian saves Griffin from a giant sandworm, and Griffin subsequently defeats Vorian in a duel, but spares his life. Though they come to an understanding to end the Atreides-Harkonnen feud, Griffin is executed by Vorian's sister Hyla, an assassin loyal to the vanquished thinking machines. Vorian returns Griffin's body to Lankiveil with a letter of condolence, and Valya refuses to believe he did not kill her brother himself.
Earl Cave portrays Griffin in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy. In the episode "Sisterhood Above All", Griffin shares Valya's desire to regain their family's status, and seeks to advance in the Landsraad. He is later killed, and though Valya curses that he was murdered by Vorian Atreides, the elder Harkonnens blame Valya.
==== Dorotea ====
Dorotea is Valya Harkonnen's nemesis and the leader of an anti-technology faction within the Sisterhood. In Sisterhood of Dune, Valya is a trusted aide to Mother Superior Raquella Berto-Anirul, who has shared with Valya the secret that she has flouted the Butlerian prohibitions on thinking machines by using computers to maintain the extensive records of the Sisterhood's breeding program. Dorotea, a Butlerian sympathizer and Raquella's granddaughter, discovers the existence of the computers and reports it to Emperor Salvador Corrino. Valya helps Raquella remove them in advance of the Emperor's invasion, but a petulant Salvador disbands the Sisterhood School on Rossak. Dorotea returns to the capital world of Salusa Secundus with the Emperor as his Truthsayer, and forms an orthodox faction of sisters. In Mentats of Dune (2014), Valya retrieves the hidden computers from Rossak and hopes to succeed Raquella as Mother Superior. Nearing the end of her life, Raquella believes that the only hope for the Sisterhood to survive is for the Wallach IX sisters to reconcile with Dorotea's faction. She forces Valya and Dorotea to put their differences aside and agree to work together for the good of the Sisterhood. Naming them co-leaders, Raquella dies. Valya however, still bitter about Dorotea's betrayal, has recently mastered the Voice, and uses it to force Dorotea to commit suicide.
Dorotea is portrayed by Camilla Beeput in the 2024 HBO television series Dune: Prophecy. She is young Valya Harkonnen's rival in the Sisterhood, and the granddaughter and heir apparent of Mother Superior Raquella. Dorotea is described as "pious and determined to return the Sisterhood to what she believes are its core values." In "The Hidden Hand", Dorotea and Valya are at a dying Raquella's bedside to hear her final words, urging them to "use every tool" to grow, protect and strengthen the Sisterhood after her death. Valya urges the gathered Sisters to carry on Raquella's legacy by expanding their reach and influence, and by pushing the boundaries of their abilities. Dorotea, however, preaches humility, and indirect power. Raquella has devised a secret breeding program, intended to guide noble bloodlines to cultivate better, more easily controlled leaders. With Raquella dead, Dorotea rushes to destroy it, believing it to be sinful. Valya uses the Voice to stop her, and when Dorotea refuses to bend to Valya's will, she commands Dorotea to commit suicide.
In "Two Wolves", Sister Lila is revealed to be Dorotea's granddaughter. With the Sisterhood desperate for more information about the dangerous prophecy which is now unfolding, Lila undergoes the dangerous Agony ritual to unlock her Other Memory and access Raquella's consciousness. Raquella speaks through her, but then the vengeful persona of Dorotea overwhelms Lila, who appears to die. "Sisterhood Above All" depicts Dorotea looking on as Raquella meets and takes Valya under her wing. Recognizing that her life is waning, Raquella intends to put Valya and Dorotea through the Agony to succeed her as leaders of the Sisterhood. Valya at first refuses, while Dorotea accepts and survives the ordeal.
==== Tula Harkonnen ====
Tula Harkonnen is the youngest Harkonnen sibling, and has been groomed to share Valya and Griffin's hatred for the Atreides, and desire for revenge against them. In Mentats of Dune, she has joined the Sisterhood, and dutifully follows Valya's instructions to marry young Orry Atreides, and murder him on their wedding night. Tula is overcome with guilt over Orry in Navigators of Dune (2016), and Orry's vengeful brother, Willem Atreides, spares her life when she reveals that she is pregnant with Orry's child.
Olivia Williams portrays Tula in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy, and Emma Canning plays a younger version of the character in flashbacks.
==== Other ====
, Padishah Emperor and brother to Roderick and Anna
, Emperor Salvador's brother and trusted advisor
, the flighty younger sister of Salvador and Roderick
, the popular leader of the anti-technology Butlerian movement
, a Ginaz Swordmaster in the service of Manford Torondo
, an unscrupulous businessman who holds a near-monopoly on space travel, and the great-grandson of Norma Cenva
, Josef's wife and advisor
, Salvador's wife, the Empress
, Roderick's wife and the mother of his four children
, Roderick and Haditha's eldest daughter, accidentally killed by a Butlerian mob
, Roderick's son and heir
, Roderick and Haditha's daughter
, Roderick and Haditha's daughter
, a former Rossak Sister and the new director of the Suk Institute
Hyla and Andros, adult twin children of the Titan Agamemnon, brought out of stasis by the Butlerians
, a direct descendant of Vorian Atreides on the planet Caladan
, Willem's brother who falls victim to Tula Harkonnen. He is portrayed by Milo Callaghan in the 2024 HBO series Dune: Prophecy, in the episode "Sisterhood Above All".
, the younger brother of Griffin and Valya
|
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] |
7,901 |
Vladimir Harkonnen
|
{{Infobox character
| series = Dune
| creator = Frank Herbert
| name = Baron Vladimir Harkonnen
| image = Baron Harkonnen-John Schoenherr-Illustrated Dune (1978).jpg
| caption = Baron Vladimir Harkonnen by John Schoenherr, from The Illustrated Dune (1978)
| children = Lady Jessica
| relatives =
In Dune: House Harkonnen, the deteriorating Baron at first walks with the assistance of a cane, then relies on belt-mounted suspensors to retain mobility. He consults numerous doctors in the expanse of time between the Dune: House Atreides and Dune: House Harkonnen, up to and including his future instrument Dr. Yueh, all of whom are ultimately no help. To conceal this debilitation, he pretends that his obesity is due to intentional overindulgence, lest the Landsraad remove him from power. When he determines that Mohiam inflicted him with the disease, he attempts to coerce her into revealing the cure, but soon discovers that there is none. The Baron, Duke Leto, and Jessica are unaware that Jessica is secretly the Baron's daughter, or that he has even fathered one. In the year 10,176, the Baron's grandson Paul is born to Leto and Jessica.
=== Hunters of Dune ===
In Hunters of Dune (2006), the continuation of the original series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, the Baron is resurrected as a ghola (5,029 years after the death of Alia) by the Lost Tleilaxu Uxtal, acting on orders from the Face Dancer Khrone. Khrone intends to use the Baron ghola to manipulate a ghola of Paul Atreides, named Paolo. Khrone tries various torture techniques for three years to awaken the 12-year-old Baron's genetic memories; these methods fail due to the Baron's sadomasochistic nature. Khrone is successful when he imprisons the Baron in a sensory deprivation tank for a prolonged period; the Baron's memories of his former life return. The reincarnated Baron is soon haunted by the voice of Alia in his mind; the source of this inner Alia is never explained.
==In adaptations==
=== Cancelled 1970s film ===
In 1975, Orson Welles agreed to play the Baron in Alejandro Jodorowsky's ultimately unsuccessful adaptation. The film's concept art by Jean "Mœbius" Giraud depicts the Baron, as well as Feyd-Rautha and Rabban, in multiple drag appearances. In the documentary Jodorowsky's Dune, the director discussed the casting:
===1984 film===
Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Kenneth McMillan in David Lynch's 1984 film. The obese and disheveled Baron is overtly unstable, and covered in oozing pustules. William Hughes of The A.V. Club deemed McMillan's facial prosthetics "very memorable". Travis Johnson of Flicks.com.au noted that the Lynch film embraced "the archetype of the depraved gay sadist", which would not be acceptable in 2019. and its sequel, 2003's Children of Dune. Asher-Perrin notes that the miniseries played down the negative aspects emphasized by the Lynch film, and writes, "[The Baron's] appearance was not altered to make him seem ill, he never physically attacks anyone, and the miniseries paid more attention to the fact that the Baron was a rapist, his preference for men being incidental." Austin Jones of Paste writes, "McNeice commands his role as Baron Harkonnen, capturing the vile indulgence and vanity of a feudal lord".
===2021 and 2024 films===
Baron Harkonnen is portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film Dune and its 2024 sequel Dune: Part Two. Skarsgård called the role "small but important", and noted, "I had seven hours in make-up every day because I had to be really fat." Villeneuve said:
==Merchandising and influence==
A line of Dune action figures from toy company LJN was released to lackluster sales in 1984. Styled after David Lynch's film, the collection featured a figure of Baron Harkonnen, as well as other characters. In 2006, SOTA Toys produced a Baron Harkonnen action figure for their "Now Playing Presents" line.
==Analysis==
Thomas West of Screen Rant writes that "there are few science fiction villains quite as compelling and darkly charismatic as the Baron". William Hughes of The A.V. Club calls the Baron "one of the most iconically awful villains in all of science fiction". and Jon Michaud of The New Yorker compares "Herbert's scheming, backstabbing villain, the Baron Vladimir Harkonnen" to the villainous Lannister family of George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series.
Emmet Asher-Perrin suggests that "what makes the Baron truly monstrous [is] the fact that he spends all of his time plotting murder, sowing discord, and destroying populations of people to get his way". Hughes writes that the evil Harkonnen is "specifically designed to make the noble Atreides family seem that extra bit more dignified and pure". Jesse Schedeen of IGN agrees that the Baron is "as cruel and vindictive as Leto is noble and just." Hughes says that Herbert "successfully made [the Baron] so vampirically vile that he casts a (sometimes literal) shadow over the entire series." Sandy Schaefer of Screen Rant calls the Baron "a deliciously despicable antagonist".
While the novel suggests that the Baron's obesity might be the result of a genetic disease, the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson explains that Harkonnen was once a fit, attractive but vain man who is given the incurable disease intentionally by the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam after he drugs and rapes her. Asher-Perrin suggests that in this narrative, "The Baron's corpulence is meant to be comeuppance for doing something reprehensible, a physical punishment meant to hurt his vanity by taking away the attractiveness he so prized in himself."
==Family tree==
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7,903 |
Diffie–Hellman key exchange
|
Diffie–Hellman (DH) key exchange is a mathematical method of securely generating a symmetric cryptographic key over a public channel and was one of the first public-key protocols as conceived by Ralph Merkle and named after Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman. but in 1997 it was revealed that James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, and Malcolm J. Williamson of GCHQ, the British signals intelligence agency, had previously shown in 1969 how public-key cryptography could be achieved.
Although Diffie–Hellman key exchange itself is a non-authenticated key-agreement protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide forward secrecy in Transport Layer Security's ephemeral modes (referred to as EDH or DHE depending on the cipher suite).
The method was followed shortly afterwards by RSA, an implementation of public-key cryptography using asymmetric algorithms.
Expired US patent 4200770 from 1977 describes the now public-domain algorithm. It credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors.
== Name ==
In 2006, Hellman suggested the algorithm be called Diffie–Hellman–Merkle key exchange in recognition of Ralph Merkle's contribution to the invention of public-key cryptography (Hellman, 2006), writing:
== Description ==
=== General overview ===
Diffie–Hellman key exchange establishes a shared secret between two parties that can be used for secret communication for exchanging data over a public network. An analogy illustrates the concept of public key exchange by using colors instead of very large numbers:
The process begins by having the two parties, Alice and Bob, publicly agree on an arbitrary starting color that does not need to be kept secret. In this example, the color is yellow. Each person also selects a secret color that they keep to themselves – in this case, red and cyan. The crucial part of the process is that Alice and Bob each mix their own secret color together with their mutually shared color, resulting in orange-tan and light-blue mixtures respectively, and then publicly exchange the two mixed colors. Finally, each of them mixes the color they received from the partner with their own private color. The result is a final color mixture (yellow-brown in this case) that is identical to their partner's final color mixture.
If a third party listened to the exchange, they would only know the common color (yellow) and the first mixed colors (orange-tan and light-blue), but it would be very hard for them to find out the final secret color (yellow-brown). Bringing the analogy back to a real-life exchange using large numbers rather than colors, this determination is computationally expensive. It is impossible to compute in a practical amount of time even for modern supercomputers.
=== Cryptographic explanation ===
The simplest and the original implementation, of the protocol uses the multiplicative group of integers modulo p, where p is prime, and g is a primitive root modulo p. To guard against potential vulnerabilities, it is recommended to use prime numbers of at least 2048 bits in length. This increases the difficulty for an adversary attempting to compute the discrete logarithm and compromise the shared secret. These two values are chosen in this way to ensure that the resulting shared secret can take on any value from 1 to . Here is an example of the protocol, with non-secret values in , and secret values in .
Alice and Bob publicly agree to use a modulus ' = and base ' = (which is a primitive root modulo 23).
Alice chooses a secret integer = 4, then sends Bob ' = mod '
' = ' mod = (in this example both ' and ' have the same value 4, but this is usually not the case)
Bob chooses a secret integer = 3, then sends Alice ' = mod '
' = ''' mod =
Alice computes = mod
= ' mod = '
Bob computes = mod
= ' mod = '
Alice and Bob now share a secret (the number 18).
Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same values because under mod p,
{\color{Blue}A}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{b}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} = {\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{ab}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} = {\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{ba}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} = {\color{Blue}B}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{a}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p}
More specifically,
({\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{a}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p})^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{b}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p} = ({\color{Blue}g}^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{b}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p})^{\color{Red}\boldsymbol{a}}\bmod {\color{Blue}p}
Only a and b are kept secret. All the other values – p, g, ga mod p, and gb mod p – are sent in the clear. The strength of the scheme comes from the fact that gab mod p = gba mod p take extremely long times to compute by any known algorithm just from the knowledge of p, g, ga mod p, and gb mod p. Such a function that is easy to compute but hard to invert is called a one-way function. Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel.
Of course, much larger values of a, b, and p would be needed to make this example secure, since there are only 23 possible results of n mod 23. However, if p is a prime of at least 600 digits, then even the fastest modern computers using the fastest known algorithm cannot find a given only g, p and ga mod p. Such a problem is called the discrete logarithm problem.
Alice and Bob agree on a natural number n and a generating element g in the finite cyclic group G of order n. (This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; g and n are assumed to be known by all attackers.) The group G is written multiplicatively.
Alice picks a random natural number a with 1 < a < n, and sends the element ga of G to Bob.
Bob picks a random natural number b with 1 < b < n, and sends the element gb of G to Alice.
Alice computes the element of G.
Bob computes the element of G.
Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element gab = gba, which can serve as the shared secret key. The group G satisfies the requisite condition for secure communication as long as there is no efficient algorithm for determining gab given g, ga, and gb.
For example, the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol is a variant that represents an element of G as a point on an elliptic curve instead of as an integer modulo n. Variants using hyperelliptic curves have also been proposed. The supersingular isogeny key exchange is a Diffie–Hellman variant that was designed to be secure against quantum computers, but it was broken in July 2022.
== Ephemeral and/or static keys ==
The used keys can either be ephemeral or static (long term) key, but could even be mixed, so called semi-static DH. These variants have different properties and hence different use cases. An overview over many variants and some also discussions can for example be found in NIST SP 800-56A. A basic list:
ephemeral, ephemeral: Usually used for key agreement. Provides forward secrecy, but no authenticity.
static, static: Would generate a long term shared secret. Does not provide forward secrecy, but implicit authenticity. Since the keys are static it would for example not protect against replay-attacks.
ephemeral, static: For example, used in ElGamal encryption or Integrated Encryption Scheme (IES). If used in key agreement it could provide implicit one-sided authenticity (the ephemeral side could verify the authenticity of the static side). No forward secrecy is provided.
It is possible to use ephemeral and static keys in one key agreement to provide more security as for example shown in NIST SP 800-56A, but it is also possible to combine those in a single DH key exchange, which is then called triple DH (3-DH).
=== Triple Diffie–Hellman (3-DH) ===
In 1997 a kind of triple DH was proposed by Simon Blake-Wilson, Don Johnson, Alfred Menezes in 1997, which was improved by C. Kudla and K. G. Paterson in 2005 and shown to be secure.
The long term secret keys of Alice and Bob are denoted by a and b respectively, with public keys A and B, as well as the ephemeral key pairs (x, X) and (y, Y). Then protocol is:
The long term public keys need to be transferred somehow. That can be done beforehand in a separate, trusted channel, or the public keys can be encrypted using some partial key agreement to preserve anonymity. For more of such details as well as other improvements like side channel protection or explicit key confirmation, as well as early messages and additional password authentication, see e.g. US patent "Advanced modular handshake for key agreement and optional authentication".
=== Extended Triple Diffie–Hellman (X3DH) ===
X3DH was initially proposed as part of the Double Ratchet Algorithm used in the Signal Protocol. The protocol offers forward secrecy and cryptographic deniability. It operates on an elliptic curve.
The protocol uses five public keys. Alice has an identity key IKA and an ephemeral key EKA. Bob has an identity key IKB, a signed prekey SPKB, and a one-time prekey OPKB.
The order of G should have a large prime factor to prevent use of the Pohlig–Hellman algorithm to obtain a or b. For this reason, a Sophie Germain prime q is sometimes used to calculate , called a safe prime, since the order of G is then only divisible by 2 and q. Sometimes g is chosen to generate the order q subgroup of G, rather than G, so that the Legendre symbol of ga never reveals the low order bit of a. A protocol using such a choice is for example IKEv2.
The generator g is often a small integer such as 2. Because of the random self-reducibility of the discrete logarithm problem a small g is equally secure as any other generator of the same group.
If Alice and Bob use random number generators whose outputs are not completely random and can be predicted to some extent, then it is much easier to eavesdrop.
In the original description, the Diffie–Hellman exchange by itself does not provide authentication of the communicating parties and can be vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack.
Mallory (an active attacker executing the man-in-the-middle attack) may establish two distinct key exchanges, one with Alice and the other with Bob, effectively masquerading as Alice to Bob, and vice versa, allowing her to decrypt, then re-encrypt, the messages passed between them. Note that Mallory must be in the middle from the beginning and continuing to be so, actively decrypting and re-encrypting messages every time Alice and Bob communicate. If she arrives after the keys have been generated and the encrypted conversation between Alice and Bob has already begun, the attack cannot succeed. If she is ever absent, her previous presence is then revealed to Alice and Bob. They will know that all of their private conversations had been intercepted and decoded by someone in the channel. In most cases it will not help them get Mallory's private key, even if she used the same key for both exchanges.
A method to authenticate the communicating parties to each other is generally needed to prevent this type of attack. Variants of Diffie–Hellman, such as STS protocol, may be used instead to avoid these types of attacks.
=== Denial-of-service attack ===
A CVE released in 2021 (CVE-2002-20001) disclosed a denial-of-service attack (DoS) against the protocol variants use ephemeral keys, called D(HE)at attack. The attack exploits that the Diffie–Hellman key exchange allows attackers to send arbitrary numbers that are actually not public keys, triggering expensive modular exponentiation calculations on the victim's side. Another CVEs released disclosed that the Diffie–Hellman key exchange implementations may use long private exponents (CVE-2022-40735) that arguably make modular exponentiation calculations unnecessarily expensive or may unnecessary check peer's public key (CVE-2024-41996) has similar resource requirement as key calculation using a long exponent. An attacker can exploit both vulnerabilities together.
=== Practical attacks on Internet traffic ===
The number field sieve algorithm, which is generally the most effective in solving the discrete logarithm problem, consists of four computational steps. The first three steps only depend on the order of the group G, not on the specific number whose finite log is desired. It turns out that much Internet traffic uses one of a handful of groups that are of order 1024 bits or less.
=== Security against quantum computers ===
Quantum computers can break public-key cryptographic schemes, such as RSA, finite-field DH and elliptic-curve DH key-exchange protocols, using Shor's algorithm for solving the factoring problem, the discrete logarithm problem, and the period-finding problem. A post-quantum variant of Diffie-Hellman algorithm was proposed in 2023, and relies on a combination of the quantum-resistant CRYSTALS-Kyber protocol, as well as the old elliptic curve X25519 protocol. A quantum Diffie-Hellman key-exchange protocol that relies on a quantum one-way function, and its security relies on fundamental principles of quantum mechanics has also been proposed in the literature.
== Other uses ==
=== Encryption ===
Public key encryption schemes based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange have been proposed. The first such scheme is the ElGamal encryption. A more modern variant is the Integrated Encryption Scheme.
=== Forward secrecy ===
Protocols that achieve forward secrecy generate new key pairs for each session and discard them at the end of the session. The Diffie–Hellman key exchange is a frequent choice for such protocols, because of its fast key generation.
=== Password-authenticated key agreement ===
When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a password-authenticated key agreement (PK) form of Diffie–Hellman to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks. One simple scheme is to compare the hash of s concatenated with the password calculated independently on both ends of channel. A feature of these schemes is that an attacker can only test one specific password on each iteration with the other party, and so the system provides good security with relatively weak passwords. This approach is described in ITU-T Recommendation X.1035, which is used by the G.hn home networking standard.
An example of such a protocol is the Secure Remote Password protocol.
=== Public key ===
It is also possible to use Diffie–Hellman as part of a public key infrastructure, allowing Bob to encrypt a message so that only Alice will be able to decrypt it, with no prior communication between them other than Bob having trusted knowledge of Alice's public key. Alice's public key is (g^a \bmod{p}, g, p). To send her a message, Bob chooses a random b and then sends Alice g^b \bmod p (unencrypted) together with the message encrypted with symmetric key (g^a)^b \bmod{p}. Only Alice can determine the symmetric key and hence decrypt the message because only she has a (the private key). A pre-shared public key also prevents man-in-the-middle attacks.
In practice, Diffie–Hellman is not used in this way, with RSA being the dominant public key algorithm. This is largely for historical and commercial reasons, namely that RSA Security created a certificate authority for key signing that became Verisign. Diffie–Hellman, as elaborated above, cannot directly be used to sign certificates. However, the ElGamal and DSA signature algorithms are mathematically related to it, as well as MQV, STS and the IKE component of the IPsec protocol suite for securing Internet Protocol communications.
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7,906 |
Destry Rides Again
|
Destry Rides Again is a 1939 American Western comedy film directed by George Marshall and starring Marlene Dietrich and James Stewart. The supporting cast includes Mischa Auer, Charles Winninger, Brian Donlevy, Allen Jenkins, Irene Hervey, Billy Gilbert, Bill Cody Jr., Lillian Yarbo, and Una Merkel.
The opening credits list the story as "Suggested by Max Brand's novel Destry Rides Again", but the movie is almost completely different. It also bears no resemblance to the 1932 adaptation of the novel starring Tom Mix, which is often retitled as Justice Rides Again.
In 1996, Destry Rides Again was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
==Plot==
Saloon owner Kent, the unscrupulous boss of the fictional Western town of Bottleneck, has the town's sheriff, Mr. Keogh, killed when Keogh asks one too many questions about a rigged poker game. Kent and Frenchy, a cheap saloon tramp who is his girlfriend, now have a stranglehold over the local cattle ranchers. The town's crooked mayor, Hiram J. Slade, who is in collusion with Kent, appoints the town drunk, Washington Dimsdale, as the new sheriff, assuming that he will be easy to control and manipulate. However, Dimsdale, a deputy under the famous lawman Tom Destry, promptly swears off drinking, and is able to call upon the latter's equally formidable son, Tom Destry Jr., to help him make Bottleneck a lawful, respectable town.
Destry arrives in Bottleneck with Jack Tyndall, a cattleman, and his sister, Janice. Destry initially confounds the townsfolk by refusing to strap on a gun and maintaining civility in dealing with everyone, including Kent and Frenchy. This quickly makes him a disappointment to Dimsdale and a laughingstock to the townspeople; he is mockingly asked to "clean up" Bottleneck by being given a mop and bucket. However, after a number of rowdy horsemen ride into town shooting their pistols in the air, he demonstrates uncanny expertise in marksmanship and threatens to jail them if they do it again, earning the respect of Bottleneck's citizens.
Through the townsmen's evasive answers regarding the whereabouts of Keogh, Destry gradually begins to suspect that Keogh was murdered. He confirms this by provoking Frenchy into admitting it, but without a location for the body, he lacks any proof. Destry therefore deputizes Boris, a Russian immigrant whom Frenchy had earlier humiliated, and implies to Kent that he had found the body outside of town "in remarkably good condition". When Kent sends a member of his gang to check on Keogh's burial site, Boris and Dimsdale follow, capture, and jail him.
Although the gang member is charged with Keogh's murder (in the hope that he would implicate Kent in exchange for clemency), Mayor Slade appoints himself judge of the trial, making an innocent verdict a foregone conclusion. To prevent this, Destry calls in a judge from a larger city in secret, but the plan is ruined after Boris accidentally gives away the other judge's name in the saloon. Kent orders Frenchy to invite the deputy to her house while other gang members storm the sheriff's office and cause a breakout; now in love with Destry, she accepts. When shots are fired, he rushes back, to find the cell empty and Dimsdale mortally wounded. Destry returns to his room and puts on his gun belt, abandoning his previous commitment to nonviolence.
Under Destry's command, the honest townsmen form a posse and prepare to attack the saloon, where Kent's gang is fortified, while Destry enters through the roof and looks for Kent. At Frenchy's urging, the townswomen march in between the groups, preventing further violence, before breaking into the saloon and subduing the gang. Kent narrowly escapes, and attempts to shoot Destry from the second floor; Frenchy takes the bullet for him, killing her, and Destry kills Kent.
Some time later, Destry is shown to be the sheriff of a now lawful Bottleneck, repeating to children the stories that Dimsdale told him of the town's violent history. He jokingly tells a story about marriage to Janice, implying a marriage between them will soon follow.
==Cast==
As appearing in screen credits:
Marlene Dietrich as Frenchy, the saloon singer
James Stewart as Thomas Jefferson "Tom" Destry Jr., the new deputy
Mischa Auer as Boris "Callahan" Stavrogin, the henpecked Russian married to Lily Belle
Charles Winninger as Washington "Wash" Dimsdale, the new sheriff
Brian Donlevy as Kent, the saloon owner
Allen Jenkins as "Gyp" Watson
Warren Hymer as "Bugs" Watson
Irene Hervey as Janice Tyndall
Una Merkel as Lily Belle, "Mrs. Callahan"
Billy Gilbert as Bartender "Loupgerou"
Samuel S. Hinds as Hiram Slade, the mayor
Jack Carson as Jack Tyndall
Tom Fadden as Lem Claggett
Virginia Brissac as Sophie Claggett
Edmund MacDonald as Rockwell
Lillian Yarbo as Clara, Frenchy's maid
Joe King as Sheriff Keogh
Dickie Jones as Claggett's boy
Ann E. Todd as Claggett's girl
==Songs==
Dietrich sings "See What the Boys in the Back Room Will Have" and "You've Got That Look", written by Frank Loesser, set to music by Frederick Hollander, which have become classics, as well as a revised version of Little Joe the Wrangler.
==Production==
Western writer Max Brand contributed the novel, Destry Rides Again, but the film also owes its origins to Brand's serial "Twelve Peers", published in a pulp magazine. In the original work, Harrison (or "Harry") Destry was not a pacifist. As filmed in 1932, with Tom Mix in the starring role, the central character differed in that Destry did wear six-guns.
The film was James Stewart's first Western (he would not return to the genre until 1950, with Winchester '73, followed by Broken Arrow). The story featured a ferocious cat-fight between Marlene Dietrich and Una Merkel, which apparently caused a mild censorship problem at the time of release.
The film also represented Dietrich's return to Hollywood after a string of flops at Paramount ("Angel", "The Scarlet Empress", "The Devil is a Woman") caused her, and a number of other stars, to be labelled "box office poison". While vacationing at Cap d'Antibes with her family, her mentor Josef von Sternberg and her lover Erich Maria Remarque, she received an offer from Joe Pasternak to come to Universal at half the salary she had been receiving for most of the 1930s. Pasternak had previously tried to sign Dietrich to Universal while she was still in Berlin. Unsure of what to do she was advised by von Sternberg "I made you into a Goddess. Now show them you have feet of clay".
According to writer/director Peter Bogdanovich, Marlene Dietrich told him during an aircraft flight that she and James Stewart had an affair during shooting and that she became pregnant but had a surreptitious abortion without telling Stewart.
Internationally, the film was released under the alternative titles Femme ou Démon in French and Arizona in Spanish.
==Reception==
Destry Rides Again was generally well accepted by the public, as well as critics. It was reviewed by Frank S. Nugent in The New York Times, who observed that the film did not follow the usual Hollywood type-casting. On Dietrich's role, he characterized: "It's difficult to reconcile Miss Dietrich's Frenchy, the cabaret girl of the Bloody Gulch Saloon, with the posed and posturing Dietrich we last saw in Mr. Lubitsch's 'Angel'." Stewart's contribution was similarly treated, "turning in an easy, likable, pleasantly humored performance."
==Other versions==
Universal Pictures released an earlier film, also titled Destry Rides Again (1932), directed by Benjamin Stoloff and starring Tom Mix and ZaSu Pitts. Apart from the title, the story has no connection with the later film and is sometimes retitled as Justice Rides Again.
A Lux Radio Theater version of the story was aired November 5, 1945, starred Jimmy Stewart and Joan Blondell, and can be heard on YouTube.
An almost shot-for-shot remake of the 1939 production, Destry (1954), was also directed by George Marshall and stars Audie Murphy and Thomas Mitchell.
A Broadway musical version of the story, Destry Rides Again, opened in New York City at the Imperial Theatre on April 23, 1959, and played 472 performances. Produced by David Merrick, the show had a book by Leonard Gershe, music and lyrics by Harold Rome, and starred Andy Griffith as Destry and Dolores Gray as Frenchy.
ABC aired a short-lived television series in 1964, Destry, based on the 1939 and 1954 films, starring John Gavin as the son of the movie's title character.
==In popular culture==
Marlene Dietrich's character, Frenchy, was the inspiration for the character of Lili Von Shtupp in the Western parody Blazing Saddles. In the movie, Drag Me To Hell, the film can be seen playing on a TV behind the counter at the pawn shop.
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"Drag Me To Hell",
"American Broadcasting Company",
"Destry Rides Again (novel)",
"Audie Murphy",
"Broken Arrow (1950 film)",
"James Stewart",
"Universal Pictures",
"Una Merkel",
"National Film Registry",
"Benjamin Stoloff",
"Warren Hymer",
"YouTube",
"John Gavin",
"Hal Mohr",
"Thomas Mitchell (actor)",
"Destry Rides Again (1932 film)",
"Library of Congress",
"Joe King (actor)",
"See What the Boys in the Back Room Will Have",
"Billy Gilbert",
"David Merrick",
"Harold Rome",
"Jim Beaver",
"Little Joe the Wrangler",
"Virginia Brissac",
"ZaSu Pitts",
"Bill Cody Jr.",
"fr:Femme ou Démon",
"Josef von Sternberg",
"The New York Times",
"Brian Donlevy",
"pulp magazine",
"Broadway theatre",
"Ann E. Todd",
"Charles Winninger",
"Jack Carson",
"Max Brand",
"Frank S. Nugent",
"Blazing Saddles",
"Dolores Gray",
"Peter Bogdanovich",
"Edmund MacDonald",
"Destry Rides Again (musical)",
"Western (genre)",
"Joe Pasternak",
"Winchester '73",
"Criterion Collection",
"Allen Jenkins",
"George Marshall (director)",
"Samuel S. Hinds",
"Dick Jones (actor)",
"Gertrude Purcell"
] |
7,921 |
Derivative
|
In mathematics, the derivative is a fundamental tool that quantifies the sensitivity to change of a function's output with respect to its input. The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason, the derivative is often described as the instantaneous rate of change, the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.
There are multiple different notations for differentiation. Leibniz notation, named after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, is represented as the ratio of two differentials, whereas prime notation is written by adding a prime mark. Higher order notations represent repeated differentiation, and they are usually denoted in Leibniz notation by adding superscripts to the differentials, and in prime notation by adding additional prime marks. The higher order derivatives can be applied in physics; for example, while the first derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity, how the position changes as time advances, the second derivative is the object's acceleration, how the velocity changes as time advances.
Derivatives can be generalized to functions of several real variables. In this case, the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is (after an appropriate translation) the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function. The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables. It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables. For a real-valued function of several variables, the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector.
== Definition ==
=== As a limit ===
A function of a real variable f(x) is differentiable at a point a of its domain, if its domain contains an open interval containing , and the limit
L=\lim_{h \to 0}\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}h
exists. This means that, for every positive real number , there exists a positive real number \delta such that, for every h such that |h| < \delta and h\ne 0 then f(a+h) is defined, and
\left|L-\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}h\right|<\varepsilon,
where the vertical bars denote the absolute value. This is an example of the (ε, δ)-definition of limit.
If the function f is differentiable at , that is if the limit L exists, then this limit is called the derivative of f at a . Multiple notations for the derivative exist. The derivative of f at a can be denoted , read as " prime of "; or it can be denoted , read as "the derivative of f with respect to x at " or " by (or over) dx at ". See below. If f is a function that has a derivative at every point in its domain, then a function can be defined by mapping every point x to the value of the derivative of f at x . This function is written f' and is called the derivative function or the derivative of . The function f sometimes has a derivative at most, but not all, points of its domain. The function whose value at a equals f'(a) whenever f'(a) is defined and elsewhere is undefined is also called the derivative of . It is still a function, but its domain may be smaller than the domain of f .
For example, let f be the squaring function: f(x) = x^2. Then the quotient in the definition of the derivative is
\frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{h} = \frac{(a+h)^2 - a^2}{h} = \frac{a^2 + 2ah + h^2 - a^2}{h} = 2a + h.
The division in the last step is valid as long as h \neq 0. The closer h is to , the closer this expression becomes to the value 2a. The limit exists, and for every input a the limit is 2a. So, the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function: .
The ratio in the definition of the derivative is the slope of the line through two points on the graph of the function , specifically the points (a,f(a)) and (a+h, f(a+h)). As h is made smaller, these points grow closer together, and the slope of this line approaches the limiting value, the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at a. In other words, the derivative is the slope of the tangent.
===Using infinitesimals===
One way to think of the derivative \frac{df}{dx}(a) is as the ratio of an infinitesimal change in the output of the function f to an infinitesimal change in its input. In order to make this intuition rigorous, a system of rules for manipulating infinitesimal quantities is required. The system of hyperreal numbers is a way of treating infinite and infinitesimal quantities. The hyperreals are an extension of the real numbers that contain numbers greater than anything of the form 1 + 1 + \cdots + 1 for any finite number of terms. Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals. The application of hyperreal numbers to the foundations of calculus is called nonstandard analysis. This provides a way to define the basic concepts of calculus such as the derivative and integral in terms of infinitesimals, thereby giving a precise meaning to the d in the Leibniz notation. Thus, the derivative of f(x) becomes f'(x) = \operatorname{st}\left( \frac{f(x + dx) - f(x)}{dx} \right) for an arbitrary infinitesimal , where \operatorname{st} denotes the standard part function, which "rounds off" each finite hyperreal to the nearest real. Taking the squaring function f(x) = x^2 as an example again,
\begin{align}
f'(x) &= \operatorname{st}\left(\frac{x^2 + 2x \cdot dx + (dx)^2 -x^2}{dx}\right) \\
&= \operatorname{st}\left(\frac{2x \cdot dx + (dx)^2}{dx}\right) \\
&= \operatorname{st}\left(\frac{2x \cdot dx}{dx} + \frac{(dx)^2}{dx}\right) \\
&= \operatorname{st}\left(2x + dx\right) \\
&= 2x.
\end{align}
== Continuity and differentiability ==
If f is differentiable at , then f must also be continuous at a . As an example, choose a point a and let f be the step function that returns the value 1 for all x less than , and returns a different value 10 for all x greater than or equal to a . The function f cannot have a derivative at a . If h is negative, then a + h is on the low part of the step, so the secant line from a to a + h is very steep; as h tends to zero, the slope tends to infinity. If h is positive, then a + h is on the high part of the step, so the secant line from a to a + h has slope zero. Consequently, the secant lines do not approach any single slope, so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist. However, even if a function is continuous at a point, it may not be differentiable there. For example, the absolute value function given by f(x) = |x| is continuous at , but it is not differentiable there. If h is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is one; if h is negative, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is . This can be seen graphically as a "kink" or a "cusp" in the graph at x=0. Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point where its tangent is vertical: For instance, the function given by f(x) = x^{1/3} is not differentiable at x = 0 . In summary, a function that has a derivative is continuous, but there are continuous functions that do not have a derivative.
Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or almost every point. Early in the history of calculus, many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at most points. Under mild conditions (for example, if the function is a monotone or a Lipschitz function), this is true. However, in 1872, Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere. This example is now known as the Weierstrass function. In 1931, Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions. Informally, this means that hardly any random continuous functions have a derivative at even one point.
== Notation ==
One common way of writing the derivative of a function is Leibniz notation, introduced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675, which denotes a derivative as the quotient of two differentials, such as dy and . It is still commonly used when the equation y=f(x) is viewed as a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables. The first derivative is denoted by , read as "the derivative of y with respect to ". This derivative can alternately be treated as the application of a differential operator to a function, \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{d}{dx} f(x). Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation \frac{d^n y}{dx^n} for the n-th derivative of y = f(x). These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the derivative operator; for example, \frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = \frac{d}{dx}\Bigl(\frac{d}{dx} f(x)\Bigr). Unlike some alternatives, Leibniz notation involves explicit specification of the variable for differentiation, in the denominator, which removes ambiguity when working with multiple interrelated quantities. The derivative of a composed function can be expressed using the chain rule: if u = g(x) and y = f(g(x)) then \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{dy}{du} \cdot \frac{du}{dx}.
Another common notation for differentiation is by using the prime mark in the symbol of a function . This notation, due to Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is now known as prime notation. The first derivative is written as , read as " prime of , or , read as " prime". Similarly, the second and the third derivatives can be written as f'' and , respectively. For denoting the number of higher derivatives beyond this point, some authors use Roman numerals in superscript, whereas others place the number in parentheses, such as f^{\mathrm{iv}} or . The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation f^{(n)} for the th derivative of .
In Newton's notation or the dot notation, a dot is placed over a symbol to represent a time derivative. If y is a function of , then the first and second derivatives can be written as \dot{y} and , respectively. This notation is used exclusively for derivatives with respect to time or arc length. It is typically used in differential equations in physics and differential geometry. However, the dot notation becomes unmanageable for high-order derivatives (of order 4 or more) and cannot deal with multiple independent variables.
Another notation is D-notation, which represents the differential operator by the symbol . The first derivative is written D f(x) and higher derivatives are written with a superscript, so the n-th derivative is . This notation is sometimes called Euler notation, although it seems that Leonhard Euler did not use it, and the notation was introduced by Louis François Antoine Arbogast. To indicate a partial derivative, the variable differentiated by is indicated with a subscript, for example given the function , its partial derivative with respect to x can be written D_x u or . Higher partial derivatives can be indicated by superscripts or multiple subscripts, e.g. D_{xy} f(x,y) = \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \Bigl(\frac{\partial}{\partial x} f(x,y) \Bigr) and .
== Rules of computation ==
In principle, the derivative of a function can be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient and computing its limit. Once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known, the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using rules for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones. This process of finding a derivative is known as differentiation.
=== Rules for basic functions ===
The following are the rules for the derivatives of the most common basic functions. Here, a is a real number, and e is the base of the natural logarithm, approximately .
