Split (1)

train · 12.8M rows

page_id int64 12 2.54M	title stringlengths 1 261	cleaned_text stringlengths 0 753k	linked_titles listlengths 0 29.9k
7,950	Drum	The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments. In the Hornbostel–Sachs classification system, it is a membranophone. Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with the player's hands, or with a percussion mallet, to produce sound. There is usually a resonant head on the underside of the drum. Other techniques have been used to cause drums to make sound, such as the thumb roll. Drums are the world's oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. In the 2000s, drums have also been used as a way to engage in aerobic exercise and is called cardio drumming. In popular music and jazz, "drums" usually refers to a drum kit or a set of drums (with some cymbals, or in the case of harder rock music genres, many cymbals), and "drummer" to the person who plays them. Drums acquired even divine status in places such as Burundi, where the karyenda was a symbol of the power of the king. ==Construction== The shell almost always has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the Western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example, use bowl-shaped shells. These methods are rarely used today, though sometimes appear on regimental marching band snare drums. Drum heads with a white, textured coating on them muffle the overtones of the drum head slightly, producing a less diverse pitch. Drum heads with central silver or black dots tend to muffle the overtones even more, while drum heads with perimeter sound rings mostly eliminate overtones. Some jazz drummers avoid using thick drum heads, preferring single ply drum heads or drum heads with no muffling. Rock drummers often prefer the thicker or coated drum heads. The second biggest factor that affects drum sound is head tension against the shell. When the hoop is placed around the drum head and shell and tightened down with tension rods, the tension of the head can be adjusted. When the tension is increased, the amplitude of the sound is reduced and the frequency is increased, making the pitch higher and the volume lower. The type of shell also affects the sound of a drum. Because the vibrations resonate in the shell of the drum, the shell can be used to increase the volume and to manipulate the type of sound produced. The larger the diameter of the shell, the lower the pitch. The larger the depth of the drum, the louder the volume. Shell thickness also determines the volume of drums. Thicker shells produce louder drums. Mahogany raises the frequency of low pitches and keeps higher frequencies at about the same speed. When choosing a set of shells, a jazz drummer may want smaller maple shells, while a rock drummer may want larger birch shells. ==History== Drums made with alligator skins have been found in Neolithic cultures located in China, dating to a period of 5500–2350 BC. In literary records, drums manifested shamanistic characteristics and were often used in ritual ceremonies. The bronze Dong Son drum was fabricated by the Bronze Age Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam. They include the ornate Ngoc Lu drum. ===Animal drumming=== Macaque monkeys drum objects in a rhythmic way to show social dominance and this has been shown to be processed in a similar way in their brains to vocalizations, suggesting an evolutionary origin to drumming as part of social communication. Other primates including gorillas make drumming sounds by chest beating or hand clapping, and rodents such as kangaroo rats also make similar sounds using their paws on the ground. ===Talking drums=== Drums are used not only for their musical qualities, but also as a means of communication over great distances. The talking drums of Africa are used to imitate the tone patterns of spoken language. Throughout Sri Lankan history drums have been used for communication between the state and the community, and Sri Lankan drums have a history stretching back over 2500 years. ===Drums in art=== Drumming may be a purposeful expression of emotion for entertainment, spiritualism and communication. Many cultures practice drumming as a spiritual or religious passage and interpret drummed rhythm similarly to spoken language or prayer. Drumming has developed over millennia to be a powerful art form. Drumming is commonly viewed as the root of music and is sometimes performed as a kinesthetic dance. As a discipline, drumming concentrates on training the body to punctuate, convey and interpret musical rhythmic intention to an audience and to the performer. ===Military uses=== Chinese troops used tàigǔ drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. For example, during a war between Qi and Lu in 684 BC, the effect of drum on soldiers' morale is employed to change the result of a major battle. Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums. They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip). It is to this instrument that the English word "drum" was first used. Similarly, during the English Civil War rope-tension drums would be carried by junior officers as a means to relay commands from senior officers over the noise of battle. These were also hung over the shoulder of the drummer and typically played with two drum sticks. Different regiments and companies would have distinctive and unique drum beats only they recognized. In the mid-19th century, the Scottish military started incorporating pipe bands into their Highland regiments. During pre-Columbian warfare, Aztec nations were known to have used drums to send signals to the battling warriors. The Nahuatl word for drum is roughly translated as huehuetl. The Rig Veda, one of the oldest religious scriptures in the world, contains several references to the use of the Dundhubi (war drum). Arya tribes charged into battle to the beating of the war drum and chanting of a hymn that appears in Book VI of the Rig Veda and also the Atharva Veda. The dundhuhi was considered sacred and to capture one in battle would signal defeat of the enemy. ==Types== Aburukuwa Ashiko Atumpan Bara Bass drum Batá Bedug Bodhrán Bongo drums Bougarabou Buk Cajón Candombe drums Chalice drum Chenda Cocktail drum Conga Crowdy-crawn Darbuka Damphu Davul Dayereh Dhak Dhimay Dhol Dholak Djembe Dong Son drum Doumbek Dunun Ewe drums Fontomfrom Frame drum Goblet drum Hand drum Idakka Ilimba drum Karyenda Kendang Kpanlogo Lambeg drum Log drum Madal Mridangam Pahu Pakhavaj Repinique Side drum (marching snare drum) Slit drum Snare drum Surdo Tabor Tamborim Tambourine Taiko Tabla Talking drum Tassa (Tasha drum) Tapan Tar Tavil Tenor drum Timbales Timpani Tombak Tom-tom drum Tongue drum Zabumba	[ "drummer", "karyenda", "primate", "History of Sri Lanka", "Conga", "Idakka", "Dhimay", "timbales", "bass reflex", "Song dynasty", "Tabor (instrument)", "Drum machine", "cymbals", "bongo drums", "Practice pad", "frequency", "Goblet drum", "List of drummers", "Surdo", "Pedro II of Brazil", "Timpani", "overtone", "band (music)", "jazz", "Frame drum", "music therapy", "slit drum", "Mahogany", "Dong Son drum", "snare drum", "Pakhavaj", "Rig Veda", "rock music", "Madal", "Hornbostel–Sachs", "Acoustic membrane", "Tambourine", "Ewe music", "Double drumming", "Dong Son culture", "percussion mallet", "amplitude", "Pitch (music)", "Talking drum", "Rock music", "musical instruments", "Electronic drum", "Hearing the shape of a drum", "Zabumba", "Bara drum", "drumhead", "gorilla", "Bass drum", "Slit drum", "Bronze Age", "Damphu drum", "Dhak (instrument)", "Log drum", "Pahu", "djembe", "Timbales", "Larco Museum", "cardio drumming", "Drum circle", "drum kit", "Hand drum", "Blast beat", "Mridangam", "Batá drum", "Drums in communication", "Buk (drum)", "Bedug", "traditional grip", "Tombak", "drum cadence", "English Civil War", "Dhol", "Fontomfrom", "Tabla", "bass drum", "tar (drum)", "Neolithic China", "Lambeg drum", "Heavy metal gallop", "Tar (drum)", "Ngoc Lu drum", "Social Dominance Theory", "Macaque monkey", "Tom-tom drum", "United States Navy Band", "Dholak", "Candombe drums", "Snare drum", "pipe band", "cymbal", "Battle of Gettysburg", "Drumline", "Bodhrán", "resonance", "Kendang", "thumb roll", "Djembe", "bongo drum", "Dayereh", "Percussion mallet", "Bougarabou", "Taiko", "Tavil", "Vibrations of a circular membrane", "Tenor drum", "orchestral", "Alligator drum", "Kpanlogo (drum)", "Drum replacement", "Cajón", "Chenda", "regiment", "Ilimba drum", "percussion instrument", "Ashiko", "perimeter", "Bongo drum", "Crowdy-crawn", "membranophones", "Doumbek", "Karyenda", "Davul", "Tassa", "Tamborim", "cylinder (geometry)", "Aburukuwa", "Cocktail drum", "steel drum", "Atumpan (drum)", "drum beat", "Repinique", "popular music", "kangaroo rat", "Dunun", "timpani", "bowl (vessel)", "talking drum", "National Museum of the American Indian", "tàigǔ", "Tongue drum" ]
7,951	Delphi	Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The ancient Greeks considered the centre of the world to be in Delphi, marked by the stone monument known as the Omphalos of Delphi (navel). According to the Suda, Delphi took its name from the Delphyne, the she-serpent (drakaina) who lived there and was killed by the god Apollo (in other accounts the serpent was the male serpent (drakon) Python). The sacred precinct occupies a delineated region on the south-western slope of Mount Parnassus. It is now an extensive archaeological site, and since 1938 a part of Parnassos National Park. The precinct is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in having had a great influence in the ancient world, as evidenced by the various monuments built there by most of the important ancient Greek city-states, demonstrating their fundamental Hellenic unity. Adjacent to the sacred precinct is a small modern town of the same name. ==Names== Delphi shares the same root with the Greek word for womb, δελφύς delphys. Pytho (Πυθώ) is related to Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, and to Python, a serpent or dragon who lived at the site. "Python" is derived from the verb πύθω (pythō), "to rot". ==Delphi and the Delphic region== Today Delphi is a municipality of Greece as well as a modern town adjacent to the ancient precinct. The modern town was created after removing buildings from the sacred precinct so that the latter could be excavated. The two Delphis, old and new, are located on Greek National Road 48 between Amfissa in the west and Livadeia, capital of Voiotia, in the east. The road follows the northern slope of a pass between Mount Parnassus on the north and the mountains of the Desfina Peninsula on the south. The pass is of the river Pleistos, running from east to west, forming a natural boundary across the north of the Desfina Peninsula, and providing an easy route across it. On the west side the valley joins the north–south valley between Amfissa and Itea. On the north side of the valley junction a spur of Parnassus looming over the valley made narrower by it is the site of ancient Krisa, which once was the ruling power of the entire valley system. Both Amphissa and Krissa are mentioned in the Iliad's Catalogue of Ships. It was a Mycenaean stronghold. Archaeological dates of the valley go back to the Early Helladic. Krisa itself is Middle Helladic. These early dates are comparable to the earliest dates at Delphi, suggesting Delphi was appropriated and transformed by Phocians from ancient Krisa. It is believed that the ruins of Kirra, now part of the port of Itea, were the port of Krisa of the same name. ==Archaeology of the precinct== The site was first briefly excavated in 1880 by Bernard Haussoullier (1852–1926) on behalf of the French School at Athens, of which he was a sometime member. The site was then occupied by the village of Kastri, about 100 houses, 200 people. Kastri ("fort") had been there since the destruction of the place by Theodosius I in 390. He probably left a fort to make sure it was not repopulated, however, the fort became the new village. They were mining the stone for re-use in their own buildings. British and French travelers visiting the site suspected it was ancient Delphi. Before a systematic excavation of the site could be undertaken, the village had to be relocated, but the residents resisted. The opportunity to relocate the village occurred when it was substantially damaged by an earthquake, with villagers offered a completely new village in exchange for the old site. In 1893, the French Archaeological School removed vast quantities of soil from numerous landslides to reveal both the major buildings and structures of the sanctuary of Apollo and of the temple to Athena, the Athena Pronoia along with thousands of objects, inscriptions, and sculptures. It is only then, in the beginning of the sixth century, that the city seems to decline: its size is reduced and its trade contacts seem to be drastically diminished. Local pottery production is produced in large quantities: it is coarser and made of reddish clay, aiming at satisfying the needs of the inhabitants. The Sacred Way remained the main street of the settlement, transformed, however, into a street with commercial and industrial use. Around the agora were built workshops as well as the only intra muros early Christian basilica. The domestic area spread mainly in the western part of the settlement. The houses were rather spacious and two large cisterns provided running water to them. ===Delphi Archaeological Museum=== The museum houses artifacts associated with ancient Delphi, including the earliest known notation of a melody, the Charioteer of Delphi, Kleobis and Biton, golden treasures discovered beneath the Sacred Way, the Sphinx of Naxos, and fragments of reliefs from the Siphnian Treasury. Immediately adjacent to the exit is the inscription that mentions the Roman proconsul Gallio. ==Architecture of the precinct== Most of the ruins that survive today date from the most intense period of activity at the site in the sixth century BC. ===Temple of Apollo=== Ancient tradition refers to a succession of mythical temples on the site: first one built of olive branches from Tempe, then one built of beeswax and wings by bees, and thirdly one built by Hephaestus and Athena. The first archaeologically attested structure was built in the seventh century BC and is attributed in legend to the architects Trophonios and Agamedes. It burnt down in 548/7 BC and the Alcmaeonids built a new structure which itself burnt down in the fourth century BC. The ruins of the Temple of Apollo that are visible today date from the fourth century BC, and are of a peripteral Doric building. It was erected by Spintharus, Xenodoros, and Agathon. File:Delphi - panoramio (3).jpg File:Delphi BW 2017-10-08 11-40-49.jpg File:15.Δελφοί GR-H07-0007.jpg File:Delfoi8.jpg ===Treasuries=== From the entrance of the upper site, continuing up the slope on the Sacred Way almost to the Temple of Apollo, are a large number of votive statues, and numerous so-called treasuries. These were built by many of the Greek city-states to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for her advice, which was thought to have contributed to those victories. These buildings held the offerings made to Apollo; these were frequently a "tithe" or tenth of the spoils of a battle. The most impressive is the now-restored Athenian Treasury, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The Siphnian Treasury was dedicated by the city of Siphnos, whose citizens gave a tithe of the yield from their silver mines until the mines came to an abrupt end when the sea flooded the workings. One of the largest of the treasuries was that of Argos. Having built it in the late classical period, the Argives took great pride in establishing their place at Delphi amongst the other city-states. Completed in 380 BC, their treasury seems to draw inspiration mostly from the Temple of Hera located in the Argolis. However, recent analysis of the Archaic elements of the treasury suggest that its founding preceded this. Other identifiable treasuries are those of the Sicyonians, the Boeotians, Massaliots, and the Thebans. File:Treasury of the Boeotians.jpg\|Boeotians File:Treasury of Cnidus 1.jpg\|Cnidians File:The Treasury of the Sicyonians on the Sacred Way at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg\|Sicyonians File:Sideview of the Siphnian Treasury at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg\|Siphnians ===Altar of the Chians=== Located in front of the Temple of Apollo, the main altar of the sanctuary was paid for and built by the people of Chios. It is dated to the fifth century BC by the inscription on its cornice. Made entirely of black marble, except for the base and cornice, the altar would have made a striking impression. It was restored in 1920. File:Replica of Serpent Column in Delphi and Altar of Apollo, 20M8126.jpg File:GRIEKENLAND 023 (17669660608).jpg File:Inscription delphi apollo.JPG\|Ancient Greek inscription at the altar, naming Chios, "ΧΙΟΙΣ" ===Stoa of the Athenians=== The stoa, or open-sided, covered porch, is placed in an approximately east–west alignment along the base of the polygonal wall retaining the terrace on which the Temple of Apollo sits. There is no archaeological suggestion of a connection to the temple. The stoa opened to the Sacred Way. The nearby presence of the Treasury of the Athenians suggests that this quarter of Delphi was used for Athenian business or politics, as stoas are generally found in market-places. Although the architecture at Delphi is generally Doric, a plain style, in keeping with the Phocian traditions that were Doric, the Athenians did not prefer the Doric. The stoa was built in their own preferred style, the Ionic order, the capitals of the columns being a sure indicator. In the Ionic order they are floral and ornate, although not so much as the Corinthian, which is in deficit there. The remaining porch structure contains seven fluted columns, unusually carved from single pieces of stone (most columns were constructed from a series of discs joined). The inscription on the stylobate indicates that it was built by the Athenians after their naval victory over the Persians in 478 BC, to house their war trophies. At that time the Athenians and the Spartans were on the same side. File:Delphi-2.jpg File:Greece-0842 (2216558634).jpg File:Delphi, Stoa der Athener 2015-09 (1).jpg The Sibyl rock is a pulpit-like outcrop of rock between the Athenian Treasury and the Stoa of the Athenians upon the Sacred Way that leads up to the temple of Apollo in the archaeological area of Delphi. The rock is claimed to be the location from which a prehistoric Sibyl pre-dating the Pythia of Apollo sat to deliver her prophecies. Other suggestions are that the Pythia might have stood there, or an acolyte whose function was to deliver the final prophecy. The rock seems ideal for public speaking. File:Sibyl stone in Delphi.jpg File:The Rock of Sibyl at the Sanctuary of Apollo (Delphi) on October 4, 2020.jpg File:Rock of Sibyl, Rock of Leto, Delphi, Dlfi403.jpg ===Theatre=== The ancient theatre at Delphi was built farther up the hill from the Temple of Apollo giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the valley below. It was originally built in the fourth century BC, but was remodeled on several occasions, particularly in 160/159 B.C. at the expenses of king Eumenes II of Pergamon and, in 67 A.D., on the occasion of emperor Nero's visit. The koilon (cavea) leans against the natural slope of the mountain whereas its eastern part overrides a little torrent that led the water of the fountain Cassotis right underneath the temple of Apollo. The orchestra was initially a full circle with a diameter measuring seven meters. The rectangular scene building ended up in two arched openings, of which the foundations are preserved today. Access to the theatre was possible through the parodoi, i.e. the side corridors. On the support walls of the parodoi are engraved large numbers of manumission inscriptions recording fictitious sales of the slaves to the deity. The koilon was divided horizontally in two zones via a corridor called diazoma. The lower zone had 27 rows of seats and the upper one only eight. Six radially arranged stairs divided the lower part of the koilon in seven tiers. The theatre could accommodate approximately 4,500 spectators. On the occasion of Nero's visit to Greece in 67 A.D. various alterations took place. The orchestra was paved and delimited by a parapet made of stone. The proscenium was replaced by a low pedestal, the pulpitum; its façade was decorated in relief with scenes from myths about Hercules. Further repairs and transformations took place in the second century A.D. Pausanias mentions that these were carried out under the auspices of Herod Atticus. In antiquity, the theatre was used for the vocal and musical contests that formed part of the programme of the Pythian Games in the late Hellenistic and Roman period. The theatre was abandoned when the sanctuary declined in Late Antiquity. After its excavation and initial restoration it hosted theatrical performances during the Delphic Festivals organized by A. Sikelianos and his wife, Eva Palmer, in 1927 and in 1930. It has recently been restored again as the serious landslides posed a grave threat for its stability for decades. ===Tholos=== The tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaea (Ἀθηνᾶ Προναία, "Athena of forethought") is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 BC. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior. The Tholos is located approximately a half a mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi (at ). Three of the Doric columns have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs. The architect of the "vaulted temple at Delphi" is named by Vitruvius, in De architectura Book VII, as Theodorus Phoceus (not Theodorus of Samos, whom Vitruvius names separately). ===Gymnasium=== The gymnasium, which is half a mile away from the main sanctuary, was a series of buildings used by the youth of Delphi. The building consisted of two levels: a stoa on the upper level providing open space, and a palaestra, pool, and baths on lower floor. These pools and baths were said to have magical powers, and imparted the ability to communicate directly to Apollo. ===Hippodrome=== It was at the Pythian Games that prominent political leaders, such as Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sikyon, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, competed with their chariots. The hippodrome where these events took place was referred to by Pindar, and this monument was sought by archaeologists for over two centuries. Traces of it have recently been found at Gonia in the plain of Krisa in the place where the original stadium had been sited. ===Polygonal wall=== A retaining wall was built to support the terrace housing the construction of the second temple of Apollo in 548 BC. Its name is taken from the polygonal masonry of which it is constructed. At a later date, from 200 BC onwards, the stones were inscribed with the manumission (liberation) contracts of slaves who were consecrated to Apollo. Approximately a thousand manumissions are recorded on the wall. ===Castalian spring=== The sacred spring of Delphi lies in the ravine of the Phaedriades. The preserved remains of two monumental fountains that received the water from the spring date to the Archaic period and the Roman, with the latter cut into the rock. ===Roman Agora=== The first set of remains that the visitor sees upon entering the archaeological site of Delphi is the Roman Agora, which was just outside the peribolos, or precinct walls, of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. The Roman Agora was built between the sanctuary and the Castalian Spring, approximately 500 meters away. This large rectangular paved square used to be surrounded by Ionic porticos on its three sides. The square was built in the Roman period, but the remains visible at present along the north and northwestern sides date to the Late Antique period. An open market was probably established, where the visitors would buy ex-votos, such as statuettes and small tripods, to leave as offerings to the gods. It also served as an assembly area for processions during sacred festivals. Hesiod also refers to Pytho "in the hollows of Parnassus" (Theogony 498). These references imply that the earliest date of the oracle's existence is the eighth century BC, the probable date of composition of the Homeric works. The main myths of Delphi are given in three literary "loci". H. W. Parke, the Delphi scholar, argued that the myths are self-contradictory, thereby aligning with the Plutarchian epistemology that these myths are not to be taken as literal historical accounts but as symbolic narratives meant to explain oracular traditions." Parke asserts that there is no Apollo, no Zeus, no Hera, and certainly never was a great, serpent-like monster, and that the myths are pure Plutarchian figures of speech, meant to be aetiologies of some oracular tradition. Homeric Hymn 3, "To Apollo", is the oldest of the three loci, dating to the seventh century BC (estimate). Apollo travels about after his birth on Delos seeking a place for an oracle. He is advised by Telephus to choose Crissa "below the glade of Parnassus", which he does, and has a temple built, having killed the serpent that guards the spring. Subsequently, some Cretans from Knossos sail up on a mission to reconnoitre Pylos. Changing into a dolphin, Apollo casts himself on deck. The Cretans do not dare to remove him but sail on. Apollo guides the ship around Greece, ending back at Crisa, where the ship grounds. Apollo enters his shrine with the Cretans to be its priests, worshipping him as Delphineus, "of the dolphin". Zeus, a Classical deity, reportedly determined the site of Delphi when he sought to find the centre of his "Grandmother Earth" (Gaia). He sent two eagles flying from the eastern and western extremities, and the path of the eagles crossed over Delphi where the omphalos, or navel of Gaia was found. According to Aeschylus in the prologue of the Eumenides, the oracle had origins in prehistoric times and the worship of Gaia, a view echoed by H. W. Parke, who described the evolution of beliefs associated with the site. He established that the prehistoric foundation of the oracle is described by three early writers: the author of the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, Aeschylus in the prologue to the Eumenides, and Euripides in a chorus in the Iphigeneia in Tauris. Parke goes on to say, "This version [Euripides] evidently reproduces in a sophisticated form the primitive tradition which Aeschylus for his own purposes had been at pains to contradict: the belief that Apollo came to Delphi as an invader and appropriated for himself a previously existing oracle of Earth. The slaying of the serpent is the act of conquest which secures his possession; not as in the Homeric Hymn, a merely secondary work of improvement on the site. Another difference is also noticeable. The Homeric Hymn, as we saw, implied that the method of prophecy used there was similar to that of Dodona: both Aeschylus and Euripides, writing in the fifth century, attribute to primeval times the same methods as used at Delphi in their own day. So much is implied by their allusions to tripods and prophetic seats... [he continues on p. 6] ...Another very archaic feature at Delphi also confirms the ancient associations of the place with the Earth goddess. This was the Omphalos, an egg-shaped stone which was situated in the innermost sanctuary of the temple in historic times. Classical legend asserted that it marked the 'navel' (Omphalos) or center of the Earth and explained that this spot was determined by Zeus who had released two eagles to fly from opposite sides of the earth and that they had met exactly over this place". On p. 7 he writes further, "So Delphi was originally devoted to the worship of the Earth goddess whom the Greeks called Ge, or Gaia. Themis, who is associated with her in tradition as her daughter and partner or successor, is really another manifestation of the same deity: an identity that Aeschylus recognized in another context. The worship of these two, as one or distinguished, was displaced by the introduction of Apollo. His origin has been the subject of much learned controversy: it is sufficient for our purpose to take him as the Homeric Hymn represents him – a northern intruder – and his arrival must have occurred in the dark interval between Mycenaean and Hellenic times. His conflict with Ge for the possession of the cult site was represented under the legend of his slaying the serpent. One tale of the sanctuary's discovery states that a goatherd, who grazed his flocks on Parnassus, one day observed his goats playing with great agility upon nearing a chasm in the rock; the goatherd noticing this held his head over the chasm causing the fumes to go to his brain; throwing him into a strange trance. The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been Krisa. Others relate that the site was named Pytho (Πυθώ) and that Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, was chosen from their ranks by the priestesses who officiated at the temple. Apollo was said to have slain Python, a drako (a male serpent or a dragon) who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth.}} Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος Delphinios, "the Delphinian". The epithet is connected with dolphins (Greek δελφίς,-ῖνος) in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (line 400), recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back. The Homeric name of the oracle is Pytho (Πυθώ). Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly, to pick laurel (also known as bay tree) which he considered to be a sacred plant. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel picked in the temple. ==Oracle of Delphi== ===The prophetic process=== Perhaps Delphi is best known for its oracle, the Pythia, or sibyl, the priestess prophesying from the tripod in the sunken adyton of the Temple of Apollo. The Pythia was known as a spokesperson for Apollo. She was a woman of blameless life chosen from the peasants of the area. Alone in an enclosed inner sanctum (Ancient Greek adyton – "do not enter") she sat on a tripod seat over an opening in the earth (the "chasm"). According to legend, when Apollo slew Python its body fell into this fissure and fumes arose from its decomposing body. Intoxicated by the vapors, the sibyl would fall into a trance, allowing Apollo to possess her spirit. In this state she prophesied. The oracle could not be consulted during the winter months, for this was traditionally the time when Apollo would live among the Hyperboreans. Dionysus would inhabit the temple during his absence. Of note, release of fumes is limited in colder weather. The time to consult Pythia for an oracle during the year was determined from astronomical and geological grounds related to the constellations of Lyra and Cygnus. Similar practice was followed in other Apollo oracles too. Hydrocarbon vapors emitted from the chasm. While in a trance the Pythia "raved" – probably a form of ecstatic speech – and her ravings were "translated" by the priests of the temple into elegant hexameters. It has been speculated that the ancient writers, including Plutarch who had worked as a priest at Delphi, were correct in attributing the oracular effects to the sweet-smelling pneuma (Ancient Greek for breath, wind, or vapor) escaping from the chasm in the rock. That exhalation could have been high in the known anaesthetic and sweet-smelling ethylene or other hydrocarbons such as ethane known to produce violent trances. Although, given the limestone geology, this theory remains debatable, the authors put up a detailed answer to their critics. Ancient sources describe the priestess using "laurel" to inspire her prophecies. Several alternative plant candidates have been suggested including Cannabis, Hyoscyamus, Rhododendron, and Oleander. Harissis claims that a review of contemporary toxicological literature indicates that oleander causes symptoms similar to those shown by the Pythia, and his study of ancient texts shows that oleander was often included under the term "laurel". The Pythia may have chewed oleander leaves and inhaled their smoke prior to her oracular pronouncements and sometimes dying from the toxicity. The toxic substances of oleander resulted in symptoms similar to those of epilepsy, the "sacred disease", which may have been seen as the possession of the Pythia by the spirit of Apollo. ===Influence, devastations and a temporary revival=== The Delphic oracle exerted considerable influence throughout the Greek world, and she was consulted before all major undertakings including wars and the founding of colonies. She also was respected by the Greek-influenced countries around the periphery of the Greek world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt. The oracle was also known to the early Romans. Rome's seventh and last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, after witnessing a snake near his palace, sent a delegation including two of his sons to consult the oracle. In 278 BC, a Thracian (Celtic) tribe raided Delphi, burned the temple, plundered the sanctuary and stole the "unquenchable fire" from the altar. During the raid, part of the temple roof collapsed. The same year, the temple was severely damaged by an earthquake, thus it fell into decay and the surrounding area became impoverished. The sparse local population led to difficulties in filling the posts required. The oracle's credibility waned due to doubtful predictions. The oracle flourished again in the second century AD, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, who is believed to have visited the oracle twice and offered complete autonomy to the city. Constantine the Great looted several monuments in Eastern Mediterranean, including Delphi, to decorate his new capital, Constantinople. One of those famous items was the bronze column of Plataea (The Serpent Column; Ancient Greek: Τρικάρηνος Ὄφις, Three-headed Serpent; Turkish: Yılanlı Sütun, Serpentine Column) from the sanctuary (dated 479 BC), relocated there from Delphi in AD 324, which can still be seen today standing destroyed at a square of Istanbul (where once upon a time was the Hippodrome of Constantinople, built by Constantine; Ottoman Turkish: Atmeydanı "Horse Square") with part of one of its heads kept in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums (İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri). Despite the rise of Christianity across the Roman Empire, the oracle remained a religious center throughout the fourth century, and the Pythian Games continued to be held at least until 424 AD; although some founders and early developers of the technique considered that the adoption of the name "Delphi" was unfortunate and undesirable. ===Religious significance of the oracle=== [, now in the museum]] Excavation at Delphi, which was a post-Mycenaean settlement of the late ninth century BC, has uncovered artifacts increasing steadily in volume beginning with the last quarter of the eighth century BC. Pottery and bronze as well as tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in contrast to Olympia. Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for a wide range of worshippers, but the large quantity of valuable goods, found in no other mainland sanctuary, encourages that view. Apollo's sacred precinct in Delphi was a Panhellenic Sanctuary, where every four years, starting in 586 BC athletes from all over the Greek world competed in the Pythian Games, one of the four Panhellenic Games, precursors of the Modern Olympics. The victors at Delphi were presented with a laurel crown (stephanos) that was ceremonially cut from a tree by a boy who re-enacted the slaying of the Python. (These competitions are also called stephantic games, after the crown.) Delphi was set apart from the other games sites because it hosted the mousikos agon, musical competitions. These Pythian Games rank second among the four stephantic games chronologically and in importance. These games, however, were different from the games at Olympia in that they were not of such vast importance to the city of Delphi as the games at Olympia were to the area surrounding Olympia. Delphi would have been a renowned city regardless of whether it hosted these games; it had other attractions that led to it being labeled the "omphalos" (navel) of the earth, in other words, the centre of the world. In the inner hestia (hearth) of the Temple of Apollo, an eternal flame burned. After the battle of Plataea, the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi. ===Abandonment and rediscovery=== The Ottomans finalized their domination over Phocis and Delphi in about 1410 AD. Delphi itself remained almost uninhabited for centuries. It seems that one of the first buildings of the early modern era was the monastery of the Dormition of Mary or of Panagia (the Mother of God) built above the ancient gymnasium at Delphi. It must have been toward the end of the fifteenth or in the sixteenth century that a settlement started forming there, which eventually ended up forming the village of Kastri. Ottoman Delphi gradually began to be investigated. The first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi was Cyriacus of Ancona, a fifteenth-century merchant turned diplomat and antiquarian, considered the founding father of modern classical archeology. He visited Delphi in March 1436 and remained there for six days. He recorded all the visible archaeological remains based on Pausanias for identification. He described the stadium and the theatre at that date as well as some freestanding pieces of sculpture. He also recorded several inscriptions, most of which are now lost. His identifications, however, were not always correct: for example he described a round building he saw as the temple of Apollo while this was simply the base of the Argives' ex-voto. A severe earthquake in 1500 caused much damage. In 1766, an English expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti included the Oxford epigraphist Richard Chandler, the architect Nicholas Revett, and the painter William Pars. Their studies were published in 1769 under the title Ionian Antiquities, followed by a collection of inscriptions, and two travel books, one about Asia Minor (1775), and one about Greece (1776). Apart from the antiquities, they also related some vivid descriptions of daily life in Kastri, such as the crude behaviour of the Muslim Albanians who guarded the mountain passes. In 1805 Edward Dodwell visited Delphi, accompanied by the painter Simone Pomardi. Lord Byron visited in 1809, accompanied by his friend John Cam Hobhouse: Yet there I've wandered by the vaulted rill Yes! Sighed o'er Delphi's long deserted shrine, where, save that feeble fountain, all is still. He carved his name on the same column in the gymnasium as Lord Aberdeen, later Prime Minister, who had visited a few years before. Proper excavation did not start until the late nineteenth century (see "Excavations" section) after the village had moved. ==Delphi in later art== From the sixteenth century onward, woodcuts of Delphi began to appear in printed maps and books. The earliest depictions of Delphi were totally imaginary; for example, those created by Nikolaus Gerbel, who published in 1545 a text based on the map of Greece by N. Sofianos. The ancient sanctuary was depicted as a fortified city. The first travelers with archaeological interests, apart from the precursor Cyriacus of Ancona, were the British George Wheler and the French Jacob Spon, who visited Greece in a joint expedition in 1675–1676. They published their impressions separately. In Wheler's "Journey into Greece", published in 1682, a sketch of the region of Delphi appeared, where the settlement of Kastri and some ruins were depicted. The illustrations in Spon's publication "Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, 1678" are considered original and groundbreaking. Travelers continued to visit Delphi throughout the nineteenth century and published their books which contained diaries, sketches, and views of the site, as well as pictures of coins. The illustrations often reflected the spirit of romanticism, as evident by the works of Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, where, apart from the landscapes (La Grèce. Vues pittoresques et topographiques, Paris 1834) are depicted also human types (Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne dessinés sur les lieux, Paris 1828). The philhellene painter W. Williams has comprised the landscape of Delphi in his themes (1829). Influential personalities such as F.Ch.-H.-L. Pouqueville, W.M. Leake, Chr. Wordsworth and Lord Byron are amongst the most important visitors of Delphi. After the foundation of the modern Greek state, the press became also interested in these travelers. Thus "Ephemeris" writes (17 March 1889): In the Revues des Deux Mondes Paul Lefaivre published his memoirs from an excursion to Delphi. The French author relates in a charming style his adventures on the road, praising particularly the ability of an old woman to put back in place the dislocated arm of one of his foreign traveling companions, who had fallen off the horse. "In Arachova the Greek type is preserved intact. The men are rather athletes than farmers, built for running and wrestling, particularly elegant and slender under their mountain gear." Only briefly does he refer to the antiquities of Delphi, but he refers to a pelasgian wall 80 meters long, "on which innumerable inscriptions are carved, decrees, conventions, manumissions". Gradually the first travelling guides appeared. The revolutionary "pocket" books invented by Karl Baedeker, accompanied by maps useful for visiting archaeological sites such as Delphi (1894) and the informed plans, the guides became practical and popular. The photographic lens revolutionized the way of depicting the landscape and the antiquities, particularly from 1893 onward, when the systematic excavations of the French Archaeological School started. However, artists such as Vera Willoughby, continued to be inspired by the landscape. Delphic themes inspired several graphic artists. Besides the landscape, Pythia and Sibylla become illustration subjects even on Tarot cards. A famous example constitutes Michelangelo's Delphic Sibyl (1509), the nineteenth-century German engraving, Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, as well as the recent ink on paper drawing, "The Oracle of Delphi" (2013) by M. Lind. Modern artists are inspired also by the Delphic Maxims. Examples of such works are displayed in the "Sculpture park of the European Cultural Center of Delphi" and in exhibitions taking place at the Archaeological Museum of Delphi. ==Delphi in later literature== Delphi inspired literature as well. In 1814 W. Haygarth, friend of Lord Byron, refers to Delphi in his work "Greece, a Poem". In 1888 Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle published his lyric drama L’Apollonide, accompanied by music by Franz Servais. More recent French authors used Delphi as a source of inspiration such as Yves Bonnefoy (Delphes du second jour) or Jean Sullivan (nickname of Joseph Lemarchand) in L'Obsession de Delphes (1967), but also Rob MacGregor's Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi (1991). The presence of Delphi in Greek literature is very intense. Poets such as Kostis Palamas (The Delphic Hymn, 1894), Kostas Karyotakis (Delphic festival, 1927), Nikephoros Vrettakos (return from Delphi, 1957), Yannis Ritsos (Delphi, 1961–62) and Kiki Dimoula (Gas omphalos and Appropriate terrain 1988), to mention only the most renowned ones. Angelos Sikelianos wrote The Dedication (of the Delphic speech) (1927), the Delphic Hymn (1927) and the tragedy Sibylla (1940), whereas in the context of the Delphic idea and the Delphic festivals he published an essay entitled "The Delphic union" (1930). The nobelist George Seferis wrote an essay under the title "Delphi", in the book "Dokimes". == Gallery == File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111178.jpg\|The theatre at Delphi File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111180.jpg\|Ruins of the theatre at Delphi File:Archaeological Site of Delphi-111182.jpg\|Stacked stones File:Phaedriades, Delphi, 060032.jpg\|The Phaedriades	[ "Ionic order", "Athens", "Pausanias (geographer)", "Corinthian order", "Delphic Hymns", "Lord Byron", "stadium", "Vale of Tempe", "pulpitum", "Kirra, Phocis", "oleander", "Mycenaean Greece", "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle", "Olympia, Greece", "Boeotia", "Herodes Atticus", "polygon", "manumission", "Charioteer of Delphi", "Oreibasius", "Pythagoras", "Lewis Mumford", "Homer", "Achilles", "Siphnian Treasury", "Bay laurel", "Istanbul Archaeology Museums", "Atë", "Western Europe", "George Seferis", "Kiki Dimoula", "Agamemnon", "Cleisthenes of Sicyon", "Pindar", "Pythian Games", "Oleander", "First Peloponnesian War", "hearth", "Pronaea", "Omphalos", "stylobate", "rise of Macedon", "Society of Dilettanti", "Syracuse, Sicily", "Ex voto of the Attalids (Delphi)", "Telphousa", "foundation story", "Third Sacred War", "Ancient Greece", "palaestra", "Hera", "Alcmaeonidae", "Aetolians", "Catalogue of Ships", "basilica", "Leto", "Yannis Ritsos", "Battle of Marathon", "Arachova", "Pylos", "Yale University Press", "Pliny the Younger", "Epsilon", "Plato", "Theophany", "Roman Agora (Delphi)", "Nero", "Mount Parnassus", "Rhododendron", "Sibyl rock", "Oskar Seyffert (classical scholar)", "LSJ", "Hellenic civilisation", "Ab urbe condita (book)", "French School at Athens", "Parnassus", "Phaedriades", "Patera", "Rob MacGregor", "Doric column", "mother goddess", "Joseph Fontenrose", "omphalos", "Desfina", "Portico of the Aetolians", "UNESCO", "Manly Palmer Hall", "Greek National Road 48", "Jacob Spon", "Theodorus of Samos", "Sacrificial tripod", "eternal flame", "Lydia", "Theodosius I", "Hyperborea", "Amfissa", "Agamedes", "Boeotian Treasury", "Gymnasium (ancient Greece)", "Python (mythology)", "Panhellenic Sanctuary", "Suda", "Sparta", "Knossos", "Roman Empire", "Charmides (dialogue)", "Greek art", "Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium", "Omphalos of Delphi", "Laurus nobilis", "Apollo", "Franz Servais", "Tholos (architecture)", "votive deposit", "Telephus", "Delphi (modern town)", "dream", "Pleistos", "Athenian Treasury", "pneuma", "epithet", "temple of Apollo (Delphi)", "proscenium", "Kastri, Phocis", "Modern Olympics", "Joseph Lemarchand", "Itea, Phocis", "Manumission inscriptions at Delphi", "Zeus", "Kleobis and Biton", "Sicyonian Treasury", "Ottoman Turks", "Iliad", "cornice", "Protagoras (dialogue)", "Kostas Karyotakis", "dolphin", "Drakaina (mythology)", "Karl Baedeker", "Poseidon", "Second Sacred War", "Stoa of the Athenians", "Roman Republic", "Flavian dynasty", "Seven Sages of Greece", "Yves Bonnefoy", "Classical antiquity", "William Pars", "Aristoclea", "List of World Heritage Sites in Europe", "know thyself", "serpent (symbolism)", "Helladic chronology", "Cyriacus of Ancona", "World Heritage Committee", "De architectura", "Constantinople", "Delphyne", "peripteral", "John Cam Hobhouse", "ethane", "Delphi Archaeological Museum", "Pythia", "Sphinx of Naxos", "ethylene", "Rise of Macedon", "gymnasium at Delphi", "Sikyon", "Greek colonies", "Angelos Sikelianos", "Philip II of Macedon", "Crissa", "Crete", "Richard Chandler (antiquary)", "tithe", "Ottoman Delphi", "Livadeia", "Treasury of the Massaliots (Delphi)", "Herodotus", "Panagia", "Cirrha", "persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire", "Nikolaus Gerbel", "Doric order", "Dionysus", "city", "sacred precinct", "George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen", "Siphnos", "Chios", "Gaia", "Phocis", "Julian (emperor)", "Peloponnesian League", "The City in History", "Constantine the Great", "Amphictyonic League", "Theatre of ancient Greece", "Paul Lefaivre", "Tholos of Delphi", "Plutarch", "Oresteia", "Origin myth", "oracle", "Homeric Hymns", "Gaia (mythology)", "Perseus Project", "Homeric hymns", "Athena", "Robert K. G. Temple", "Cannabis", "Pantheon (gods)", "Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi", "Dormition of Mary", "Vitruvius", "Aeschylus", "Themis", "Edward Dodwell", "Delian League", "Delos", "Nikephoros Vrettakos", "List of traditional Greek place names", "George Wheler (clergyman and scholar)", "William Broad", "Thessaly", "Temple of Athena Pronaia", "Neolithic", "Argos, Peloponnese", "stoa", "Phocis (ancient region)", "Hiero I of Syracuse", "World Heritage Site", "Greek literature", "Franz Weber (activist)", "Hyoscyamus", "Odyssey", "Bernard Haussoullier", "Caria", "battle of Plataea", "Kostis Palamas", "sanctuary", "Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)", "Panhellenic Games", "Spintharus of Corinth", "Ancient Egypt", "King of Rome", "Castalian Spring", "aisle", "Delphi technique", "Theban Treasury (Delphi)", "Mithridatic Wars", "Erwin Rohde", "5 (number)", "Gallic invasion of the Balkans", "Martin Litchfield West", "theatre", "Decomposition", "Lucius Iunius Gallio Annaeanus", "Ancient Rome", "Dodona", "sibyl", "Artemis", "Archaic period in Greece", "Nicholas Revett", "First Sacred War", "Euripides", "Hyperboreans", "Sulla", "Temple of Apollo (Delphi)", "Hephaestus", "Trophonius", "Hadrian", "Princeton University Press" ]