Derivatives of powers:
\frac{d}{dx}x^a = ax^{a-1}
Functions of exponential, natural logarithm, and logarithm with general base:
\frac{d}{dx}e^x = e^x
\frac{d}{dx}a^x = a^x\ln(a) , for a > 0
\frac{d}{dx}\ln(x) = \frac{1}{x} , for x > 0
\frac{d}{dx}\log_a(x) = \frac{1}{x\ln(a)} , for x, a > 0
Trigonometric functions:
\frac{d}{dx}\sin(x) = \cos(x)
\frac{d}{dx}\cos(x) = -\sin(x)
\frac{d}{dx}\tan(x) = \sec^2(x) = \frac{1}{\cos^2(x)} = 1 + \tan^2(x)
Inverse trigonometric functions:
\frac{d}{dx}\arcsin(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} , for -1 < x < 1
\frac{d}{dx}\arccos(x)= -\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} , for -1 < x < 1
\frac{d}{dx}\arctan(x)= \frac{1}
=== Rules for combined functions ===
Given that the f and g are the functions. The following are some of the most basic rules for deducing the derivative of functions from derivatives of basic functions.
Constant rule: if f is constant, then for all ,
f'(x) = 0.
Sum rule:
(\alpha f + \beta g)' = \alpha f' + \beta g' for all functions f and g and all real numbers \alpha and .
Product rule:
(fg)' = f 'g + fg' for all functions f and . As a special case, this rule includes the fact (\alpha f)' = \alpha f' whenever \alpha is a constant because \alpha' f = 0 \cdot f = 0 by the constant rule.
Quotient rule:
\left(\frac{f}{g} \right)' = \frac{f'g - fg'}{g^2} for all functions f and g at all inputs where .
Chain rule for composite functions: If , then
f'(x) = h'(g(x)) \cdot g'(x).
=== Computation example ===
The derivative of the function given by f(x) = x^4 + \sin \left(x^2\right) - \ln(x) e^x + 7 is
\begin{align}
f'(x) &= 4 x^{(4-1)}+ \frac{d\left(x^2\right)}{dx}\cos \left(x^2\right) - \frac{d\left(\ln {x}\right)}{dx} e^x - \ln(x) \frac{d\left(e^x\right)}{dx} + 0 \\
&= 4x^3 + 2x\cos \left(x^2\right) - \frac{1}{x} e^x - \ln(x) e^x.
\end{align}
Here the second term was computed using the chain rule and the third term using the product rule. The known derivatives of the elementary functions x^2 , x^4 , \sin (x) , \ln (x) , and \exp(x) = e^x , as well as the constant 7 , were also used.
== Higher-order derivatives ==
Higher order derivatives are the result of differentiating a function repeatedly. Given that f is a differentiable function, the derivative of f is the first derivative, denoted as . The derivative of f' is the second derivative, denoted as , and the derivative of f is the third derivative, denoted as . By continuing this process, if it exists, the th derivative is the derivative of the th derivative or the derivative of order . As has been discussed above, the generalization of derivative of a function f may be denoted as . A function that has k successive derivatives is called k times differentiable. If the th derivative is continuous, then the function is said to be of differentiability class . A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called infinitely differentiable or smooth''. Any polynomial function is infinitely differentiable; taking derivatives repeatedly will eventually result in a constant function, and all subsequent derivatives of that function are zero.
One application of higher-order derivatives is in physics. Suppose that a function represents the position of an object at the time. The first derivative of that function is the velocity of an object with respect to time, the second derivative of the function is the acceleration of an object with respect to time, and the third derivative is the jerk.
== In other dimensions ==
=== Vector-valued functions ===
A vector-valued function \mathbf{y} of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space \R^n . A vector-valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions y_1(t), y_2(t), \dots, y_n(t) , meaning that \mathbf{y} = (y_1(t), y_2(t), \dots, y_n(t)). This includes, for example, parametric curves in \R^2 or \R^3 . The coordinate functions are real-valued functions, so the above definition of derivative applies to them. The derivative of \mathbf{y}(t) is defined to be the vector, called the tangent vector, whose coordinates are the derivatives of the coordinate functions. That is,
\mathbf{y}'(t)=\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{\mathbf{y}(t+h) - \mathbf{y}(t)}{h},
if the limit exists. The subtraction in the numerator is the subtraction of vectors, not scalars. If the derivative of \mathbf{y} exists for every value of , then \mathbf{y}' is another vector-valued function.
=== Partial derivatives ===
Functions can depend upon more than one variable. A partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables, with the others held constant. Partial derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry. As with ordinary derivatives, multiple notations exist: the partial derivative of a function f(x, y, \dots) with respect to the variable x is variously denoted by
among other possibilities. It can be thought of as the rate of change of the function in the x-direction. Here ∂ is a rounded d called the partial derivative symbol. To distinguish it from the letter d, ∂ is sometimes pronounced "der", "del", or "partial" instead of "dee". For example, let , then the partial derivative of function f with respect to both variables x and y are, respectively:
\frac{\partial f}{\partial x} = 2x + y, \qquad \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} = x + 2y.
In general, the partial derivative of a function f(x_1, \dots, x_n) in the direction x_i at the point (a_1, \dots, a_n) is defined to be:
\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i}(a_1,\ldots,a_n) = \lim_{h \to 0}\frac{f(a_1,\ldots,a_i+h,\ldots,a_n) - f(a_1,\ldots,a_i,\ldots,a_n)}{h}.
This is fundamental for the study of the functions of several real variables. Let f(x_1, \dots, x_n) be such a real-valued function. If all partial derivatives f with respect to x_j are defined at the point , these partial derivatives define the vector
\nabla f(a_1, \ldots, a_n) = \left(\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1}(a_1, \ldots, a_n), \ldots, \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_n}(a_1, \ldots, a_n)\right),
which is called the gradient of f at a . If f is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the gradient is a vector-valued function \nabla f that maps the point (a_1, \dots, a_n) to the vector \nabla f(a_1, \dots, a_n) . Consequently, the gradient determines a vector field.
=== Directional derivatives ===
If f is a real-valued function on , then the partial derivatives of f measure its variation in the direction of the coordinate axes. For example, if f is a function of x and , then its partial derivatives measure the variation in f in the x and y direction. However, they do not directly measure the variation of f in any other direction, such as along the diagonal line . These are measured using directional derivatives. Given a vector , then the directional derivative of f in the direction of \mathbf{v} at the point \mathbf{x} is:
D_{\mathbf{v}}{f}(\mathbf{x}) = \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}{\frac{f(\mathbf{x} + h\mathbf{v}) - f(\mathbf{x})}{h}}.
If all the partial derivatives of f exist and are continuous at , then they determine the directional derivative of f in the direction \mathbf{v} by the formula:
D_{\mathbf{v}}{f}(\mathbf{x}) = \sum_{j=1}^n v_j \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_j}.
=== Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix ===
When f is a function from an open subset of \R^n to , then the directional derivative of f in a chosen direction is the best linear approximation to f at that point and in that direction. However, when , no single directional derivative can give a complete picture of the behavior of f . The total derivative gives a complete picture by considering all directions at once. That is, for any vector \mathbf{v} starting at , the linear approximation formula holds:
f(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{v}) \approx f(\mathbf{a}) + f'(\mathbf{a})\mathbf{v}.
Similarly with the single-variable derivative, f'(\mathbf{a}) is chosen so that the error in this approximation is as small as possible. The total derivative of f at \mathbf{a} is the unique linear transformation f'(\mathbf{a}) \colon \R^n \to \R^m such that
\lim_{\mathbf{h}\to 0} \frac{\lVert f(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{h}) - (f(\mathbf{a}) + f'(\mathbf{a})\mathbf{h})\rVert}{\lVert\mathbf{h}\rVert} = 0.
Here \mathbf{h} is a vector in , so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on \R^n . However, f'(\mathbf{a}) \mathbf{h} is a vector in , and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on \R^m . If v is a vector starting at , then f'(\mathbf{a}) \mathbf{v} is called the pushforward of \mathbf{v} by f .
If the total derivative exists at , then all the partial derivatives and directional derivatives of f exist at , and for all , f'(\mathbf{a})\mathbf{v} is the directional derivative of f in the direction . If f is written using coordinate functions, so that , then the total derivative can be expressed using the partial derivatives as a matrix. This matrix is called the Jacobian matrix of f at \mathbf{a} :
f'(\mathbf{a}) = \operatorname{Jac}_{\mathbf{a}} = \left(\frac{\partial f_i}{\partial x_j}\right)_{ij}.
== Generalizations ==
The concept of a derivative can be extended to many other settings. The common thread is that the derivative of a function at a point serves as a linear approximation of the function at that point.
An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables, such as functions from (a domain in) the complex numbers \C to . The notion of the derivative of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition. If \C is identified with \R^2 by writing a complex number z as then a differentiable function from \C to \C is certainly differentiable as a function from \R^2 to \R^2 (in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex derivative only exists if the real derivative is complex linear and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives called the Cauchy–Riemann equations – see holomorphic functions.
Another generalization concerns functions between differentiable or smooth manifolds. Intuitively speaking such a manifold M is a space that can be approximated near each point x by a vector space called its tangent space: the prototypical example is a smooth surface in . The derivative (or differential) of a (differentiable) map f:M\to N between manifolds, at a point x in , is then a linear map from the tangent space of M at x to the tangent space of N at . The derivative function becomes a map between the tangent bundles of M and . This definition is used in differential geometry.
Differentiation can also be defined for maps between vector space, such as Banach space, in which those generalizations are the Gateaux derivative and the Fréchet derivative.
One deficiency of the classical derivative is that very many functions are not differentiable. Nevertheless, there is a way of extending the notion of the derivative so that all continuous functions and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as the weak derivative. The idea is to embed the continuous functions in a larger space called the space of distributions and only require that a function is differentiable "on average".
Properties of the derivative have inspired the introduction and study of many similar objects in algebra and topology; an example is differential algebra. Here, it consists of the derivation of some topics in abstract algebra, such as rings, ideals, field, and so on.
The discrete equivalent of differentiation is finite differences. The study of differential calculus is unified with the calculus of finite differences in time scale calculus.
The arithmetic derivative involves the function that is defined for the integers by the prime factorization. This is an analogy with the product rule.
|
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] |
7,922 |
Dravidian languages
|
The Dravidian languages are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in South India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan, with pockets elsewhere in South Asia.
The most commonly spoken Dravidian languages are (in descending order) Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam, all of which have long literary traditions.
Smaller literary languages are Tulu and Kodava.
Together with several smaller languages such as Gondi, these languages cover the southern part of India and the northeast of Sri Lanka, and account for the overwhelming majority of speakers of Dravidian languages.
Malto and Kurukh are spoken in isolated pockets in eastern India.
Kurukh is also spoken in parts of Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. Brahui is mostly spoken in the Balochistan region of Pakistan, Iranian Balochistan, Afghanistan and around the Marw oasis in Turkmenistan.
During the British colonial period, Dravidian speakers were sent as indentured labourers to Southeast Asia, Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji, the Caribbean, and East Africa. There are more-recent Dravidian-speaking diaspora communities in the Middle East, Europe, North America and Oceania.
Dravidian is first attested in the 2nd century BCE, as inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script on cave walls in the Madurai and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu.
Dravidian place names along the Arabian Sea coast and clear signs of Dravidian phonological and grammatical influence (e.g. retroflex consonants and clusivity) in the Indo-Aryan languages suggest that Dravidian languages were spoken more widely across the Indian subcontinent before the spread of the Indo-Aryan languages. or even earlier, Despite many attempts, the family has not been shown to be related to any other.
== Dravidian studies ==
The 14th-century Sanskrit text Lilatilakam, a grammar of Manipravalam, states that the spoken languages of present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu were similar, terming them as "Dramiḍa". The author does not consider the "Karṇṇāṭa" (Kannada) and the "Āndhra" (Telugu) languages as "Dramiḍa", because they were very different from the language of the "Tamil Veda" (Tiruvaymoli), but states that some people would include them in the "Dramiḍa" category.
In 1816, Francis Whyte Ellis argued that Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu and Kodava descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor. He supported his argument with a detailed comparison of non-Sanskrit vocabulary in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil, and also demonstrated that they shared grammatical structures. In 1844, Christian Lassen discovered that Brahui was related to these languages. In 1856, Robert Caldwell published his Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages, which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established Dravidian as one of the major language groups of the world.
In 1961, T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau published the Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, with a major revision in 1984.
==Name==
Robert Caldwell coined the term "Dravidian" for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word in the work Tantravārttika by :
The origin of the Sanskrit word ' is the Tamil word '. Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila (in 's Sanskrit work Avantisundarīkathā) and ' (found in the Sri Lankan (Ceylonese) chronicle Mahavamsa) and then goes on to say, "The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of '" with the indigenous name of the Tamil language, the likely derivation being "*' > *' > '- / damila- and further, with the intrusive, 'hypercorrect' (or perhaps analogical) -r-, into '. The -m-/-v- alternation is a common enough phenomenon in Dravidian phonology".
Bhadriraju Krishnamurti states in his reference book The Dravidian languages:
Based on what Krishnamurti states (referring to a scholarly paper published in the International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics), the Sanskrit word ' itself appeared later than ', since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r- (', '-, damela- etc.).
==Classification==
The Dravidian languages form a close-knit family. Most scholars agree on four groups:
South Dravidian (Tamil–Tulu, or South DravidianI)
Tamil–Kannada
Tamil languages, including Tamil
Malayalam languages, including Malayalam
Irula
Kodava
Toda
Kota
Kannada languages, including Kannada and Badaga
Koraga
Tulu
Kudiya
South-Central Dravidian (Telugu-Kui, or South DravidianII)
Telugu languages, including Telugu
Gondi-Kui
Gondi languages, including Gondi
Konda
Manda
Pengo
Kuvi
Kui
Central Dravidian (Kolami–Parji)
Kolami
Naiki
Gadaba
Ollari
Kondekor
Duruwa (or Parji)
North Dravidian (Brahui-Kurukh)
Kurukh–Malto
Kurukh (Oraon, Kisan)
Malto (Kumarbhag Paharia, Sauria Paharia)
Brahui
There are different proposals regarding the relationship between these groups. Earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. On the other hand, Krishnamurti groups South-Central and South Dravidian together. There are other disagreements, including whether there is a Toda-Kota branch or whether Kota diverged first and later Toda (claimed by Krishnamurti).
Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a valid subgroup, splitting it into Northeast (Kurukh–Malto) and Northwest (Brahui). Their affiliation has been proposed based primarily on a small number of common phonetic developments, including:
In some words, *k is retracted or spirantized, shifting to in Kurukh and Brahui, in Malto.
In some words, *c is retracted to .
Word-initial *v develops to . This development is, however, also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu.
McAlpin (2003) notes that no exact conditioning can be established for the first two changes, and proposes that distinct Proto-Dravidian *q and *kʲ should be reconstructed behind these correspondences, and that Brahui, Kurukh-Malto, and the rest of Dravidian may be three coordinate branches, possibly with Brahui being the earliest language to split off. A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analysable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations.
In addition, Glottolog lists several unclassified Dravidian languages: Kumbaran, Kakkala (both of Tamil-Malayalam) and Khirwar.
A computational phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family was undertaken by Kolipakam, et al. (2018). They support the internal coherence of the four Dravidian branches South (or South Dravidian I), South-Central (or South Dravidian II), Central, and North, but is uncertain about the precise relationships of these four branches to each other. The date of Dravidian is estimated to be 4,500 years old.
Since 1981, the Census of India has reported only languages with more than 10,000 speakers, including 17 Dravidian languages. In 1981, these accounted for approximately 24% of India's population.
In the 2001 census, they included 214 million people, about 21% of India's total population of 1.02 billion. In addition, the largest Dravidian-speaking group outside India, Tamil speakers in Sri Lanka, number around 4.7 million. The total number of speakers of Dravidian languages is around 227 million people, around 13% of the population of the Indian subcontinent.
The largest group of the Dravidian languages is South Dravidian, with almost 150 million speakers. Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam make up around 98% of the speakers, with 75 million, 44 million and 37 million native speakers, respectively.
The next-largest is the South-Central branch, which has 78 million native speakers, the vast majority of whom speak Telugu. The total number of speakers of Telugu, including those whose first language is not Telugu, is around 85 million people. This branch also includes the tribal language Gondi spoken in central India.
The second-smallest branch is the Northern branch, with around 6.3 million speakers. This is the only sub-group to have a language spoken in Pakistan – Brahui.
The smallest branch is the Central branch, which has only around 200,000 speakers. These languages are mostly tribal, and spoken in central India.
Languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface.
==Proposed relations with other families==
Researchers have tried but have been unable to prove a connection between the Dravidian languages with other language families, including Indo-European, Hurrian, Basque, Sumerian, Korean, and Japanese. Comparisons have been made not just with the other language families of the Indian subcontinent (Indo-European, Austroasiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and Nihali), but with all typologically similar language families of the Old World. Nonetheless, although there are no readily detectable genealogical connections, Dravidian shares several areal features with the Indo-Aryan languages, which have been attributed to the influence of a Dravidian substratum on Indo-Aryan.
Dravidian languages display typological similarities with the Uralic language group, and there have been several attempts to establish a genetic relationship in the past. This idea has been popular amongst Dravidian linguists, including Robert Caldwell, Thomas Burrow, Kamil Zvelebil, and Mikhail Andronov. The hypothesis is, however, rejected by most specialists in Uralic languages, and also in recent times by Dravidian linguists such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti.
In the early 1970s, the linguist David McAlpin produced a detailed proposal of a genetic relationship between Dravidian and the extinct Elamite language of ancient Elam (present-day southwestern Iran). The Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis was supported in the late 1980s by the archaeologist Colin Renfrew and the geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, who suggested that Proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent. (In his 2000 book, Cavalli-Sforza suggested western India, northern India and northern Iran as alternative starting points.) However, linguists have found McAlpin's cognates unconvincing and criticized his proposed phonological rules as ad hoc. Elamite is generally believed by scholars to be a language isolate, and the theory has had no effect on studies of the language. In 2012, Southworth suggested a "Zagrosian family" of West Asian origin including Elamite, Brahui and Dravidian as its three branches.
Dravidian is one of the primary language families in the Nostratic proposal, which would link most languages in North Africa, Europe and Western Asia into a family with its origins in the Fertile Crescent sometime between the Last Glacial Period and the emergence of Proto-Indo-European 4,000–6,000 BCE. However, the general consensus is that such deep connections are not, or not yet, demonstrable.
==Prehistory==
The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation are unclear, partially due to the lack of comparative linguistic research into the Dravidian languages. It is thought that the Dravidian languages were the most widespread indigenous languages in the Indian subcontinent before the advance of the Indo-Aryan languages. Though some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.
===Proto-Dravidian and onset of diversification===
As a proto-language, the Proto-Dravidian language is not itself attested in the historical record. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It was suggested in the 1980s that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around the 3rd millennium BCE. According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium." Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including Pre-Telugu) split around the 11th century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time. Kolipakam et al. (2018) give a similar estimate of 2,500 BCE for Proto-Dravidian.
Historically Maharashtra, Gujarat and Sindh also had Dravidian speaking populations from the evidence of place names (like -v(a)li, -koṭ from Dravidian paḷḷi, kōṭṭai), grammatical features in Marathi, Gujarati, and Sindhi and Dravidian like kinship systems in southern Indo–Aryan languages. Proto-Dravidian could have been spoken in a wider area, perhaps into Central India or the western Deccan which may have had other forms of early Dravidian/pre-Proto-Dravidian or other branches of Dravidian which are currently unknown. Already in 1924, after discovering the Indus Valley Civilisation, John Marshall stated that one or more of the languages may have been Dravidic. Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras, Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation. The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification.
Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative Dravidian language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language. Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.
Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family". Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script.
===Northern Dravidian pockets===
Although in modern times speakers of the various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, in earlier times they probably were spoken in a larger area. After the Indo-Aryan migrations into north-western India, starting , and the establishment of the Kuru kingdom , a process of Sanskritisation of the masses started, which resulted in a language shift in northern India. Southern India has remained majority Dravidian, but pockets of Dravidian can be found in central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
The Kurukh and Malto are pockets of Dravidian languages in central India, spoken by people who may have migrated from south India. They do have myths about external origins. The Kurukh have traditionally claimed to be from the Deccan Peninsula, more specifically Karnataka. The same tradition has existed of the Brahui, who call themselves immigrants. Holding this same view of the Brahui are many scholars such as L.H. Horace Perera and M.Ratnasabapathy.
The Brahui population of Pakistan's Balochistan province has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages. However, it has been argued that the absence of any Old Iranian (Avestan) loanwords in Brahui suggests that the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from central India less than 1,000 years ago. The main Iranian contributor to Brahui vocabulary, Balochi, is a western Iranian language like Kurdish, and arrived in the area from the west only around 1000 CE. Sound changes shared with Kurukh and Malto also suggest that Brahui was originally spoken near them in central India.
===Dravidian influence on Sanskrit===
Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages. Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c.1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.
Vedic Sanskrit has retroflex consonants (/, ) with about 88 words in the Rigveda having unconditioned retroflexes. Some sample words are ', ', ', ', ' and '.
Since other Indo-European languages, including other Indo-Iranian languages, lack retroflex consonants, their presence in Indo-Aryan is often cited as evidence of substrate influence from close contact of the Vedic speakers with speakers of a foreign language family rich in retroflex consonants. The Dravidian family is a serious candidate since it is rich in retroflex phonemes reconstructible back to the Proto-Dravidian stage.
In addition, a number of grammatical features of Vedic Sanskrit not found in its sister Avestan language appear to have been borrowed from Dravidian languages. These include the gerund, which has the same function as in Dravidian. Some linguists explain this asymmetrical borrowing by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan languages were built on a Dravidian substratum. These scholars argue that the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Indic is language shift, that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages due to elite dominance. Although each of the innovative traits in Indic could be accounted for by internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once; moreover, it accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.
==Phonology==
Proto-Dravidian, unlike Sanskrit and other Indo-Iranian languages languages of South Asia, lacked both an aspiration and voicing contrast. The situation varies considerably amongst its daughter languages and often also between registers of any single language. The vast majority of modern Dravidian languages generally have some voicing distinctions amongst stops; as for aspiration, it appears in at least the formal varieties of the so-called "literary" Dravidian languages (except Tamil) today, but may be rare or entirely absent in less formal registers, as well as in the many "non-literary" Dravidian languages.
At one extreme, Tamil, like Proto-Dravidian, does not phonemically distinguish between voiced and voiceless or unaspirated and aspirated sounds, even in formal speech; in fact, the Tamil alphabet lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops. At the other end, Brahui is exceptional among the Dravidian languages in possessing and commonly employing the entire inventory of aspirates employed in neighboring Sindhi. While aspirates are particularly concentrated in the Indo-Aryan element of the lexicon, some Brahui words with Dravidian roots have developed aspiration as well.
Most languages lie in between. Voicing contrasts are quite common in all registers of speech in most Dravidian languages. Aspiration contrasts are less common, but relatively well-established in the phonologies of the higher or more formal registers, as well as in the standard orthographies, of the "literary" languages (other than Tamil): Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam. However, in colloquial or non-standard speech, aspiration often appears inconsistently or not at all, even if it occurs in the standard spelling of the word.
In the languages in which aspirates are found, they primarily occur in the large numbers of loanwords from Sanskrit and other Indo-Iranian languages, though some are found in etymologically native words as well, often as the result of plosive + laryngeal clusters being reanalysed as aspirates (e.g. Telugu , Kannada / , Adilabad Gondi ).
Dravidian languages are also historically characterized by a three-way distinction between dental, alveolar, and retroflex places of articulation as well as large numbers of liquids. Currently the three-way coronal distinction is only found in Malayalam, Sri Lankan Tamil, and the various languages of the Nilgiri Mountains, all of which belong to the Tamil–Kannada branch of the family.
All other Dravidian languages maintain only a two-way distinction between dentals and retroflexes, largely the result of merging the alveolars with the dentals or retroflexes, or via rhotacization. The latter is found primarily among the South and South Central languages, where many languages merged the singular proto-Dravidian alveolar plosive *ṯ with the alveolar trill ; subsequently, in some of these languages, the trill evolved into the alveolar tap or underwent other sound changes (Tulu has as reflexes, Manda-Kui has , and Hill-Maria Gondi has ).
===Proto-Dravidian===
Proto-Dravidian had five short and long vowels: *a, *ā, *i, *ī, *u, *ū, *e, *ē, *o, *ō. There were no diphthongs; ai and au are treated as *ay and *av (or *aw).
The five-vowel system with phonemic length is largely preserved in the descendant subgroups, but there are some notable exceptions. The Nilgiri languages (except Kota but including Kodagu) developing a series of central vowels which formed from vowels near retroflex and alveolar consonants. The short u phoneme (mostly word finally) became ŭ/ụ /ɯ~ɨ~ə/ and also became phonemic in Tulu and Malayalam, mostly caused by loaning words with rounded /u/. Brahui has slightly poorer vowel system, where short e and o merged with other vowels due to the influence of Indo-Aryan languages, leaving only long counterparts.
The following consonantal phonemes are reconstructed:
The *ṯ developed into a trill (with *r being a tap) in South and South Central Dravidian.
All non Tamil-Malayalam languages (including modern spoken Tamil) developed a voicing distinction for plosives, if loans are included, all of them have a voicing distinction.
==Grammar==
The most characteristic grammatical features of Dravidian languages are:
This is the same as the word for another form of the number one in Tamil and Malayalam, used as the indefinite article ("a") and when the number is an attribute preceding a noun (as in "one person"), as opposed to when it is a noun (as in "How many are there?" "One").
The stem *īr is still found in compound words, and has taken on a meaning of "double" in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. For example, irupatu (20, literally meaning "double-ten"), iravai (20 in Telugu), "iraṭṭi" ("double") or iruvar ("two people", in Tamil) and "ippattu" (ipp-hattu, double ten", in Kannada).
The Kolami numbers 5 to 10 are borrowed from Telugu.
The word toṇṭu was also used to refer to the number nine in ancient Sangam texts but was later completely replaced by the word oṉpatu.
These forms are derived from "one (less than) ten". Proto-Dravidian *toḷ/*toṇ (which could mean 9 or 9/10) is still used in Tamil and Malayalam as the basis of numbers such as 90 and 900, toṇṇūṟu (*100 = 90) as well as the Kannada tombattu (9*10 = 90).
Because of shared sound changes that have happened over the years in the majority of the Tamil dialects, the numbers 1–5 have different colloquial pronunciations, seen here to the right of their written, formal pronunciations.
In languages with words for one starts with ok(k)- it was taken from *okk- which originally meant "to be united" and not a numeral.
Words indicated (II) are borrowings from Indo-Iranian languages (in Brahui's case, from Balochi).
==Literature==
Four Dravidian languages, viz. Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam, have lengthy literary traditions. Literature in Tulu and Kodava is more recent. Historical literature in Gondi has also been discovered recently.
The earliest known Dravidian inscriptions are 76 Old Tamil inscriptions on cave walls in Madurai and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu, dating from the 2nd century BCE. These inscriptions are written in a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil Brahmi. In 2019, the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department released a report on excavations at Keeladi, near Madurai, Tamil Nadu, including a description of potsherds dated to the 6th century BCE inscribed with personal names in the Tamil-Brahmi script. However, the report lacks the detail of a full archaeological study, and other archaeologists have disputed whether the oldest dates obtained for the site can be assigned to these potsherds. The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the Tolkāppiyam, a work on Tamil grammar and poetics preserved in a 5th-century CE redaction, whose oldest layers could date from the late 2nd century or 1st century BCE.
Kannada's earliest known inscription is the lion balustrade (Simhakatanjana) inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370 CE which replaced the Halmidi inscription in Hassan district (450 CE). A 9th-century treatise on poetics, the Kavirajamarga, is the first known literary work. The earliest Telugu inscription, from Erragudipadu in Kadapa district, is dated 575. The first literary work is an 11th-century translation of part of the Mahābhārata. The earliest Malayalam text is the Vazhappally copper plate (9th century). The first literary work is Rāmacaritam (12th century).
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"Vishavan language",
"clitic",
"Pakistan",
"Basque language",
"Chitradurga district",
"Kavirajamarga",
"Gondi languages",
"Qatar",
"Kannada",
"Bangalore Urban district",
"Kurnool district",
"Indus Valley civilization",
"retroflex consonant",
"Annamayya district",
"Sanskrit language",
"Agglutination",
"Kaikadi language",
"Helmand",
"Vadodara",
"Kolar district",
"Indian Australians",
"Arabian Sea",
"Tamil languages",
"Nihali language",
"Allar language",
"Middle East",
"Toda language",
"Sistan and Baluchestan Province",
"Kolami language",
"Iravatham Mahadevan",
"Germany",
"Nellore district",
"Saudi Arabia",
"Sindhi language",
"Jharkhand",
"Thane",
"Sri Lanka",
"Udupi district",
"Muria language",
"Oceania",
"Mysore",
"Iranian language",
"Dravidian peoples",
"Keeladi",
"Kanikkaran language",
"Merv",
"Lilatilakam",
"Pune district",
"Sanskrit",
"Gulf Countries",
"Malaysian Telugu",
"Glottal consonant",
"India",
"Semivowels",
"Kottayam district",
"Bengaluru Rural district",
"Balochi language",
"retroflex consonants",
"Nilgiri Mountains",
"Ahmedabad",
"Mahe district",
"grammatical",
"Maharashtra",
"Wayanad Chetti language",
"Aranadan language",
"Henry Heras",
"Avestan",
"Francis Whyte Ellis",
"Yadgir district",
"Ullatan language",
"Rigveda",
"Fertile Crescent",
"Sumerian language",
"Puducherry (union territory)",
"Brahmi script",
"Kodava language",
"Mysore district",
"Italy",
"Shiralakoppa",
"Betul district",
"Uralic languages",
"retroflex",
"Yerukala language",
"Halmidi inscription",
"Palatal consonant",
"Kolhapur district",
"Sangareddy district",
"United Arab Emirates",
"Malto language",
"Betta Kurumba language",
"Mother Tongue (journal)",
"Labial consonant",
"Attapady Kurumba language",
"South Africa",
"Indo-Iranian languages",
"Kakkala language",
"Kasaragod district",
"Korean language",
"Finland",
"Dravidian nationalism",
"Old Iranian",
"Talagunda",
"Bengaluru Urban district",
"Voice (phonetics)",
"Indian subcontinent",
"Konda language (Dravidian)",
"language isolate",
"Indo-European languages",
"Brahui people",
"Ireland",
"Kumbaran language"
] |
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Dracula
|
Dracula is an 1897 Gothic horror novel by Irish author Bram Stoker. The narrative is related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It has no single protagonist and opens with solicitor Jonathan Harker taking a business trip to stay at the castle of a Transylvanian nobleman, Count Dracula. Harker flees after learning that Dracula is a vampire, and the Count moves to England and plagues the seaside town of Whitby. A small group, led by Abraham Van Helsing, hunts and kills him.
The novel was mostly written in the 1890s, and Stoker produced over a hundred pages of notes, drawing extensively from folklore and history. Scholars have suggested various figures as the inspiration for Dracula, including the Wallachian prince Vlad the Impaler and the Countess Elizabeth Báthory, but recent scholarship suggests otherwise. He probably found the name Dracula in Whitby's public library while on holiday, selecting it because he thought it meant 'devil' in Romanian.
Following the novel's publication in May 1897, some reviewers praised its terrifying atmosphere while others thought Stoker included too much horror. Many noted a structural similarity with Wilkie Collins' The Woman in White (1859) and a resemblance to the work of Gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe. In the 20th century, Dracula became regarded as a seminal work of Gothic fiction. Scholars explore the novel within the historical context of the Victorian era and regularly discuss its portrayal of race, religion, gender and sexuality.
Dracula is one of the most famous works of English literature. The character of Count Dracula deeply shaped the popular conception of vampires and influenced future representations. With over 700 appearances across virtually all forms of media, the Guinness Book of World Records named Dracula the most portrayed literary character. The novel itself has been adapted many times, with new adaptations sometimes being produced as often as every week.
== Plot ==
Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, visits Count Dracula at his castle in the Carpathian Mountains to help the Count purchase a house near London. Ignoring the Count's warning, Harker wanders the castle at night and encounters three vampire women; Dracula rescues Harker, and gives the women a small child bound inside a bag. Six weeks later, Dracula leaves the castle, abandoning Harker to the women. Harker escapes and ends up delirious in a Budapest hospital. Dracula takes a ship called the Demeter for England with boxes of earth from his castle. The captain's log narrates the crew's disappearance until he alone remains, bound to the helm to maintain course. An animal resembling a large dog is seen leaping ashore when the ship runs aground at Whitby.
Lucy Westenra's letter to her best friend, Harker's fiancée Mina Murray, describes her marriage proposals from Dr. John Seward, Quincey Morris, and Arthur Holmwood. Lucy accepts Holmwood's, but all remain friends. Mina joins Lucy on holiday in Whitby. Lucy begins to sleepwalk. After Dracula's ship lands in Whitby, he begins to stalk Lucy. Mina receives a letter about her missing fiancé's illness and goes to Budapest to nurse him. Lucy becomes very ill; Seward's old teacher—Professor Abraham Van Helsing—determines the nature of her condition, but he refuses to disclose it, instead diagnosing it as acute blood-loss. Van Helsing places garlic flowers around her room and makes her a necklace of them. Lucy's mother removes the garlic flowers, not knowing they repel vampires. While Seward and Van Helsing are absent, Lucy and her mother are terrified by a wolf and Mrs. Westenra dies of a heart attack; Lucy dies shortly thereafter. After her burial, newspapers report children being stalked in the night by a "bloofer lady" (beautiful lady), and Van Helsing deduces it is Lucy. Seward, Morris, Arthur and Van Helsing go to her tomb and see that she is a vampire. They stake her heart, behead her, and fill her mouth with garlic. Jonathan Harker and his new bride Mina return and join the campaign against Dracula.
Everyone stays at Seward's asylum as the men begin to hunt Dracula. Van Helsing finally reveals that vampires can only rest on earth from their homeland. Dracula communicates with Seward's patient, Renfield, an insane man who eats vermin to absorb their life force. After Dracula learns of the group's plot against him, he uses Renfield to enter the asylum. He secretly attacks Mina three times, drinking her blood each time and forcing Mina to drink his blood on the final visit, cursing her to become a vampire after her death unless Dracula is killed. The men discover that Dracula has distributed his boxes of earth around various properties in London. After sterilizing most of the distributed boxes, the group fails to trap the Count in his Piccadilly house and learns that Dracula is fleeing to his castle in Transylvania with his last box. Using hypnosis, Van Helsing exploits Mina's faint psychic connection to Dracula to track his movements and they pursue, guided by Mina.
In Galatz, Romania, the hunters split up. Van Helsing and Mina go to Dracula's castle, where the professor destroys the vampire women. Harker and Holmwood pursue Dracula's boat on the river, while Morris and Seward follow them on land. Dracula's box is loaded onto a wagon by Romani men; the hunters attack and rout the Romani. Harker decapitates Dracula as Quincey stabs him in the heart. Dracula crumbles to dust, freeing Mina from her vampiric curse. Quincey is mortally wounded in the fight against the Romani. He dies, at peace knowing that Mina is saved. A note by Jonathan Harker seven years later states that the Harkers have a son, named Quincey.
== Background ==
=== Author ===
Bram Stoker was born in Clontarf, Dublin on 8 November 1842 as the third of seven children. A sickly child, he was firstly homeschooled and then attended a private day school. Stoker attended Trinity College Dublin in the 1860s and began writing theatre reviews in the early 1870s. Following a review of a performance by stage actor Henry Irving, the two became friends. In 1878, Irving offered Stoker a job as the business manager of London's Lyceum Theatre, which he accepted. He married Florence Balcombe later that year. Biographer Lisa Hopkins notes that this role required Stoker to be sociable, and introduced him to the elites of Victorian London. Stoker nonetheless described himself as a private person who closely guarded his thoughts.
He supplemented his theatre income by writing romance and sensation novels, but was more closely identified during his lifetime with the theatrical world than he was with the literary. By the time of his death in 1912, Stoker had published 18 books. Dracula was Stoker's seventh published book, following The Shoulder of Shasta (1895) and preceding Miss Betty (1898). Stoker's grand-nephew, Daniel Farson, wrote that Stoker may have died from syphilis, but this is widely disputed by scholars. Novelist and playwright Hall Caine, a close friend of Stoker's, wrote in Stoker's obituary in The Daily Telegraph that—besides his biography on Irving—Stoker wrote only "to sell" and "had no higher aims".
=== Inspiration ===
Folkloric vampires predate Stoker's Dracula by hundreds of years. Stoker adopted some characteristics of folkloric vampires for his own, such as their aversion to garlic and staking as a means of killing them. He invented other attributes—for example, Stoker's vampires must be invited into one's home, sleep on earth from their homeland and have no reflection in mirrors. Sunlight is not fatal to Dracula in the novel—this was an invention of the unauthorised Dracula film, Nosferatu (1922)—but it does weaken him. Some of Stoker's inventions applied unrelated lore to vampires for the first time; for example, Dracula has no reflection because of a folkloric concept that mirrors show the human soul. Some Irish scholars have suggested Irish folklore as an inspiration for the novel, for example the revenant Abhartach, and the 11th-century High King of Ireland Brian Boru. Dracula scholar Elizabeth Miller notes that in his childhood Stoker was exposed to supernatural tales and Irish oral history involving premature burials and staked bodies.
Count Dracula has literary progenitors. John William Polidori's "The Vampyre" (1819) includes an aristocratic vampire with powers of seduction. The lesbian vampire of Sheridan Le Fanu's Carmilla (1872) can transform into a cat, as Dracula can transform into a dog. Dracula resembles earlier Gothic villains in appearance, with Miller comparing him to the villains of Ann Radcliffe's The Italian (1796) and Matthew Gregory Lewis's The Monk (1796).
There is almost unanimous consensus that Dracula was inspired, in part, by Henry Irving. Scholars note the Count's tall and lean physique and aquiline nose, with Dracula scholar William Hughes specifically citing the influence of Irving's performance as Shylock in a Lyceum Theatre production of The Merchant of Venice. Stoker's contemporaries remarked upon the similarity. Stoker had praised a performance of Irving as "a wonderful impression of a dead man fictitiously alive [with eyes like] cinders of glowing red from out the marble face". Louis S. Warren writes that Dracula was founded on "the fear and animosity his employer inspired in him". Miller contests this, describing Stoker's attitude towards him as "adulation".
Historical figures have been suggested as inspirations for Count Dracula but there is no consensus. In a 1972 book, Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu popularised the idea that Ármin Vámbéry supplied Stoker with information about Vlad Dracula, commonly known as Vlad the Impaler. Their investigation, however, found nothing about "Vlad, Dracula, or vampires" within Vámbéry's published papers, nor in Stoker's notes about their meeting. Miller calls the link to Vlad III "tenuous", indicating that Stoker incorporated a large amount of "insignificant detail" from his research, and rhetorically asking why he would omit Vlad III's infamous cruelty. McNally additionally suggested in 1983 that the crimes of Elizabeth Báthory inspired Stoker. A book used by Stoker for research, The Book of Were-Wolves, does contain some information on Báthory, but Stoker never took notes from the short section devoted to her. Miller and her co-author Robert Eighteen-Bisang concur that there is no evidence Báthory inspired Stoker.
== Textual history ==
=== Composition ===
Prior to writing the novel, Stoker researched extensively, assembling over 100 pages of notes, including chapter summaries and plot outlines. Stoker undertook some of his research at a library at Whitby in the summer of 1890 but most was done at the London Library. The earliest dated notes are from 8 March 1890, comprising an outline of the novel's opening. Joseph S. Beirman notes that it differs from the final novel "in only a few details": The Count and Harker are not given names. The word vampire is not used explicitly, but it depicts the Count's possessive fury over Harker and a female who attempts "to kiss him not on lips but throat". In February 1892, Stoker wrote a 27-chapter outline of the novel; according to Miller, "all the key pieces of the jigsaw were in place".
Stoker's notes reveal other scrapped concepts. Bierman says that Stoker always intended to write an epistolary novel but originally set it in Styria instead of Transylvania. Other concepts from the notes include a German professor called Max Windshoeffel confronting a "Count Wampyr" and one of the vampire hunters would have been slain by a werewolf. Stoker biographer Barbara Belford notes evidence that Stoker intended to write a detective story, with a detective called Cotford and a psychical investigator called Singleton.
Stoker took the name Dracula from William Wilkinson's history of Wallachia and Moldavia (1820), which he probably found in Whitby's public library while holidaying there in 1890. Stoker copied the following footnote from the book: "Dracula means devil. Wallachians were accustomed to give it as a surname to any person who rendered himself conspicuous by courage, cruel actions or cunning".
Stoker stated that that it took him about three years to write the novel, and it is likely that he wrote most of the manuscript during his summer holidays in Cruden Bay, Scotland from 1893 to 1896. Stoker generally wrote in spare time from his duties as Irving's business manager, and the long gestation of the novel is indicative of the importance he placed on it.
=== Publication ===
Early Stoker biographer Barbara Belford noted the novel looked "shabby" because of a last-minute title change; the printer's copy of the typescript, with hand-written amendments, is titled The Un-Dead. The surviving typewritten publishing agreement was signed and dated 25 May 1897; Peter Beal of Sotheby's suggests its signing one day before the official publication date indicates that it was a formality. To protect his copyright interest for adaptations, Stoker organised a reading of his stage adaptation of the novel in the week before publication in the Lyceum Theatre. A small group, primarily theatre staff, attended the reading, and Edith Craig played Mina.
Bound in yellow cloth and titled in red letters, Dracula was published in May 1897 by Archibald Constable and Company. It cost 6 shillings. Uncertainty exists around the exact date of publication, but it was probably published on 26 May 1897. Stoker wrote to William Gladstone that the novel would be released on the 26th. Eighteen-Bisang states it could have been published anywhere from late May to June 1897.
Stoker's mother, Charlotte Stoker, enthused about the novel and predicted it would bring her son immense financial success. She was wrong: the novel, although reviewed well, failed to earn Stoker much money and did not establish his critical reputation until after his death. For the first thousand sales of Dracula, Stoker earned no royalties. Following serialisation by American newspapers, Doubleday & McClure published an American edition in 1899 with some textual changes. A cheaper paperback version was published by Constable in 1901, but few copies have survived. The text is around 15% shorter than the original but it is not known if Stoker made the amendments. Since its publication, Dracula has never been out of print.
An edition of the novel edited by McNally and Florescu in 1979 was the first to include Dracula's "missing chapter", "Dracula's Guest". Bram's widow Florence Stoker included the chapter as a short story in Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Tales (1914), two years after his death. While some commentators have described the prose as Dracula discarded first chapter, Clive Leatherdale contests this, arguing that the material was incorporated into the published novel.
== Style ==
=== Epistolary structure ===
Dracula is an epistolary novel. Compared to other elements of the novel, critic David Seed writes that its epistolary structure has been neglected in analyses. Critics note Stoker's decision to structure the novel this way may relate to a 19th-century trend of publishing diaries and travelogue accounts, especially with Harker's account of the journey to Transylvania. Seed writes that Harker's initial four chapters function as a "miniaturised-pastiche-Gothic novel"—replacing Radcliffe's use of the Apennine Mountains in The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) with the Carpathian Mountains of Transylvania—and places this within the Gothic tradition of intertextuality.
David Seed argues that the structure only provides a narrative voice to Dracula's opponents, while Miller writes that the "collaborative narration" reinforces the idea that Dracula must be defeated by the combined effort of his opponents. Allison Case says Seed views that Dracula's absence generates tension by offering only "tantalizing glimpses" of his activities, while literary critic Franco Moretti writes that it highlights the power struggle between the vampire and his hunters. Similarly, Allison Case views the structure as representing a power struggle between Mina and the male protagonists for "narrative mastery". Seed notes that the narrative's style distances the reader from its plot. Dracula's journey on the Demeter is captured by the captain on the logbook, then "translated by the Russian consul, transcribed by a local journalist, and finally pasted by Mina into her journal".
=== Gothic genre ===
Dracula is an enduring work of Gothic literature, with some critics locating it within the traditions of Irish Gothic or Urban Gothic. John C. Tibbetts considers Dracula a prototype for later themes in the Gothic genre. The novel is characteristically Gothic in its depiction of the supernatural, preoccupation with the past, and embodying of the racial, gendered and sexual anxieties of fin de siècle England. Count Dracula generally represents these tensions: cultural critic Jack Halberstam notes that he is masculinised and feminised; Jerrold E. Hogle highlights his attraction to both Jonathan and Mina, and his appearance as racially western and eastern. Miller notes that the Count's physical characteristics were typical of Gothic villains during Stoker's lifetime, specifically citing his hooked nose, pallor, large moustache and thick eyebrows as influenced by his villainous predecessors. Dracula deviates from other Gothic tales before it by firmly establishing its time as the modern era, a point raised by one contemporary reviewer. Writers of the mode were drawn to the Eastern Europe setting because travelogues presented it as a land of primitive superstitions.
==Reception==
Modern critics frequently write that Dracula had a mixed critical reception upon publication. Carol Margaret Davison, for example, notes an "uneven" response from critics contemporary to Stoker. John Edgar Browning, a scholar whose research focuses on Dracula and literary vampires, conducted a review of the novel's early criticism in 2012 and determined that Dracula had been "a critically acclaimed novel". Raymond T. McNally and Radu Florescu's In Search of Dracula (1972) mentions the novel's "immediate success". Other works about Dracula also published in 1972 concur; Gabriel Ronay says the novel was "recognised by fans and critics alike as a horror writer's stroke of genius", and Anthony Masters mentions the novel's "enormous popular appeal". Since the 1970s, Dracula has been the subject of significant academic interest; the novel has spawned many nonfiction books and articles, and has a dedicated peer-reviewed journal. Publishers started creating editions aimed at classroom teaching in the 1980s, providing the novel alongside historical context and scholarly analysis. The novel's complexity has permitted a flexibility of interpretation, with Anca Andriescu Garcia describing interest from scholars of psychoanalysis, postcolonialism, social class and the Gothic genre.
Contemporary reviewers frequently compared the novel to other Gothic writers. Comparisons to novelist Wilkie Collins and The Woman in White (1859) were especially common, owing to similarities in structure and style. A review appearing in The Bookseller notes that the novel could almost have been written by Collins, and an anonymous review in Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art wrote that Dracula improved upon the style of Gothic pioneer Ann Radcliffe; Radcliffe was also referenced by The Daily Mail, which also highlighted The Mysteries of Udolpho, Frankenstein (1818), and The Fall of the House of Usher (1839). Another anonymous writer described Stoker as "the Edgar Allan Poe of the nineties". Other favourable comparisons to other Gothic novelists included the Brontë sisters and Mary Shelley. Arthur Conan Doyle sent a letter to Stoker after reading Dracula, writing: "The old Professor is most excellent and so are the two girls. I congratulate you with all my heart for having written so fine a book."
Many of these early reviews were charmed by Stoker's treatment of the vampire myth. The Daily Telegraph called it the best vampire story ever written. The Daily Telegraph reviewer noted that while earlier Gothic works, like The Castle of Otranto, had kept the supernatural far away from the novelists' home countries, Dracula horrors occurred in foreign lands and at home in Whitby and Hampstead Heath. An Australian paper, The Advertiser, regarded the novel as simultaneously sensational and domestic. One reviewer praised the "considerable power" of Stoker's prose and described it as impressionistic. They were less fond of the parts set in England, finding the vampire suited better to tales set far away from home. The British magazine Vanity Fair found Dracula's disdain for garlic unintentionally funny.
Dracula was considered frightening. A review appearing in The Manchester Guardian in 1897 praised its capacity to entertain, but concluded that Stoker erred in including so much horror. Likewise, Vanity Fair opined that the novel was "praiseworthy" and absorbing, but could not recommend it to those who were not "strong". Stoker's prose was commended as effective in sustaining the novel's horror by many publications. A reviewer for the San Francisco Wave called the novel a "literary failure"; they elaborated that coupling vampires with frightening imagery, such as insane asylums and "unnatural appetites", made the horror too overt, and that other works in the genre, such as Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), had more restraint.
== Context and interpretation ==
=== Sexuality and gender ===
Sexuality and seduction are two of the novel's most frequently discussed themes, and modern critical writings about vampirism widely acknowledge its link to sex and sexuality. Across the novel's critical history, Miller writes that theorists have collectively argued that the Count breaks virtually "every Victorian taboo", including non-procreative sex (including fellatio), transgressive sexuality, homosexuality and bisexuality.
Transgressive or abnormal sexuality within Dracula is a broad topic. Some psychosexual critics focus on the disruption of Victorian gender roles; within the Victorian context, Christopher Craft writes males had "the right and responsibility of vigorous appetite" while women were required to "suffer and be still". Critics highlight the many places in which the novel disrupts these social mores: Jonathan Harker's excitement over the prospect of being penetrated; Dracula's resulting anger and jealousy; and Lucy's transformation into a sexually aggressive predator who drains "vital fluid". Some critics, including professor Carol Senf, argue that the novel reflects anxiety about female sexual awakening as a threat to established norms.
Dracula contains no overt homosexual acts, but homosexuality or homoeroticism is a theme discussed by critics. Christopher Craft argues that the primary threat Dracula poses is that he will "seduce, penetrate, [and] drain another male", and reads Harker's excitement to submit as a proxy for "an implicitly homoerotic desire". Victorian readers would have identified Dracula with sexual threat. Some critics note that changes made to the 1899 American version of the text reinforce this subtext, wherein Dracula states he will feed on Harker. Critics have variously linked these themes to homoerotic letters Stoker wrote to Walt Whitman, his friendship with Oscar Wilde, his intensely emotional relationship with Irving, and contemporary rumours of Stoker's almost sexless marriage. David J. Skal acknowledged the letters' subtext but cautioned against applying anachronistic modern sexual labels to Stoker.
Many critics have suggested that the novel reveals a "reactionary response" to the New Woman phenomenon. This is a late-Victorian term used to describe an emerging class of women with increased social and economic control over their lives. Several critics describe the battle against Dracula as a fight for control over women's bodies. Senf suggests that Stoker was ambivalent about the New Woman phenomenon, while Signorroti argues that the novel's discomfort with female sexual autonomy reflects Stoker's dislike for the movement. Both Lucy and Mina have characteristics associated with the New Woman; Mina, who plays an important role in Dracula's defeat, repeatedly expresses contempt for the concept. Senf notes that Lucy is punished for expressing dissatisfaction with her social position as a woman. After her transformation into a vampire, her defeat by the vampire hunters symbolises the re-establishment of "male supremacy".
===Race===
Dracula, and specifically the Count's migration to Victorian England, is frequently read as emblematic of invasion literature, and a projection of fears about racial pollution. In an influential postcolonialist analysis, Stephen Arata describes the novel's cultural context of mounting anxiety in Britain over the decline of the British Empire, the rise of other world powers, and a "growing domestic unease" over the morality of imperial colonisation. Arata regards the novel as an instance of "reverse colonisation": fear of other races invading England and weakening its racial purity. Patricia McKee writes that Dracula represents a negation of white culture while Mina represents "pure whiteness". Dracula can be said to both kill white bodies and turn them into the racial Other in death. Some critics connect the racialisation of Dracula to his depiction as a degenerate criminal.
Critics frequently identify antisemitic themes and imagery in the novel. Between 1891 and 1900, the number of Jews living in England increased sixfold, mainly due to antisemitic legislation and pogroms in eastern Europe. Examples cited by Jack Halberstam of antisemitic connections include Dracula's appearance, wealth, parasitic bloodlust, and "lack of allegiance" to one country. Dracula's appearance resembles some other cultural depictions of Jews, such as Fagin in Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist (1838), and Svengali of George du Maurier's Trilby (1895). Jewish people were frequently described as parasites in Victorian literature; Halberstam highlights fears that Jews would spread diseases of the blood, and one journalist's description of Jews as "Yiddish bloodsuckers". Daniel Renshaw writes that any antisemitism in the text is "semi-subliminal"; he writes that Dracula is not Jewish but does reflect the 19th-century conception of Jewish people. Renshaw frames the novel more broadly as a general suspicion of all foreigners.
The novel's depiction of Slovaks and Romani people has attracted limited scholarly attention. In the novel, Harker describes the Slovaks as "barbarians" and their boats as "primitive", reflecting his imperialistic condescension towards other cultures. Peter Arnds writes that the Count's control over the Romani and his abduction of young children evoke folk superstitions about Romani people stealing children, and that his ability to transform into a wolf is related to xenophobic beliefs about the Romani as animalistic. Croley argues that Dracula's association with the Romani made him suspect in the eyes of Victorian England, where they were stigmatised owing to beliefs that they ate "unclean meat" and lived among animals.
=== Religion, superstition and science ===
Dracula is saturated with religious imagery. Christopher Herbert regards the novel as a parable about conflict with an enemy who opposes Christ and Christianity. Scholars discuss the novel's depiction of religion in relation to late Victorian anxieties about the threat which secularism, scientific rationalism and the occult posed to Christian beliefs and morality. Stoker himself had a lifelong interest in supernatural inquiry, and Herbert writes that he mixes the supernatural and superstitious beliefs with religious elements, resulting in metaphors about moral uncleanness becoming literal elements of the text's "occult reality". Herbert notes that the blood of Christ is important to Christian ritual and imagery, and Richard Noll notes that actual consumption of human blood is one of the oldest Judeo-Christian taboos.
The vampire hunters use many weapons—including Christian practices and symbols (prayer, crucifixes and consecrated hosts), folkloric practices (garlic, staking and decapitation) and contemporary technology (typewriters, phonographs, telegrams, blood transfusions and Winchester rifles)—in their battle against Dracula. Sanders argues that Stoker presents Christianity as a religion that can be instrumentalised and incorporated into scientific knowledge. Herbert describes Van Helsing's "Christian purification" of Lucy as punitively addressing her promiscuity, and the resulting framing of Christianity as a means towards the "eradication of deviancy".
=== Political and economic ===
Critics discuss the novel in relation to British rule in Ireland and Irish nationalism. Considerable debate exists over whether Dracula is an Irish novel; while it is largely set in England, Stoker was born in British-ruled Ireland and lived there for the first 30 years of his life. Though born into a Protestant family, he was distanced from the religion's more conservative factions.
Ralph Ingelbien notes that "recognizably nationalist" critics like Terry Eagleton and Seamus Deane favoured readings of Dracula as "a bloodthirsty caricature of the aristocratic landlord" where the vampire represents the death of feudalism. Bruce Stewart changes the focus to the lower classes, suggesting Dracula and his Romani followers more likely represented violence by Irish National Land League activists. Michael Valdez Moses compares Dracula to the disgraced Charles Stewart Parnell, leader of the Irish Home Rule movement from 1880 to 1882. Robert Smart argues that Stoker's experience during the Great Famine (1845–1852) influenced the novel, with Stewart also noting this as historical context.
Some critics discuss Count Dracula's noble title. Literary critic Franco Moretti writes that he is an aristocrat "only in a manner of speaking", citing his lack of servants, simple clothing, and lack of aristocratic hobbies. Moretti suggests that Dracula's blood thirst represents capital's desire to accumulate more capital. More generally, Moretti argues the novel evinces cultural anxiety about foreign capitalist monopolies functioning as a return of feudalism. Chris Baldick maintains this line of analysis, describing Dracula as an undead symbol of feudalism but concluding that the novel is more concerned with "sexual and religious terrors". Mark Neocleous writes that Dracula symbolises the victory of the bourgeoisie over feudalism. In Das Kapital, Karl Marx compared the bourgeoisie's exploitation of workers to a vampire draining blood. He uses vampires as a metaphor three times in Das Kapital, but these predate the writing of Dracula.
=== Disease ===
Contagious disease was a topic of social and medical concern in late Victorian England. Vampirism can represent disease, being both an initial infection and the resulting illness. The novel characterises vampirism with terms from social degeneration theory, an 18th- and 19th-century social and biological concept arising from fear over the deterioration of the "human condition"; Victorian psychiatry, known then as "alienism"; and anthropology. Theories of degeneracy propagated Victorian-era beliefs about poor moral character being transmissible like a pathogen. Jack Halberstam writes that Dracula and Renfield's relationship suggests that vampirism is "a psychological disorder, an addictive activity". He notes that Renfield, and by association Dracula, is described by doctors using terminology more appropriate for describing animals. Brian Aldiss writes that Count Dracula represents the initial disease while Renfield's madness is a symptom of advanced infection. Halbertstam highlights that disease was frequently associated with Jews during the period. Sexually transmitted infection, particularly syphilis, is a frequent topic. Literary critic Martin Willis writes that the novel depicts Victorian discourse over the origin, cause and treatment of disease, especially in the context of Lucy's treatment and eventual death.
==Legacy==
=== Adaptations ===
Dracula has been adapted many times across virtually all forms of media. Scholars John Edgar Browning and Caroline Joan S. Picart note that the novel and its characters have been adapted for film, television, video games and animation over 700 times, with nearly 1000 additional appearances in comic books and on the stage; in 2015, the Guinness Book of World Records named Dracula the most portrayed literary character, noting he had appeared almost twice as much as Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes. Literary critic Roberto Fernández Retamar deemed Count Dracula—alongside Frankenstein's monster, Mickey Mouse and Superman—to be a part of the "hegemonic Anglo-Saxon world['s] cinematic fodder". Across the world, new adaptations can be produced as often as every week.
Adaptations were produced during Stoker's lifetime. Stoker's first theatrical adaptation (Dracula, or The Undead); was read once at the Lyceum Theatre. While the manuscript was believed lost, the British Library have extracts of the novel's galley proof with Stoker's handwritten stage directions and dialogue attribution. A Swedish newspaper serialised an adaptation from June 1899 to February 1900 as Mörkrets Makter ("Powers of Darkness"). This version is almost twice as long as Stoker's novel, containing elements included in Stoker's notes but not in the published novel. The adaptation contains an author's preface signed "B. S", which Eighteen-Bisang and Miller conclude was not written by Stoker. Although believed lost, the Swedish adaptation was rediscovered and published in 2017. In 1901, Valdimar Ásmundsson translated a heavily abridged version of the Swedish adaptation into Icelandic under the title Makt Myrkranna ("Powers of Darkness"). The adaptation included an abridged author's preface, purportedly by Stoker. Scholars knew the Icelandic version had existed since the 1980s because of the preface attributed to Stoker. When the Swedish translation was rediscovered, scholars learned that the Icelandic version had been translated from it rather than Stoker's Dracula.
The first film to feature Count Dracula was a Hungarian silent film—Károly Lajthay's Drakula halála (). The film allegedly premiered in 1921 but this release date has been questioned by some scholars. Very little of the film survives, and David J. Skal notes that the cover artist for the 1926 Hungarian edition of the novel was more influenced by the second adaptation of Dracula, F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu (1922). Critic Wayne E. Hensley writes that the narrative of Nosferatu differs significantly from the novel, but that characters have clear counterparts. Bram Stoker's widow, Florence, initiated legal action against Prana, the studio behind Nosferatu. The legal case lasted two or three years, with Prana agreeing to destroy all copies in May 1924.
Visual representations of the Count have changed significantly over time. Early treatments of Dracula's appearance were established by theatrical productions in London and New York. Later prominent portrayals of the character by Béla Lugosi (in a 1931 adaptation) and Christopher Lee (firstly in the 1958 film and later its sequels) built upon earlier versions. Chiefly, Dracula's early visual style involved a black-red colour scheme and slicked back hair. Lee's portrayal was overtly sexual, and also popularised fangs on screen. Gary Oldman's portrayal in Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), directed by Francis Ford Coppola and costumed by Eiko Ishioka, established a new default look for the character—a Romanian accent and long hair. The assortment of adaptations feature many different dispositions and characteristics of the Count.
===Influence===
Dracula is one of the most famous and influential works of English literature. Although not the first novel to depict vampires, the work dominates both popular and scholarly treatments of vampire fiction. For many people, Count Dracula is the first character to come to mind when discussing vampires. Dracula succeeded by drawing together folklore, legend, vampire fiction and the conventions of the Gothic novel. Humanities scholar Wendy Doniger described the novel as vampire literature's "centrepiece, rendering all other vampires BS [Before Stoker] or AS [After Stoker]". William Hughes argues that the Count's cultural omnipresence negatively impacted academic analyses of the undead; Dracula is "the reference point" to which all other vampires are compared.
It profoundly shaped the popular understanding of how vampires function, including their strengths, weaknesses, and other characteristics. Bats had been associated with vampires before Dracula as a result of the vampire bat's existence—for example, Varney the Vampire (1847) included an image of a bat on its cover illustration—but Stoker deepened the association by making Dracula able to transform into one. That was, in turn, quickly taken up by film studios looking for opportunities to use special effects. Novelist Patrick McGrath notes that many of the Count's characteristics have been adopted by artists succeeding Stoker in depicting vampires, turning those fixtures into clichés. Aside from the Count's ability to transform, McGrath specifically highlights his hatred of garlic and crucifixes. William Hughes writes critically of the Count's cultural omnipresence, noting that the character of Dracula has "seriously inhibited" discussions of the undead in Gothic fiction.
In the 1930s, Universal Studios initiated development on a Dracula film and learned Stoker failed to comply with United States copyright law. This prematurely placed the novel into the public domain in the United States. It was not until the 1960s that publishers recognised the novel's copyright status. Coinciding with the mass-market paperback's rising popularity, publishers began to produce their own versions. Stoker's mistake prevented his descendants from collecting royalties but provided ideal conditions for the novel to endure because writers and producers did not need to pay a licence fee to use the character of Count Dracula.
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7,925 |
David Hume
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David Hume (; born David Home; – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist who was best known for his highly influential system of empiricism, philosophical scepticism and metaphysical naturalism.
Hume argued that inductive reasoning and belief in causality cannot be justified rationally; instead, they result from custom and mental habit. We never actually perceive that one event causes another but only experience the "constant conjunction" of events. This problem of induction means that to draw any causal inferences from past experience, it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past; this metaphysical presupposition cannot itself be grounded in prior experience.
An opponent of philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions." Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle. He maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena and is usually accepted by historians of European philosophy to have first clearly expounded the is–ought problem, or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ought to be done. His philosophy of religion, including his rejection of miracles, and critique of the argument from design for God's existence, were especially controversial for their time. Hume left a legacy that affected utilitarianism, logical positivism, the philosophy of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive science, theology, and many other fields and thinkers. Immanuel Kant credited Hume as the inspiration that had awakened him from his "dogmatic slumbers."
== Early life ==
Hume was born on 26 April 1711, as David Home, in a tenement on the north side of Edinburgh's Lawnmarket. He was the second of two sons born to Catherine Home (née Falconer), daughter of Sir David Falconer of Newton, Midlothian and his wife Mary Falconer (née Norvell), and Joseph Home of Chirnside in the County of Berwick, an advocate of Ninewells. Joseph died just after David's second birthday. Catherine, who never remarried, raised the two brothers and their sister on her own.
Hume changed his family name's spelling in 1734, as the surname 'Home' (pronounced as 'Hume') was not well-known in England. Hume never married and lived partly at his Chirnside family home in Berwickshire, which had belonged to the family since the 16th century. His finances as a young man were very "slender", as his family was not rich; as a younger son he had little patrimony to live on.
Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at an unusually early ageeither 12 or possibly as young as 10at a time when 14 was the typical age. Initially, Hume considered a career in law, because of his family. However, in his words, he came to have:
...an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of Philosophy and general Learning; and while [my family] fanceyed I was poring over Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the Authors which I was secretly devouring.
He had little respect for the professors of his time, telling a friend in 1735 that "there is nothing to be learnt from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books". He did not graduate.
=== "Disease of the learned" ===
At around age 18, Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened up to him "a new Scene of Thought", inspiring him "to throw up every other Pleasure or Business to apply entirely to it". As he did not recount what this scene exactly was, commentators have offered a variety of speculations. One prominent interpretation among contemporary Humean scholarship is that this new "scene of thought" was Hume's realisation that Francis Hutcheson's theory of moral sense could be applied to the understanding of morality as well.
From this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of 10 years reading and writing. He soon came to the verge of a mental breakdown, first starting with a coldnesswhich he attributed to a "Laziness of Temper"that lasted about nine months. Scurvy spots later broke out on his fingers, persuading Hume's physician to diagnose him with the "Disease of the Learned".
Hume wrote that he "went under a Course of Bitters and Anti-Hysteric Pills", taken along with a pint of claret every day. He also decided to have a more active life to better continue his learning. His health improved somewhat, but in 1731, he was afflicted with a ravenous appetite and palpitations. After eating well for a time, he went from being "tall, lean and raw-bon'd" to being "sturdy, robust [and] healthful-like." Indeed, Hume would become well known for being obese and having a fondness for good port and cheese, often using them as philosophical metaphors for his conjectures.
== Career ==
Despite having noble ancestry, Hume had no source of income and no learned profession by age 25. As was common at his time, he became a merchant's assistant, despite having to leave his native Scotland. He travelled via Bristol to La Flèche in Anjou, France. There he had frequent discourse with the Jesuits of the College of La Flèche.
Hume was derailed in his attempts to start a university career by protests over his alleged "atheism", He described his "love for literary fame" as his "ruling passion" Despite Hume's protestations, a consensus exists today that his most important arguments and philosophically distinctive doctrines are found in the original form they take in the Treatise. Though he was only 23 years old when starting this work, it is now regarded as one of the most important in the history of Western philosophy.
Despite the disappointment, Hume later wrote: "Being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country." after Edinburgh ministers petitioned the town council not to appoint Hume because he was seen as an atheist.
In 1745, during the Jacobite risings, Hume tutored the Marquess of Annandale, an engagement that ended in disarray after about a year. The Marquess could not follow with Hume's lectures, his father saw little need for philosophy, and on a personal level, the Marquess found Hume's dietary tendencies to be bizarre. Hume then started his great historical work, The History of England, which took fifteen years and ran to over a million words. During this time, he was also involved with the Canongate Theatre through his friend John Home, a preacher.
In this context, he associated with Lord Monboddo and other thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment in Edinburgh. From 1746, Hume served for three years as secretary to General James St Clair, who was envoy to the courts of Turin and Vienna. At that time Hume wrote Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding, later published as An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Often called the First Enquiry, it proved little more successful than the Treatise, perhaps because of the publication of his short autobiography My Own Life, which "made friends difficult for the first Enquiry". By the end of this period Hume had attained his well-known corpulent stature; "the good table of the General and the prolonged inactive life had done their work", leaving him "a man of tremendous bulk".
In 1749 he went to live with his brother in the countryside, although he continued to associate with the aforementioned Scottish Enlightenment figures.
=== 1750s–1760s ===
Hume's religious views were often suspect and, in the 1750s, it was necessary for his friends to avert a trial against him on the charge of heresy, specifically in an ecclesiastical court. However, he "would not have come and could not be forced to attend if he said he was not a member of the Established Church". Hume failed to gain the chair of philosophy at the University of Glasgow due to his religious views. By this time, he had published the Philosophical Essays, which were decidedly anti-religious. This represented a turning point in his career and the various opportunities made available to him. Even Adam Smith, his personal friend who had vacated the Glasgow philosophy chair, was against his appointment out of concern that public opinion would be against it. In 1761, all his works were banned on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.
Hume returned to Edinburgh in 1751. In the following year, the Faculty of Advocates hired him to be their Librarian, a job in which he would receive little to no pay, but which nonetheless gave him "the command of a large library". was the only work he considered successful on first publication.
Eventually, with the publication of his six-volume The History of England between 1754 and 1762, Hume achieved the fame that he coveted. The volumes traced events from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688 and was a bestseller in its day. Hume was also a longtime friend of bookseller Andrew Millar, who sold Hume's History (after acquiring the rights from Scottish bookseller Gavin Hamilton), although the relationship was sometimes complicated. Letters between them illuminate both men's interest in the success of the History. In 1762 Hume moved from Jack's Land on the Canongate to James Court on the Lawnmarket. He sold the house to James Boswell in 1766.
== Later life ==
=== Paris and Rousseau ===
From 1763 to 1765, Hume was invited to attend Lord Hertford in Paris, where he became secretary to the British embassy in France. Hume was well received among Parisian society, and while there he met with Isaac de Pinto. In 1765, Hume served as a chargé d'affaires in Paris, writing "despatches to the British Secretary of State". He wrote of his Paris life, "I really wish often for the plain roughness of The Poker Club of Edinburgh... to correct and qualify so much lusciousness."
In January 1766, Hume left Paris to accompany Jean-Jacques Rousseau to England. Once there, he and Rousseau fell out, leaving Hume sufficiently worried about the damage to his reputation from the quarrel with Rousseau that he would author an account of the dispute, titling it "A concise and genuine account of the dispute between Mr. Hume and Mr. Rousseau".
=== Slavery ===
In a 2020 op-ed for the Scotsman, Felix Waldmann reported his recent discovery, and publication, of a "letter of March 1766 by Hume, in which he encouraged his patron Lord Hertford to purchase a slave plantation in Grenada." Strictly what was on offer was a 50% share. But in March 1766, at the request of George Colebrooke; Hume did indeed write to Hertford informing him of an opportunity to invest in a slave plantation along with Colebrooke and partners, Sir James Cockburn and John Stewart.
Peter Hutton and David Ashton assert, contrary to the claims of Waldman, (Which Hertford ultimately chose not to do).
Waldmann further alleges that Hume "facilitated the purchase of the plantation by writing to the French Governor of Martinique, the Marquis d’Ennery, in June 1766. Indeed, he lent £400 to one of the principal investors earlier in the same year."
As to the charge of racism, made by Waldmann and many others, based on the footnote Hume appended to his essay ‘On National Characters’ in 1753, and had amended as an endnote for a posthumous 1777 edition, Hutton and Ashton acknowledge that its content is "especially shocking – and deeply puzzling". Bailey describes it as "highly prejudicial speculation". Fieser suggests Kendra Asher's discussion "is the only one to date suggesting that the footnote might not represent Hume's true views".
=== Autobiography ===
In the last year of his life, Hume wrote an extremely brief autobiographical essay titled "My Own Life", it contains many interesting judgments that have been of enduring interest to subsequent readers of Hume. Donald Seibert (1984), a scholar of 18th-century literature, judged it a "remarkable autobiography, even though it may lack the usual attractions of that genre. Anyone hankering for startling revelations or amusing anecdotes had better look elsewhere." in his autobiography Hume confesses his belief that the "love of literary fame" had served as his "ruling passion" in life, and claims that this desire "never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments". One such disappointment Hume discusses in this account is in the initial literary reception of the Treatise, which he claims to have overcome by means of the success of the Essays: "the work was favourably received, and soon made me entirely forget my former disappointment". Hume, in his own retrospective judgment, argues that his philosophical debut's apparent failure "had proceeded more from the manner than the matter". He thus suggests that "I had been guilty of a very usual indiscretion, in going to the press too early."
Hume also provides an unambiguous self-assessment of the relative value of his works: that "my Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals; which, in my own opinion (who ought not to judge on that subject) is of all my writings, historical, philosophical, or literary, incomparably the best." He also wrote of his social relations: "My company was not unacceptable to the young and careless, as well as to the studious and literary", noting of his complex relation to religion, as well as to the state, that "though I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil and religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed in my behalf of their wonted fury". He goes on to profess of his character: "My friends never had occasion to vindicate any one circumstance of my character and conduct." Hume concludes the essay with a frank admission: Hume asked that his body be interred in a "simple Roman tomb", requesting in his will that it be inscribed only with his name and the year of his birth and death, "leaving it to Posterity to add the Rest".
David Hume died at the southwest corner of St. Andrew's Square in Edinburgh's New Town, at what is now 21 Saint David Street. A popular story, consistent with some historical evidence and with the help of coincidence, suggests that the street was named after Hume.
His tomb stands, as he wished it, on the southwestern slope of Calton Hill, in the Old Calton Cemetery. Adam Smith later recounted Hume's amusing speculation that he might ask Charon, Hades' ferryman, to allow him a few more years of life in order to see "the downfall of some of the prevailing systems of superstition". The ferryman replied, "You loitering rogue, that will not happen these many hundred years.… Get into the boat this instant."
== Writings ==
A Treatise of Human Nature begins with the introduction: "'Tis evident, that all the sciences have a relation, more or less, to human nature.… Even Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Natural Religion, are in some measure dependent on the science of Man."
Until recently, Hume was seen as a forerunner of logical positivism, a form of anti-metaphysical empiricism. According to the logical positivists (in summary of their verification principle), unless a statement could be verified by experience, or else was true or false by definition (i.e., either tautological or contradictory), then it was meaningless. Hume, on this view, was a proto-positivist, who, in his philosophical writings, attempted to demonstrate the ways in which ordinary propositions about objects, causal relations, the self, and so on, are semantically equivalent to propositions about one's experiences.
Many commentators have since rejected this understanding of Humean empiricism, stressing an epistemological (rather than a semantic) reading of his project. According to this opposing view, Hume's empiricism consisted in the idea that it is our knowledge, and not our ability to conceive, that is restricted to what can be experienced. Hume thought that we can form beliefs about that which extends beyond any possible experience, through the operation of faculties such as custom and the imagination, but he was sceptical about claims to knowledge on this basis.
=== Impressions and ideas ===
A central doctrine of Hume's philosophy, stated in the very first lines of the Treatise of Human Nature, is that the mind consists of perceptions, or the mental objects which are present to it, and which divide into two categories: "All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds, which I shall call and ." Hume believed that it would "not be very necessary to employ many words in explaining this distinction", which commentators have generally taken to mean the distinction between feeling and thinking. Controversially, Hume, in some sense, may regard the distinction as a matter of degree, as he takes impressions to be distinguished from ideas on the basis of their force, liveliness, and vivacitywhat Henry E. Allison (2008) calls the "FLV criterion." Ideas are therefore "faint" impressions. For example, experiencing the painful sensation of touching a hot pan's handle is more forceful than simply thinking about touching a hot pan. According to Hume, impressions are meant to be the original form of all our ideas. From this, Don Garrett (2002) has coined the term ''copy principle, When looking at an apple, a person experiences a variety of colour-sensationswhat Hume notes as a complex impression. Similarly, a person experiences a variety of taste-sensations, tactile-sensations, and smell-sensations when biting into an apple, with the overall sensationagain, a complex impression. Thinking about an apple allows a person to form complex ideas, which are made of similar parts as the complex impressions they were developed from, but which are also less forceful. Hume believes that complex perceptions can be broken down into smaller and smaller parts until perceptions are reached that have no parts of their own, and these perceptions are thus referred to as simple.
==== Principles of association ====
Regardless of how boundless it may seem; a person's imagination is confined to the mind's ability to recombine the information it has already acquired from the body's sensory experience (the ideas that have been derived from impressions). In addition, "as our imagination takes our most basic ideas and leads us to form new ones, it is directed by three principles of association, namely, resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect":
The principle of resemblance refers to the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent resemble one another. For example, someone looking at an illustration of a flower can conceive an idea of the physical flower because the idea of the illustrated object is associated with the physical object's idea.
The principle of contiguity describes the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent are near to each other in time or space, such as when the thought of a crayon in a box leads one to think of the crayon contiguous to it.
The principle of cause and effect refers to the tendency of ideas to become associated if the objects they represent are causally related, which explains how remembering a broken window can make someone think of a ball that had caused the window to shatter.
Hume elaborates more on the last principle, explaining that, when somebody observes that one object or event consistently produces the same object or event, that results in "an expectation that a particular event (a 'cause') will be followed by another event (an 'effect') previously and constantly associated with it". Hume calls this principle custom, or habit, saying that "custom...renders our experience useful to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past". However, even though custom can serve as a guide in life, it still only represents an expectation. In other words:
Experience cannot establish a necessary connection between cause and effect, because we can imagine without contradiction a case where the cause does not produce its usual effect…the reason why we mistakenly infer that there is something in the cause that necessarily produces its effect is because our past experiences have habituated us to think in this way.
Continuing this idea, Hume argues that "only in the pure realm of ideas, logic, and mathematics, not contingent on the direct sense awareness of reality, [can] causation safely…be applied—all other sciences are reduced to probability".—and both of these are inadequate. With regard to demonstrative reasoning, Hume argues that the uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, as it is "consistent and conceivable" that nature might stop being regular. Turning to probable reasoning, Hume argues that we cannot hold that nature will continue to be uniform because it has been in the past. As this is using the very sort of reasoning (induction) that is under question, it would be circular reasoning. Thus, no form of justification will rationally warrant our inductive inferences.
Hume's solution to this problem is to argue that, rather than reason, natural instinct explains the human practice of making inductive inferences. He asserts that "Nature, by an absolute and uncontroulable necessity has determin'd us to judge as well as to breathe and feel." In 1985, and in agreement with Hume, John D. Kenyon writes:
Reason might manage to raise a doubt about the truth of a conclusion of natural inductive inference just for a moment ... but the sheer agreeableness of animal faith will protect us from excessive caution and sterile suspension of belief.
Others, such as Charles Sanders Peirce, have demurred from Hume's solution, while some, such as Kant and Karl Popper, have thought that Hume's analysis has "posed a most fundamental challenge to all human knowledge claims".
The notion of causation is closely linked to the problem of induction. According to Hume, we reason inductively by associating constantly conjoined events. It is the mental act of association that is the basis of our concept of causation. At least three interpretations of Hume's theory of causation are represented in the literature:
the logical positivist;
the sceptical realist; and
the quasi-realist.
Hume acknowledged that there are events constantly unfolding, and humanity cannot guarantee that these events are caused by prior events or are independent instances. He opposed the widely accepted theory of causation that 'all events have a specific course or reason'. Therefore, Hume crafted his own theory of causation, formed through his empiricist and sceptic beliefs. He split causation into two realms: "All the objects of human reason or enquiry may naturally be divided into two kinds, to wit, Relations of Ideas, and Matters of Fact."
Hume explains his theory of causation and causal inference by division into three different parts. In these three branches he explains his ideas and compares and contrasts his views to his predecessors. These branches are the Critical Phase, the Constructive Phase, and Belief. In the Critical Phase, Hume denies his predecessors' theories of causation. Next, he uses the Constructive Phase to resolve any doubts the reader may have had while observing the Critical Phase. "Habit or Custom" mends the gaps in reasoning that occur without the human mind even realising it. Associating ideas has become second nature to the human mind. It "makes us expect for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past". In his Treatise of Human Nature, Hume wrote:
Power and necessity…are…qualities of perceptions, not of objects…felt by the soul and not perceiv'd externally in bodies.
This view is rejected by sceptical realists, who argue that Hume thought that causation amounts to more than just the regular succession of events. In Hume's words, "nothing is more usual than to apply to external bodies every internal sensation, which they occasion".
=== 'Self' ===
Empiricist philosophers, such as Hume and Berkeley, favoured the bundle theory of personal identity. In this theory, "the mind itself, far from being an independent power, is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity or cohesive quality". The self is nothing but a bundle of experiences linked by the relations of causation and resemblance; or, more accurately, the empirically warranted idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle. According to Hume:
Hume denied the existence of practical reason as a principle because he claimed reason does not have any effect on morality, since morality is capable of producing effects in people that reason alone cannot create. As Hume explains in A Treatise of Human Nature (1740): so Hume believed that reason's shortcoming of affecting morality proved that practical reason could not be authoritative for all rational beings, since morality was essential for dictating people's intentions and actions.