7,952	Digital Equipment Corporation	Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC ), using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to the 1990s. The company was co-founded by Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson in 1957. Olsen was president until he was forced to resign in 1992, after the company had gone into precipitous decline. The company produced many different product lines over its history. It is best known for the work in the minicomputer market starting in the early 1960s. The company produced a series of machines known as the PDP line, with the PDP-8 and PDP-11 being among the most successful minis in history. Their success was only surpassed by another DEC product, the late-1970s VAX "supermini" systems that were designed to replace the PDP-11. Although a number of competitors had successfully competed with Digital through the 1970s, the VAX cemented the company's place as a leading vendor in the computer space. As microcomputers improved in the late 1980s, especially with the introduction of RISC-based workstation machines, the performance niche of the minicomputer was rapidly eroded. By the early 1990s, the company was in turmoil as their mini sales collapsed and their attempts to address this by entering the high-end market with machines like the VAX 9000 were market failures. After several attempts to enter the workstation and file server market, the DEC Alpha product line began to make successful inroads in the mid-1990s, but was too late to save the company. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. During the purchase, some parts of DEC were sold to other companies; the compiler business and the Hudson Fab were sold to Intel. At the time, Compaq was focused on the enterprise market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence. However, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. Compaq was eventually bought by Hewlett-Packard (HP) in May 2002. == History == === Origins (1944–1958) === Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson were two engineers who had been working at MIT Lincoln Laboratory on the lab's various computer projects. The Lab is best known for their work on what would today be known as "interactivity", and their machines were among the first where operators had direct control over programs running in real-time. These had started in 1944 with the famed Whirlwind, which was originally developed to make a flight simulator for the US Navy, although this was never completed. Instead, this effort evolved into the SAGE system for the US Air Force, which used large screens and light guns to allow operators to interact with radar data stored in the computer. When the Air Force project wound down, the Lab turned their attention to an effort to build a version of the Whirlwind using transistors in place of vacuum tubes. In order to test their new circuitry, they first built a small 18-bit machine known as TX-0, which first ran in 1956. When the TX-0 successfully proved the basic concepts, attention turned to a much larger system, the 36-bit TX-2 with a then-enormous 64 kWords of core memory. Core was so expensive that parts of TX-0's memory were stripped for the TX-2, and what remained of the TX-0 was then given to MIT on permanent loan. At MIT, Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson noticed something odd: students would line up for hours to get a turn to use the stripped-down TX-0, while largely ignoring a faster IBM machine that was also available. The two decided that the draw of interactive computing was so strong that they felt there was a market for a small machine dedicated to this role, essentially a commercialized TX-0. They could sell this to users where the graphical output or real-time operation would be more important than outright performance. Additionally, as the machine would cost much less than the larger systems then available, it would also be able to serve users that needed a lower-cost solution dedicated to a specific task, where a larger 36-bit machine would not be needed. The newly christened "Digital Equipment Corporation" received $70,000 from AR&D for a 70% share of the company, The Laboratory Modules were packaged in an extruded aluminum housing, intended to sit on an engineer's workbench, although a rack-mount bay was sold that held nine laboratory modules. They were then connected together using banana plug patch cords inserted at the front of the modules. Three versions were offered, running at 5 MHz (1957), 500 kHz (1959), or 10 MHz (1960). The PDP-1 and LINC computers were also built using System Modules (see below). Modules were part of DEC's product line into the 1970s, although they went through several evolutions during this time as technology changed. The same circuits were then packaged as the first "R" (red) series "Flip-Chip" modules. Later, other Flip-Chip module series provided additional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O capabilities. The first PDP-1 was delivered to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960, and formally accepted the next April. The PDP-1 sold in basic form for $120,000 (). By the time production ended in 1969, 53 PDP-1s had been delivered. The PDP-1 was supplied standard with 4096 words of core memory, 18-bits per word, and ran at a basic speed of 100,000 operations per second. It was constructed using many System Building Blocks that were packaged into several 19-inch racks. The racks were themselves packaged into a single large mainframe case, with a hexagonal control panel containing switches and lights mounted to lie at table-top height at one end of the mainframe. Above the control panel was the system's standard input/output solution, a punched tape reader and writer. Most systems were purchased with two peripherals, the Type 30 vector graphics display, and a Soroban Engineering modified IBM Model B Electric typewriter that was used as a printer. The Soroban system was notoriously unreliable, and often replaced with a modified Friden Flexowriter, which also contained its own punched tape system. A variety of more-expensive add-ons followed, including magnetic tape systems, punched card readers and punches, and faster punched tape and printer systems. When DEC introduced the PDP-1, they also mentioned larger machines at 24, 30 and 36 bits, based on the same design. During construction of the prototype PDP-1, some design work was carried out on a 24-bit PDP-2, and the 36-bit PDP-3. Although the PDP-2 never proceeded beyond the initial design, the PDP-3 found some interest and was designed in full. Only one PDP-3 appears to have been built, in 1960, by the CIA's Scientific Engineering Institute (SEI) in Waltham, Massachusetts. According to the limited information available, they used it to process radar cross section data for the Lockheed A-12 reconnaissance aircraft. Gordon Bell remembered that it was being used in Oregon some time later, but could not recall who was using it. In November 1962, DEC introduced the $65,000 PDP-4. The PDP-4 was similar to the PDP-1 and used a similar instruction set, but used slower memory and different packaging to lower the price. Like the PDP-1, about 54 PDP-4s were eventually sold, most to a customer base similar to the original PDP-1. In 1964, DEC introduced its new Flip-Chip module design, and used it to re-implement the PDP-4 as the PDP-7. The PDP-7 was introduced in December 1964, and about 120 were eventually produced. An upgrade to the Flip Chip led to the R series, which in turn led to the PDP-7A in 1965. The PDP-7 is most famous as the machine for which the Unix operating system was originally written. Unix ran only on DEC systems until the Interdata 8/32. A more dramatic upgrade to the PDP-1 series was introduced in August 1966, the PDP-9. The PDP-9 was instruction-compatible with the PDP-4 and −7, but ran about twice as fast as the −7 and was intended to be used in larger deployments. At only $19,900 in 1968, the PDP-9 was a big seller, eventually selling 445 machines, more than all of the earlier models combined. Even while the PDP-9 was being introduced, its replacement was being designed, and was introduced as 1969's PDP-15, which re-implemented the PDP-9 using integrated circuits in place of modules. Much faster than the PDP-9 even in basic form, the PDP-15 also included a floating point unit and a separate input/output processor for further performance gains. Over 400 PDP-15's were ordered in the first eight months of production, and production eventually amounted to 790 examples in 12 basic models. a machine that was small and inexpensive enough to be dedicated to a single task even in a small lab. Seeing the success of the LINC, in 1963 DEC took the basic logic design but stripped away the extensive A to D systems to produce the PDP-5. The new machine, the first outside the PDP-1 mould, was introduced at WESTCON on August 11, 1963. A 1964 ad expressed the main advantage of the PDP-5, "Now you can own the PDP-5 computer for what a core memory alone used to cost: $27,000". 116 PDP-5s were produced until the lines were shut down in early 1967. Like the PDP-1 before it, the PDP-5 inspired a series of newer models based on the same basic design that would go on to be more famous than its parent. On March 22, 1965, DEC introduced the PDP-8, which replaced the PDP-5's modules with the new R-series modules using Flip Chips. The machine was re-packaged into a small tabletop case, which remains distinctive for its use of smoked plastic over the CPU which allowed one to easily see the logic modules plugged into the wire-wrapped backplane of the CPU. Sold standard with 4 kWords of 12-bit core memory and a Teletype Model 33 ASR for basic input/output, the machine listed for only $18,000. The PDP-8 is referred to as the first real minicomputer because of its sub-$25,000 price. Sales were, unsurprisingly, very strong, and helped by the fact that several competitors had just entered the market with machines aimed directly at the PDP-5's market space, which the PDP-8 trounced. This gave the company two years of unrestricted leadership, and eventually 1450 "straight eight" machines were produced before it was replaced by newer implementations of the same basic design. DEC hit an even lower price-point with the PDP-8/S, the S for "serial". As the name implies the /S used a serial arithmetic unit, which was much slower but reduced costs so much that the system sold for under $10,000. DEC then used the new PDP-8 design as the basis for a new LINC, the two-processor LINC-8. The LINC-8 used one PDP-8 CPU and a separate LINC CPU, and included instructions to switch from one to the other. This allowed customers to run their existing LINC programs, or "upgrade" to the PDP-8, all in software. Although not a huge seller, 142 LINC-8s were sold starting at $38,500. Newer circuitry designs led to the PDP-8/I and PDP-8/L in 1968. In 1975, one year after an agreement between DEC and Intersil, the Intersil 6100 chip was launched, effectively a PDP-8 on a chip. This was a way to allow PDP-8 software to be run even after the official end-of-life announcement for the DEC PDP-8 product line. === PDP-6 and PDP-10 families (1963 and 1968) === While the PDP-5 introduced a lower-cost line, 1963's PDP-6 was intended to take DEC into the mainframe market with a 36-bit machine. However, the PDP-6 proved to be a "hard sell" with customers, as it offered few obvious advantages over similar machines from the better-established vendors like IBM or Honeywell, in spite of its low cost around $300,000. Only 23 were sold, or 26 depending on the source, and unlike other models the low sales meant the PDP-6 was not improved with successor versions. However, the PDP-6 is historically important as the platform that introduced "Monitor", an early time-sharing operating system that would evolve into the widely used TOPS-10. When newer Flip Chip packaging allowed the PDP-6 to be re-implemented at a much lower cost, DEC took the opportunity to refine their 36-bit design, introducing the PDP-10 in 1968. The PDP-10 was as much a success as the PDP-6 was a commercial failure; about 700 mainframe PDP-10s were sold before production ended in 1984. This led the leaders of the PDP-X project to leave DEC and start Data General, whose 16-bit Data General Nova was released in 1969 and was a huge success. The success of the Nova finally prompted DEC to take the switch seriously, and they began a crash program to introduce a 16-bit machine of their own. The new system was designed primarily by Harold McFarland, Gordon Bell, Roger Cady, and others. The project was able to leap forward in design with the arrival of Harold McFarland, who had been researching 16-bit designs at Carnegie Mellon University. One of his simpler designs became the basis for the new design, although when they first viewed the proposal, management was not impressed and almost cancelled it. The evolution of the PDP-11 followed earlier systems, eventually including a single-user deskside personal computer form, the MicroPDP-11. In total, around 600,000 PDP-11s of all models were sold, and a wide variety of third-party peripheral vendors had also entered the computer product ecosystem. It was even sold in kit form as the Heathkit H11, although it proved too expensive for Heathkit's traditional hobbyist market. === VAX (1977) === The introduction of semiconductor memory in the early 1970s, and especially dynamic RAM shortly thereafter, led to dramatic reductions in the price of memory as the effects of Moore's Law were felt. Within years, it was common to equip a machine with all the memory it could address, typically 64 KB on 16-bit machines. This led vendors to introduce new designs with the ability to address more memory, often by extending the address format to 18 or 24 bits in machines that were otherwise similar to their earlier 16-bit designs. In contrast, DEC decided to make a more radical departure. In 1976, they began the design of a machine whose entire architecture was expanded from the 16-bit PDP-11 to a new 32-bit basis. This would allow the addressing of very large memories, which were to be controlled by a new virtual memory system, and would also improve performance by processing twice as much data at a time. The system would, however, maintain compatibility with the PDP-11, by operating in a second mode that sent its 16-bit words into the 32-bit internals, while mapping the PDP-11's 16-bit memory space into the larger virtual 32-bit space. Supporting the VAX's success was the VT52, one of the most successful smart terminals. Building on earlier less successful models, the VT05 and VT50, the VT52 was the first terminal that did everything one might want in a single inexpensive chassis. The VT52 was followed by the even more successful VT100 and its follow-ons, making DEC one of the largest terminal vendors in the industry. This was supported by a line of inexpensive computer printers, the DECwriter line. With the VT and DECwriter series, DEC could now offer a complete top-to-bottom system from computer to all peripherals, which formerly required collecting the required devices from different suppliers. The VAX processor architecture and family of systems evolved and expanded through several generations during the 1980s, culminating in the NVAX microprocessor implementation and VAX 7000/10000 series in the early 1990s. === Early microcomputers (1982–1986) === When a DEC research group demonstrated two prototype microcomputers in 1974—before the debut of the MITS Altair—Olsen chose to not proceed with the project. The company similarly rejected another personal computer proposal in 1977. At the time these systems were of limited utility, and Olsen famously derided them in 1977, stating "There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home." Unsurprisingly, DEC did not put much effort into the microcomputer area in the early days of the market. In 1977, the Heathkit H11 was announced; a PDP-11 in kit form. At the beginning of the 1980s, DEC built the VT180 (codenamed "Robin"), which was a VT100 terminal with an added Z80-based microcomputer running CP/M, but this product was initially available only to DEC employees. It was only after IBM had successfully launched the IBM PC in 1981 that DEC responded with their own systems. In 1982, DEC introduced not one, but three incompatible machines which were each tied to different proprietary architectures. The first, the DEC Professional, was based on the PDP-11/23 (and later, the 11/73) running the RSX-11M+ derived, but menu-driven, P/OS ("Professional Operating System"). This DEC machine easily outperformed the PC, but was more expensive than, and completely incompatible with IBM PC hardware and software, offering far fewer options for customizing a system. Unlike CP/M and DOS microcomputers, every copy of every program for the Professional had to be provided with a unique key for the particular machine and CPU for which it was bought. At that time this was mainstream policy, because most computer software was either bought from the company that built the computer or custom-constructed for one client. However, the emerging third-party software industry disregarded the PDP-11/Professional line and concentrated on other microcomputers where distribution was easier. At DEC itself, creating better programs for the Professional was not a priority, perhaps from fear of cannibalizing the PDP-11 line. As a result, the Professional was a superior machine, running inferior software. In addition, a new user would have to learn an awkward, slow, and inflexible menu-based user interface which appeared to be radically different from PC DOS or CP/M, which were more commonly used on the 8080- and 8088-based microcomputers of the time. A second offering, the DECmate II was the latest version of the PDP-8-based word processors, but not really suited to general computing, nor competitive with Wang Laboratories' popular word processing equipment. The most popular early DEC microcomputer was the dual-processor (Z80 and 8088) Rainbow 100, which ran the 8-bit CP/M operating system on the Z80 and the 16-bit CP/M-86 operating system on the Intel 8088 processor. It could also run a UNIX System III implementation called VENIX. Applications from standard CP/M could be re-compiled for the Rainbow, but by this time users were expecting custom-built (pre-compiled binary) applications such as Lotus 1-2-3, which was eventually ported along with MS-DOS 2.0 and introduced in late 1983. Although the Rainbow generated some press, it was unsuccessful due to its high price and lack of marketing and sales support. By late 1983 IBM was outselling DEC's personal computers by more than ten to one. A further system was introduced in 1986 as the VAXmate, which included Microsoft Windows 1.0 and used VAX/VMS-based file and print servers along with integration into DEC's own DECnet-family, providing LAN/WAN connection from PC to mainframe or supermini. The VAXmate replaced the Rainbow, and in its standard form was the first widely marketed diskless workstation. === Networking and clusters (1984) === In 1984, DEC launched its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet. Ethernet allowed scalable networking, and VAXcluster allowed scalable computing. Combined with DECnet and Ethernet-based terminal servers (LAT), DEC had produced a networked storage architecture which allowed them to compete directly with IBM. Ethernet replaced Token Ring, and went on to become the dominant networking model in use today. In September 1985, DEC became the fifth company to register a .com domain name (dec.com). Along with the hardware and protocols, DEC also introduced the VAXcluster concept, which allowed several VAX machines to be tied together into a single larger storage system. VAXclusters allowed a DEC-based company to scale their services by adding new machines to the cluster at any time, as opposed to buying a faster machine and using that to replace a slower one. The flexibility this offered was compelling, and allowed DEC to attack high-end markets formerly out of their reach. === Late 1980s diversification === The PDP-11 and VAX lines continued to sell in record numbers. Better yet, DEC was competing very well against the market leader, IBM, taking an estimated $2 billion away from them in the mid-1980s. In 1986, DEC's profits rose 38% when the rest of the computer industry experienced a downturn, and by 1987 the company was threatening IBM's number one position in the computer industry. Not long thereafter came IBM's "VAX killer" offerings, at a time when DEC had twice the sales of IBM in the mid-range computer market. At its peak, DEC was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees. It was during this time that the company branched out development into a wide variety of projects that were far from its core business in computer equipment. The company invested heavily in custom software. In the 1970s and earlier most software was custom-written to serve a specific task, but by the 1980s the introduction of relational databases and similar systems allowed powerful software to be built in a modular fashion, potentially saving enormous amounts of development time. Software companies like Oracle became the new darlings of the industry, and DEC started their own efforts in every "hot" niche, in some cases several projects for the same niche. Some of these products competed with DEC's own partners, notably Rdb which competed with Oracle's products on the VAX, part of a major partnership only a few years earlier. Although many of these products were well designed, most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third-party products instead. This problem was further exacerbated by Olsen's aversion to traditional advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves. Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these projects, at the same time that workstations using RISC microprocessors were starting to approach VAX CPUs in performance. === Early 1990s faltering and attempted turnaround === As microprocessors continued to improve in the 1980s, it soon became clear that the next generation would offer performance and features equal to the best of DECs low-end minicomputer lineup. Worse, the Berkeley RISC and Stanford MIPS designs were aiming to introduce 32-bit designs that would outperform the fastest members of the VAX family, DEC's cash cow. Constrained by the huge success of their VAX and VMS products, which followed the proprietary model, the company was very late to respond to these threats. In the early 1990s, DEC found its sales faltering and its first layoffs followed. The company that created the minicomputer, a dominant networking technology, and arguably the first computers for personal use, had abandoned the "low end" market, whose dominance with the PDP-8 had built the company in a previous generation. Decisions about what to do about this threat led to infighting within the company that seriously delayed their responses. One group suggested that every possible development in the industry be poured into the construction of a new VAX family that would leapfrog the performance of the existing machines. This would limit the market erosion in the top-end segment, where profit margins were maximized and DEC could continue to survive as a minicomputer vendor. This line of thought led, eventually, to the VAX 9000 series, which were plagued with problems when they were first introduced in October 1989, already two years late. The problems took so long to work out, and the prices of the systems were so high, that DEC was never able to make the line the success they hoped. Others within the company felt that the proper response was to introduce their own RISC designs and use those to build new machines. However, there was little official support for these efforts, and no less than four separate small projects ran in parallel at various labs around the US. Eventually these were gathered into the PRISM project, which delivered a credible 32-bit design with some unique features allowing it to serve as the basis of a new VAX implementation. Infighting with teams dedicated to DEC's big iron made funding difficult, and the design was not finalized until April 1988, and then cancelled shortly thereafter. The PRISM project was accompanied by the MICA project, which intended to consolidate VMS and ULTRIX into a single operating system. Another group concluded that new workstations like those from Sun Microsystems and Silicon Graphics would take away a large part of DEC's existing customer base before the new VAX systems could address the issues, and that the company needed its own Unix workstation as soon as possible. Fed up with slow progress on both the RISC and VAX fronts, a group in Palo Alto started a skunkworks project to introduce their own systems. Selecting the MIPS processor, which was widely available, introducing the new DECstation series with the model 3100 on January 11, 1989. These systems would see some success in the market, but were later displaced by similar models running the Alpha. ==== 32-bit MIPS and 64-bit Alpha systems (1992) ==== Eventually, in 1992, DEC launched the DECchip 21064 processor, the first implementation of their Alpha instruction set architecture, initially named Alpha AXP; the "AXP" was a "non-acronym" and was later dropped. This was a 64-bit RISC architecture as opposed to the 32-bit CISC architecture used in the VAX. It is one of the first "pure" 64-bit microprocessor architectures and implementations rather than an extension of an earlier 32-bit architecture. The Alpha offered class-leading performance at its launch and was used in the massively-parallel Cray T3D. Subsequent variants continued that performance trend into the 2000s, along with the Alpha-derived Pentium Pro, II, and III CPUs. An AlphaServer SC45 supercomputer was still ranked No. 6 in the world in November 2004. Alpha-based computers comprising the DEC AXP series, later the AlphaStation, and AlphaServer series respectively superseded both the VAX and MIPS architecture in DEC's product lines. They supported OpenVMS, DEC OSF/1 AXP (later known as Digital Unix or Tru64 UNIX) and Microsoft's then-new operating system, Windows NT, an operating system made possible by ex-Digital Equipment Corporation engineers. In 1998, following the takeover by Compaq Computer Corporation, a decision was made that Microsoft would no longer support and develop Windows NT for the Alpha series computers, a decision that was seen as the beginning of the end for the Alpha series computers. ==== StrongARM (1995) ==== In the mid-1990s, Digital Semiconductor collaborated with ARM Limited to produce the StrongARM microprocessor. This was based in part on ARM7 and in part on DEC technologies like Alpha, and was targeted at embedded systems and portable devices. It was highly compatible with the ARMv4 architecture and was very successful, competing effectively against rivals such as the SuperH and MIPS architectures in the portable digital assistant market. Microsoft subsequently dropped support for these other architectures in their Pocket PC platform. In 1997, as part of a lawsuit settlement, the StrongARM intellectual property was sold to Intel. They continued to produce StrongARM, as well as developing it into the XScale architecture. Intel subsequently sold this business to Marvell Technology Group in 2006. === Palmer's reign (1992–1998) === At its peak in the late 1980s, DEC had $14 billion in sales and ranked among the most profitable companies in the US. With its strong staff of engineers, DEC was expected to usher in the age of personal computers, but the commonly misunderstood belief then argued by the board to its shareholders was that Mr. Olsen was openly skeptical of the desktop machines, stating "the personal computer will fall flat on its face in business", and regarding them as "toys" used for playing video games. This was made in 1977 about what could be more characterised as home automation devices. The board forced Olsen to resign as president in July 1992 after two years of losses in operating income. He was replaced by Robert Palmer as the company's president. DEC's board of directors also granted Palmer the title of chief executive officer ("CEO"), a title that had never been used during DEC's 35-year existence. Palmer had joined DEC in 1985 to run Semiconductor Engineering and Manufacturing. His relentless campaign to be CEO, and success with the Alpha microprocessor family, made him a candidate to succeed Olsen. At the same time a more modern logo was designed Palmer restructured DEC into nine business units that reported directly to him. Nonetheless, DEC continued to suffer record losses, including a loss of $260.5 million for the quarter that ended on September 30, 1992. It reported $2.8 billion in losses for its fiscal year 1992. January 5, 1993, saw the retirement of John F. Smith as senior vice president of operations, the second in command at DEC, and his position was not filled. A 35-year company veteran, he had joined DEC in 1958 as the company's 12th employee, passing up a chance to work for Bell Laboratories in New Jersey to work for DEC. Smith rose to become one of the three senior vice presidents in 1987 and was widely considered among the potential successors to Ken Olsen, especially when Smith was appointed chief operating officer in 1991. Smith became a corporate spokesman on financial issues, and had filled in at trouble spots for which Olsen ordered more attention. Smith was passed over in favor of Palmer when Olsen was forced to resign in July 1992, though Smith stayed on for a time to help turn around the struggling company. In June 1993, Palmer and several of his top lieutenants presented their reorganization plans to applause from the board of directors, and several weeks later DEC reported its first profitable quarter in several years. However, on April 15, 1994, DEC reported a loss of $183 million—three to four times higher than the loss many people on Wall Street had predicted (compared with a loss of $30 million in the comparable period a year earlier), causing the stock price on the NYSE to plunge $5.875 to $23, a 20% drop. The losses at that point totaled $339 million for the current fiscal year. Sales of the VAX, long the company's biggest moneymaker, continued to decline, which in turn also hurt DEC's lucrative service and maintenance business (this made up more than a third of DEC's revenue of $14 billion in the 1993 fiscal year), which declined 11% year over year to $1.5 billion in the most recent quarter. Market acceptance of DEC Alpha computers and chips had been slower than the company had hoped, even though Alpha's sales for the quarter estimated at $275 million were up significantly from $165 million in the December quarter. DEC had also made a strong push into personal computers and workstations, which had even lower margins than Alpha computers and chips. Also, DEC was playing catchup with its own Unix offerings for client-server networks, as it long emphasized its own VMS software, while corporate computer users based their client-server networks on the industry-standard Unix software (of which Hewlett Packard was one of the market leaders). DEC's problems were similar to that of larger rival IBM, due to the fundamental shift in the computer industry that made it unlikely that DEC could ever again operate profitably at its former size of 120,000 employees, and while its workforce had been reduced to 92,000 people many analysts expected that they would have to cut another 20,000. ==== Selloffs ==== During the profitable years up until the early 1990s, DEC was a company that boasted that it never had a general layoff. Following the 1992 economic downturn, layoffs became regular events as the company continually downsized to try to stay afloat. Palmer was tasked with the goal of bringing DEC back to profitability, which he attempted to do by changing the established DEC business culture, hiring new executives from outside the company, and selling off various non-core business units: Worldwide training was spun off to form an independent/new company called Global Knowledge Network. Rdb, DEC's database product, was sold to Oracle. Rights to the PDP-11 line and several PDP-11 operating systems were sold to Mentec in 1994, though DEC continued to produce some PDP-11 hardware for a few years. Disk and DLT technologies was sold to Quantum Corporation in 1994. Text terminal business (VT100 and its successors) was sold in August 1995 to Boundless Technologies. CORBA-based product, ObjectBroker, and its messaging software, MessageQ, were sold to BEA Systems, Inc in March 1997. Printer business was sold in 1997 to GENICOM (now TallyGenicom), which then produced models bearing the Digital logo. Networking business was sold c.1997 to Cabletron Systems, and subsequently spun off as Digital Network Products Group. DECtalk and DECvoice voice products were spun off, and eventually arrived at Fonix Speech Group. === Acquisition by Compaq (1998) === Through 1997, DEC began discussions with Compaq on a possible merger. Several years earlier, Compaq had considered a bid for DEC but became seriously interested only after DEC's major divestments and refocusing on the Internet in 1997. At that time, Compaq was making strong moves into the enterprise market, and DEC's multivendor global services organization and customer support centers offered a real opportunity to expand their support and sales worldwide. Compaq was not interested in a number of DEC's product lines, which led to the series of sell-offs. Notable among these was DEC's Hudson Fab, which made most of their custom chips, a market that made little sense to Compaq's "industry standard" marketing. DEC had previously sold its semiconductor plant in South Queensferry to Motorola in 1995, with an understanding that Motorola would continue to produce Alpha processors at the facility, along with continuing a two-year foundry agreement with AMD to continue producing the Am486 processor. This led to an interesting solution to the problem of selling off the division for a reasonable profit. In May 1997, DEC sued Intel for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the original Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II chips. As part of a settlement, much of DEC's chip design and fabrication business was sold to Intel. This included DEC's StrongARM implementation of the ARM computer architecture, which Intel marketed as the XScale processors commonly used in Pocket PCs. The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while the associated office buildings went to Intel as part of the Hudson fab. On January 26, 1998, what remained of the company was sold to Compaq in what was the largest merger up to that time in the computer industry. At the time of Compaq's acquisition announcement, DEC had a total of 53,500 employees, down from a peak of 130,000 in the 1980s, but it still employed about 65% more people than Compaq to produce about half the volume of sales revenues. After the merger closed, Compaq moved aggressively to reduce DEC's high selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) costs (equal to 24% of total 1997 revenues) and bring them more in line with Compaq's SG&A expense ratio of 12% of revenues. Compaq used the acquisition to move into enterprise services and compete with IBM, and by 2001 services made up over 20% of Compaq's revenues, largely due to the DEC employees inherited from the merger. DEC's own PC manufacturing was discontinued after the merger closed. As Compaq did not wish to compete with one of its key partner suppliers, the remainder of Digital Semiconductor (the Alpha microprocessor group) was sold to Intel, which placed those employees back in their Hudson (Massachusetts) office, which they had vacated when the site was sold to Intel in 1997. Compaq struggled as a result of the merger with DEC, as a result of the Compaq acquisition. The Digital logo was used up until 2004, even after the company ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT services company in India (which was a 51% subsidiary of Compaq). Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed "HP GlobalSoft" (also known as the "HP Global Delivery India Center" or HP GDIC), and no longer uses the Digital logo. == Research and people == DEC's Research Laboratories (or Research Labs, as they were commonly known) conducted DEC's corporate research. Some of them were continued in operation by Compaq and are still operated by Hewlett-Packard. The laboratories were: Cambridge Research Laboratory (CRL) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, US MetroWest Technology Campus (MTC) in Maynard, Massachusetts, US Network Systems Laboratory (NSL) in Palo Alto, California, US Systems Research Center (SRC) in Palo Alto, California, US Paris Research Laboratory (PRL) in Paris, France Western Research Laboratory (WRL) in Palo Alto, California, US Western Software Laboratory (WSL) in Palo Alto, California, US Some of the former employees of DEC's Research Labs or DEC's R&D in general include: Gordon Bell: technical visionary, VP Engineering 1972–1983; later moved to Microsoft Research Luiz André Barroso, pioneered the design of the modern data center Leonard Bosack: a co-founder of Cisco Systems Mike Burrows: an author of the Burrows–Wheeler transform Luca Cardelli: co-designer of the Modula-3 language Dave Cutler: led RSX-11M, VAX/VMS, VAXELN and MICA operating systems development; then led Windows NT development at Microsoft Ed deCastro: became co-founder of Data General Corporation Alan Eustace: co-author of early profiling tools; a Senior Vice President of Engineering at Google; a world-record breaker in the stratosphere jump (2014) Jim Gettys: early developer of X Window System Henri Gouraud: inventor of the Gouraud shading Jim Gray: a Turing Award winner for database research; went missing on a ship trip Alan Kotok: chief architect of the PDP-10 series and prolific member of World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Leslie Lamport: a Turing Award recipient; first creator of LaTeX macros; Butler Lampson: a contributor to a wide range of personal computing concepts like WYSIWYG text formatting program John Leng: computer pioneer, vice president of the large computer group, coined the term "minicomputer" Scott A. McGregor: co-author of the X Window System, version 11 Louis Monier: an Internet and software entrepreneur Isaac Nassi: contributor to Ada programming language; co-author of the Nassi–Shneiderman diagram Radia Perlman: a pioneer in computer networking standardization; author of Spanning Tree Protocol Marcus Ranum: a computer and network security developer credited with a number innovations in firewalls Brian Reid: an inventor of Scribe markup language; pioneer in networking and firewalls Paul Vixie: a co-author of the BIND DNS server software Sanjay Ghemawat Jeff Dean Patrick O'Neil: a computer scientist well known for his work on databases Some of the former employees of Digital Equipment Corp were responsible for developing DEC Alpha and StrongARM: Daniel W. Dobberpuhl Jim Keller Rich Witek Grace Hopper worked for Digital Equipment Corporation as a consultant after her retirement from the United States Navy Some of the work of the Research Labs was published in the Digital Technical Journal, which was in published from 1985 until 1998. At least some of the research reports are available online. == Legacy and accomplishments == , decades-old hardware (including PDP-11, VAX, and AlphaServer) is being emulated to allow legacy software to run on modern hardware; funding for this is planned to last at least until 2030. DEC supported the ANSI standards, especially the ASCII character set, which survives in Unicode and the ISO 8859 character set family. DEC's own Multinational Character Set also had a large influence on ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) and, by extension, Unicode. Beyond DECsystem-10/20, PDP, VAX and Alpha, DEC was known for its work in communication subsystem designs, such as Ethernet, DNA (DIGITAL Network Architecture: predominantly DECnet products), DSA (Digital Storage Architecture: disks/tapes/controllers), and its "dumb terminal" subsystems including VT100 and DECserver products. === Software === The first versions of the C language and the Unix operating system ran on DEC's PDP series of computers (first on a PDP-7, then the PDP-11), which were among the first commercially viable minicomputers, although for several years DEC itself did not encourage the use of Unix. DEC produced widely used and influential interactive operating systems, including OS-8, TOPS-10, TOPS-20, RSTS/E, RSX-11, RT-11, and OpenVMS. PDP computers, in particular the PDP-11 model, inspired a generation of programmers and software developers. Some PDP-11 systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) are still being used to control and monitor factories, transportation systems and nuclear plants. DEC was an early champion of time-sharing systems. The command-line interfaces found in DEC's systems, eventually codified as DCL, would look familiar to any user of modern microcomputer CLIs; those used in earlier systems, such as CTSS, IBM's JCL, or Univac's time-sharing systems, would look utterly alien. Many features of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recognizable family resemblance to DEC's OSes, including command names such as DIR and HELP and the "name-dot-extension" file naming conventions. Notes-11 and its follow-on product, , were two of the first examples of online collaboration software, a category that has become to be known as groupware. Len Kawell, one of the original Notes-11 developers, later joined Lotus Development Corporation and contributed to their Lotus Notes product. The MUMPS programming language, with its built-in database, was developed on the PDP-7, 9, and 15 series machines. MUMPS is still widely used in medical information systems, such as those provide by Meditech and Epic Systems. The Babel Fish machine translation service was developed by DEC researchers, and was one of the first machine translators to achieve broad success using natural language processing techniques. ALL-IN-1 was an office automation system developed by Skip Walter and others in Central Engineering under Gordon Bell. They developed a customizable list of application invocations and the robust DECMail product that provided one of the first commercially available electronic mail systems. === Hardware === ==== DECtape ==== One of the most unusual peripherals produced for the PDP-10 was the DECtape. The DECtape was a length of special 3/4-inch wide magnetic tape wound on 5-inch reels. The recording format was a highly reliable redundant 10-track design using fixed-length numbered data "blocks" organized into a standard file structure, including a directory. Files could be written, read, changed, and deleted on a DECtape as though it were a disk drive. For greater efficiency, the DECtape drive could read and write to a DECtape in both directions. In fact, some PDP-10 systems had no disks at all, using DECtapes alone for their primary data storage. The DECtape was also widely used on other PDP models, since it was much easier to use than hand-loading multiple paper tapes. Primitive early time-sharing systems could use DECtapes as system devices and swapping devices. Although superior to paper tape, DECtapes were relatively slow, and were supplanted once reliable disk drives became affordable. ==== Magnetic disk storage ==== DEC was both a manufacturer and a buyer of magnetic disk storage, offering more than 100 different models of hard disk drive (HDD) and floppy disk drive (FDD) during its existence. In the 1970s, it was the single largest OEM purchaser of HDDs, procuring from Diablo, Control Data Corporation, Information Storage Systems, and Memorex, among others. DEC's first internally developed HDD was the RS08, a 256 kWord fixed-head contact-start-stop drive using plated media; it shipped in 1969. Beginning in the 1970s, DEC moved first its HDD manufacturing and then its mass storage development labs to Colorado Springs. DEC pioneered a number of HDD technologies, including sampled data servos (RL01, 1977) and serial HDD interfaces (Standard Disk Interconnect, 1983). The last internally developed disk drive family (RA9x series) used plated media, departing from the HDD industry trend to carbon overcoated sputtered media. DEC designated a $400 million investment to bring this product line into production. DEC standard RX50 floppy disk drive supported DEC's initial offerings seemed to encapsulate their approach to the personal computer market. Although the mechanical drive hardware was nearly identical to other 5 " floppy disk drives available on competing systems, DEC sought to differentiate their product by using a proprietary disk format for the data written on the disk. The DEC format had a higher capacity for data, but the RX50 drives were incompatible with other PC floppy drives. This required DEC owners to buy higher-priced, specially formatted floppy media, which was harder to obtain through standard distribution channels. DEC attempted to enforce exclusive control over its floppy media sales by copyrighting its proprietary disk format, and requiring a negotiated license agreement and royalty payments from anybody selling compatible media. The proprietary data format meant that RX50 floppies were not interchangeable with other PC floppies, further isolating DEC products from the developing de facto standard PC market. Hardware hackers and DEC enthusiasts eventually reverse-engineered the RX50 format, but the damage had already been done, in terms of market confusion and isolation. ==== Video and Interactive Information Server ==== The Video-on-Demand project at DEC started in 1992, following Ken Olsen's retirement. At the time the company was rapidly downsizing under Robert Palmer, and it was difficult to gain funding for any new project. DEC's Interactive Video Information Server architecture gained traction and excelled over those of other companies, in that it was highly scalable, using a gateway to set up interactive video delivery sessions on large numbers of video and information servers. Initially high-end VAXes were used, then Alphas. The scalability feature allowed it to win contracts for many of the video-on-demand trials in the 1993–95 timeframe, since the system could theoretically accommodate unlimited interactive video streams and other non-video content. The design was proposed and incorporated into the MPEG-2 international standard. Its object-oriented interface became the mandatory user-to user core interface in DSM-CC, widely used in video stream and file delivery for MPEG-2 compliant systems. Commercially, DEC's Digital and Interactive Information System was used by Adlink to distribute advertising to over two million subscribers. ==== Other ==== VAX and MicroVAX computers (very widespread in the 1980s) running VAX/VMS formed one of the most important proprietary networks, DECnet, which linked business and research facilities. The DECnet protocols formed one of the first peer-to-peer networking standards, with DECnet phase I being released in the mid-1970s. Email, file sharing, and distributed collaborative projects existed within the company long before their value was recognized in the market. The LA36 and LA120 dot matrix printers became industry standards and may have hastened the demise of the Teletype Corporation. The VT100 computer terminal became the industry standard, implementing a useful subset of the ANSI X3.64 standard, and even today terminal emulators such as HyperTerminal, PuTTY and Xterm still emulate a VT100 (or its more capable successor, the VT220). DEC invented Digital Linear Tape (DLT), formerly known as CompacTape, which began as a compact backup medium for MicroVAX systems, and later grew to capacities of 800 gigabytes. Work on the first hard-disk-based MP3 player, the Personal Jukebox, started at the DEC Systems Research Center. (The project was started about a month before the merger into Compaq was completed.) DEC's Western Research Lab created the Itsy Pocket Computer. This was developed into the Compaq iPaq line of PDAs, which replaced the Compaq Aero PDA. DEC also produced a proprietary personal computer known as the Rainbow 100. It could run either MS-DOS or CP/M but from a hardware standpoint it was largely incompatible with the IBM PC. === Networking === DEC, Intel and Xerox, through their collaboration to create the DIX standard, were champions of Ethernet, but DEC is the company that made Ethernet commercially successful. Initially, Ethernet-based DECnet and LAT protocols interconnected VAXes with DECserver terminal servers. Starting with the Unibus to Ethernet adapter, multiple generations of Ethernet hardware from DEC were the de facto standard. The CI "computer interconnect" adapter was the industry's first network interface controller to use separate transmit and receive "rings". DEC also invented clustering, an operating system technology that treated multiple machines as one logical entity. Clustering permitted sharing of pooled disk and tape storage via the HSC50/70/90 and later series of Hierarchical Storage Controllers (HSC). The HSCs delivered the first hardware RAID 0 and RAID 1 capabilities and the first serial interconnects of multiple storage technologies. This technology was the forerunner to architectures such as Network of Workstations, which are used for massively cooperative tasks such as web searches and drug research. The X Window System is the network transparent window system used on Unix and Linux and available on other operating systems such as MacOS. It was developed at MIT jointly between Project Athena and the Laboratory for Computer Science. DEC was the primary sponsor for the project, which was a contemporary of the GNU Project but not associated with it. In the period 1994–99 Linus Torvalds developed versions of Linux on early AlphaServer systems provided by the engineering department. Compaq software engineers developed special Linux kernel modules. A well-known Linux distribution that ran on AlphaServer systems was Red Hat 7.2. Another distribution that ran on Alpha was Gentoo Linux. DEC was one of the first businesses connected to the Internet, with dec.com, registered in 1985, being one of the first of the now ubiquitous .com domains. DEC's gatekeeper.dec.com was a well-known software repository during the pre-World Wide Web days, and DEC was also the first computer vendor to open a public website, on October 1, 1993. The popular AltaVista, created by DEC, was one of the first comprehensive Internet search engines. (Although Lycos was earlier, it was much more limited.) DEC once held the Class A IP address block 16.0.0.0/8. === Corporate === Digital Federal Credit Union (DCU) is a credit union which was chartered in 1979 for employees of DEC. Today its field of membership is open to existing family members, over 900 different sponsors, several communities in Massachusetts and several organizations. Many of the sponsors are companies that had acquired pieces of DEC. Matrix management == User organizations == Originally the users' group was called DECUS (Digital Equipment Computer User Society) during the 1960s to 1990s. When Compaq acquired DEC in 1998, the users group was renamed CUO, the Compaq Users' Organisation. When HP acquired Compaq in 2002, CUO became HP-Interex, although there are still DECUS groups in several countries. In the United States, the organization is represented by the Encompass organization; currently Connect. == Financial history == == Footnotes ==	[ "CP/M-86", "AltaVista", "PDP-1", "P/OS", "Luca Cardelli", "Early 1990s recession", "PDP-15", "embedded system", "IBM PC", "Scott A. McGregor", "Meditech", "DECUS", "Mainframe computer", "Complex instruction set computing", "Byte (magazine)", "Memory-mapped I/O", "Robert Palmer (computer businessman)", "United States Navy", "Compaq Aero", "computer printer", "Microsoft Windows", "LINC", "Teletype Model 33", "Oracle Rdb", "GENICOM", "Teletype Corporation", "Token Ring", "superminicomputer", "Pocket PC", "Memorex", "Linux distribution", "VAX", "Complex instruction set computer", "magnetic tape", "Jupiter project", "computer industry", "Project Athena", "Compaq", "Moore's Law", "Rainbow 100", "Cray T3D", "instruction set architecture", "AlphaStation", "PDP-10", "computer module", "MacOS", "Computer form factor", "PC World", "business plan", "DECnet", "cash cow", "Stanford MIPS", "Spacewar!", "Amphenol", "light gun", "System Module", "Computer hardware", "DECtalk", "floating point unit", "minicomputer", "Radia Perlman", "Flip-Chip module", "Silicon Graphics", "Assabet Woolen Mill", "Windows NT", "American Research and Development Corporation", "Harlan Anderson", "Steve Russell (computer scientist)", "64-bit computing", "text formatting", "terminal server", "Notes-11", "Wang Laboratories", "Microsoft Research", "Lockheed A-12", "VAXELN", "Oracle Corporation", "HP Inc.", "RAID 0", "OpenVMS", "VT180", "DEC PRISM", "The Computer Museum, Boston", "WYSIWYG", "analog-to-digital", "CORBA", "time-sharing", "DECvoice", "Control Data Corporation", "DOS-11", "Alpha 21064", "Oregon", "operating system", "MUMPS", "RSX-11", "Standard Disk Interconnect", "The New York Times", "VAX-11/780", "Luiz André Barroso", "VT05", "transistor", "Multinational Character Set", "Hudson Fab", "MPEG-2", "WESTCON", "DECwriter", "Word (computer architecture)", "Alan Kotok", "Linux", "gate array", "MIT Lincoln Laboratory", "VAX 9000", "Spanning Tree Protocol", "VT220", "DEC Professional (computer)", "Virtual machine", "Classful network", "DECserver", "RISC", "mergers and acquisitions", "database", "RSTS/E", "Maynard, Massachusetts", "file server", "BIND", "floppy disk drive", "Itsy Pocket Computer", "LINC-8", "programming language", "Fonix Speech Group", "PDP-4", "PC DOS", "Epic Systems", "Job Control Language", "VAXcluster", "PDP-6", "circuit board", "Gouraud shading", "Microsoft", "US Navy", "Computer software", "workstation", "Zilog Z80", "trademark", "TOPS-20", "Intel 8088", "Xerox", "DEC MICA", "Leonard Bosack", "hard disk drive", "IBM Electric typewriter", "Bipolar junction transistor", "Xterm", "OSF/1", "Friden Flexowriter", "ALL-IN-1", "DECSYSTEM-20", "users' group", "C. Gordon Bell", "Carnegie Mellon University", "4 mm plug", "General Electric", "Quantum Corporation", "Waltham, Massachusetts", "Intersil", "reconnaissance aircraft", "Patrick O'Neil", "DSM-CC", "Ned Batchelder", "LaTeX", "Digital Federal Credit Union", "Lotus Notes", "punched card", "National Museum of American History", "StrongARM", "radar", "Len Kawell", "Babel Fish (website)", "Cisco Systems", "Computer multitasking", "Data General", "Pentium II", "Data General Nova", "addressing mode", "McGraw Hill Education", "integrated circuits", "American National Standards Institute", "DEC Alpha", "Programmable Data Processor", "Unibus", "TX-2", "ANSI X3.64", "GNU Project", "Gordon Bell", "Alan Eustace", "DECmate", "Butler Lampson", "Isaac Nassi", "PuTTY", "dot matrix printer", "36-bit computing", "virtual memory", "Ken Olsen", "DIGITAL Command Language", "McGraw-Hill", "portable digital assistant", "VAX 7000/10000", "Unicode", "France", "Hewlett Packard Enterprise", "IBM", "core memory", "wire wrap", "Sanjay Ghemawat", "Bolt, Beranek and Newman", "18-bit computing", "VT50", "TX-0", "Boundless Technologies", "Venix", "en:RK05", "Hewlett-Packard", "MIT", "Univac", "patch cord", "Grace Hopper", "Wired (magazine)", "Text terminal", "Cabletron Systems", "Soroban Engineering", "domain name", "Video-on-Demand", "flight simulator", "Michael Burrows (computer scientist)", "Jim Gray (computer scientist)", "Colorado Springs", "US Air Force", "Ada (programming language)", "Personal Jukebox", "TOPS-10", "X Window System", "ARM Limited", "Encompass", "AlphaServer", "copyright", "CP/M", "Firewall (computing)", "C (programming language)", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Enterprise software", "home automation", "MS-DOS", "5.25\" floppy disk", "Scribe (markup language)", "computer multitasking", "Daniel W. Dobberpuhl", "Nassi–Shneiderman diagram", "PDP-7", "initialism", "printer (computing)", "South Queensferry", "interactive computing", "MicroVAX", "Lotus Development Corporation", "MITS Altair", "Modula-3", "Laboratory for Computer Science", "profit margin", "Entrepreneurship", "Ethernet", "Heathkit H11", "VT100", "World Wide Web Consortium", "Lincoln Laboratory", "Paul Vixie", "Marcus J. Ranum", "ISO 8859-1", "diskless workstation", "RCA", "microcomputer", "PDP-9", "HP-Interex", "American Civil War", "Intersil 6100", "Marvell Technology Group", "Gentoo Linux", "Local Area Transport", "ISO 8859", "Digital Network Products Group", "ARM architecture", "Intel XScale", "memory protection", "Honeywell", "AT&T Corporation", "Sun Microsystems", "OEM", "Digital Linear Tape", "DEC Systems Research Center", "Interdata 8/32", "skunkworks project", "19-inch rack", "Network of Workstations", "Lycos", "PDP-8", "SuperH", ".com", "dynamic RAM", "vector graphics", "IP address", "Lotus 1-2-3", "DECtape", "Proprietary hardware", "Matrix management", "PDP-5", "Emitter-coupled logic", "swapping device", "Louis Monier", "List of the oldest currently registered Internet domain names", "punched tape", "Mentec", "Edson deCastro", "Jim Keller (engineer)", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Leslie Lamport", "search engine", "Computer History Museum", "Jim Gettys", "Collaborative software", "Health informatics", "command-line interface", "peripherals", "input/output", "PDP-12", "NVAX", "VAXmate", "OS/8", "MIPS architecture", "RT-11", "XScale", "VT52", "Berkeley RISC", "Terminal server", "Peripheral Interchange Program", "Diablo Data Systems", "software repository", "Programmed Data Processor", "CNET", "PDP-11", "Palo Alto, California", "DECstation", "Intel", "HyperACCESS", "UNIX System III", "DIGITAL Network Architecture", "Unix", "Linus Torvalds", "RSX-11M", "Whirlwind (computer)", "Bell Labs", "Heathkit", "Dave Cutler", "Personal digital assistant", "object-oriented", "Computer cluster", "World Wide Web", "credit union", "vacuum tube", "Paging", "Compatible Time-Sharing System", "Georges Doriot", "Semi Automatic Ground Environment", "Tru64 UNIX", "RAID 1", "ASCII", "Burrows–Wheeler transform", "BEA Systems", "Connect (users group)", "Pentium Pro", "semiconductor memory", "Henri Gouraud (computer scientist)", "Red Hat", "Computer services", "Computer network", "microprocessor", "Paris", "relational databases", "Shugart Associates", "Computer terminal", "Jeff Dean (computer scientist)", "Microsoft Windows 1.0", "iPaq", "Original Intel Pentium (P5 microarchitecture)", "Brian Reid (computer scientist)" ]