=== Ethics ===
Hume's writings on ethics began in the 1740 Treatise and were refined in his An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751). He understood feeling, rather than knowing, as that which governs ethical actions, stating that "moral decisions are grounded in moral sentiment." Arguing that reason cannot be behind morality, he wrote:
Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions. Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular. The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason.
Hume's moral sentimentalism was shared by his close friend Adam Smith, and the two were mutually influenced by the moral reflections of their older contemporary, Francis Hutcheson. Peter Singer claims that Hume's argument that morals cannot have a rational basis alone "would have been enough to earn him a place in the history of ethics."
Hume also put forward the is–ought problem, later known as Hume's Law, denying the possibility of logically deriving what ought to be from what is. According to the Treatise (1740), in every system of morality that Hume has read, the author begins by stating facts about the world as it is but always ends up suddenly referring to what ought to be the case. Hume demands that a reason should be given for inferring what ought to be the case, from what is the case. This is because it "seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others."
Hume's theory of ethics has been influential in modern-day meta-ethical theory, helping to inspire emotivism, and ethical expressivism and non-cognitivism, as well as Allan Gibbard's general theory of moral judgment and judgments of rationality.
=== Aesthetics ===
Hume's ideas about aesthetics and the theory of art are spread throughout his works, but are particularly connected with his ethical writings, and also the essays "Of the Standard of Taste" and "Of Tragedy" (1757). His views are rooted in the work of Joseph Addison and Francis Hutcheson. In the Treatise (1740), he touches on the connection between beauty and deformity and vice and virtue. His later writings on the subject continue to draw parallels of beauty and deformity in art with conduct and character.
In "Standard of Taste", Hume argues that no rules can be drawn up about what is a tasteful object. However, a reliable critic of taste can be recognised as objective, sensible and unprejudiced, and as having extensive experience. "Of Tragedy" addresses the question of why humans enjoy tragic drama. Hume was concerned with the way spectators find pleasure in the sorrow and anxiety depicted in a tragedy. He argued that this was because the spectator is aware that he is witnessing a dramatic performance. There is pleasure in realising that the terrible events that are being shown are actually fiction. Furthermore, Hume laid down rules for educating people in taste and correct conduct, and his writings in this area have been very influential on English and Anglo-Saxon aesthetics.
=== Free will, determinism, and responsibility ===
Hume, along with Thomas Hobbes, is cited as a classical compatibilist about the notions of freedom and determinism. Compatibilism seeks to reconcile human freedom with the mechanist view that human beings are part of a deterministic universe, which is completely governed by physical laws. Hume, on this point, was influenced greatly by the scientific revolution, particularly by Sir Isaac Newton. Hume argued that the dispute between freedom and determinism continued over 2000 years due to ambiguous terminology. He wrote: "From this circumstance alone, that a controversy has been long kept on foot…we may presume that there is some ambiguity in the expression," and that different disputants use different meanings for the same terms.
Hume defines the concept of necessity as "the uniformity, observable in the operations of nature; where similar objects are constantly conjoined together," and liberty as "a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will." He then argues that, according to these definitions, not only are the two compatible, but liberty requires necessity. For if our actions were not necessitated in the above sense, they would "have so little in connexion with motives, inclinations and circumstances, that one does not follow with a certain degree of uniformity from the other." But if our actions are not thus connected to the will, then our actions can never be free: they would be matters of "chance; which is universally allowed to have no existence." Australian philosopher John Passmore writes that confusion has arisen because "necessity" has been taken to mean "necessary connexion." Once this has been abandoned, Hume argues that "liberty and necessity will be found not to be in conflict one with another."
Moreover, Hume goes on to argue that in order to be held morally responsible, it is required that our behaviour be caused or necessitated, for, as he wrote:
Actions are, by their very nature, temporary and perishing; and where they proceed not from some cause in the character and disposition of the person who performed them, they can neither redound to his honour, if good; nor infamy, if evil.
Hume describes the link between causality and our capacity to rationally make a decision from this an inference of the mind. Human beings assess a situation based upon certain predetermined events and from that form a choice. Hume believes that this choice is made spontaneously. Hume calls this form of decision making the liberty of spontaneity.
Education writer Richard Wright considers that Hume's position rejects a famous moral puzzle attributed to French philosopher Jean Buridan. The Buridan's ass puzzle describes a donkey that is hungry. This donkey has separate bales of hay on both sides, which are of equal distances from him. The problem concerns which bale the donkey chooses. Buridan was said to believe that the donkey would die, because he has no autonomy. The donkey is incapable of forming a rational decision as there is no motive to choose one bale of hay over the other. However, human beings are different, because a human who is placed in a position where he is forced to choose one loaf of bread over another will make a decision to take one in lieu of the other. For Buridan, humans have the capacity of autonomy, and he recognises the choice that is ultimately made will be based on chance, as both loaves of bread are exactly the same. However, Wright says that Hume completely rejects this notion, arguing that a human will spontaneously act in such a situation because he is faced with impending death if he fails to do so. Such a decision is not made on the basis of chance, but rather on necessity and spontaneity, given the prior predetermined events leading up to the predicament.
Hume's argument is supported by modern-day compatibilists such as R. E. Hobart, a pseudonym of philosopher Dickinson S. Miller. However, P. F. Strawson argued that the issue of whether we hold one another morally responsible does not ultimately depend on the truth or falsity of a metaphysical thesis such as determinism. This is because our so holding one another is a non-rational human sentiment that is not predicated on such theses.
=== Religion ===
Philosopher Paul Russell (2005) contends that Hume wrote "on almost every central question in the philosophy of religion", and that these writings "are among the most important and influential contributions on this topic." Some modern critics have described Hume's religious views as agnostic or have described him as a "Pyrrhonian skeptic". Contemporaries considered him to be an atheist, or at least un-Christian, enough so that the Church of Scotland seriously considered bringing charges of infidelity against him. Evidence of his un-Christian beliefs can especially be found in his writings on miracles, in which he attempts to separate historical method from the narrative accounts of miracles. The fact that contemporaries suspected him of atheism is exemplified by a story Hume liked to tell:
The best theologian he ever met, he used to say, was the old Edinburgh fishwife who, having recognized him as Hume the atheist, refused to pull him out of the bog into which he had fallen until he declared he was a Christian and repeated the Lord's prayer.
However, in works such as "Of Superstition and Enthusiasm", Hume specifically seems to support the standard religious views of his time and place. This still meant that he could be very critical of the Catholic Church, dismissing it with the standard Protestant accusations of superstition and idolatry, Paul Russell (2008) writes that Hume was plainly sceptical about religious belief, although perhaps not to the extent of complete atheism. He suggests that Hume's position is best characterised by the term "irreligion," while philosopher David O'Connor (2013) argues that Hume's final position was "weakly deistic". For O'Connor, Hume's "position is deeply ironic. This is because, while inclining towards a weak form of deism, he seriously doubts that we can ever find a sufficiently favourable balance of evidence to justify accepting any religious position." He adds that Hume "did not believe in the God of standard theism ... but he did not rule out all concepts of deity", and that "ambiguity suited his purposes, and this creates difficulty in definitively pinning down his final position on religion".
==== Design argument ====
One of the traditional topics of natural theology is that of the existence of God, and one of the a posteriori arguments for this is the argument from design or the teleological argument. The argument is that the existence of God can be proved by the design that is obvious in the complexity of the world, which Encyclopædia Britannica states is "the most popular", because it is:
...the most accessible of the theistic arguments ... which identifies evidences of design in nature, inferring from them a divine designer ... The fact that the universe as a whole is a coherent and efficiently functioning system likewise, in this view, indicates a divine intelligence behind it.
In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Hume wrote that the design argument seems to depend upon our experience, and its proponents "always suppose the universe, an effect quite singular and unparalleled, to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no less singular and unparalleled". Philosopher Louise E. Loeb (2010) notes that Hume is saying that only experience and observation can be our guide to making inferences about the conjunction between events. However, according to Hume:
We observe neither God nor other universes, and hence no conjunction involving them. There is no observed conjunction to ground an inference either to extended objects or to God, as unobserved causes.
Hume also criticised the argument in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779). Hume proposes a finite universe with a finite number of particles. Given infinite time, these particles could randomly fall into any arrangement, including our seemingly designed world.A century later, the idea of order without design was rendered more plausible by Charles Darwin's discovery that the adaptations of the forms of life result from the natural selection of inherited characteristics. They have also noted that it requires an appeal to inductive inference, as none have observed every part of nature nor examined every possible miracle claim, for instance those in the future. This, in Hume's philosophy, was especially problematic.
Little appreciated is the voluminous literature either foreshadowing Hume, in the likes of Thomas Sherlock or directly responding to and engaging with Hume—from William Paley, William Adams, John Douglas, John Leland, and George Campbell, among others. Regarding the latter, it is rumoured that, having read Campbell's Dissertation, Hume remarked that "the Scotch theologue had beaten him."
Hume's main argument concerning miracles is that miracles by definition are singular events that differ from the established laws of nature. Such natural laws are codified as a result of past experiences. Therefore, a miracle is a violation of all prior experience and thus incapable on this basis of reasonable belief. However, the probability that something has occurred in contradiction of all past experience should always be judged to be less than the probability that either one's senses have deceived one, or the person recounting the miraculous occurrence is lying or mistaken, Hume would say, all of which he had past experience of. For Hume, this refusal to grant credence does not guarantee correctness. He offers the example of an Indian Prince, who, having grown up in a hot country, refuses to believe that water has frozen. By Hume's lights, this refusal is not wrong and the prince "reasoned justly;" it is presumably only when he has had extensive experience of the freezing of water that he has warrant to believe that the event could occur.
So, for Hume, either the miraculous event will become a recurrent event or else it will never be rational to believe it occurred. The connection to religious belief is left unexplained throughout, except for the close of his discussion where Hume notes the reliance of Christianity upon testimony of miraculous occurrences. He makes an ironic remark that anyone who "is moved by faith to assent" to revealed testimony "is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person, which subverts all principles of his understanding, and gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary to custom and experience." Hume writes that "All the testimony whichever was really given for any miracle, or ever will be given, is a subject of derision."
=== As a historian of England ===
From 1754 to 1762 Hume published The History of England, a six-volume work, that extends (according to its subtitle) "From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688." Inspired by Voltaire's sense of the breadth of history, Hume widened the focus of the field away from merely kings, parliaments, and armies, to literature and science as well. He argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty that was ever known amongst mankind". It "must be regarded as an event of cultural importance. In its own day, moreover, it was an innovation, soaring high above its very few predecessors." Hume's History of England made him famous as a historian before he was ever considered a serious philosopher. In this work, Hume uses history to tell the story of the rise of England and what led to its greatness and the disastrous effects that religion has had on its progress. For Hume, the history of England's rise may give a template for others who would also like to rise to its current greatness. Thomas Jefferson banned the History from University of Virginia, feeling that it had "spread universal toryism over the land." By comparison, Samuel Johnson thought Hume to be "a Tory by chance [... for he has no principle. If he is anything, he is a Hobbist." A major concern of Hume's political philosophy is the importance of the rule of law. He also stresses throughout his political essays the importance of moderation in politics, public spirit, and regard to the community.
Throughout the period of the American Revolution, Hume had varying views. For instance, in 1768 he encouraged total revolt on the part of the Americans. In 1775, he became certain that a revolution would take place and said that he believed in the American principle and wished the British government would let them be. Hume's influence on some of the Founders can be seen in Benjamin Franklin's suggestion at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 that no high office in any branch of government should receive a salary, which is a suggestion Hume had made in his emendation of James Harrington's Oceana.
The legacy of religious civil war in 18th-century Scotland, combined with the relatively recent memory of the 1715 and 1745 Jacobite risings, had fostered in Hume a distaste for enthusiasm and factionalism. These appeared to him to threaten the fragile and nascent political and social stability of a country that was deeply politically and religiously divided. Hume thought that society is best governed by a general and impartial system of laws; he is less concerned about the form of government that administers these laws, so long as it does so fairly. However, he also clarified that a republic must produce laws, while "monarchy, when absolute, contains even something repugnant to law."
Hume expressed suspicion of attempts to reform society in ways that departed from long-established custom, and he counselled peoples not to resist their governments except in cases of the most egregious tyranny. However, he resisted aligning himself with either of Britain's two political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, explaining that "my views of things are more conformable to Whig principles; my representations of persons to Tory prejudices".
The scholar Jerry Z. Muller argues that Hume's political thoughts have characteristics that later became typical for American and British conservatism, which contain more positive views of capitalism than conservatism does elsewhere. Canadian philosopher Neil McArthur writes that Hume believed that we should try to balance our demands for liberty with the need for strong authority, without sacrificing either. McArthur characterises Hume as a "precautionary conservative," whose actions would have been "determined by prudential concerns about the consequences of change, which often demand we ignore our own principles about what is ideal or even legitimate." Hume supported the liberty of the press, and was sympathetic to democracy, when suitably constrained. American historian Douglass Adair has argued that Hume was a major inspiration for James Madison's writings, and the essay "Federalist No. 10" in particular.
Hume offered his view on the best type of society in an essay titled "Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth", which lays out what he thought was the best form of government. He hoped that "in some future age, an opportunity might be afforded of reducing the theory to practice, either by a dissolution of some old government, or by the combination of men to form a new one, in some distant part of the world". He defended a strict separation of powers, decentralisation, extending the franchise to anyone who held property of value and limiting the power of the clergy. The system of the Swiss militia was proposed as the best form of protection. Elections were to take place on an annual basis and representatives were to be unpaid. Political philosophers Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, writing of Hume's thoughts about "the wise statesman", note that he "will bear a reverence to what carries the marks of age." Also, if he wishes to improve a constitution, his innovations will take account of the "ancient fabric", in order not to disturb society.
In the political analysis of philosopher George Holland Sabine, the scepticism of Hume extended to the doctrine of government by consent. He notes that "allegiance is a habit enforced by education and consequently as much a part of human nature as any other motive."
In the 1770s, Hume was critical of British policies toward the American colonies and advocated for American independence. He wrote in 1771 that "our union with America…in the nature of things, cannot long subsist." Referring to his essay "Of the Balance of Trade", economist Paul Krugman (2012) has remarked that "David Hume created what I consider the first true economic model."
In contrast to Locke, Hume believes that private property is not a natural right. Hume argues it is justified, because resources are limited. Private property would be an unjustified, "idle ceremonial," if all goods were unlimited and available freely. Hume also believed in an unequal distribution of property, because perfect equality would destroy the ideas of thrift and industry. Perfect equality would thus lead to impoverishment.
David Hume anticipated modern monetarism. First, Hume contributed to the theory of quantity and of interest rate. Hume has been credited with being the first to prove that, on an abstract level, there is no quantifiable amount of nominal money that a country needs to thrive. He understood that there was a difference between nominal and real money.
Second, Hume has a theory of causation which fits in with the Chicago-school "black box" approach. According to Hume, cause and effect are related only through correlation. Hume shared the belief with modern monetarists that changes in the supply of money can affect consumption and investment.
Lastly, Hume was a vocal advocate of a stable private sector, though also having some non-monetarist aspects to his economic philosophy. Having a stated preference for rising prices, for instance, Hume considered government debt to be a sort of substitute for actual money, referring to such debt as "a kind of paper credit." He also believed in heavy taxation, believing that it increases effort. Hume's economic approach evidently resembles his other philosophies, in that he does not choose one side indefinitely, but sees gray in the situation
== Legacy ==
Due to Hume's vast influence on contemporary philosophy, a large number of approaches in contemporary philosophy and cognitive science are today called "Humean."
The writings of Thomas Reid, a Scottish philosopher and contemporary of Hume, were often critical of Hume's scepticism. Reid formulated his common sense philosophy, in part, as a reaction against Hume's views.
Hume influenced, and was influenced by, the Christian philosopher Joseph Butler. Hume was impressed by Butler's way of thinking about religion, and Butler may well have been influenced by Hume's writings.
Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in his Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics (1783), credited Hume with awakening him from his "dogmatic slumber."
According to Arthur Schopenhauer, "there is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart and Schleiermacher taken together."
A. J. Ayer, while introducing his classic exposition of logical positivism in 1936, claimed that his views were "the logical outcome of the empiricism of Berkeley and David Hume".
Albert Einstein, in 1915, wrote that he was inspired by Hume's positivism when formulating his theory of special relativity.
Hume's problem of induction was also of fundamental importance to the philosophy of Karl Popper. In his autobiography, Unended Quest, he wrote: "Knowledge ... is objective; and it is hypothetical or conjectural. This way of looking at the problem made it possible for me to reformulate Hume's problem of induction." This insight resulted in Popper's major work The Logic of Scientific Discovery. In his Conjectures and Refutations, he wrote that he "approached the problem of induction through Hume", since Hume was "perfectly right in pointing out that induction cannot be logically justified".
Hume's rationalism in religious subjects influenced, via German-Scottish theologian Johann Joachim Spalding, the German neology school and rational theology, and contributed to the transformation of German theology in the Age of Enlightenment. Hume pioneered a comparative history of religion, tried to explain various rites and traditions as being based on deception and challenged various aspects of rational and natural theology, such as the argument from design.
Danish theologian and philosopher Søren Kierkegaard adopted "Hume's suggestion that the role of reason is not to make us wise but to reveal our ignorance," though taking it as a reason for the necessity of religious faith, or fideism. The "fact that Christianity is contrary to reason…is the necessary precondition for true faith." has written about Hume's influence on what Berlin calls the counter-Enlightenment and on German anti-rationalism. Berlin has also once said of Hume that "no man has influenced the history of philosophy to a deeper or more disturbing degree."
In 2003, philosopher Jerry Fodor described Hume's Treatise as "the founding document of cognitive science."
Hume engaged with contemporary intellectuals including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Boswell, and Adam Smith (who acknowledged Hume's influence on his economics and political philosophy).
Morris and Brown (2019) write that Hume is "generally regarded as one of the most important philosophers to write in English." to rename it, in objection to Hume's writings related to race.
== Works ==
1734. A Kind of History of My Life. – MSS 23159 National Library of Scotland. in an attempt to popularise his Treatise. This work is of considerable philosophical interest as it spells out what Hume considered "The Chief Argument" of the Treatise, in a way that seems to anticipate the structure of the Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
1741. Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary (2nd ed.)
A collection of pieces written and published over many years, though most were collected together in 1753–54. Many of the essays are on politics and economics; other topics include aesthetic judgement, love, marriage and polygamy, and the demographics of ancient Greece and Rome. The Essays show some influence from Addison's Tatler and The Spectator, which Hume read avidly in his youth.
1745. A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh: Containing Some Observations on a Specimen of the Principles Concerning Religion and Morality, said to be maintain'd in a Book lately publish'd, intituled A Treatise of Human Nature etc.
Contains a letter written by Hume to defend himself against charges of atheism and scepticism, while applying for a chair at Edinburgh University.
1742. "Of Essay Writing."
1748. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
Contains reworking of the main points of the Treatise, Book 1, with the addition of material on free will (adapted from Book 2), miracles, the Design Argument, and mitigated scepticism. Of Miracles, section X of the Enquiry, was often published separately.
1751. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals.
A reworking of material on morality from Book 3 of the Treatise, but with a significantly different emphasis. It "was thought by Hume to be the best of his writings."
1752. Political Discourses (part II of Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary within the larger Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects, vol. 1).
Included in Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects (1753–56) reprinted 1758–77.
1752–1758. Political Discourses/Discours politiques
1757. Four Dissertations – includes 4 essays:
"The Natural History of Religion"
"Of the Passions"
"Of Tragedy"
"Of the Standard of Taste"
1754–1762. The History of England – sometimes referred to as The History of Great Britain.
More a category of books than a single work, Hume's history spanned "from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688" and went through over 100 editions. Many considered it the standard history of England in its day.
1760. "Sister Peg"
Hume claimed to have authored an anonymous political pamphlet satirizing the failure of the British Parliament to create a Scottish militia in 1760. Although the authorship of the work is disputed, Hume wrote Alexander Carlyle in early 1761 claiming authorship. The readership of the time attributed the work to Adam Ferguson, a friend and associate of Hume's who has been sometimes called "the founder of modern sociology". Some contemporary scholars concur in the judgment that Ferguson, not Hume, was the author of this work.
1776. "My Own Life."
1777. "Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul."
1779. Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion.
Published posthumously by his nephew, David Hume the Younger. Being a discussion among three fictional characters concerning the nature of God, and is an important portrayal of the argument from design. Despite some controversy, most scholars agree that the view of Philo, the most sceptical of the three, comes closest to Hume's own.
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7,928 |
Dalton Trumbo
|
James Dalton Trumbo (December 9, 1905 – September 10, 1976) was an American screenwriter who scripted many award-winning films, including Roman Holiday (1953), Exodus, Spartacus (both 1960), and Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944). One of the Hollywood Ten, he refused to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 during the committee's investigation of alleged Communist influences in the motion picture industry.
Trumbo, the other members of the Hollywood Ten, and hundreds of other professionals in the industry were blacklisted by Hollywood. He continued working clandestinely on major films, writing under pseudonyms or other authors' names. His uncredited work won two Academy Awards for Best Story: for Roman Holiday (1953), which was presented to a front writer, and for The Brave One (1956), which was awarded to a pseudonym used by Trumbo. When he was given public screen credit for both Exodus and Spartacus in 1960, it marked the beginning of the end of the Hollywood Blacklist for Trumbo and other affected screenwriters. He finally was given full credit by the Writers' Guild for Roman Holiday in 2011, nearly 60 years after the fact, and 35 years after his death.
==Origins==
Trumbo was born in Montrose, Colorado, on December 9, 1905, the son of Orus Bonham Trumbo and Maud (née Tillery) Trumbo. His family moved to Grand Junction, Colorado, in 1908.
His paternal immigrant ancestor, a Protestant of Swiss origin named Jacob Trumbo, settled in the colony of Virginia in 1736. Orus Trumbo worked variously as a shoe clerk and collection agent, never earning enough to keep the family far from poverty.
Trumbo graduated from Grand Junction High School. While still in high school, he worked for Walter Walker as a cub reporter for the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel, covering courts, the high school, the mortuary and civic organizations. He attended the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1924 and 1925, working as a reporter for the Boulder Daily Camera and contributing to the school's humor magazine, yearbook, and newspaper. He was a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity.
In 1924, Orus Trumbo relocated the family to California. Shortly after, he fell ill and died, leaving Dalton to support his mother and siblings. During this time, he wrote movie reviews, 88 short stories, and six novels, all of which were rejected for publication.
==Career==
===Early career===
Trumbo began his professional writing career in the early 1930s, when several of his articles and stories were published in mainstream magazines, including McCall's, Vanity Fair, the Hollywood Spectator and The Saturday Evening Post. Trumbo was hired as managing editor of the Hollywood Spectator in 1934. Later he left the magazine to become a reader in the story department at Warner Bros. studio.
Trumbo started working in movies in 1937 but continued writing prose. His anti-war novel Johnny Got His Gun won one of the early National Book Awards: the Most Original Book of 1939. It was inspired by an article Trumbo had read several years earlier: an account of a hospital visit by the Prince of Wales to a Canadian soldier who had lost all his limbs in World War I.
During the late 1930s and early 1940s, Trumbo became one of Hollywood's highest-paid screenwriters, at about $4,000 per week while on assignment, and earning as much as $80,000 in one year. His novel The Remarkable Andrew featured the ghost of President Andrew Jackson appearing to caution the United States against getting involved in World War II and in support of the Nazi-Soviet pact. Trumbo regretted this decision, which he called "foolish". After two FBI agents showed up at his home, he understood that "their interest lay not in the letters but in me". He argued that Russians were likely fearful of the mass of U.S. military power that surrounded them, at a time when any sympathetic view toward Communist countries was viewed with suspicion.
William R. Wilkerson, publisher and founder of The Hollywood Reporter, published a July 29, 1946, "TradeView" column entitled "A Vote For Joe Stalin". It named Trumbo and several others as Communist sympathizers, the first persons identified on what became known as "Billy's Blacklist". In October 1947, drawing upon these names, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) summoned Trumbo and nine others to testify for their investigation as to whether Communist agents and sympathizers had surreptitiously planted propaganda in U.S. films. The writers refused to give information about their own or any other person's involvement and were convicted for contempt of Congress. They appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court on First Amendment grounds and lost. Trumbo served eleven months in the federal penitentiary in Ashland, Kentucky, in 1950. In the 1976 documentary Hollywood On Trial, Trumbo said: "As far as I was concerned, it was a completely just verdict. I had contempt for that Congress and have had contempt for it ever since. And on the basis of guilt or innocence, I could never really complain very much. That this was a crime or misdemeanor was the complaint, my complaint."
The MPAA issued a statement that Trumbo and his compatriots would not be permitted to work in the industry unless they disavowed Communism under oath. After completing his sentence, Trumbo sold his ranch and moved his family to Mexico City with Hugo Butler and his wife Jean Rouverol, who had also been blacklisted.
During this blacklist period, Trumbo also wrote The Brave One (1956) for the King Brothers. Like Roman Holiday, it received an Academy Award for Best Story he could not claim. The script was credited to Robert Rich, a name borrowed from a nephew of the producers. Trumbo recalled earning an average fee of $1,750 per film for 18 screenplays written in two years and said, "None was very good". The statute set criminal penalties for advocating the overthrow of the U.S. government and required all non-citizen adult residents to register with the government.
===Later career===
Ingo Preminger, the brother of producer-director Otto Preminger, was Dalton Trumbo's agent. Otto Preminger hired Trumbo to write a screenplay for the film he intended to adapt from Leon Uris' 1958 novel Exodus when the script he had commissioned from Uris was deemed unusable. The producer-director decided to give Trumbo the screen credit. Shortly thereafter, actor Kirk Douglas announced Trumbo had written the screenplay for Stanley Kubrick's film Spartacus (also 1960), adapted from the 1951 novel by Howard Fast. With these actions, Preminger and Douglas helped end the power of the blacklist.
Trumbo was reinstated into the Writers Guild of America, West and was credited on all subsequent scripts. The guild finally gave him full credit for the script of the 1953 film Roman Holiday in 2011. Trumbo directed the 1971 film adaptation of his novel Johnny Got His Gun, starring Timothy Bottoms, Diane Varsi, Jason Robards and Donald Sutherland. One of the last films Trumbo wrote, Executive Action (1973), was based on the John F. Kennedy assassination. The Academy officially recognized Trumbo as the winner of the Oscar for the 1956 film The Brave One in 1975, presenting him with a statuette.
==Personal life==
In 1938, Trumbo married Cleo Fincher, who was born in Fresno, California, on July 17, 1916, and had moved with her divorced mother and her brother and sister to Los Angeles. The Trumbos had three children: Nikola Trumbo (1939–2018), who became a psychotherapist; Christopher Trumbo (1940–2011), a filmmaker and screenwriter who became an expert on the Hollywood blacklist; and Melissa Trumbo (1945), known as Mitzi, a photographer. Mitzi Trumbo dated comedian Steve Martin when they were both in their early 20s, which is recounted in Martin's 2007 book Born Standing Up. Martin wrote of her: "Mitzi became my official photographer, and she snapped dozens of rolls of film, all to find the perfect publicity photo."
Cleo Trumbo died of natural causes at the age of 93 on October 9, 2009, at the home she shared with Mitzi Trumbo in Los Altos, California.
==Death and legacy==
Trumbo died in 1976, in Los Angeles of a heart attack at the age of 70. He donated his body to scientific research.
In 1993, Trumbo was posthumously awarded the Academy Award for writing Roman Holiday (1953). The screen credit and award were previously given to Ian McLellan Hunter, who had been a front for Trumbo. A new statue was made for this award because Hunter's son refused to hand over the one his father had received.
In 2003, Christopher Trumbo mounted an Off-Broadway play based on his father's letters, called Trumbo: Red, White and Blacklisted, in which a wide variety of actors played his father during the run, including Nathan Lane, Tim Robbins, Brian Dennehy, Ed Harris, Chris Cooper and Gore Vidal. He adapted it as the documentary Trumbo (2007), which added archival footage and new interviews.
A dramatization of Trumbo's life, also called Trumbo, was released in November 2015. It starred Bryan Cranston in the title role and was directed by Jay Roach. For his portrayal of Trumbo, Cranston was nominated for Best Actor at the 88th Academy Awards.
The moving image collection of Trumbo is held at the Academy Film Archive and consists primarily of extensive 35 mm production materials relating to the 1971 anti-war film Johnny Got His Gun. In 2016, more than a hundred years after his birth, Trumbo was honored by the installation of a statue of him in front of the Avalon Theater on Main Street in Grand Junction, Colorado, his home town. He was depicted writing a screenplay in a bathtub.
==Works==
Selected film works
Road Gang, 1936
Love Begins at 20, 1936
Devil's Playground, 1937
Fugitives for a Night, 1938
A Man to Remember, 1938
Five Came Back, 1939 (with Nathanael West and J. Cody)
Sorority House, 1939
Curtain Call, 1940
A Bill of Divorcement, 1940
Kitty Foyle, 1940
The Lone Wolf Strikes, 1940
You Belong to Me, 1941 (story by)
The Remarkable Andrew, 1942
Tender Comrade, 1944
A Guy Named Joe, 1944
Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, 1944
Our Vines Have Tender Grapes, 1945
Gun Crazy, 1950 (co-writer, front: Millard Kaufman)
He Ran All the Way, 1951 (co-writer, front: Guy Endore)
Rocketship X-M, 1951 (martian sequence, uncredited)
The Prowler, 1951 (uncredited with Hugo Butler)
Roman Holiday, 1953 (front: Ian McLellan Hunter)
They Were So Young 1954, (under pseudonym Felix Lutzkendorf)
The Boss, 1956 (front: Ben L. Perry)
The Brave One, 1956 (under pseudonym Robert Rich)
The Green-Eyed Blonde, 1957 (front: Sally Stubblefield)
From the Earth to the Moon, 1958 (co-writer, front: James Leicester)
Cowboy, 1958 (front: Edmund H. North)
Spartacus, 1960, dir. by Stanley Kubrick (based on Howard Fast's 1951 novel of the same name)
Exodus, 1960, dir. by Otto Preminger (based on Leon Uris' 1958 novel of the same name)
The Last Sunset, 1961
Town Without Pity, 1961
Lonely are the Brave, 1962
The Sandpiper, 1965
Hawaii, 1966 (based on the novel by James Michener, 1959)
The Fixer, 1968
Johnny Got His Gun, 1971 (also directed)
The Horsemen, 1971
F.T.A., 1972
Executive Action, 1973
Papillon, 1973 (based on the novel by Henri Charrière, 1969)
Cortes, 2020 (based on his screenplay Montezuma)
Novels, plays and essays
Eclipse, 1935
Washington Jitters, 1936
Johnny Got His Gun, 1939
The Remarkable Andrew, 1940 (also known as Chronicle of a Literal Man)
The Biggest Thief in Town, 1949 (play)
The Time Out of the Toad, 1972 (essays)
Night of the Aurochs, 1979 (unfinished, ed. R. Kirsch)
''film "Half A Sinner" (1940, Universal Pictures) based on original story by Dalton Trumbo
Non-fiction
Harry Bridges, 1941
The Time of the Toad, 1949
The Devil in the Book, 1956
Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942–62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull)
|
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] |
7,930 |
Delaware
|
Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic regions of the United States. It borders Maryland to its south and west, Pennsylvania to its north, New Jersey to its northeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state's name derives from the adjacent Delaware Bay, which in turn was named after Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and the Colony of Virginia's first colonial-era governor.
Delaware occupies the northeastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula, and some islands and territory within the Delaware River. It is the second-smallest and sixth-least populous state, but also the sixth-most densely populated. Delaware's most populous city is Wilmington, and the state's capital is Dover, the second-most populous city in Delaware. The state is divided into three counties, the fewest number of counties of any of the 50 U.S. states; from north to south, the three counties are: New Castle County, Kent County, and Sussex County. The southern two counties, Kent and Sussex counties, historically have been predominantly agrarian economies. New Castle is more urbanized and is considered part of the Delaware Valley metropolitan statistical area that surrounds Philadelphia. Delaware is considered part of the Southern United States by the U.S. Census Bureau, but the state's geography, culture, and history are a hybrid of the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the country.
Before the Delaware coastline was explored and developed by Europeans in the 16th century, the state was inhabited by several Native American tribes, including the Lenape in the north and Nanticoke in the south. The state was first colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael, near present-day Lewes, Delaware, in 1631. Delaware was one of the Thirteen Colonies that participated in the American Revolution against Great Britain, which established the United States as an independent nation. On December 7, 1787, Delaware was the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, earning it the nickname "The First State".
Since the turn of the 20th century, Delaware has become an onshore corporate haven whose corporate laws are deemed appealing to corporations; over half of all New York Stock Exchange-listed corporations and over three-fifths of the Fortune 500 are legally incorporated in Delaware. Over 90% of all U.S. based companies that went public in 2021 incorporated themselves in Delaware.
==Etymology==
Delaware was named after its location on the Delaware Bay, which in turn derived its name from Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (1577–1618), the first governor of the Colony of Virginia. The Delaware people, a name used by Europeans for Lenape people Indigenous to the Delaware Valley, also derive their name from the same source.
The name de La Warr was derived from Sussex and is of Anglo-French origin. It came probably from a Norman lieu-dit La Guerre. This toponymic likely derived from Latin ager, the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin (fallow). The toponyms Gara, Gare, Gaire, (the sound [ä] often mutated in [æ]) also appear in historical texts cited by Lucien Musset, where the word ga(i)ra means gore. It could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr.
==History==
===Native Americans===
Before Delaware was settled by European colonists, the present-day state was home to the Eastern Algonquian tribes known as the Unami Lenape, or Delaware, who lived mostly along the coast, and the Nanticoke who occupied much of the southern Delmarva Peninsula. John Smith also shows two Iroquoian tribes, the Kuskarawock and Tockwogh, living north of the Nanticoke—they may have held small portions of land in the western part of the state before migrating across the Chesapeake Bay. The Kuskarawocks were most likely the Tuscarora.
The Unami Lenape in the Delaware Valley were closely related to Munsee Lenape tribes along the Hudson River. They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and they rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the Minqua or Susquehannock. With the loss of their lands on the Delaware River and the destruction of the Minqua by the Iroquois of the Five Nations in the 1670s, the remnants of the Lenape who wished to remain identified as such left the region and moved over the Allegheny Mountains by the mid-18th century. Generally, those who did not relocate out of the state of Delaware were baptized, became Christian and were grouped together with other persons of color in official records and in the minds of their non-Native American neighbors.
===Colonial Delaware===
The Dutch were the first Europeans to settle in present-day Delaware in the middle region by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of Lewes in 1631. Within a year, all the settlers were killed in a dispute with Native American tribes living in the area. In 1638, New Sweden, a Swedish trading post and colony, was established at Fort Christina (now in Wilmington) by Peter Minuit at the head of a group of Swedes, Finns and Dutch. The colony of New Sweden lasted 17 years. In 1651, the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant, established a fort at present-day New Castle and, in 1655, they conquered the New Sweden colony, annexing it into the Dutch New Netherland. Only nine years later, in 1664, the Dutch were conquered by a fleet of English ships by Sir Robert Carr under the direction of James, the Duke of York. Fighting off a prior claim by Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, Proprietor of Maryland, the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to William Penn in 1682. Penn strongly desired access to the sea for his Pennsylvania province and leased what then came to be known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware" Massachusetts and New Hampshire also shared a governor for some time.
Dependent in early years on indentured labor, Delaware imported more slaves as the number of English immigrants decreased with better economic conditions in England. The colony became a slave society and cultivated tobacco as a cash crop, although English immigrants continued to arrive.
===American Revolution===
Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially showed little enthusiasm for a break with Britain. The citizenry had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their Colonial Assembly than in other colonies. Merchants at the port of Wilmington had trading ties with the British.
New Castle lawyer Thomas McKean denounced the Stamp Act in the strongest terms, and Kent County native John Dickinson became the "Penman of the Revolution". Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, Patriot leaders Thomas McKean and Caesar Rodney convinced the Colonial Assembly to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on June 15, 1776. The person best representing Delaware's majority, George Read, could not bring himself to vote for a Declaration of Independence. Only the dramatic overnight ride of Caesar Rodney gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware's vote for independence.
Initially led by John Haslet, Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the Continental Army, known as the "Delaware Blues" and nicknamed the "Blue Hen's Chicks". In August 1777 General Sir William Howe led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the Battle of Brandywine and capture of the city of Philadelphia. The only real engagement on Delaware soil was the Battle of Cooch's Bridge, fought on September 3, 1777, at Cooch's Bridge in New Castle County, although there was a minor Loyalist rebellion in 1778.
Following the Battle of Brandywine, Wilmington was occupied by the British, and State President John McKinly was taken prisoner. The British remained in control of the Delaware River for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active Loyalist portion of the population, particularly in Sussex County. Because the British promised slaves of rebels freedom for fighting with them, escaped slaves flocked north to join their lines.
Following the American Revolution, statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central United States with equal representation for each state.
===Slavery and race===
Many colonial settlers came to Delaware from Maryland and Virginia, where the population had been increasing rapidly. The economies of these colonies were chiefly based on labor-intensive tobacco and increasingly dependent on African slaves because of a decline in working class immigrants from England. Most of the English colonists had arrived as indentured servants (contracted for a fixed period to pay for their passage), and in the early years the line between servant and slave was fluid.
Most of the free African-American families in Delaware before the Revolution had migrated from Maryland to find more affordable land. They were descendants chiefly of relationships or marriages between white servant women and enslaved, servant or free African or African-American men. Under slavery law, children took the social status of their mothers, so children born to white women were free, regardless of their paternity, just as children born to enslaved women were born into slavery. As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, more slaves were imported for labor and the caste lines hardened.
By the end of the colonial period, the number of enslaved people in Delaware began to decline. Shifts in the agriculture economy from tobacco to mixed farming resulted in less need for slaves' labor. In addition local Methodists and Quakers encouraged slaveholders to free their slaves following the American Revolution, and many did so in a surge of individual manumissions for idealistic reasons. By 1810, three-quarters of all blacks in Delaware were free. When John Dickinson freed his slaves in 1777, he was Delaware's largest slave owner with 37 slaves. By 1860, the largest slaveholder owned 16 slaves.
Although attempts to abolish slavery failed by narrow margins in the legislature, in practical terms the state had mostly ended the practice. By the 1860 census on the verge of the Civil War, 91.7% of the black population were free; 1,798 were slaves, as compared to 19,829 "free colored persons".
An independent black denomination was chartered in 1813 by freed slave Peter Spencer as the "Union Church of Africans". This followed the 1793 establishment in Philadelphia of the African Methodist Episcopal Church by Richard Allen, which had ties to the Methodist Episcopal Church until 1816. Spencer built a church in Wilmington for the new denomination. This was renamed as the African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant Church and Connection, more commonly known as the A.U.M.P. Church. In 1814, Spencer called for the first annual gathering, known as the Big August Quarterly, which continues to draw members of this denomination and their descendants together in a religious and cultural festival.
Delaware voted against secession on January 3, 1861, and so remained in the Union. While most Delaware citizens who fought in the war served in the regiments of the state, some served in companies on the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments. Delaware is notable for being the only slave state from which no Confederate regiments or militia groups were assembled. Delaware essentially freed the few slaves who were still in bondage shortly after the Civil War but rejected the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution; the 13th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1865, the 14th Amendment was rejected on February 8, 1867, and the 15th Amendment was rejected on March 18, 1869. Delaware officially ratified the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments on February 12, 1901, decades after they had already come into force.