7,954	Dead Kennedys	Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Initially consisting of lead guitarist East Bay Ray, bassist Klaus Flouride, lead vocalist Jello Biafra, drummer Ted and rhythm guitarist 6025, 6025 left in 1979, and Ted left the following year after the band recorded their acclaimed first album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980). The band's longest-serving drummer was D. H. Peligro, who replaced Ted in 1981 and remained until his death in 2022. Dead Kennedys recorded the EP In God We Trust Inc. (1981), followed by three more studio albums, Plastic Surgery Disasters (1982), Frankenchrist (1985), and Bedtime for Democracy (1986), the latter of which was recorded and released shortly after announcing their breakup in January 1986. Most of the band's recordings were released on Alternative Tentacles, an independent record label founded by Biafra and East Bay Ray. Following Dead Kennedys' dissolution, Biafra continued to run Alternative Tentacles, and went on to collaborate and record with other artists, including D.O.A., NoMeansNo and his own bands Lard and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, as well as releasing several spoken word performances. In 2000 (upheld on appeal in 2003), Biafra lost an acrimonious legal case initiated by his former Dead Kennedys bandmates over songwriting credits and unpaid royalties. In 2001, the band reformed without Biafra; various singers have since been recruited for vocal duties. Although Dead Kennedys have continued to perform over the years, they have not released any more studio albums since Bedtime for Democracy. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing political figures and authority in general, as well as popular culture and even the punk movement itself. During their initial incarnation between 1978 and 1986, they attracted considerable controversy for their provocative lyrics and artwork. Several stores refused to stock their recordings, provoking debate about censorship in rock music; in the mid-1980s, vocalist and primary lyricist Jello Biafra became an active campaigner against the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). This culminated in an obscenity trial between 1985 and 1986, which resulted in a hung jury and also hastened the band's demise. == History == === Formation of the band (1978–1979) === Dead Kennedys were formed in June 1978 in San Francisco, California, when East Bay Ray (Raymond Pepperell) advertised for bandmates in the newspaper The Recycler. The original band lineup consisted of East Bay Ray on lead guitar, Klaus Flouride (Geoffrey Lyall) on bass, Jello Biafra (Eric Reed Boucher) on vocals, Ted (Bruce Slesinger) on drums and 6025 (Carlos Cadona) on rhythm guitar. This lineup recorded their first demos. Their first live show was on July 19, 1978 at Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco, California. They were the opening act on a bill that included DV8 and Negative Trend with The Offs headlining. Dead Kennedys played numerous shows at local venues afterward. Due to the provocative name of the band, they sometimes played under pseudonyms, including "The DK's", "The Sharks", "The Creamsicles" and "The Pink Twinkies". San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen wrote in November 1978, "Just when you think tastelessness has reached its nadir, along comes a punk rock group called 'The Dead Kennedys', which will play at Mabuhay Gardens on Nov. 22, the 15th anniversary of John F. Kennedy's assassination." Despite mounting protests, the owner of Mabuhay declared, "I can't cancel them NOW—there's a contract. Not, apparently, the kind of contract some people have in mind." However, despite popular belief, the name was not meant to insult the Kennedy family, but according to Ray, "the assassinations were in much more poor taste than our band. We actually respect the Kennedy family. . . . When JFK was assassinated, when Martin Luther King was assassinated, when RFK was assassinated, the American Dream was assassinated. . . . Our name is actually homage to the American Dream." 6025 left the band in March 1979 under somewhat unclear circumstances, generally considered to be musical differences. In June, the band released their first single, "California Über Alles", on Biafra and East Bay Ray's independent label, Alternative Tentacles. The band followed with a poorly attended East Coast tour, being a new and fairly unknown band at the time, without a full album release. === Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980–1981) === In early 1980, they recorded and released the single "Holiday in Cambodia". In June, the band recorded their debut album, Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, released in September of that year on the UK label Cherry Red. The album reached number 33 on the UK Albums Chart. Since its initial release, it has been re-released by several other labels, including IRS, Alternative Tentacles, and Cleopatra. The 2005 reissue—the special 25th-anniversary edition—features the original artwork and a bonus 55-minute DVD documenting the making of the album as well as the band's early years. On March 25, 1980, Dead Kennedys were invited to perform at the Bay Area Music Awards in an effort to give the event some "new wave credibility", in the words of the organizers. The day of the performance was spent practicing the song they were asked to play, the underground hit "California über alles". The band became the talking point of the ceremony when after about 15 seconds into the song, Biafra stopped the band—in a manner reminiscent of Elvis Costello's Saturday Night Live appearance—and said, "Hold it! We've gotta prove that we're adults now. We're not a punk rock band, we're a new wave band." The band, all wearing white shirts with a big, black S painted on the front, pulled black ties from around the backs of their necks to form a dollar sign, then started playing a new song titled "Pull My Strings", a barbed, satirical attack on the ethics of the mainstream music industry, which contained the lyrics, "Is my cock big enough, is my brain small enough, for you to make me a star?". The song also referenced The Knack's song "My Sharona". "Pull My Strings" was never recorded for a studio release, though the performance at the Bay Area Music Awards, which was one of only two times that the song was ever performed, was released on the band's 1987 compilation album Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death. In a 2017 interview about the show Klaus stated, "We did one other performance of it at The Mabuhay and that was the only other time we performed it... like within a week of the Bammies" It’s unknown if this performance was ever recorded. In January 1981, Ted announced that he wanted to leave to pursue a career in architecture and would help look for a replacement. He played his last concert in February 1981. His replacement was D. H. Peligro (Darren Henley). Around the same time, East Bay Ray had tried to pressure the rest of the band to sign to the major record label Polydor Records; Biafra stated that he was prepared to leave the group if the rest of the band wanted to sign to the label, though East Bay Ray asserts that he recommended against signing with Polydor. Polydor decided not to sign the band after they learned that Dead Kennedys' next single was to be entitled "Too Drunk to Fuck". When "Too Drunk to Fuck" came out in May 1981 it caused controversy in the UK, as the BBC feared the single would reach the Top 30, which would necessitate its title being mentioned on Top of the Pops. It was never played, although it was simply called "'Too Drunk' by the Kennedys" by presenter Tony Blackburn. === In God We Trust, Inc., Plastic Surgery Disasters and Alternative Tentacles Records (1981–1985) === After Peligro joined the band, the extended play In God We Trust, Inc. (1981) saw them move toward a more aggressive hardcore/thrash sound. In addition to the EP's controversial artwork depicting a gold Christ figure on a cross of dollar bills, the lyrics contained Biafra's most biting social and political commentary yet, and songs such as "Moral Majority", "Nazi Punks Fuck Off!" and "We've Got a Bigger Problem Now" placed Dead Kennedys as the spokesmen of social protest, while "Dog Bite", a cover version of Rawhide and various joke introductions showed a much more whimsical side. In 1982, they released their second studio album, Plastic Surgery Disasters. The album's cover features a withered starving African child's hand being held and dwarfed by a white man's hand, a picture that had won the World Press Photo award in 1980, taken in Karamoja district in Uganda by Mike Wells. The band's music had evolved considerably in a short time, moving away from hardcore formulae toward a more innovative jazz-informed style, featuring musicianship and dynamics far beyond other bands in the genre (thus effectively removing the music from that genre). By now the group had become a de facto political force, pitting itself against rising elements of American social and political life such as the religious right, Ronald Reagan and the idle rich. The band continued touring all over the United States, as well as Europe and Australia, and gained a large underground following. While they continued to play live shows during 1983 and 1984, they took a break from releasing new records to concentrate on the Alternative Tentacles record label, which would become synonymous with DIY alternative culture. The band continued to write and perform new material during this time, which would appear on their next album (some of these early performances can be seen in the DMPO's on Broadway video, originally released by Dirk Dirksen and later reissued on Rhino). === Frankenchrist and obscenity trial (1985–1986) === The release of the album Frankenchrist in 1985 showed the band had grown in musical proficiency and lyrical maturity. While there were still a number of loud/fast songs, much of the music featured an eclectic mix of instruments including trumpets and synthesizers. Around this time Klaus Flouride released the similarly experimental solo EP Cha Cha Cha With Mr. Flouride. Lyrically, the band continued their trademark social commentary, with songs such as "MTV Get Off The Air" and "Jock-O-Rama (Invasion of the Beef Patrol)" poking fun at mainstream America. However, the controversy that erupted over H.R. Giger's Penis Landscape, included as an insert with the album, dwarfed the notoriety of its music. The artwork caused a furor with the newly formed Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). In December 1985 a teenage girl purchased the album at the Wherehouse Records store in Los Angeles County. The girl's mother wrote letters of complaint to the California Attorney General and to Los Angeles prosecutors. Members of the band and others in the chain of distribution were charged with violating the California Penal Code on a misdemeanor charge carrying a maximum penalty of up to a year in county jail and a base fine of up to $2,000. Biafra says that during this time government agents invaded and searched his home. The prosecution tried to present the poster to the jury in isolation for consideration as obscene material, but Judge Susan Isacoff ruled that the poster must be considered along with the music and lyrics. The charges against three of the original defendants, Ruth Schwartz (owner of Mordam Records), Steve Boudreau (a distributor involved in supplying Frankenchrist to the Los Angeles Wherehouse store), and Salvatore Alberti (owner of the factory where the record was pressed), were dismissed for lack of evidence. The album, however, was banned from many record stores nationwide. After the break up of the band, Jello Biafra brought up the court case on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Biafra was on the show with Tipper Gore as part of a panel discussion on the issues of "controversial music lyrics" and censorship. === Bedtime for Democracy and break-up (1986) === In addition to the obscenity lawsuit, the band became increasingly disillusioned with the underground scene as well. The hardcore scene, which had been a haven for free-thinking intellectuals and downtrodden nonconformists, was attracting a more violent audience that imposed an increasing level of brutality on other concertgoers and began to alienate many of the bands and individuals who had helped pioneer the movement in the early 1980s. In earlier years the band had criticized neo-Nazi skinheads for trying to ruin the punk scene, but just as big a problem was the popularity of increasingly macho hardcore bands, which brought the group (and their genre) an audience that had little to do with the ideas/ideals they stood for. Biafra penned new songs such as "Chickenshit Conformist" and "Anarchy for Sale" that articulated the band's feelings about the "dumbing down" of punk rock. During the summer they recorded these for their final album, Bedtime for Democracy, which was released in November. The artwork, depicting a defaced Statue of Liberty overrun with Nazis, media, opportunists, Klan members, corrupt government officials, and religious zombies, echoed the idea that neither America itself nor the punk scene were safe havens any more for "your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free". The album contains a number of fast/short songs interspersed with jazz ("D.M.S.O."), spoken word ("A Commercial") and psychedelia ("Cesspools In Eden"). The band decided to split up in January 1986, prior to the recording and release of Bedtime for Democracy, and played their last live show with the original lineup on 21 February. Biafra went on to speak about his political beliefs on numerous television shows and he released a number of spoken-word albums. Ray, Flouride, and Peligro also went on to solo careers. ===Band reformation and death of Peligro (2001–present)=== In 2001, Ray, Peligro, and Flouride reformed the Dead Kennedys, with former Dr. Know singer Brandon Cruz replacing Biafra on vocals. The band played under the name "DK Kennedys" for a few concerts, but later reverted to "Dead Kennedys" permanently. They played across the continental United States, Europe, Asia, South America, and Russia. Brandon Cruz left the band in May 2003 and was replaced by Jeff Penalty. The band has released two live albums of archival performances on Manifesto Records: Mutiny on the Bay, compiled from various live shows including a recording from their last show with Biafra in 1986, and Live at the Deaf Club, a recording of a 1979 performance at the Deaf Club in San Francisco which was greeted with more enthusiasm. On October 9, 2007, a best of album titled Milking the Sacred Cow was released. It includes two previously unreleased live versions of "Soup Is Good Food" and "Jock-O-Rama", originally found on Frankenchrist. Jeff Penalty left the band in March 2008 in what he describes as a "not amicable split." In a statement released, Jeff said that, following a series of disputes, the band had secretly recruited a new singer and played a gig in his neighbourhood, although he also stated he was "really proud of what we were able to accomplish with Dead Kennedys". On August 21, 2008, the band announced an extended break from touring due to the health-related issues of Flouride and Peligro. They stated their plans to collaborate on new projects. The band performed a gig in Santa Rosa, California in June 2009, with Peligro returning to the drum kit. In August 2010, Dead Kennedys announced plans for a short East Coast tour. The lineup assembled for this tour contained East Bay Ray, Peligro, Greer, and bassist Greg Reeves replacing Flouride, who was taking "personal time off" from the band. The tour dates included performances in Philadelphia, New York City, Boston, Washington, D.C., Portland, Maine and Hawaii. The band has played a reworked version of their song "MTV Get Off the Air", re-titled "MP3 Get Off the Web", with lyrics criticizing music piracy during their October 16, 2010, concert at the Rock and Roll Hotel in Washington, D.C. Dead Kennedys had world tours in 2013 and in 2014, the latter mostly in North American cities. In 2015 and 2016 they toured again, including South America, where they had not played since 2001. In 2017, East Bay Ray revealed that the band and Jello Biafra had been approached by the Punk-oriented music festival Riot Fest about a potential reunion. While Ray and the rest of the band expressed interest in the concept, Biafra refused. On April 26, 2019, the group released DK40, a live compilation album celebrating 40 years since the band formed. On October 28, 2022, D.H. Peligro died from an overdose of heroin and fentanyl, although it was initially believed to have been from possible head trauma from a fall at his home that day. Since Peligro's death, the band has performed in the UK with Santi Guardiola and the United States with Steve Wilson (who had played in D. H. Peligro's band Peligro before) filling in on drums. == Conflicts between members == === Royalties lawsuit === In the late 1990s, former band members discovered they were being underpaid in terms of royalties from Alternative Tentacles. East Bay Ray, Klaus Flouride, and D. H. Peligro claimed that Jello Biafra had conspired to pay them lower royalty rates and then attempted to disguise the precise nature of the money owed. Biafra claimed that the failure to pay these royalties was an accounting mistake. In 1998, the other three members of the band sued Biafra over these allegedly unpaid royalties. A jury ruled in their favor in May 2000, finding Biafra and Alternative Tentacles "guilty of malice, oppression and fraud". Malice was defined for the jury as "conduct which is intended to cause injury or despicable conduct which is carried with a willful and conscious disregard for the rights of others". Biafra's appeal was denied in June 2003; he had to pay the outstanding royalties as well as punitive damages, and was forced to hand over the rights to the majority of Dead Kennedys' back catalogue to the Decay Music partnership. This dispute caused minor waves within punk circles. Biafra claims that East Bay Ray had long expressed displeasure with Alternative Tentacles and with the amount of money he received from them, thus the original incentive for the discovery of the back payments. It was found out that Alternative Tentacles was paying Dead Kennedys less per CD than all the other bands, including Biafra himself, and not informing his other bandmates, which was the fraud. Biafra accused the band of wanting to license the famous Dead Kennedys song "Holiday in Cambodia" for use in a Levi's jeans commercial, which the band denied. However, an instrumental loop from "Holiday in Cambodia" was part of the 1981 black comedy feature film Neighbors, though it was not included on the soundtrack. The band maintains that the Levi's story was completely fictitious and invented by Biafra to discredit them. Biafra further criticized them for advertising shows using his own image taken from the original 1980s incarnation of the band, which he labeled as false advertising. He attacked the reformed Dead Kennedys in a song called "Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)", which appears on his second collaboration with sludge metal band the Melvins, Sieg Howdy! Biafra told an audience at a speaking gig in Trenton, New Jersey, that the remaining Dead Kennedys have licensed their single "Too Drunk to Fuck" to be used in a rape scene in a Robert Rodriguez movie. The reference is to a lounge cover of the song, recorded by the band Nouvelle Vague, played during a scene in the Planet Terror segment of Grindhouse, although no rape takes place, and in fact the would-be rapist is killed by the would-be victim. The scene in Planet Terror has would-be rapist, "Rapist No. 1" (Quentin Tarantino) order one-legged stripper "Cherry Darlin" (Rose McGowan) to get up off the floor and dance. At this point Tarantino hits play on a cassette recorder and Nouvelle Vague's cover of "Too Drunk To Fuck" plays. Biafra, disapproving of the situation, later wrote, "This is their lowest point since Levi's... This goes against everything the Dead Kennedys stands for in spades... The terrified woman later 'wins' by killing Tarantino, but that excuse does not rescue this at all. I wrote every note of that song and this is not what it was meant for.... Some people will do anything for money. I can't help but think back to how prudish Klaus Flouride was when he objected to H. R. Giger's painting on the "Frankenchrist" (sic) poster, saying he couldn't bear to show it to his parents. I'd sure love to be a fly on the wall when he tries to explain putting a song in a rape scene for money to his teenage daughter... The deal was pushed through by a new business manager the other three hired." The reformed Dead Kennedys followed their court victory by releasing reissues of all Dead Kennedys albums (except Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, to which they did not have the rights until 2005), releasing several new archival concert DVDs, and licensing several songs to The Manchurian Candidate remake and the Tony Hawk's Pro Skater video game. East Bay Ray claims he received a fax from Alternative Tentacles purporting Biafra approved the licensing for the game. The band claims on their website that they still pay close attention to an anti-corporate ideology, despite performing on September 5, 2003, at a festival in Turkey that was sponsored by Coca-Cola, noting that they have since pulled out of a show in Los Angeles when they found that it was being sponsored by Coors. However, Biafra claims the previous licensing deals prove otherwise. == Artistry == === Music and lyrics === Dead Kennedys have been described as one of the first hardcore punk bands. They were noted for the harshness of their lyrics, which generally combined biting social satire while expressing a staunchly left-wing view of contemporary America. Unlike other leftist punk bands who use more direct sloganeering, Dead Kennedys' lyrics were often snide. For example, "Holiday in Cambodia" is a multi-layered satire targeting both yuppies and Cambodia's recently deposed Khmer Rouge regime. Or, on "Jock-O-Rama", featured on Frankenchrist, they mock southern small towns whose residents’ lives revolve around high school football. === Logo === The original logo was created by Winston Smith. He later contributed artwork for the covers of In God We Trust, Inc., Plastic Surgery Disasters, Frankenchrist, Bedtime for Democracy, Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death, the back cover of the "Kill the Poor" single and the Alternative Tentacles logo. When asked about the "DK" logo in an interview, Jello Biafra explained, "...I wanted to make sure it was something simple and easy to spray-paint so people would graffiti it all over the place, and then I showed it to Winston Smith. He played around with it, came back with a bunch of designs that had the circle and slightly 3-D looking letters and he had ones with different patterns behind it. I liked the one with bricks, but ultimately I thought simple red behind it was the boldest and the best." === Influence === Dead Kennedys have influenced multiple acts such as System of a Down, Green Day, Faith No More, Rage Against the Machine, Sepultura, Descendents, Bad Religion, Slayer, X, Minutemen, The Hives, Saves the Day and Screeching Weasel among others. == Members == Current members East Bay Ray (Raymond Pepperell) – guitars (1978–1986, 2001–present) Klaus Flouride (Geoffrey Lyall) – bass, backing vocals (1978–1986, 2001–2010, 2011–present) Ron "Skip" Greer – lead vocals (2008–present) Steve Wilson – drums, backing vocals (2023–present) Former members Jello Biafra (Eric Boucher) – lead vocals (1978–1986) 6025 (Carlo Cadona) – rhythm guitar (1978–1979) Ted (Bruce Slesinger) – drums (1978–1981) D.H. Peligro (Darren Henley) – drums, backing vocals (1981–1986, 2001–2008, 2009–2022; his death) Brandon Cruz – lead vocals (2001–2003) Jeff Penalty (Jeff Alulis) – lead vocals (2003–2008) Dave Scheff – drums (2008) Greg Reeves – bass (2010–2011) Santi Guardiola – drums (2023) === Timeline === ==Discography== Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980) Plastic Surgery Disasters (1982) Frankenchrist (1985) Bedtime for Democracy (1986) ==Videography== The Art of Punk – Dead Kennedys (The Museum of Contemporary Art) (2013) - Documentary featuring the art of Winston Smith	[ "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.", "Los Angeles County, California", "H.R. Giger", "Klaus Flouride", "American Dream", "Manifesto Records", "Statue of Liberty", "Ronald Reagan in music", "Cherry Red Records", "Top of the Pops", "Washington, D.C.", "black comedy", "Bay Area Music Awards", "Too Drunk to Fuck", "Rawhide (song)", "San Francisco", "In God We Trust, Inc.", "hardcore punk", "List of bands from the San Francisco Bay Area", "Polydor Records", "San Francisco Chronicle", "anti-corporate", "hung jury", "New wave music", "Penis Landscape", "Rose McGowan", "Bedtime for Democracy", "California Attorney General", "Milking the Sacred Cow", "Khmer Rouge", "New York City", "yuppie", "malice (legal term)", "Philadelphia", "Hawaii", "John F. Kennedy's assassination", "Ted (musician)", "Wherehouse Entertainment", "wikt:bury the hatchet", "Against All Will", "Superior Court", "Minutemen (band)", "System of a Down", "Planet Terror", "East Coast of the United States", "Neighbors (1981 film)", "Bruce Slesinger", "California Über Alles", "Nouvelle Vague (band)", "Lard (band)", "Coca-Cola", "Tipper Gore", "fraud", "Faulty Products", "Plastic Surgery Disasters", "Winston Smith (artist)", "The Hives", "Carlos Cadona", "Carlo Cadona", "punk rock", "D. H. Peligro", "Bad Religion", "AllMusic", "Slayer", "Frankenchrist", "Nazi Punks Fuck Off!", "Sepultura", "Parents Music Resource Center", "Last Gasp (publisher)", "DMPO's on Broadway", "H. R. Giger", "nadir", "punk subculture", "Mordam Records", "D. H. Peligro", "Herb Caen", "Coors Brewing Company", "D.O.A. (band)", "Riot Fest", "Dead Kennedys discography", "Brandon Cruz", "Green Day", "Wynona Riders", "San Francisco, California", "Faith No More", "Boston", "Rage Against the Machine", "New Noise Magazine", "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater", "Grindhouse (film)", "X (American band)", "Descendents", "Levi's", "prosecutors", "Cha Cha Cha With Mr. Flouride", "Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables", "YouTube", "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death", "Translator (band)", "Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)", "Jello Biafra", "The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film)", "Sieg Howdy!", "Saves the Day", "Melvins", "East Bay Ray", "Mutiny on the Bay", "Robert Rodriguez", "Dirk Dirksen", "misdemeanor", "The Knack", "Nomeansno", "Radio Radio", "IRS Records", "Screeching Weasel", "In God We Trust Inc.", "Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine", "My Sharona", "The Recycler", "Santa Rosa, California", "UK Albums Chart", "Dr. Know (band)", "Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy", "Alternative Tentacles", "Tony Blackburn", "Moral Majority", "D.H. Peligro", "District Attorney", "Punk rock", "Quentin Tarantino", "Holiday in Cambodia", "Live at the Deaf Club", "independent label", "Satire", "The Oprah Winfrey Show", "Trenton, New Jersey", "Portland, Maine", "greatest hits album", "The 1978 Demos", "Jeff Penalty", "Skip Greer", "Guantanamo School of Medicine", "spoken-word", "New Jersey", "Kill the Poor", "False Alarm (band)" ]
7,955	DNA	Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the double-ringed purines. In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine. Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information. This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation. Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. Before typical cell division, these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA, and some in the mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes. Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed. == Properties == DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of . The pair of chains have a radius of . According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured wide, and one nucleotide unit measured long. The buoyant density of most DNA is 1.7g/cm3. DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside, and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a polynucleotide. The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar groups. The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-end (five prime end) carbons, the prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond. (animated version).]] The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base-stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (), cytosine (), guanine () and thymine (). These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming and base pairs. === Nucleobase classification === The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, and , which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six-membered rings and . === Non-canonical bases === Modified bases occur in DNA. The first of these recognized was 5-methylcytosine, which was found in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1925. The reason for the presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses. Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the epigenetic control of gene expression in plants and animals. A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil. Modified Adenine N6-carbamoyl-methyladenine N6-methyadenine Modified Guanine 7-Deazaguanine 7-Methylguanine Modified Cytosine N4-Methylcytosine 5-Carboxylcytosine 5-Formylcytosine 5-Glycosylhydroxymethylcytosine 5-Hydroxycytosine 5-Methylcytosine Modified Thymidine α-Glutamythymidine α-Putrescinylthymine Uracil and modifications Base J Uracil 5-Dihydroxypentauracil 5-Hydroxymethyldeoxyuracil Others Deoxyarchaeosine 2,6-Diaminopurine (2-Aminoadenine) === Grooves === Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site. As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. The major groove is wide, while the minor groove is in width. Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell (see below), but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary B form. === Base pairing === Top, a ' base pair with three hydrogen bonds. Bottom, an ' base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines. In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing. Purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low -content. A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature. As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms. In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the Pribnow box in some promoters, tend to have a high content, making the strands easier to pull apart. In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature Tm necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds. When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others. === Amount === In humans, the total female diploid nuclear genome per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg). Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg. DNA base pairs, with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules. === Sense and antisense === A DNA sequence is called a "sense" sequence if it is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing. A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses, blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes. In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome. === Supercoiling === DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling. With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases. These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication. === Alternative DNA structures === DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns—and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson functions that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis was proposed by Wilkins et al. in 1953 for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions. In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix. it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder. Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription. === Alternative DNA chemistry === For many years, exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere, a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA. A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ-1 was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules. === Quadruplex structures === At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres. The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In human cells, telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence. These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad, form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable G-quadruplex structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure. In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop. Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see the section on uses in technology below. === Artificial bases === Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA. Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication that there is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth. On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to RNA which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells. For this purpose it has to fold into a structure. It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding RNA, while a higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural principle of least effort. ===Acidity=== The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar acidic properties to phosphoric acid and it can be considered as a strong acid. It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing protons which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups. These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by hydrolysis by repelling nucleophiles which could hydrolyze it. ===Macroscopic appearance=== Pure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps. == Chemical modifications and altered DNA packaging == === Base modifications and DNA packaging === Structure of cytosine with and without the 5-methyl group. Deamination converts 5-methylcytosine into thymine. The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin. Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression. For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5-methylcytosine, which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes. The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations. Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain, and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J-base" in kinetoplastids. === Damage === DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens, which change the DNA sequence. Mutagens include oxidizing agents, alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays. The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations, insertions, deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations. These mutations can cause cancer. Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. DNA damages that are naturally occurring, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging. Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called intercalation. Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide, acridines, daunomycin, and doxorubicin. For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens, and in the case of thalidomide, a teratogen. Others such as [[benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide]] and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells. == Biological functions == DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype. A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control transcription of the open reading frame. In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons, with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences. The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size, or C-value, among species, represent a long-standing puzzle known as the "C-value enigma". However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression.]] Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence. === Transcription and translation === A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation, known collectively as the genetic code. The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT). In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (43 combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA). === Replication === Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication. Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase. This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA. === Extracellular nucleic acids === Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress. Cell-free fetal DNA is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus. Under the name of environmental DNA eDNA has seen increased use in the natural sciences as a survey tool for ecology, monitoring the movements and presence of species in water, air, or on land, and assessing an area's biodiversity. === Neutrophil extracellular traps === Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of extracellular fibers, primarily composed of DNA, which allow neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to kill extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to the host cells. == Interactions with proteins == All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important. === DNA-binding proteins === Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones, while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones, making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are thus largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation, and acetylation. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes. A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins is the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA repair. These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem-loops or being degraded by nucleases. In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter. This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase. As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to "read" the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible.]] Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GATATC-3′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line. In nature, these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the restriction modification system. In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting. Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands. Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication, as they join the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination. Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription. These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases. ==== Polymerases ==== Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates. The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains—which are called templates. These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain. As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction. In the active site of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use. In DNA replication, DNA-dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains. To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand. Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed. In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases. RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include reverse transcriptase, which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses, and telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres. For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication. == Genetic recombination == Structure of the Holliday junction intermediate in genetic recombination. The four separate DNA strands are coloured red, blue, green and yellow. A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells, the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called "chromosome territories". This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in chromosomal crossover which occurs during sexual reproduction, when genetic recombination occurs. Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin. Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins. Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell's response to double-strand breaks. The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences. Non-homologous recombination can be damaging to cells, as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities. The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases, such as RAD51. The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA. A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another. The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA. Only strands of like polarity exchange DNA during recombination. There are two types of cleavage: east-west cleavage and north–south cleavage. The north–south cleavage nicks both strands of DNA, while the east–west cleavage has one strand of DNA intact. The formation of a Holliday junction during recombination makes it possible for genetic diversity, genes to exchange on chromosomes, and expression of wild-type viral genomes. == Evolution == DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes. This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial. Building blocks of DNA (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space. Complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine, and thymine, have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds. Ancient DNA has been recovered from ancient organisms at a timescale where genome evolution can be directly observed, including from extinct organisms up to millions of years old, such as the woolly mammoth. == Uses in technology == === Genetic engineering === Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol-chloroform extraction, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction. Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector. The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins, used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture. === DNA profiling === Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is formally termed DNA profiling, also called DNA fingerprinting. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA. However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people. DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys, and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case. The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime. DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents, bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members. DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant. === DNA enzymes or catalytic DNA === Deoxyribozymes, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, were first discovered in 1994. They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, etc. DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific). The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in cells. === Bioinformatics === Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store, data mine, search and manipulate biological data, including DNA nucleic acid sequence data. These have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory. String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events. === DNA nanotechnology === DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based and using the DNA origami method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins. DNA and other nucleic acids are the basis of aptamers, synthetic oligonucleotide ligands for specific target molecules used in a range of biotechnology and biomedical applications. === History and anthropology === Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny. This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology. === Information storage === DNA as a storage device for information has enormous potential since it has much higher storage density compared to electronic devices. However, high costs, slow read and write times (memory latency), and insufficient reliability has prevented its practical use. == History == DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein". In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases. In 1909, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit of RNA (then named "yeast nucleic acid"). In 1929, Levene identified deoxyribose sugar in "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA). Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of four nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups ("tetranucleotide hypothesis"). Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". In 1928, Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information. In 1933, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, Jean Brachet suggested that DNA is found in the cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. At the time, "yeast nucleic acid" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH. In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure. In 1943, Oswald Avery, along with co-workers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, identified DNA as the transforming principle, supporting Griffith's suggestion (Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment). Erwin Chargaff developed and published observations now known as Chargaff's rules, stating that in DNA from any species of any organism, the amount of guanine should be equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to thymine. Late in 1951, Francis Crick started working with James Watson at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge. DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952 when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the enterobacteria phage T2. In May 1952, Raymond Gosling, a graduate student working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin, took an X-ray diffraction image, labeled as "Photo 51", at high hydration levels of DNA. This photo was given to Watson and Crick by Maurice Wilkins and was critical to their obtaining the correct structure of DNA. Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Before then, Linus Pauling, and Watson and Crick, had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards. Franklin's identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel. In February 1953, Linus Pauling and Robert Corey proposed a model for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside. Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double helix of DNA. On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge, England to announce that he and Watson had "discovered the secret of life". The 25 April 1953 issue of the journal Nature published a series of five articles giving the Watson and Crick double-helix structure DNA and evidence supporting it. The structure was reported in a letter titled "MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, in which they said, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material." Then followed a letter by Wilkins and two of his colleagues, which contained an analysis of in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns, and which supported the presence in vivo of the Watson and Crick structure. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis". Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Further work by Crick and co-workers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology. In 1986, DNA analysis was first used in a criminal investigation when police in the UK requested Alec Jeffreys of the University of Leicester to prove or disprove the involvement in a particular case of a suspect who claimed innocence in the matter. Although the suspect had already confessed to committing a recent rape-murder, he was denying any involvement in a similar crime committed three years earlier. Yet the details of the two cases were so alike that the police concluded both crimes had been committed by the same person. However, all charges against the suspect were dropped when Jeffreys' DNA testing exonerated the suspect — from both the earlier murder and the one to which he'd confessed. But further such DNA profiling ultimately led to positive identification of another suspect who, in 1988, was found guilty of both rape-murders.	[ "prokaryote", "Maclyn McCarty", "messenger RNA", "Genetic insertion", "DNA supercoil", "phosphate", "glycosylation", "chemotherapy", "population genetics", "helicase", "G-quadruplex", "database theory", "centromere", "evolutionary biology", "DNA melting", "RNA", "replication fork", "short tandem repeat", "chromatin", "protist", "cytoplasm", "pH", "telomeres", "DNA machine", "organic molecules", "exon", "Caenorhabditis elegans", "polynucleotide", "Astrobiology", "transformation (genetics)", "biosphere", "Phylogenetics", "DNA condensation", "ribose", "ecological genetics", "crime scene", "Martha Chase", "vertebrate", "organism", "Stacking (chemistry)", "protein", "Alfred Hershey", "Nucleic acid double helix", "ribozyme", "machine learning", "protein complex", "Patterson function", "Arsenic DNA", "blood", "pus", "Forensic science", "adenosine triphosphate", "skin", "Cavendish Laboratory", "glycosidic bond", "nucleic acid analogue", "DNA repair", "trait (biology)", "heterocyclic compound", "University of California, San Diego", "agriculture", "human mitochondrial genetics", "covalent bond", "endonuclease", "phylogenetics", "Francis Crick", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "heredity", "Timeline of evolution", "virus", "phenotype", "Genetic fingerprinting", "C-value", "natural selection", "phosphorylation", "polymerase chain reaction", "Alec Jeffreys", "list of standard amino acids", "bacterium", "Conformational isomerism", "5-hydroxymethylcytosine", "proton", "protein A", "Kinetoplastida", "Nucleic acid sequence", "Robert Corey", "Branched DNA", "data storage", "molecular motor", "DNA damage (naturally occurring)", "The New York Times", "intercalation (biochemistry)", "Crosstalk (biology)", "cellular differentiation", "bacteria", "phosphoric acid", "Albrecht Kossel", "in vivo", "nucleoside triphosphate", "molecular biology", "red giant", "nucleophile", "Meselson–Stahl experiment", "restriction digest", "DNA computing", "Bessel function", "divergent evolution", "plant", "polymer", "GFAJ-1", "gene", "5-methylcytosine", "epigenetics", "enzyme", "multiple sequence alignment", "Cell division", "semen", "enhancer (genetics)", "atom", "aromatic", "promoter (biology)", "genetic recombination", "biology", "phenol-chloroform extraction", "Human mitochondrial genetics", "telomere", "William Astbury", "mitochondrion", "deoxyribose", "point mutation", "recombinase", "Colin Munro MacLeod", "Marshall Warren Nirenberg", "Molecular models of DNA", "Nikolai Koltsov", "Acid strength", "CNN", "cell metabolism", "genetic material", "antiparallel (biochemistry)", "signal transduction", "macromolecule", "Genetic code", "ion", "cytosine", "reverse transcriptase", "genome", "chloroplast", "Raymond Gosling", "monomer", "double jeopardy", "Colin Pitchfork", "Rosalind Franklin", "Base J", "Hachimoji DNA", "adduct", "ecology", "medical research", "Chargaff's rules", "Hoogsteen base pair", "ScienceDaily", "replisome", "Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment", "biopolymer", "Messenger RNA", "nanotechnology", "AP News", "EcoRV", "animal", "A-DNA", "Robert W. Holley", "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", "Helicase", "nuclease", "universe", "purine", "Radical (chemistry)", "James Watson", "Directionality (molecular biology)", "RNA world hypothesis", "X-ray", "sexual reproduction", "Cell-free fetal DNA", "Phoebus Levene", "Photo 51", "temperature", "homologous chromosome", "Science (journal)", "University of Cambridge", "shadow biosphere", "chromosomal translocation", "pyrimidine", "Jean Brachet", "DNA paternity testing", "NASA", "telomerase", "gene duplication", "human genome", "5-Methylcytosine", "hydrolysis", "Fungus", "guanine tetrad", "tobacco smoking", "Antiparallel (biochemistry)", "nuclear DNA", "Deamination", "carbon", "X-ray diffraction", "complementary DNA", "hydrogen bonds", "diploid", "mitochondrial DNA", "noncoding DNA", "molecular recognition", "enterobacteria phage T2", "retrovirus", "Linus Pauling", "chloroplast DNA", "Cytochrome P450, family 1, member A1", "Chromatin remodeling", "ribosome", "directionality (molecular biology)", "nucleic acid sequence", "nuclear genome", "base pair", "cell division", "Hershey–Chase experiment", "Holliday junction", "Gene prediction", "chromosomal crossover", "ribonucleic acid", "carcinogen", "Deletion (genetics)", "DNA end", "Genome", "Bioinformatics", "egg cell", "transcription (genetics)", "aptamers", "computer science", "Helix", "aromaticity", "Translation (biology)", "Colloidal gold", "environmental DNA", "adenosine monophosphate", "Oxford University Press", "neutrophils", "Primary protein structure", "gene expression", "Backbone chain", "mutation", "Cell (biology)", "life", "Z-DNA", "histone", "overlapping gene", "Okazaki fragment", "bacteriophage", "streptavidin", "Frederick Griffith", "exonuclease", "D-loop", "Daunorubicin", "nucleic acid double helix", "Paracrystalline", "deamination", "Peptide sequence", "stem-loop", "DNA nanotechnology", "pentose", "chelation", "evolution", "Har Gobind Khorana", "Organophosphate", "Non-homologous recombination", "RNA polymerase", "amino acid", "genetic engineering", "chromosome 1", "archaea", "List of distinct cell types in the adult human body", "thymine", "genome size", "RNA polymerase II", "genetic code", "Cambridge University Press", "lipids", "Maurice Wilkins", "circular chromosome", "Oswald Avery", "central dogma of molecular biology", "aflatoxin", "double helix", "horizontal gene transfer", "Nuclease", "Topoisomerase", "backbone chain", "Polyhedron", "data corruption", "polyamine", "Eukaryote", "sequence alignment", "binding site", "string searching algorithm", "regulation of gene expression", "DNA sequence", "hydrogen peroxide", "Complementarity (molecular biology)", "DNA replication", "DNA origami", "Friedrich Miescher", "RAD51", "saliva", "non-coding RNA", "acridine", "regulatory sequence", "Transmission (genetics)", "viral vector", "carbohydrate", "pseudogene", "pub", "ethidium bromide", "repeated sequence (DNA)", "non-coding DNA", "hydrogen bond", "DNA ligase", "storage density", "Erwin Chargaff", "ultraviolet", "polysaccharide", "B-DNA", "space group", "transcription factor", "terminator (genetics)", "Sequence homology", "Ancient DNA", "sea urchin", "transfer RNA", "memory latency", "biofilm", "restriction modification system", "Chemical element", "oxidizing agent", "Polymerase", "nucleobase", "meteorite", "systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment", "active site", "topoisomerase", "Deoxyribozyme", "DNA sequencing", "biochemistry", "cancer", "polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons", "Nature (journal)", "Recombinant DNA", "homologous recombination", "phosphodiester bond", "molecular cloning", "genotype", "Pitch (screw)", "GC-content", "nucleotide", "brain", "DNA clamp", "electromagnetic radiation", "outer space", "circular prokaryote chromosome", "adenine", "in vitro", "catalysis", "data mining", "mutagen", "minisatellite", "monosaccharide", "Triple-stranded DNA", "hair", "Proofreading (biology)", "cosmic dust", "woolly mammoth", "species", "plasmid", "thymine dimer", "guanine", "Bacteriophage", "Alkylation", "X-ray diffraction patterns", "acetylation", "ionic bond", "Telomere", "Human Genome Project", "open reading frame", "uracil", "nucleoside", "Phosphodiester bond", "protein interactions", "methyl group", "genetics", "restriction enzyme", "sex chromosome", "DNA polymerase", "chromosome", "Central dogma of molecular biology", "X-inactivation", "hydroxyl", "nucleoid", "Replication fork", "organic compound", "acid", "nucleic acid", "C-value enigma", "The Eagle, Cambridge", "Pribnow box", "gene product", "reproduction", "doxorubicin", "methylation", "translation (genetics)", "principle of least effort", "anthropology", "nucleosome", "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids", "nitrogenous base", "eukaryote", "chromosome territories", "cell nucleus", "fossil", "DNA profiling", "Griffith's experiment", "teratogen" ]
7,957	Kennedy family	The Kennedy family () is an American political family that has long been prominent in American politics, public service, entertainment, and business. In 1884, 35 years after the family's arrival from County Wexford, Ireland, Patrick Joseph "P. J." Kennedy became the first Kennedy elected to public office, serving in the Massachusetts state legislature until 1895. At least one Kennedy family member was serving in federal elective office in every year from 1947, when P. J. Kennedy's grandson John F. Kennedy became a member of Congress from Massachusetts, until 2011, when Patrick J. Kennedy II (John's nephew) retired as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Rhode Island. P. J.'s son Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and his wife, Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy, had nine children, including John F. Kennedy, who served in both houses of the United States Congress and as U.S. President; Robert F. Kennedy, who served as U.S. Attorney General and as a U.S. Senator; and Ted Kennedy, who served more than 46 years in the U.S. Senate. Additionally, Robert F. Kennedy Jr. currently serves as the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services in the cabinet of the second presidency of Donald Trump. Other Kennedy descendants include members of the U.S. House of Representatives, two U.S. ambassadors, one U.S. envoy, a lieutenant governor, three state legislators (one of whom also served in the U.S. House of Representatives), and one mayor. Joseph and Rose's daughter Eunice played a vital role in establishing the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (part of the National Institutes of Health) and the Special Olympics. Other descendants of Joseph and Rose Kennedy have been lawyers, authors, and activists on behalf of those with physical and intellectual disabilities. ==History== According to genealogist Brian Kennedy in his work JFK's Irish O'Kennedy Ancestors, the Kennedys—who would go on to play a significant role in the United States of America—originated from an Irish clan called Ó Cinnéide Fionn (which, along with the Ó Cinnéide Donn and Ó Cinnéide Ruadh, were the three Irish Gaelic Ó Cinnéide clans who ruled the Kingdom of Ormond). In 1546, their progenitor Diarmaid Ó Cinnéide Fionn became the owner of Knigh Castle, located close to what is today Puckane, County Tipperary. In 1740, having lost out to the New English order in the Kingdom of Ireland, they moved to Dunganstown, New Ross, County Wexford. Patrick Kennedy was born there. Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) and Bridget Murphy (1824–1888) sailed from Ireland to East Boston in 1849. Patrick worked in East Boston as a barrel maker, or cooper, and had five children with Bridget. Their youngest, Patrick Joseph "P. J." Kennedy, went into business and served in the Massachusetts state legislature from 1884 to 1895. P. J. and his wife, Mary Augusta Hickey, had four children. Their oldest was Joseph Patrick "Joe" Kennedy Sr., a businessman who amassed a private fortune in banking and securities trading, which he further expanded by investing in filmmaking and real estate. He also founded Somerset Importers and owned Chicago's Merchandise Mart. In 1914, Joseph Sr. married Rose Fitzgerald, the eldest daughter of John F. "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald, who served six years as mayor of Boston and six years as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. The couple had nine children: Joseph Jr. (1915–1944), John (called Jack) (1917–1963), Rose Marie (called Rosemary) (1918–2005), Kathleen (called Kick) (1920–1948), Eunice (1921–2009), Patricia (1924–2006), Robert (called Bobby) (1925–1968), Jean (1928–2020) and Edward (called Ted) (1932–2009). Joseph Sr. was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as the first chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), chairman of the Maritime Commission, and U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1938 to 1940. He served from 1947 to 1949 on The Hoover Commission (the "Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government"), which was appointed by President Harry Truman to recommend administrative changes in the federal government. Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy was named Papal Countess of the Holy Roman Church by Pope Pius XII in 1951 in recognition of her "exemplary motherhood and many charitable works." ==Continued public service== Every Kennedy elected to public office has served as a Democrat, while other members of the family have worked for the party or held Cabinet posts in Democratic administrations. Many have attended Harvard University, and the family has contributed greatly to that university's John F. Kennedy School of Government. Joseph Sr. expected his eldest son, Joseph Jr., to go into politics and to ultimately be elected president. Joseph Jr. was elected as a Massachusetts delegate to the 1940 Democratic National Convention and enlisted in the U.S. Navy after the United States entered World War II. He was killed in 1944 when the bomber he was piloting exploded in flight. Joseph Sr.'s desire to see the family involved in politics and government then focused on John, who had considered a career as a journalist, having authored a book (Why England Slept) and done some reporting for Hearst Newspapers. After returning from Navy service, John served in the U.S. House of Representatives representing Massachusetts's 11th congressional district from 1947 to 1953, and then as U.S. Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. In the 1960 presidential election, John narrowly defeated Republican opponent Richard Nixon. During John's administration, Robert served as attorney general, their brother-in-law Sargent Shriver served as director of the new Peace Corps, and Ted became the U.S. Senator from Massachusetts until his death in 2009. The Kennedy administration's accomplishments include the Alliance for Progress with Latin America, the establishment of the Peace Corps, a peaceful resolution to the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution ending the poll tax, the continuation of the Apollo spaceflight program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon, and the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to Congress (signed into law by Kennedy's successor Lyndon B. Johnson). The family was the subject of intense media coverage during and after Kennedy's presidency. Ted served in the Senate with his brother Robert (1965–1968), and was serving in the Senate when his nephew, Joseph P. II, and his son, Patrick J., served in the U.S. House of Representatives representing Massachusetts's 8th congressional district (1987–1999) and Rhode Island's 1st congressional district (1995–2011), respectively. In November 2012, Joseph P. Kennedy III, son of former U.S. representative Joseph P. Kennedy II and grandson of former senior Robert F. Kennedy, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 4th congressional district. In 2020, Joseph P. III lost the U.S. Senate primary election in Massachusetts to incumbent Ed Markey, the first Kennedy to ever lose an election in the state. In the 2020s, three Kennedy family members were serving as U.S. ambassadors or envoys. Victoria Reggie Kennedy, second wife of Ted Kennedy, was named in 2021 by President Joe Biden as U.S. ambassador to Austria. Caroline Kennedy, daughter of President Kennedy, was named in 2022 by President Biden as U.S. ambassador to Australia; she previously served as U.S. ambassador to Japan under President Barack Obama. In the same year, Joseph P. Kennedy III was named by President Biden as U.S. special envoy to Northern Ireland. Robert F. Kennedy Jr. ran for president in the 2024 United States presidential election, originally as a Democrat, but changing his affiliation to Independent in October 2023. Family members spoke out against him, mainly due to his anti-vaccine views, and instead endorsed President Joe Biden. In August 2024, two months before the election, Robert Jr. withdrew and endorsed Republican candidate Donald Trump, who won the election. Trump nominated him to be United States Secretary of Health and Human Services and he was confirmed by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 52-48. ==Family tree== Patrick Joseph Kennedy (1858–1929), married Mary Augusta Hickey Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr. (1888–1969), married Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald Joseph Patrick Kennedy Jr. (1915–1944) John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–1963) married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Arabella Kennedy (1956, stillborn) Caroline Bouvier Kennedy (born 1957) married Edwin Arthur Schlossberg Rose Kennedy Schlossberg (born 1988) married Rory McAuliffe Tatiana Celia Kennedy Schlossberg (born 1990) married George Moran Edwin Garrett Moran (born 2022) John Bouvier "Jack" Kennedy Schlossberg (born 1993) John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. (1960–1999) married Carolyn Jeanne Bessette Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (1963, died in infancy) Rose Marie "Rosemary" Kennedy (1918–2005) Kathleen Agnes Kennedy (1920–1948) married William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington Eunice Mary Kennedy (1921–2009) married Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. Robert Sargent Shriver III (born 1954) married Malissa Feruzzi and had 1 daughter Maria Owings Shriver (born 1955) married/divorced Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger Katherine Eunice Schwarzenegger (born 1989) married Christopher Michael Pratt and had 3 children Lyla Maria Schwarzenegger Pratt (born 2020) Eloise Christina Schwarzenegger Pratt (born 2022) Ford Fitzgerald Schwarzenegger Pratt (born 2024) Christina Schwarzenegger (born 1991) Patrick Arnold Shriver Schwarzenegger (born 1993) Christopher Schwarzenegger (born 1997) Timothy Perry Shriver (born 1959) married Linda Potter and had 5 children Sophia Rose Shriver (born 1987) Timothy Perry Shriver, Jr. (born 1988) Samuel Kennedy Shriver (born 1992) Kathleen Francis Shriver (born 1994) Caroline Elizabeth Shriver (born 1997) Mark Kennedy Shriver (born 1964) married Jeanne Ripp and had 3 children Anthony Paul Kennedy Shriver (born 1965) married/divorced Alina Mojica and had 5 children Patricia Helen Kennedy (1924–2006) married/divorced Peter Lawford Christopher Kennedy Lawford (1955–2018) Sydney Maleia Lawford (born 1956) Victoria Francis Lawford (born 1958) Robin Elizabeth Lawford (born 1961) Robert Francis Kennedy (1925–1968) married Ethel Skakel Kathleen Hartington Kennedy (born 1951) married David Townsend Meaghan Anne Kennedy Townsend (born 1977) Maeve Fahey Kennedy Townsend (1979–2020) married David McKean Rose Katherine "Kat" Kennedy Townsend (born 1983) Kerry Sophia Kennedy Townsend (born 1991) Joseph Patrick Kennedy II (born 1952) married/divorced Sheila Brewster Rauch, married Anne Elizabeth "Beth" Kelly Matthew Rauch Kennedy (born 1980, of first marriage) Joseph Patrick Kennedy III (born 1980, of first marriage) married Lauren Anne Birchfield Eleanor Kennedy (born 2015) James Kennedy (born 2017) Robert Francis Kennedy Jr. (born 1954) married/divorced Emily Black, married Mary Kathleen Richardson, married Cheryl Hines Robert Francis Kennedy III (born 1984, of first marriage) married Amaryllis Fox Bobby Kennedy Cassius Kennedy Kathleen Alexandra "Kick" Kennedy (born 1988, of first marriage) Conor Richardson Kennedy (born 1994, of second marriage) Kyra LeMoyne Kennedy (born 1995, of second marriage) William Finbar "Finn" Kennedy (born 1997, of second marriage) Aidan Caohman Vieques Kennedy (born 2001, of second marriage) David Anthony Kennedy (1955–1984) Mary Courtney Kennedy (born 1956) married/divorced Robert Ruhe, married Paul Hill Saoirse Roisin Hill (1997–2019, of second marriage) Michael LeMoyne Kennedy (1958–1997) married Victoria Denise Gifford Michael LeMoyne Kennedy Jr. (born 1983) Kyle Francis Kennedy (born 1984) Rory Gifford Kennedy (born 1987) Mary Kerry Kennedy (born 1959) married/divorced Andrew Mark Cuomo Cara Ethel Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1995) Mariah Matilda Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1995) Michaela Andrea Kennedy-Cuomo (born 1997) Christopher George Kennedy (born 1963) married Sheila Sinclair Berner Katherine Berner Kennedy (born 1990) Christopher George Kennedy Jr. (born 1992) married Erin Daigle Sarah Louise Kennedy (born 1994) married Jam Sulahry Clare Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1998) Matthew Maxwell Taylor Kennedy (born 1965) married Victoria Anne Strauss Matthew Maxwell Taylor Kennedy Jr. (born 1993) Caroline Summer Rose Kennedy (born 1994) Noah Isabella Rose Kennedy (born 1998) Douglas Harriman Kennedy (born 1967) married Molly Stark Riley Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1999) Mary McCauley Kennedy (born 2001) Rowen Frances Kennedy (born 2004) George Skakel Kennedy (born 2007) Anthony Boru Kennedy (born 2012) Rory Elizabeth Katherine Kennedy (born 1968) married Mark Daniel Bailey Georgia Elizabeth Kennedy-Bailey (born 2002) Bridget Katherine Kennedy-Bailey (born 2004) Zachary Corkland Kennedy-Bailey (born 2007) Jean Ann Kennedy (1928–2020) married Stephen Edward Smith Stephen Edward Smith, Jr. (born 1957) William Kennedy Smith (born 1960) Amanda Mary Smith (born 1967, adopted) Kym Maria Smith (born 1972, adopted) Edward Moore Kennedy (1932–2009) married/divorced Virginia Joan Bennett, married Victoria Anne Reggie Kara Anne Kennedy (1960–2011, of first marriage) married/divorced Michael Allen Grace Elizabeth Allen (born 1994) Max Greathouse Allen (born 1996) Edward Moore Kennedy Jr. (born 1961, of first marriage) married Katherine Anne "Kiki" Gershman Kiley Elizabeth Kennedy (born 1994) Edward Moore Kennedy III (born 1998) Patrick Joseph Kennedy II (born 1967, of first marriage) married Amy Savell Owen Patrick Kennedy (born 2012) Nora Kara Kennedy (born 2013) Nell Elizabeth Kennedy (born 2015) Marshall Patrick Kennedy (born 2018) Francis Benedict Kennedy (1891–1892) (died in infancy) Mary Loretta Kennedy (1892–1972), married George William Connelly and had 1 daughter. Margaret Louise Kennedy (1898–1974), married Charles Joseph Burke and had 3 children. ==Businesses== Citizens Energy Corporation Columbia Trust Company FBO Pictures Corporation George Hialeah Park Race Track Intercontinental Rubber Company Kennedy & Madonna LLP (law firm) Kenoil Corporation Marwood Group (healthcare-focused consulting firm) Mokeen Oil Company RKO Pictures Somerset Imports Sumner Savings Bank Wolf Point, Chicago Wolf Point East Tower Salesforce Tower Chicago ==Philanthropy and policy institutes== Advocates for Opioid Recovery Best Buddies International Citizens Energy Corporation Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Center for Community of Caring Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development Global Recovery Initiative John F. Kennedy Library Foundation Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation Robert F. Kennedy Center For Justice & Human Rights Smart Approaches to Marijuana Special Olympics Stop Handgun Violence Top Box Foods VSA (Kennedy Center) White House Historical Association Waterkeeper Alliance ==Government offices held== Patrick Joseph Kennedy: Massachusetts state Representative, 1884–1889; Massachusetts state Senator, 1889–1895. Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr.: Chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 1934–1935; chairman of the United States Maritime Commission, 1936–1938; United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, 1938–1940. John Fitzgerald Kennedy: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 1947–1953; United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1953–1960; President of the United States, 1961–1963. Caroline Kennedy: United States Ambassador to Japan, 2013–2017; United States Ambassador to Australia, 2022–2024. Eunice Kennedy Shriver Bobby Shriver: Santa Monica, California City Council member, 2004–2012; Mayor of Santa Monica, 2010. Mark Kennedy Shriver: Maryland state Delegate, 1995–2003. Robert Francis Kennedy: United States Attorney General, 1961–1964; United States Senator from New York, 1965–1968. Kathleen Kennedy Townsend: Lieutenant governor of Maryland, 1995–2003. Joseph P. Kennedy II: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 1987–1999. Joseph P. Kennedy III: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 2013–2021; U.S. envoy to Northern Ireland, 2022–2024 Robert Francis Kennedy Jr.: United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, 2025–present. Jean Kennedy Smith: United States Ambassador to Ireland, 1993-1998 William Kennedy Smith: Commissioner of the District of Columbia from district 2A04, 2015–2020 Edward Moore Kennedy: United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1962–2009. Edward M. Kennedy Jr.: Connecticut state Senator, 2015–2019. Patrick J. Kennedy: Rhode Island state Representative, 1989–1993; United States Representative from Rhode Island, 1995–2011. In addition, some Kennedy spouses have served in government: Andrew Cuomo (then-husband of Kerry Kennedy): United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, 1997–2001. After their divorce, he served as New York state attorney general (2007–2010) and New York governor (2011–2021). Victoria Reggie Kennedy (widow of Ted Kennedy): U.S. ambassador to Austria, 2022–2025 Arnold Schwarzenegger (then-husband of Maria Shriver): governor of California, 2003–2011 Sargent Shriver (husband of Eunice Kennedy Shriver): president of the Chicago Board of Education, 1955–1960; director of the Peace Corps, 1961–1966; director of the Office of Economic Opportunity, 1964–1968; U.S. ambassador to France, 1968–1970 There was a member of the Kennedy family in public office nearly continuously from 1946, when John F. Kennedy was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, until early 2011, when Patrick J. Kennedy left the House. The only exception was the period between John F. Kennedy's resignation from the Senate on December 22, 1960, and his assumption of the office of President on January 20, 1961. In 2013, two years after Patrick Kennedy left the House, Joseph P. Kennedy III was elected U.S. Representative from Massachusetts and served until 2021. Below is a timeline of the Kennedys' tenure in the U.S. Congress. ===Timeline=== ==Heraldry== On March 17, 1961, John F. Kennedy was presented with a grant of arms for all the descendants of Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) from the Chief Herald of Ireland. The design of the arms (three gold closed helmets on a black field) strongly alludes to symbols in the coats of arms of the O'Kennedys of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond, from whom the family is descended. The crest is an armored hand holding four arrows between two olive branches, elements taken from the coat of arms of the United States of America and also symbolic of Kennedy and his brothers.	[ "2020 United States Senate election in Massachusetts", "Mayor", "United States House of Representatives", "Massachusetts's 11th congressional district", "Max Kennedy Jr.", "Citizens Energy Corporation", "Richard Nixon", "Christopher G. Kennedy", "United States Ambassador to Austria", "1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries", "List of ambassadors of the United States to Australia", "RKO Pictures", "Patrick Schwarzenegger", "John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum", "political family", "Barack Obama", "Bobby Shriver", "governor of California", "United States Navy", "Joe Biden", "Pope Pius XII", "Katherine Schwarzenegger", "National Institutes of Health", "Ted Kennedy", "New Ross", "Patrick Bouvier Kennedy", "Jack Schlossberg", "Rory Kennedy", "Massachusetts state legislature", "Advocates for Opioid Recovery", "Anthony Shriver", "Republican Party (United States)", "Hearst Newspapers", "Connecticut Senate", "United States Representative", "Cheryl Hines", "Victoria Reggie Kennedy", "VSA (Kennedy Center)", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "United States Senate", "Massachusetts General Court", "William Kennedy Smith", "1962 United States Senate special election in Massachusetts", "Robert F. Kennedy", "Donald Trump", "Rhode Island's 1st congressional district", "Wolf Point, Chicago", "Eugene McCarthy", "Robert F. Kennedy Jr.", "Hialeah Park Race Track", "Ethel Kennedy", "United States Ambassador to Australia", "Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation", "Second cabinet of Donald Trump", "John F. Fitzgerald", "Smart Approaches to Marijuana", "Kerry Kennedy", "Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington", "Amy Kennedy", "Puckane", "Harvard University", "John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site", "United States Congress", "Massachusetts", "Joan Bennett Kennedy", "United States Ambassador to Japan", "The Boston Globe", "State representative", "Wolf Point East Tower", "United States", "White House Historical Association", "Mark Kennedy Shriver", "Chris Pratt", "Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights", "Politics of the United States", "U.S. Senate", "United States Maritime Commission", "1960 United States presidential election", "Massachusetts's 8th congressional district", "Patricia Kennedy Lawford", "Kennedy (Ireland)", "Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy", "poll tax", "Kara Kennedy", "First Lady of the United States", "Santa Monica, California", "Peace Corps", "grant of arms", "O'Kennedy", "Papal count", "List of ambassadors of the United States to Austria", "Edward M. Kennedy Jr.", "Kingdom of Ormond", "Chief Herald of Ireland", "Maeve Kennedy McKean", "Maria Shriver", "Stop Handgun Violence", "Rose Kennedy", "Hickory Hill (McLean, Virginia)", "Boston", "Lieutenant Governor of Maryland", "United States Ambassador to France", "President of the United States", "Massachusetts Senate", "County Wexford", "Massachusetts House of Representatives", "Douglas Harriman Kennedy", "Anglo-Irish people", "Wexford (Marshall, Virginia)", "Delegate (American politics)", "United States Special Envoy for Northern Ireland", "St. Petersburg Times", "United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development", "List of United States senators from Massachusetts", "Mary Richardson Kennedy", "Democratic Party (United States)", "John F. Kennedy School of Government", "U.S. ambassador to Austria", "Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "2024 United States presidential election", "Earl of Desmond", "Civil Rights Act of 1964", "Sargent Shriver", "Irish language", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "Film Booking Offices of America", "Christopher Lawford", "Rosemary Kennedy", "Kennedy curse", "U.S. Attorney General", "State legislature (United States)", "Joseph P. Kennedy II", "Eunice Kennedy Shriver", "Peter Lawford", "P. J. Kennedy", "William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington", "Cabinet of the United States", "Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "Alliance for Progress", "Office of Economic Opportunity", "United States Attorney General", "Michael LeMoyne Kennedy", "Federal government of the United States", "United States Secretary of Health and Human Services", "Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy", "Arnold Schwarzenegger", "Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.", "Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.", "Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy", "Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development", "Why England Slept", "Joe Kennedy III", "Andrew Cuomo", "Mark Bailey (writer)", "House of FitzGerald", "World War II", "mayor", "mayor of Boston", "Maryland House of Delegates", "Waterkeeper Alliance", "Apollo program", "Massachusetts's 4th congressional district", "We choose to go to the Moon", "U.S. ambassador to France", "Lieutenant governor of Maryland", "Marquess of Hartington", "New York (State)", "Merchandise Mart", "United States Ambassador", "Kennedy Compound", "Patrick J. Kennedy", "National Institute of Child Health and Human Development", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "John F. Kennedy Jr.", "County Tipperary", "Cuban Missile Crisis", "Harry Truman", "Ambassadors of the United States", "The Political Graveyard", "Kathleen Kennedy Townsend", "Max Kennedy", "State senator", "Donald Trump 2024 presidential campaign", "Salesforce Tower Chicago", "president of the Chicago Board of Education", "Jean Kennedy Smith", "Kingdom of Ireland", "Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis", "Timothy Shriver", "Edwin Schlossberg", "John F. Kennedy", "United States Ambassador to Ireland", "George (magazine)", "United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom", "Rhode Island", "second presidency of Donald Trump", "Chicago (magazine)", "Special Olympics", "The New York Times", "List of ambassadors of the United States to Japan", "lieutenant governor", "Ed Markey", "Tatiana Schlossberg", "Amaryllis Fox Kennedy", "United States Senator", "East Boston", "La Querida (mansion)", "1940 Democratic National Convention", "Rose Schlossberg", "Stephen Edward Smith", "Best Buddies International", "Caroline Kennedy", "Connecticut State Senate", "Rhode Island House of Representatives" ]
7,958	Deflation (disambiguation)	Commonly, deflation refers to a decrease in the general price level, the opposite of inflation. Deflation may also refer to: A release or escape of air or gas from an inflatable, resulting in its shrinking or collapsing A mode of wind erosion Dividing a polynomial by a linear factor which decreases its degree by one in multiple root-finding algorithms, as done for example in the Jenkins–Traub algorithm In philosophy, the use of a deflationary theory of truth, where the term truth is rejected as a real property of propositions Deflation (film), a 2001 short film The Great Deflation, a period of worldwide economic deflation occurring roughly between the years 1870–90 Deflate, a widely used lossless compression algorithm originating from the program PKZIP	[ "Deflate", "Inflation (disambiguation)", "inflatable", "deflationary theory of truth", "deflation", "root-finding algorithms", "Jenkins–Traub algorithm", "Deflationary theory of truth", "wind erosion", "Deflation (film)", "The Great Deflation" ]
7,959	Democracy	Democracy (from , dēmos 'people' and kratos 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive or maximalist definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections. The term appeared in the 5th century BC in Greek city-states, notably Classical Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (, ), meaning "rule of an elite". In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship was initially restricted to an elite class, which was later extended to all adult citizens. In most modern democracies, this was achieved through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is not vested in the general population of a state, such as authoritarian systems. Historically a rare and vulnerable form of government, as public opinion across regions tends to strongly favor democratic systems of government relative to alternatives, and as even authoritarian states try to present themselves as democratic. According to the V-Dem Democracy indices and The Economist Democracy Index, less than half the world's population lives in a democracy . ==Characteristics== Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, One study identified 2,234 adjectives used to describe democracy in the English language. Democratic principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has (in theory) equal weight, and the freedom of eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties which are typically enshrined in a constitution, while other uses of "democracy" may encompass direct democracy, in which citizens vote on issues directly. According to the United Nations, democracy "provides an environment that respects human rights and fundamental freedoms, and in which the freely expressed will of people is exercised." One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: upward control (sovereignty residing at the lowest levels of authority), political equality, and social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. Legal equality, political freedom and rule of law are often identified by commentators as foundational characteristics for a well-functioning democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom (which originated the Westminster system), the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty, while maintaining judicial independence. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review. Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are potentially applicable to private organisations, such as clubs, societies and firms. Democracies may use many different decision-making methods, but majority rule is the dominant form. Without compensation, like legal protections of individual or group rights, political minorities can be oppressed by the "tyranny of the majority". Majority rule involves a competitive approach, opposed to consensus democracy, creating the need that elections, and generally deliberation, be substantively and procedurally "fair"," i.e. just and equitable. In some countries, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests and beliefs. It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of all the voters, democracy can also be characterised as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in lawmaking. Republics, though often popularly associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by consent of the governed, are not necessarily democracies, as republicanism does not specify how the people are to rule. Classically the term "republic" encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. In a modern sense the republican form of government is a form of government without a monarch. Because of this, democracies can be republics or constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom. ==History== Democratic assemblies are as old as the human species and are found throughout human history, but up until the nineteenth century, major political figures have largely opposed democracy. Republican theorists linked democracy to small size: as political units grew in size, the likelihood increased that the government would turn despotic. At the same time, small political units were vulnerable to conquest. According to Johns Hopkins University political scientist Daniel Deudney, the creation of the United States, with its large size and its system of checks and balances, was a solution to the dual problems of size. Forms of democracy occurred organically in societies around the world that had no contact with each other. ===Origins=== ====Greece and Rome==== The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from dêmos '(common) people' and krátos 'force/might'. Under Cleisthenes, what is generally held as the first example of a type of democracy in the sixth-century BC (508–507 BC) was established in Athens. Cleisthenes is referred to as "the father of Athenian democracy". The first attested use of the word democracy is found in prose works of the 430s BC, such as Herodotus' Histories, but its usage was older by several decades, as two Athenians born in the 470s were named Democrates, a new political name—likely in support of democracy—given at a time of debates over constitutional issues in Athens. Aeschylus also strongly alludes to the word in his play The Suppliants, staged in c.463 BC, where he mentions "the demos's ruling hand" [demou kratousa cheir]. Before that time, the word used to define the new political system of Cleisthenes was probably isonomia, meaning political equality. Athenian democracy took the form of direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices, and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. All eligible citizens were allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city-state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (μέτοικοι / métoikoi), and youths below the age of military service. Effectively, only 1 in 4 residents in Athens qualified as citizens. Owning land was not a requirement for citizenship. The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also the most direct in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for "rights"), those who were citizens of Athens enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. Range voting appeared in Sparta as early as 700 BC. The Spartan ecclesia was an assembly of the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of at least 20 years of age could participate. In the assembly, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by range voting and shouting (the vote is then decided on how loudly the crowd shouts). Aristotle called this "childish", as compared with the stone voting ballots used by the Athenian citizenry. Sparta adopted it because of its simplicity, and to prevent any biased voting, buying, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections. Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of weighted voting, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. In addition, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom was the first case in the Western world of a polity being formed with the explicit purpose of being a republic, although it did not have much of a democracy. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries. ====Ancient India ==== Vaishali, capital city of the Vajjika League (Vrijji mahajanapada) of India, is considered one of the first examples of a republic around the 6th century BC. ====Americas==== Other cultures, such as the Iroquois in the Americas also developed a form of democratic society between 1450 and 1660 (and possibly in 1142), well before contact with the Europeans. This democracy continues to the present day and is the world's oldest standing representative democracy. ====Africa==== ===Middle Ages=== While most regions in Europe during the Middle Ages were ruled by clergy or feudal lords, there existed various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small part of the population. In Scandinavia, bodies known as things consisted of freemen presided by a lawspeaker. These deliberative bodies were responsible for settling political questions, and variants included the Althing in Iceland and the Løgting in the Faeroe Islands. The veche, found in Eastern Europe, was a similar body to the Scandinavian thing. In the Roman Catholic Church, the pope has been elected by a papal conclave composed of cardinals since 1059. The first documented parliamentary body in Europe was the Cortes of León. Established by Alfonso IX in 1188, the Cortes had authority over setting taxation, foreign affairs and legislating, though the exact nature of its role remains disputed. The Republic of Ragusa, established in 1358 and centered around the city of Dubrovnik, provided representation and voting rights to its male aristocracy only. Various Italian city-states and polities had republic forms of government. For instance, the Republic of Florence, established in 1115, was led by the Signoria whose members were chosen by sortition. In the 10th–15th century Frisia, a distinctly non-feudal society, the right to vote on local matters and on county officials was based on land size. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta (1215), which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects and implicitly supported what became the English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with the right to appeal. The first representative national assembly in England was Simon de Montfort's Parliament in 1265. The emergence of petitioning is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people. However, the power to call parliament remained at the pleasure of the monarch. Studies have linked the emergence of parliamentary institutions in Europe during the medieval period to urban agglomeration and the creation of new classes, such as artisans, as well as the presence of nobility and religious elites. Scholars have also linked the emergence of representative government to Europe's relative political fragmentation. Political scientist David Stasavage links the fragmentation of Europe, and its subsequent democratization, to the manner in which the Roman Empire collapsed: Roman territory was conquered by small fragmented groups of Germanic tribes, thus leading to the creation of small political units where rulers were relatively weak and needed the consent of the governed to ward off foreign threats. In Poland, noble democracy was characterized by an increase in the activity of the middle nobility, which wanted to increase their share in exercising power at the expense of the magnates. Magnates dominated the most important offices in the state (secular and ecclesiastical) and sat on the royal council, later the senate. The growing importance of the middle nobility had an impact on the establishment of the institution of the land sejmik (local assembly), which subsequently obtained more rights. During the fifteenth and first half of the sixteenth century, sejmiks received more and more power and became the most important institutions of local power. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon granted the sejmiks the right to decide on taxes and to convene a mass mobilization in the Nieszawa Statutes. He also pledged not to create new laws without their consent. ===Modern era=== ====Early modern period==== In 17th century England, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta. The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642–1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653–59) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule, although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the Bill of Rights was enacted in 1689 which codified certain rights and liberties and is still in effect. The Bill set out the requirement for regular elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of Europe at the time, royal absolutism would not prevail. Economic historians Douglass North and Barry Weingast have characterized the institutions implemented in the Glorious Revolution as a resounding success in terms of restraining the government and ensuring protection for property rights. Renewed interest in the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution in the 17th century prompted the growth of political philosophy on the British Isles. Thomas Hobbes was the first philosopher to articulate a detailed social contract theory. Writing in the Leviathan (1651), Hobbes theorized that individuals living in the state of nature led lives that were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short" and constantly waged a war of all against all. In order to prevent the occurrence of an anarchic state of nature, Hobbes reasoned that individuals ceded their rights to a strong, authoritarian power. In other words, Hobbes advocated for an absolute monarchy which, in his opinion, was the best form of government. Later, philosopher and physician John Locke would posit a different interpretation of social contract theory. Writing in his Two Treatises of Government (1689), Locke posited that all individuals possessed the inalienable rights to life, liberty and estate (property). According to Locke, individuals would voluntarily come together to form a state for the purposes of defending their rights. Particularly important for Locke were property rights, whose protection Locke deemed to be a government's primary purpose. Furthermore, Locke asserted that governments were legitimate only if they held the consent of the governed. For Locke, citizens had the right to revolt against a government that acted against their interest or became tyrannical. Although they were not widely read during his lifetime, Locke's works are considered the founding documents of liberal thought and profoundly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution and later the French Revolution. His liberal democratic framework of governance remains the preeminent form of democracy in the world. In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich, the holder of the highest post of Hetman was elected by the representatives from the country's districts. In North America, representative government began in Jamestown, Virginia, with the election of the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly) in 1619. English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose local governance was democratic; although these local assemblies had some small amounts of devolved power, the ultimate authority was held by the Crown and the English Parliament. The Puritans (Pilgrim Fathers), Baptists, and Quakers who founded these colonies applied the democratic organisation of their congregations also to the administration of their communities in worldly matters. ====18th and 19th centuries==== The first Parliament of Great Britain was established in 1707, after the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland under the Acts of Union. Two key documents of the UK's uncodified constitution, the English Declaration of Right, 1689 (restated in the Bill of Rights 1689) and the Scottish Claim of Right 1689, had both cemented Parliament's position as the supreme law-making body and said that the "election of members of Parliament ought to be free". However, Parliament was only elected by male property owners, which amounted to 3% of the population in 1780. The first known British person of African heritage to vote in a general election, Ignatius Sancho, voted in 1774 and 1780. During the Age of Liberty in Sweden (1718–1772), civil rights were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament. The taxed peasantry was represented in parliament, although with little influence, but commoners without taxed property had no suffrage. The creation of the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755 was an early attempt to adopt a democratic constitution (all men and women above age of 25 could vote). This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and included female suffrage, something that was not included in most other democracies until the 20th century. Colonial America had similar property qualifications as Britain, and in the period before 1776 the abundance and availability of land meant that large numbers of colonists met such requirements with at least 60 per cent of adult white males able to vote. The great majority of white men were farmers who met the property ownership or taxpaying requirements. With few exceptions, no blacks or women could vote. Vermont, which, on declaring independence of Great Britain in 1777, adopted a constitution modelled on Pennsylvania's citizenship and democratic suffrage for males with or without property. The United States Constitution of 1787 is the oldest surviving, still active, governmental codified constitution. The Constitution provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties, but did not end slavery nor extend voting rights in the United States, instead leaving the issue of suffrage to the individual states. Generally, states limited suffrage to white male property owners and taxpayers. At the time of the first Presidential election in 1789, about 6% of the population was eligible to vote. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only. The Bill of Rights in 1791 set limits on government power to protect personal freedoms but had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 130 years after ratification. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all men in 1792. The Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791 sought to implement a more effective constitutional monarchy, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom. In force for less than 19 months, it was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm that met in 1793. North Carolina was the last state to abolish property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century). In the 1860 United States census, the slave population had grown to four million, and in Reconstruction after the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed: the 13th Amendment (1865) that ended slavery; the 14th Amendment (1869) that gave black people citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) that gave black males a nominal right to vote. Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the civil rights movement gained passage by the US Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The voting franchise in the United Kingdom was expanded and made more uniform in a series of reforms that began with the Reform Act 1832 and continued into the 20th century, notably with the Representation of the People Act 1918 and the Equal Franchise Act 1928. Universal male suffrage was established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. During that year, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. In 1876, the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament. Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued, stating that the elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first Parliament. Later that year, a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a bicameral Parliament with a Senate appointed by the Sultan and a popularly elected Chamber of Deputies. Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in Turkish and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election. Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by a foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having "notoriety for ill deeds". Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to establish active universal suffrage by recognizing women as having the right to vote. ====20th and 21st centuries==== 20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonisation, and religious and economic circumstances. Global waves of "democratic regression" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s. World War I and the dissolution of the autocratic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democratic movements flourished and women's suffrage advanced, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as non-democratic governments in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in Western Europe. The democratisation of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of government change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet-dominated bloc. The war was followed by decolonisation, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights mandated democracy: By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in "Communist" states and the former colonies). A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed "third wave of democracy". Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of the European Union or candidate states. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino, who would later be known as the mother of Asian democracy. The liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population. Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy. Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years; the major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America. Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves. According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the Law and Justice party) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte). The Christian Science Monitor reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over legal objections from the European Commission. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown . "Democratic backsliding" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor government's management of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other factors such as manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition. Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance. ==Theory== ===Early theory=== Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy/elitism), and with rule by a single person (tyranny/autocracy/absolute monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy). A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Proponents view citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. ====Polyarchy==== Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal." ====Deliberation==== Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making. ==Measurement of democracy== Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. ==Types of governmental democracies== Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. ===Basic forms=== Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy. ====Direct==== Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: Change constitutional laws, Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava. =====Semi-direct===== Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed semi-direct democracies or participatory democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters. =====Lot system===== The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery. ====Representative==== Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy =====Parliamentary===== Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). ====Republic==== The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy, which in their view often came without the protection of a constitution enshrining inalienable rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a direct democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." ====Liberal==== A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. ====Socialist==== Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party socialist representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. ====Marxist==== Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which is referred to as parliamentary democracy because of its centralised nature. Because of orthodox Marxists' desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists, and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and ultimately manifests itself as council democracy. ====Anarchist==== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ====Sortition==== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ====Consociational==== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ====Majoritarian==== ====Consensus==== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ====Ethnic==== ====Inclusive==== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. ====Participatory==== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ====Procedural==== ====Radical==== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ====Religious==== ====Cosmopolitan==== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as global democracy or world federalism, is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ====Creative==== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ====Guided==== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. ==Non-governmental democracy== Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or Islamocracy. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. ===Shareholder democracy=== Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. ==Justification== Several justifications for democracy have been postulated. ===Legitimacy=== Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. Some proponents of the theory like Jean-Jacques Rousseau advocate for a direct democracy on this basis. ===Better decision-making=== Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. ===Economic success=== In Why Nations Fail, economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. ==Democratic transitions== A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). ===Democratization=== Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished: a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy: The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy. Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. ===Autocratization=== Steven Levitsky says: “It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That’s asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters.” ====Disruption==== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. ===Debates on democracy=== ===Influence of the media=== The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment Meaningful agenda setting Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy Dialogue across a diverse range of views Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. ===Democracy promotion=== Democracy promotion can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing youth suffrage, increasing civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality and reducing presidentialism.	[ "general will", "Population", "Corsican Republic", "Constitution of 3 May 1791", "Great Depression", "Power (social and political)", "horse race journalism", "civic engagement", "Democracy promotion", "political equality", "referendum", "regime change", "canton of Glarus", "History of Brazil (1985–present)", "workplace democracy", "barriers to entry", "Poland", "minority rights", "Trotskyist", "Aristocracy", "Republic of Florence", "Habeas Corpus Act 1679", "Election", "royal absolutism", "Social democracy", "Aristotle", "Abdul Hamid II", "Løgting", "List of civil wars", "freedom of the press", "judicial review", "Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Uthiramerur", "Democracy in Asia", "Brazil", "individual liberty", "David Held", "International Area Studies Review", "consensus decision-making", "accountability", "Federal Assembly (Switzerland)", "Afghanistan", "Morality", "board of directors", "Vaishali (ancient city)", "Parliament of the Ottoman Empire", "Athenian democracy", "Petition of Right", "Leninism", "market forces", "Popular assembly", "Pericles' funeral oration", "Athenian Democracy", "First Portuguese Republic", "right of revolution", "Paul Cartledge", "Leon Trotsky", "Oman", "Wilmington insurrection of 1898", "Baptists", "Ronald Dworkin", "New Zealand", "South Asia", "Collier's", "Iroquois", "Weimar Germany", "monarch", "Allen Weinstein", "Amitai Etzioni", "Reconstruction era of the United States", "Rose Revolution", "Bellum omnium contra omnes", "Voting Rights Act of 1965", "Radical democracy", "Communist state", "minority group", "Putney Debates", "History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)", "Anthony Downs", "centuries", "Populism", "Social structure", "Declaration of Right, 1689", "first Parliament of Great Britain", "Wisdom of the crowd", "Bolivia", "Power to the people (slogan)", "Political polarization", "political apathy", "Democracy in Marxist theory", "Invasion", "Economist Group", "Constitution", "shareholder", "University of Gothenburg", "worker self-management", "tsetse fly", "Annual Review of Political Science", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Republicanism", "Richard Posner", "female suffrage", "parliamentary sovereignty", "voting advice application", "Territorial peace theory", "State (polity)", "China", "censorship", "weighted voting", "Nieszawa Statutes", "soviet (council)", "papal conclave", "Sudbury school", "Spanish Civil War", "World Bank", "Kyrgyzstan", "shareholder democracy", "direct democracy", "Lucy Parsons Center", "Nationalism", "London", "Electoral competition", "Sortition", "Waves of democracy", "parpolity", "United Nations", "International Criminal Court", "Orange Revolution", "Iceland", "The Economist", "Thomas Hobbes", "James A. Robinson (economist)", "Quakers", "Argentine transition to democracy", "Reform Acts", "George Monbiot", "Russia", "Parliamentary system", "Equal Franchise Act 1928", "Elizabeth Willing Powel", "Carroll Quigley", "James Madison", "Constitution of India", "The Washington Post", "British Empire", "1840 United States presidential election", "misinformation", "Kingdom of Scotland", "United States Constitution", "Eugenio Biagini", "Vermont", "council democracy", "Marxism", "freedom of assembly", "Greek city-state", "Corporation", "Good governance", "Gatekeeping (communication)", "Horseshoe theory", "voting age", "German occupation of Czechoslovakia", "deregulation", "deliberate", "Viral phenomenon", "Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria", "feudal lords", "Eastern Bloc", "Cortes of León of 1188", "Stateless society", "one share, one vote", "constitutional monarchy", "semi-presidential system", "Athens", "28 May 1926 coup d'état", "H. G. Wells", "liberal democracy", "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Federalist No. 10", "Keen, Benjamin", "Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević", "Treaty of Rome", "wikt:fair", "freedom (political)", "propaganda", "democratic republic", "international organisations", "German Democratic Republic", "government", "Corsican Constitution", "political system", "Revolutionary France", "Ottoman empire", "government change", "Deliberative democracy", "political power", "political philosophy", "Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)", "agenda setting", "Journalism ethics and standards", "Socialism", "French Revolution", "Spain", "jury selection", "social movement", "voting rights", "dumbing down", "democratic peace theory", "conflict resolution", "United States Declaration of Independence", "Bill of Rights 1689", "Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections", "participatory democracy", "2003 Russian legislative election", "Roman Senate", "World War I", "Glorious Revolution", "William H. Riker", "Robert A. Dahl", "Barry R. Weingast", "people", "clergy", "Hungary", "social contract theory", "Anarchism", "OECD", "Gerardo L. Munck", "Classical Athens", "Revolutions of 1848", "emerging democracies", "creative destruction", "communities", "supermajority", "Brunei", "Industrial democracy", "Collectivism and individualism", "Parliament of England", "lawspeaker", "Willamette University", "tyranny of the majority", "Histories (Herodotus)", "National Convention", "recall election", "separation of powers", "Equality before the law", "Baltics", "populist", "legislation", "Share class", "Edwin Leland James", "Rodrigo Duterte", "The New Indian Express", "three-fifths compromise", "Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities", "Right to property", "1954 Guatemalan coup d'état", "East Asia", "trade", "Robert Graham (historian)", "V-Dem Democracy indices", "Murray Bookchin", "Freedom House", "Signoria of Florence", "Slavery in the United States", "Spatial citizenship", "election fraud", "Consensus decision-making", "United States Bill of Rights", "Switzerland", "freedom", "Democracy & Nature", "Simon de Montfort's Parliament", "Jamestown, Virginia", "1999 Ukrainian presidential election", "1788–89 United States presidential election", "2010–2011 Tunisian revolution", "Mali Empire", "occupied Japan", "autocracies", "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Empowered democracy", "Technology Review", "Georgia (country)", "Defensive democracy", "representative democracy", "freedom of speech", "majoritarian democracy", "Two Treatises of Government", "Representation of the People Act 1918", "liberalism", "loyal opposition", "economic democracy", "Austria", "Democratically elected government", "European Council of Ministers", "Alexis de Tocqueville", "Casimir IV Jagiellon", "aristocracy", "Japan", "authority", "liberalisation", "noble democracy", "supreme court", "democratisation", "Potential enlargement of the European Union", "Rhodes College", "Fascism", "Middle Ages", "nationalist", "Ancient India", "History of Bolivia", "Foucault–Habermas debate", "social issue", "France", "trade union", "human rights", "Eastern bloc", "2015–present Polish constitutional crisis", "Bern", "democratic socialism", "Energy democracy", "legitimacy (political)", "republic", "consociationalism", "rule of law", "state (polity)", "szlachta", "news media", "Coup of 18 Brumaire", "Europe", "Colonial history of the United States", "sharia law", "impartiality", "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen", "Tyranny of the majority", "anarcho-communist", "English Restoration", "Cold War", "French Revolution of 1848", "Republic of Ragusa", "Self-coup", "Hybrid regimes", "Westminster system", "multi-party", "Netherlands", "habeas corpus", "modernisation theory", "Acts of Union 1707", "Portuguese transition to democracy", "Trotskyism", "Nazi Germany", "political freedom", "tyranny", "non-governmental organisation", "economy", "timocracy", "freedom of expression", "Equal Protection Clause", "Karl Popper", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "Senate of the Ottoman Empire", "Tunisia", "wikt:equitable", "Kouroukan Fouga", "majority", "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "American Revolution", "state collapse", "constitution", "absolute monarchy", "U.S. state", "Ecclesia (ancient Athens)", "Vatican City", "Turkish language", "European Commission", "elitism", "United States", "Leviathan (Hobbes book)", "Allied Control Council", "Sparta", "Boule (ancient Greece)", "Republic", "List of coups and coup attempts by country", "independence of the judiciary", "History of monarchy in the United Kingdom", "sortition", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "presidential system", "Popular initiative", "Tabloid journalism", "Editori Laterza", "United Kingdom", "Egypt", "House of Lords", "English Civil War", "Eastern Europe", "Roman Republic", "voting rights in the United States", "Bhutan", "Anarchist Studies", "Authoritarian regimes", "election", "Grodno Sejm", "median voter theorem", "Proportional representation", "The New Yorker", "civil liberties", "Austrian Parliament Building", "serfdom", "liberty", "town meeting", "International Day of Democracy", "Prime Minister", "veche", "Monopoly", "2016–present purges in Turkey", "lawmaking", "The Suppliants (Aeschylus)", "Age of Enlightenment", "waves of democracy", "Why Nations Fail", "consensus democracy", "free and fair election", "democratic revolution", "economic growth", "Meritocracy", "Thailand", "terrorism", "1860 United States census", "African diaspora", "Public service broadcasting", "Dominant-party system", "Corazon Aquino", "Timeline of women's suffrage", "John Adams", "Daniel Ziblatt", "ballot papers", "Swiss confederation", "participatory economy", "conspiracy theories", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Aeschylus", "2004 Russian presidential election", "Dubrovnik", "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "popular assembly", "Scandinavian Political Studies", "Magna Carta", "Overthrow of the Roman monarchy", "surveillance", "Alexander I of Yugoslavia", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "President (government title)", "Canton of Glarus", "federal popular initiative", "French First Republic", "Jay Blumler", "Cuba", "Democratic education", "Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks", "mahajanapada", "Enabling Act of 1933", "Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Luciano Canfora", "1953 Iranian coup d'état", "Qualified majority voting", "House of Burgesses", "Transaction Publishers", "The Economist Democracy Index", "republicanism", "freedom of religion", "sejm", "Catholic Church", "Pilgrim Fathers", "Ignatius Sancho", "dictatorship of the proletariat", "Fejuve", "United States House of Representatives", "Far-left politics", "Adam Przeworski", "developing countries", "New England", "civil rights movement", "Qatar", "universal suffrage", "civil rights", "deliberation", "David Remnick", "youth suffrage", "education", "Althing", "Alfonso IX", "industrial democracy", "Douglass North", "personal property", "1828 United States presidential election", "Philippines", "Law and Justice", "right to life", "Democratic peace theory", "Legitimacy (political)", "isonomia", "consent of the governed", "Takis Fotopoulos", "suffrage", "Cantons of Switzerland", "CIPO-RFM", "Greece", "John Dewey", "Faeroe Islands", "Kingdom of England", "Ronald Inglehart", "Tulip Revolution", "Germany", "Reform Act 1832", "Belgium", "Range voting", "Age of Liberty", "Democratic backsliding", "human capital", "History of Uruguay", "majority rule", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "World Parliament", "Legal equality", "Democracy Ranking", "6 January Dictatorship", "Democracy in America", "Portugal", "Lonely Planet", "cooperative", "democratizing", "Spanish democratic transition", "Chilean transition to democracy", "presidential democracy", "European Union", "firm", "workers council", "Ohio Statehouse", "Frisian freedom", "India", "self-expression values", "Puritans", "South Vietnam", "social contract", "constituency", "internet", "2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt", "populism", "Zaporizhian Sich", "freedom of association", "oligarchy", "Thing (assembly)", "population", "codified constitution", "protest movements", "state of nature", "Plurality (voting)", "Constitution of the United Kingdom", "crowned republic", "The Christian Science Monitor", "Workers' self-management", "Daron Acemoglu", "California", "officials", "Pericles", "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics", "Virginia General Assembly", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Parpolity", "authoritarian", "Naturalization Act of 1790", "worker's control", "national security", "wikt:just", "citizenship", "Italy", "autocracy", "Cossack Hetmanate", "Claim of Right 1689", "Cedar Revolution", "Universal male suffrage", "Freedom of speech", "Herodotus", "1992 Peruvian coup d'état", "Indonesian Revolution of 1998", "Austria-Hungary", "form of government", "World War II", "initiatives", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Daniel Deudney", "state capacity", "polyarchy", "Vajjika League", "United Arab Emirates", "Scandinavia", "Ecclesia (Sparta)", "the Protectorate", "Citizens' assemblies", "Steven Levitsky", "Balkans", "Optional referendum", "wikt:deprivation", "wikt:Islamocracy", "Soviet (council)", "Montesquieu", "Chief executive officer", "natural rights", "Cynicism (contemporary)", "R. R. Palmer", "decolonisation", "Joseph Schumpeter", "free speech", "head of government", "Public participation (decision making)", "political violence", "Avalon Project", "elections", "Authoritarianism", "individualist anarchists", "proportional representation", "politician", "Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden", "social media", "voting", "echo chamber", "Australian Senate", "Daniele Archibugi", "Spin (propaganda)", "Cleisthenes", "Bicameralism", "Minority group", "Citizens' assembly", "Social contract", "Parliament in the Making", "Condorcet's jury theorem", "pope", "John Locke", "classical antiquity", "head of state", "disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era", "intelligence", "judicial independence", "David Stasavage" ]
7,960	Deduction and induction	Deduction and induction may refer to: Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Validity (logic) Cogency (disambiguation)	[ "Inductive reasoning", "Validity (logic)", "Deductive reasoning", "Cogency (disambiguation)" ]