===Reconstruction and industrialization===
During the Reconstruction Era that followed the Civil War, Democratic Redeemer governments led by the South's Bourbon aristocracy continued to dominate the region and imposed explicitly white supremacist regimes in the former slave states. The Delaware legislature declared Black people to be second-class citizens in 1866, and restricted their voting rights despite the 15th Amendment, ensuring continued Democratic success in the state throughout most of the 19th century. Fearful that the 1875 Civil Rights Act passed by Congress might establish racial equality, Delaware legislators passed Jim Crow laws that mandated segregation in public facilities. The state's educational system was segregated by operation of law. Delaware's segregation was written into the state constitution, which, while providing at Article X, Section 2, that "no distinction shall be made on account of race or color", nonetheless required that "separate schools for white and colored children shall be maintained."
Beginning in the late 19th century, the Wilmington area grew into a manufacturing center. Investment in manufacturing in the city grew from $5.5 million in 1860 to $44 million in 1900. The most notable manufacturer in the state was the chemical company DuPont, which to this day is heavily credited with making the state what it is today in many ways. Because of Wilmington's growth, local politicians from the city and New Castle County pressured the state government to adopt a new constitution providing the north with more representation. However, the subsequent 1897 constitution did not proportionally represent the north and continued to give the southern counties disproportionate influence.
As manufacturing expanded, businesses became major players in state affairs and funders of politicians through families such as the Du Ponts. Republican John Addicks attempted to buy a US Senate seat multiple times in a rivalry with the Du Ponts until the passage of the 17th Amendment. The allegiance of industries with the Republican party allowed them to gain control of the state's governorship throughout most of the 20th century. The GOP ensured black people could vote because of their general support for Republicans and thus undid restrictions on Black suffrage.
Delaware benefited greatly from World War I because of the state's large gunpowder industry. DuPont, the most dominant business in the state by WWI, produced an estimated 40% of all gunpowder used by the Allies during the war. It produced nylon in the state after the war and began investments into General Motors. Additionally, the company invested heavily in the expansion of public schools in the state and colleges such as the University of Delaware in the 1910s and 1920s. This included primary and secondary schools for Black people and women. Delaware suffered less during the Great Depression than other states, but the depression spurred further migration from the rural south to urban areas.
===World War II to present===
Like in World War I, the state enjoyed a big stimulus to its gunpowder and shipyard industries in World War II. New job opportunities during and after the war in the Wilmington area coaxed Black people from the southern counties to move to the city. The proportion of blacks constituting the city's population rose from 15% in 1950 to over 50% by 1980. The surge of Black migrants to the north sparked white flight, in which middle class whites moved from the city to suburban areas, leading to de facto segregation of Northern Delaware's society. In the 1940s and 1950s, Delaware attempted to integrate its schools, although the last segregated school in the state did not close until 1970. The University of Delaware admitted its first black student in 1948, and local courts ruled that primary schools had to be integrated. Delaware's integration efforts partially inspired the US Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which found racial segregation in United States public schools to be unconstitutional. The result of the Brown ruling was that Delaware became fully integrated, albeit with time and much effort.
In October 1954, the city of Milford became the scene of one of the country's first pro-segregation boycotts after eleven Black students were enrolled in the previously all-white Milford High School. Mass protests continued in Milford; the school board eventually ceded to the protestors, expelling the Black students. The ensuing unrest, which included cross burnings, rallies, and pro-segregation demonstrations, contributed to desegregation in most of Southern Delaware being delayed for another ten years. Sussex County did not start closing or integrating its segregated schools until 1965, 11 years after the Brown ruling. Throughout the state, integration only encouraged more white flight, and poor economic conditions for the black population led to some violence during the 1960s. Riots broke out in Wilmington in 1967 and again in 1968 in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, after which the National Guard occupied the city for nine months to prevent further violence.
Since WWII, the state has been generally economically prosperous and enjoyed relatively high per capita income because of its location between major cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Washington, DC. Its population grew rapidly, particularly in the suburbs in the north where New Castle county became an extension of the Philadelphia metropolitan area. Americans, including migrants from Puerto Rico, and immigrants from Latin America flocked to the state. By 1990, only 50% of Delaware's population consisted of natives to the state.
==Geography==
Delaware is long and ranges from across, with a land area of and a total area of , making it the second-smallest state by either metric in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey, and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland. Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the eastern side of the Delaware River sharing land boundaries with New Jersey. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the Delmarva Peninsula, which stretches down the Mid-Atlantic Coast.
The definition of the northern boundary of the state is unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania was originally defined by an arc extending from the cupola of the courthouse in the city of New Castle. This boundary is often referred to as the Twelve-Mile Circle. Although the Twelve-Mile Circle is often claimed to be the only territorial boundary in the U.S. that is a true arc, the Mexican boundary with Texas includes several arcs, and many cities in the South (such as Plains, Georgia) also have circular boundaries.
This border extends all the way east to the low-tide mark on the New Jersey shore, then continues south along the shoreline until it again reaches the arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel (thalweg) of the Delaware River.
On the west, Delaware and Maryland are mostly separated by a line running from the midpoint of the Transpeninsular Line, going slightly west of due north up to its tangent point on the Twelve-Mile Circle. The border follows the Circle for a short distance and then continues in a straight line due north until reaching the southern border of Pennsylvania. The Wedge of land between the northwest part of the arc and the Maryland border was claimed by both Delaware and Pennsylvania until 1921, when Delaware's claim was confirmed.
===Topography===
Delaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, is less than above sea level. A ridge about high extends along the western boundary of the state and separates the watersheds that feed Delaware River and Bay to the east and the Chesapeake Bay to the west.
===Climate===
Since almost all of Delaware is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain, the effects of the ocean moderate its climate. The state lies in the humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) zone. Despite its small size (roughly from its northernmost to southernmost points), there is significant variation in mean temperature and amount of snowfall between Sussex County and New Castle County. Moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay, the southern portion of the state has a milder climate and a longer growing season than the northern portion of the state.
Summers are long, hot, and humid in Delaware, often with intense (but brief) late day thundershowers. Delaware averages 2,300 hrs of sunshine annually (higher than the USA average). Winters are modestly cool to cold in northern Delaware, and cool to mild in southern Delaware. The normal seasonal snowfall ranges from about 20.0 inches in Wilmington to only 10.0 inches in Lewes. In many winters no snow will fall in coastal Delaware. Northern Delaware falls into USDA Garden Zone 7a, while southern and coastal areas fall into USDA zone 7b and 8a. The milder climate in southern Delaware allows for subtropical flora such as the windmill palm, needle palm, and dwarf palmetto.
Delaware's all-time record high of was recorded at Millsboro on July 21, 1930. The all-time record low of was also recorded at Millsboro, on January 17, 1893. The hardiness zones are 7B and 8A at the Delaware Beaches.
===Environment===
The transitional climate of Delaware supports a wide variety of vegetation. In the northern third of the state are found Northeastern coastal forests and mixed oak forests typical of the northeastern United States. In the southern two-thirds of the state are found Middle Atlantic coastal forests.
==Municipalities==
Wilmington is the state's most populous city (70,635) and its economic hub. It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore. Dover is the state capital and the second most populous city (38,079).
===Counties===
Kent
New Castle
Sussex
===Cities===
Delaware City
Dover
Harrington
Lewes
Middletown
Milford
New Castle
Newark
Rehoboth Beach
Seaford
Wilmington
===Towns===
Bellefonte
Bethany Beach
Bethel
Blades
Bowers
Bridgeville
Camden
Cheswold
Clayton
Dagsboro
Delmar
Dewey Beach
Ellendale
Elsmere
Farmington
Felton
Fenwick Island
Frankford
Frederica
Georgetown
Greenwood
Hartly
Henlopen Acres
Houston
Kenton
Laurel
Leipsic
Little Creek
Magnolia
Millsboro
Millville
Milton
Newport
Ocean View
Odessa
Selbyville
Slaughter Beach
Smyrna
South Bethany
Townsend
Viola
Woodside
Wyoming
===Villages===
Arden
Ardencroft
Ardentown
===Unincorporated places===
Bear
Brookside
Christiana
Clarksville
Claymont
Dover Base Housing
Edgemoor
Glasgow
Greenville
Gumboro
Harbeson
Highland Acres
Hockessin
Kent Acres
Lincoln City
Long Neck
Marshallton
Mount Pleasant
North Star
Oak Orchard
Omar
Pennyhill
Pike Creek
Pike Creek Valley
Rising Sun-Lebanon
Riverview
Rodney Village
Roxana
Saint Georges
Sandtown
Stanton
Wilmington Manor
Wooddale
Woodland
Woodside East
Yorklyn
File:Dover Delaware.jpg|Dover
File:Newark DE Main Street.jpg|Newark
File:High Street, Seaford, Delaware (2006).jpg|Seaford
File:Wilmington Delaware skyline.jpg|Wilmington
The table below lists the ten largest municipalities in the state based on the 2020 United States census.
==Demographics==
The United States Census Bureau determined that the population of Delaware was 989,948 on April 1, 2020, an increase from the 2010 census figure of 897,934.
Delaware's history as a border state has led it to exhibit characteristics of both the Northern and the Southern regions of the United States. Generally, the rural Southern (or "Slower Lower") regions of Delaware below the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal embody a Southern culture, while densely-populated Northern Delaware above the canal—particularly Wilmington, a part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area—has more in common with that of the Northeast and the North. The U.S. Census Bureau designates Delaware as one of the South Atlantic States,
Delaware is the sixth most densely populated state, with a population density of 442.6 people per square mile, 356.4 per square mile more than the national average, and ranking 45th in population. Delaware is one of five U.S. states (Maine, Vermont, West Virginia, Wyoming) that do not have a single city with a population over 100,000 as of the 2010 census. The center of population of Delaware is in New Castle County, in the town of Townsend.
According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,369 homeless people in Delaware.
===Race and ethnicity===
According to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of the state was 68.9% White American (65.3% Non-Hispanic White, 3.6% White Hispanic), 21.4% Black or African American, 0.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.2% Asian American, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 3.4% some other race, and 2.7% of multiracial origin. People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, made up 8.2% of the population.
The 2022 American Community Survey estimated the state had a racial and ethnic makeup of 60.6% non-Hispanic whites, 23.6% Black or African American, 0.7% American Indian or Alaska Native, 4.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.9% multiracial, and 10.1% Hispanic or Latin American of any race.
In the Native American community, the state has a Native American group, called in their own language Lenape, which was influential in the colonial period of the United States and is today headquartered in Cheswold, Kent County, Delaware. A band of the Nanticoke tribe of American Indians today resides in Sussex County and is headquartered in Millsboro, Sussex County, Delaware.
Delaware's population mainly consisted of people from the British Isles, African slaves, Germans and a few remaining Native Americans during the colonial era. Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, and Russian Jewish immigrants were attracted by the industries in the Wilmington area. In the late 20th century a Puerto Rican community formed in Wilmington. Guatemalan people migrated to Sussex county to work in Delaware's poultry industry. A group of Native Americans in Delaware of mixed ethnicity, the Moors, live in Cheswold. The descendants of the Nanticoke people live around Millsboro. There is also a small numbers of Asians in New Castle county who work as scientific and engineering professionals.
The top countries of origin for Delaware's immigrants in 2018 were Mexico, India, Guatemala, China, and Jamaica.
===Birth data===
Note: Births in table do not add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
===Languages===
In 2000, 91% of Delaware residents of age5 and older spoke only English at home; 5% spoke Spanish. French was the third most spoken language, used by 0.7% of the population, followed by Chinese (0.5%) and German (0.5%). Legislation has been proposed in both the House and the Senate in Delaware to designate English as the official language. Neither bill was passed in the legislature.
===Sexual orientation===
A 2012 Gallup poll found that Delaware's proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults stood at 3.4% of the population. This constitutes a total LGBT adult population estimate of 23,698 people. The number of same-sex couple households in 2010 stood at 2,646. This grew by 41.65% from a decade earlier. On July 1, 2013, same-sex marriage was legalized, and all civil unions were converted into marriages.
===Religion===
The predominant religion practiced in Delaware is Christianity. A 2014 estimate by the Pew Research Center found that members of Protestant churches accounted for almost half of the population, though the Roman Catholic Church was the largest single denomination in the state. By 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute determined 61% of the population was Christian. In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute's survey revealed 60% were Christian, followed by Jews (3%), Hindus (1%), and New Agers (1%).
The Association of Religion Data Archives reported in 2010 that the three largest Christian denominational groups in Delaware by number of adherents are the Catholic Church at 182,532 adherents, the United Methodist Church with 53,656 members reported, and non-denominational evangelical Protestants, who numbered 22,973. In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported the largest Christian denominations were the Catholic Church with 197,094; non-denominational Protestants with 49,392, and United Methodists with 39,959.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington and the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware oversee the parishes within their denominations. The A.U.M.P. Church, the oldest African-American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington. It still has a substantial presence in the state. Reflecting new immigrant populations, an Islamic mosque has been built in the Ogletown area, and a Hindu temple in Hockessin.
Delaware is home to an Amish community which resides west of Dover in Kent County, consisting of nine church districts and about 1,650 people. The Amish first settled in Kent County in 1915. In recent years, increasing development has led to the decline in the number of Amish living in the community.
A 2012 survey of religious attitudes in the United States found that 34% of Delaware residents considered themselves "moderately religious", 33% "very religious", and 33% as "non-religious". At the 2014 Pew Research survey, 23% of the population were irreligious; the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute's survey determined 31% of the population were irreligious.
|-
!DE County!!March 2010!!March 2011
|-
|New Castle||229,000||216,000
|-
|Sussex||323,000||296,000
|-
|Kent||186,000||178,000
|}
According to a 2020 study by Kiplinger, Delaware had the 17th most millionaires per capita in the United States; altogether, there were 25,937 such individuals. The median income for Delaware households as of 2020 was $64,805.
===Agriculture===
Delaware's agricultural output consists of poultry, nursery stock, soybeans, dairy products and corn.
===Industries===
, the state's unemployment rate was 3.7%.
The state's largest employers are:
government (State of Delaware, New Castle County)
education (University of Delaware, Delaware Technical Community College)
banking (Bank of America, M&T Bank, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank)
chemical, pharmaceutical, technology (DuPont de Nemours Inc., AstraZeneca, Syngenta, Agilent Technologies)
healthcare (ChristianaCare (Christiana Hospital), Bayhealth Medical Center, Nemours Children's Hospital, Delaware)
farming, specifically chicken farming in Sussex County (Perdue Farms, Mountaire Farms, Allen Family Foods)
retail (Walmart, Walgreens, Acme Markets)
====Industrial decline====
Since the mid-2000s, Delaware has seen the departure of the state's automotive manufacturing industry (General Motors Wilmington Assembly and Chrysler Newark Assembly), the corporate buyout of a major bank holding company (MBNA), the departure of the state's steel industry (Evraz Claymont Steel), the bankruptcy of a fiber mill (National Vulcanized Fiber), and the diminishing presence of AstraZeneca in Wilmington.
In late 2015, DuPont announced that 1,700 employees, nearly a third of its footprint in Delaware, would be laid off in early 2016. The merger of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. and Dow Chemical Company into DowDuPont took place on September 1, 2017.
===Incorporation in Delaware===
More than half of all U.S. publicly traded companies, and 63% of the Fortune 500, are incorporated in Delaware. The state's attractiveness as a corporate haven is largely because of its business-friendly corporation law. Franchise taxes on Delaware corporations supply about a fifth of the state's revenue. Although "USA (Delaware)" ranked as the world's most opaque jurisdiction on the Tax Justice Network's 2009 Financial Secrecy Index, the same group's 2011 Index ranks the U.S. fifth and does not specify Delaware. In Delaware, there are more than a million registered corporations, meaning there are more corporations than people.
===Food and drink===
Title 4, chapter 7 of the Delaware Code stipulates that alcoholic liquor be sold only in specifically licensed establishments, and only between 9:00a.m. and 1:00a.m. Until 2003, Delaware was among the several states enforcing blue laws and banned the sale of liquor on Sunday.
==Media==
=== Newspapers ===
Two daily newspapers are based in Delaware, the Delaware State News, based in Dover and covering the two southern counties, and The News Journal covering Wilmington and northern Delaware. The state is also served by several weekly, monthly and online publications.
===Television===
No standalone television stations are based solely in Delaware. The northern part of the state is served by network stations in Philadelphia and the southern part by network stations in Salisbury, Maryland. Philadelphia's ABC affiliate, WPVI-TV, maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington. Salisbury's CBS affiliate, WBOC-TV, maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton. Three Philadelphia-market stations—PBS member WHYY-TV, Ion affiliate WPPX, and MeTV affiliate WDPN-TV—all have Wilmington as their city of license, but maintain transmitters at the market antenna farm in Roxborough, Philadelphia and do not produce any Delaware-centric programming.
===Radio===
There are a numerous radio stations licensed in Delaware. WDDE 91.1 FM, WDEL 1150AM, WHGE-LP 95.3 FM, WILM 1450 AM, WVCW 99.5, WMPH 91.7 FM, WSTW 93.7 FM, WTMC 1380 AM and WWTX 1290AM are licensed from Wilmington. WRDX 92.9 FM is licensed from Smyrna. WDOV 1410AM, WDSD 94.7 FM and WRTX 91.7 FM are licensed from Dover.
==Tourism==
Delaware is home to First State National Historical Park, a National Park Service unit composed of historic sites across the state including the New Castle Court House, Green, and Sheriff's House, Dover Green, Beaver Valley, Fort Christina, Old Swedes' Church, John Dickinson Plantation, and the Ryves Holt House. Delaware has several museums, wildlife refuges, parks, houses, lighthouses, and other historic places.
Rehoboth Beach, together with the towns of Lewes, Dewey Beach, Bethany Beach, South Bethany, and Fenwick Island, comprise Delaware's beach resorts. Rehoboth Beach often bills itself as "The Nation's Summer Capital" because it is a frequent summer vacation destination for Washington, D.C., residents as well as visitors from Maryland, Virginia, and in lesser numbers, Pennsylvania. Vacationers are drawn for many reasons, including the town's charm, artistic appeal, nightlife, and tax-free shopping. According to SeaGrant Delaware, the Delaware beaches generate $6.9billion annually and over $711million in tax revenue.
Delaware is home to several festivals, fairs, and events. Some of the more notable festivals are the Riverfest held in Seaford, the World Championship Punkin Chunkin formerly held at various locations throughout the state since 1986, the Rehoboth Beach Chocolate Festival, the Bethany Beach Jazz Funeral to mark the end of summer, the Apple Scrapple Festival held in Bridgeville, the Clifford Brown Jazz Festival in Wilmington, the Rehoboth Beach Jazz Festival, the Sea Witch Halloween Festival and Parade in Rehoboth Beach, the Rehoboth Beach Independent Film Festival, the Nanticoke Indian Pow Wow in Oak Orchard, Firefly Music Festival, and the Return Day Parade held after every election in Georgetown.
In 2015, tourism in Delaware generated $3.1billion, which makes up five percent of the state's GDP. Delaware saw 8.5million visitors in 2015, with the tourism industry employing 41,730 people, making it the 4th largest private employer in the state. Major origin markets for Delaware tourists include Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York City, Washington, D.C., and Harrisburg, with 97% of tourists arriving to the state by car and 75% of tourists coming from a distance of or less.
Delaware is also home to two large sporting venues. Dover Motor Speedway is a race track in Dover, and Frawley Stadium in Wilmington is the home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks, a Minor League Baseball team that is currently affiliated with the Washington Nationals.
==Education==
In the early 1920s, Pierre S. du Pont served as president of the state board of education. At the time, state law prohibited money raised from white taxpayers from being used to support the state's schools for black children. Appalled by the condition of the black schools, du Pont donated four million dollars to construct 86 new school buildings.
Delaware was the origin of Belton v. Gebhart (1952), one of the four cases which were combined into Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States decision that led to the end of officially segregated public schools. Significantly, Belton was the only case in which the state court found for the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation is unconstitutional.
Unlike many states, Delaware's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions. This centralized system, combined with the small size of the state, likely contributed to Delaware becoming the first state, after completion of a three-year, $30million program ending in 1999, to wire every K-12 classroom in the state to the Internet.
, the Delaware Department of Education had authorized the founding of 25 charter schools in the state, one of them being all-girls.
In 2010, Delaware had the largest percentage of students attending private schools of places within the United States.
All teachers in the State's public school districts are unionized. , none of the State's charter schools are members of a teachers union.]]
The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT). Funding for DelDOT projects is drawn, in part, from the Delaware Transportation Trust Fund, established in 1987 to help stabilize transportation funding; the availability of the Trust led to a gradual separation of DelDOT operations from other Delaware state operations. DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware Adopt-a-Highway program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware Division of Motor Vehicles, the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as "DART First State", the state government public transportation organization), and others.
In 2009, DelDOT maintained 13,507 lane-miles, totaling 89 percent of the state's public roadway system, the rest being under the supervision of individual municipalities. This far exceeds the national average (20 percent) for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility.
===Roads===
One major branch of the U.S. Interstate Highway System, Interstate95 (I-95), crosses Delaware southwest-to-northeast across New Castle County. Two Auxiliary Interstate Highway routes are also located in the state. Interstate 495 (I-495) is an eastern bypass of Wilmington. Interstate 295 (I-295) is a bypass of Philadelphia which begins south of Wilmington. In addition to Interstate highways, there are six U.S. highways that serve Delaware: U.S.9, U.S.13, U.S.40, U.S.113, U.S.202, and U.S.301. There are also several state highways that cross the state of Delaware; a few of them include DE1, DE9, and DE404. U.S.13 and DE1 are primary north–south highways connecting Wilmington and Pennsylvania with Maryland, with DE1 serving as the main route between Wilmington and the Delaware beaches. DE9 is a north–south highway connecting Dover and Wilmington via a scenic route along the Delaware Bay. U.S.40 is a primary east–west route, connecting Maryland with New Jersey. DE404 is another primary east–west highway connecting the Chesapeake Bay Bridge in Maryland with the Delaware beaches. The state also operates three toll highways, the Delaware Turnpike, which is I-95, between Maryland and New Castle; the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway, which is DE1, between Wilmington and Dover; and the U.S. 301 toll road between the Maryland border and DE1 in New Castle County.
A bicycle route, Delaware Bicycle Route 1, spans the north–south length of the state from the Maryland border in Fenwick Island to the Pennsylvania border north of Montchanin. It is the first of several signed bike routes planned in Delaware.
Delaware has about 875 bridges, 95 percent of which are under the supervision of DelDOT. About 30 percent of all Delaware bridges were built before 1950, and about 60 percent of the number are included in the National Bridge Inventory. Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Delaware Memorial Bridge, which is under the bi-state Delaware River and Bay Authority.
It has been noted that the tar and chip composition of secondary roads in Sussex County makes them more prone to deterioration than are the asphalt roadways in almost the rest of the state. Among these roads, Sussex (county road) 236 is among the most problematic. CSX connects with the freight/heritage operation, the Wilmington and Western Railroad, based in Wilmington and the East Penn Railroad, which operates a line from Wilmington to Coatesville, Pennsylvania.
The last north–south passenger trains through the main part of Delaware was the Pennsylvania Railroad's local Wilmington-Delmar train in 1965. This was a successor to the Del-Mar-Va Express and Cavalier, which had run from Philadelphia through the state's interior, to the end of the Delmarva Peninsula until the mid-1950s.
The DART First State public transportation system was named "Most Outstanding Public Transportation System" in 2003 by the American Public Transportation Association. Coverage of the system is broad within northern New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex counties. The system includes bus, subsidized passenger rail operated by Philadelphia transit agency SEPTA, and subsidized taxi and paratransit modes. The paratransit system, consisting of a statewide door-to-door bus service for the elderly and disabled, has been described by a Delaware state report as "the most generous paratransit system in the United States". This put an end to an eight-month period during which Delaware had no scheduled air service, one of several since 1991. Various airlines had served Wilmington Airport, the latest departure being Frontier Airlines in June 2022.
Delaware is centrally situated in the Northeast megalopolis region of cities along I-95. Therefore, Delaware commercial airline passengers most frequently use Philadelphia International Airport (PHL), Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI) and Washington Dulles International Airport (IAD) for domestic and international transit. Residents of Sussex County will also use Wicomico Regional Airport (SBY), as it is located less than from the Delaware border. Atlantic City International Airport (ACY), Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR), and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (DCA) are also within a radius of New Castle County.
Other general aviation airports in Delaware include Summit Airport near Middletown, Delaware Airpark near Cheswold, and Delaware Coastal Airport near Georgetown.
Dover Air Force Base, one of the largest in the country, is home to the 436th Airlift Wing and the 512th Airlift Wing. In addition to its other responsibilities in the Air Mobility Command, it serves as the entry point and mortuary for U.S. military personnel (and some civilians) who die overseas.
==Law and government==
Delaware's fourth and current constitution, adopted in 1897, provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches.
===Legislative branch===
The Delaware General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives with 41 members and a Senate with 21 members. It sits in Dover, the state capital. Representatives are elected to two-year terms, while senators are elected to four-year terms. The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the governor.
Delaware's U.S. Senators are Lisa Blunt Rochester (Democrat) and Chris Coons (Democrat). Delaware's single U.S. Representative is Sarah McBride (Democrat).
===Judicial branch===
The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts:
The Delaware Supreme Court is the state's highest court.
The Delaware Superior Court is the state's trial court of general jurisdiction.
The Delaware Court of Chancery deals primarily in corporate disputes.
The Family Court handles domestic and custody matters.
The Delaware Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction over a limited class of civil and criminal matters.
Minor non-constitutional courts include the Justice of the Peace Courts and Aldermen's Courts.
Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of Chancery in the nation, which has jurisdiction over equity cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to mergers and acquisitions. The Court of Chancery and the Delaware Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers. In addition, the Delaware General Corporation Law, which forms the basis of the Courts' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs. For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business-friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of companies are incorporated in Delaware, including 60% of the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
Delaware was the last U.S. state to use judicial corporal punishment, in 1952.
===Executive branch===
The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Delaware. The current governor is Matt Meyer (Democrat), who took office January 21, 2025. The lieutenant governor is Kyle Evans Gay. The governor presents a "State of the State" speech to a joint session of the Delaware legislature annually.
The executive branch also consists of the Attorney General of Delaware currently held by Kathy Jennings, the State Treasurer currently held by Colleen Davis, the Auditor of Accounts currently held by Lydia York and the Insurance Commissioner currently held by Trinidad Navarro.
===Counties===
Delaware is subdivided into three counties; from north to south they are New Castle, Kent and Sussex. This is the fewest among all states. Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as County Council, and in Kent County as Levy Court), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues. Most functions which are handled on a county-by-county basis in other states—such as court and law enforcement—have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government. The counties were historically divided into hundreds, which were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s, but now serve no administrative role, their only current official legal use being in real estate title descriptions.
===Politics===
The Democratic Party holds a plurality of registrations in Delaware. Currently, Democrats hold all positions of authority in Delaware, as well as majorities in the state Senate and House. The Democrats have held the governorship since 1993, having won the last seven gubernatorial elections. Democrats presently hold all the nine statewide elected offices, while the Republicans last won any statewide offices in 2014, State Auditor and State Treasurer.
During the First and Second Party Systems, Delaware was a stronghold for the Federalist and Whig Parties, respectively. After a relatively brief adherence to the Democratic Solid South following the US Civil War, Delaware became a Republican-leaning state from 1896 through 1948, voting for losing Republicans Charles Evans Hughes in 1916, Herbert Hoover in 1932, and Thomas Dewey in 1948.
During the second half of the 20th century, Delaware was a bellwether state, voting for the winner of every presidential election from 1952 through 1996. Delaware's bellwether status came to an end when Delaware voted for Al Gore in 2000 by 13%. Subsequent elections have continued to demonstrate Delaware's current strong Democratic lean: John Kerry carried the First State by 8% in 2004; Barack Obama carried it by 25% and by 19% in his two elections of 2008 and 2012; and Hillary Clinton carried it by 11% as she lost the Electoral College in 2016. In 2020, Delaware native (and Barack Obama's former vice president and running mate) Joe Biden headed the Democratic ticket; he carried his home state by just shy of 19% en route to a national 4.5% win.
The dominant factor in Delaware's political shift has been the strong Democratic trend in heavily urbanized New Castle County, home to 55% of Delaware's population. New Castle County has not voted Republican in a presidential election since 1988, and has given Democrats over 60% of its vote in every election from 2004 on. In 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2016, the Republican presidential candidate carried both Kent and Sussex but lost by double digits each time in New Castle County, which was a large enough margin to tip the state to the Democrats. New Castle County also elects a substantial majority of the state legislature; 27 of the 41 state house districts and 14 of the 21 state senate districts are based in New Castle County.
In a 2020 study, Delaware was ranked as the 18th hardest state for citizens to vote in.
===Freedom of information===
Each of the 50 states of the United States has passed some form of freedom of information legislation, which provides a mechanism for the general public to request information of the government. In 2011 Delaware passed legislation placing a 15 business day time limit on addressing freedom-of-information requests, to either produce information or an explanation of why such information would take longer than this time to produce. A bill aimed at restricting Freedom of Information Act requests, Senate Bill 155, was discussed in committee.
===Taxation===
Tax is collected by the Delaware Division of Revenue.
Delaware has six different income tax brackets, ranging from 2.2% to 5.95%. The state does not assess sales tax on consumers. The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses. Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096% to 1.92%, depending on the category of business activity.
Delaware does not assess a state-level tax on real or personal property. Real estate is subject to county property taxes, school district property taxes, vocational school district taxes, and, if located within an incorporated area, municipal property taxes.
Gambling provides significant revenue to the state. For instance, the casino at Delaware Park Racetrack provided more than $100million to the state in 2010.
In June 2018, Delaware became the first U.S. state to legalize sports betting following the Supreme Court ruling to overturn the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992 (PASPA).
===Voter registration===
==Culture==
===Festivals===
===Sports===
Professional teams
As Delaware has no franchises in the major American professional sports leagues, many Delawareans follow either Philadelphia or Baltimore teams. In the WNBA, the Washington Mystics enjoy a major following due to the presence of Wilmington native and University of Delaware product Elena Delle Donne. The University of Delaware's football team has a large following throughout the state, with the Delaware State University and Wesley College teams also enjoying a smaller degree of support.
Delaware is home to Dover Motor Speedway and Bally's Dover. Dover Motor Speedway, also known as the Monster Mile, is one of only 10 tracks in the nation to have hosted 100 or more NASCAR Cup Series races. Bally's Dover is a popular harness racing facility. It is the only co-located horse- and car-racing facility in the nation, with the Bally's Dover track located inside the Dover Motor Speedway track.
Delaware is represented in rugby by the Delaware Black Foxes, a 2015 expansion club.
Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW). CZW has been affiliated with the annual Tournament of Death and ECWA with its annual Super8 Tournament.
Delaware's official state sport is bicycling.
==Foreign affairs==
=== Sister state ===
Delaware has had a foreign sister state in Japan, named Miyagi Prefecture. These two have shared relations since 1997, and have had exchange programs available for students that were briefly paused in wake of the earthquake and the tsunami that ensued in the prefecture during March 2011.
== Delawareans ==
Prominent Delawareans include the du Pont family of politicians and businesspersons, and the 46th president of the United States Joe Biden. Biden’s family moved to Delaware during his childhood, and he later represented Delaware for 36 years in the United States Senate from 1973 to 2009, before being 47th vice president of the United States from 2009 to 2017.
|
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] |
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Dictionary
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A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by consonantal root for Semitic languages or radical and stroke for logographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage, etymologies, pronunciations, translation, etc. It is a lexicographical reference that shows inter-relationships among the data.
A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a comprehensive range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study. In theory, general dictionaries are supposed to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types. There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (thesauri), and rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary.
There is also a contrast between prescriptive or descriptive dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications (e.g. "informal" or "vulgar") in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive.
The first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times around 2300 BCE, in the form of bilingual dictionaries, and the oldest surviving monolingual dictionaries are Chinese dictionaries . The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was A Table Alphabeticall, written in 1604, and monolingual dictionaries in other languages also began appearing in Europe at around this time. The systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest arose as a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta.
==History==
The oldest known dictionaries were cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian–Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla (modern Syria) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the Akkadian Empire. The early 2nd millennium BCE Urra=hubullu glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A Chinese dictionary, the Erya, is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; and some sources cite the Shizhoupian (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of Chinese characters from Zhou dynasty bronzes. Philitas of Cos (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary Disorderly Words (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ) which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms. Apollonius the Sophist (fl. 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon. The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the Tenrei Banshō Meigi, was also a glossary of written Chinese. In Frahang-i Pahlavig, Aramaic heterograms are listed together with their translation in the Middle Persian language and phonetic transcription in the Pazend alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, Sanas Cormaic, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The Karakhanid-Turkic scholar Mahmud Kashgari finished his work "Divan-u Lügat'it Türk", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially Karakhanid Turkic. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language. Al-Zamakhshari wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler Atsiz. In the 14th century, the Codex Cumanicus was finished and it served as a dictionary about the Cuman-Turkic language. While in Mamluk Egypt, Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the Kipchak and Turcoman languages spoken in Egypt and the Levant. A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in old Anatolian Turkish from the Seljuk period and not the late medieval Ottoman period. In India around 1320, Amir Khusro compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with Hindustani and Persian words.['' is an example of an illustrated dictionary.]]
Arabic dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the radicals, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the Lisan al-`Arab (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and al-Qamus al-Muhit (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The Qamus al-Muhit is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the Lisan and the Oxford English Dictionary.
In medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents for Latin words in vernacular or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the Leiden Glossary). The Catholicon (1287) by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 Ambrogio Calepino's Dictionarium was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 Robert Estienne published the Thesaurus linguae latinae and in 1572 his son Henri Estienne published the Thesaurus linguae graecae, which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was Sebastián Covarrubias's Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain. In 1612 the first edition of the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, for Italian, was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the Dictionnaire Universel by Antoine Furetière for French. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the (still published, with the ninth edition not complete ). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the Vocabulario portughez e latino written by Raphael Bluteau. The Royal Spanish Academy published the first edition of the (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their Diccionario de Autoridades, which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The Totius Latinitatis lexicon by Egidio Forcellini was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published.
The first edition of A Greek-English Lexicon by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the Deutsches Wörterbuch by the Brothers Grimm; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the Dizionario della lingua italiana by Niccolò Tommaseo. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of A magyar nyelv szótára (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. Émile Littré published the between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl published the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. The Duden dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the prescriptive source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the Svenska Akademiens ordbok was taken in 1787.
===English dictionaries in Britain===
The earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English. The word "dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called John of Garland in 1220 he had written a book Dictionarius to help with Latin "diction". An early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words was the Elementarie, created by Richard Mulcaster in 1582.
The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was A Table Alphabeticall, written by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604.
In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his "English Expositor". Glossographia by Thomas Blount, published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories. Edward Phillips wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled "The New World of English Words: Or a General Dictionary" which boldly plagiarized Blount's work, and the two criticised each other. This created more interest in the dictionaries. John Wilkins' 1668 essay on philosophical language contains a list of 11,500 words with careful distinctions, compiled by William Lloyd. Elisha Coles published his "English Dictionary" in 1676.
It was not until Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced. By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first "modern" dictionary. was not released until 1928. One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane.
The OED remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months.
===American English dictionaries===
In 1806, American Noah Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language.
In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like StarDict and the New Oxford American Dictionary are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet.
===Specialized dictionaries===
According to the Manual of Specialized Lexicographies, a specialized dictionary, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses upon a specific subject field, as opposed to a dictionary that comprehensively contains words from the lexicon of a specific language or languages. Following the description in The Bilingual LSP Dictionary, lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types: A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g. a business dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g. law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a more specialized field (e.g. constitutional law). For example, the 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europe is a multi-field dictionary, the American National Biography is a single-field, and the African American National Biography Project is a sub-field dictionary. In terms of the coverage distinction between "minimizing dictionaries" and "maximizing dictionaries", multi-field dictionaries tend to minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions and Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms) whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within a limited subject field (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology).
Another variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine (medical dictionary).
===Defining dictionaries===
The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English idioms and metaphors, can be defined.
===Prescriptive vs. descriptive===
Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: prescriptive or descriptive. Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American English now uses the spelling color while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers colour. (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.)
Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and Webster's Third are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words. Most dictionaries of English now apply the descriptive method to a word's definition, and then, outside of the definition itself, provide information alerting readers to attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused. Merriam-Webster is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, sometimes offensive or stand (nonstandard). American Heritage goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." Encarta provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning...".
Because of the widespread use of dictionaries in schools, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, with even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, the meanings of words in English are primarily determined by usage, and the language is being changed and created every day. As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature."
Sometimes the same dictionary can be descriptive in some domains and prescriptive in others. For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary is "at war with itself": whereas its coverage (lexical items) and glosses (definitions) are descriptive and colloquial, its vocalization is prescriptive. This internal conflict results in absurd sentences such as hi taharóg otí kshetiré me asíti lamkhonít (she'll tear me apart when she sees what I've done to the car). Whereas hi taharóg otí, literally 'she will kill me', is colloquial, me (a variant of ma 'what') is archaic, resulting in a combination that is unutterable in real life.
=== Historical dictionaries ===
A historical dictionary is a specific kind of descriptive dictionary which describes the development of words and senses over time, usually using citations to original source material to support its conclusions.
===Dictionaries for natural language processing===
In contrast to traditional dictionaries, which are designed to be used by human beings, dictionaries for natural language processing (NLP) are built to be used by computer programs. The final user is a human being but the direct user is a program. Such a dictionary does not need to be able to be printed on paper. The structure of the content is not linear, ordered entry by entry but has the form of a complex network (see Diathesis alternation). Because most of these dictionaries are used to control machine translations or cross-lingual information retrieval (CLIR) the content is usually multilingual and usually of huge size. In order to allow formalized exchange and merging of dictionaries, an ISO standard called Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) has been defined and used among the industrial and academic community.
===Other types===
Bilingual dictionary
Collegiate dictionary (American)
Learner's dictionary (mostly British)
Electronic dictionary
Encyclopedic dictionary
Monolingual learner's dictionary
Advanced learner's dictionary
By sound
Rhyming dictionary
Reverse dictionary (Conceptual dictionary)
Visual dictionary
Satirical dictionary
Phonetic dictionary
==Pronunciation==
In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling. In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation. For example, the definition for the word dictionary might be followed by the International Phonetic Alphabet spelling (in British English) or (in American English). American English dictionaries often use their own pronunciation respelling systems with diacritics, for example dictionary is respelled as "dĭk′shə-nĕr′ē" in the American Heritage Dictionary. The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, dictionary may be respelled as . Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken.
==Examples==
===Major English dictionaries===
===Dictionaries of other languages===
Histories and descriptions of the dictionaries of other languages on Wikipedia include:
Arabic dictionaries
Chinese dictionaries
Dehkhoda Dictionary (Persian Language)
Dutch dictionaries
French dictionaries
German dictionaries
Japanese dictionaries
Polish dictionaries
Scottish Gaelic dictionaries
Scottish Language Dictionaries
Sindhi Language Dictionaries
==Online dictionaries==
The age of the Internet brought online dictionaries to the desktop and, more recently, to the smart phone. David Skinner in 2013 noted that "Among the top ten lookups on Merriam-Webster Online at this moment are holistic, pragmatic, caveat, esoteric and bourgeois. Teaching users about words they don't already know has been, historically, an aim of lexicography, and modern dictionaries do this well."
There exist a number of websites which operate as online dictionaries, usually with a specialized focus. Some of them have exclusively user driven content, often consisting of neologisms. Some of the more notable examples are given in List of online dictionaries and :Category:Online dictionaries.
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7,935 |
David D. Friedman
|
David Director Friedman (; born February 12, 1945) is an American economist, physicist, legal scholar, and anarcho-capitalist theorist. Although his academic training was in chemistry and physics and not law or economics, he is known for his textbook writings on microeconomics and the libertarian theory of anarcho-capitalism, which is the subject of his most popular book, The Machinery of Freedom. Described by Walter Block as a "free-market anarchist" theorist, Friedman has also authored several other books and articles, including Price Theory: An Intermediate Text (1986), Law's Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and Why It Matters (2000), Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life (1996), and Future Imperfect (2008).
==Life and work==
David Friedman is the son of economists Rose and Milton Friedman. He graduated magna cum laude from Harvard University in 1965, with a bachelor's degree in chemistry and physics. He later earned a master's (1967) and a PhD (1971) in theoretical physics from the University of Chicago. Despite his later career, he never took a class for credit in either economics or law. He was a professor of law at Santa Clara University from 2005 to 2017, and a contributing editor for Liberty magazine. He is currently a Professor Emeritus. He is an atheist. His son, Patri Friedman, has also written about libertarian theory and market anarchism, particularly seasteading.
===The Machinery of Freedom===
In his book The Machinery of Freedom (1973), Friedman sketched a form of anarcho-capitalism where all goods and services including law itself can be produced by the free market. Friedman advocates an incrementalist approach to achieve anarcho-capitalism by gradual privatization of areas that government is involved in, ultimately privatizing the law itself. In the book, he states his opposition to violent anarcho-capitalist revolution.
He advocates a consequentialist version of anarcho-capitalism, arguing for it on a cost–benefit analysis of state versus no state. It is contrasted with the natural-rights approach as propounded most notably by economist and libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard.
==Non-academic interests==
Friedman is a longtime member of the Society for Creative Anachronism, where he is known as Duke Cariadoc of the Bow. He is known throughout the worldwide society for his articles on the philosophy of recreationism and practical historical recreations, especially those relating to the medieval Middle East. His work is compiled in the popular Cariadoc's Miscellany. He is sometimes credited with founding the largest and longest-running SCA event, the Pennsic War; as king of the Middle Kingdom he challenged the East Kingdom, and later as king of the East accepted the challenge and lost (to himself).
He was a teenage wargamer who taught his school friend, Jack Radey, founder of People's War Games, how to play such wargames as Tactics II. Radey relates how Friedman and himself wrote to Charles S. Roberts claiming that they had found a first turn winning strategy for each of the two sides. Roberts replied that their interpretation of the rules was valid.
Salamander (2011) and its sequel Brothers (2020) are fantasy.
He has spoken in favor of a non-interventionist foreign policy.
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] |
7,938 |
Diatomic molecule
|
Diatomic molecules () are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements. If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen () or oxygen (), then it is said to be homonuclear. Otherwise, if a diatomic molecule consists of two different atoms, such as carbon monoxide () or nitric oxide (), the molecule is said to be heteronuclear. The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non-polar.
The only chemical elements that form stable homonuclear diatomic molecules at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (or at typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 °C) are the gases hydrogen (), nitrogen (), oxygen (), fluorine (), and chlorine (), and the liquid bromine ().
The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) are also gases at STP, but they are monatomic. The homonuclear diatomic gases and noble gases together are called "elemental gases" or "molecular gases", to distinguish them from other gases that are chemical compounds.
At slightly elevated temperatures, the halogens bromine () and iodine () also form diatomic gases. All halogens have been observed as diatomic molecules, except for astatine and tennessine, which are uncertain.
Other elements form diatomic molecules when evaporated, but these diatomic species repolymerize when cooled. Heating ("cracking") elemental phosphorus gives diphosphorus (). Sulfur vapor is mostly disulfur (). Dilithium () and disodium () are known in the gas phase. Ditungsten () and dimolybdenum () form with sextuple bonds in the gas phase. Dirubidium () is diatomic.
== Heteronuclear molecules ==
All other diatomic molecules are chemical compounds of two different elements. Many elements can combine to form heteronuclear diatomic molecules, depending on temperature and pressure.
Examples are gases carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Many 1:1 binary compounds are not normally considered diatomic because they are polymeric at room temperature, but they form diatomic molecules when evaporated, for example gaseous MgO, SiO, and many others.
== Occurrence ==
Hundreds of diatomic molecules have been identified in the environment of the Earth, in the laboratory, and in interstellar space. About 99% of the Earth's atmosphere is composed of two species of diatomic molecules: nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The natural abundance of hydrogen (H2) in the Earth's atmosphere is only of the order of parts per million, but H2 is the most abundant diatomic molecule in the universe. The interstellar medium is dominated by hydrogen atoms.
== Molecular geometry ==
All diatomic molecules are linear and characterized by a single parameter which is the bond length or distance between the two atoms. Diatomic nitrogen has a triple bond, diatomic oxygen has a double bond, and diatomic hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine all have single bonds.
== Historical significance ==
Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules. John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed water's formula to be HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as eight times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century.
As early as 1805, Gay-Lussac and von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860, partly due to the belief that atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity toward atoms of the same element, and also partly due to apparent exceptions to Avogadro's law that were not explained until later in terms of dissociating molecules.
At the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress on atomic weights, Cannizzaro resurrected Avogadro's ideas and used them to produce a consistent table of atomic weights, which mostly agree with modern values. These weights were an important prerequisite for the discovery of the periodic law by Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer.
== Excited electronic states ==
Diatomic molecules are normally in their lowest or ground state, which conventionally is also known as the X state. When a gas of diatomic molecules is bombarded by energetic electrons, some of the molecules may be excited to higher electronic states, as occurs, for example, in the natural aurora; high-altitude nuclear explosions; and rocket-borne electron gun experiments. These potentials give more accurate energy levels because they take multiple vibrational effects into account.
Concerning history, the first treatment of diatomic molecules with quantum mechanics was made by Lucy Mensing in 1926.
=== Translational energies ===
The translational energy of the molecule is given by the kinetic energy expression:
E_\text{trans} = \frac{1}{2}mv^2
where m is the mass of the molecule and v is its velocity.
=== Rotational energies ===
Classically, the kinetic energy of rotation is
E_\text{rot} = \frac{L^2}{2 I}
where
L \, is the angular momentum
I \, is the moment of inertia of the molecule
For microscopic, atomic-level systems like a molecule, angular momentum can only have specific discrete values given by
L^2 = \ell(\ell+1) \hbar^2
where \ell is a non-negative integer and \hbar is the reduced Planck constant.
Also, for a diatomic molecule the moment of inertia is
I = \mu r_0^2
where
\mu \, is the reduced mass of the molecule and
r_0 \, is the average distance between the centers of the two atoms in the molecule.
So, substituting the angular momentum and moment of inertia into , the rotational energy levels of a diatomic molecule are given by:
E_\text{rot} = \frac{\ell (\ell + 1) \hbar^2}{2 \mu r_0^2}, \quad \ell = 0, 1, 2, \dots
=== Vibrational energies ===
Another type of motion of a diatomic molecule is for each atom to oscillate—or vibrate—along the line connecting the two atoms. The vibrational energy is approximately that of a quantum harmonic oscillator:
E_\text{vib} = \left(n + \tfrac{1}{2} \right)\hbar \omega, \quad n = 0, 1, 2, \dots,
where
n is an integer
\hbar is the reduced Planck constant and
\omega is the angular frequency of the vibration.
=== Comparison between rotational and vibrational energy spacings ===
The spacing, and the energy of a typical spectroscopic transition, between vibrational energy levels is about 100 times greater than that of a typical transition between rotational energy levels.
== Hund's cases==
The good quantum numbers for a diatomic molecule, as well as good approximations of rotational energy levels, can be obtained by modeling the molecule using Hund's cases.
== Mnemonics ==
The mnemonics BrINClHOF, pronounced "Brinklehof", HONClBrIF, pronounced "Honkelbrif", “HOBrFINCl”, pronounced “Hoberfinkel”, and HOFBrINCl, pronounced "Hofbrinkle", have been coined to aid recall of the list of diatomic elements. Another method, for English-speakers, is the sentence: "Never Have Fear of Ice Cold Beer" as a representation of Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine.
|
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"Amedeo Avogadro",
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"AXE method",
"hydrogen",
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"Symmetry of diatomic molecules",
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"chemical compound",
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"Dmitri Mendeleev",
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"heteronuclear molecule",
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"molecular term symbol",
"Hund's cases",
"rotational energy",
"good quantum number",
"point spread function",
"sextuple bond",
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"argon",
"vibration",
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"Stanislao Cannizzaro",
"Octatomic element",
"angular momentum"
] |
7,939 |
Duopoly
|
A duopoly (from Greek , ; and , ) is a type of oligopoly where two firms have dominant or exclusive control over a market, and most (if not all) of the competition within that market occurs directly between them.
Duopoly is the most commonly studied form of oligopoly due to its simplicity. Duopolies sell to consumers in a competitive market where the choice of an individual consumer choice cannot affect the firm in a duopoly market, as the defining characteristic of duopolies is that decisions made by each seller are dependent on what the other competitor does. Duopolies can exist in various forms, such as Cournot, Bertrand, or Stackelberg competition. These models demonstrate how firms in a duopoly can compete on output or price, depending on the assumptions made about firm behavior and market conditions.
Similar features are discernible in national political systems of party duopoly.
==Duopoly models in economics and game theory==
===Cournot duopoly===
====Cournot model in game theory====
In 1838, Antoine Augustin Cournot published a book titled "Researches Into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth" in which he introduced and developed this model for the first time. As an imperfect competition model, Cournot duopoly (also known as Cournot competition), in which two firms with identical cost functions compete with homogenous products in a static context, is also known as Cournot competition. The Cournot model, shows that two firms assume each other's output and treat this as a fixed amount, and produce in their own firm according to this. The Cournot duopoly model relies on the following assumptions:
Each firm chooses a quantity to produce independently
All firms make this choice simultaneously
The cost structures of the firms are public information
In this model, two companies, each of which chooses its own quantity of output, compete against each other while facing constant marginal and average costs. The market price is determined by the sum of the output of two companies. P(Q)=a-bQ is the equation for the market demand function.
Market with two firms with constant marginal cost
Inverse market demand for a homogeneous good:
Where is the sum of both firms' production levels:
Firms choose their quantity simultaneously (static game)
Firms maximize their profit:
\begin{aligned}
\Pi_1(q_1,q_2) &= \left(P(q_1 + q_2) - c_1\right)*q_1\,, \\
\Pi_2(q_1,q_2) &= \left(P(q_1 + q_2) - c_2\right)*q_2
\end{aligned}
The general process for obtaining a Nash equilibrium of a game using the best response functions is followed in order to discover a Nash equilibrium of Cournot's model for a specific cost function and demand function. A Nash Equilibrium of the Cournot model is a such that
For a given q_2^* solves:
\begin{aligned}
\operatorname{MAX}_{q1} \Pi_1(q_1, q_2^*) &= (P(q_1 + q_2^*) - c_1)q_1\,, \\
\operatorname{MAX}_{q2} \Pi_2(q_1^*, q_2) &= (P(q_1^* + q_2) - c_1)q_2
\end{aligned}
Given the other firm's optimal quantity, each firm maximizes its profit over the residual inverse demand. In equilibrium, no firm can increase profits by changing its output level Two first order conditions equal to zero are the best response.
Cournot's duopoly marked the beginning of the study of oligopolies, and specifically duopolies, as well as the expansion of the research of market structures, which had previously focussed on the extremes of perfect competition and monopoly. In the Cournot duopoly model, firms choose the quantity of output they produce simultaneously, taking into consideration the quantity produced by their competitor. Each firm's profit depends on the total output produced by both firms, and the market price is determined by the sum of their outputs. The goal of each firm is to maximize its profit given the output produced by the other firm. This process continues until both firms reach a Nash equilibrium, where neither firm has an incentive to change its output level given the output of the other firm.
===Bertrand duopoly===
====Bertrand model in game theory====
The Bertrand competition was developed by a French mathematician called Joseph Louis François Bertrand after investigating the claims of the Cournot model in "Researches into the mathematical principles of the theory of wealth, 1838". Bertrand took issue with this. In this market structure, each firm could only choose whole amounts and each firm receives zero payoffs when the aggregate demand exceeds the size of the amount that they share with each other. The market demand function is Q(P)=a-bP. The Bertrand model has similar assumptions to the Cournot model:
Two firms
Homogeneous products
Both firms know the market demand curve
However, unlike the Cournot model, it assumes that firms have the same MC. It also assumes that the MC is constant.
The Bertrand model, in which, in a game of two firms, competes in price instead of output. Each one of them will assume that the other will not change prices in response to its price cuts. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash equilibrium.
Consider price competition among two firms () selling homogeneous good
Downward sloping market demand , with
Constant, symmetric marginal cost
Static game: firms set prices simultaneously
Rationing rule of demand:
lowest priced firm wins all demand at its price
if prices are tied, each firm gets half of market demand at this price
Firm s profits: \Pi_i = (p_i-c)D_i(p_i, p_j)
Let be the monopoly price, p^m = \operatorname{argmax}_p(p-c)D(p)
Firm s best response is:
R_i(p_j) = \begin{cases}
p^m, & \text{if } p_j > p^m \\
p_j - c, & \text{if } c < p_j \le p^m \\
c, & \text{if } p_j \le c
\end{cases}
For rival prices above cost, each firm has incentive to undercut rival to get the whole demand. If rival prices below cost, firms make losses when it attracts demand; firm better off charging at cost level. Nash equilibrium is .
====Bertrand paradox====
Under static price competition with homogenous products and constant, symmetric marginal cost, firms price at the level of marginal cost and make no economic profits. In contrast to the Cournot model, the Bertrand duopoly model assumes that firms compete on price rather than quantity. Each firm sets its price simultaneously, anticipating that the other firm will not change its price in response. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a Nash equilibrium, where neither firm has an incentive to change its price given the price set by the other firm. In this model, firms tend to price their products at the level of their marginal cost, resulting in zero economic profits, a phenomenon known as the Bertrand paradox.
== Characteristics of duopoly ==
Existence of only two sellers.
Interdependence: the action of each firm influences the demand faced by their rival.
Presence of monopoly elements: as long as products are differentiated, the firms enjoy some monopoly power, as each product will have some loyal customers.
It is the most basic form of oligopoly
Barriers to entry: high entry barriers are often present in duopolies, making it difficult for new firms to enter the market.
== Quality standards ==
In a duopoly, quality standards can play a significant role in the competitive dynamics between the two firms. A low-quality manufacturer may benefit from a slightly stringent quality standard in the absence of sunk costs, whereas a high-quality producer may suffer from it. Consumer welfare improves if the firm generating the higher quality does not considerably enhance its quality in response to its competitor's increase in quality. Exit from the industry is triggered by a sufficiently strict requirement. The high-quality producer exits first when there are no sunk costs. In some cases, firms may engage in a quality competition, attempting to outdo one another by improving their products or services to attract more customers.
==Politics==
Like a market, a political system can be dominated by two groups, which exclude other parties or ideologies from participation. This is known as a two-party system. In such a system, one party or the other tends to dominate government at any given time (the Majority party), while the other has only limited power (the Minority party). According to Duverger's law, this tends to be caused by a simple winner-take-all voting system without runoffs or ranked choices. The United States and many Latin American countries, such as Costa Rica, Guyana, and the Dominican Republic have two-party government systems.
===Duopoly in Danish court politics===
The prime minister-finance minister duopoly is an unusual form of court politics. There have been few other countries where the prime minister and the Treasury have had such a tumultuous relationship as Australia and the United Kingdom. There have been some confrontations in the past when the Finance ministry did not have the full support of the prime minister, leading to internal ministerial battles over economic strategy. A permanent civil service is a basic requirement for the duopoly system to function properly. The permanent civil service in general, and the Socialist Party in particular, are critical to the duopoly's effective operation. The conventional inter-governmental duopoly is carried by civil servants. The duopoly is confronted with some quandaries, such as tensions between different groups in the office over their relative positions. Departmental budget cuts are being made across the board. The prime ministerial-finance-ministry duopoly requires more credibility. Trust is a rare commodity among Australians and Britons. Denmark has a lot to offer. The Danish duopoly works together. Australia and the United Kingdom have competitive duopolies, and competitive duopolies are unstable.
== Types of duopoly ==
=== Cournot duopoly ===
A Cournot duopoly is a model of strategic interaction between two firms where they simultaneously choose their output levels, assuming the rival's output level is fixed. The firms compete on quantity, and each firm attempts to maximize its profit given the other firm's output level. This leads to a Nash equilibrium where neither firm has an incentive to change its output, given the other firm's output.
=== Bertrand duopoly ===
In a Bertrand duopoly, two firms compete on price instead of quantity. Each firm assumes that its rival's price is fixed and chooses its own price to maximize profit. This model predicts that, under certain conditions, firms will set prices equal to marginal cost, leading to perfect competition.
=== Stackelberg duopoly ===
A Stackelberg duopoly is a model where one firm (the leader) chooses its output level first, followed by the other firm (the follower). The follower observes the leader's output decision and adjusts its own output to maximize profit. The Stackelberg model often results in a higher total output and lower market price than the Cournot and Bertrand models.
==Examples in business==
A commonly cited example of a duopoly is that involving Visa and Mastercard, who between them control a large proportion of the electronic payment processing market. In 2000 they were the defendants in a United States Department of Justice antitrust lawsuit. An appeal was upheld in 2004.
Examples where two companies control an overwhelming proportion of a market are:
Airbus and Boeing in the largest commercial aircraft market in the world
Nvidia (who acquired competitor 3dfx in 2002) and AMD (formerly ATI which AMD acquired in 2006) in the GPU market
Intel and AMD in the desktop CPU market
Google's Android and Apple's iOS make up over 99% of the mobile operating system market
Coca-Cola and Pepsi in the soft drink market, resulting in the cola wars. The two companies control nearly all of the cola beverage market.
DC and Marvel in the American comic book market and movies
Woolworths and Coles in the Australian supermarket market
Walmart and Target in the American supermarket market
Myer and David Jones in the Australian upmarket department store market
Ford Australia and GM Holden in the Australian automotive industry
Husqvarna and Stihl in the chainsaw market
World Wrestling Entertainment (then World Wrestling Federation) and World Championship Wrestling in the professional wrestling industry of the 1980s and 90s, resulting in the Monday Night Wars
Windows and macOS in the desktop operating system (OS) market.
Kesko and S Group together hold a 85% market share of grocery stores in Finland.
Christie's and Sotheby's sell more than 80% of works priced over $1m at auction.
==Media==
In Finland, the state-owned broadcasting company Yleisradio and the private broadcaster Mainos-TV had a legal duopoly (in the economists' sense of the word) from the 1950s to 1993. No other broadcasters were allowed. Mainos-TV operated by leasing air time from Yleisradio, broadcasting in reserved blocks between Yleisradio's own programming on its two channels. This was a unique phenomenon in the world. Between 1986 and 1992 there was an independent third channel but it was jointly owned by Yle and M-TV; only in 1993 did M-TV get its own channel.
In Kenya, mobile service providers Safaricom and Airtel in Kenya form a duopoly in the Kenyan telecommunications industry.
In Singapore, the mass media industry is presently dominated by two players, namely Mediacorp and SPH Media Trust.
In the United Kingdom, the BBC and ITV formed an effective duopoly (with Channel 4 originally being economically dependent on ITV) until the development of multichannel from the 1990s onwards.
==Broadcasting==
Duopoly is used in the United States broadcast television and radio industry to refer to a single company owning two outlets in the same city. This usage is technically incompatible with the normal definition of the word and may lead to confusion, inasmuch as there are generally more than two owners of broadcast television stations in markets with broadcast duopolies. In Canada, this definition is therefore more commonly called a "twinstick".
|
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"Economics Letters",
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"Dominican Republic",
"United States Department of Justice",
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"ITV (TV network)",
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"Walmart",
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"two-party system",
"Joseph Louis François Bertrand",
"StatCounter"
] |
7,940 |
Dungeons & Dragons
|
Dungeons & Dragons (commonly abbreviated as D&D or DnD) is a fantasy tabletop role-playing game (TTRPG) originally created and designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson. The game was first published in 1974 by Tactical Studies Rules (TSR). which also deeply influenced video games, especially the role-playing video game genre.
D&D departs from traditional wargaming by allowing each player to create their own character to play instead of a military formation. These characters embark upon adventures within a fantasy setting. A Dungeon Master (DM) serves as referee and storyteller for the game, while maintaining the setting in which the adventures occur, and playing the role of the inhabitants of the game world, known as non-player characters (NPCs). The characters form a party and they interact with the setting's inhabitants and each other. Together they solve problems, engage in battles, explore, and gather treasure and knowledge. In the process, player characters earn experience points (XP) to level up, and become increasingly powerful over a series of separate gaming sessions. Players choose a class when they create their character, which gives them special perks and abilities every few levels.
The early success of D&D led to a proliferation of similar game systems. Despite the competition, D&D has remained the market leader in the role-playing game industry. In 1977, the game was split into two branches: the relatively rules-light game system of basic Dungeons & Dragons, and the more structured, rules-heavy game system of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (abbreviated as AD&D). AD&D 2nd Edition was published in 1989. In 2000, a new system was released as D&D 3rd edition, continuing the edition numbering from AD&D; a revised version 3.5 was released in June 2003. These 3rd edition rules formed the basis of the d20 System, which is available under the Open Game License (OGL) for use by other publishers. D&D 4th edition was released in June 2008. The 5th edition of D&D, the most recent, was released during the second half of 2014. and best-selling, role-playing game in the US, with an estimated 20 million people having played the game and more than US$1 billion in book and equipment sales worldwide. D&D 5th edition sales "were up 41 percent in 2017 from the year before, and soared another 52 percent in 2018, the game's biggest sales year yet". D&D is known beyond the game itself for other D&D-branded products, references in popular culture, and some of the controversies that have surrounded it, particularly a moral panic in the 1980s that attempted to associate it with Satanism and suicide. The game has won multiple awards and has been translated into many languages.
==Play overview==
Dungeons & Dragons is a structured yet open-ended role-playing game. Typically, one player takes on the role of Dungeon Master (DM) or Game Master (GM) while the others each control a single character, representing an individual in a fictional setting. During the course of play, each player directs the actions of their character and their interactions with other characters in the game. A game often continues over a series of meetings to complete a single adventure, and longer into a series of related gaming adventures, called a "campaign".
The results of the party's choices and the overall storyline for the game are determined by the DM according to the rules of the game and the DM's interpretation of those rules. The DM selects and describes the various non-player characters (NPCs) that the party encounters, the settings in which these interactions occur, and the outcomes of those encounters based on the players' choices and actions. Magic items are generally found in treasure hoards, or recovered from fallen opponents; sometimes, a powerful or important magic item is the object of a quest. The game's extensive rules – which cover diverse subjects such as social interactions, combat, – help the DM to make these decisions. The DM may choose to deviate from the published rules
The most recent versions of the game's rules are detailed in three Fifth Edition core rulebooks: The Player's Handbook, the Dungeon Master's Guide and the Monster Manual. The player then chooses a species (such as a dwarf, elf, or human – called "race" prior to 5e 2024), a character class (such as a fighter, rogue, or wizard), an alignment (a moral and ethical outlook), and other features to round out the character's abilities and backstory, which have varied in nature through differing editions.
During the game, players describe their PCs' intended actions to the DM, who then describes the result or response. Trivial actions, such as picking up a letter or opening an unlocked door, are usually automatically successful. The outcomes of more complex or risky actions, such as scaling a cliff or picking a lock, are determined by rolling dice. Different polyhedral dice are used for different actions. For example, a twenty-sided die is used to determine whether a hit is made in combat, with other dice such as four, six, eight, ten, or even twelve-sided die used to determine how much damage was dealt. Factors contributing to the outcome include the character's ability scores, skills, and the difficulty of the task. In circumstances where a character is attempting to avoid a negative outcome, such as when dodging a trap or resisting the effect of a spell, a saving throw can be used to determine whether the resulting effect is reduced or avoided. In this case the odds of success are influenced by the character's class, levels and ability scores. In circumstances where a character is attempting to complete a task such as picking a lock, deactivating a trap, or pushing a boulder, a Difficulty Class must be hit or exceeded. Relevant ability bonuses are added to help players succeed.
As the game is played, each PC changes over time and generally increases in capability. Characters gain (or sometimes lose) experience, skills and wealth, and may even alter their alignment or gain additional character classes, which is called "Multiclassing". The key way characters progress is by earning experience points (XP), which happens when they defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task. Acquiring enough XP allows a PC to advance a level, which grants the character improved class features, abilities and skills. XP can be lost in some circumstances, such as encounters with creatures that drain life energy, or by use of certain magical powers that come with an XP cost.
Hit points (HP) are a measure of a character's vitality and health and are determined by the class, level and Constitution of each character. They can be temporarily lost when a character sustains wounds in combat or otherwise comes to harm, and loss of HP is the most common way for a character to die in the game. Death can also result from the loss of key ability scores or character levels. When a PC dies, it is often possible for the dead character to be resurrected through magic, although some penalties may be imposed as a result. If resurrection is not possible or not desired, the player may instead create a new PC to resume playing the game.
===Adventures and campaigns===
A typical Dungeons & Dragons game consists of an "adventure", which is roughly equivalent to a single story or quest. The DM can either design an original adventure or follow one of the many premade adventures (also known as "modules") that have been published throughout the history of Dungeons & Dragons. Published adventures typically include a background story, illustrations, maps, and goals for players to achieve. Some may include location descriptions and handouts, although they are not required for gameplay. Although a small adventure entitled "Temple of the Frog" was included in the Blackmoor rules supplement in 1975, the first stand-alone D&D module published by TSR was 1978's Steading of the Hill Giant Chief, written by Gygax.
A linked series of adventures is commonly referred to as a "campaign". The locations where these adventures occur, such as a city, country, planet, or entire fictional universe, are referred to as "campaign settings" or "worlds." D&D settings are based in various fantasy genres and feature different levels and types of magic and technology. Popular commercially published campaign settings for Dungeons & Dragons include Greyhawk, Dragonlance, Forgotten Realms, Mystara, Spelljammer, Ravenloft, Dark Sun, Planescape, Birthright, and Eberron.
In addition to first-party campaigns and modules, two campaigns based on popular culture have been created. The first, based on Stranger Things, was released in May 2019. A campaign based on the Rick and Morty vs. Dungeons and Dragons comic book series was later released in November 2019.
Alternatively, DMs may develop their own fictional worlds to use as campaign settings, either planning the adventure ahead or expanding on it as the players progress.
===Miniature figures===
The wargames from which Dungeons & Dragons evolved used miniature figures to represent combatants. D&D initially continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursors. The original D&D set of 1974 required the use of the Chainmail miniatures game for combat resolution. By the publication of the 1977 game editions, combat was mostly resolved verbally. Thus, miniatures were no longer required for gameplay, although some players continued to use them as a visual reference.
In the 1970s, numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for Dungeons & Dragons and similar games. Licensed miniature manufacturers who produced official figures include Grenadier Miniatures (1980–1983), Citadel Miniatures (1984–1986), Ral Partha, and TSR itself. Most of these miniatures used the 25 mm scale.
Periodically, Dungeons & Dragons has returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures-based wargaming. Supplements such as Battlesystem (1985 and 1989) and a new edition of Chainmail (2001) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies by using miniatures.
== Sources and influences ==
An immediate predecessor of Dungeons & Dragons was a set of medieval miniature rules written by Jeff Perren. These were expanded by Gary Gygax, whose additions included a fantasy supplement, before the game was published as Chainmail. When Dave Wesely entered the Army in 1970, his friend and fellow Napoleonics wargamer Dave Arneson began a medieval variation of Wesely's Braunstein games, where players control individuals instead of armies. Arneson used Chainmail to resolve combat. As play progressed, Arneson added such innovations as character classes, experience points, level advancement, armor class, and others. The name was chosen by Gygax's two-year-old daughter Cindy; upon being presented with a number of choices of possible names, she exclaimed, "Oh Daddy, I like Dungeons & Dragons best!", although less prevalent versions of the story gave credit to his then wife Mary Jo.
Many Dungeons & Dragons elements appear in hobbies of the mid-to-late 20th century. For example, character-based role-playing can be seen in improvisational theater. Game-world simulations were well developed in wargaming. Fantasy milieux specifically designed for gaming could be seen in Glorantha's board games, among others. Ultimately, however, Dungeons & Dragons represents a unique blending of these elements.
The world of D&D was influenced by world mythology, history, pulp fiction, and contemporary fantasy novels, as listed by Gygax in the Appendix N of the original Dungeon Master's Guide. The importance of Tolkien's works The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit as an influence on D&D is controversial. The presence in the game of halflings, elves, half-elves, dwarves, orcs, rangers, and the like, as well as the convention of diverse adventurers forming a group, draw comparisons to these works. The resemblance was even closer before the threat of copyright action from Tolkien Enterprises prompted the name changes of hobbit to 'halfling', ent to 'treant', and balrog to 'balor'. For many years, Gygax played down the influence of Tolkien on the development of the game. However, in an interview in 2000, he acknowledged that Tolkien's work had a "strong impact" though he also said that the list of other influential authors was long.
The D&D magic system, in which wizards memorize spells that are used up once cast and must be re-memorized the next day, was heavily influenced by the Dying Earth stories and novels of Jack Vance. The original alignment system (which grouped all characters and creatures into 'Law', 'Neutrality' and 'Chaos') was derived from the novel Three Hearts and Three Lions by Poul Anderson. A troll described in this work influenced the D&D definition of that monster.
Other influences include the works of Robert E. Howard, Edgar Rice Burroughs, A. Merritt, H. P. Lovecraft, Fritz Leiber, L. Sprague de Camp, Fletcher Pratt, Roger Zelazny, and Michael Moorcock. Monsters, spells, and magic items used in the game have been inspired by hundreds of individual works such as A. E. van Vogt's "Black Destroyer", Coeurl (the Displacer Beast), Lewis Carroll's "Jabberwocky" (vorpal sword) and the Book of Genesis (the clerical spell 'Blade Barrier' was inspired by the "flaming sword which turned every way" at the gates of Eden).
== Development history ==
Dungeons & Dragons has gone through several revisions. Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions.
=== Original game ===
The original Dungeons & Dragons, now referred to as OD&D, is a small box set of three booklets published in 1974. With a very limited production budget of only $2000—with only $100 budgeted for artwork—it is amateurish in production and assumes the player is familiar with wargaming. Nevertheless, it grew rapidly in popularity, first among wargamers and then expanding to a more general audience of college and high school students. Roughly 1,000 copies of the game were sold in the first year, followed by 3,000 in 1975, and many more in the following years. This first set went through many printings and was supplemented with several official additions, such as the original Greyhawk and Blackmoor supplements (both 1975), as well as magazine articles in TSR's official publications and many fanzines.
==== Two-pronged strategy ====
In early 1977, TSR created the first element of a two-pronged strategy that would divide D&D for nearly two decades. A Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set boxed edition was introduced that cleaned up the presentation of the essential rules, makes the system understandable to the general public, and was sold in a package that could be stocked in toy stores. Each set covers game play for more powerful characters than the previous. The first four sets were compiled in 1991 as a single hardcover book, the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia, which was released alongside a new introductory boxed set.
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition was published in 1989, and a series of Player's Option manuals were released as optional rulebooks. The edition moved away from a theme of 1960s and 1970s "sword and sorcery" fantasy fiction to a mixture of medieval history and mythology. The rules underwent minor changes, including the addition of non-weapon proficiencies – skill-like abilities that appear in first edition supplements. The game's magic spells are divided into schools and spheres.
=== Wizards of the Coast ===
In 1997, a near-bankrupt TSR was purchased by Wizards of the Coast. Following three years of development, Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition was released in 2000. The new release folded the Basic and Advanced lines back into a single unified game. It was the largest revision of the D&D rules to date and served as the basis for a multi-genre role-playing system designed around 20-sided dice, called the d20 System. The 3rd Edition rules were designed to be internally consistent and less restrictive than previous editions of the game, allowing players more flexibility to create the characters they wanted to play. Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage further customization of characters. The new rules standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat. In 2003, Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5 was released as a revision of the 3rd Edition rules. This release incorporated hundreds of rule changes, mostly minor, and expanded the core rulebooks. Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition was announced at Gen Con in August 2007, and the initial three core books were released June 6, 2008. 4th Edition streamlined the game into a simplified form and introduced numerous rules changes. Many character abilities were restructured into "Powers". These altered the spell-using classes by adding abilities that could be used at will, per encounter, or per day. Likewise, non-magic-using classes were provided with parallel sets of options. Software tools, including player character and monster-building programs, became a major part of the game. This edition added the D&D Encounters program; a weekly event held at local stores designed to draw players back to the game by giving "the busy gamer the chance to play D&D once a week as their schedules allow. In the past, D&D games could take months, even years, and players generally had to attend every session so that the story flow wasn't interrupted. With Encounters, players can come and go as they choose and new players can easily be integrated into the story continuity".
=== 5th Edition ===
On January 9, 2012, Wizards of the Coast announced that it was working on a 5th edition of the game. The company planned to take suggestions from players and let them playtest the rules. Public playtesting began on May 24, 2012. At Gen Con 2012 in August, Mike Mearls, co-lead developer for 5th Edition, said that Wizards of the Coast had received feedback from more than 75,000 playtesters, but that the entire development process would take two years, adding, "I can't emphasize this enough ... we're very serious about taking the time we need to get this right." The release of the 5th Edition, coinciding with D&Ds 40th anniversary, occurred in the second half of 2014.
Since the release of 5th edition, dozens of Dungeons & Dragons books have been published including new rulebooks, campaign guides and adventure modules. 2017 had "the most number of players in its history—12 million to 15 million in North America alone". In 2018, Wizards of the Coast organized a massive live-stream event, the Stream of Many Eyes, where ten live-streamed sessions of Dungeons & Dragons were performed on Twitch over three days. This event won the Content Marketing Institute's 2019 award for best "In-Person (Event) Content Marketing Strategy". Dungeons & Dragons continued to have a strong presence on Twitch throughout 2019; this included a growing number of celebrity players and dungeon masters, such as Joe Manganiello, Deborah Ann Woll and Stephen Colbert. Wizards of the Coast has created, produced and sponsored multiple web series featuring Dungeons & Dragons. These shows have typically aired on the official Dungeons & Dragons Twitch and YouTube channels.
In 2020, Wizards of the Coast announced that Dungeons & Dragons had its 6th annual year of growth in 2019 with a "300 percent increase in sales of their introductory box sets, as well as a 65% increase on sales in Europe, a rate which has more than quadrupled since 2014". In terms of player demographics in 2019, 39% of identified as female and 61% identified as male. 40% of players are considered Gen Z (24 years old or younger), 34% of players are in the age range of 25–34 and 26% of players are aged 35+. Sarah Parvini, for the Los Angeles Times, wrote, "players and scholars attribute the game's resurgent popularity not only to the longueurs of the pandemic, but also to its reemergence in pop culture—on the Netflix series Stranger Things, whose main characters play D&D in a basement; on the sitcom The Big Bang Theory; or via the host of celebrities who display their love for the game online". This process will now require "every word, illustration, and map" to be reviewed at several steps in development "by multiple outside cultural consultants prior to publication". The previous process only included cultural consultants at the discretion of the product lead for a project. All products being reprinted will also go through this new review process and be updated as needed. In August 2022, Wizards announced that the next phase of major changes for Dungeons & Dragons would occur under the One D&D initiative which includes a public playtest of the next version of Dungeons & Dragons and an upcoming virtual tabletop (VTT) simulator with 3D environments developed using Unreal Engine. Revised editions of the Player's Handbook, Monster Manual, and Dungeon Master's Guide were scheduled to be released in 2024; the revised Player's Handbook and Dungeon Master's Guide were released in 2024, with the Monster Manual released in February 2025.
In April 2022, Hasbro announced that Wizards would acquire the D&D Beyond digital toolset and game companion from Fandom; the official transfer to Wizards occurred in May 2022. At the Hasbro Investor Event in October 2022, it was announced that Dan Rawson, former COO of Microsoft Dynamics 365, was appointed to the newly created position of Senior Vice President for the Dungeons & Dragons brand; Rawson will act as the new head of the franchise. Chase Carter of Dicebreaker highlighted that Rawson's role is "part of Wizards' plans to apply more resources to the digital side of D&D" following the purchase of D&D Beyond by Hasbro earlier in the year. Wizards of the Coast CEO Cynthia Williams and Hasbro CEO Chris Cocks, at a December 2022 Hasbro investor-focused web seminar, called the Dungeons & Dragons brand "under monetized". They highlighted the high engagement of fans with the brand, however, the majority of spending is by Dungeon Masters who are only roughly 20% of the player base. Williams commented that the increased investment in digital will "unlock the type of recurrent spending you see in digital games". Carter, now for Rascal, commented that "we know physical books sell poorly, and even if pre-orders for the 2024 core books are, uh, 'solid', according to the CEO, it's evident that Hasbro holds little faith in analog games clotting the money bleed elsewhere in the company's structure". Later that month, approximately 90% of the development team were laid off; in an internal communication, Hasbro Direct senior vice president Dan Rawson stated "our aspirations for Sigil as a large, standalone game with a distinct monetization path will not be realized". Following the release of core rulebooks for the 2024 revision, Dungeons & Dragons Creative Director Chris Perkins and Game Director Jeremy Crawford announced their departures from Wizards of the Coast. Christian Hoffer, for Screen Rant, highlighted that both "have been part of the Dungeons & Dragons design team for decades and were two of the lead designers of" Dungeons & Dragons 5th Edition. On this change in game's leadership, he noted that VP of Franchise and Product (Dungeons & Dragons) Jess Lanzillo "mentioned that James Wyatt and Wes Schneider, principal designers who have been part of the D&D team for years, will both have a 'bigger place at the table'" and "other designers, including Justice Arman, would also have progressive leadership roles as well". This attitude changed in the mid-1980s when TSR took legal action to try to prevent others from publishing compatible material. This angered many fans and led to resentment by the other gaming companies. TSR itself ran afoul of intellectual property law in several cases.
With the launch of Dungeons & Dragonss 3rd Edition, Wizards of the Coast made the d20 System available under the Open Game License (OGL) and d20 System trademark license. Under these licenses, authors were free to use the d20 System when writing games and game supplements. The OGL has allowed a wide range of unofficial commercial derivative work based on the mechanics of Dungeons and Dragons'' to be produced since 2000; it is credited with increasing the market share of d20 products' and leading to a "boom in the RPG industry in the early 2000s".
With the release of the 4th Edition, Wizards of the Coast introduced its Game System License, which represented a significant restriction compared to the very open policies embodied by the OGL. In part as a response to this, some publishers (such as Paizo Publishing with its Pathfinder Roleplaying Game) who previously produced materials in support of the D&D product line, decided to continue supporting the 3rd Edition rules, thereby competing directly with Wizards of the Coast. Others, such as Kenzer & Company, returned to the practice of publishing unlicensed supplements and arguing that copyright law does not allow Wizards of the Coast to restrict third-party usage.
During the 2000s, there has been a trend towards reviving and recreating older editions of D&D, known as the Old School Revival. This, in turn, inspired the creation of "retro-clones", games that more closely recreate the original rule sets, using material placed under the OGL along with non-copyrightable mechanical aspects of the older rules to create a new presentation of the games.
Alongside the publication of the 5th Edition, Wizards of the Coast established a two-pronged licensing approach. The core of the 5th Edition rules have been made available under the OGL, while publishers and independent creators have also been given the opportunity to create licensed materials directly for Dungeons & Dragons and associated properties like the Forgotten Realms under a program called the DM's Guild. The DM's Guild does not function under the OGL, but uses a community agreement intended to foster liberal cooperation among content creators. Two 5th Edition starter box sets based on TV shows, Stranger Things and Rick and Morty, were released in 2019. Source books based on Dungeons & Dragons live play series have also been released: Acquisitions Incorporated (2019) and Explorer's Guide to Wildemount (2020).