7,962	Logical disjunction	In logic, disjunction, also known as logical disjunction or logical or or logical addition or inclusive disjunction, is a logical connective typically notated as \lor and read aloud as "or". For instance, the English language sentence "it is sunny or it is warm" can be represented in logic using the disjunctive formula S \lor W , assuming that S abbreviates "it is sunny" and W abbreviates "it is warm". In classical logic, disjunction is given a truth functional semantics according to which a formula \phi \lor \psi is true unless both \phi and \psi are false. Because this semantics allows a disjunctive formula to be true when both of its disjuncts are true, it is an inclusive interpretation of disjunction, in contrast with exclusive disjunction. Classical proof theoretical treatments are often given in terms of rules such as disjunction introduction and disjunction elimination. Disjunction has also been given numerous non-classical treatments, motivated by problems including Aristotle's sea battle argument, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, as well as the numerous mismatches between classical disjunction and its nearest equivalents in natural languages. An operand of a disjunction is a disjunct. ==Inclusive and exclusive disjunction== Because the logical or means a disjunction formula is true when either one or both of its parts are true, it is referred to as an inclusive disjunction. This is in contrast with an exclusive disjunction, which is true when one or the other of the arguments are true, but not both (referred to as exclusive or, or XOR). When it is necessary to clarify whether inclusive or exclusive or is intended, English speakers sometimes uses the phrase and/or. In terms of logic, this phrase is identical to or, but makes the inclusion of both being true explicit. ==Notation== In logic and related fields, disjunction is customarily notated with an infix operator \lor (Unicode ). In mathematics, the disjunction of an arbitrary number of elements a_1, \ldots, a_n can be denoted as an iterated binary operation using a larger ⋁ (Unicode ): \bigvee_{i=1}^{n} a_i = a_1 \lor a_2 \lor \ldots a_{n-1} \lor a_{n} ==Classical disjunction== === Semantics === In the semantics of logic, classical disjunction is a truth functional operation which returns the truth value true unless both of its arguments are false. Its semantic entry is standardly given as follows: \models \phi \lor \psi if \models \phi or \models \psi or both This semantics corresponds to the following truth table: A \lor B = (\lnot A) \to B. The latter can be checked by the following truth table: It may also be defined solely in terms of \to: A \lor B = (A \to B) \to B. It can be checked by the following truth table: ===Properties=== The following properties apply to disjunction: Associativity: a \lor (b \lor c) \equiv (a \lor b) \lor c Commutativity: a \lor b \equiv b \lor a Distributivity: (a \land (b \lor c)) \equiv ((a \land b) \lor (a \land c)) (a \lor (b \land c)) \equiv ((a \lor b) \land (a \lor c)) (a \lor (b \lor c)) \equiv ((a \lor b) \lor (a \lor c)) (a \lor (b \equiv c)) \equiv ((a \lor b) \equiv (a \lor c)) Idempotency: a \lor a \equiv a Monotonicity: (a \rightarrow b) \rightarrow ((c \lor a) \rightarrow (c \lor b)) (a \rightarrow b) \rightarrow ((a \lor c) \rightarrow (b \lor c)) Truth-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'true', produces a truth value of 'true' as a result of disjunction. Falsehood-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'false', produces a truth value of 'false' as a result of disjunction. ==Applications in computer science== Operators corresponding to logical disjunction exist in most programming languages. ===Bitwise operation=== Disjunction is often used for bitwise operations. Examples: 0 or 0 = 0 0 or 1 = 1 1 or 0 = 1 1 or 1 = 1 1010 or 1100 = 1110 The or operator can be used to set bits in a bit field to 1, by or-ing the field with a constant field with the relevant bits set to 1. For example, x = x \| 0b00000001 will force the final bit to 1, while leaving other bits unchanged. ===Logical operation=== Many languages distinguish between bitwise and logical disjunction by providing two distinct operators; in languages following C, bitwise disjunction is performed with the single pipe operator (\|), and logical disjunction with the double pipe (\|\|) operator. Logical disjunction is usually short-circuited; that is, if the first (left) operand evaluates to true, then the second (right) operand is not evaluated. The logical disjunction operator thus usually constitutes a sequence point. In a parallel (concurrent) language, it is possible to short-circuit both sides: they are evaluated in parallel, and if one terminates with value true, the other is interrupted. This operator is thus called the parallel or. Although the type of a logical disjunction expression is Boolean in most languages (and thus can only have the value true or false), in some languages (such as Python and JavaScript), the logical disjunction operator returns one of its operands: the first operand if it evaluates to a true value, and the second operand otherwise. This allows it to fulfill the role of the Elvis operator. ===Constructive disjunction=== The Curry–Howard correspondence relates a constructivist form of disjunction to tagged union types. ==Set theory== The membership of an element of a union set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: x\in A\cup B\Leftrightarrow (x\in A)\vee(x\in B). Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and de Morgan's laws, identifying logical conjunction with set intersection, logical negation with set complement. == Natural language == Disjunction in natural languages does not precisely match the interpretation of \lor in classical logic. Notably, classical disjunction is inclusive while natural language disjunction is often understood exclusively, as the following English example typically would be. Mary is eating an apple or a pear. This inference has sometimes been understood as an entailment, for instance by Alfred Tarski, who suggested that natural language disjunction is ambiguous between a classical and a nonclassical interpretation. More recent work in pragmatics has shown that this inference can be derived as a conversational implicature on the basis of a semantic denotation which behaves classically. However, disjunctive constructions including Hungarian vagy... vagy and French soit... soit have been argued to be inherently exclusive, rendering ungrammaticality in contexts where an inclusive reading would otherwise be forced. Similar deviations from classical logic have been noted in cases such as free choice disjunction and simplification of disjunctive antecedents, where certain modal operators trigger a conjunction-like interpretation of disjunction. As with exclusivity, these inferences have been analyzed both as implicatures and as entailments arising from a nonclassical interpretation of disjunction. You can have an apple or a pear. \rightsquigarrow You can have an apple and you can have a pear (but you cannot have both) In many languages, disjunctive expressions play a role in question formation. Is Mary a philosopher or a linguist? For instance, while the above English example can be interpreted as a polar question asking whether it's true that Mary is either a philosopher or a linguist, it can also be interpreted as an alternative question asking which of the two professions is hers. The role of disjunction in these cases has been analyzed using nonclassical logics such as alternative semantics and inquisitive semantics, which have also been adopted to explain the free choice and simplification inferences. In English, as in many other languages, disjunction is expressed by a coordinating conjunction. Other languages express disjunctive meanings in a variety of ways, though it is unknown whether disjunction itself is a linguistic universal. In many languages such as Dyirbal and Maricopa, disjunction is marked using a verb suffix. For instance, in the Maricopa example below, disjunction is marked by the suffix šaa.	[ "Boolean algebra (logic)", "formal semantics (natural language)", "Logical graph", "Fréchet inequalities", "bit field", "French language", "classical logic", "logic", "set intersection", "set theory", "commutativity", "proof theory", "Conjunction/disjunction duality", "suffix", "Operator (programming)", "truth function", "Boolean-valued function", "Heisenberg", "Disjunctive syllogism", "Hurford disjunction", "conversational implicature", "truth table", "coordinating conjunction", "George Boole", "Dyirbal language", "natural language", "lexical ambiguity", "programming language", "Alfred Tarski", "disjunction elimination", "free choice inference", "linguistic universal", "Short-circuit evaluation", "Idempotency", "Boolean domain", "Curry–Howard correspondence", "Józef Maria Bocheński", "union (set theory)", "pragmatics", "Free choice inference", "grammaticality", "JavaScript", "Boolean function", "Jan Łukasiewicz", "simplification of disjunctive antecedents", "Distributivity", "tagged union", "Aristotle's sea battle argument", "logical conjunction", "entailment", "de Morgan's laws", "exclusive disjunction", "nonclassical logic", "Polish notation", "Monotonicity", "uncertainty principle", "polar question", "alternative semantics", "C (programming language)", "William Stanley Jevons", "distributivity", "Maricopa language", "set complement", "disjunction introduction", "constructivism (mathematics)", "bitwise operation", "Simplification of disjunctive antecedents", "List of logic symbols", "Commutativity", "semantics of logic", "electronics", "logical connective", "and/or", "material conditional", "English language", "associativity", "operand", "double turnstile", "Affirming a disjunct", "sequence point", "Associativity", "truth value", "logical operation", "Hungarian language", "bitwise disjunction", "Python programming language", "iterated binary operation", "Elvis operator", "linguistic modality", "alternative question", "inquisitive semantics", "logical negation", "Boolean algebra topics", "Element (mathematics)" ]
7,963	Disjunctive syllogism	In classical logic, disjunctive syllogism (historically known as modus tollendo ponens (MTP), Latin for "mode that affirms by denying") is a valid argument form which is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement for one of its premises. An example in English: I will choose soup or I will choose salad. I will not choose soup. Therefore, I will choose salad. ==Propositional logic== In propositional logic, disjunctive syllogism (also known as disjunction elimination and or elimination, or abbreviated ∨E), is a valid rule of inference. If it is known that at least one of two statements is true, and that it is not the former that is true; we can infer that it has to be the latter that is true. Equivalently, if P is true or Q is true and P is false, then Q is true. The name "disjunctive syllogism" derives from its being a syllogism, a three-step argument, and the use of a logical disjunction (any "or" statement.) For example, "P or Q" is a disjunction, where P and Q are called the statement's disjuncts. The rule makes it possible to eliminate a disjunction from a logical proof. It is the rule that \frac{P \lor Q, \neg P}{\therefore Q} where the rule is that whenever instances of "P \lor Q", and "\neg P" appear on lines of a proof, "Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. Disjunctive syllogism is closely related and similar to hypothetical syllogism, which is another rule of inference involving a syllogism. It is also related to the law of noncontradiction, one of the three traditional laws of thought. == Formal notation == For a logical system that validates it, the disjunctive syllogism may be written in sequent notation as P \lor Q, \lnot P \vdash Q where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P \lor Q, and \lnot P. It may be expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem in the object language of propositional logic as ((P \lor Q) \land \neg P) \to Q where P, and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system. == Natural language examples == Here is an example: It is red or it is blue. It is not blue. Therefore, it is red. Here is another example: The breach is a safety violation, or it is not subject to fines. The breach is not a safety violation. Therefore, it is not subject to fines. ==Strong form== Modus tollendo ponens can be made stronger by using exclusive disjunction instead of inclusive disjunction as a premise: \frac{P \underline\lor Q, \neg P}{\therefore Q} ==Related argument forms== Unlike modus ponens and modus ponendo tollens, with which it should not be confused, disjunctive syllogism is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a combination of reductio ad absurdum and disjunction elimination. Other forms of syllogism include: hypothetical syllogism categorical syllogism Disjunctive syllogism holds in classical propositional logic and intuitionistic logic, but not in some paraconsistent logics.	[ "Propositional calculus", "Latin", "modus ponens", "disjunction elimination", "tautology (logic)", "exclusive disjunction", "rule of inference", "classical logic", "logical form", "formal system", "E. J. Lemmon", "Law of thought", "Taylor and Francis", "Logical disjunction", "syllogism", "inference", "logical disjunction", "Syllogism", "metalogic", "Rule of inference", "reductio ad absurdum", "modus ponendo tollens", "sequent", "paraconsistent logic", "logical consequence", "intuitionistic logic", "Stoic logic", "logical system", "law of noncontradiction", "argument", "theorem", "premise", "propositional calculus", "Validity (logic)", "hypothetical syllogism", "English language", "categorical syllogism", "formal proof" ]
7,964	Definition	A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories: intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term), and extensional definitions (which try to list the objects that a term describes). Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions. In mathematics, a definition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, by describing a condition which unambiguously qualifies what the mathematical term is and is not. Definitions and axioms form the basis on which all of modern mathematics is to be constructed. ==Basic terminology== In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group of words. The word or group of words that is to be defined is called the definiendum, and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the definiens. For example, in the definition "An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa", the word "elephant" is the definiendum, and everything after the word "is" is the definiens. The definiens is not the meaning of the word defined, but is instead something that conveys the same meaning as that word. More formally, a genus–differentia definition consists of: a genus (or family): An existing definition that serves as a portion of the new definition; all definitions with the same genus are considered members of that genus. the differentia: The portion of the new definition that is not provided by the genus. An enumerative definition of a concept or a term is an extensional definition that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets (and only practical for small sets). ===Divisio and partitio=== Divisio and partitio are classical terms for definitions. A partitio is simply an intensional definition. A divisio is not an extensional definition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the "divided" set is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of divisio lists all sets whose only member is a member of the "divided" set. The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list members, and not subsets. ===Nominal definitions vs real definitions=== In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an object's essential attributes form its "essential nature", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes. The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between nominal and real essence—a distinction originating with Aristotle. In the Posterior Analytics, he says that the meaning of a made-up name can be known (he gives the example "goat stag") without knowing what he calls the "essential nature" of the thing that the name would denote (if there were such a thing). This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they called the quid nominis, or the "whatness of the name", and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the quid rei, or the "whatness of the thing". The name "hobbit", for example, is perfectly meaningful. It has a quid nominis, but one could not know the real nature of hobbits, and so the quid rei of hobbits cannot be known. By contrast, the name "man" denotes real things (men) that have a certain quid rei. The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that a thing must have in order that the name apply to it. This leads to a corresponding distinction between nominal and real definitions. A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means (i.e., which says what the "nominal essence" is), and is definition in the classical sense as given above. A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or quid rei of the thing. This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy, in particular, is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described essence as "a hopelessly muddle-headed notion". More recently Kripke's formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism. Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are necessary to it, they are those things that it possesses in all possible worlds. Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators. ==Operational vs. theoretical definitions== A definition may also be classified as an operational definition or theoretical definition. ==Terms with multiple definitions== ===Homonyms=== A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings. Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their pronunciation) and homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their spelling). The state of being a homonym is called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair stalk (part of a plant) and stalk (follow/harass a person) and the pair left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right). A distinction is sometimes made between "true" homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as skate (glide on ice) and skate (the fish), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as mouth (of a river) and mouth (of an animal). ===Polysemes=== Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated. ==In logic, mathematics and computing== In mathematics, definitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to describe or characterize a concept. For naming the object of a definition mathematicians can use either a neologism (this was mainly the case in the past) or words or phrases of the common language (this is generally the case in modern mathematics). The precise meaning of a term given by a mathematical definition is often different from the English definition of the word used, which can lead to confusion, particularly when the meanings are close. For example, a set is not exactly the same thing in mathematics and in common language. In some case, the word used can be misleading; for example, a real number has nothing more (or less) real than an imaginary number. Frequently, a definition uses a phrase built with common English words, which has no meaning outside mathematics, such as primitive group or irreducible variety. In first-order logic definitions are usually introduced using extension by definition (so using a metalogic). On the other hand, lambda-calculi are a kind of logic where the definitions are included as the feature of the formal system itself. ===Classification=== Authors have used different terms to classify definitions used in formal languages like mathematics. Norman Swartz classifies a definition as "stipulative" if it is intended to guide a specific discussion. A stipulative definition might be considered a temporary, working definition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction. In contrast, a "descriptive" definition can be shown to be "right" or "wrong" with reference to general usage. Swartz defines a precising definition as one that extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) for a specific purpose by including additional criteria. A precising definition narrows the set of things that meet the definition. C.L. Stevenson has identified persuasive definition as a form of stipulative definition which purports to state the "true" or "commonly accepted" meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for some specific belief). Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are "legal" or "coercive" – their object is to create or alter rights, duties, or crimes. ===Recursive definitions=== A recursive definition, sometimes also called an inductive definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps: At least one thing is stated to be a member of the set being defined; this is sometimes called a "base set". All things bearing a certain relation to other members of the set are also to count as members of the set. It is this step that makes the definition recursive. All other things are excluded from the set For instance, we could define a natural number as follows (after Peano): "0" is a natural number. Each natural number has a unique successor, such that: the successor of a natural number is also a natural number; distinct natural numbers have distinct successors; no natural number is succeeded by "0". Nothing else is a natural number. So "0" will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called "1". In turn, "1" will have exactly one successor, which could be called "2", and so on. The second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference. Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition has been quite successful. In the same way, we can define ancestor as follows: A parent is an ancestor. A parent of an ancestor is an ancestor. Nothing else is an ancestor. Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor. ==In medicine== In medical dictionaries, guidelines and other consensus statements and classifications, definitions should as far as possible be: simple and easy to understand, preferably even by the general public; useful clinically A definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing defined. Definitions should avoid circularity. To define a horse as "a member of the species equus" would convey no information whatsoever. For this reason, Locke adds that a definition of a term must not consist of terms which are synonymous with it. This would be a circular definition, a circulus in definiendo. Note, however, that it is acceptable to define two relative terms in respect of each other. Clearly, we cannot define "antecedent" without using the term "consequent", nor conversely. The definition must not be too wide or too narrow. It must be applicable to everything to which the defined term applies (i.e. not miss anything out), and to nothing else (i.e. not include any things to which the defined term would not truly apply). The definition must not be obscure. The purpose of a definition is to explain the meaning of a term which may be obscure or difficult, by the use of terms that are commonly understood and whose meaning is clear. The violation of this rule is known by the Latin term obscurum per obscurius. However, sometimes scientific and philosophical terms are difficult to define without obscurity. A definition should not be negative where it can be positive. We should not define "wisdom" as the absence of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick. Sometimes this is unavoidable, however. For example, it appears difficult to define blindness in positive terms rather than as "the absence of sight in a creature that is normally sighted". ===Fallacies of definition=== ===Limitations of definition=== Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions. If every term of every definiens must itself be defined, "where at last should we stop?" A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity. Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (called the ten generalissima) cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under which they may fall. Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be defined. that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investigations that what counts as a "simple" in one circumstance might not do so in another. He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: "As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one", claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding. Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be defined. Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has "fallen under our notice". Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that "picks out" exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book Naming and Necessity. There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the definiens can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case. The examples he used include game, number and family. In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition. Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the use of the term.	[ "intensional definition", "Charles Stevenson (philosopher)", "ostensive definition", "Indeterminacy (Philosophy)", "Pope Gregory I", "Recursion", "Peano axioms", "diallelus", "Ostensive definition", "Medical classification", "imaginary number", "Logic programming", "Set (mathematics)", "Aristotle", "Analytic proposition", "Vish (game)", "neologism", "rhombus", "homograph", "Theoretical definition", "enumerative definition", "theory of descriptions", "Kripke semantics", "meaning (linguistics)", "Elsevier", "precising definition", "Classics", "Intensional definition", "Sidney I. Landau", "extension (semantics)", "natural language", "Definable set", "private language argument", "family resemblance", "primitive group", "sign (semiotics)", "Operational definition", "quadrilateral", "rigid designator", "Principle of individuation", "Saul Kripke", "essentialism", "homonyms", "word sense", "symbol", "J. L. Austin", "Geoffrey Warnock", "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", "rectangle", "ancestor", "theoretical definition", "definite description", "extension by definition", "Posterior Analytics", "persuasive definition", "Fallacies of definition", "being", "homonymy", "primitive notion", "lexical definition", "Lexicography", "axioms", "Extensional definition", "Vicious circle principle", "triangle", "extensional definition", "homophone", "Ludwig Wittgenstein", "Logical atomism", "prime minister", "phrase", "Circular definition", "Polysemy", "Medical guideline", "Analytic philosophy", "possible world", "lambda-calculi", "word", "irreducible variety", "subset", "Lexical definition", "sememe", "real number", "Synthetic proposition", "polysemes", "genus", "recursive definition", "English language", "Ramsey–Lewis method", "Bertrand Russell", "semantic field", "Definitionism", "medical dictionaries", "Genus-differentia definition", "Symbol grounding", "Scholasticism", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "necessary and sufficient conditions", "Norman Swartz", "Medical consensus", "Semantics", "J. O. Urmson", "Denotation", "seven deadly sins", "self-reference", "John Stuart Mill", "operational definition", "modal logic", "homonym", "set (mathematics)", "seme (semantics)", "natural number", "John Locke", "hobbit", "object (philosophy)", "Philosophical Investigations", "mathematics" ]
7,965	Disruption	Disruption, disruptive, or disrupted may refer to: ==Business== Creative disruption, disruption concept in a creative context, introduced in 1992 by TBWA's chairman Jean-Marie Dru Disruptive innovation, Clayton Christensen's theory of industry disruption by new technology or products ==Psychology and sociology== Disruptive behavior disorders, a class of mental health disorders Disruptive physician, a physician whose obnoxious behaviour upsets patients or other staff Social disruption, a radical alteration, transformation, dysfunction or breakdown of social life ==Arts and Entertainment== The Disruption, a 1996 EP by Cursive "The Disruption" (Succession), TV episode ==Other uses== Cell disruption is a method or process in cell biology for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell Disrupted: My Misadventure in the Start Up Bubble, a 2016 book by Daniel Lyons Disruption (adoption) is also the term for the cancellation of an adoption of a child before it is legally completed Disruption (of schema), in the field of computer genetic algorithms Disruption of 1843, the divergence of the Free Church of Scotland from the Church of Scotland Disruption, a method of disabling an explosive device by using projected water disruptors	[ "Disruption (of schema)", "Disruption of 1843", "Disruption (adoption)", "Disruptor (disambiguation)", "Creative disruption", "Cursive discography", "Cell disruption", "Social disruption", "Jean-Marie Dru", "Disruptive behavior disorders", "The Disruption (Succession)", "Disruptive innovation", "Disturbance (disambiguation)", "Disruptive physician", "Disrupted: My Misadventure in the Start Up Bubble", "projected water disruptors" ]
7,966	Disco	Disco is a genre of dance music and a subculture that emerged in the late 1960s from the United States' urban nightlife scene. Its sound is typified by four-on-the-floor beats, syncopated basslines, string sections, brass and horns, electric pianos, synthesizers, and electric rhythm guitars. Discothèques as a venue were mostly a French invention, imported to the United States with the opening of Le Club, a members-only restaurant and nightclub located at 416 East 55th Street in Manhattan, by French expatriate Olivier Coquelin, on New Year's Eve 1960. Disco music as a genre started as a mixture of music from venues popular among African Americans, Latino Americans, and Italian Americans in New York City (especially Brooklyn) and Philadelphia during the late 1960s to the mid-to-late 1970s. Disco can be seen as a reaction by the 1960s counterculture to both the dominance of rock music and the stigmatization of dance music at the time. Several dance styles were developed during the period of '70s disco's popularity in the United States, including "the Bump", "the Hustle", "the Watergate", and "the Busstop". During the 1970s, disco music was developed further, mainly by artists from the United States as well as from Europe. Well-known artists included the Bee Gees, ABBA, Donna Summer, Gloria Gaynor, Giorgio Moroder, Baccara, George Michael, The Jacksons, George Benson, Michael Jackson, Boney M, Earth Wind & Fire, Irene Cara, Rick James, ELO, Average White Band, Chaka Khan, Chic, KC and the Sunshine Band, Lionel Richie, The Commodores, Parliament-Funkadelic, Thelma Houston, Sister Sledge, Sylvester, The Trammps, Barry White, Diana Ross, Kool & the Gang, and Village People. While performers garnered public attention, record producers working behind the scenes played an important role in developing the genre. By the late 1970s, most major U.S. cities had thriving disco club scenes, and DJs would mix dance records at clubs such as Studio 54 in Manhattan, a venue popular among celebrities. Nightclub-goers often wore expensive, extravagant outfits, consisting predominantly of loose, flowing pants or dresses for ease of movement while dancing. There was also a thriving drug subculture in the disco scene, particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights, such as cocaine and quaaludes, the latter being so common in disco subculture that they were nicknamed "disco biscuits". Disco clubs were also associated with promiscuity as a reflection of the sexual revolution of this era in popular history. Films such as Saturday Night Fever (1977) and Thank God It's Friday (1978) contributed to disco's mainstream popularity. Disco declined as a major trend in popular music in the United States following the infamous Disco Demolition Night on July 12, 1979, and it continued to sharply decline in popularity in the U.S. during the early 1980s; however, it remained popular in Italy and some European countries throughout the 1980s, and during this time also started becoming trendy in places elsewhere including India and the Middle East, where aspects of disco were blended with regional folk styles such as ghazals and belly dancing. Disco would eventually become a key influence in the development of electronic dance music, house music, hip hop, new wave, dance-punk, and post-disco. The style has had several revivals since the 1990s, and the influence of disco remains strong across American and European pop music. A revival has been underway since the early 2010s, coming to great popularity in the early 2020s. Albums that have contributed to this revival include Confessions on a Dance Floor, Random Access Memories, Future Nostalgia, and Kylie Minogue's album itself titled Disco. Modern day artists like Dua Lipa, Lizzo, Sabrina Carpenter, Bruno Mars and Silk Sonic have continued the genre's popularity, bringing it to a whole new younger generation. ==Etymology== The term "disco" is shorthand for the word discothèque, a French word for "library of phonograph records" derived from "bibliothèque". The word "discotheque" had the same meaning in English in the 1950s. "Discothèque" became used in French for a type of nightclub in Paris, after they had resorted to playing records during the Nazi occupation in the early 1940s. Some clubs used it as their proper name. In 1960, it was also used to describe a Parisian nightclub in an English magazine. The Oxford English Dictionary defines Discotheque as "A dance hall, nightclub, or similar venue where recorded music is played for dancing, typically equipped with a large dance floor, an elaborate system of flashing coloured lights, and a powerful amplified sound system. " Its earliest example is use as the name of a particular venue in 1952, and other examples date from 1960 onwards. The entry is annotated as "Now somewhat dated". It defines Disco as "A genre of strongly rhythmical pop music mainly intended for dancing in nightclubs and particularly popular in the mid to late 1970s.", with use from 1975 onwards, describing the origin of the word as a shortened form of discotheque. In the summer of 1964, a short sleeveless dress called the "discotheque dress" was briefly very popular in the United States. The earliest known use for the abbreviated form "disco" described this dress and has been found in The Salt Lake Tribune on July 12, 1964; Playboy magazine used it in September of the same year to describe Los Angeles nightclubs. Vince Aletti was one of the first to describe disco as a sound or a music genre. He wrote the 13 September 1973 feature article Discotheque Rock '72: Paaaaarty! that appeared in Rolling Stone magazine. ==Musical characteristics== The music typically layered soaring, often-reverberated vocals, often doubled by horns, over a background "pad" of electric pianos and "chicken-scratch" rhythm guitars played on an electric guitar. Lead guitar features less frequently in disco than in rock. "The "rooster scratch" sound is achieved by lightly pressing the guitar strings against the fretboard and then quickly releasing them just enough to get a slightly muted poker [sound] while constantly strumming very close to the bridge." Other backing keyboard instruments include the piano, electric organ (during early years), string synthesizers, and electromechanical keyboards such as the Fender Rhodes electric piano, Wurlitzer electric piano, and Hohner Clavinet. Donna Summer's 1977 song "I Feel Love", produced by Giorgio Moroder with a prominent Moog synthesizer on the beat, was one of the first disco tracks to use the synthesizer. The rhythm is laid down by prominent, syncopated basslines (with heavy use of broken octaves, that is, octaves with the notes sounded one after the other) played on the bass guitar and by drummers using a drum kit, African/Latin percussion, and electronic drums such as Simmons and Roland drum modules. In Philly dance and Salsoul disco, the sound was enriched with solo lines and harmony parts played by a variety of orchestral instruments, such as violin, viola, cello, trumpet, saxophone, trombone, flugelhorn, French horn, English horn, oboe, flute, timpani and synth strings, string section or a full string orchestra. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat set by a bass drum, a quaver or semi-quaver hi-hat pattern with an open hissing hi-hat on the off-beat, and a heavy, syncopated bass line. A recording error in the 1975 song "Bad Luck" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes where Earl Young's hi-hat was too loud in the recording is said to have established loud hi-hats in disco. Other Latin rhythms such as the rhumba, the samba, and the cha-cha-cha are also found in disco recordings, and Latin polyrhythms, such as a rhumba beat layered over a merengue, are commonplace. The quaver pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar and may be implied rather than explicitly present. Songs often use syncopation, which is the accenting of unexpected beats. In general, the difference between disco, or any dance song, and a rock or pop song is that in dance music the bass drum hits four to the floor, at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure). Disco is further characterized by a 16th note division of the quarter notes (as shown in the second drum pattern in the picture above, after a typical rock drum pattern). The orchestral sound usually known as "disco sound" relies heavily on string sections and horns playing linear phrases, in unison with the soaring, often reverberated vocals or playing instrumental fills, while electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars create the background "pad" sound defining the harmony progression. Typically, all of the doubling of parts and use of additional instruments creates a rich "wall of sound". There are, however, more minimalist flavors of disco with reduced, transparent instrumentation. Harmonically, disco music typically contains major and minor seven chords, which are found more often in jazz than pop music. ==Production== The "disco sound" was much more costly to produce than many of the other popular music genres from the 1970s. Unlike the simpler, four-piece-band sound of funk, soul music of the late 1960s or the small jazz organ trios, disco music often included a large band, with several chordal instruments (guitar, keyboards, synthesizer), several drum or percussion instruments (drumkit, Latin percussion, electronic drums), a horn section, a string orchestra, and a variety of "classical" solo instruments (for example, flute, piccolo, and so on). Disco songs were arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators, and record producers added their creative touches to the overall sound using multitrack recording techniques and effects units. Recording complex arrangements with such a large number of instruments and sections required a team that included a conductor, copyists, record producers, and mixing engineers. Mixing engineers had an important role in the disco production process because disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instruments. Mixing engineers and record producers, under the direction of arrangers, compiled these tracks into a fluid composition of verses, bridges, and refrains, complete with builds and breaks. Mixing engineers and record producers helped to develop the "disco sound" by creating a distinctive-sounding, sophisticated disco mix. Early records were the "standard" three-minute version until Tom Moulton came up with a way to make songs longer so that he could take a crowd of dancers at a club to another level and keep them dancing longer. He found that it was impossible to make the 45-RPM vinyl singles of the time longer, as they could usually hold no more than five minutes of good-quality music. With the help of José Rodriguez, his remaster/mastering engineer, he pressed a single on a 10" disc instead of 7". They cut the next single on a 12" disc, the same format as a standard album. Moulton and Rodriguez discovered that these larger records could have much longer songs and remixes. 12" single records, also known as "Maxi singles", quickly became the standard format for all DJs of the disco genre. ==Club culture== ===Nightclubs=== By the late 1970s, most major US cities had thriving disco club scenes. The largest scenes were most notably in New York City but also in Philadelphia, San Francisco, Miami, and Washington, D.C. The scene was centered on discotheques, nightclubs and private loft parties. In the 1970s, notable discos included "Crisco Disco", "The Sanctuary", "Leviticus", "Studio 54", and "Paradise Garage" in New York, "Artemis" in Philadelphia, "Studio One" in Los Angeles, "Dugan's Bistro" in Chicago, and "The Library" in Atlanta. Although many other attempts were made to franchise disco clubs, 2001 was the only one to successfully do so in this time frame. ===Sound and light equipment=== Powerful, bass-heavy, hi-fi sound systems were viewed as a key part of the disco club experience. The Loft party host David Mancuso introduced the technologies of tweeter arrays (clusters of small loudspeakers, which emit high-end frequencies, positioned above the floor) and bass reinforcements (additional sets of subwoofers positioned at ground level) at the start of the 1970s to boost the treble and bass at opportune moments, and by the end of the decade sound engineers such as Richard Long had multiplied the effects of these innovations in venues such as the Garage." Typical lighting designs for disco dance floors include multi-colored lights that swirl around or flash to the beat, strobe lights, an illuminated dance floor, and a mirror ball. ===DJs=== Disco-era disc jockeys (DJs) would often remix existing songs using reel-to-reel tape machines, and add in percussion breaks, new sections, and new sounds. DJs would select songs and grooves according to what the dancers wanted, transitioning from one song to another with a DJ mixer and using a microphone to introduce songs and speak to the audiences. Other equipment was added to the basic DJ setup, providing unique sound manipulations, such as reverb, equalization, and echo effects unit. Using this equipment, a DJ could do effects such as cutting out all but the bassline of a song and then slowly mixing in the beginning of another song using the DJ mixer's crossfader. Notable U.S. disco DJs include Francis Grasso of The Sanctuary, David Mancuso of The Loft, Frankie Knuckles of the Chicago Warehouse, Larry Levan of the Paradise Garage, Nicky Siano of The Gallery, Walter Gibbons, Karen Mixon Cook, Jim Burgess, John "Jellybean" Benitez, Richie Kulala of Studio 54, and Rick Salsalini. Some DJs were also record producers who created and produced disco songs in the recording studio. Larry Levan, for example, was a prolific record producer as well as a DJ. Because record sales were often dependent on dance floor play by DJs in the nightclubs, DJs were also influential in the development and popularization of certain types of disco music being produced for record labels. ===Dance=== In the early years, dancers in discos danced in a "hang loose" or "freestyle" approach. At first, many dancers improvised their own dance styles and dance steps. Later in the disco era, popular dance styles were developed, including the "Bump", "Penguin", "Boogaloo", "Watergate", and "Robot". By October 1975 the Hustle reigned. It was highly stylized, sophisticated, and overtly sexual. Variations included the Brooklyn Hustle, New York Hustle, and Latin Hustle. During the disco era, many nightclubs would commonly host disco dance competitions or offer free dance lessons. Some cities had disco dance instructors or dance schools, which taught people how to do popular disco dances such as "touch dancing", "the hustle", and "the cha cha". The pioneer of disco dance instruction was Karen Lustgarten in San Francisco in 1973. Her book The Complete Guide to Disco Dancing (Warner Books 1978) was the first to name, break down and codify popular disco dances as dance forms and distinguish between disco freestyle, partner, and line dances. The book hit the New York Times bestseller list for 13 weeks and was translated into Chinese, German, and French. In Chicago, the Step By Step disco dance TV show was launched with the sponsorship support of the Coca-Cola company. Produced in the same studio that Don Cornelius used for the nationally syndicated dance/music television show, Soul Train, Step by Step's audience grew and the show became a success. The dynamic dance duo of Robin and Reggie led the show. The pair spent the week teaching disco dancing to dancers in the disco clubs. The instructional show aired on Saturday mornings and had a strong following. Its viewers would stay up all night on Fridays so they could be on the set the next morning, ready to return to the disco on Saturday night knowing with the latest personalized steps. The producers of the show, John Reid and Greg Roselli, routinely made appearances at disco functions with Robin and Reggie to scout out new dancing talent and promote upcoming events such as "Disco Night at White Sox Park". In Sacramento, California, Disco King Paul Dale Roberts danced for the Guinness Book of World Records. He danced for 205 hours, the equivalent of 8½ days. Other dance marathons took place afterward and Roberts held the world record for disco dancing for a short period of time. Disco was influenced by art with the atypical song Bend It (1969) by British artists Gilbert & George. With the song comes special dance moves that blurrs the distinction between art and pop culture in a way never seen before. Some notable professional dance troupes of the 1970s included Pan's People and Hot Gossip. For many dancers, a key source of inspiration for 1970s disco dancing was the film Saturday Night Fever (1977). Further influence came from the music and dance style of such films as Fame (1980), Disco Dancer (1982), Flashdance (1983), and The Last Days of Disco (1998). Interest in disco dancing also helped spawn dance competition TV shows such as Dance Fever (1979). ===Fashion=== Disco fashions were very trendy in the late 1970s. Discothèque-goers often wore glamorous, expensive, and extravagant fashions for nights out at their local disco club. Some women would wear sheer, flowing dresses, such as Halston dresses, or loose, flared pants. Other women wore tight, revealing, sexy clothes, such as backless halter tops, disco pants, "hot pants", or body-hugging spandex bodywear or "catsuits". Men would wear shiny polyester Qiana shirts with colorful patterns and pointy, extra wide collars, preferably open at the chest. Men often wore Pierre Cardin suits, three piece suits with a vest, and double-knit polyester shirt jackets with matching trousers known as the leisure suit. Men's leisure suits were typically form-fitted to some parts of the body, such as the waist and bottom while the lower part of the pants were flared in a bell bottom style, to permit freedom of movement. (nicknamed "blow"), amyl nitrite ("poppers"), and the "... other quintessential 1970s club drug Quaalude, which suspended motor coordination and gave the sensation that one's arms and legs had turned to 'Jell-O. Quaaludes were so popular at disco clubs that the drug was nicknamed "disco biscuits". Paul Gootenberg states that "[t]he relationship of cocaine to 1970s disco culture cannot be stressed enough..." LSD, marijuana, and "speed" (amphetamines) were also popular in disco clubs, and the use of these drugs "...contributed to the hedonistic quality of the dance floor experience." Since disco dances were typically held in liquor licensed-nightclubs and dance clubs, alcoholic drinks were also consumed by dancers; some users intentionally combined alcohol with the consumption of other drugs, such as Quaaludes, for a stronger effect. ===Eroticism and sexual liberation=== According to Peter Braunstein, the "massive quantities of drugs ingested in discothèques produced the next cultural phenomenon of the disco era: rampant promiscuity and public sex. While the dance floor was the central arena of seduction, actual sex usually took place in the nether regions of the disco: bathroom stalls, exit stairwells, and so on. In other cases the disco became a kind of 'main course' in a hedonist's menu for a night out." At The Saint, "dancers would elope to an unpoliced upstairs balcony to engage in sex." In his paper, "In Defense of Disco" (1979), Richard Dyer claims eroticism as one of the three main characteristics of disco. As opposed to rock music which has a very phallic centered eroticism focusing on the sexual pleasure of men over other persons, Dyer describes disco as featuring a non-phallic full body eroticism. The music, Shapiro states, is adjunct to "the pleasure-is-politics ethos of post-Stonewall culture." He explains how "mechano-eroticism", which links the technology used to create the unique mechanical sound of disco to eroticism, set the genre in a new dimension of reality living outside of naturalism and heterosexuality. Randy Jones and Mark Jacobsen echo this sentiment in BBC Radio's "The Politics of Dancing: How Disco Changed the World," describing the loose, hip-focused dance style as "a new kind of communion" that celebrates the sparks of liberation brought on the Stonewall riots. As New York state had laws against homosexual behavior in public, including dancing with a member of the same sex, the eroticism of disco served as resistance and an expression of sexual freedom. He uses Donna Summer's singles "Love to Love You Baby" (1975) and "I Feel Love" (1977) as examples of the ever-present relationship between the synthesized bass lines and backgrounds to the simulated sounds of orgasms. Summer's voice echoes in the tracks, and likens them to the drug-fervent, sexually liberated fans of disco who sought to free themselves through disco's "aesthetic of machine sex." Shapiro sees this as an influence that creates sub-genres like hi-NRG and dub-disco, which allowed for eroticism and technology to be further explored through intense synth bass lines and alternative rhythmic techniques that tap into the entire body rather than the obvious erotic parts of the body. The New York nightclub The Sanctuary under resident DJ Francis Grasso is a prime example of this sexual liberty. In their history of the disc jockey and club culture, Bill Brewster and Frank Broughton describe the Sanctuary as "poured full of newly liberated gay men, then shaken (and stirred) by a weighty concoction of dance music and pharmacoia of pills and potions, the result is a festivaly of carnality." The Sanctuary was the "first totally uninhibited gay discotheque in America" and while sex was not allowed on the dancefloor, the dark corners, bathrooms. and hallways of the adjacent buildings were all utilized for orgy-like sexual engagements. By describing the music, drugs, and liberated mentality as a trifecta coming together to create the festival of carnality, Brewster and Broughton are inciting all three as stimuli for the dancing, sex, and other embodied movements that contributed to the corporeal vibrations within the Sanctuary. It supports the argument that disco music took a role in facilitating this sexual liberation that was experienced in the discotheques. The recent legalization of abortion and the introduction of antibiotics and the pill facilitated a culture shift around sex from one of procreation to pleasure and enjoyment. Thus was fostered a very sex-positive framework around discotheques. Further, in addition to gay sex being illegal in New York state, until 1973 the American Psychiatric Association classified homosexuality as an illness. This law and classification coupled together can be understood to have heavily dissuaded the expression of queerness in public, as such the liberatory dynamics of discotheques can be seen as having provided space for self-realization for queer persons. David Mancuso's club/house party, The Loft, was described as having a "pansexual attitude [that] was revolutionary in a country where up until recently it had been illegal for two men to dance together unless there was a woman present; where women were legally obliged to wear at least one recognizable item of female clothing in public; and where men visiting gay bars usually carried bail money with them." ==History== ===1940s–1960s: First discotheques=== Disco was mostly developed from music that was popular on the dance floor in clubs that started playing records instead of having a live band. The first discotheques mostly played swing music. Later on, uptempo rhythm and blues became popular in American clubs and northern soul and glam rock records in the UK. In the early 1940s, nightclubs in Paris resorted to playing jazz records during the Nazi occupation. Régine Zylberberg claimed to have started the first discotheque and to have been the first club DJ in 1953 in the "Whisky à Go-Go" in Paris. She installed a dance floor with colored lights and two turntables so she could play records without having a gap in the music. In October 1959, the owner of the Scotch Club in Aachen, West Germany chose to install a record player for the opening night instead of hiring a live band. The patrons were unimpressed until a young reporter, who happened to be covering the opening of the club, impulsively took control of the record player and introduced the records that he chose to play. Klaus Quirini later claimed to thus have been the world's first nightclub DJ. Motown had many hits with disco elements by acts like Eddie Kendricks ("Girl You Need a Change of Mind" in 1972, "Keep on Truckin'" in 1973, "Boogie Down" in 1974). At the end of the 1960s, musicians, and audiences from the Black, Italian, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippie and psychedelia subcultures. They included using music venues with a loud, overwhelming sound, free-form dancing, trippy lighting, colorful costumes, and the use of hallucinogenic drugs. In addition, the perceived positivity, lack of irony, and earnestness of the hippies informed proto-disco music like MFSB's album Love Is the Message. Partly through the success of Jimi Hendrix, psychedelic elements that were popular in rock music of the late 1960s found their way into soul and early funk music and formed the subgenre psychedelic soul. Examples can be found in the music of the Chambers Brothers, George Clinton with his Parliament-Funkadelic collective, Sly and the Family Stone, and the productions of Norman Whitfield with The Temptations. The long instrumental introductions and detailed orchestration found in psychedelic soul tracks by the Temptations are also considered as cinematic soul. In the early 1970s, Curtis Mayfield and Isaac Hayes scored hits with cinematic soul songs that were actually composed for movie soundtracks: "Superfly" (1972) and "Theme from Shaft" (1971). The latter is sometimes regarded as an early disco song. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Philadelphia soul developed as a sub-genre that also had lavish percussion, lush string orchestra arrangements, and expensive record production processes. In the early 1970s, the Philadelphia soul productions by Gamble and Huff evolved from the simpler arrangements of the late-1960s into a style featuring lush strings, thumping basslines, and sliding hi-hat rhythms. These elements would become typical for disco music and are found in several of the hits they produced in the early 1970s: "Love Train" by the O'Jays (with MFSB as the backup band) was released in 1972 and topped the Billboard Hot 100 in March 1973 "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes (1973) "Now That We Found Love" by The O'Jays (1973), later a hit for Third World in 1978 "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)" by MFSB with vocals by The Three Degrees, a wordless song written as the theme for Soul Train and a #1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1974 Other early disco tracks that helped shape disco and became popular on the dance floors of (underground) discotheque clubs and parties include: "Jungle Fever" by The Chakachas was first released in Belgium in 1971 and later released in the U.S. in 1972, where it reached #8 on the Billboard Hot 100 that same year "Soul Makossa" by Manu Dibango was first released in France in 1972; it was picked up by the underground disco scene in New York and subsequently got a proper release in the U.S., reaching #35 on the Hot 100 in 1973 "The Night" by the Four Seasons was released in 1972, but was not immediately popular; it appealed to the Northern soul scene and became a hit in the UK in 1975 "Love's Theme" by the Love Unlimited Orchestra, conducted by Barry White, an instrumental song originally featured on Under the Influence of... Love Unlimited in July 1973 from which it was culled as a single in November of that year; subsequently, the conductor included it on his own debut album "Sound Your Funky Horn" by KC and the Sunshine Band in 1974 "Rock Your Baby" by George McCrae in 1974 "Do It" by B.T. Express in 1974 "Boogie Down" by Eddie Kendricks in 1974 "If You Talk In Your Sleep" by Elvis Presley in 1974. Early disco was dominated by record producers and labels such as Salsoul Records (Ken, Stanley, and Joseph Cayre), West End Records (Mel Cheren), Casablanca (Neil Bogart), and Prelude (Marvin Schlachter). The genre was also shaped by Tom Moulton, who wanted to extend the enjoyment of dance songs — thus creating the extended mix or "remix", going from a three-minute 45 rpm single to the much longer 12" record. Other influential DJs and remixers who helped to establish what became known as the "disco sound" included David Mancuso, Nicky Siano, Shep Pettibone, Larry Levan, Walter Gibbons, and Chicago-based Frankie Knuckles. Frankie Knuckles was not only an important disco DJ; he also helped to develop house music in the 1980s. Disco hit the television airwaves as part of the music/dance variety show Soul Train in 1971 hosted by Don Cornelius, then Marty Angelo's Disco Step-by-Step Television Show in 1975, Steve Marcus's Disco Magic/Disco 77, Eddie Rivera's Soap Factory, and Merv Griffin's Dance Fever, hosted by Deney Terrio, who is credited with teaching actor John Travolta to dance for his role in the film Saturday Night Fever (1977), as well as DANCE, based out of Columbia, South Carolina. In 1974, New York City's WPIX-FM premiered the first disco radio show. ====Early disco culture in the United States==== In the 1970s, the key counterculture of the 1960s, the hippie movement, was fading away. The economic prosperity of the previous decade had declined, and unemployment, inflation, and crime rates had soared. Political issues like the backlash from the Civil Rights Movement culminating in the form of race riots, the Vietnam War, the assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy, and the Watergate scandal, left many feeling disillusioned and hopeless. The start of the '70s was marked by a shift in the consciousness of the American people: the rise of the feminist movement, identity politics, gangs, etc. very much shaped this era. Disco music and disco dancing provided an escape from negative social and economic issues. The non-partnered dance style of disco music allowed people of all races and sexual orientations to enjoy the dancefloor atmosphere. In Beautiful Things in Popular Culture, Simon Frith highlights the sociability of disco and its roots in 1960s counterculture. "The driving force of the New York underground dance scene in which disco was forged was not simply that city's complex ethnic and sexual culture but also a 1960s notion of community, pleasure and generosity that can only be described as hippie", he says. "The best disco music contained within it a remarkably powerful sense of collective euphoria." The explosion of disco is often claimed to be found in the private dance parties held by New York City DJ David Mancuso's home that became known as The Loft, an invitation-only non-commercial underground club that inspired many others. He organized the first major party in his Manhattan home on Valentine's Day 1970 with the name "Love Saves The Day". After some months the parties became weekly events and Mancuso continued to give regular parties into the 1990s. Mancuso required that the music played had to be soulful, rhythmic, and impart words of hope, redemption, or pride. When Mancuso threw his first informal house parties, the gay community (which made up much of The Loft's attendee roster) was often harassed in the gay bars and dance clubs, with many gay men carrying bail money with them to gay bars. But at The Loft and many other early, private discotheques, they could dance together without fear of police action thanks to Mancuso's underground, yet legal, policies. Vince Aletti described it "like going to party, completely mixed, racially and sexually, where there wasn't any sense of someone being more important than anyone else," and Alex Rosner reiterated this saying "It was probably about sixty percent black and seventy percent gay...There was a mix of sexual orientation, there was a mix of races, mix of economic groups. A real mix, where the common denominator was music." Film critic Roger Ebert called the popular embrace of disco's exuberant dance moves an escape from "the general depression and drabness of the political and musical atmosphere of the late seventies." Pauline Kael, writing about the disco-themed film Saturday Night Fever, said the film and disco itself touched on "something deeply romantic, the need to move, to dance, and the need to be who you'd like to be. Nirvana is the dance; when the music stops, you return to being ordinary." ====Early disco culture in the United Kingdom==== In the late 1960s, uptempo soul with heavy beats and some associated dance styles and fashion were picked up in the British mod scene and formed the northern soul movement. Originating at venues such as the Twisted Wheel in Manchester, it quickly spread to other UK dancehalls and nightclubs like the Chateau Impney (Droitwich), Catacombs (Wolverhampton), the Highland Rooms at Blackpool Mecca, Golden Torch (Stoke-on-Trent), and Wigan Casino. As the favoured beat became more uptempo and frantic in the early 1970s, northern soul dancing became more athletic, somewhat resembling the later dance styles of disco and break dancing. Featuring spins, flips, karate kicks, and backdrops, club dancing styles were often inspired by the stage performances of touring American soul acts such as Little Anthony & the Imperials and Jackie Wilson. In 1974, there were an estimated 25,000 mobile discos and 40,000 professional disc jockeys in the United Kingdom. Mobile discos were hired deejays that brought their own equipment to provide music for special events. Glam rock tracks were popular, with, for example, Gary Glitter's 1972 single "Rock and Roll Part 2" becoming popular on UK dance floors while it did not get much radio airplay. ===1974–1977: Rise to mainstream=== From 1974 to 1977, disco music increased in popularity as many disco songs topped the charts. The Hues Corporation's "Rock the Boat" (1974), a US number-one single and million-seller, was one of the early disco songs to reach number one. The same year saw the release of "Kung Fu Fighting", performed by Carl Douglas and produced by Biddu, which reached number one in both the UK and US, and became the best-selling single of the year and one of the best-selling singles of all time with 11 million records sold worldwide, helping to popularize disco to a great extent. it became the United Kingdom's first number one disco single. like her further disco hit, a 1983 remake of "I Am What I Am". In 1979 she released "Let Me Know (I Have a Right)", a single which gained popularity in the civil rights movements. Also in 1975, Vincent Montana Jr.'s Salsoul Orchestra contributed with their Latin-flavored orchestral dance song "Salsoul Hustle", reaching number four on the Billboard Dance Chart; their 1976 hits were "Tangerine" and "Nice 'n' Naasty", the first being a cover of a 1941 song. Songs such as Van McCoy's 1975 "The Hustle" and the humorous Joe Tex 1977 "Ain't Gonna Bump No More (With No Big Fat Woman)" gave names to the popular disco dances "the Bump" and "the Hustle". Other notable early successful disco songs include Barry White's "You're the First, the Last, My Everything" (1974); Labelle's "Lady Marmalade" (1974)'; Disco-Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes' "Get Dancin'" (1974); Earth, Wind & Fire's "Shining Star" (1975); Silver Convention's "Fly, Robin, Fly" (1975) and "Get Up and Boogie" (1976); Vicki Sue Robinson's "Turn the Beat Around" (1976); and "More, More, More" (1976) by Andrea True (a former pornographic actress during the Golden Age of Porn, an era largely contemporaneous with the height of disco). Formed by Harry Wayne Casey (a.k.a. "KC") and Richard Finch, Miami's KC and the Sunshine Band had a string of disco-definitive top-five singles between 1975 and 1977, including "Get Down Tonight", "That's the Way (I Like It)", "(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty", "I'm Your Boogie Man", "Boogie Shoes", and "Keep It Comin' Love". In this period, rock bands like the English Electric Light Orchestra featured in their songs a violin sound that became a staple of disco music, as in the 1975 hit "Evil Woman", although the genre was correctly described as orchestral rock. Other disco producers such as Tom Moulton took ideas and techniques from dub music (which came with the increased Jamaican migration to New York City in the 1970s) to provide alternatives to the "four on the floor" style that dominated. DJ Larry Levan utilized styles from dub and jazz and remixing techniques to create early versions of house music that sparked the genre. ====Motown turning disco==== Norman Whitfield was an influential producer and songwriter at Motown records, renowned for creating innovative "psychedelic soul" songs with many hits for Marvin Gaye, The Velvelettes, The Temptations, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. From around the production of the Temptations album Cloud Nine in 1968, he incorporated some psychedelic influences and started to produce longer, dance-friendly tracks, with more room for elaborate rhythmic instrumental parts. An example of such a long psychedelic soul track is "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone", which appeared as a single edit of almost seven minutes and an approximately 12-minute-long 12" version in 1972. By the early 1970s, many of Whitfield's productions evolved more and more towards funk and disco, as heard on albums by the Undisputed Truth and the 1973 album G.I.T.: Get It Together by The Jackson 5. The Undisputed Truth, a Motown recording act assembled by Whitfield to experiment with his psychedelic soul production techniques, found success with their 1971 song "Smiling Faces Sometimes". Their disco single "You + Me = Love" (number 43) was produced by Whitfield and made number 2 on the US dance chart in 1976. In 1975, Whitfield left Motown and founded his own label Whitfield records, on which also "You + Me = Love" was released. Whitfield produced some more disco hits, including "Car Wash" (1976) by Rose Royce from the album soundtrack to the 1976 film Car Wash. In 1977, singer, songwriter, and producer Willie Hutch, who had been signed to Motown since 1970, now signed with Whitfield's new label, and scored a successful disco single with his song "In and Out" in 1982. Other Motown artists turned to disco as well. Diana Ross embraced the disco sound with her successful 1976 outing "Love Hangover" from her self-titled album. Her 1980 dance classics "Upside Down" and "I'm Coming Out" were written and produced by Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards of the group Chic. The Supremes, the group that made Ross famous, scored a handful of hits in the disco clubs without her, most notably 1976's "I'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking" and, their last charted single before disbanding, 1977's "You're My Driving Wheel". At the request of Motown that he produce songs in the disco genre, Marvin Gaye released "Got to Give It Up" in 1978, despite his dislike of disco. He vowed not to record any songs in the genre and actually wrote the song as a parody. However, several of Gaye's songs have disco elements, including "I Want You" (1975). Stevie Wonder released the disco single "Sir Duke" in 1977 as a tribute to Duke Ellington, the influential jazz legend who had died in 1974. Smokey Robinson left the Motown group The Miracles for a solo career in 1972 and released his third solo album A Quiet Storm in 1975, which spawned and lent its name to the "Quiet Storm" musical programming format and subgenre of R&B. It contained the disco single "Baby That's Backatcha". Other Motown artists who scored disco hits were Robinson's former group, the Miracles, with "Love Machine" (1975), Eddie Kendricks with "Keep On Truckin'" (1973), the Originals with "Down to Love Town" (1976), and Thelma Houston with her cover of the Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes song "Don't Leave Me This Way" (1976). The label continued to release successful songs into the 1980s with Rick James's "Super Freak" (1981), and the Commodores' "Lady (You Bring Me Up)" (1981). Several of Motown's solo artists who left the label went on to have successful disco songs. Mary Wells, Motown's first female superstar with her signature song "My Guy" (written by Smokey Robinson), abruptly left the label in 1964. She briefly reappeared on the charts with the disco song "Gigolo" in 1980. Jimmy Ruffin, the elder brother of the Temptations lead singer David Ruffin, was also signed to Motown and released his most successful and well-known song "What Becomes of the Brokenhearted" as a single in 1966. Ruffin eventually left the record label in the mid-1970s, but saw success with the 1980 disco song "Hold On (To My Love)", which was written and produced by Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees, for his album Sunrise. Edwin Starr, known for his Motown protest song "War" (1970), reentered the charts in 1979 with a pair of disco songs, "Contact" and "H.A.P.P.Y. Radio". Kiki Dee became the first white British singer to sign with Motown in the US, and released one album, Great Expectations (1970), and two singles "The Day Will Come Between Sunday and Monday" (1970) and "Love Makes the World Go Round" (1971), the latter giving her first-ever chart entry (number 87 on the US Chart). She soon left the company and signed with Elton John's The Rocket Record Company, and in 1976 had her biggest and best-known single, "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", a disco duet with John. The song was intended as an affectionate disco-style pastiche of the Motown sound, in particular the various duets recorded by Marvin Gaye with Tammi Terrell and Kim Weston. Many Motown groups who had left the record label charted with disco songs. The Jackson 5, one of Motown's premier acts in the early 1970s, left the record company in 1975 (Jermaine Jackson, however, remained with the label) after successful songs like "I Want You Back" (1969) and "ABC" (1970), and even the disco song "Dancing Machine" (1974). Renamed as 'the Jacksons' (as Motown owned the name 'the Jackson 5'), they went on to find success with disco songs like "Blame It on the Boogie" (1978), "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" (1979), and "Can You Feel It?" (1981) on the Epic label. The Isley Brothers, whose short tenure at the company had produced the song "This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)" in 1966, went on release successful disco songs like "It's a Disco Night (Rock Don't Stop)" (1979). Gladys Knight & the Pips, who recorded the most successful version of "I Heard It Through the Grapevine" (1967) before Marvin Gaye, scored commercially successful singles such as "Baby, Don't Change Your Mind" (1977) and "Bourgie, Bourgie" (1980) in the disco era. The Detroit Spinners were also signed to the Motown label and saw success with the Stevie Wonder-produced song "It's a Shame" in 1970. They left soon after, on the advice of fellow Detroit native Aretha Franklin, to Atlantic Records, and there had disco songs like "The Rubberband Man" (1976). In 1979, they released a successful cover of Elton John's "Are You Ready for Love", as well as a medley of the Four Seasons' song "Working My Way Back to You" and Michael Zager's "Forgive Me, Girl". The Four Seasons themselves were briefly signed to Motown's MoWest label, a short-lived subsidiary for R&B and soul artists based on the West Coast, and there the group produced one album, Chameleon (1972) – to little commercial success in the US. However, one single, "The Night", was released in Britain in 1975, and thanks to popularity from the Northern Soul circuit, reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart. The Four Seasons left Motown in 1974 and went on to have a disco hit with their song "December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)" (1975) for Warner Curb Records. ====Euro disco==== By far the most successful Euro disco act was ABBA (1972–1982). This Swedish quartet, which sang primarily in English, found success with singles such as "Waterloo" (1974), "Take a Chance on Me" (1978), "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" (1979), "Super Trouper" (1980), and their signature smash hit "Dancing Queen" (1976). In the 1970s, Munich, West Germany, music producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte made a decisive contribution to disco music with a string of hits for Donna Summer, which became known as the "Munich Sound". In 1975, Summer suggested the lyric "Love to Love You Baby" to Moroder and Bellotte, who turned the lyric into a full disco song. The final product, which contained the vocalizations of a series of simulated orgasms, initially was not intended for release, but when Moroder played it in the clubs it caused a sensation and he released it. The song became an international hit, reaching the charts in many European countries and the US (No. 2). It has been described as the arrival of the expression of raw female sexual desire in pop music. A nearly 17-minute 12-inch single was released. The 12" single became and remains a standard in discos today. Donna Summer's "Love to Love You Baby" peaking on the Billboard charts at No.2 in 1976, is considered a feminist anthem and staple in the genre. Billboard recently ranked the song #1 on their list of "The 34 Top Disco Songs of All Time." Summer is featured at all top six spots on the list. In 1976 Donna Summer's version of "Could It Be Magic" brought disco further into the mainstream. In 1977 Summer, Moroder and Bellotte further released "I Feel Love", as the B-side of "Can't We Just Sit Down (And Talk It Over)", which revolutionized dance music with its mostly electronic production and was a massive worldwide success, spawning the Hi-NRG subgenre. Another successful disco music project by Moroder at that time was Munich Machine (1976–1980). Boney M. (1974–1986) was a West German Euro disco group of four West Indian singers and dancers masterminded by record producer Frank Farian. Boney M. charted worldwide with such songs as "Daddy Cool" (1976) "Ma Baker" (1977) and "Rivers Of Babylon" (1978). Another successful West German Euro disco recording act was Silver Convention (1974–1979). The German group Kraftwerk also had an influence on Euro disco. In France, Dalida released "J'attendrai" ("I Will Wait") in 1975, which also became successful in Canada, Europe, and Japan. Dalida successfully adjusted herself to disco and released at least a dozen of songs that charted in the top 10 in Europe. Claude François, who re-invented himself as the "king of French disco", released "La plus belle chose du monde", a French version of the Bee Gees song "Massachusetts", which became successful in Canada and Europe and "Alexandrie Alexandra" was posthumously released on the day of his burial and became a worldwide success. Cerrone's early songs, "Love in C Minor" (1976), "Supernature" (1977), and "Give Me Love" (1978) were successful in the US and Europe. Another Euro disco act was the French diva Amanda Lear, where Euro disco sound is most heard in "Enigma (Give a Bit of Mmh to Me)" (1978). French producer Alec Costandinos assembled the Euro disco group Love and Kisses (1977–1982). In Italy Raffaella Carrà was the most successful Euro disco act, alongside La Bionda, Hermanas Goggi and Oliver Onions. Her greatest international single was "Tanti Auguri" ("Best Wishes"), which has become a popular song with gay audiences. The song is also known under its Spanish title "Para hacer bien el amor hay que venir al sur" (which refers to Southern Europe, since the song was recorded and taped in Spain). The Estonian version of the song "Jätke võtmed väljapoole" was performed by Anne Veski. "A far l'amore comincia tu" ("To make love, your move first") was another success for her internationally, known in Spanish as "En el amor todo es empezar", in German as "Liebelei", in French as "Puisque tu l'aimes dis le lui", and in English as "Do It, Do It Again". It was her only entry to the UK Singles Chart, reaching number 9, where she remains a one-hit wonder. In 1977, she recorded another successful single, "Fiesta" ("The Party" in English) originally in Spanish, but then recorded it in French and Italian after the song hit the charts. "A far l'amore comincia tu" has also been covered in Turkish by a Turkish popstar Ajda Pekkan as "Sakın Ha" in 1977. Recently, Carrà has gained new attention for her appearance as the female dancing soloist in a 1974 TV performance of the experimental gibberish song "Prisencolinensinainciusol" (1973) by Adriano Celentano. A remixed video featuring her dancing went viral on the internet in 2008. In 2008 a video of a performance of her only successful UK single, "Do It, Do It Again", was featured in the Doctor Who episode "Midnight". Rafaella Carrà worked with Bob Sinclar on the new single "Far l'Amore" which was released on YouTube on March 17, 2011. The song charted in different European countries. Also prominent European disco acts are Spargo (band), Time Bandits (band) and Luv' from the Netherlands. Euro disco continued evolving within the broad mainstream pop music scene, even when disco's popularity sharply declined in the United States, abandoned by major U.S. record labels and producers. Through the influence of Italo disco, it also played a role in the evolution of early house music in the early 1980s and later forms of electronic dance music, including early '90s Eurodance. ===1977–1979: Pop preeminence=== ==== Saturday Night Fever (John Badham, 1977) ==== In December 1977, the film Saturday Night Fever was released. It was a huge success and its soundtrack became one of the best-selling albums of all time. The idea for the film was sparked by a 1976 New York magazine article titled "Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night" which supposedly chronicled the disco culture in mid-1970s New York City, but was later revealed to have been fabricated. Some critics said the film "mainstreamed" disco, making it more acceptable to heterosexual white males. Many music historians believe the success of the movie and soundtrack extended the life of the disco era by several years. Organized around the culture of suburban discotheques and the character of Tony Manero, portrayed by John Travolta, Saturday Night Fever became a cultural phenomenon that recast the dance floor as a site for patriarchal masculinity and heterosexual courtship. This transformation aligned disco with the interests of the perceived mass market, specifically targeting suburban and Middle American audiences. From mid-1978 to late 1979, Summer continued to release singles such as "Last Dance", "Heaven Knows" (with Brooklyn Dreams), "Hot Stuff", "Bad Girls", "Dim All the Lights" and "On the Radio", all very successful songs, landing in the top five or better, on the Billboard pop charts. The band Chic was formed mainly by guitarist Nile Rodgers—a self-described "street hippie" from late 1960s New York—and bassist Bernard Edwards. Their popular 1978 single, "Le Freak", is regarded as an iconic song of the genre. Other successful songs by Chic include the often-sampled "Good Times" (1979), "I Want Your Love" (1979), and "Everybody Dance" (1979). The group regarded themselves as the disco movement's rock band that made good on the hippie movement's ideals of peace, love, and freedom. Every song they wrote was written with an eye toward giving it "deep hidden meaning" or D.H.M. Sylvester, a flamboyant and openly gay singer famous for his soaring falsetto voice, scored his biggest disco hits in late 1978 with "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" and "Dance (Disco Heat)". His singing style was said to have influenced the singer Prince. At that time, disco was one of the forms of music most open to gay performers. The Village People were a singing/dancing group created by Jacques Morali and Henri Belolo to target disco's gay audience. They were known for their onstage costumes of typically male-associated jobs and ethnic minorities and achieved mainstream success with their 1978 hit song "Macho Man". Other songs include "Y.M.C.A." (1979) and "In the Navy" (1979). Also noteworthy are The Trammps' "Disco Inferno" (1976), (1978, reissue due to the popularity gained from the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack), Heatwave's "Boogie Nights" (1977), Evelyn "Champagne" King's "Shame" (1977), A Taste of Honey's "Boogie Oogie Oogie" (1978), Cheryl Lynn's "Got to Be Real" (1978), Alicia Bridges's "I Love the Nightlife" (1978), Patrick Hernandez's "Born to Be Alive" (1978), Earth, Wind & Fire's "September" (1978) and "Boogie Wonderland" (1979), Peaches & Herb's "Shake Your Groove Thing" (1978), Sister Sledge's "We Are Family" and "He's the Greatest Dancer" (both 1979), McFadden and Whitehead's "Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now" (1979), Anita Ward's "Ring My Bell" (1979), Kool & the Gang's "Ladies' Night" (1979) and "Celebration" (1980), The Whispers's "And the Beat Goes On" (1979), Stephanie Mills's "What Cha Gonna Do with My Lovin'" (1979), Lipps Inc.'s "Funkytown" (1980), The Brothers Johnson's "Stomp!" (1980), George Benson's "Give Me the Night" (1980), Donna Summer's "Sunset People" (1980), and Walter Murphy's various attempts to bring classical music to the mainstream, most notably the disco song "A Fifth of Beethoven" (1976), which was inspired by Beethoven's fifth symphony. At the height of its popularity, many non-disco artists recorded songs with disco elements, such as Rod Stewart with his "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?" in 1979. Even mainstream rock artists adopted elements of disco. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd used disco-like drums and guitar in their song "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" (1979), which became their only number-one single in both the US and UK. The Eagles referenced disco with "One of These Nights" (1975) and "Disco Strangler" (1979), Paul McCartney & Wings with "Silly Love Songs" (1976) and "Goodnight Tonight" (1979), Queen with "Another One Bites the Dust" (1980), the Rolling Stones with "Miss You" (1978) and "Emotional Rescue" (1980), Stephen Stills with his album Thoroughfare Gap (1978), Electric Light Orchestra with "Shine a Little Love" and "Last Train to London" (both 1979), Chicago with "Street Player" (1979), the Kinks with "(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman" (1979), the Grateful Dead with "Shakedown Street", The Who with "Eminence Front" (1982), and the J. Geils Band with "Come Back" (1980). Even hard rock group KISS jumped in with "I Was Made for Lovin' You" (1979), and Ringo Starr's album Ringo the 4th (1978) features a strong disco influence. The disco sound was also adopted by artists from other genres, including the 1979 U.S. number one hit "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)" by easy listening singer Barbra Streisand in a duet with Donna Summer. In country music, in an attempt to appeal to the more mainstream market, artists began to add pop/disco influences to their music. Dolly Parton launched a successful crossover onto the pop/dance charts, with her albums Heartbreaker and Great Balls of Fire containing songs with a disco flair. In particular, a disco remix of the track "Baby I'm Burnin'" peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart; ultimately becoming one of the year's biggest club hits. Additionally, Connie Smith covered Andy Gibb's "I Just Want to Be Your Everything" in 1977, Bill Anderson recorded "Double S" in 1978, and Ronnie Milsap released "Get It Up" and covered blues singer Tommy Tucker's song "Hi-Heel Sneakers" in 1979. Pre-existing non-disco songs, standards, and TV themes were frequently "disco-ized" in the 1970s, such as the I Love Lucy theme (recorded as "Disco Lucy" by the Wilton Place Street Band), "Aquarela do Brasil" (recorded as "Brazil" by The Ritchie Family), and "Baby Face" (recorded by the Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps). The rich orchestral accompaniment that became identified with the disco era conjured up the memories of the big band era—which brought out several artists that recorded and disco-ized some big band arrangements, including Perry Como, who re-recorded his 1945 song "Temptation", in 1975, as well as Ethel Merman, who released an album of disco songs entitled The Ethel Merman Disco Album in 1979. Myron Floren, second-in-command on The Lawrence Welk Show, released a recording of the "Clarinet Polka" entitled "Disco Accordion." Similarly, Bobby Vinton adapted "The Pennsylvania Polka" into a song named "Disco Polka". Easy listening icon Percy Faith, in one of his last recordings, released an album entitled Disco Party (1975) and recorded a disco version of his "Theme from A Summer Place" in 1976. Even classical music was adapted for disco, notably Walter Murphy's "A Fifth of Beethoven" (1976, based on the first movement of Beethoven's 5th Symphony) and "Flight 76" (1976, based on Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee"), and Louis Clark's Hooked On Classics series of albums and singles. Many original television theme songs of the era also showed a strong disco influence, such as S.W.A.T. (1975), Wonder Woman (1975), Charlie's Angels (1976), NBC Saturday Night At The Movies (1976), The Love Boat (1977), The Donahue Show (1977), CHiPs (1977), The Professionals (1977), Dallas (1978), NBC Sports broadcasts (1978), Kojak (1977), and The Hollywood Squares (1979). Disco jingles also made their way into many TV commercials, including Purina's 1979 "Good Mews" cat food commercial and an "IC Light" commercial by Pittsburgh's Iron City Brewing Company. ====Parodies==== Several parodies of the disco style were created. Rick Dees, at the time a radio DJ in Memphis, Tennessee, recorded "Disco Duck" (1976) and "Dis-Gorilla" (1977); Frank Zappa parodied the lifestyles of disco dancers in "Disco Boy" on his 1976 Zoot Allures album and in "Dancin' Fool" on his 1979 Sheik Yerbouti album. "Weird Al" Yankovic's eponymous 1983 debut album includes a disco song called "Gotta Boogie", an extended pun on the similarity of the disco move to the American slang word "booger". Comedian Bill Cosby devoted his entire 1977 album Disco Bill to disco parodies. In 1980, Mad Magazine released a flexi-disc titled Mad Disco featuring six full-length parodies of the genre. Rock and roll songs critical of disco included Bob Seger's "Old Time Rock and Roll" and, especially, the Who's "Sister Disco" (both 1978)—although the Who's "Eminence Front" (four years later) had a disco feel. ===1979–1981: Controversy and decline in popularity=== By the end of the 1970s, anti-disco sentiment developed among rock music fans and musicians, particularly in the United States. Disco was criticized as mindless, consumerist, overproduced and escapist. The slogans "Disco sucks" and "Death to disco" although, in the UK, many early Sex Pistols fans such as the Bromley Contingent and Jordan liked disco, often congregating at nightclubs such as Louise's in Soho and the Sombrero in Kensington. The track "Love Hangover" by Diana Ross, the house anthem at the former, was cited as a particular favourite by many early UK punks. The film The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle and its soundtrack album contained a disco medley of Sex Pistols songs, entitled Black Arabs and credited to a group of the same name. However, Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys, in the song "Saturday Night Holocaust", likened disco to the cabaret culture of Weimar-era Germany for its apathy towards government policies and its escapism. Mark Mothersbaugh of Devo said that disco was "like a beautiful woman with a great body and no brains", and a product of political apathy of that era. New Jersey rock critic Jim Testa wrote "Put a Bullet Through the Jukebox", a vitriolic screed attacking disco that was considered a punk call to arms. Steve Hillage, shortly prior to his transformation from a progressive rock musician into an electronic artist at the end of the 1970s with the inspiration of disco, disappointed his rockist fans by admitting his love for disco, with Hillage recalling "it's like I'd killed their pet cat." Anti-disco sentiment was expressed in some television shows and films. A recurring theme on the show WKRP in Cincinnati was a hostile attitude towards disco music. In one scene of the 1980 comedy film Airplane!, a wayward airplane slices a radio tower with its wing, knocking out an all-disco radio station. July 12, 1979, became known as "the day disco died" because of the Disco Demolition Night, an anti-disco demonstration in a baseball double-header at Comiskey Park in Chicago. Rock station DJs Steve Dahl and Garry Meier, along with Michael Veeck, son of Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck, staged the promotional event for disgruntled rock fans between the games of a White Sox doubleheader which involved exploding disco records in centerfield. As the second game was about to begin, the raucous crowd stormed onto the field and proceeded to set fires and tear out seats and pieces of turf. The Chicago Police Department made numerous arrests, and the extensive damage to the field forced the White Sox to forfeit the second game to the Detroit Tigers, who had won the first game. Disco's decline in popularity after Disco Demolition Night was rapid. On July 12, 1979, the top six records on the U.S. music charts were disco songs. By September 22, there were no disco songs in the US Top 10 chart, with the exception of Herb Alpert's instrumental "Rise", a smooth jazz composition with some disco overtones. ====Impact on the music industry==== The anti-disco movement, combined with other societal and radio industry factors, changed the face of pop radio in the years following Disco Demolition Night. Starting in the 1980s, country music began a slow rise on the pop chart. Emblematic of country music's rise to mainstream popularity was the commercially successful 1980 movie Urban Cowboy. The continued popularity of power pop and the revival of oldies in the late 1970s was also related to disco's decline; the 1978 film Grease was emblematic of this trend. Coincidentally, the star of both films was John Travolta, who in 1977 had starred in Saturday Night Fever, which remains one of the most iconic disco films of the era. During this period of decline in disco's popularity, several record companies folded, were reorganized, or were sold. In 1979, MCA Records purchased ABC Records, absorbed some of its artists and then shut the label down. Midsong International Records ceased operations in 1980. RSO Records founder Robert Stigwood left the label in 1981 and TK Records closed in the same year. Salsoul Records continues to exist in the 2000s, but primarily is used as a reissue brand. Casablanca Records had been releasing fewer records in the 1980s, and was shut down in 1986 by parent company PolyGram. Many groups that were popular during the disco period subsequently struggled to maintain their success—even ones who tried to adapt to evolving musical tastes. The Bee Gees, for instance, had only one top-10 entry (1989's "One") and three more top-40 songs, even though numerous songs they wrote and had other artists perform were successful, and the band itself had largely abandoned disco in its 1980s and 1990s songs. Chic never hit the top-40 again after "Good Times" topped the chart in August 1979. Of the handful of groups not taken down by disco's fall from favor, Kool and the Gang, Donna Summer, the Jacksons, and Gloria Gaynor in particular, stand out. In spite of having helped define the disco sound early on, they continued to make popular and danceable, if more refined, songs for yet another generation of music fans in the 1980s and beyond. Earth, Wind & Fire also survived the anti-disco trend and continued to produce successful singles at roughly the same pace for several more years, in addition to an even longer string of R&B chart hits that lasted into the 1990s. Some popular disco tracks released after Disco Demolition Night include "Steppin' Out" by Kool and the Gang (1981), "In the Middle" by Unlimited Touch (1981), "I'm Coming Out" by Diana Ross (1980), "My Feet Keep Dancing" by Chic (1980), "Funkytown" by Lipps Inc. (1980), "Lady (You Bring Me Up)" by The Commodores (1981) and "All American Girls" by Sister Sledge (1981). Six months prior to Disco Demolition Night (in December 1978), popular progressive rock radio station WDAI (WLS-FM) had suddenly switched to an all-disco format, disenfranchising thousands of Chicago rock fans and leaving Dahl unemployed. WDAI, who survived the change of public sentiment and still had good ratings at this point, continued to play disco until it flipped to a short-lived hybrid Top 40/rock format in May 1980. Another disco outlet that competed against WDAI at the time, WGCI-FM, would later incorporate R&B and pop songs into the format, eventually evolving into an urban contemporary outlet that it continues with today. The latter also helped bring the Chicago house genre to the airwaves. ====Factors contributing to disco's decline==== Factors that have been cited as leading to the decline of disco in the United States include economic and political changes at the end of the 1970s, as well as burnout from the hedonistic lifestyles led by participants. In the years since Disco Demolition Night, some social critics have described the "Disco sucks" movement as implicitly macho and bigoted, and an attack on non-white and non-heterosexual cultures. that also made its way into US politics with the election of conservative president Ronald Reagan in 1980, which also led to Republican control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1954, plus the subsequent rise of the Religious Right around the same time. In January 1979, rock critic Robert Christgau argued that homophobia, and most likely racism, were reasons behind the movement, Legs McNeil, founder of the fanzine Punk, was quoted in an interview as saying, "the hippies always wanted to be black. We were going, 'fuck the blues, fuck the black experience.'" He also said that disco was the result of an "unholy" union between homosexuals and blacks. Steve Dahl, who had spearheaded Disco Demolition Night, denied any racist or homophobic undertones to the promotion, saying, "It's really easy to look at it historically, from this perspective, and attach all those things to it. But we weren't thinking like that," it was "just kids pissing on a musical genre". It has been noted that British punk rock critics of disco were very supportive of the pro-black/anti-racist reggae genre as well as the more pro-gay new romantics movement. Harold Childs, senior vice president at A&M Records, reportedly told the Los Angeles Times that "radio is really desperate for rock product" and "they're all looking for some white rock-n-roll". ===1981–1989: Aftermath=== ====Birth of electronic dance music==== Disco was instrumental in the development of electronic dance music genres like house, techno, and Eurodance. The Eurodisco song I Feel Love, produced by Giorgio Moroder for Donna Summer in 1976, has been described as a milestone and blueprint for electronic dance music because it was the first to combine repetitive synthesizer loops with a continuous four-on-the-floor bass drum and an off-beat hi-hat, which would become a main feature of techno and house ten years later. During the first years of the 1980s, the traditional disco sound characterized by complex arrangements performed by large ensembles of studio session musicians (including a horn section and an orchestral string section) began to be phased out, and faster tempos and synthesized effects, accompanied by guitar and simplified backgrounds, moved dance music toward electronic and pop genres, starting with hi-NRG. Despite its decline in popularity, so-called club music and European-style disco remained relatively successful in the early-to-mid 1980s with songs like Aneka's "Japanese Boy", The Weather Girls's "It's Raining Men", Stacey Q's "Two of Hearts", Dead or Alive's "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)", Laura Branigan's "Self Control", and Baltimora's "Tarzan Boy". However, a revival of the traditional-style disco called nu-disco has been popular since the 1990s. House music displayed a strong disco influence, which is why house music, regarding its enormous success in shaping electronic dance music and contemporary club culture, is often described being "disco's revenge." Early house music was generally dance-based music characterized by repetitive four-on-the-floor beats, rhythms mainly provided by drum machines, off-beat hi-hat cymbals, and synthesized basslines. While house displayed several characteristics similar to disco music, it was more electronic and minimalist, ===Early hip hop=== The disco sound had a strong influence on early hip hop. Most of the early hip-hop songs were created by isolating existing disco bass guitar lines and dubbing over them with MC rhymes. The Sugarhill Gang used Chic's "Good Times" as the foundation for their 1979 song "Rapper's Delight", generally considered to be the song that first popularized rap music in the United States and around the world. With synthesizers and Krautrock influences that replaced the previous disco foundation, a new genre was born when Afrika Bambaataa released the single "Planet Rock", spawning a hip hop electronic dance trend that includes songs such as Planet Patrol's "Play at Your Own Risk" (1982), C-Bank's "One More Shot" (1982), Cerrone's "Club Underworld" (1984), Shannon's "Let the Music Play" (1983), Freeez's "I.O.U." (1983), Midnight Star's "Freak-a-Zoid" (1983), and Chaka Khan's "I Feel For You" (1984). ===House music and rave culture=== House music is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in Chicago in the early 1980s (also see: Chicago house). It quickly spread to other American cities such as Detroit, where it developed into the harder and more industrial techno, New York City (also see: garage house), and Newark – all of which developed their own regional scenes. In the mid-to-late 1980s, house music became popular in Europe as well as major cities in South America and Australia. Early house music commercial success in Europe saw songs such as "Pump Up The Volume" by MARRS (1987), "House Nation" by House Master Boyz and the Rude Boy of House (1987), "Theme from S'Express" by S'Express (1988) and "Doctorin' the House" by Coldcut (1988) in the pop charts. Since the early to mid-1990s, house music has been infused in mainstream pop and dance music worldwide. House music in the 2010s, while keeping several of these core elements, notably the prominent kick drum on every beat, varies widely in style and influence, ranging from the soulful and atmospheric deep house to the more aggressive acid house or the minimalist microhouse. House music has also fused with several other genres creating fusion subgenres, Like house, it incorporated disco culture's same love of dance music played by DJs over powerful sound systems, recreational drug and club drug exploration, sexual promiscuity, and hedonism. Although disco culture started out underground, it eventually thrived in the mainstream by the late 1970s, and major labels commodified and packaged the music for mass consumption. In contrast, the rave culture started out underground and stayed (mostly) underground. In part, this was to avoid the animosity that was still surrounding disco and dance music. The rave scene also stayed underground to avoid law enforcement attention that was directed at the rave culture due to its use of secret, unauthorized warehouses for some dance events and its association with illegal club drugs like ecstasy. ===Post-punk === The post-punk movement that originated in the late 1970s both supported punk rock's rule-breaking while rejecting its move back to raw rock music. ===Nu-disco=== Nu-disco is a 21st-century dance music genre associated with the renewed interest in 1970s and early 1980s disco, mid-1980s Italo disco, and the synthesizer-heavy Euro disco aesthetics. The moniker appeared in print as early as 2002, and by mid-2008 was used by record shops such as the online retailers Juno and Beatport. These vendors often associate it with re-edits of original-era disco music, as well as with music from European producers who make dance music inspired by original-era American disco, electro, and other genres popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It is also used to describe the music on several American labels who were previously associated with the genres electroclash and French house. ==Revivals and return to mainstream success== ===1990s resurgence=== In the 1990s, after a decade of backlash, disco and its legacy became more accepted by pop music artists and listeners alike, as more songs, films, and compilations were released that referenced disco. This was part of a wave of 1970s nostalgia that was taking place in popular culture at the time. Some commentators attributed the revival of the genre to frequent use of disco music in fashion shows. Examples of songs during this time that were influenced by disco included Deee-Lite's "Groove Is in the Heart" (1990), U2's "Lemon" (1993), Blur's "Girls & Boys" (1994) and "Entertain Me" (1995), Pulp's "Disco 2000" (1995), and Jamiroquai's "Canned Heat" (1999), while films such as Boogie Nights (1997) and The Last Days of Disco (1998) featured primarily disco soundtracks. ===2000s resurgence=== In the early 2000s, an updated genre of disco called "nu-disco" began breaking into the mainstream. A few examples like Daft Punk's "One More Time" and Kylie Minogue's "Love at First Sight" and "Can't Get You Out of My Head" became club favorites and commercial successes. Several nu-disco songs were crossovers with funky house, such as Spiller's "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" and Modjo's "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)", both songs sampling older disco songs and both reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart in 2000. Robbie Williams's disco single "Rock DJ" was the UK's fourth best-selling single the same year. Jamiroquai's song "Little L" and "Murder on the Dancefloor" by Sophie Ellis-Bextor were hits in 2001. Rock band Manic Street Preachers released a disco song, "Miss Europa Disco Dancer", in the same year. The song's disco influence, which appears on Know Your Enemy, was described as being "much-discussed". In 2005, Madonna immersed herself in the disco music of the 1970s and released her album Confessions on a Dance Floor to rave reviews. One of the singles from the album, "Hung Up", which samples ABBA's 1979 song "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", became a major club staple. In addition to Madonna's disco-influenced attire to award shows and interviews, her Confessions Tour incorporated various elements of the 1970s, such as disco balls, a mirrored stage design, and the roller derby. In 2006, Jessica Simpson released her album A Public Affair inspired by disco and the 1980s music. The first single of the album, "A Public Affair", was reviewed as a disco-dancing competition influenced by Madonna's early works. The video of the song was filmed on a skating rink and features a line dance of hands. The success of the "nu-disco" revival of the early 2000s was described by music critic Tom Ewing as more interpersonal than the pop music of the 1990s: "The revival of disco within pop put a spotlight on something that had gone missing over the 90s: a sense of music not just for dancing, but for dancing with someone. Disco was a music of mutual attraction: cruising, flirtation, negotiation. Its dancefloor is a space for immediate pleasure, but also for promises kept and otherwise. It's a place where things start, but their resolution, let alone their meaning, is never clear. All of 2000's great disco number ones explore how to play this hand. Madison Avenue look to impose their will upon it, to set terms and roles. Spiller is less rigid. 'Groovejet' accepts the night's changeability, happily sells out certainty for an amused smile and a few great one-liners." ===2010s resurgence=== In 2011, K-pop girl group T-ara released Roly-Poly as a part of their EP John Travolta Wannabe. The song accumulated over 4,000,000 units in digital downloads, which became the highest number of downloads for a K-pop girl group single on the Gaon Digital Chart in the 2010s. In 2013, with several 1970s-style disco and funk being released, the pop charts had more dance songs than at any other point since the late 1970s. The biggest disco song of the year was "Get Lucky" by Daft Punk, featuring Nile Rodgers on guitar. Its parent album, Random Access Memories, ended up winning Album of the Year at the 2014 Grammys. Other disco-styled songs that made it into the top 40 that year were Robin Thicke's "Blurred Lines" (number one), Justin Timberlake's "Take Back the Night" (number 29), Bruno Mars' "Treasure" (number five) and Katy Perry's "Birthday". Other disco songs from 2014 include "I Want It All" By Karmin, 'Wrong Club" by the Ting Tings, "Blow" by Beyoncé and the William Orbit mix of "Let Me in Your Heart Again" by Queen. In 2014 Brazilian Globo TV, the second biggest television network in the world, aired Boogie Oogie, a telenovela about the Disco Era that takes place between 1978 and 1979, from the hit fever to the decadence. The show's success was responsible for a Disco revival across the country, bringing back to the stage and to Brazilian record charts local disco divas like Lady Zu and As Frenéticas. Top-10 entries from 2015 such as Mark Ronson's disco groove-infused "Uptown Funk", Maroon 5's "Sugar", the Weeknd's "Can't Feel My Face" and Jason Derulo's "Want To Want Me" also have a strong disco influence. Disco mogul and producer Giorgio Moroder also re-appeared in 2015 with his new album Déjà Vu, which proved to be a modest success. Other songs from 2015 like "I Don't Like It, I Love It" by Flo Rida, "Adventure of a Lifetime" by Coldplay, "Back Together" by Robin Thicke and "Levels" by Nick Jonas feature disco elements as well. In 2016, disco songs or disco-styled pop songs continued showing a strong presence on the music charts as a possible backlash to the 1980s-styled synthpop, electro house, and dubstep that had been dominating the charts up until then. Justin Timberlake's 2016 song "Can't Stop the Feeling!", which shows strong elements of disco, became the 26th song to debut at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 in the history of the chart. The Martian, a 2015 film, extensively uses disco music as a soundtrack, although for the main character, astronaut Mark Watney, there's only one thing worse than being stranded on Mars: it's being stranded on Mars with nothing but disco music. "Kill the Lights", featured on an episode of the HBO television series "Vinyl" (2016) and with Nile Rodgers' guitar licks, hit number one on the US Dance chart in July 2016. ===2020s resurgence=== thumb\|right\|upright=0.8\|British singer [[Dua Lipa has been credited by music critics with leading the revival of disco following the widespread international success of her single "Don't Start Now" and her album Future Nostalgia. In early 2020, disco-influenced hits such as Doja Cat's "Say So", Lady Gaga's "Stupid Love", and Dua Lipa's "Don't Start Now" experienced widespread success on global music charts, charting at numbers 1, 5 and 2, respectively, on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. At the time, Billboard, declared that Lipa was "leading the charge toward disco-influenced production" a day after her retro and disco-influenced album Future Nostalgia was released on March 27, 2020. By the end of 2020, multiple disco albums had been released, including Adam Lambert's Velvet, Jessie Ware's What's Your Pleasure?, and Róisín Murphy's discothèque mixtape, Róisín Machine. In early September 2020, South Korean group BTS debuted at number 1 in the US with their English–language disco single "Dynamite" having sold 265,000 downloads in its first week in the US, marking the biggest pure sales week since Taylor Swift's "Look What You Made Me Do" (2017). In July 2020, Australian singer Kylie Minogue announced she would be releasing her fifteenth studio album, Disco, on November 6, 2020. The album was preceded by two singles. The lead single, "Say Something", was released on July 23 and premiered on BBC Radio 2; the second single, "Magic", was released on September 24. Both singles received critical acclaim, with critics praising Minogue for returning to disco roots, which were prominent in her albums Light Years (2000), Fever (2001), and Aphrodite (2010).	