Between November and December 2022, there was reported speculation that Wizards was planning on discontinuing the OGL for Dungeons & Dragons based on unconfirmed leaks. In response to the speculation, Wizards stated in November 2022: "We will continue to support the thousands of creators making third-party D&D content with the release of One D&D in 2024." Codega highlighted that "if the original license is in fact no longer viable, every single licensed publisher will be affected by the new agreement. [...] The main takeaway from the leaked OGL 1.1 draft document is that WotC is keeping power close at hand". The Motley Fool highlighted that "Hasbro pulled an abrupt volte-face and had its subsidiary D&D Beyond publish a mea culpa on its website". On January 27, 2023, following feedback received during the open comment period for the draft OGL1.2, Wizards of the Coast announced that the System Reference Document 5.1 (SRD 5.1) would be released under an irrevocable Creative Commons license (CC BY 4.0) effective immediately and Wizards would no longer pursue deauthorizing the OGL1.0a.
== Reception ==
Eric Goldberg reviewed Dungeons & Dragons in Ares Magazine #1 (March 1980), rating it a 6 out of 9, and commented that "Dungeons and Dragons is an impressive achievement based on the concept alone, and also must be credited with cementing the marriage between the fantasy genre and gaming." Goldberg again reviewed Dungeons & Dragons in Ares Magazine #3 and commented that "D&D is the FRP game played most often in most places." In the 1980 book The Complete Book of Wargames, game designer Jon Freeman asked, "What can be said about a phenomenon? Aside from Tactics II and possibly PanzerBlitz (the first modern tactical wargame), this is the most significant war game since H.G. Wells." However, Freeman did have significant issues with the game, pointing out, "On the other hand, beginning characters are without exception dull, virtually powerless, and so fragile" which was not encouraging for "newcomers." He also called the magic system "stupid" feeling that many of the spells were "redundant" and "the effects of the majority are hopelessly vague." He found essential elements such as saving throws, hit points, and experience points "undefined or poorly explained; the ratio of substance to "holes" compares unfavorably with the head of a tennis racquet." He also noted the rules were "presented in the most illiterate display of poor grammar, misspellings, and typographical errors in professional wargaming." Despite all these issues, Freeman concluded, "As it was given birth, it is fascinating but misshapen; in its best incarnations, it's perhaps the most exciting and attractive specimen alive."
The game had over three million players worldwide by 1981, and copies of the rules were selling at a rate of about 750,000 per year by 1984. Beginning with a French language edition in 1982, Dungeons & Dragons has been translated into many languages beyond the original English. By 2004, consumers had spent more than on Dungeons & Dragons products and the game had been played by more than 20 million people. As many as six million people played the game in 2007.
===Acclaim===
The various editions of Dungeons & Dragons have won many Origins Awards, including All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977, Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989, Best Roleplaying Game of 2000 and Best Role Playing Game and Best Role Playing Supplement of 2014 for the flagship editions of the game. Both Dungeons & Dragons and Advanced Dungeons & Dragons are Origins Hall of Fame Games inductees as they were deemed sufficiently distinct to merit separate inclusion on different occasions. The independent Games magazine placed Dungeons & Dragons on their Games 100 list from 1980 through 1983, then entered the game into the magazine's Hall of Fame in 1984. Games magazine included Dungeons & Dragons in their "Top 100 Games of 1980", saying "The more players, the merrier." Advanced Dungeons & Dragons was ranked 2nd in the 1996 reader poll of Arcane magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time. Dungeons & Dragons was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 2016 and into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2017.
=== Later editions ===
Later editions would lead to inevitable comparisons between the game series. Scott Taylor for Black Gate in 2013 rated Dungeons & Dragons as #1 in the top ten role-playing games of all time, saying "The grand-daddy of all games, D&D just keeps on going, and although there might always be 'edition wars' between players, that just says that it effectively stays within the consciousness of multiple generations of players as a relevant piece of entertainment."
Griffin McElroy, for Polygon in 2014, wrote: "The game has shifted in the past four decades, bouncing between different rules sets, philosophies and methods of play. Role-playing, character customization and real-life improvisational storytelling has always been at the game's core, but how those ideas are interpreted by the game system has changed drastically edition-to-edition". Dieter Bohn, for The Verge in 2014, wrote: "Every few years there's been a new version of D&D that tries to address the shortcomings of the previous version and also make itself more palatable to its age. [...] The third edition got a reputation (which it didn't necessarily deserve) for being too complex and rules-focused. The fourth edition got a reputation (which it didn't necessarily deserve) for being too focused on miniatures and grids, too mechanical. Meanwhile, the company that owns D&D had released a bunch of its old material for free as a service to fans, and some of that was built up into a competing game called Pathfinder. Pathfinder ultimately became more popular, by some metrics, than D&D itself". Bohn highlighted that the 5th Edition was "designed for one purpose: to bring D&D back to its roots and win back everybody who left during the edition wars". Henry Glasheen, for SLUG Magazine in 2015, highlighted that after jumping ship during the 4th Edition era he was drawn back to Dungeons & Dragons with 5th Edition and he considers it "the new gold standard for D20-based tabletop RPGs". Glasheen wrote "Fifth Edition is a compelling reason to get excited about D&D again" and "while some will welcome the simplicity, I fully expect that plenty of people will stick to whatever system suits them best. However, this edition is easily my favorite, ranking even higher than D&D 3.5, my first love in D&D". In December 2023, James Whitbrook of Gizmodo highlighted "D&D's continued social influence" with the release of related media such as the film Honor Among Thieves, the Dungeons & Dragons: Adventures FAST channel, and the video game Baldur's Gate 3 with the video game's "blockbuster success" credited "for a 40% increase in Wizards of the Coast's earnings over 2022". However, Whitbrook opined that not even these successes "could save Dungeons & Dragons from the greed of its owners" with the OGL controversy and major layoffs by Hasbro bookending "what should've been one of the greatest years for Dungeons & Dragons the game has ever seen—more popular than ever, more accessible than ever, more culturally relevant than ever—and in doing so transformed it into a golden era sullied with dark marks, overshadowed by grim caveats, a reflection that those with the most power in these spaces never really take the lessons they espoused to learn from their mistakes". On the 5th Edition rules revision, Randall commented, "the fact that WoTC didn't feel confident enough to reinvent much of anything after 10 years signals how paralyzed the entire operation has become [...]. After a decade of successes, and after a massive, hobby-wide controversy seemingly couldn't sink it, D&D's next big move was to equip you with basically the same game for the next 10 years. No innovation, no progression, just a slightly different angle to the wheels spinning in the dirt". These controversies led TSR to remove many potentially controversial references and artwork when releasing the 2nd Edition of AD&D. The moral panic over the game led to problems for fans of D&D who faced social ostracism, unfair treatment, and false association with the occult and Satanism, regardless of an individual fan's actual religious affiliation and beliefs. However, the controversy was also beneficial in evoking the Streisand Effect by giving the game widespread notoriety that significantly increased sales in the early 1980s in defiance of the moral panic.
Dungeons & Dragons has been the subject of rumors regarding players having difficulty separating fantasy from reality, even leading to psychotic episodes. The most notable of these was the saga of James Dallas Egbert III, the facts of which were fictionalized in the novel Mazes and Monsters and later made into a TV movie in 1982 starring Tom Hanks. William Dear, the private investigator hired by the Egbert family to find their son when he went missing at college, wrote a book titled The Dungeon Master (1984) refuting any connection with D&D and Egbert's personal issues. The game was blamed for some of the actions of Chris Pritchard, who was convicted in 1990 of murdering his stepfather. Research by various psychologists, starting with Armando Simon, has concluded that no harmful effects are related to the playing of D&D. Dungeons & Dragons has also been cited as encouraging people to socialize weekly or biweekly, teaching problem solving skills, which can be beneficial in adult life, and teaching positive moral decisions.
=== Later criticism ===
D&D has been compared unfavorably to other role-playing games of its time. Writing for Slate in 2008, Erik Sofge makes unfavorable comparisons between the violent incentives of D&D and the more versatile role-playing experience of GURPS. He claims that "for decades, gamers have argued that since D&D came first, its lame, morally repulsive experience system can be forgiven. But the damage is still being done: New generations of players are introduced to RPGs as little more than a collective fantasy of massacre." This criticism generated backlash from D&D fans. Writing for Ars Technica, Ben Kuchera responded that Sofge had experienced a "small-minded Dungeon Master who only wanted to kill things", and that better game experiences are possible.
In 2020, Polygon reported that "the D&D team announced that it would be making changes to portions of its 5th edition product line that fans have called out for being insensitive". Sebastian Modak, for The Washington Post, reported that the tabletop community has widely approved these changes. Modak wrote that "in its statement addressing mistakes around portrayals of different peoples in the D&D universe, Wizards of the Coast highlighted its recent efforts in bringing in more diverse voices to craft the new D&D sourcebooks coming out in 2021. [...] These conversations—around depictions of race and alleged treatment of employees of marginalized backgrounds and identities—have encouraged players to seek out other tabletop roleplaying experiences". Matthew Gault, for Wired, reported positively on the roundtable discussions Wizards of the Coast has hosted with fans and community leaders on diversity and inclusion. However, Gault also highlighted that other efforts, such as revisions to old material and the release of new material, have been less great and at times minimal. Gault wrote, "WotC appears to be trying to change things, but it keeps stumbling, and it's often the fans who pick up the pieces. [...] WotC is trying to make changes, but it often feels like lip service. [...] The loudest voices criticizing D&D right now are doing it out of love. They don't want to see it destroyed, they want it to change with the times". However, in 2022, academic Christopher Ferguson stated that the game "was not associated with greater ethnocentrism (one facet of racism) attitudes" after he conducted a survey study of 308 adults (38.2% non-White, and 17% Dungeons and Dragons players). Ferguson concluded that Wizards of the Coast may be responding to a moral panic similar to that surrounding Satanism in the 1990s. In the 2024 update to 5e, character "race" (such as dwarf, elf, or human) was changed to "species." Following an initial response to the speculation by Wizards in November 2022, Following this leak, numerous news and industry-focused outlets reported on negative reactions from both fans and professional content creators. TheStreet highlighted that "the company's main competitors" quickly pivoted away from the OGL in the time it took Wizards to settle on a response. Starburst commented that "historically when the owners of Dungeons and Dragons attempt to restrict what people can do with the game, it leads to a boom in other tabletop roleplaying games. This is happening right now". TheStreet also commented that Wizards united its "entire player base" against it; both TheStreet Io9 reported that Wizards' internal messaging on the response to the leak was this was a fan overreaction.}} before pivoting away from the OGL to release the System Reference Document 5.1 (SRD 5.1) under an irrevocable creative commons license (CC BY 4.0). Edwin Evans-Thirlwell of The Washington Post wrote that "pushback from fans, who criticized WotC's response as far from an apology and a dismissal of their legitimate concerns, led WotC to backpedal further" and that the company "appears to have committed an irreversible act of self-sabotage in trying to replace [the OGL] — squandering the prestige accumulated over 20 years in a matter of weeks". Both Io9 and ComicBook.com called the major concessions – releasing the SRD 5.1 under the creative commons and no longer deauthorizing the OGL1.0a – announced by Wizards a "huge victory" for the Dungeons & Dragons community. Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic, character record sheets, use of numerical attributes, and gamemaster-centered group dynamics. Within months of the release of Dungeons & Dragons, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games, with most of these being in the fantasy genre. Some of the earliest other role-playing games inspired by D&D include Tunnels & Trolls (1975), Empire of the Petal Throne (1975), and Chivalry & Sorcery (1976). The game's commercial success was a factor that led to lawsuits regarding the distribution of royalties between original creators Gygax and Arneson. Gygax later became embroiled in a political struggle for control of TSR which culminated in a court battle and Gygax's decision to sell his ownership interest in the company in 1985.
The role-playing movement initiated by D&D would lead to the release of the science fiction game Traveller (1977), the fantasy game RuneQuest (1978), and subsequent game systems such as Chaosium's Call of Cthulhu (1981), Champions (1982), GURPS (1986), and Vampire: The Masquerade (1991). Dungeons & Dragons and the games it influenced fed back into the genre's origin – miniatures wargames – with combat strategy games like Warhammer Fantasy Battles. D&D also had a large impact on modern video games.
Director Jon Favreau credits Dungeons & Dragons with giving him "... a really strong background in imagination, storytelling, understanding how to create tone and a sense of balance." ND Stevenson and the crew of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power were strongly influenced by Dungeons & Dragons, with Stevenson calling it basically a D&D campaign, with Adora, Glimmer, and Bow falling into "specific classes in D&D". A D&D campaign held among id Software staff in the early 1990s featured a demonic invasion, a warrior named Quake and a magic item named Daikatana. John Romero has credited the campaign with inspiring many of his video games of the era, including Doom, Quake and Daikatana.
Curtis D. Carbonell, in the 2019 book Dread Trident: Tabletop Role-Playing Games and the Modern Fantastic, wrote: "Negative association with earlier niche 'nerd' culture have reversed. 5e has become inclusive in its reach of players, after years of focusing on a white, male demographic. [...] At its simplest, the game system now encourages different types of persons to form a party not just to combat evil [...] but to engage in any number of adventure scenarios". Academic Emma French, in Real Life in Real Time: Live Streaming Culture (2023), commented on the impact of actual play on the broader Dungeons & Dragons gaming culture – "actual play media circumvents D&D's insulated or exclusionary aspects, skewing away from 'basement dwelling nerds' in favor of a networked, global fandom. Live streaming is now a means of introducing individuals to the game, bringing it into the mainstream at a time when other geek pursuits have also achieved wider visibility and popularity". French highlighted that in 2020 "no actual play live streams hosted by the official DnD channel featured an all-male cast—showing a massive shift from the brand ambassadors endorsed by Wizards of the Coast" previously. an animated television series, a film series, an off-Broadway stage production, an official role-playing soundtrack, novels, both ongoing and limited series licensed comics, and numerous computer and video games. Hobby and toy stores sell dice, miniatures, adventures, and other game aids related to D&D and its game offspring.
In November 2023, Hasbro's Entertainment One launched the Dungeons & Dragons Adventures FAST channel, available on platforms such as Amazon Freevee and Plex, which features new actual play web series, reruns of the animated Dungeons & Dragons series, and reruns of other Dungeons & Dragons web series.
==In popular culture==
D&D grew in popularity through the late 1970s and 1980s. Numerous games, films, and cultural references based on D&D or D&D-like fantasies, characters or adventures have been ubiquitous since the end of the 1970s. D&D players are (sometimes pejoratively) portrayed as the epitome of geekdom, and have become the basis of much geek and gamer humor and satire. Since the release of 5th edition, actual play web series and podcasts such as Critical Role, Dimension 20, and The Adventure Zone, among many others, have experienced a growth in viewership and popularity. According to Hasbro CEO Brian Goldner, viewers on Twitch and YouTube spent over 150 million hours watching D&D gameplay in 2020.
Famous D&D players include Pulitzer Prize-winning author Junot Díaz, professional basketball player Tim Duncan, comedian Stephen Colbert, and actors Vin Diesel and Robin Williams. D&D and its fans have been the subject of spoof films, including The Gamers: Dorkness Rising.
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] |
7,941 |
Double jeopardy
|
In jurisprudence, double jeopardy is a procedural defence (primarily in common law jurisdictions) that prevents an accused person from being tried again on the same (or similar) charges following an acquittal or conviction and in rare cases prosecutorial and/or judge misconduct in the same jurisdiction. Double jeopardy is a common concept in criminal law – in civil law, a similar concept is that of . The double jeopardy protection in criminal prosecutions bars only an identical prosecution for the same offence; however, a different offence may be charged on identical evidence at a second trial. Res judicata protection is stronger – it precludes any causes of action or claims that arise from a previously litigated subject matter.
A variation in common law countries is the peremptory plea, which may take the specific forms of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'). These doctrines appear to have originated in ancient Roman law, in the broader principle ('not twice against the same').
== Availability as a legal defence ==
If a double jeopardy issue is raised, evidence will be placed before the court, which will typically rule as a preliminary matter whether the plea is substantiated; if it is, the projected trial will be prevented from proceeding. In some countries, certain exemptions are permitted. In Scotland, a new trial can be initiated if, for example, the acquitted has made a credible admission of guilt. Part of English law for over 800 years, it was partially abolished in England, Wales and Northern Ireland by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 where, following demand for change, serious offences may be re-tried following an acquittal if new and compelling evidence is found, and if the trial is found to be in the public's interest. In other countries, the protection is afforded by statute.
In common law countries, a defendant may enter a peremptory plea of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'), with the same effect.
Double jeopardy is not a principle of international law. It does not apply between different countries, unless having been contractually agreed on between those countries as, for example, in the European Union (Art. 54 Schengen Convention), and in various extradition treaties between two countries.
== International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ==
The 72 signatories and 166 parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognise, under Article 14 (7): "No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which he has already been finally convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of each country." However, it does not apply to prosecutions by two different sovereigns (unless the relevant extradition treaty expresses a prohibition).
== European Convention on Human Rights ==
All members of the Council of Europe (which includes nearly all European countries and every member of the European Union) have adopted the European Convention on Human Rights. The optional Protocol No. 7 to the convention, Article 4, protects against double jeopardy: "No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an offence for which he or she has already been finally acquitted or convicted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State."
All EU states ratified this optional protocol except for Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. In those member states, national rules governing double jeopardy may or may not comply with the provision cited above.
Member states may, however, implement legislation which allows the reopening of a case if new evidence is found or if there was a fundamental defect in the previous proceedings: but there was no formal agreement for each state to introduce it. All states have now chosen to introduce legislation that mirrors COAG's recommendations on "fresh and compelling" evidence.
In New South Wales, retrials of serious cases with a minimum sentence of 20 years or more are now possible even if the original trial preceded the 2006 reform. On 17 October 2006, the New South Wales Parliament passed legislation abolishing the rule against double jeopardy in cases where:
an acquittal of a "life sentence offence" (murder, violent gang rape, large commercial supply or production of illegal drugs) is debunked by "fresh and compelling" evidence of guilt;
an acquittal of a "15 years or more sentence offence" was tainted (by perjury, bribery, or perversion of the course of justice).
On 30 July 2008, South Australia also introduced legislation to scrap parts of its double jeopardy law, legalising retrials for serious offences with "fresh and compelling" evidence, or if the acquittal was tainted.
In Western Australia, amendments introduced on 8 September 2011 allow retrial if "new and compelling" evidence is found. It applies to serious offences where the penalty is life imprisonment or imprisonment for 14 years or more. Acquittal because of tainting (witness intimidation, jury tampering, or perjury) also permits retrial.
In Tasmania, on 19 August 2008, amendments were introduced to allow retrial in serious cases if there is "fresh and compelling" evidence.
In Victoria on 21 December 2011, legislation was passed allowing new trials where there is "fresh and compelling DNA evidence, where the person acquitted subsequently admits to the crime, or where it becomes clear that key witnesses have given false evidence".
In Queensland on 18 October 2007, the double jeopardy laws were modified to allow a retrial where fresh and compelling evidence becomes available after an acquittal for murder or a "tainted acquittal" for a crime carrying a 25-year or more sentence. A "tainted acquittal" requires a conviction for an administration of justice offence, such as perjury, that led to the original acquittal.
=== Canada ===
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes provisions such as section 11(h) prohibiting double jeopardy. However, the prohibition only applies after an accused person has been "finally" convicted or acquitted. Canadian law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal based on legal errors. In rare circumstances, when a trial judge made all the factual findings necessary for a finding of guilt but misapplied the law, a court of appeal might also directly substitute an acquittal for a conviction. These cases are not considered double jeopardy because the appeal and the subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial.
For an appeal from an acquittal to be successful, the Supreme Court of Canada requires the Crown to show that an error in law was made during the trial and that it contributed to the verdict. It has been argued that this test is unfairly beneficial to the prosecution. For instance, in his book My Life in Crime and Other Academic Adventures, Martin Friedland contends that the rule should be changed so that a retrial is granted only when the error is shown to be responsible for the verdict, not just a factor.
Though the charter permits appeals of acquittals, there are still constitutional limits imposed on the scope of these appeals. In Corp. Professionnelle des Médecins v. Thibault, the Supreme Court struck down a provision of Quebec law that allowed appellate courts to conduct a de novo review of both legal and factual findings. In doing so, it held that the scope of an appeal may not extend to challenging findings of fact where no legal error has been made. At this point, the court reasoned, the process ceases to be an appeal and instead becomes a new trial disguised as one.
A notable example cited by critics of Canada's appeal system is the case of Guy Paul Morin, who was wrongfully convicted in his second trial after the acquittal in his first trial was vacated by the Supreme Court. Another notable use of the system occurred in the case of child murderer Guy Turcotte, the Quebec Court of Appeal overturned the initial verdict of not criminally responsible by reason of mental disorder and ordered a second trial after it found that the judge had erroneously instructed the jury. Turcotte was later convicted of second-degree murder in the second trial. Another well-known example is Henry Morgentaler, whose repeated acquittals by juries were overturned on appeal in multiple provinces.
=== France ===
Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgement is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art. 6), except if the final ruling was forged. Prosecution for a crime already judged is impossible even if incriminating evidence has been found. However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on the grounds of new exculpating evidence through a procedure known as révision.
French law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal.
=== Germany ===
The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) for the Federal Republic of Germany protects against double jeopardy if a final verdict is pronounced. A verdict is final if nobody appeals against it.
However, each trial party can appeal against a verdict in the first instance. The prosecution or the defendants can appeal against a judgement if they disagree with it. In this case, the trial starts again in the second instance, the court of appeal (Berufungsgericht), which reconsiders the facts and reasons and delivers a final judgement.
If one of the parties disagrees with the second instance's judgement, they can appeal it only for formal judicial reasons. The case will be checked in the third instance (Revisionsgericht) to see whether all laws were correctly applied.
The rule applies to the whole "historical event, which is usually considered a single historical course of actions the separation of which would seem unnatural". This is true even if new facts come to light that indicate other crimes.
The Penal Procedural Code (Strafprozessordnung) permits a retrial (Wiederaufnahmeverfahren), if it is in favour of the defendant or if the following events have happened:
In the case of an order of summary punishment, which can be issued by the court without a trial for lesser misdemeanours, there is a further exception:
In Germany, a felony is defined by § 12 (1) StGB as a crime that has a minimum of one year of imprisonment.
=== India ===
A partial protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 (2) of the Constitution of India, which states "No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once". This provision enshrines the concept of autrefois convict, that no one convicted of an offence can be tried or punished a second time. However, it does not extend to autrefois acquit, and so if a person is acquitted of a crime he can be retried. In India, protection against autrefois acquit is a statutory right, not a fundamental one. Such protection is provided by provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure rather than by the Constitution.
=== Japan ===
The Constitution of Japan, which came into effect on 3 May 1947, states in Article 39 that
However, in 1950, one defendant was found guilty in the District Court for crimes related to the election law and was sentenced to paying a fine. The prosecutor wanted a stronger sentence and appealed to the High Court. As a result, the defendant was sentenced to three months of imprisonment. He appealed to the Supreme Court on the grounds that the sentence was excessive when compared with precedents and that he had been placed in double jeopardy, which was in violation of Article 39. On 27 September 1950, all fifteen judges of the Supreme Court made the Grand Bench Decision to rule against the defendant and declared that a criminal proceeding in the District Court, High Court and Supreme Court is all one case and that there is no double jeopardy. In other words, if the prosecutor appeals against a judgement of not guilty or a guilty decision that they think does not impose a severe enough sentence, the defendant will not be placed in double jeopardy.
On 10 October 2003, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in the area of double jeopardy. The case involved Article 235 of the Penal Code, which addresses "simple larceny", and Article 2 of the Law for Prevention and Disposition of Robbery, Theft, etc., which addresses "habitual larceny". The Court ruled that in the event that there are two trials for separate cases of simple larceny, it will not be considered double jeopardy, even if the prosecutor could have charged both of them as a single crime of habitual larceny. The defendant in this case had committed crimes of trespassing and simple larceny on 22 occasions. The defence counsel argued that the crimes were actually one offence of habitual larceny and that charging them as separate counts was double jeopardy. The Supreme Court ruled that it was within the prosecutor's discretion as to whether to charge the defendant with one count of habitual larceny or to charge them with multiple counts of trespassing and simple larceny. In either case, it is not considered double jeopardy.
=== Netherlands ===
In the Netherlands, the state prosecution can appeal a not-guilty verdict at the bench. New evidence can be applied during a retrial at a district court. Thus one can be tried twice for the same alleged crime. If one is convicted at the district court, the defence can make an appeal on procedural grounds to the supreme court. The supreme court might admit this complaint, and the case will be reopened yet again, at another district court. Again, new evidence might be introduced by the prosecution.
On 9 April 2013, the Dutch senate voted 36 "yes" versus 35 "no" in favour of a new law that allows the prosecutor to re-try a person who was found not guilty in court. This law is limited to offences in which the statute of limitations does not expire. These are offences that are punishable by at least 12 years of imprisonment, and other specific offences. Offences that have already expired (such as prior to the change in legislation that abolished the statute of limitations) cannot be retried.
A retrial is only possible by ground of a 'novum': the situation in which new evidence has come to light and in which it seems that, had the judge known of this evidence, the defendant would have been prosecuted. The new evidence has to either be new technical evidence or a trustworthy confession by the defendant or their co-suspect.
=== Pakistan ===
Article 13 of the Constitution of Pakistan protects a person from being punished or prosecuted more than once for the same offence. Section 403 of The Code of Criminal Procedure contemplates a situation where a person having once been tried by a Court of competent jurisdiction and acquitted by such court cannot be tried again for the same offence or for any other offence based on similar facts. The scope of section 403 is restricted to criminal proceedings and not to civil proceedings and departmental inquiries.
=== Serbia ===
This principle is incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia and further elaborated in its Criminal Procedure Act.
=== South Africa ===
The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa forbids a retrial when there has already been an acquittal or a conviction.
=== South Korea ===
Article 13 of the South Korean constitution provides that no citizen shall be placed in double jeopardy.
=== United Kingdom ===
==== England and Wales ====
Double jeopardy has been permitted in England and Wales in certain (exceptional) circumstances since the Criminal Justice Act 2003.
===== Pre-2003 =====
The doctrines of autrefois acquit and autrefois convict persisted as part of the common law from the time of the Norman conquest of England; they were regarded as essential elements for protection of the subject's liberty and respect for due process of law in that there should be finality of proceedings.
A retrial is permissible if the interests of justice so require, following an appeal against conviction by a defendant.
A "tainted acquittal", where there has been an offence of interference with, or intimidation of, a juror or witness, can be challenged in the High Court.
In Connelly v DPP [1964] AC 1254, the Law Lords ruled that a defendant could not be tried for any offence arising out of substantially the same set of facts relied upon in a previous charge of which he had been acquitted unless there are "special circumstances" proven by the prosecution. There is little case law on the meaning of "special circumstances", but it has been suggested that the emergence of new evidence would suffice.
A defendant who had been convicted of an offence could be given a second trial for an aggravated form of that offence if the facts constituting the aggravation were discovered after the first conviction. By contrast, a person who had been acquitted of a lesser offence could not be tried for an aggravated form even if new evidence became available.
===== Post-2003 =====
Following the murder of Stephen Lawrence, the Macpherson Report recommended that the double jeopardy rule should be abrogated in murder cases, and that it should be possible to subject an acquitted murder suspect to a second trial if "fresh and viable" new evidence later came to light. The Law Commission later added its support to this in its report "Double Jeopardy and Prosecution Appeals" (2001). A parallel report into the criminal justice system by Lord Justice Auld, a past Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales, had also commenced in 1999 and was published as the Auld Report six months after the Law Commission report. It opined that the Law Commission had been unduly cautious by limiting the scope to murder and that "the exceptions should [...] extend to other grave offences punishable with life and/or long terms of imprisonment as Parliament might specify." 1999 was also the year of a highly publicised case in which a man, David Smith, was convicted of the murder of a prostitute after having been acquitted of the "almost identical" murder of sex worker Sarah Crump six years previously. Because of the double jeopardy laws that existed at the time, Smith could not be re-tried for Crump's murder, despite police insisting they were not looking for anybody else and that the case was closed.}}
Both Jack Straw (then Home Secretary) and William Hague (then Leader of the Opposition) favoured the measures suggested by the Auld Report. These recommendations were implemented—not uncontroversially at the time—within the Criminal Justice Act 2003, and this provision came into force in April 2005. It opened certain serious crimes (including murder, manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, armed robbery, and serious drug crimes) to a retrial, regardless of when committed, with two conditions: the retrial must be approved by the Director of Public Prosecutions, and the Court of Appeal must agree to quash the original acquittal due to "new and compelling evidence". Then Director of Public Prosecutions, Ken Macdonald QC, said that he expected no more than a handful of cases to be brought in a year. On 11 September 2006, Dunlop became the first person to be convicted of murder following a prior acquittal for the same crime, in his case his 1991 acquittal of Hogg's murder. Some years later he had confessed to the crime, and was convicted of perjury, but was unable to be retried for the killing itself. The case was re-investigated in early 2005, when the new law came into effect, and his case was referred to the Court of Appeal, in November 2005, for permission for a new trial, which was granted. Dunlop pleaded guilty to murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment, with a recommendation he serve no less than 17 years.
On 13 December 2010, Mark Weston became the first person to be retried and found guilty of murder by a jury (Dunlop having confessed). In 1996 Weston had been acquitted of the murder of Vikki Thompson at Ascott-under-Wychwood on 12 August 1995, but following the discovery in 2009 of compelling new evidence (Thompson's blood on Weston's boots) he was arrested and tried for a second time. He was sentenced to life imprisonment, to serve a minimum of 13 years.
In December 2018, convicted paedophile Russell Bishop was also retried and found guilty by a jury for the Babes in the Wood murders of two 9-year-old girls, Nicola Fellows and Karen Hadaway, on 9 October 1986. At the original trial in 1987, a key piece of the prosecution's case rested on the recovery of a discarded blue sweatshirt. Under questioning, Bishop denied that the sweatshirt belonged to him, but his girlfriend, Jennifer Johnson, alleged the clothing was Bishop's, before she changed her story in the trial, telling the jury she had never seen the top before. Attributed to a series of blunders in the prosecution's case, Bishop was acquitted by the jury after two hours of deliberations. At the 2018 trial, a jury of seven men and five women returned a guilty verdict after two-and-a-half hours of deliberation.
In February 2020, Merseyside Police called for further reform to the double jeopardy law in England so as to allow previously acquitted suspects to be re-interviewed by police. The force had wanted to re-interview a suspect in the unsolved case of the murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller who had been acquitted of the crime in 1981, but were not permitted to do so. The force had also not been allowed to re-charge the man of murder in 2019, causing them to publicly request that the law be changed and stating: "We believe being able to re-question suspects could potentially lead to being able to demonstrate the new and compelling evidence needed to reopen particular cases, including the murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller".
==== Scotland ====
The double jeopardy rule no longer applies absolutely in Scotland since the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011 came into force on 28 November 2011. The Act introduced three broad exceptions to the rule: where the acquittal had been tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice; where the accused admitted their guilt after acquittal; and where there was new evidence.
==== Northern Ireland ====
In Northern Ireland, the Criminal Justice Act 2003, effective 18 April 2005, makes certain "qualifying offence" (including murder, rape, kidnapping, specified sexual acts with young children, specified drug offences, defined acts of terrorism, as well as in certain cases attempts or conspiracies to commit the foregoing) subject to retrial after acquittal (including acquittals obtained before passage of the Act) if there is a finding by the Court of Appeal that there is "new and compelling evidence".
=== United States ===
In the United States, the protection in common law against double jeopardy is maintained through the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution, which provides:
Conversely, double jeopardy comes with a key exception. Under the dual sovereignty doctrine, multiple sovereigns can indict a defendant for the same crime. The federal and state governments can have overlapping criminal laws, so a criminal offender may be convicted in individual states and federal courts for exactly the same crime or for different crimes arising out of the same facts. However, in 2016, the Supreme Court held in Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle that Puerto Rico is not a separate sovereign for purposes of the Double Jeopardy Clause. The dual sovereignty doctrine has been the subject of substantial scholarly criticism.
As described by the U.S. Supreme Court in Ball v. United States 163 U.S. 662 (1896), one of its earliest cases dealing with double jeopardy, "the prohibition is not against being twice punished, but against being twice put in jeopardy; and the accused, whether convicted or acquitted, is equally put in jeopardy at the first trial". The Double Jeopardy Clause encompasses four distinct prohibitions: subsequent prosecution after acquittal, subsequent prosecution after conviction, subsequent prosecution after certain mistrials, and multiple punishment in the same indictment. Jeopardy "attaches" when the jury is impanelled, the first witness is sworn, or a plea is accepted.
==== Prosecution after acquittal ====
With two exceptions, the government is not permitted to appeal or retry the defendant once jeopardy attaches to a trial unless the case does not conclude. Conditions which constitute "conclusion" of a case include
After the entry of an acquittal, whether:
an acquittal by jury verdict
a directed verdict before the case is submitted to the jury,
a directed verdict after a deadlocked jury,
an appellate reversal for sufficiency (except by direct appeal to a higher appellate court), or
an "implied acquittal" via conviction of a lesser included offence.
re-litigating against the same defence a fact necessarily found by the jury in a prior acquittal, even if the jury hung on other counts. In such a situation, the government is barred by collateral estoppel.
In these cases, the trial is concluded and the prosecution is precluded from appealing or retrying the defendant over the offence to which they were acquitted.
This principle does not prevent the government from appealing a pre-trial motion to dismiss or other non-merits dismissal, or a directed verdict after a jury conviction, nor does it prevent the trial judge from entertaining a motion for reconsideration of a directed verdict, if the jurisdiction has so provided by rule or statute. Nor does it prevent the government from retrying the defendant after an appellate reversal other than for sufficiency, including habeas corpus, or "thirteenth juror" appellate reversals notwithstanding sufficiency on the principle that jeopardy has not "terminated".
The dual sovereignty doctrine allows a federal prosecution of an offence to proceed regardless of a previous state prosecution for that same offence and vice versa because "an act denounced as a crime by both national and state sovereignties is an offence against the peace and dignity of both and may be punished by each". The doctrine is solidly entrenched in the law, but there has been a traditional reluctance in the federal executive branch to gratuitously wield the power it grants, due to public opinion being generally hostile to such action.
==== Exceptions ====
There are two exceptions to bans on retrying defendants. If a defendant bribed a judge into acquitting him or her, the defendant was not in jeopardy and can be retried. A member of the armed forces can be retried by court-martial in a military court, even if he or she has been previously acquitted by a civilian court. This exception was used to prosecute Timothy Hennis for the Eastburn family murders after his previous trial acquitted him.
An individual can be prosecuted by both the United States and an Indian tribe for the same acts that constituted crimes in both jurisdictions; it was established by the Supreme Court in United States v. Lara that as the two are separate sovereigns, prosecuting a crime under both tribal and federal law does not attach double jeopardy.
==== Multiple punishment, including prosecution after conviction ====
In Blockburger v. United States (1932), the Supreme Court announced the following test: the government may separately try and punish the defendant for two crimes if each crime contains an element that the other does not. Blockburger is the default rule, unless the governing statute legislatively intends to depart; for example, Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) may be punished separately from its predicates, as can conspiracy.
The Blockburger test, originally developed in the multiple punishments context, is also the test for prosecution after conviction. In Grady v. Corbin (1990), the Court held that a double jeopardy violation could lie even where the Blockburger test was not satisfied, but Grady was later distinguished in United States v. Felix (1992), when the court reverted to the Blockburger test without completely dismissing the Grady interpretation. The court eventually overruled Grady in United States v. Dixon (1993).
==== Prosecution after mistrial ====
The rule for mistrials depends upon who sought the mistrial. If the defendant moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial, unless the prosecutor acted in "bad faith", i.e. goaded the defendant into moving for a mistrial because the government specifically wanted a mistrial. If the prosecutor moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial if the trial judge finds "manifest necessity" for granting the mistrial. The same standard governs mistrials granted sua sponte.
Retrials are not common, due to the legal expenses to the government. However, in the mid-1980s Georgia antique dealer James Arthur Williams was tried a record four times for murder over the shooting of Danny Hansford, and after three mistrials was finally acquitted on the grounds of self-defence. The case is recounted in the book Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, which was adapted into a film directed by Clint Eastwood (the movie combines the four trials into one).
|
[
"Senior Presiding Judge",
"Fong Foo v. United States",
"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights",
"Prosecutorial misconduct",
"Northern Ireland",
"Guy Turcotte killings",
"loanword",
"Norman conquest of England",
"New South Wales",
"Emmett Till",
"witness intimidation",
"statutory right",
"Green v. United States",
"retrial",
"Section Eleven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms",
"United States v. Lanza",
"Babes in the Wood murders (Wild Park)",
"James Arthur Williams",
"Crown of Canada",
"Constitution of South Korea",
"Guy Paul Morin",
"New South Wales Parliament",
"Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"Repeal",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"R v Carroll",
"Sanabria v. United States",
"Quebec Court of Appeal",
"United States v. Lara",
"non bis in idem",
"Ipswich, Queensland",
"Martin Friedland",
"Merseyside Police",
"Ascott-under-Wychwood",
"Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil",
"Puerto Rico",
"illegal drug trade",
"criminal law",
"Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)",
"habeas corpus",
"Russell Bishop (murderer)",
"procedural defence",
"Exculpatory evidence",
"Law Commission",
"dual sovereignty doctrine",
"Judicial misconduct",
"Canadian law",
"United States v. Ball",
"Michael Weir (murderer)",
"mistrial",
"common law",
"Schengen Agreement",
"Hung jury",
"Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany",
"United States v. Martin Linen Supply Co.",
"deadlocked jury",
"Abbate v. United States",
"jurisdiction",
"murder of Stephen Lawrence",
"Home Secretary",
"robbery",
"conviction",
"Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle",
"due process",
"Oregon v. Kennedy",
"United States v. Felix",
"rape",
"Henry Morgentaler",
"Gamble v. United States",
"Council of Europe",
"European Union",
"statute",
"North Carolina v. Pearce",
"Crist v. Bretz",
"COAG",
"summary punishment",
"Double Jeopardy Clause",
"William Hague",
"Burks v. United States",
"Constitution of South Africa",
"manslaughter",
"Continuing Criminal Enterprise",
"Rutledge v. United States",
"jurisprudence",
"peremptory plea",
"Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011",
"Constitution of Pakistan",
"kidnapping",
"Law French",
"Judicial system of Japan",
"High Court of Australia",
"insanity defense",
"Connelly v DPP",
"Peremptory plea",
"Jack McCall",
"Arizona v. Washington",
"criminal justice system",
"Grady v. Corbin",
"Queensland",
"directed verdict",
"Tribal sovereignty in the United States",
"Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil (film)",
"England and Wales",
"court-martial",
"gang rape",
"Quebec",
"res judicata",
"Serfass v. United States",
"Law Lords",
"murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller",
"acquittal",
"Trial",
"extradition treaties",
"Clint Eastwood",
"Robin Auld",
"forgery",
"Garrett v. United States",
"Tibbs v. Florida",
"Constitution of Japan",
"murder",
"Roman law",
"Ashe v. Swenson",
"Wilson v. United States",
"Victoria (state)",
"Ball v. United States",
"court of appeal",
"Civil law (common law)",
"Constitution of Serbia",
"Bill of Rights (South Africa)",
"Offence (law)",
"Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms",
"Jack Straw",
"alibi",
"Director of Public Prosecutions (England and Wales)",
"Court of Appeal of England and Wales",
"jury tampering",
"Brown v. Ohio",
"sua sponte",
"shooting of Danny Hansford",
"Standard of review",
"appellate court",
"collateral estoppel",
"Criminal Justice Act 2003",
"European Convention on Human Rights",
"Constitution of India",
"Yeager v. United States",
"United States v. Tateo",
"United States v. Scott",
"Western Australia",
"South Australia",
"Bartkus v. Illinois",
"Smith v. Massachusetts",
"bribery",
"Scotland",
"Signature",
"David Smith (murderer)",
"Supreme Court of Canada",
"prostitute",
"lesser included offence",
"Queen's Counsel",
"Judiciary of the Netherlands",
"Fundamental Rights in India",
"convicted",
"Drug-related crime",
"Blockburger v. United States",
"acquitted",
"United States v. Dixon",
"Eastburn family murders",
"Ken Macdonald",
"DNA profiling",
"international law",
"Sam Sheppard",
"perjury",
"Aleman v. Judges of the Circuit Court of Cook County",
"Tasmania",
"Missouri v. Hunter"
] |
7,942 |
Disbarment
|
Disbarment, also known as striking off, is the removal of a lawyer from a bar association or the practice of law, thus revoking their law license or admission to practice law. Disbarment is usually a punishment for unethical or criminal conduct but may also be imposed for incompetence or incapacity. Procedures vary depending on the law society; temporary disbarment may be called suspension.