[ "Sister Sledge", "Shadow Dancing (song)", "reverb", "Vincent Montana Jr.", "electro house", "This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)", "Robert Christgau", "NBC Sports", "club drug", "Technics SL-1200", "Rock DJ", "Bill Anderson (singer)", "Washington, D.C.", "WKRP in Cincinnati", "TK Records", "Munich", "Paul Stanley", "Desmond Child", "brass instrument", "Raffaella Carrà", "Bob Ezrin", "Europop", "drug", "Róisín Murphy", "Krautrock", "And the Beat Goes On (The Whispers song)", "Hooked On Classics", "I Want It All (Karmin song)", "string synthesizer", "Lizzo", "The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle (album)", "Dried nasal mucus", "Four on the floor (music)", "A Quiet Storm", "Disco ball", "Frankie Knuckles", "Saturday Night Fever", "Steve Dahl", "Boogie Wonderland", "John Rockwell", "big band", "I'm Coming Out", "Man in the Moon", "dance club", "The O'Jays", "Heaven Knows (Donna Summer song)", "Eagles (band)", "Billboard (magazine)", "Sunset People", "A Public Affair (song)", "Boogie Oogie", "Richard Finch (musician)", "Chicago house", "Gary Glitter", "Philadelphia", "smooth jazz", "McFadden and Whitehead", "Twelve-inch single", "Walter Murphy", "Pennsylvania Polka", "The Chakachas", "orgasm", "Y.M.C.A. (song)", "John Travolta", "Rick Dees", "Tee Scott", "Smiling Faces Sometimes", "Rivers Of Babylon", "PA system", "Can't Feel My Face", "Unholy alliance (geopolitical)", "As Frenéticas", "James Chance", "I Want You Back", "Rock and roll", "Pittsburgh", "KC and the Sunshine Band", "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone", "Old Time Rock and Roll", "Born to Be Alive (song)", "A Fifth of Beethoven", "Miss You (The Rolling Stones song)", "cabaret", "Silver Convention", "Mel Cheren", "The Village Voice", "James White and the Blacks", "Michael Jackson", "Zoot Allures", "Willie Hutch", "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)", "Columbia, South Carolina", "The Jacksons", "List of ethnic riots", "Jermaine Jackson", "He's the Greatest Dancer", "Mark Ronson", "new romantic", "Self Control (Raf song)", "discotheque", "Hi-NRG", "Barrie & Jenkins", "Neil Bogart", "Upside Down (Diana Ross song)", "I Heard It Through the Grapevine", "punk subculture", "oldies", "The Supremes", "Single (music)", "Progressive rock", "Stevie Wonder", "Spargo (band)", "Tarzan Boy", "Public Image Limited", "the Love Unlimited Orchestra", "The Sugarhill Gang", "Dalida", "Kung Fu Fighting", "Steve Greenberg (record producer)", "Italo-disco", "Clavinet", "New York Hustle", "cinematic soul", "The Night (Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons song)", "Temptation (Nacio Herb Brown and Arthur Freed song)", "The Love Boat", "recording studio", "power pop", "Robbie Williams", "Iron City Brewing Company", "Kool & the Gang", "gay male", "Silk Sonic", "Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night", "Fly, Robin, Fly", "single (music)", "Hermanas Goggi", "CHiPs", "jingle", "Steppin' Out (Kool & the Gang song)", "Occupational burnout", "Sophie Ellis-Bextor", "Mass (liturgy)", "Playboy", "Crisco Disco", "Sunrise (Jimmy Ruffin album)", "Shake Your Groove Thing", "multitrack recording", "Hold On (To My Love)", "mass consumption", "Disco Demolition Night", "swing music", "More, More, More", "Louis Clark", "Kylie Minogue", "sexual encounters", "Beethoven's fifth symphony", "Disco (Kylie Minogue album)", "Barry Manilow", "Consumerism", "Weimar Republic", "The Originals (band)", "Wilton Place Street Band", "dub music", "Mixmag", "Kraftwerk", "Nu-disco", "WGCI-FM", "Car Wash: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack", "Sylvester (singer)", "Jello Biafra", "the Jackson 5", "The American Spectator", "Groove Is in the Heart", "David Mancuso", "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", "quaaludes", "I Just Want to Be Your Everything", "ABC Records", "I.O.U. (Freeez song)", "electric piano", "One More Time (Daft Punk song)", "Coldcut", "David Ruffin", "Biddu", "The Miracles", "Young Lust (song)", "soundtrack", "Ring My Bell", "electroclash", "Got to Be Real", "TheGuardian.com", "Madison Avenue (band)", "Disco Party (album)", "David Bowie", "cult following", "Justin Timberlake", "House music", "Hung Up", "J'attendrai", "Detroit Tigers", "Paul Lester", "The Night (Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons song)", "Keep It Comin' Love", "Bill Veeck", "television", "George McCrae", "Evil Woman (Electric Light Orchestra song)", "Soul (music)", "WBLS", "post-disco", "seduction", "Disco Step-by-Step Television Show", "Love You Inside Out", "Little Anthony & the Imperials", "Rapper's Delight", "Luv'", "Blow (Beyoncé song)", "Euro disco", "ELO", "Olivier Coquelin", "The Rubberband Man", "1990s in music", "Discothèques", "Super Freak", "Let Me Know (I Have a Right)", "Commodores", "Airplane!", "Random Access Memories", "Legs McNeil", "Metal Box", "Swinging (sexual practice)", "subwoofer", "Urban Cowboy", "the Chambers Brothers", "Gigolo (Mary Wells song)", "MFSB", "Laura Branigan", "go-go", "wall of sound", "Roland Corporation", "Metro (British newspaper)", "Wigan Casino", "the Undisputed Truth", "the Jacksons", "halter top", "Parliament-Funkadelic", "I Feel For You", "pitch control", "Arrangement", "Hip hop music", "Aquarela do Brasil", "subculture", "Barry Gibb", "horn section", "Never Can Say Goodbye (Gloria Gaynor album)", "psychedelia", "The New York Times", "Sir Duke", "timpani", "Soap Factory", "Good Times (Chic song)", "New Order (band)", "Group sex", "Village Voice", "Hot Gossip", "Golden Torch", "Unlimited Touch", "The Temptations", "Percussion instrument", "Car Wash (song)", "Far l'Amore", "Eminence Front", "Experimental music", "Bad Luck (Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes song)", "Blurred Lines", "Duke University Press", "selling out", "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.", "Christian right", "microphone", "Live and More", "Francis Grasso", "Richard Long (sound designer)", "Baby Face (song)", "The Jackson 5", "Eddie Kendricks", "Karmin", "Fever (Kylie Minogue album)", "What Becomes of the Brokenhearted", "The Who", "country music", "Copacabana (nightclub)", "Take Back the Night (song)", "Adam Lambert", "Quaalude", "Barbra Streisand", "Prelude Records (record label)", "Marty Angelo", "sequin", "eroticism", "Dim All the Lights", "Gamble and Huff", "The Undisputed Truth", "psychedelic soul", "Planet Rock (song)", "Jim Burgess (producer)", "the Ting Tings", "Electronic dance music", "Shame (Evelyn King song)", "San Francisco", "Barry White", "The Four Seasons (band)", "Bump (dance)", "MARRS", "French house", "Club Kids", "list of disco artists", "Alec R. Costandinos", "Four-on-the-floor (dance)", "Jungle Fever (song)", "motor coordination", "Eurodance", "Flight of the Bumblebee", "Droitwich Spa", "El País", "liquor license", "Chic (band)", "Robin Gibb", "Ralston Purina", "Miguel Migs", "Future funk", "Tragedy (Bee Gees song)", "Girls & Boys (Blur song)", "cocaine", "Los Angeles Times", "Guitar World", "New York City", "Rock and Roll Part 2", "Joe Tex", "S-Curve Records", "S'Express", "Bill Brewster (DJ)", "Bail", "rhythm guitar", "Watergate scandal", "Japanese Boy", "rhythm and blues", "12-inch single", "Lipps Inc.", "electronic dance music", "Ringo Starr", "The Commodores", "Break (music)", "rock music", "No wave", "Diana Ross", "disc jockey", "Car Wash (film)", "maker culture", "saxophone", "Socialism", "telenovela", "Dance (Disco Heat)", "trumpet", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Vinyl (TV series)", "Irene Cara", "Maxi single", "Prisencolinensinainciusol", "copyist", "Overproduction (music)", "Goodnight Tonight", "Say So", "Phallocentrism", "Disco Duck", "sexual revolution", "The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle", "spandex", "LSD", "Dance-punk", "Manila sound", "Village People", "the O'Jays", "Average White Band", "My Guy", "Could It Be Magic", "hard rock", "Sly and the Family Stone", "Devo", "The Martian (film)", "The Last Days of Disco", "promiscuity", "glitter", "John \"Jellybean\" Benitez", "Doctor Who", "September (Earth, Wind & Fire song)", "Richard Dyer", "urban contemporary", "Tammi Terrell", "Studio 54", "electric guitar", "Bee Gees", "Rick James", "Dance Club Songs", "Disco-Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes", "Murder on the Dancefloor", "drum kit", "Silly Love Songs", "Qiana", "Cloud Nine (The Temptations album)", "Don Cornelius", "H.A.P.P.Y. Radio (song)", "DJ mix", "Machismo", "Funky house", "Love's Theme", "Give Me the Night (George Benson song)", "four-on-the-floor (music)", "ZE Records", "Shakedown Street (song)", "Dolly Parton", "Boney M.", "I Love the Nightlife", "Edwin Starr", "Chicago Police Department", "Norman Whitfield", "Latin percussion", "Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps", "scratching", "Jackie Wilson", "Midtown Manhattan", "Chicago (band)", "Post-disco", "Spiegel & Grau", "1960s in music", "Karen Mixon Cook", "Detroit", "CDJ", "Elvis Presley", "Baccara", "Don Henley", "S.W.A.T. (1975 TV series)", "Orange Juice (band)", "Hot Stuff (Donna Summer song)", "BTS", "RSO Records", "tech house", "Pump Up the Volume (song)", "The Gallery (disco)", "Lady Marmalade", "Brooklyn", "Le Club", "English horn", "YouTube", "Jimmy Ruffin", "funk", "Chaka Khan", "alcoholic drink", "The Ritchie Family", "I Am What I Am (Broadway musical song)", "The Hollywood Squares", "Baseball field", "C-Bank", "A Certain Ratio", "I'm Your Boogie Man", "Latin Hustle", "Marvin Gaye", "The Guardian", "Pamela Rooke", "three piece suit", "Was Not Was", "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", "Gramophone record", "Doctorin' the House", "feminist", "Love Hangover", "Grammy Award", "Adventure of a Lifetime", "album", "Get Dancin'", "Uptown Funk", "techno", "No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)", "Pauline Kael", "Old school hip-hop", "Sugar (Maroon 5 song)", "Boogie Nights (song)", "bell bottom", "rave", "I Feel Love", "Chicago 13", "Beat (music)", "Vicki Sue Robinson", "marijuana", "Love at First Sight (Kylie Minogue song)", "Billboard Hot 100", "Are You Ready for Love", "G.I.T.: Get It Together", "Charlie's Angels", "Little L", "old-school hip hop", "Tom Moulton", "Amanda Lear", "Merv Griffin", "Earth Wind & Fire", "Thelma Houston", "If You Talk In Your Sleep", "Stereogum", "Salsoul Orchestra", "Grateful Dead", "Stealth disco", "classical music", "Working My Way Back to You", "Dancin' Fool", "direct drive", "(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman", "gay bar", "Golden Age of Porn", "Shine a Little Love", "Liquid Liquid", "Dynamite (BTS song)", "Turn the Beat Around: The Secret History of Disco", "Let the Music Play (song)", "Quiet Storm", "Civil Rights Movement", "Necklace", "Lady (You Bring Me Up)", "Ringo the 4th", "Rock the Boat (The Hues Corporation song)", "the Kinks", "Kill the Lights (Alex Newell & DJ Cassidy song)", "Munich Machine", "Motown", "The Saint (club)", "One (Bee Gees song)", "leisure suit", "Philadelphia soul", "Doja Cat", "Get Down Tonight", "Official Charts Company", "Ronald Reagan", "It's a Shame (The Spinners song)", "Frank Zappa", "Soul Makossa", "Queen (band)", "reel-to-reel tape recorder", "viola", "hedonism", "Isaac Hayes", "beatmatching", "Safe sex", "List of number-one dance singles of 1978 (U.S.)", "Blur (band)", "quaver", "Pop music", "Aphrodite (Kylie Minogue album)", "Modjo", "Vietnam War", "Jackson 5: The Ultimate Collection", "Blackpool Mecca", "Dead or Alive (band)", "Dua Lipa", "Peaches & Herb", "Aneka", "Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes", "Harry Wayne Casey", "Afro/cosmic music", "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)", "Dead Kennedys", "Turn the Beat Around", "List of number-one dance singles of 1979 (U.S.)", "electric organ", "garage house", "string orchestra", "Bonfire", "Midsong International Records", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic (album)", "Myron Floren", "octave", "sound module", "the Rolling Stones", "Don't Start Now", "Punk (magazine)", "funky house", "Smokey Robinson", "Ajda Pekkan", "Memphis, Tennessee", "Stephen Stills", "kick drum", "Boney M", "Rolling Stone", "Disco Bill", "counterculture of the 1960s", "medal", "Baltimora", "Ian Schrager", "hip hop music", "Reflektor", "Don't Leave Me This Way", "A Taste of Honey (band)", "Bill Laswell", "Patrice Rushen", "glam rock", "roller derby", "Northern Soul", "The Ethel Merman Disco Album", "Reality TV", "Pete Bellotte", "Lady Zu", "Celebration (Kool & the Gang song)", "acid house", "Manic Street Preachers", "New wave music", "Hi-Heel Sneakers", "Jump House (music genre)", "poppers", "Ecstasy (drug)", "chord progression", "Hustle (dance)", "violin", "Le Freak", "Alex Rosner", "Love & Kisses", "Halston", "La Bionda", "Warner Curb Records", "Keyboard instrument", "dance-pop", "Roly-Poly (T-ara song)", "identity politics", "I'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking", "Disco Boy (song)", "Mad (magazine)", "Copacabana (At the Copa)", "Bob Sinclar", "Rise (instrumental)", "Steve Hillage", "Mary Wells", "Lionel Richie", "One of These Nights (Eagles song)", "Fender Rhodes", "Adriano Celentano", "Third World (band)", "mobile discos", "post-punk", "Dance-rock", "Manu Dibango", "Motown records", "Bernard Edwards", "pansexual", "Jell-O", "I Will Survive", "That's the Way (I Like It)", "Rock music", "The Rocket Record Company", "Kim Weston", "Tangerine (1941 song)", "Aretha Franklin", "Wrong Club", "Stupid Love (Lady Gaga song)", "It's a Disco Night (Rock Don't Stop)", "Super Trouper (song)", "Another Brick in the Wall", "Theme from A Summer Place", "Light Years (Kylie Minogue album)", "Counterculture of the 1960s", "Girl You Need a Change of Mind", "Northern soul", "The Velvelettes", "New York (magazine)", "Henri Belolo", "Now That We Found Love", "We Are Family (song)", "Vienna", "Disco 2000 (song)", "punk rock", "MSNBC", "Vice (magazine)", "AllMusic", "Last Dance (Donna Summer song)", "Look What You Made Me Do", "stairwell", "theme songs", "Time Bandits (band)", "Afrika Bambaataa", "Roger Ebert", "soul music", "The Hues Corporation", "Scotch Club", "The Detroit Spinners", "Maroon 5", "ABBA", "Percy Faith", "Garry Meier", "falsetto", "Thoroughfare Gap", "escapism", "Duke Ellington", "Magic (Kylie Minogue song)", "electronic drum", "Pink Floyd", "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", "The Lawrence Welk Show", "fanzine", "Heatwave (band)", "Shannon (American singer)", "Earl Young (drummer)", "Farley \"Jackmaster\" Funk", "Shep Pettibone", "Thank God It's Friday (film)", "puritan", "the Who", "Atlantic Records", "Miami", "Kiki Dee", "turntablism", "Electric Light Orchestra", "Róisín Machine", "Bad Girls (Donna Summer song)", "Superfly (song)", "In the Navy", "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)", "Get Up and Boogie (song)", "Pulp (band)", "Frank Farian", "music genre", "bass drum", "List of best-selling singles worldwide", "A&M Records", "Warehouse (nightclub)", "Everybody Dance (Chic song)", "Disco polo", "Carl Douglas", "mutant disco", "Never Can Say Goodbye", "Love to Love You Baby (song)", "Salsoul Records", "Stomp! (Brothers Johnson song)", "Michael Zager", "1980s in music", "Belly dance", "Sister Disco", "Arthur Russell (musician)", "Flashdance", "nightclub", "Lead guitar", "Manchester", "Funkytown", "sound recording", "MCA Records", "Elton John", "recreational drug", "dance-punk", "cocaine spoon", "The Donahue Show", "Chicago", "oboe", "Enigma (Give a Bit of Mmh to Me)", "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance", "I Was Made for Lovin' You", "Robert Stigwood", "drum machine", "John Lydon", "French horn", "West End Records", "Whitfield records", "Stephanie Mills", "Rose Royce", "Stayin' Alive", "Kojak", "Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now", "organ trio", "Kool and the Gang", "Bruno Mars", "A Public Affair", "Nicky Siano", "Theme from Shaft", "More Than a Woman (Bee Gees song)", "the Manhattan Transfer", "UK Singles Chart", "Dancing Machine", "Orchestration", "Conductor (music)", "Nightclub", "The Isley Brothers", "Emotional Rescue (song)", "Can't Get You Out of My Head", "hot tub", "fashion accessory", "The Three Degrees", "Prince (musician)", "Earth, Wind & Fire", "Paul McCartney & Wings", "harmony part", "Jamiroquai", "Confessions on a Dance Floor", "Hi-hat (instrument)", "Dance Fever", "1970s nostalgia", "Birthday (Katy Perry song)", "Bob Seger", "Brooklyn Dreams", "WLS-FM", "Want to Want Me", "reggae", "Bobby Vinton", "Contemporary R&B", "Wonder Woman (TV series)", "disco pants", "Tommy Tucker (singer)", "Vince Aletti", "List of best-selling albums", "Dub music", "ESG (band)", "Kashif (musician)", "Jacques Morali", "hi-fi", "Say Something (Kylie Minogue song)", "2020s in music", "Labelle", "celebrity", "Curtis Mayfield", "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)", "audio console", "Can't Stop the Feeling!", "Pitch invasion", "easy listening", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "Twisted Wheel Club", "hallucinogenic", "Waterloo (ABBA song)", "Hedonism", "Chameleon (The Four Seasons album)", "boogie (genre)", "(Love Is) Thicker Than Water", "Amphetamines", "Got to Give It Up", "Coldplay", "War (The Temptations song)", "Cerrone", "Van McCoy", "Giorgio Moroder", "loft", "Multi-instrumentalist", "Eurodisco", "illuminated dance floor", "Spiller", "Grease (film)", "hippie", "I Don't Like It, I Love It", "Jessica Simpson", "Larry Levan", "Daddy Cool (Boney M. song)", "Ronnie Milsap", "Simon Reynolds", "Rockism", "Boogie Shoes", "Love Machine (The Miracles song)", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic", "Treasure (Bruno Mars song)", "polyrhythm", "You're the First, the Last, My Everything", "Bill Cosby", "one-hit wonder", "deep house", "gay community", "syncopation", "public sex", "Great Balls of Fire (Dolly Parton album)", "In and Out (Willie Hutch song)", "All American Girls (song)", "Bromley Contingent", "Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov", "Ladies' Night (song)", "Rod Stewart", "Planet Patrol", "December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)", "I Want You (Marvin Gaye song)", "Off White", "gold lamé", "Andy Gibb", "Middle East", "Patrick Hernandez", "2010s in music", "Guido & Maurizio De Angelis", "What Cha Gonna Do with My Lovin' (song)", "The Independent", "Two of Hearts (song)", "Pigs (Three Different Ones)", "Lady Gaga", "Back Together (Robin Thicke song)", "Keep On Truckin' (song)", "jazz", "United States Senate", "B.T. Express", "Chicago White Sox", "Donna Summer", "cultural phenomenon", "Simon Frith", "Ethel Merman", "Daniel J. Flynn", "horn (musical instrument)", "pop music", "WKTU", "hi-NRG", "Disco Inferno", "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)", "rhythm section", "A far l'amore comincia tu", "Germany", "Theme from S'Express", "Platform shoe", "remix", "(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty", "Arlington, Texas", "Come Back (The J. Geils Band song)", "the Weeknd", "Electronic music", "List of number-one dance singles of 1977 (U.S.)", "audio engineering", "bass guitar", "Anita Ward", "The Brothers Johnson", "synthesizer", "Disco-pop", "Arcade Fire", "viral video", "The Bee Gees", "bassline", "American Psychiatric Association", "HIV-AIDS", "Love Train", "Stonewall riots", "2001 Club", "sound engineer", "Anne Veski", "African-American culture", "mainstream rock", "I Want Your Love (Chic song)", "Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)", "flugelhorn", "Sheik Yerbouti", "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)", "trombone", "Gladys Knight & the Pips", "DJ Magazine", "You Should Be Dancing", "D Train (music group)", "The A.V. Club", "WPIX-FM", "Boogie Oogie Oogie", "U2", "drag (clothing)", "Sex Pistols", "disco mix", "Birth control pill", "Jimi Hendrix", "Take a Chance on Me", "feminist movement", "Italian Americans", "Moog synthesizer", "MacArthur Park (song)", "Baby I'm Burnin'", "piano", "Roller disco", "Another One Bites the Dust", "Andrea True", "Manhattan", "Baby That's Backatcha", "alternative dance", "India", "The Trammps", "Ain't Gonna Bump No More (With No Big Fat Woman)", "Sabrina Carpenter", "the Temptations", "Comiskey Park", "PolyGram", "Night Fever", "Italo disco", "strobe light", "Flip (acrobatic)", "progressive rock", "Evelyn King (singer)", "Deee-Lite", "Routledge", "Globo TV", "Levels (Nick Jonas song)", "PinkNews", "Stacey Q", "The Long Run (album)", "Chateau Impney", "homophobia", "It's Raining Men", "Peter Braunstein", "Pierre Cardin", "Assassination of John F. Kennedy", "Heartbreaker (Dolly Parton album)", "Helsinki", "The Hustle (song)", "ghazal", "Keep on Truckin' (song)", "Know Your Enemy (Manic Street Preachers album)", "The Sunday Times", "Supernature (Cerrone song)", "Gilbert & George", "Boogie Nights", "DJ mixer", "Beyoncé", "BBC Radio 2", "Modulations: A History of Electronic Music", "Marvin Schlachter", "Dallas (TV series)", "Disco Dancer", "racism", "Freeez", "The Professionals (TV series)", "Double knitting", "Velvet (Adam Lambert album)", "Pan's People", "Casablanca Records", "Glam rock", "Mark Mothersbaugh", "Nile Rodgers", "Massachusetts (Bee Gees song)", "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?", "Cha-cha-cha (dance)", "Fame (1980 film)", "J. Geils Band", "I Love Lucy", "Confessions Tour", "house music", "The Loft (New York City)", "northern soul", "Alicia Bridges", "high heel", "riff", "law enforcement", "Down to Love Town", "Flo Rida", "effects unit", "Shining Star (Earth, Wind & Fire song)", "flute", "Macho Man (song)", "Joseph Cayre", "Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes", "cello", "blues", "Midnight (Doctor Who)", "record producer", "Clarinet Polka", "Artpop", "Steve Rubell", "Oxford English Dictionary", "George Clinton (funk musician)", "Walter Gibbons", "disco polo", "My Feet Keep Dancing", "gibberish", "Rock Your Baby", "microhouse", "What's Your Pleasure?", "George Michael", "Sam Houston State University", "The Very Best Of (Eagles album)", "Ma Baker", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Katy Perry", "the Impressions", "Aachen", "Last Train to London", "acid jazz", "Gloria Gaynor", "Deney Terrio", "Mod (subculture)", "sexism", "The Weather Girls", "baseball", "nu-disco", "Canned Heat (song)", "Turn (dance and gymnastics)", "Déjà Vu (Giorgio Moroder album)", "On the Radio (Donna Summer song)", "Jason Derulo", "Future Nostalgia", "Peter Shapiro (journalist)", "Under the Influence of... Love Unlimited", "Jon Savage", "Finland", "Get Lucky (Daft Punk song)", "Nick Jonas", "Reach Out I'll Be There", "gay", "dance music", "Let Me in Your Heart Again", "synth-pop", "Love Is the Message (MFSB album)", "John Travolta Wannabe", "The Whispers", "Robin Thicke", "DJ", "T-ara", "Dancing Queen", "Régine Zylberberg", "The Love I Lost", "Contact (Edwin Starr song)", "Claude François", "Herb Alpert", "Cheryl Lynn", "Paradise Garage", "Kiss (band)", "Daft Punk", "Jessie Ware", "George Benson", "Kid Creole and the Coconuts", "Perry Como", "Soul Train", "Connie Smith", "Midnight Star (band)", "Wurlitzer", "Lemon (U2 song)", "Jamaicans", "Sound reinforcement system", "ABC (The Jackson 5 song)", "Boogie Down", "string section" ]
7,970	Darwin	Darwin may refer to: ==Common meanings== Charles Darwin (1809–1882), English naturalist and writer, best known as the originator of the theory of biological evolution by natural selection Darwin, Northern Territory, a capital city in Australia, named after the naturalist ==Arts and entertainment== Darwin (1920 film), a German silent film Darwin (2011 film), a documentary Darwin (2015 film), a science fiction film by Alain Desrochers Darwin (seaQuest DSV), a dolphin in the TV series seaQuest DSV Darwin!, a 1972 album by Banco del Mutuo Soccorso Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist, a 1991 biography of Charles Darwin Darwin (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics fictional superhero associated with the X-Men Darwin Watterson, a character from the 2011 animated TV series The Amazing World of Gumball ==Computing== Darwin (ADL), an architecture description language Darwin (operating system), the Unix base for Apple's iOS and macOS operating systems Darwin (programming game) Darwin (programming language) Darwin Information Typing Architecture Darwin Streaming Server ==People== Darwin (given name), including a list of people with the name Darwin (surname), including a list of people with the name ==Places== ===Antarctica=== Darwin Glacier (Antarctica), Oates Land Darwin Mountains, Oates Land Mount Darwin (Antarctica), Ross Dependency ===Australia=== ====Northern Territory==== Darwin, Northern Territory Darwin River, Northern Territory City of Darwin Division of Darwin, a 1903–1955 election division ====Tasmania==== Darwin, Tasmania, a short-lived community Mount Darwin (Tasmania) Darwin Crater, a suspected meteorite impact crater ===Chile=== Cordillera Darwin, Tierra del Fuego, a mountain range Mount Darwin (Andes) Darwin Channel Darwin Sound Darwin Glacier (Chile) ===United States=== Darwin, California, an unincorporated community Darwin Falls, a waterfall in California Darwin Township, Clark County, Illinois Darwin, Illinois, an unincorporated community in the township Darwin, Minnesota, a city in Meeker County Darwin, Ohio, an unincorporated community Darwin, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community Darwin, Texas, a ghost town Darwin, Virginia, an unincorporated community Darwin Township, Meeker County, Minnesota Mount Darwin (California) Darwin Glacier (California), on Mount Darwin ===Elsewhere=== Darwin (ward), an electoral ward in Greater London Darwin, Río Negro, Argentina, a municipality Darwin, Falkland Islands, a settlement Darwin Island, Galapagos Islands Volcán Darwin, Galapagos Islands, a volcano Darwin Glacier (Kenya), on Mount Kenya Mount Darwin (New Zealand) Darwin Glacier (New Zealand), Canterbury ==Science== Darwin (unit), a unit of evolutionary change Darwin Medal, awarded by the Royal Society for biology The Darwin Centre, Natural History Museum, London Darwin Initiative, a British government biodiversity programme 1991 Darwin, a main-belt asteroid Darwin (lunar crater) Darwin (Martian crater) Darwin (spacecraft), a European Space Agency project ==Sport== Darwin Baseball League, a North Australian league Darwin Rugby League, a North Australian league ==Transport== Darwin Airline, an airline in Switzerland Darwin International Airport, Darwin, Australia ==Other uses== Darwin (monkey), a rhesus macaque colloquially referred to as the "Ikea Monkey" Darwin College (disambiguation) Darwin Awards, tongue-in-cheek awards for people who remove themselves from reproducing through their stupidity Darwin Brewery, based in North Shields, England Darwin Centre (disambiguation) Bombing of Darwin, also known as the Battle of Darwin, a 1942 Japanese aerial attack on Australia	[ "Mount Darwin (Andes)", "Darwin (ADL)", "Charles Darwin", "Darwin, Texas", "Darwin (unit)", "Darwin (2011 film)", "Darwin Initiative", "Darwin Township, Meeker County, Minnesota", "Darwin!", "Darwin Mountains", "Darwin, Minnesota", "Darwin Airline", "Darwin Rugby League", "Darwin (operating system)", "Mount Darwin (Antarctica)", "Darwin (monkey)", "Darwin (lunar crater)", "Darwin College (disambiguation)", "Mount Darwin (Tasmania)", "Darwin Glacier (New Zealand)", "Darwin, Northern Territory", "Darwin (programming language)", "Darwin (surname)", "Darwin, Tasmania", "Darwin Awards", "Mount Darwin (New Zealand)", "Darwin Island", "1991 Darwin", "Darwin Streaming Server", "Darwin Information Typing Architecture", "Darwen (disambiguation)", "Darwin Sound", "Division of Darwin", "Darwin Glacier (Chile)", "Darwin (1920 film)", "Darwin (given name)", "Darwin, Oklahoma", "Darwin Baseball League", "XDarwin", "Natural History Museum, London", "Darwin, Virginia", "Darwin (programming game)", "Darwin Glacier (California)", "Volcán Darwin", "Darwin International Airport", "Darvin (disambiguation)", "Darwin (2015 film)", "Bombing of Darwin", "Darwin Brewery", "Darwin, Ohio", "Darwin Crater", "Darwin River, Northern Territory", "City of Darwin", "Darwin, California", "Darwin Medal", "Port Darwin (disambiguation)", "Darwin (Martian crater)", "Cordillera Darwin", "Darwin, Falkland Islands", "Darwin Centre (disambiguation)", "Darwin Falls", "Darwin Watterson", "Darwin Channel", "Darwin, Illinois", "Darwin Glacier (Kenya)", "Darwin (ward)", "Darwin (seaQuest DSV)", "Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist", "Mount Darwin (California)", "Darwin (spacecraft)", "Darwin Glacier (Antarctica)", "Darwin, Río Negro", "Darwin Township, Clark County, Illinois", "Darwin (Marvel Comics)" ]
7,973	Donegal fiddle tradition	The Donegal fiddle tradition is one of the distinct fiddle traditions within Irish traditional music. The distinctness of the Donegal tradition developed due to the close relations between County Donegal and Scotland, and the Donegal repertoire and style has influences from Scottish fiddle music. For example, in addition to the ”universally known” standard Irish dance tunes, there is an added volume of Scottish and Nova Scotia tunes played, with even some tunes from Shetland and Orkney. This includes standard tune types such as double jigs (), slip jigs (), reels (), and hornpipes (swung ). It has been claimed that Donegal musicians play more slip jigs than any other region of Ireland. This is potentially due to the geographical borders/mountains (as well as national borders with Northern Ireland) keeping Donegal's repertoire more locally-known for decades. There is also a prevalence of mazurka playing. Mazurkas are historically mainland-European tunes very similar to a waltz, in its meter, though generally livelier and with more emphasis being placed on the second beat of each measure. Another uniquely Donegal tune is called the barndance, stemming from the Germanic schottische (essentially meaning ‘Scottish’), also similar to the Norwegian reinlander. The barndance is very similar to a hornpipe, but slower than a reel; typically they are played with less of a hornpipe's “swing” and more of the “drive” of a reel. In stark contrast to other Irish musical styles, the Donegal tradition also has the Scottish strathspey, a traditional dance from Scotland, played a bit like a hornpipe but with emphasis on the semi-quaver; this dotted rhythm gives the strathspey its distinct “Scotch Snap” sound. While strathspeys are definitely known in Donegal (albeit played slightly slower and with less ”snap” than Scottish fiddlers), more common is the highland. Very rarely referred to as a “highland fling”, these quintessentially Donegal tunes are influenced by the Scottish strathspey, but played a bit smoother, as a sort of “strathspey-reel”. Some Scotch Snaps will be played, but highlands tend to be more akin to a slower reel, overall. Reels, themselves, are said to have originated in Scottish music. The distinctiveness of the Donegal tradition led to some conflict, between Donegal players and representatives of the mainstream tradition, when Irish traditional music was organised in the 1960s. The tradition has several distinguishing traits compared to other fiddle traditions such as the Sliabh Luachra style of southern Ireland, most of which involves styles of bowing and the ornamentation of the music, and rhythm. Due to the frequency of double stops and the strong bowing it is often compared to the Cape Breton tradition. Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed. Among the most famous Donegal style players are John Doherty from the early twentieth century and James Byrne, Paddy Glackin, Tommy Peoples and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh in recent decades. ==History== The fiddle has ancient roots in Ireland, the first report of bowed instruments similar to the violin being in the Book of Leinster (ca. 1160). The modern violin was ubiquitous in Ireland by the early 1700s. However the first mention of the fiddle being in use in Donegal is from the blind harper Arthur O'Neill who in his 1760 memoirs described a wedding in Ardara as having "plenty of pipers and fiddlers". Donegal fiddlers participated in the development of the Irish music tradition in the 18th century during which jigs and slipjigs and later reels and hornpipes became the dominant musical forms. However, Donegal musicians, many of them being fishermen, also frequently travelled to Scotland, where they acquired tune types from the Scottish repertoire such as the Strathspey which was integrated into the Donegal tradition as "Highland" tunes. The Donegal tradition derives much of its unique character from the synthesis of Irish and Scottish stylistic features and repertoires. Like some Scottish fiddlers (who, like Donegal fiddlers, tend to use a short bow and play in a straight-ahead fashion), some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the bagpipes. Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch. Lilting, unaccompanied singing of wordless tunes, was also an important part of the Donegal musical tradition often performed by women in social settings. Describing the musical life of Arranmore Island in the late 19th century singer Róise Rua Nic Gríanna describes the most popular dances: "The Sets, the Lancers, the Maggie Pickie [i.e., Maggie Pickins] the Donkey, the Mazurka and the Barn dances". Among the travelling fiddlers of the late 19th century players such as John Mhosaí McGinley, Anthony Hilferty, the McConnells and the Dohertys are best known. As skill levels increased through apprenticeships several fiddle masters appeared such as the Cassidy's, Connie Haughey, Jimmy Lyons and Miock McShane of Teelin and Francie Dearg and Mickey Bán Byrne of Kilcar. These virtuosos played unaccompanied listening pieces in addition to the more common dance music. (the regions share common names of dances), as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys, schottisches, marches, and Donegal's own strong piping tradition, has influenced and been influenced by music, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Píob Mhór, the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland. There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland. Instruments such as the tin whistle, flute, concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times. As Irish music was consolidated and organised under the Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann movement in the 1960s, both strengthened the interest in traditional music but sometimes conflicted with the Donegal tradition and its social conventions. The rigidly organised sessions of the Comhaltas reflected the traditions of Southern Ireland and Donegal fiddlers like John Doherty considered the National repertoire with its strong focus on reels to be less diverse than that of Donegal with its varied rhythms. Other old fiddlers dislike the ways comhaltas sessions were organised with a committee player, often not himself a musician, in charge. Sometimes Comhaltas representatives would even disparage the Donegal tradition, with its Scottish flavour, as being un-Irish, and prohibit them from playing local tunes with Scottish genealogies such as the "Highlands" at Comhaltas sessions. This sometimes cause antagonism between Donegal players and the main organisation of traditional music in Ireland. Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family. Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family. Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty. John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded. There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including Inishowen, eastern Donegal, The Rosses and Gweedore, Croaghs, Teelin, Kilcar, Glencolmcille, Ballyshannon and Bundoran. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, Frank Cassidy, James Byrne (1946–2008), P.V. O'Donnell (2011), and Tommy Peoples (1948–2018). Currently living Donegal fiddlers, include, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, and Danny O'Donnell. The three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are generally admired within Donegal. An example of another fiddler-player from Donegal is Liz Doherty. Another well regarded fiddle player hailing from Donegal is Aidan O'Donnell. TG4 Young Musician of the Year 2010 Aidan O'Donnell has been described as one of the finest young Irish musicians at present. He began his music making at the age of 12, and since then has performed with some of traditional music's finest artists, including Donal Lunny, Micheal Ó'Suilleabháin and the Chieftains. In 2007, he won the prestigious ‘Oireachtas na Geailge' fiddle title, and has been a regular tutor at the Irish World Academy of Music and Dance, at the University of Limerick for the past number of years. The fiddle, and traditional music in general, remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists Traditional music Seisiúns are still common place both in pubs and in houses. The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music, but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition. Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums.	[ "Paddy Glackin", "musical ornament", "pub", "Glencolmcille", "Strathspey (dance)", "Bothy Band", "Highland (Irish)", "Tommy Peoples", "Swung note", "Teelin", "County Donegal", "Danny O'Donnell (fiddler)", "Aidan O'Donnell", "Irish traditional music session", "Liz Doherty", "Bundoran", "John Gallagher (fiddler)", "march (music)", "Slur (music)", "Tuplet", "mazurka", "Vincent Campbell", "Nova Scotia", "Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann", "Hugh Doherty (musician)", "Ballyshannon", "Book of Leinster", "Ardara, County Donegal", "Kilcar", "Cape Breton fiddling", "4/4 time", "Scotland", "Scottish fiddling", "schottische", "James Byrne (musician)", "waltz", "Lilting", "TG4", "Traditional music of Scotland", "Mazurka", "jig", "Ornament (music)", "Trill consonant", "Bow (music)", "Inishowen", "The Rosses", "Gweedore", "Irish music", "Artur O'Neill (harpist)", "Barn dance", "Folk music of Ireland", "Shetland", "Piob Mhor", "double stop", "Irish fiddle", "Orkney", "reinlander", "John Doherty (musician)", "Altan (band)", "Sliabh Luachra", "Sound recording and reproduction", "highland", "reel (dance)", "Croaghs", "strathspey (dance)", "Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh", "Celtic music", "bagpipes" ]
7,975	Double-barreled shotgun	A double-barreled shotgun, also known as a double shotgun, is a break-action shotgun with two parallel barrels, allowing two single shots that can be fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession. ==Construction== Modern double-barreled shotguns, often known as doubles, are almost universally break action, with the barrels hinge down at the rear to expose the breech ends for unloading and reloading. Since there is no reciprocating action needed to eject and reload the shells, doubles are more compact than repeating designs such as pump action, lever action, bolt action, or self-loading shotguns. ===Barrel configuration=== Double-barreled shotguns (specifically break-action), come in two basic configurations: side-by-side (S×S) — the two barrels are arranged horizontally; over-and-under (O/U) — the two barrels are arranged vertically. The original double-barreled guns were commonly all side-by-side designs, which was a more practical design for muzzleloaders. Early cartridge-firing shotguns also used the side-by-side action, because they kept the exposed hammers of the earlier muzzleloading shotguns from which they evolved. When hammerless designs started to become common, the over-and-under design was introduced, and most modern sporting doubles are over-and-under designs. One significant advantage that doubles have over single-barrel repeating shotguns is the ability to have more than one choke at a time. Some shotgun shooting sports, such as skeet shooting, use crossing targets presented in a narrow range of distance, and only require one level of choke. Other sports, like sporting clays, give the shooter targets at differing ranges, and targets that might approach or recede from the shooter, and so must be engaged at differing ranges. Having two barrels lets the shooter use a more open choke for near targets, and a tighter choke for distant targets, providing the optimal shot pattern for each distance. The disadvantage lies in the fact that the barrels of a double-barreled shotgun, whether over-and-under or side-by-side, are not parallel, but slightly angled, so that shots from the barrels converge, usually at "40 yards out". For the side-by-side configuration, the shotstring continues on its path to the opposite side of the rib after the converging point; for example, the left barrel's discharge travels on the left of the rib till it hits dead center at 40 yards (36.58 m) out, after that, the discharge continues on to the right. In the over-and-under configuration with a parallel rib, both barrels' discharges will keep to the dead center, but the discharge from the "under" barrel will shoot higher than the discharge from the "over" barrel after 40 yards (36.58 m). Thus, double-barreled shotguns are accurate only at practical shotgun ranges, though the range of their ammunition easily exceeds four to six times that distance. Side-by-side shotguns are often more expensive, and may take more practice to aim effectively than an over-and-under. The off-center nature of the recoil in a side-by-side gun may make shooting the body-side barrel slightly more painful by comparison to an over-and-under, single-shot, or pump-action, lever-action shotgun. Gas-operated and Recoil-operated, designs will recoil less than either. More side-by-side than over-and-under guns have traditional "cast-off" stocks, where the end of the buttstock veers slightly to the right, allowing a right-handed user to point the gun more easily. as whether the shotgun is loaded or can be fired can be ascertained by anyone present if the action is broken open, for instance on a skeet, trap or hunting clays course when another shooter is firing; if the action is open, the gun cannot fire. Similarly, doubles are more easily examined to see if loaded than pump-action or semi-automatic shotguns, whose bolt must be opened and chamber closely examined or felt to make sure it is unloaded; with a double gun (or a break-action single gun), whether the gun is loaded, i.e., has cartridges in any chamber, is easily and immediately seen with a glance (and just as easily unloaded). ===Trigger mechanism=== The early doubles used two triggers, one for each barrel, located front to back inside the trigger guard. The index finger was used to pull either trigger, as having two fingers inside the trigger guard can cause a very undesirable recoil-induced double-discharge. Double-trigger designs are typically set up for right-handed users. The single selective trigger does not allow firing both barrels at once, since the single trigger must be pulled twice in order to fire both barrels. The change from one barrel to the other may be done by a clockwork type system, where a cam alternates between barrels, or by an inertial system where the recoil of firing the first barrel toggles the trigger to the next barrel. A double-barreled shotgun with an inertial trigger works best with full power shotshells; shooting low recoil shotshells often will not reliably toggle the inertial trigger, causing an apparent failure to fire occasionally when attempting to depress the trigger a second time to fire the second barrel (this also can happen if the first shell fails to fire). Generally there is a method of selecting the order in which the barrels of a single selective trigger shotgun fire; commonly this is done through manipulation of the safety, pushing to one side to select top barrel first and the other side to select bottom barrel first. In the event that an inertial trigger does not toggle to the second barrel when firing low recoil shotshells, manually selecting the order to the second barrel will enable the second barrel to fire when the trigger is depressed again. One of the advantages of double-barreled shotgun with double triggers or single selective trigger, is that the second shot can be taken almost immediately after the first with merely a second trigger pull, without needing to manually operate the action (which will inevitably destabilize the gun from the shoulder position and affect aim), and can utilize different chokes for the two shots (assuming, of course, that full power shotshells are fired, at least for a double-barreled shotgun with an inertial type single selective trigger, as needed to toggle the inertial trigger). This can be noticeably faster than a pump-action shotgun, which requires manually pumping the fore-end to eject and reload for the second shot, and may be faster, or not slower, than a semi-automatic shotgun (as there are no bolt movements to delay the rechambering of a second shell). Note, however, in neither the pump-action or semi-automatic will the second shot be a different choke pattern from the first shot, whereas for a double, the two shots are usually with different chokes. Thus, depending on the nature of the hunt, the appropriate choke for the shot is always at hand. For example, while field hunting flushing birds, the first shot is usually closer than the second because the bird flies away from the shooter; so, the more open choke (and barrel) would be better for the first shot, and if a second shot is needed, as the bird is flying away, the more closed (and thus longer distance of an effective shot pattern) choke (and barrel) is then appropriate. Conversely, on a driven hunt, where the birds are driven towards the shooter, the closed (longer effective distance) choke (and barrel) should be fired first, saving the open (closer effective distance) choke (and barrel) for the now-closer incoming bird. None of this is possible with single-barrel shotguns, only with a double, either a side-by-side (S×S) or over-and-under (O/U). ===Regulation=== Regulation is a term used for multi-barreled firearms (most commonly found in rifles and shotguns) that indicates how close to the same point of aim the barrels will shoot. A poorly regulated gun may hit consistently with one barrel but miss consistently with the other, making the gun nearly useless for anything requiring two shots. However, the short ranges and spread of shot provide a significant overlap, so a small error in regulation in a double is often too small to be noticed. Generally, the shotguns are regulated to hit the point of aim at a given distance usually the maximum expected range since that is the range at which a full choke is used and where precise regulation matters most. The regulation is usually more important in side-by-side rather than in over-and-under shotguns, as felt recoil differs.	[ "hammer (firearms)", "forearm (firearm component)", "reciprocating motion", "trigger (firearms)", "shotgun shell", "shooting sport", "skeet shooting", "sporting clays", "Safety (firearms)", "pump action", "bolt (firearms)", "break action", "inertia", "index finger", "cartridge (firearms)", "Break action", "trigger guard", "Repeating firearm", "clockwork", "hammerless", "gun barrel", "muzzleloader", "choke (firearms)", "semi-automatic shotgun", "bolt action", "single shot", "action (firearms)", "lever action", "shotgun" ]
7,976	Dessert	Dessert is a course that concludes a meal. The course consists of sweet foods, such as cake, biscuit, ice cream and possibly a beverage such as dessert wine and liqueur. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts. In some parts of the world, there is no tradition of a dessert course to conclude a meal. Historically, the dessert course consisted entirely of foods "from the storeroom" (de l’office), including fresh, stewed, preserved, and dried fruits; nuts; cheese and other dairy dishes; dry biscuits (cookies) and wafers; and ices and ice creams. Sweet dishes from the kitchen, such as freshly prepared pastries, meringues, custards, puddings, and baked fruits, were served in the entremets course, not in the dessert course. By the 20th century, though, sweet entremets had come to be included among the desserts. The modern term dessert can apply to many sweets, including fruit, custards, gelatins, puddings, biscuits, cookies, macaroons, pastries, pies, tarts, cakes, ice creams, and sweet soups. == Etymology == The term "dessert" originated from the French word desservir, meaning "to clear the table", and it referred to the final course of the meal, presented after the table was "cleared" (deservi). One of the earliest uses of the term in a culinary context is in the Ménagier de Paris (1393), which includes a course of "desserte" in three of the menus, one of which includes sweet pastries and fruits, another of which includes savory frumenty and venison. In later centuries, the term continued to refer to the last course of the meal. In the late 19th century, the word "desserts" also came to refer to the dishes served in the dessert course. ==Other names== The word "dessert" is most commonly used for this course in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United States, while it is one of several synonyms, including "pudding", "sweet" and "afters", in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries. == History == Sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and ancient India and other ancient civilizations. Herodotus mentions that Persian meals featured many desserts, and were more varied in their sweet offerings than the main dishes. German army officer Helmuth von Moltke whilst serving in the Ottoman Empire noted the unusual presentation of courses with the sweet courses served between roasts and other savory dishes. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, but the spread of sugarcane around the world was essential to the development of dessert. Sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BC and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by AD 500. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making sugar available to Macedonia by 303 BC and China by AD 600. In the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking and desserts for over a thousand years. Sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later when the Crusades and then colonization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available. Even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381; The earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in Europe and later America led to the mass-production of foodstuffs, including desserts, that could be processed, preserved, canned, and packaged. Frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s. == Ingredients == Sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, brown sugar, honey, or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. Other common ingredients in Western-style desserts are flour or other starches, cooking fats such as butter or lard, dairy, eggs, salt, acidic ingredients such as lemon juice, and spices and other flavoring agents such as chocolate, coffee, peanut butter, fruits, and nuts. The proportions of these ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture, and flavor of the end product. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods. Flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of flaky layers in pastries and pie crusts. The dairy products in baked goods keep the desserts moist. Many desserts also contain eggs, in order to form custard or to aid in the rising and thickening of a cake-like substance. Egg yolks specifically contribute to the richness of desserts. Egg whites can act as a leavening agent or provide structure. Further innovation in the healthy eating movement has led to more information being available about vegan and gluten-free substitutes for the standard ingredients, as well as replacements for refined sugar. Desserts can contain many spices and extracts to add a variety of flavors. Salt and acids are added to desserts to balance sweet flavors and create a contrast in flavors. Some desserts are coffee-flavored, for example an iced coffee soufflé or coffee biscuits. Alcohols and liqueurs can also be used as an ingredient, to make alcoholic desserts. ==Varieties and elements== Desserts consist of variations of tastes, textures, and appearances. Desserts can be defined as a usually sweeter course that concludes a meal. This definition includes a range of courses ranging from fruits or dried nuts to multi-ingredient cakes and pies. Many cultures have different variations of dessert. In modern times the variations of desserts have usually been passed down or come from geographical regions. This is one cause for the variation of desserts. These are some major categories in which desserts can be placed. ===Cakes=== Cakes are sweet tender breads made with sugar and delicate flour. Cakes can vary from light, airy sponge cakes to dense cakes with less flour. Common flavorings include dried, candied or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa or extracts. They may be filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit. Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, for example weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. Small-sized cakes have become popular, in the form of cupcakes and petits fours, an example of which can be the Portuguese "bolo de arroz". ===Puddings=== Puddings are similar to custards in that their base is cream or milk. However, their primary difference is that puddings are thickened with starches such as corn starch or tapioca. On the other hand, custards are thickened using only eggs and are usually more firm. ===Small cakes and pastries=== Biscuits or cookies are small disks of sweetened dough, similar in composition to a cake. The term "biscuit" is a derivation of Latin for twice-baked, while the term "cookie" is a Dutch diminutive for koek, meaning cake. Some examples of this dessert include a ginger nut, shortbread biscuit and chocolate chip cookie. In Commonwealth English, the term "biscuit" refers to this type of dessert in general, with "cookie" reserved for a specific type of drop cookie; in North America, the term "cookie" typically refers to all forms of this dessert, with "biscuit" more commonly referring to a type of bread. Other small cakes and pastries can also be counted as under these terms, due to their size and relative similarity to cookies and biscuits, such as jaffa cakes and Eccles cakes. ===Confection=== Confection, also called candy, sweets or lollies, features sugar or honey as a principal ingredient. Many involve sugar heated into crystals with subtle differences. Dairy and sugar based include caramel, fudge and toffee or taffy. There are multiple forms of egg and sugar meringues and similar confections. Unheated sugar dissolves into icings, preservatives and sauces with other ingredients. ====Chocolate==== Theobroma cacao beans are commonly mixed with sugar to form chocolate. Pure, unsweetened dark chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids. Cocoa butter is also added in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate currently consumed is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no cocoa solids. Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture, with no milk or much less than milk chocolate. === Mithai (sweets) === Mithai, derived from the Sanskrit word 'sharkara', represents the range of Indian desserts. ===Custards=== These kinds of desserts usually include a thickened dairy base. Custards are cooked and thickened with eggs. Baked custards include crème brûlée and flan. They are often used as ingredients in other desserts, for instance as a filling for pastries or pies. ===Deep-fried=== Many cuisines include a dessert made of deep-fried starch-based batter or dough. In many countries, a doughnut is a flour-based batter that has been deep-fried. It is sometimes filled with custard or jelly. Fritters are fruit pieces in a thick batter that have been deep fried. Gulab jamun is an Indian dessert made of milk solids kneaded into a dough, deep-fried, and soaked in honey. Churros are a deep-fried and sugared dough that is eaten as dessert or a snack in many countries. ===Frozen=== Ice cream, gelato, sorbet and shaved-ice desserts fit into this category. Ice cream is a cream base that is churned as it is frozen to create a creamy consistency. Gelato uses a milk base and has less air whipped in than ice cream, making it denser. Sorbet is made from churned fruit and is not dairy based. Shaved-ice desserts are made by shaving a block of ice and adding flavored syrup or juice to the ice shavings. ===Gelatin=== Jellied desserts are made with a sweetened liquid thickened with gelatin or another gelling agent. They are traditional in many cultures. Yōkan is a Japanese jellied dessert. In English-speaking countries, many dessert recipes are based on gelatin with fruit or whipped cream added. The vegetarian substitute for gelatin is agar agar. Marshmallow is also most commonly made with gelatin. === Pastries === Pastries are sweet baked pastry products. Pastries can either take the form of light and flaky bread with an airy texture, such as a croissant or unleavened dough with a high fat content and crispy texture, such as shortbread. Pastries are often flavored or filled with fruits, chocolate, nuts, and spices. Pastries are sometimes eaten with tea or coffee as a breakfast food. ====Pies, cobblers, and clafoutis==== Pies and cobblers consist of a filling enclosed by a crust, which can be made from either pastry or crumbs. The fillings of pies can vary from fruits to puddings, whereas cobbler fillings are mostly fruit-based. On the other hand, clafoutis is a dessert in which batter is poured over a fruit-based filling before being baked. === Sweet soups === Tong sui, literally translated as "sugar water" and also known as tim tong, is a collective term for any sweet, warm soup or custard served as a dessert at the end of a meal in Cantonese cuisine. Tong sui are a Cantonese specialty and are rarely found in other regional cuisines of China. Outside of Cantonese-speaking communities, soupy desserts generally are not recognized as a distinct category, and the term tong sui is not used. ===Wines=== Dessert wines are sweet wines typically served with dessert. There is no simple definition of a dessert wine. In the UK, a dessert wine is considered to be any sweet wine drunk with a meal, as opposed to the white fortified wines (fino and amontillado sherry) drunk before the meal, and the red fortified wines (port and madeira) drunk after it. Thus, most fortified wines are regarded as distinct from dessert wines, but some of the less strong fortified white wines, such as Pedro Ximénez sherry and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, are regarded as honorary dessert wines. In the United States, by contrast, a dessert wine is legally defined as any wine over 14% alcohol by volume, which includes all fortified wines - and is taxed at higher rates as a result. Examples include Sauternes and Tokaji Aszú. == Gallery == File:Apple pie.jpg\|Apple pie File:Baked Alaska (5097717743).jpg\|Baked Alaska, ice cream and cake topped with browned meringue File:Baklava - Turkish special, 80-ply.JPEG\|Baklava, a pastry comprising layers of filo with chopped nuts, sweetened and held together with syrup or honey File:Homemade Flan.jpg\|Baked custard File:Brennan's Bananas Foster.jpg\|Bananas Foster, made from bananas and vanilla ice cream with a sauce made from butter, brown sugar, cinnamon, dark rum and banana liqueur File:Plain cheesecake.jpg\|Cheesecake, a type of dessert with a layer of a mixture of soft, fresh cheese, eggs and sugar File:Cannoli siciliani (7472226896).jpg\|Cannoli with pistachio dust, candied and chocolate drops File:Chocolate mousse.jpg\|Chocolate mousse, a chocolate variety of a dessert incorporating air bubbles to give it a light and airy texture File:Coconutbar.jpg\|Coconut bar, made with coconut milk and set with either tang flour and corn starch, or agar agar and gelatin File:Creme brulee.jpg\|Preparation of crème brûlée, a rich custard base topped with a contrasting layer of hard caramel File:Egg custard tart by Stu Spivack.jpg\|Egg custard tarts, a pastry originating from Guangzhou, China File:Hwangnam bread (cropped).JPG\|Gyeongju bread, a small pastry with a filling of red bean paste File:씨앗호떡.jpg\|Hotteok (a variety of filled Korean pancake) with edible seeds, sugar, and cinnamon File:Kkultarae, Korean court cake.jpg\|Kkul-tarae, fine strands of honey and maltose, often with a sweet nut filling File:Jell-o cream cheese square.jpg\|Jell-O cream cheese square File:Lemon tart (cropped).jpg\|Lemon tart, a pastry shell with a lemon-flavored filling File:Mämmi, memma.jpg\|Mämmi, a Finnish Easter dessert File:Pastry assortment.jpg\|An assortment of pastries File:Rum cake.jpg\|Rum cake, a type of cake containing rum File:King of Spotted Dicks.jpg\|Spotted dick File:Tiramisu with blueberries and raspberries, July 2011.jpg\|Tiramisu File:Banana pudding, homemade.jpg\|Homemade banana pudding File:Homemade Flan.jpg\|Flan, a type of custard File:Bibingka with its usual toppings.jpg\|Bibingka, a rice cake with toppings File:Dinner Honoring Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.jpg\|Chocolate carriage with raspberries on waffle cookie == By region == === Africa === Throughout much of central and western Africa, there is no tradition of a dessert course following a meal. Fruit or fruit salad would be eaten instead, which may be spiced, or sweetened with a sauce. In some former colonies in the region, the colonial power has influenced desserts – for example, the Angolan cocada amarela (yellow coconut) resembles baked desserts in Portugal. In India, where sugarcane has been grown and refined since before 500 BC, desserts have been an important part of the diet for thousands of years; types of desserts include burfis, halvahs, jalebis, and laddus. Bubble tea, which originated in Taiwan, is a kind of dessert made with flavored tea or milk and tapioca. It is well known across the world. === Europe === In Ukraine and Russia, breakfast foods such as nalysnyky or blintz or oladi (pancake), and syrniki are served with honey and jam as desserts. In the Netherlands vla is a popular dessert. It is a custard-like dessert that is served cold. Popular flavours are: vanilla, chocolate, caramel, and several fruit flavours. There is also hopjesvla which is flavoured like a Hopje, a Dutch coffee and caramel sweet. ====France==== =====Early use of the term===== The word dessert as a culinary term appears as early as 1393 in the Ménagier de Paris, where "desserte" is included in three of the twenty-nine menus. The desserte comes near the end of the meal, but before the issue (departure) of hypocras and wafers, included in ten of the menus; and before the boute-hors (sendoff) of wines and spices, included in four of the menus. The desserte was the last cooked course of the meal, but the boute-hors was the true final course of the meal. In the later printed book Petit traicté auquel verrez la maniere de faire cuisine (c. 1536), more widely known from the edition titled Livre fort excellent de cuisine (1542), the menus at the end of the book present the meal in four stages : the entree de table (entrance to the table), potaiges (foods boiled or simmered "in pots"), services de rost (meat or fowl "roasted" in dry heat), and issue de table (departure from the table). The issue de table includes fruit, nuts, pastries, jellies, cheese, and cream. The menus do not mention "dessert". =====Dessert in the “Classical Order” of table service===== Between the mid-16th and mid-17th century, the stages of the meal underwent several significant changes. Notably, potage became the first stage of the meal, the entrée became the second stage, entremets came to be served in their own distinct stage after the roast, and the last course of the meal came to be called “dessert”. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, the dessert stage of the meal consisted entirely of foods "from the storeroom" (de l’office), such as fresh, stewed, preserved, and dried fruits; fruit jellies; nuts; cheese and other dairy dishes; dry biscuits (cookies) and wafers; and, beginning in the mid-18th century, ices and petits fours. On lean days out of Lent, the dishes in the dessert stage of the meal were the same as those served on meat days. In Lent, though, eggs were never served at any meal, and only dishes that did not include eggs were appropriate for the dessert stage. Despite the significance of dessert in the structured meals of the time, the dessert course was often not included on the menus or bills of fare of the 17th and 18th centuries. =====Changes in the 19th and 20th centuries===== In the late 19th century, the word dessert, which properly referred to the last stage of the meal, came to refer also to the dishes that were served in that stage. In the 20th century, cheeses came to be served in their own course just before the dessert course. Also in the 20th century, sweet dishes from the kitchen, such as freshly prepared pastries, meringues, custards, puddings, and baked fruits, which had traditionally been served in the entremets course, came to be included among the desserts. === North America === Ice cream in The United States is popular. Pie and Cheesecake is also fairly popular in the US. Some of Mexicos favorite desserts are Flan, Paletas, and Pastel de Tres Leches. === South America === Dulce de leche is a very common confection in Argentina. In Bolivia, sugarcane, honey and coconut are traditionally used in desserts. Tawa tawa is a Bolivian sweet fritter prepared using sugar cane, and helado de canela is a dessert that is similar to sherbet which is prepared with cane sugar and cinnamon. In Chile, kuchen has been described as a "trademark dessert". Several desserts in Chile are prepared with manjar, (caramelized milk), including alfajor, flan, cuchufli and arroz con leche. puddings, nougat, coconut with syrup and thickened milk with sugarcane syrup. Desserts in Ecuador tend to be simple, and desserts are a moderate part of the cuisine. Desserts consumed in Ecuador include tres leches cake, flan, candies and various sweets. Many businesses have started advertising campaigns focusing solely on desserts. The tactics used to market desserts are very different depending on the audience; for example, desserts can be advertised with popular movie characters to target children. The rise of companies such as Food Network has produced many shows which feature desserts and their creation. Shows like these have displayed extreme desserts and made a game show atmosphere to make desserts a more competitive field. Desserts are a standard staple in restaurant menus, with different degrees of variety. Pie and cheesecake were among the most popular dessert courses ordered in U.S. restaurants in 2012. == Nutrition == Dessert foods often contain relatively high amounts of sugar and fats and, as a result, higher calorie counts per gram than other foods. Fresh or cooked fruit with minimal added sugar or fat is an exception.	[ "chocolate", "Cannoli", "spices", "jaffa cakes", "Bubble tea", "Food Network", "fruit", "Wheat starch", "course (food)", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Dessert wine", "caramel", "Tokaji", "Mämmi", "biscuit (bread)", "sandesh (confectionery)", "Ottoman Empire", "Baked Alaska", "sorbet", "tea", "dulce de leche", "tapioca pudding", "marzipan", "tong sui", "Madeira wine", "maltose", "umami", "pie", "gelato", "custard", "List of Bangladeshi sweets and desserts", "paçoca", "gelatin dessert", "frumenty", "soufflé", "Bibingka", "added sugar", "Marion Boyars Publishers", "fortified wines", "petits fours", "pé-de-moleque", "Mexico", "List of desserts", "wafer", "saffron", "List of Indonesian desserts", "University of California Press", "Tres leches cake", "Laddu", "baklava", "Industrial Revolution", "khoa", "Easter", "Yōkan", "Sauternes (wine)", "egg (food)", "taffy (candy)", "beijinho", "William Shakespeare", "Chinese desserts", "pudding", "extract", "Ice cream parlor", "Gulab jamun", "wedding cake", "Flan (pie)", "fudge", "liqueur", "Crème caramel", "Trésor de la langue française informatisé", "macaroon", "Jell-O", "Cheesecake", "Commonwealth English", "List of dessert sauces", "Custard", "Canada", "port wine", "halva", "kadayıf dolma", "Pudding", "Anniversary", "New Zealand", "Hotteok", "agar agar", "United States", "Theobroma cacao", "Churro", "Ice cream", "Ménagier de Paris", "Rum cake", "blintz", "Oxford University Press", "Ice pop", "chocolate chip cookie", "wine", "soup", "badem tatlısı", "Latin America", "meringue", "ancient India", "sugarcane", "Confection", "Kheer", "Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOC", "Lemon tart", "fat", "alcohol by volume", "Finnish cuisine", "Pedro Ximénez", "ice pop", "Custard tart", "Kkul-tarae", "red bean paste", "rasgulla", "coffee bean", "India", "Hopje", "United Kingdom", "fritter", "Wiley (publisher)", "biscuit", "Barfi", "toffee", "Eliza Leslie", "Bolo de arroz", "List of Pakistani sweets and desserts", "candy", "Cantonese cuisine", "Dulce de leche", "Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church", "cookie", "Eccles cake", "laddu", "Persians", "Potage", "sugar", "pastries", "Entremet", "burma kadayıf", "spice", "cookbook", "corn starch", "Diwali", "cupcake", "croissant", "pastry", "Crusades", "Pavlova (cake)", "jam", "Entremets", "dessert wine", "Fritter", "Marshmallow", "cake", "juice", "drop cookie", "doughnut", "Spotted dick", "Herodotus", "Phirni", "goiabada", "honey", "tart", "List of Indian sweets and desserts", "List of Italian desserts", "Petit four", "Entrée", "Food energy", "Helmuth von Moltke the Elder", "Oxford English Dictionary", "List of Turkish desserts", "jalebi", "Chocolate mousse", "ice cream", "colonization", "shortbread biscuit", "shortbread", "birthday cake", "Cookie", "Tiramisu", "Raksha Bandhan", "Culinary art", "List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts", "alfajor", "coffee", "nut (fruit)", "Nut (fruit)", "vla", "List of foods", "cocada", "Baklava", "syrniki", "Australia", "Apple pie", "sweets from the Indian subcontinent", "Dairy product", "raspberry", "Sütlü Nuriye", "buttercream", "cocoa powder", "Gyeongju bread", "Chinese cuisine", "apple pie", "kalburabastı", "Dried fruit", "Love's Labour's Lost", "Gelatin", "fruits", "Pie", "ginger nut", "Romeu e Julieta", "dessert sauce", "Éditions Larousse", "Indian subcontinent", "candied fruit", "Coconut bar", "nalysnyky", "brigadeiro", "fruit preserves", "crème brûlée", "Bananas Foster", "rapadura", "North America", "Ireland", "Rice pudding", "Roasting", "Anna Pavlova", "şöbiyet", "tres leches cake", "Middle Ages" ]