==Australia==
In Australia, states regulate the Legal Profession under state law despite many participating in a uniform scheme. Admission as a lawyer is the business of the admissions board and the Supreme Court. Disciplinary proceedings may be commenced by the Bar Association, the Law Society of which one is a member, or the board itself.
==Germany==
In Germany, a Berufsverbot is a ban on practicing a profession, which the government can issue to a lawyer for misconduct, Volksverhetzung or for serious mismanagement of personal finances.
In April 1933, the Nazi government issued a Berufsverbot forbidding the practice of law by Jews, Communists, and other political opponents, except for those protected by the Frontkämpferprivileg.
==United Kingdom==
In the United Kingdom, the removal of the licence to practise of a barrister or Scottish advocate is called being "disbarred", whilst the removal of a solicitor from the rolls in England and Wales, Scotland, or Northern Ireland is called being "struck off".
==United States==
===Overview===
Generally, disbarment is imposed as a sanction for conduct indicating that an attorney is not fit to practice law, willfully disregarding a client's interests, commingling funds, or engaging in fraud that impedes the administration of justice. In some states, any lawyer who is convicted of a felony is automatically suspended pending further disciplinary proceedings, or, in New York, automatically disbarred. Automatic disbarment, although opposed by the American Bar Association, has been described as a convicted felon's just deserts.
In the United States legal system, disbarment is specific to regions; one can be disbarred from some courts while still being a member of the bar in another jurisdiction. However, under the American Bar Association's Model Rules of Professional Conduct, which have been adopted in most states, disbarment in one state or court is grounds for disbarment in a jurisdiction which has adopted the Model Rules.
Disbarment is quite rare: in 2011, only 1,046 lawyers were disbarred. Instead, lawyers are usually sanctioned by their clients through civil malpractice proceedings, or via fine, censure, suspension, or other punishments from the disciplinary boards. To be disbarred is considered a great embarrassment and shame, even if one no longer wishes to continue a career in law.
Because disbarment rules vary by area, different rules can apply depending on where a lawyer is disbarred. Notably, most US states have no procedure for permanently disbarring a person. Depending on the jurisdiction, a lawyer may reapply to the bar immediately, after five to seven years, or be banned for life.
===Notable U.S. disbarments===
In the 20th and 21st centuries, one former U.S. president and one former U.S. vice president have been disbarred, and another former president has been suspended from one bar and forced to resign from another bar rather than face disbarment.
Former vice president Spiro Agnew, having pleaded no contest (which subjects a person to the same criminal penalties as a guilty plea but is not an admission of guilt for a civil suit) to charges of bribery and tax evasion, was disbarred from Maryland, the state of which he had previously been governor.
Former president Richard Nixon was disbarred from New York in 1976 for obstruction of justice related to the Watergate scandal. He had attempted to resign from the New York bar, as he had done with California and the Supreme Court, but his resignation was not accepted as he would not acknowledge that he was unable to defend himself from the charges brought against him.
In 2001, following a 5-year suspension by the Arkansas bar, the United States Supreme Court suspended Bill Clinton from the United States Supreme Court bar, providing 40 days for him to contest disbarment. He resigned before the end of the 40 days, thus avoiding disbarment.
Alger Hiss was disbarred for a felony conviction but later became the first person reinstated to the bar in Massachusetts after disbarment.
In 2007, Mike Nifong, the District Attorney of Durham County, North Carolina who presided over the 2006 Duke University lacrosse case, was disbarred for prosecutorial misconduct related to his handling of the case.
In April 2012, a three-member panel appointed by the Arizona Supreme Court voted unanimously to disbar Andrew Thomas, former County Attorney of Maricopa County, Arizona, and a former close confederate of Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio. According to the panel, Thomas "outrageously exploited power, flagrantly fostered fear, and disgracefully misused the law" while serving as Maricopa County Attorney. The panel found "clear and convincing evidence" that Thomas brought unfounded and malicious criminal and civil charges against political opponents, including four state judges and the state attorney general. "Were this a criminal case," the panel concluded, "we are confident that the evidence would establish this conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt."
Jack Thompson, the Florida lawyer noted for his activism against Howard Stern, video games, and rap music, was permanently disbarred for various charges of misconduct. The action resulted from several grievances claiming that Thompson had made defamatory, false statements and attempted to humiliate, embarrass, harass, or intimidate his opponents. The order was made on September 25, 2008, effective October 25. However, Thompson tried to appeal to the higher courts to avoid the penalty taking effect. Neither the US District Court nor the US Supreme Court would hear his appeal, rendering the judgment of the Florida Supreme Court final.
Ed Fagan, a New York lawyer who prominently represented Holocaust victims against Swiss banks, was disbarred in New York (in 2008) and New Jersey (in 2009) for failing to pay court fines and fees; and for misappropriating client and escrow trust funds.
F. Lee Bailey, noted criminal defense attorney, was disbarred by Florida in 2001, with reciprocal disbarment in Massachusetts in 2002. The Florida disbarment resulted from his stock handling in the DuBoc marijuana case. Bailey was found guilty of 7 counts of attorney misconduct by the Florida Supreme Court. Bailey had transferred a large portion of DuBoc's assets into his own accounts, using the interest gained on those assets to pay for personal expenses. In March 2005, Bailey filed to regain his law license in Massachusetts. The book Florida Pulp Nonfiction details the peculiar facts of the DuBoc case and extended interviews with Bailey, including his own defense. Bailey is also best known for representing murder suspect O. J. Simpson in 1994.
Richard P. Liebowitz, a New York attorney focused on copyrights held by photographers, was disbarred by the state of New York in 2024 following suspension from the practice of law in the Southern District of New York. His disbarment followed what was described as a "pattern and practice of failing to comply with court orders and making false statements to the court" and multiple lawsuits wherein Liebowitz was sanctioned for misconduct.
Rudy Giuliani was disbarred in New York and Washington, D.C., for false allegations about mass voter fraud and his participation in the January 6, 2021, attack on the United States Capitol to subvert the 2020 Presidential Election.
|
[
"President of the United States",
"American Bar Association",
"F. Lee Bailey",
"Jack Thompson (activist)",
"Vice President of the United States",
"law society",
"Richard Liebowitz",
"Advocate",
"Richard Nixon",
"County Attorney",
"commingling",
"bar association",
"Howard Stern",
"District Attorney",
"Legal ethics",
"Berufsverbot",
"Andrew Thomas (prosecutor)",
"Bill Clinton",
"United States Supreme Court bar",
"Frontkämpferprivileg",
"Spiro Agnew",
"barrister",
"Durham County, North Carolina",
"bribery",
"United States District Court for the Southern District of New York",
"practice of law",
"Ed Fagan",
"Maricopa County, Arizona",
"law license",
"lawyer",
"Maryland",
"Duke lacrosse case",
"O. J. Simpson",
"American Bar Association Model Rules of Professional Conduct",
"January 6 United States Capitol attack",
"Alger Hiss",
"Arizona Supreme Court",
"felony",
"tax evasion",
"United States Supreme Court",
"New York (state)",
"The Holocaust",
"Volksverhetzung",
"Governor of Maryland",
"nolo contendere",
"obstruction of justice",
"Mike Nifong",
"admission to practice law",
"just deserts",
"Watergate scandal",
"solicitor",
"Joe Arpaio",
"prosecutorial misconduct",
"2020 United States elections",
"Rudy Giuliani"
] |
7,946 |
Dog tag
|
Dog tag is an informal but common term for a specific type of identification tag worn by military personnel. The tags' primary use is for the identification of casualties; they have information about the individual written on them, including identification and essential basic medical information such as blood type and history of inoculations. They often indicate a religious preference as well.
Dog tags are usually fabricated from a corrosion-resistant metal. They commonly contain two copies of the information, either in the form of a single tag that can be broken in half, or as two identical tags on the same chain. This purposeful duplication allows one tag, or half-tag, to be collected from an individual's dead body for notification, while the duplicate remains with the corpse if the conditions of battle prevent it from being immediately recovered. The term arose and became popular because of the tags' resemblance to animal registration tags. Although typically worn around the neck, dog tags have been worn on boot laces and wristbands etc.
== History ==
The earliest mention of an identification tag for soldiers comes in Polyaenus (Stratagems 1.17) where the Spartans wrote their names on sticks tied to their left wrists. A type of dog tag ("signaculum") was given to the Roman legionary at the moment of enrollment. The legionary "signaculum" was a lead disk with a leather string, worn around the neck, with the name of the recruit and the indication of the legion of which the recruit was part. This procedure, together with enrollment in the list of recruits, was made at the beginning of a four-month probatory period ("probatio"). The recruit obtained the military status only after the oath of allegiance ("sacramentum") at the end of "probatio", meaning that from a legal point of view the "signaculum" was given to a subject who was no longer a civilian, but not yet in the military.
In more recent times, dog tags were provided to Chinese soldiers as early as the mid-19th century. During the Taiping revolt (1851–66), both the Imperialists (i.e., the Chinese Imperial Army regular servicemen) and those Taiping rebels wearing a uniform wore wooden dog tags at the belt, bearing the soldier's name, age, birthplace, unit, and date of enlistment.
=== American Civil War ===
During the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stenciled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of their army belt buckles.
Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service, and engraved with the soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of brass or lead with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield, and such phrases as "War for the Union" or "Liberty, Union, and Equality". The other side had the soldier's name and unit, and sometimes a list of battles in which he had participated.
===Franco-Prussian War===
On a volunteer basis Prussian soldiers had decided to wear identification tags in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. However, many rejected dog tags as a bad omen for their lives. So until eight months after the Battle of Königgrätz, with almost 8,900 Prussian casualties, only 429 of them could be identified. With the formation of the North German Confederation in 1867 Prussian military regulations became binding for the militaries of all North German member states. With the Prussian Instruktion über das Sanitätswesen der Armee im Felde (i.e., instruction on the medical corps organisation of the army afield) issued on 29 April 1869 identification tags (then called Erkennungsmarke; literally "recognition mark") were to be handed out to each soldier before deployment afield. The Prussian Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. They were nicknamed Hundemarken (the German equivalent of "dog tags") and compared to a similar identification system instituted by the dog licence fee, adding tags to collars of those dogs whose owners paid the fee, in the Prussian capital city of Berlin at around the same time period.
===World War I===
The British Army introduced identity discs in place of identity cards in 1907, in the form of aluminium discs, typically made at regimental depots using machines similar to those common at fun fairs, the details being pressed into the thin metal one letter at a time.
Army Order 287 of September 1916 required the British Army provide all soldiers with two official tags, both made of vulcanised asbestos fibre (which were more comfortable to wear in hot climates) carrying identical details, again impressed one character at a time. The first tag, an octagonal green disc, was attached to a long cord around the neck. The second tag, a circular red disc, was threaded on a 6-inch cord suspended from the first tag. The first tag was intended to remain on the body for future identification, while the second tag could be taken to record the death.
British and Empire/Commonwealth forces (Australia, Canada, and New Zealand) were issued essentially identical identification discs of basic pattern during the Great War, Second World War and Korea, though official identity discs were frequently supplemented by private-purchase items such as identity bracelets, particularly favoured by sailors who believed the official discs were unlikely to survive long immersion in water.
The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No. 204, dated December 20, 1906, which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag:
The U.S. Army changed regulations on July 6, 1916, so that all soldiers were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes. In 1918, the U.S. Army adopted and allotted the service number system, and name and service numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags.
===World War II "notched" tags===
There is a recurring myth about the notch situated in one end of the dog tags issued to United States Army personnel during World War II, and up until the Korean War era. It was rumored that the notch's purpose was that, if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take one tag to the commanding officer and stick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identified.
In reality, the notch was used with the Model 70 Addressograph Hand Identification Imprinting Machine (a pistol-type imprinter used primarily by the Medical Department during World War II). American dogtags of the 1930s through 1980s were produced using a Graphotype machine, in which characters are debossed into metal plates. Some tags are still debossed, using earlier equipment, and some are embossed (with raised letters) on computer-controlled equipment.
In the Graphotype process, commonly used commercially from the early 1900s through the 1980s, a debossing machine was used to stamp characters into metal plates; the plates could then be used to repetitively stamp such things as addresses onto paper in the same way that a typewriter functions, except that a single stroke of the printer could produce a block of text, rather than requiring each character to be printed individually. The debossing process creates durable, easily legible metal plates, well-suited for military identification tags, leading to adoption of the system by the American military. It was also realized that debossed tags can function the same way the original Graphotype plates do.
The Model 70 took advantage of this fact, and was intended to rapidly print all of the information from a soldier's dogtag directly onto medical and personnel forms, with a single squeeze of the trigger. However, this requires that the tag being inserted with the proper orientation (stamped characters facing down), and it was believed that battlefield stress could lead to errors. To force proper orientation of the tags, the tags are produced with a notch, and there is a locator tab inside the Model 70 which prevents the printer from operating if the tag is inserted with the notch in the wrong place (as it is if the tag is upside down).
This feature was not as useful in the field as had been hoped, however, due to adverse conditions such as weather, dirt and dust, water, etc. In addition, the Model 70 resembled a pistol, thus attracting the attention of snipers (who might assume that a man carrying a pistol was an officer). As a result, use of the Model 70 hand imprinter by field medics was rapidly abandoned (as were most of the Model 70s themselves), and eventually the specification that tags include the locator notch was removed from production orders. Existing stocks of tags were used until depleted, and in the 1960s it was not uncommon for a soldier to be issued one tag with the notch and one tag without. Notched tags are still in production, to satisfy the needs of hobbyists, film production, etc., while the Model 70 imprinter has become a rare collector's item.
It appears instructions that would confirm the notch's mythical use were issued at least unofficially by the Graves Registration Service during the Vietnam War to Army troops headed overseas.
Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers created for their fallen comrades. The casualty's rifle with bayonet affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the rifle's stock. The dog tags hang from the rifle's handle or trigger guard.
==Non-military usage==
===Medical condition identification===
Some tags (along with similar items such as MedicAlert bracelets) are used also by civilians to identify their wearers and:
specify them as having health problems that may suddenly incapacitate their wearers and render them incapable of providing treatment guidance (as in the cases of heart problems, epilepsy, diabetic coma, accident or major trauma)
specify them as having health problems that may interact adversely with medical treatments, especially standard or "first-line" ones (as in the case of an allergy to common medications)
provide in case of emergency ("ICE") contact information
state a religious, moral, or other objection to artificial resuscitation, if a first responder attempts to administer such treatment when the wearer is non-responsive and thus unable to warn against doing so. A DNR signed by a physician is still required in some states.
Military personnel in some jurisdictions may wear a supplementary medical information tag.
=== Fashion ===
Dog tags have found their way into youth fashion as military chic. Originally worn as a part of a military uniform by youth wishing to present a tough or militaresque image, dog tags have since reached wider fashion circles. They may be inscribed with a person's details, beliefs or tastes, a favorite quote, or may bear the name or logo of a band or performer. The wearing of dog tags as a fashion accessory may be considered disrespectful or as stolen valour by some military personnel.
Since the late 1990s, custom dog tags have been fashionable amongst musicians (particularly rappers), and as a marketing give-away item. Numerous companies offer customers the opportunity to create their own personalized dog tags with their own photos, logos, and text. High-end jewellers have featured gold and silver dog tags encrusted with diamonds and other jewels.
After the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, in which over 250 hostages were kidnapped from Israel to the Gaza Strip, dog tags became a symbol of the movement to free the Israeli hostages. It became common for people in Israel and elsewhere to publicly wear their own military dog tags or specially made dog tags to show solidarity with the hostages and their families, and to symbolize a call for the immediate release or rescue of the hostages. Phrases inscribed on the purpose-made dog tags include "bring them home now," "7.10.23," and "הלב שלנו שבוי בעזה" (English: "our hearts are captive in Gaza"). These inscribed dog tags are sold in markets and online shops, often as part of fundraisers to benefit the Hostages and Missing Families Forum, or other similar causes.
==Variations by country==
=== Austria ===
The Austrian Bundesheer used a single long, rectangular tag, with oval ends, stamped with blood group & Rh factor at the end, with ID number underneath. Two slots and a hole stamped beneath allows the tag to be broken in halves, and the long bottom portion has both the ID number and a series of holes which allows the tag to be inserted into a dosimeter. This has been replaced with a more conventional, wider and rounded rectangle which can still be halved, but lacks the dosimeter reading holes.
=== Australia ===
The Australian Defence Force issues soldiers two tags of different shapes, one octagonal and one circular, containing the following information:
AS (denoting Australia, previously both AU and AUST have been used)
PMKeyS/Service number
First initial
Last name
Religious abbreviation (e.g. RC – Roman Catholic, NREL – No religion)
Blood group
The information is printed exactly the same on both discs. In the event of a casualty, the circular tag is removed from the body.
=== Belgium ===
Belgian Forces identity tags are, like their Canadian and Norwegian contemporaries, designed to be broken in two in the case of a fatality; the lower half is returned to the Belgian Defence Staff, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information, with slight variation depending on the linguistic region of the soldier:
Upper half:
Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge (Belgian Army) and Date of Birth in DD/MM/YYYY format.
Surname with the addition of the first letter of given name.
Service number and blood group with RH factor and optionally religion.
Lower half: identical.
Example:
Belgisch Leger 01/01/1991
Surname J
1234567 O+ KATH
=== Canada ===
Canadian Armed Forces identity discs (abbreviated "ID discs") are designed to be broken in two in the case of fatality; the lower half is returned to National Defence Headquarters with the member's personal documents, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information:
Upper half:
Service Number (SN)
Initials and surname
Religion (or "NRE" if none) and blood group with RH factor
The legend "CDN FORCES CDN" (or for foreign nationals, the name of the country the individual represents)
The text "DO NOT REMOVE / NE PAS ENLEVER" on the reverse
Lower half: identical, except that the reverse is blank.
Before the Service Number was introduced in the 1990s, military personnel were identified on the ID discs (as well as other documents) by their social insurance number.
=== China ===
The People's Liberation Army issues two long, rectangular tags. All information is stamped in Simplified Chinese:
Full name
Gender
Date of birth
RIC number
PLA's ID number
Blood type
Branch
PLA is introducing a two-dimensional matrix code on the second tag, the matrix code contains a link to the official database. This allows the inquirer get more details about the military personnel.
=== Colombia ===
The Ejército Nacional de Colombia uses long, rectangular metal tags with oval ends tags stamped with the following information:
Family Name
First Name
Military ID Number
Blood Type
Branch of Service
Duplicate tags are issued. Often, tags are issued with a prayer inscribed on the reverse.
=== Cyprus ===
In Cyprus, identification tags include the following information:
Surname
First name
Service number (E.g., 11111/00/00B, where the first five digits are the ID, the second two are the year the soldier turned 18 years old, the last two digits are the year the soldier enlisted, and the letter is the enlistment group, either A or B)
Blood Group
=== Denmark ===
The military of Denmark use dog tags made from small, rectangular metal plates. The tag is designed to be broken into two pieces each with the following information stamped onto it:
Personal identification number
Surname
First name
Additionally, the right hand side of each half-tag is engraved .
Starting in 1985, the individual's service number (which is the same as their social security number) is included on the tag. In case the individual dies, the lower half-tag is supposed to be collected, while the other will remain with the corpse. In the army, navy, and air force but not in the national guard, the individual's blood type is indicated on the lower half-tag only, since this information becomes irrelevant if the individual dies. In 2009, Danish dog tags were discontinued for conscripts.
=== East Germany ===
The Nationale Volksarmee used a tag nearly identical to that used by both the Wehrmacht and the West German Bundeswehr. The oval aluminum tag was stamped "DDR" (Deutsche Demokratische Republik) above the personal ID number; this information was repeated on the bottom half, which was intended to be broken off in case of death. Oddly, the tag was not worn (but would have been in case of war), but required to be kept in a plastic sleeve in the back of the WDA ("Wehrdienstausweis") identity booklet.
=== Ecuador ===
The Placas de identificación de campaña consists of two long, rectangular steel or aluminum tags with rounded corners and a single hole punched in one end. It is suspended by a US-type ball chain, with a shorter chain for the second tag. The information on the tag is:
Family Name & First Name
Identification Number
Blood Group, plus "RH" and "+" or "-"
=== Estonia ===
Estonian dog tags are designed to be broken in two. The dog tag is a metallic rounded rectangle suspended by a ball chain. Information consists of four fields:
National identification number
Nationality
Blood Group
Religion
Example:
39305231234
EST
A(II) Rh Pos (+)
NONE
=== Finland ===
In the Finnish Defence Forces, "tunnuslevy" or WWII term "tuntolevy" (Finnish for "Identification plate") is made of stainless steel and designed to be broken in two; however, the only text on it is the personal identification number and the letters "FI" or "SF" in older models, which stands for Suomi Finland, within a tower stamped atop of the upper half.
=== France ===
In WWI and WWII, French forces used a small oval-shaped disc of metal designed to be broken in half, worn at the wrist.
Now, France issues either a metallic rounded rectangle in the army, or a pair of discs in the air force and navy. Both are designed to be broken in half, bearing family name & first name above the ID number. French army tags also include blood type, "T" for Tetanus vaccine and "OFF" only for officers.
=== Germany ===
German Bundeswehr ID tags are an oval-shaped disc designed to be broken in half. They are made of stainless steel, height and width. The two sides contain different information which are mirrored upside-down on the lower half of the ID tag. They feature the following information on segmented and numbered fields:
On the front:
Field 1: blank (provided for Gender but never used)
Field 2: DEU (for Deutschland) (GE (for Germany) only on older ID tags)
Field 3: Religious preference ("K" or "RK" for Roman Catholic, "E" or "EV" for Protestant, "O" for Christian Orthodox, "ISL" for Islamic, "JD" for Jewish, blank if no preference)
Field 4: Personenkennziffer (service number: birth date in DDMMYY format, dash, capitalized first letter of last name, dash, and five-digit number based on soldier's home military administrative district, number of persons with the mentioned last name initial and same birthday, and an error-checking number but without dashes), ex. 101281-S-455(-)6(-)8
On the back:
Field 5: Blood group (A, AB, B, 0)
Field 6: Rh factor (Rh+ or Rh-)
Field 7: Vaccination status ("T82" for Tetanus and year of basic immunization)
Fields 8–10: blank
Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung of 2009-12-21 specifies shape, materials and characteristics for four parts:
Erkennungsmarke (identification tag) stainless steel ("Edelstahl")
Erkennungsmarke, nicht magnetisierbar (identification tag, non-magnetizable) for personnel working for special tasks, non-magnetic stainless steel
Sanitätswarnmarke, short Warnmarke (health warn tag) aluminium, anodized red, carried only if necessary with a second chain depending from the lower half of the ID tag
Halskette (necklace) – Kugelkette DIN 5280, stainless steel – 2 parts: one long for neck and ID, one short for warn tag to ID tag.
The ID tag is landscape-oval, breakable in two halves with 4–8 manual bends. On the backside each half is 0.2 mm deep marked with "DEU" for Deutschland, the non-magnetic type on both halves and both sides with "NM".
The metal sheet is 0.7 mm thick, material codes X5CrNi1810 or 1.4301, weighs about 16 g. NM-variant shall consist of 1.4311 or 1.4401. Sharp edges have to be smoothed, then the plate electropolished. Mechanical deburring and ball polishing is allowed.
The letters stamped in for the person must stay readable after a glow test for 10 minutes in air at 1200 °C.
The ball chain is of X5CrNi1810, diameter of ball is 3.5 mm, that of the wire 1.5 mm. Closure is of 1.4301, stainless steel, too. The long chain is 680 + 30 mm long, the short one 145 + 7 mm. Breaking force of the chain including the closure must reach 100 N, after 10 min glow at 1200 °C in air at least 10 N.
=== Greece ===
In Greece, identification tags include the following information:
Surname
First name
Service number (where date of birth is included as "class")
Blood Group
=== Hungary ===
The Hungarian army dog tag is made out of steel, forming a 25×35 mm tag designed to split diagonally. Both sides contain the same information: the soldier's personal identity code, blood group and the word HUNGARIA. Some may not have the blood group on them. These are only issued to soldiers who are serving outside of the country. If the soldier should die, one side is removed and kept for the army's official records, while the other side is left attached to the body.
=== Iraq ===
The Saddam-era Iraqi Army used a single, long, rectangular metal tag with oval ends, inscribed (usually by hand) with Name and Number or Unit, and occasionally Blood Type.
=== Israel ===
Dog tags of the Israel Defense Forces are designed to be broken in two. The information appears in three lines (twice):
Army identification number ("mispar ishi", literally "personal number". A seven-digit number that is different from the nine-digit identification number for citizens).
Last name
First Name
Blood Type (ABO group – in some years)
Recruits are issued with 2 Dogtags (4 halves total), one remains whole and worn on a necklace, and the second is broken into its halves and placed in each military boot for the purpose of Identifying dead soldiers (IDF Military Boots contain pouches on their inner sides at the 1/3 calf height, the pouches have holes corresponding in size and placement to those on the discs, allowing for fastening, often via small cable ties).
Originally the IDF issued two circular aluminum tags (1948 – late 1950s) stamped in three lines with serial number, family name, and first name. The tags were threaded together through a single hole onto a cord worn around the neck.
=== Italy ===
Rectangular piece, 35x45 mm, designed to be broken in two. Includes soldier's first and last name, coded date and place of birth, identification number, religious affiliation, and blood group.
=== Japan ===
Japan follows a similar system to the US Army for Japan Self-Defense Forces personnel, and the appearance of the tags is similar, although laser etched. The exact information order is as follows.
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
JAPAN GSDF
First name, last name
Identification number
Blood type
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
First name, last name
Identification number
JAPAN MSDF
Blood type
Japan Air Self-Defense Force
First name, last name
Identification number
JAPAN ASDF
Blood type
=== Malaysia ===
Malaysian Armed Forces have two identical oval tags with this information:
NRIC number (The last digit is an odd number for a male soldier, and an even number for a female soldier.)
Service number
Full name
Blood type
Religion
Branch (e.g., TLDM)
If more information needed, another two oval wrist tags are provided. The term wrist tags can be used to refer to the bracelet-like wristwatch. The additional tags only need to be worn on the wrist, with the main tags still on the neck. All personnel are allowed to attach a small religious pendant or locket; this makes a quick identifiable reference for their funeral services.
=== Mexico ===
The Mexican Army uses two long identity tags, very similar to the ones used in the United States Army. They are rectangular metal tags with oval ends, embossed with name, serial number, and blood type, plus Rh factor.
=== Netherlands ===
Dutch military identity tags, like the Canadian and Norwegian ones, are designed to be broken in two in the case of a fatality; the lower end is returned to Dutch Defence Headquarters, while the upper half remains on the body.
The tags contain the following information:
Upper half:
Name and family name
Service number
Nationality and religion
Blood group with RH factor
Lower half: identical.
There is a difference in the Army and Air Force service number and the Navy service number:
The Army and Air Force service number is made up of the date of birth in YY.MM.DD. format, for example 83.01.15, and a three-digit number, such as 123.
The Navy service number is made up out of random five- or six-digit numbers.
=== Norway ===
Norwegian dog tags are designed to be broken in two like the Canadian and the Dutch version:
The top half contains the nationality, the eleven-digit birth number and the blood type.
The bottom half contains the nationality and birth number and has a hole so the broken-off half can be hung on a ring.
=== Poland ===
The first dog tags were issued in Poland following the order of the General Staff of December 12, 1920. The earliest design (dubbed kapala in Polish, more properly called "kapsel legitymacyjny" – meaning "identification cap") consisted of a tin-made 30×50 mm rectangular frame and a rectangular cap fitting into the frame. Soldiers' details were filled in a small ID card placed inside the frame, as well as on the inside of the frame itself. The dog tag was similar to the tags used by the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. In case the soldier died, the frame was left with his body, while the lid was returned to his unit together with a note on his death. The ID card was handed over to the chaplain or the rabbi.
In 1928, a new type of dog tag was proposed by gen. bryg. , Poland's representative at the International Red Cross. It was slightly modified and adopted in 1931 under the name of Nieśmiertelnik wz. 1931 (lit. "Immortalizer, pattern 1931"). The new design consisted of an oval piece of metal (ideally steel, but in most cases aluminum alloy was used), roughly 40 by 50 millimeters. There were two rectangular holes in the middle to allow for easier breaking of the into halves. The halves contained the same set of data – name, religion, place of birth, year of birth – and were identical, except the upper half had two holes for a string or twine to go through, and the lower had one hole.
The 2008 pattern (wz. 2008) specifies two Stadium-shaped 0.8mm-thick 51×27mm tags with a 3mm hole, made of heat-resistant steel, engraved with:
first name
surname
PESEL (the national ID number)
a blank line
blood type
parallel to the long axis, and the name of Polish Army "Siły Zbrojne RP" and the Polish coat of arms on the rounded end opposite the hole.
The 2024 pattern (wz. 2024) returns to a single 40×50mm ellipsis with 2+1 holes, of stainless steel, 1mm thick, laser-engraved, indented across the short axis with two rectangular holes to break apart, with each half containing
first name
surname
second line of double-barrelled surname
PESEL
and
"Siły zbrojne RP"
religion (on user request)
blood type
serial number
on the obverse. The halves are flipped with respect to each other, such that when unbroken, both sides contain all information.
=== Rhodesia ===
The former Republic of Rhodesia used two WW2 British-style compressed asbestos fiber tags, a No. 1 octagonal (grey) tag and a No. 2 circular (red) tag, stamped with identical information. The red tag was supposedly fireproof and the grey tag rotproof. The following information was stamped on the tags: Number, Name, Initials, & Religion; Blood Type was stamped on reverse. The air force and BSAP often stamped their service on the reverse side above the blood group.
=== Russia ===
The Russian Armed Forces use oval metal tags, similar to the dog tags of the Soviet Army. Each tag contains the title and the individual's alphanumeric number, as shown on the photo.
==== Wagner Group ====
The Wagner Group, a private militia funded by the Russian government that is currently fighting the Russo-Ukrainian War, reportedly provides its soldiers with generic 'contact us' dogtags.
=== Singapore ===
The Singapore Armed Forces-issued dog tags are inscribed (not embossed) with up to four items:
NRIC number
Blood type
Religion
Drug allergies (if any; inscribed on the reverse)
The dog tags consist of two metal pieces, one oval with two holes and one round with one hole. A synthetic lanyard is threaded through both holes in the oval piece and tied around the wearer's neck. The round piece is tied to the main loop on a shorter loop.
=== South Africa ===
The South African National Defence Force use two long, rectangular stainless steel tags with oval ends, stamped with :
Serial number
Name and initials
Religion
Blood type.
=== South Korea ===
The South Korean army issues two long, rectangular tags with oval ends, stamped (in Korean lettering). The tags are worn on the neck with a ball chain. The tags contain the information listed below:
Branch (Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines)
Service Number; the first two digits state the starting year of service and the other eight digits state the specific unit of the person.
Name
Blood group followed by Rh factor
=== South Vietnam ===
The South Vietnamese Army and the South Vietnamese Navy used two American-style dog tags. Some tags added religion on the back, e.g., Phật Giáo for Buddhist. They were stamped or inscribed with:
Name
SQ (Số Quân, i.e., Service number) a 2-digit year number, followed by a military serial number
LM (loại máu, i.e., Blood Group, rH factor)
=== Soviet Union ===
During World War II, the Red Army did not issue metal dog tags to its troops. They were issued small black Bakelite cylinders containing a slip of paper with a soldier's particulars written on it. These do not hold up as well as metal dog tags.
After World War II, the Soviet Army used oval metal tags, similar to today's dog tags of the Russian Armed forces. Each tag contains the title and the individual's alphanumeric number.
=== Spain ===
Issues a single metal oval, worn vertically, stamped "" above and below the 3-slot horizontal break line. It is stamped in 4 lines with:
1st line – Religion
2nd line – left side = blood group, right side = any medical allergies (SI or NO)
3rd line – military service (ET, EA ...)
4th (longest) line = DNI military number.
=== Sweden ===
Swedish identification tags are designed to be able to break apart. The information on them was prior to 2010 and are as follows:
Personal identity number (twice, once in the upper part and once below)
Surname
first and middle name(s)
Residence at birth
Blood type (only on some)
County code
Issue year
Swedish dog tags issued to Armed Forces personnel after 2010 are, for personal security reasons, only marked with a personal identity number.
During the Cold War, dog tags were issued to everyone, often soon after birth, since the threat of total war also meant the risk of severe civilian casualties. However, in 2010, the Government decided that the dog tags were not needed anymore.
=== Switzerland ===
Swiss Armed Forces ID tag is an oval shaped non reflective plaque, containing the following information:
Social insurance number
Surname
First name
Date of birth in DD.MM.YY format
On the back side the letters CH (standing for Confoederatio Helvetica) are engraved next to a Swiss cross.
=== United Kingdom ===
The British Armed Forces currently use two circular non-reflecting stainless steel tags, referred to as "ID Disks", engraved with the following 'Big 5' details:
Blood group
Service Number
Last name (Surname)
Initials
Religion (Abbreviated, e.g.; R.C – Roman Catholic)
Branch ("RAF" – only for RAF members)
The discs are suspended from one long chain (24 inches long) and one short chain (4.5 inches long)
During World War One and Two, service personnel were issued pressed fibre identity disks, one green octagonal shaped disc, and a red round disc (some army units issued a second red round disc to be attached to the service respirator). The identity disks were hand stamped with the surname, initials, service number and religion of the holder and if in the Royal Air Force, the initials RAF. The disks were worn around the neck on a 38" length of cotton cord, this was often replaced by the wearer with a leather bootlace. One tag was suspended below the main tag.
The fibre identity disks in the RAF were still in use in 1999.
From 1960 these were replaced with stainless steel ID tags on a green nylon cord, two circular and one oval. The oval was withdrawn around 1990.
=== United States ===
Tags are properly known as identification tags; the term "dog tags" has never been used in regulations.
The U.S. Armed Forces typically carry two identical oval dog tags containing:
U.S. Air Force (Pre-2019)
Last name
First name and middle initial
Social Security number (Or DoD ID number post-2012), followed by "AF" indicating branch of service
Blood Group
Religion
U.S. Air Force (Modern)
Last name
First name and middle initial
DoD ID number without hyphens
Blood group and Rh factor
Religious Preference
U.S. Marine Corps
Last name
First and middle initials and suffix; blood group
Branch ("USMC"); Gas mask size (S – small, M – medium, L – large)
Blood type
Religion
U.S. Coast Guard (Historic, the U.S. Coast Guard no longer issues dog tags)
Last name, first name, middle initial
Social Security number, no dashes or spaces, followed immediately by "USCG"
Blood group
Religion
==== Religious designation ====
During World War II, an American dog tag could indicate only one of three religions through the inclusion of one letter: "P" for Protestant, "C" for Catholic, or "H" for Jewish (from the word "Hebrew"), or (according to at least one source) "NO" to indicate no religious preference. Army regulations (606–5) soon included X and Y in addition to P, C, and H: the X indicating any religion not included in the first three, and the Y indicating either no religion or a choice not to list religion.
By the time of the Vietnam War, some IDs spelled out the broad religious choices such as PROTESTANT and CATHOLIC, rather than using initials, and also began to show individual denominations such as "METHODIST" or "BAPTIST". Tags did vary by service, however, such as the use of "CATH" instead of "CATHOLIC" on some Navy tags. For those with no religious affiliation and those who chose not to list an affiliation, either the space for religion was left blank or the words "NO PREFERENCE" or "NO RELIGIOUS PREF" (or the abbreviation "NO PREF") were included. Additionally, when American troops were first sent to Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War there were allegations that some U.S. military authorities were pressuring Jewish military personnel to avoid listing their religions on their ID tags.
|
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"Franco-Prussian War",
"BBC News Online",
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"metal",
"PESEL",
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"Dog tag",
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"Cold War",
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"major trauma",
"Casualty (person)",
"Blood type",
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"United States Armed Forces",
"corps",
"October 7 2023",
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"United States Army",
"Vulcanization",
"Austro-Prussian War",
"Royal Malaysian Navy",
"Rhesus blood group system",
"Austro-Hungarian Army",
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"British Armed Forces",
"Bundeswehr",
"Japan Self-Defense Forces",
"North German Confederation",
"Gulf War",
"U.S. Army",
"Singapore Armed Forces",
"Kharkiv",
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"National People's Army",
"World War I",
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"Surname",
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"Wagner Group",
"Service Publications",
"National identification number",
"Austrian Armed Forces",
"Taiping Rebellion",
"pendant",
"International Red Cross",
"military rank",
"Battle of Königgrätz",
"Deutsche Demokratische Republik",
"Addressograph",
"blood type",
"epilepsy",
"Pet tag",
"Hostages and Missing Families Forum",
"generał brygady",
"Rh factor",
"2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel",
"United States Marine Corps",
"Do not resuscitate",
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"military personnel",
"British Army",
"military of Denmark",
"DIN",
"corrosion-resistant",
"wristwatch",
"locket",
"Service number",
"Battlefield Cross",
"Religion",
"Medical tattoo",
"NRIC number",
"Stadium (geometry)",
"in case of emergency",
"National Army of Colombia",
"mass grave",
"Army of the Republic of Vietnam",
"lead",
"Republic of Korea Army",
"MedicAlert",
"Newton (unit)",
"battle",
"Australian Defence Force",
"Israel Defense Forces",
"dosimeter",
"U.S. War Department",
"Blood Group",
"Personal identity number (Sweden)",
"Graves Registration Service",
"Berlin",
"National Registration Identity Card Number (Malaysia)",
"typewriter",
"World War II",
"aluminium",
"Polyaenus",
"Korean War",
"Military of Hungary",
"Katyn massacre",
"Simplified Chinese",
"Belgian Armed Forces",
"Resident Identity Card",
"Prussia",
"inoculation",
"United States Coast Guard",
"anti-Semitic",
"company (military unit)",
"Republic of Vietnam Navy",
"fashion accessory",
"List of chics",
"service number (United States Army)",
"People's Liberation Army",
"Snopes.com",
"Armed Forces of the Russian Federation",
"Military impostor",
"regiment",
"Second World War",
"British Empire",
"bayonet",
"Teudat Zehut",
"Russo-Ukrainian War",
"Belgian Land Component",
"South African National Defence Force",
"brass",
"American Civil War",
"bracelet",
"diabetic coma",
"Royal Air Force",
"Gram",
"Government of Sweden",
"social insurance number",
"Vietnam War"
] |