7,978	Data Encryption Standard	(\overline{P})=\overline{C} where \overline{x} is the bitwise complement of x. E_K denotes encryption with key K. P and C denote plaintext and ciphertext blocks respectively. The complementation property means that the work for a brute-force attack could be reduced by a factor of 2 (or a single bit) under a chosen-plaintext assumption. By definition, this property also applies to TDES cipher. DES also has four so-called weak keys. Encryption (E) and decryption (D) under a weak key have the same effect (see involution): E_K(E_K(P)) = P or equivalently, E_K = D_K. There are also six pairs of semi-weak keys. Encryption with one of the pair of semiweak keys, K_1, operates identically to decryption with the other, K_2: E_{K_1}(E_{K_2}(P)) = P or equivalently, E_{K_2} = D_{K_1}. It is easy enough to avoid the weak and semiweak keys in an implementation, either by testing for them explicitly, or simply by choosing keys randomly; the odds of picking a weak or semiweak key by chance are negligible. The keys are not really any weaker than any other keys anyway, as they do not give an attack any advantage. DES has also been proved not to be a group, or more precisely, the set \{E_K\} (for all possible keys K) under functional composition is not a group, nor "close" to being a group. This was an open question for some time, and if it had been the case, it would have been possible to break DES, and multiple encryption modes such as Triple DES would not increase the security, because repeated encryption (and decryptions) under different keys would be equivalent to encryption under another, single key. == Simplified DES == Simplified DES (SDES) was designed for educational purposes only, to help students learn about modern cryptanalytic techniques. SDES has similar structure and properties to DES, but has been simplified to make it much easier to perform encryption and decryption by hand with pencil and paper. Some people feel that learning SDES gives insight into DES and other block ciphers, and insight into various cryptanalytic attacks against them. == Replacement algorithms == Concerns about security and the relatively slow operation of DES in software motivated researchers to propose a variety of alternative block cipher designs, which started to appear in the late 1980s and early 1990s: examples include RC5, Blowfish, IDEA, NewDES, SAFER, CAST5 and FEAL. Most of these designs kept the 64-bit block size of DES, and could act as a "drop-in" replacement, although they typically used a 64-bit or 128-bit key. In the Soviet Union the GOST 28147-89 algorithm was introduced, with a 64-bit block size and a 256-bit key, which was also used in Russia later. Another approach to strengthening DES was the development of Triple DES (3DES), which applies the DES algorithm three times to each data block to increase security. However, 3DES was later deprecated by NIST due to its inefficiencies and susceptibility to certain cryptographic attacks. To address these security concerns, modern cryptographic systems rely on more advanced encryption techniques such as RSA, ECC, and post-quantum cryptography. These replacements aim to provide stronger resistance against both classical and quantum computing attacks. A crucial aspect of DES involves its permutations and key scheduling, which play a significant role in its encryption process. Analyzing these permutations helps in understanding DES's security limitations and the need for replacement algorithms. A detailed breakdown of DES permutations and their role in encryption is available in this analysis of Data Encryption Standards Permutations. DES itself can be adapted and reused in a more secure scheme. Many former DES users now use Triple DES (TDES) which was described and analysed by one of DES's patentees (see FIPS Pub 46–3); it involves applying DES three times with two (2TDES) or three (3TDES) different keys. TDES is regarded as adequately secure, although it is quite slow. A less computationally expensive alternative is DES-X, which increases the key size by XORing extra key material before and after DES. GDES was a DES variant proposed as a way to speed up encryption, but it was shown to be susceptible to differential cryptanalysis. On January 2, 1997, NIST announced that they wished to choose a successor to DES. In 2001, after an international competition, NIST selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), as a replacement. The algorithm which was selected as the AES was submitted by its designers under the name Rijndael. Other finalists in the NIST AES competition included RC6, Serpent, MARS, and Twofish.	[ "National Security Archive", "National Bureau of Standards", "File:DES-f-function.png", "inverse function", "FEAL", "Secure and Fast Encryption Routine", "confusion and diffusion", "DES supplementary material", "IBM", "XOR", "Blowfish (cipher)", "bitwise complement", "cryptanalysis", "Lars R. Knudsen", "Edna Grossman", "Personal identification number", "Videocipher", "Rijndael", "Custom hardware attack", "Advanced Encryption Standard", "digital hardware", "Mitsuru Matsui", "symmetric key algorithm", "chosen-plaintext attack", "Triple DES", "field-programmable gate array", "Don Coppersmith", "Moxie Marlinspike", "Bryant Tuckerman", "United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence", "S-box", "Federal Information Processing Standard", "Moore's law", "Soviet Union", "backdoor (computing)", "computer security", "File:DES-key-schedule.png", "Brute Force: Cracking the Data Encryption Standard", "rainbow table", "Atalla Corporation", "Germany", "Differential-linear cryptanalysis", "RC6", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "ciphertext", "LOKI89", "DESCHALL Project", "Eli Biham", "GeForce 10 series", "cipher", "EFF DES cracker", "Donald Davies", "Federal Register", "DES-X", "Martin Hellman", "key length", "Oxford University Press", "Burt Kaliski", "Substitution box", "Bruce Schneier", "56-bit encryption", "Lucifer (cipher)", "Adi Shamir", "brute-force attack", "National Security Agency", "known plaintext", "Alex Biryukov", "Journal of Cryptology", "Twofish", "NewDES", "Linear cryptanalysis", "ICE (cipher)", "algorithm", "lookup table", "Skipjack (cipher)", "ASIACRYPT", "encryption", "International Data Encryption Algorithm", "block size (cryptography)", "SciEngines GmbH", "Exclusive or", "CAST5", "TDEA", "Claude Shannon", "Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age", "Pseudocode", "Mohamed Atalla", "University of Kiel", "Feistel network", "differential cryptanalysis", "public-key cryptography", "functional composition", "Orr Dunkelman", "Ruhr University", "John Gilmore (activist)", "Field-programmable gate array", "RSA Security", "Davies' attack", "AES competition", "information security", "key schedule", "distributed.net", "RC5", "Matt Curtin", "Serpent (cipher)", "Electronic Frontier Foundation", "parity bit", "linear cryptanalysis", "Russia", "block cipher mode of operation", "involution (mathematics)", "Horst Feistel", "United States Department of Commerce", "IBM 3624", "Selected Areas in Cryptography", "GDES", "Fast Software Encryption", "byte", "MARS (cryptography)", "plaintext", "classified information", "Steven Levy", "American National Standards Institute", "Roy Adler", "Walter Tuchman", "group (mathematics)", "key (cryptography)", "File:DES-main-network.png", "GOST 28147-89", "Matt Robshaw", "hardware security module", "chosen plaintext", "Deep Crack", "Feistel scheme", "software", "INCITS", "permutation", "block cipher", "Differential cryptanalysis", "Weak key", "NIST", "G-DES", "symmetric-key algorithm", "cryptography", "Advanced Encryption Standard process", "ANSI", "Whitfield Diffie" ]
7,983	Double-hulled tanker	A double-hulled tanker refers to an oil tanker which has a double hull. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring compared to single-hulled tankers, and their ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for oil tankers and other types of ships including by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull. ==Reasons for use== A number of manufacturers have embraced oil tankers with a double hull because it strengthens the hull of ships, reducing the likelihood of oil disasters in low-impact collisions and groundings over single-hull ships. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring at low speed impacts in port areas when the ship is under pilotage. Research of impact damage of ships has revealed that double-hulled tankers are unlikely to perforate both hulls in a collision, preventing oil from seeping out. However, for smaller tankers, U-shaped tanks might be susceptible to "free flooding" across the double bottom and up to the outside water level each side of the cargo tank. Salvors prefer to salvage doubled-hulled tankers because they permit the use of air pressure to vacuum out the flood water. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh Reef outside the port of Valdez, Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull. However, the damage to the Exxon Valdez penetrated sections of the hull (the slops oil tanks, or slop tanks) that were protected by a double bottom, or partial double hull. ==Maintenance issues== Although double-hulled tankers reduce the likelihood of ships grazing rocks and creating holes in the hull, a double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. Double-hulled tankers, if poorly designed, constructed, maintained and operated can be as problematic, if not more problematic than their single-hulled counterparts. and because the steel weight of doubled-hulled tanks should not be greater than that of single-hulled ships, the individual hull walls are typically thinner and theoretically less resistant to wear. Double hulls by no means eliminate the possibility of the hulls breaking apart. Due to the air space between the hulls, there is also a potential problem with volatile gases seeping out through worn areas of the internal hull, increasing the risk of an explosion. Although several international conventions against pollution are in place, as of 2003 there was still no formal body setting international mandatory standards, although the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) does provide guidelines giving advice on optimum use and safety, such as recommending that ballast tanks are not entered while loaded with cargo, and that weekly samples are made of the atmosphere inside for hydrocarbon gas.	[ "Exxon Valdez oil spill", "MARPOL", "Valdez, Alaska", "MV Erika", "Exxon Valdez", "Lloyd's Open Form", "double hull", "Bligh Reef", "International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships", "Alaska", "oil tanker", "Marine salvage", "International Maritime Organization" ]
7,984	Drink	A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, juice, smoothies and soft drinks. Traditionally warm beverages include coffee, tea, and hot chocolate. Caffeinated drinks that contain the stimulant caffeine have a long history. In addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture for more than 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, wine and cocktails, but are made with a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. ==Biology== When the human body becomes dehydrated, a person experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete deprivation of drinks (that is, water) will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance besides oxygen. Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As society developed, techniques were discovered to create alcoholic drinks from the plants that were available in different areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia ( BCE) and Iran ( BCE). Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer (and bread) has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization. Tea likely originated in Yunnan, China, during the Shang dynasty (1500 BCE–1046 BCE) as a medicinal drink. ==History== Drinking has been a large part of socialising throughout the centuries. In ancient Greece, a social gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium, where watered down wine would be drunk. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence. In ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of gods such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons. In some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honoring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink. The drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. == Production == A drink is a form of liquid which has been prepared for human consumption. The preparation can include a number of different steps, some prior to transport, others immediately prior to consumption. ===Purification of water=== Water is the chief constituent in all drinks, and the primary ingredient in most. Water is purified prior to drinking. Methods for purification include filtration and the addition of chemicals, such as chlorination. The importance of purified water is highlighted by the World Health Organization, who point out 94% of deaths from diarrhea – the third biggest cause of infectious death worldwide at 1.8 million annually – could be prevented by improving the quality of the victim's environment, particularly safe water. ===Pasteurization=== Pasteurization is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified temperature, then immediately cooling. The process reduces the growth of microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage. It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurization is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness. ===Juicing=== The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables can take a number of forms. Simple crushing of most fruits will provide a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit. Both crushing and pressing are processes used in the production of wine. ===Infusion=== Infusion is the process of extracting flavors from plant material by allowing the material to remain suspended within water. This process is used in the production of teas, herbal teas and can be used to prepare coffee (when using a coffee press). ===Percolation=== The name is derived from the word "percolate" which means to cause (a solvent) to pass through a permeable substance especially for extracting a soluble constituent. In the case of coffee-brewing the solvent is water, the permeable substance is the coffee grounds, and the soluble constituents are the chemical compounds that give coffee its color, taste, aroma, and stimulating properties. ===Carbonation=== Carbonation is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide into a liquid, such as water. ===Fermentation=== Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to ethanol. Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of drinks since the Neolithic age. In winemaking, grape juice is combined with yeast in an anaerobic environment to allow the fermentation. The amount of sugar in the wine and the length of time given for fermentation determine the alcohol level and the sweetness of the wine. When brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients – water, grain, yeast and hops. The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting. It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation. This process is known as mashing. Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process. ===Distillation=== Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid mixture. It is one of the methods used in the purification of water. It is also a method of producing spirits from milder alcoholic drinks. ===Mixing=== An alcoholic mixed drink that contains two or more ingredients is referred to as a cocktail. Cocktails were originally a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters. The term is now often used for almost any mixed drink that contains alcohol, including mixers, mixed shots, etc. A cocktail today usually contains one or more kinds of spirit and one or more mixers, such as soda or fruit juice. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs. ==Type== ===Non-alcoholic drinks=== A non-alcoholic drink is one that contains little or no alcohol. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider if they contain a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume (ABV). The exact definition of what is "non-alcoholic" and what is not depends on local laws: in the United Kingdom, "alcohol-free beer" is under 0.05% ABV, "de-alcoholised beer" is under 0.5%, while "low-alcohol beer" can contain no more than 1.2% ABV. The term "soft drink" specifies the absence of alcohol in contrast to "hard drink" and "drink". The term "drink" is theoretically neutral, but often is used in a way that suggests alcoholic content. Drinks such as soda pop, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, root beer, fruit punch, milk, hot chocolate, tea, coffee, milkshakes, tap water, bottled water, juice, and energy drinks are all soft drinks. ====Water==== Water is the world's most consumed drink, however, 97% of water on Earth is non-drinkable salt water. Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and frozen glaciers. Less than 1% of the Earth's fresh water supplies are accessible through surface water and underground sources which are cost effective to retrieve. In western cultures, water is often drunk cold. In the Chinese culture, it is typically drunk hot. ====Milk==== Milk is regarded as one of the "original" drinks; milk is the primary source of nutrition for babies. In many cultures of the world, especially the Western world, humans continue to consume dairy milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a drink. ====Carbonated drinks==== Carbonated drinks refer to drinks which have carbon dioxide dissolved into them. This can happen naturally through fermenting and in natural water spas or artificially by the dissolution of carbon dioxide under pressure. The first commercially available artificially carbonated drink is believed to have been produced by Thomas Henry in the late 1770s. Cola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be added later. The most consumed carbonated soft drinks are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. ====Hot drinks==== These drinks are often served warm or hot. =====Coffee===== Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreen shrub of the genus Coffea. The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded Coffea arabica, and the "robusta" form of the hardier Coffea canephora. Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries. Once ripe, coffee "berries" are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–5.1) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine content. It is one of the most popular drinks in the world. It can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. The effect of coffee on human health has been a subject of many studies; however, results have varied in terms of coffee's relative benefit. Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia; Coffee may have been used socially in the renaissance period of the 17th century. The increasing trades between Europe and North Africa regions made coffee more widely available to Europeans gathering at social locations that served coffee, possibly contributing to the growth of coffeehouses. The first chocolate drink is believed to have been created by the Mayans around 2,500-3,000 years ago, and a cocoa drink was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD, by which they referred to as xocōlātl. The drink became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then. Until the 19th century, hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases. Hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations, including the spiced chocolate para mesa of Latin America, the very thick cioccolata calda served in Italy and chocolate a la taza served in Spain, and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses and teahouses. Powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores and online. =====Tea===== Tea, the second most consumed drink in the world, is produced from infusing dried leaves of the Camellia sinensis shrub, in boiling water. There are many ways in which tea is prepared for consumption: lemon or milk and sugar are among the most common additives worldwide. Other additions include butter and salt in Bhutan, Nepal, and Tibet; bubble tea in Taiwan; fresh ginger in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; mint in North Africa and Senegal; cardamom in Central Asia; rum to make Jagertee in Central Europe; and coffee to make yuanyang in Hong Kong. Tea is also served differently from country to country: in China, Japan and South Korea tiny cups are used to serve tea; in Thailand and the United States tea is often served cold (as "iced tea") or with a lot of sweetener; Indians boil tea with milk and a blend of spices as masala chai; tea is brewed with a samovar in Iran, Kashmir, Russia and Turkey; and in the Australian Outback it is traditionally brewed in a billycan. Tea leaves can be processed in different ways resulting in a drink which appears and tastes different. Chinese yellow and green tea are steamed, roasted and dried; Oolong tea is semi-oxidised and appears green-black and black teas are fully oxidised. =====Herbal tea===== Around the world, people refer to other herbal infusions as "teas"; it is also argued that these were popular long before the Camellia sinensis shrub was used for tea making. Leaves, flowers, roots or bark can be used to make a herbal infusion and can be bought fresh, dried or powdered. ====Juice and plant drinks==== Fruit juice is a natural product that contains few or no additives. Citrus products such as orange juice and tangerine juice are familiar breakfast drinks, while grapefruit juice, pineapple, apple, grape, lime, and lemon juice are also common. Coconut water is a highly nutritious and refreshing juice. Many kinds of berries are crushed; their juices are mixed with water and sometimes sweetened. Raspberry, blackberry and currants are popular juices drinks but the percentage of water also determines their nutritive value. Grape juice allowed to ferment produces wine. Fruits are highly perishable so the ability to extract juices and store them was of significant value. Some fruits are highly acidic and mixing them with water and sugars or honey was often necessary to make them palatable. Fruits can also be blended with ice and other ingredients to make a smoothie. Early storage of fruit juices was labor-intensive, requiring the crushing of the fruits and the mixing of the resulting pure juices with sugars before bottling. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Type of fruit drink !! Percentage of fruit needed in drink !! Description \|- \| Fruit juice \|\| 100% \|\| Largely regulated throughout the world; 'juice' is often protected to be used for only 100% fruit. \|\| 30% \|\| All 'suspended matter' is eliminated by filtration or clarification. \|\| - \|\| Cooled drink of sweetened diluted fruit juice. ====Beer==== Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat. Most beer is also flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included. The preparation of beer is called brewing. Beer is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic drink, and is the third-most consumed drink overall, after water and tea. It is said to have been discovered by goddess Ninkasi around 5300 BCE, when she accidentally discovered yeast after leaving grain in jars that were later rained upon and left for several days. Women have been the chief creators of beer throughout history due to its association with domesticity and it, throughout much of history, being brewed in the home for family consumption. Only in recent history have men begun to dabble in the field. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented drink. Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and "The Hymn to Ninkasi", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people. Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. ====Cider==== Cider is a fermented alcoholic drink made from fruit juice, most commonly and traditionally apple juice, but also the juice of peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider may be made from any variety of apple, but certain cultivars grown solely for use in cider are known as cider apples. The United Kingdom has the highest per capita consumption of cider, as well as the largest cider-producing companies in the world, , the U.K. produces 600 million litres of cider each year (130 million imperial gallons). ====Wine==== Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes or other fruits. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. The well-known variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation, along with human intervention in the overall process. The final product may contain tens of thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a few parts per billion. Wines made from produce besides grapes are usually named after the product from which they are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term "wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified drinks having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine, huangjiu, or sake. Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest production so far discovered having occurred BC in Georgia. The Greek cult and mysteries of Dionysus, carried on by the Romans in their Bacchanalia, were the origins of western theater. Judaism incorporates it in the Kiddush and Christianity in its Eucharist, while alcohol consumption was forbidden in Islam. ====Spirits==== Spirits are distilled beverages that contain no added sugar and have at least 20% alcohol by volume (ABV). Popular spirits include borovička, brandy, gin, rum, slivovitz, tequila, vodka, and whisky. Brandy is a spirit created by distilling wine, whilst vodka may be distilled from any starch- or sugar-rich plant matter; most vodka today is produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye, or wheat. ==In culture== ===Places to drink=== Throughout history, people have come together in establishments to socialise whilst drinking. This includes cafés and coffeehouses, focus on providing hot drinks as well as light snacks. Many coffee houses in the Middle East, and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world, offer shisha (nargile in Turkish and Greek), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah. Espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specialize in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. In China and Japan, the establishment would be a tea house, where people would socialise while drinking tea. Chinese scholars have used the teahouse as a place to share ideas. Alcoholic drinks are served in drinking establishments, which have different cultural connotations. For example, pubs are fundamental to the culture of The United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New England, Metro Detroit, South Africa and New Zealand. In many places, especially in villages, a pub can be the focal point of the community. The writings of Samuel Pepys describe the pub as the heart of England. Many pubs are controlled by breweries, so cask ale or keg beer may be a better value than wines and spirits. In contrast, types of bars range from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed "dive bars", to elegant places of entertainment for the elite. Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. The term "bar" is derived from the specialized counter on which drinks are served. Some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, or they may sit at tables and be served by cocktail servers. ===Matching with food=== Food and drink are often paired together to enhance the taste experience. This primarily happens with wine and a culture has grown up around the process. Weight, flavors and textures can either be contrasted or complemented. In recent years, food magazines began to suggest particular wines with recipes and restaurants would offer multi-course dinners matched with a specific wine for each course. ===Presentation=== Different drinks have unique receptacles for their consumption. This is sometimes purely for presentations purposes, such as for cocktails. In other situations, the drinkware has practical application, such as coffee cups which are designed for insulation or brandy snifters which are designed to encourage evaporation but trap the aroma within the glass. Many glasses include a stem, which allows the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink. In champagne glasses, the bowl is designed to retain champagne's signature carbonation, by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl. Historically, champagne has been served in a champagne coupe, the shape of which allowed carbonation to dissipate even more rapidly than from a standard wine glass. ==Commercial trade== ===International exports and imports=== An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004, and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. ===Investment=== Some drinks, such as wine, can be used as an alternative investment. This can be achieved by either purchasing and reselling individual bottles or cases of particular wines, or purchasing shares in an investment wine fund that pools investors' capital.	[ "List of countries with alcohol prohibition", "evergreen", "Shang dynasty", "bottled water", "Bacchanalia", "Ottoman Empire", "ancient Greece", "shrub", "Yeast in winemaking", "separation process", "Sufism", "Go-Go dancing", "chemistry", "cider apple", "Scientific American", "hot chocolate", "Caffeinated drink", "Ethanol", "hypothalamus", "appellation", "mashing", "carbon dioxide", "Dr Pepper Snapple Group", "Canada", "Bar stool", "Coca-Cola", "soy milk", "white wine", "huangjiu", "herbal teas", "cattle", "wine", "terroir", "Aztec", "List of beverages", "wine glass", "distilled beverage", "preservative", "champagne coupe", "cream", "Outback", "blood", "bitters", "British culture", "oxygen", "Cocoa solids", "Renaissance", "sweetness of wine", "ancient Greek religion", "China", "masala chai", "slivovitz", "drinking establishments", "juice", "microorganism", "honey", "fermented drink", "wine production", "Red wine", "technology", "Wine glass", "Dionysian Mysteries", "Neolithic Europe", "sheep milk", "smoothie", "liquid", "epigynous berries", "billycan", "Nepal", "rice wine", "Drink mixer", "pear", "Iran", "orange juice", "relaxation drink", "West Asia", "Vegetable juice", "filtration", "New World", "chocolate", "milkshake", "ancient Romans", "tea", "fast food restaurant", "culture", "Sweetened beverage", "Nightcap (drink)", "metabolism", "United States Geological Survey", "National Women's History Museum", "enzyme", "List of hot drinks", "Los Angeles Times", "cardiovascular disease", "List of national drinks", "Cereal", "Coffee", "apple juice", "tangerine", "Addis Ababa University", "hops", "on the rocks", "human culture", "Ninkasi", "Non-alcoholic drinks", "alcohol by volume", "alternative investment", "Houghton Mifflin", "milk", "Water chlorination", "still", "PepsiCo", "iced tea", "Alcohol (drug)", "borovička", "Christianity", "herb", "elderberry wine", "Ethiopian Church", "basket press", "cult of Dionysus", "nutrient", "alcoholic drink", "liquor", "Culture of Ireland", "bread", "lemonade", "archaeological", "cultivar", "grapefruit juice", "symposium", "Science (journal)", "coffee", "Wine", "Georgia (country)", "cocktail", "Drip brew", "starch", "Culture of New Zealand", "yuanyang (drink)", "Kiddush", "North Africa", "french press", "Japan", "Bacchus", "non-alcoholic drink", "bubble tea", "sparkling water", "bar (counter)", "tap water", "surface area", "winemaking", "Carbonation", "Yemen", "human", "Champagne bottle", "ancient Egyptians", "coconut milk", "hookah", "Europe", "Carbonated water", "ancient Rome", "barley wine", "Goat milk", "apple cider", "Coffea arabica", "Kashmir", "Samuel Pepys", "brewing", "Western world", "low-alcohol beer", "Taiwan", "society", "ancient Greece and wine", "percolation", "Yunnan", "Fruit juice", "mixture", "Toast (honor)", "fruit punch", "Code of Hammurabi", "electrolyte", "Australian culture", "pomegranate", "Apfelwein", "wheat", "Drinking water", "United Kingdom", "Sleep induction", "cask ale", "List of food and drink monuments", "drinking water", "Milk", "Ribes", "brewpubs", "Bhutan", "Pasteurization", "fermentation (wine)", "germinate", "sugar", "vodka", "bartender", "loving cup", "civilization", "Saite dynasty", "Hot chocolate", "Blood circulation", "warm milk", "sorghum", "Menelik II", "almond milk", "rye", "Plutarch", "regional brewery", "keg beer", "alcoholic drinks", "red wine", "ethanol", "sake", "Coffea canephora", "cucumber", "tea house", "theater", "gin", "Juice", "Cider", "Beer", "Human food", "wort", "samovar", "celery", "pub", "New England", "Tea", "pathogen", "malt", "Senegalese tea culture", "Islam", "Coconut water", "root beer", "thirst", "teahouse", "maize", "Cannabis (drug)", "Middle East", "oat milk", "The Independent", "added sugar", "Vincent van Gogh", "bittering agent", "carrot", "Infusion", "Plant milk", "diarrhea", "Low-alcohol beer", "Tibet", "peach", "online", "acidic", "Eucharist", "Snifter", "Hot beverage", "beer", "cancer", "soft drinks", "Ancient Rome and wine", "rice milk", "Multinational corporation", "alcohol (drug)", "List of countries by coffee production", "South Korea", "Maya civilization", "whisky", "espresso", "fruit wine", "malting", "Drinking", "caffeine", "World Health Organization", "Volatility (physics)", "Arabia", "energy drink", "Dionysus", "17th century", "grape", "coffeehouse", "grocery store", "genus", "Coffea", "Balkans", "Neolithic age", "cafeteria", "rum", "South Africa", "brandy", "acid", "mixed drink", "water", "Judaism", "carbonation", "Hydrolysis", "Striptease", "Fermentation (food)", "Water-borne illness", "death", "Metro Detroit", "Hypoxia (environmental)", "Jagertee", "dehydrated", "fruit juice", "tequila" ]
7,985	Dill	Dill (Anethum graveolens) is an annual herb in the celery family Apiaceae. === Taxonomy === The genus name Anethum is the Latin form of Greek ἄνῑσον / ἄνησον / ἄνηθον / ἄνητον, which meant both "dill" and "anise". The form 'anīsum' came to be used for anise, and 'anēthum' for dill. The Latin word is the origin of dill's names in the Western Romance languages ('anet', 'aneldo' etc.), and also of the obsolete English 'anet'. == Botany == Dill grows up to from a taproot like a carrot. Its stems are slender and hollow with finely divided, softly delicate leaves; the leaves are alternately arranged, long with ultimate leaf divisions are broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of fennel, which are threadlike, less than broad, but harder in texture. File:20141003Anethum graveolens.jpg\|Yellow dill umbels File:Dill1 (cropped).jpg\|Closeup of a dill umbel In hot or dry weather, small white to yellow scented flowers form in small umbels diameter from one long stalk. The seeds come from dried up fruit It also prefers rich, well-drained soil. The seed is harvested by cutting the flower heads off the stalks when the seed is beginning to ripen. The seed heads are placed upside down in a paper bag and left in a warm, dry place for a week. The seeds then separate from the stems easily for storage in an airtight container. These plants, like their fennel and parsley relatives, often are eaten by black swallowtail caterpillars in areas where that species occurs. For this reason, they may be included in some butterfly gardens. == History == Dill has been found in the tomb of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, dating to around 1400 BC. It was also later found in the Greek city of Samos, around the 7th century BC, and mentioned in the writings of Theophrastus (371–287 BC). == Uses == === Culinary === ==== Aroma profile ==== Apiole and dillapiole Carvone Myristicin Umbelliferone Dill is the eponymous ingredient in dill pickles. ====Central and eastern Europe ==== In central and eastern Europe, the Nordic countries, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, dill is a staple culinary herb along with chives and parsley. Fresh, finely cut dill leaves are used as a topping in soups, especially the hot red borsht and the cold borsht mixed with curds, kefir, yogurt, or sour cream, which is served during hot summer weather and is called 'okroshka'. It also is popular in summer to drink fermented milk (curds, kefir, yogurt, or buttermilk) mixed with dill (and sometimes other herbs). In the same way, dill is used as a topping for boiled potatoes covered with fresh butter – especially in summer when there are so-called new, or young, potatoes. The dill leaves may be mixed with butter, making a dill butter, to serve the same purpose. Dill leaves mixed with tvorog form one of the traditional cheese spreads used for sandwiches. Fresh dill leaves are used throughout the year as an ingredient in salads, e.g., one made of lettuce, fresh cucumbers, and tomatoes, as basil leaves are used in Italy and Greece. Russian cuisine is noted for liberal use of dill, where it is known as . It is supposed to have antiflatulent properties; some Russian cosmonauts recommended its use in human spaceflight due to such properties being beneficial in confined quarters with a closed air supply. In Polish cuisine, fresh dill leaves mixed with sour cream are the basis for dressings. It is especially popular to use this kind of sauce with freshly cut cucumbers, which are almost wholly immersed in the sauce, making a salad called 'mizeria'. Dill sauce is used hot for baked freshwater fish and for chicken or turkey breast, or used hot or cold for hard-boiled eggs. A dill-based soup, (zupa koperkowa), served with potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, is popular in Poland. Whole stems including roots and flower buds are used traditionally to prepare Polish-style pickled cucumbers (ogórki kiszone), especially the so-called low-salt cucumbers (ogórki małosolne). Whole stems of dill (often including the roots) also are cooked with potatoes, especially the potatoes of autumn and winter, so they resemble the flavour of the newer potatoes found in summer. Some kinds of fish, especially trout and salmon, traditionally are baked with the stems and leaves of dill. In the Czech Republic, white dill sauce made of cream (or milk), butter, flour, vinegar, and dill is called 'koprová omáčka' (also 'koprovka' or 'kopračka') and is served either with boiled eggs and potatoes, or with dumplings and boiled beef. Another Czech dish with dill is a soup called 'kulajda' that contains mushrooms (traditionally wild ones). In Germany, dill is popular as a seasoning for fish and many other dishes, chopped as a garnish on potatoes, and as a flavouring in pickles. In the UK, dill may be used in fish pie. In Bulgaria dill is widely used in traditional vegetable salads, and most notably the yogurt-based cold soup Tarator. It is also used in the preparation of sour pickles, cabbage, and other dishes. In Romania dill (mărar) is widely used as an ingredient for soups such as 'borş' (pronounced "borsh"), pickles, and other dishes, especially those based on peas, beans, and cabbage. It is popular for dishes based on potatoes and mushrooms and may be found in many summer salads (especially cucumber salad, cabbage salad and lettuce salad). During springtime, it is used in omelets with spring onions. It often complements sauces based on sour cream or yogurt and is mixed with salted cheese and used as a filling. Another popular dish with dill as a main ingredient is dill sauce, which is served with eggs and fried sausages. In Hungary, dill is very widely used. It is popular as a sauce or filling, and mixed with a type of cottage cheese. Dill is also used for pickling and in salads. The Hungarian name for dill is 'kapor'. In Serbia, dill is known as 'mirodjija' and is used as an addition to soups, potato and cucumber salads, and French fries. It features in the Serbian proverb, "бити мирођија у свакој чорби" /biti mirodjija u svakoj čorbi/ (to be a dill in every soup), which corresponds to the English proverb "to have a finger in every pie". In Greece, dill is known as 'άνηθος' (anithos). In antiquity it was used as an ingredient in wines that were called "anithites oinos" (wine with anithos-dill). In modern days, dill is used in salads, soups, sauces, and fish and vegetable dishes. In Santa Maria, Azores, dill (endro) is the most important ingredient of the traditional Holy Ghost soup (sopa do Espírito Santo). Dill is found ubiquitously in Santa Maria, yet, is rare in the other Azorean Islands. In Sweden, dill is a common spice or herb. The flowers of fully grown dill are called 'krondill' (crown dill) and used when cooking crayfish. The krondill is put into the water after the crayfish is boiled, but still in hot and salt water. Then the entire dish is refrigerated for at least 24 hours before being served (with toasted bread and butter). Krondill is also used to flavor pickles and vodka. After a month or two of fermentation, the cucumber pickles are ready to eat, for instance, with pork, brown sauce, and potatoes, as a sweetener. The thinner part of dill and young plants may be used with boiled fresh potatoes (especially the first potatoes of the year, new potatoes, which usually are small and have a very thin skin). In salads it is used together with, or instead, of other green herbs, such as parsley, chives, and basil. It is often paired up with chives when used in food. Dill is often used to flavour fish and seafood in Sweden, for example, gravlax and various herring pickles, among them the traditional, 'sill i dill' (literally 'herring in dill'). In contrast to the various fish dishes flavoured with dill, there is also a traditional Swedish dish called, 'dillkött', which is a meaty stew flavoured with dill. The dish commonly contains pieces of veal or lamb that are boiled until tender and then served together with a vinegary dill sauce. Dill seeds may be used in breads or 'akvavit'. A newer, non-traditional use of dill is to pair it with chives as a flavouring for potato chips. These are called 'dillchips' and are quite popular in Sweden. In Finland, the uses of dill are very similar to those in Sweden, including flavouring potato chips and, less popularly, in a dish similar to 'dillkött' ('tilliliha'). However, the use of dill in Finland is not as extensive as in large parts of central and eastern Europe, particularly Russia but including even the ethnolinguistically close Estonia. ==== Asia and Middle East ==== In Iran, dill is known as 'shevid' and sometimes, is used with rice and called 'shevid-polo'. It also is used in Iranian 'aash' recipes, and similarly, is called in Persian. In India, dill is known as 'Sholpa' in Bengali, (शेपू) in Marathi, sheppi (शेप्पी) in Konkani, in Hindi, or in Punjabi. In Telugu, it is called 'Soa-kura' (herb greens). It also is called (ಸಬ್ಬಸಿಗೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು) in Kannada. In Tamil it is known as (சதகுப்பி). In Malayalam, it is ചതകുപ്പ () or (). In Sanskrit, this herb is called . In Gujarati, it is known as (સૂવા). In India, dill is prepared in the manner of yellow 'moong dal', as a main-course dish. It is considered to have very good antiflatulent properties, so it is used as 'mukhwas', or an after-meal digestive. Traditionally, it is given to mothers immediately after childbirth. In the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, a small amount of fresh dill is cooked along with cut potatoes and fresh fenugreek leaves (Hindi आलू-मेथी-सोया). In Manipur, dill, locally known as , is an essential ingredient of – a traditional Manipuri dish made with fermented soybean and rice. In Laos and parts of northern Thailand, dill is known in English as Lao coriander ( or ), and served as a side with salad yum or papaya salad. In the Lao language, it is called 'phak see', and in Thai, it is known as 'phak chee Lao'. In Lao cuisine, Lao coriander is used extensively in traditional Lao dishes such as 'mok pa' (steamed fish in banana leaf) and several coconut milk curries that contain fish or prawns. In China dill is called colloquially, 'huíxiāng' (, perfume of Hui people), or more properly 'shíluó' (). It is a common filling in 'baozi', 'jiaozi' and 'xianbing' and may be used as vegetarian with rice vermicelli, or combined with either meat or eggs. Vegetarian dill baozi are a common part of a Beijing breakfast. In baozi and xianbing, it often is interchangeable with non-bulbing fennel and the term also may refer to fennel, similarly to caraway and coriander leaf, sharing a name in Chinese as well. Dill also may be stir fried as a potherb, often with egg, in the same manner as Chinese chives. In Northern China, Beijing, Inner-Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu, and Xinjiang, dill seeds commonly are called 'zīrán' (), but also 'kūmíng' (), 'kūmíngzi' (), 'shíluózi' (), 'xiǎohuíxiāngzi' () and are used with pepper for lamb meat. In the whole of China, 'yángchuàn' () or 'yángròu chuàn' (), lamb brochette, a speciality from Uyghurs, uses cumin and pepper. In Taiwan, it is also commonly used as a filling in steamed buns (baozi) and dumplings (jiaozi). In Vietnam, the use of dill in cooking is regional. It is used mainly in northern Vietnamese cuisine. ==== Middle East ==== In Arab countries, dill seed, called (grasshopper's eye), is used as a spice in cold dishes such as 'fattoush' and pickles. In Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, dill is called 'shibint' and is used mostly in fish dishes. In Egypt, dillweed is commonly used to flavour cabbage dishes, including 'mahshi koronb' (stuffed cabbage leaves). In Israel, dill weed is used in salads and also to flavour omelettes, often alongside parsley. === Companion planting === When used as a companion plant, dill attracts many beneficial insects as the umbrella flower heads go to seed. It makes a good companion plant for cucumbers and broccoli. Tomato plants benefit from dill when it is young because it repels harmful pests while attracting pollinators. But the dill must be pruned before it flowers, otherwise it can slow or stop the growth of the tomatoes.	[ "okroshka", "mok pa", "Chinese chives", "human spaceflight", "Clarendon Press", "fish pie", "Manipur", "Carl Linnaeus", "caraway", "borscht", "Tomato", "Journal of Food Science", "Nordic countries", "Kannada language", "brochette", "Freeze drying", "Israel", "herbaceous", "Ghillean Prance", "Greek language", "Chromatographia", "Russian cuisine", "cabbage roll", "Greece", "Beijing", "Anethus", "eponymous", "Taiwan", "taproot", "Amenhotep II", "Estonia", "ogórki kiszone", "tvorog", "chives", "Lao cuisine", "Theophrastus", "Ningxia", "schizocarp", "Apiaceae", "fennel", "omelet", "jiaozi", "Pickled cucumber", "Oxford University Press", "Papilio polyxenes", "akvavit", "Polish cuisine", "umbel", "kefir", "flower", "Tarator", "pickling", "Gansu", "Myristicin", "Butterfly gardening", "Uyghurs", "Tamil language", "Copper", "dillapiole", "mizeria", "crayfish", "Slavic language", "broccoli", "Santa Maria Island (Azores)", "basil", "stir fried", "Inner-Mongolia", "baozi", "Carvone", "herb", "seed", "Umbelliferone", "antiflatulent", "Eurasia", "Western Romance languages", "Oxford English Dictionary", "fattoush", "companion plant", "Lao language", "Persian Language", "parsley", "List of Indian spices", "anise", "Samos", "Thai language", "gravlax", "Dill oil", "Apiole", "Biotechnology Letters", "Persian Gulf", "Latin language", "Proto-Slavic", "cucumber", "bing (bread)", "Proto-Indo-European language", "annual plant", "Limonene", "Xinjiang", "Greek mythology", "Malayalam", "prawn" ]
7,988	Dual space	In mathematics, any vector space V has a corresponding dual vector space (or just dual space for short) consisting of all linear forms on V, together with the vector space structure of pointwise addition and scalar multiplication by constants. The dual space as defined above is defined for all vector spaces, and to avoid ambiguity may also be called the . When defined for a topological vector space, there is a subspace of the dual space, corresponding to continuous linear functionals, called the continuous dual space. Dual vector spaces find application in many branches of mathematics that use vector spaces, such as in tensor analysis with finite-dimensional vector spaces. When applied to vector spaces of functions (which are typically infinite-dimensional), dual spaces are used to describe measures, distributions, and Hilbert spaces. Consequently, the dual space is an important concept in functional analysis. Early terms for dual include polarer Raum [Hahn 1927], espace conjugué, adjoint space [Alaoglu 1940], and transponierter Raum [Schauder 1930] and [Banach 1932]. The term dual is due to Bourbaki 1938. == Algebraic dual space == Given any vector space V over a field F, the (algebraic) dual space V^{} (alternatively denoted by V^{\lor} or V') is defined as the set of all linear maps \varphi: V \to F (linear functionals). Since linear maps are vector space homomorphisms, the dual space may be denoted \hom (V, F). or \varphi (x) = \langle x, \varphi \rangle. This pairing defines a nondegenerate bilinear mapping \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle : V \times V^ \to F called the natural pairing. === Finite-dimensional case === If V is finite-dimensional, then V^* has the same dimension as V. Given a basis \{\mathbf{e}_1,\dots,\mathbf{e}_n\} in V, it is possible to construct a specific basis in V^, called the dual basis. This dual basis is a set \{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\} of linear functionals on V, defined by the relation \mathbf{e}^i(c^1 \mathbf{e}_1+\cdots+c^n\mathbf{e}_n) = c^i, \quad i=1,\ldots,n for any choice of coefficients c^i\in F. In particular, letting in turn each one of those coefficients be equal to one and the other coefficients zero, gives the system of equations \mathbf{e}^i(\mathbf{e}_j) = \delta^{i}_{j} where \delta^{i}_{j} is the Kronecker delta symbol. This property is referred to as the bi-orthogonality property. Consider \{\mathbf{e}_1,\dots,\mathbf{e}_n\} the basis of V. Let \{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\} be defined as the following: \mathbf{e}^i(c^1 \mathbf{e}_1+\cdots+c^n\mathbf{e}_n) = c^i, \quad i=1,\ldots,n . These are a basis of V^ because: The \mathbf{e}^i , i=1, 2, \dots, n, are linear functionals, which map x,y \in V such as x= \alpha_1\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + \alpha_n\mathbf{e}_n and y = \beta_1\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + \beta_n \mathbf{e}_n to scalars \mathbf{e}^i(x)=\alpha_i and \mathbf{e}^i(y)=\beta_i. Then also, x+\lambda y=(\alpha_1+\lambda \beta_1)\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + (\alpha_n+\lambda\beta_n)\mathbf{e}_n and \mathbf{e}^i(x+\lambda y)=\alpha_i+\lambda\beta_i=\mathbf{e}^i(x)+\lambda \mathbf{e}^i(y) . Therefore, \mathbf{e}^i \in V^* for i= 1, 2, \dots, n . Suppose \lambda_1 \mathbf{e}^1 + \cdots + \lambda_n \mathbf{e}^n =0 \in V^. Applying this functional on the basis vectors of V successively, lead us to \lambda_1=\lambda_2= \dots=\lambda_n=0 (The functional applied in \mathbf{e}_i results in \lambda_i ). Therefore, \{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\} is linearly independent on V^. Lastly, consider g \in V^* . Then g(x)=g(\alpha_1\mathbf{e}_1 + \dots + \alpha_n\mathbf{e}_n)=\alpha_1g(\mathbf{e}_1) + \dots + \alpha_ng(\mathbf{e}_n)=\mathbf{e}^1(x)g(\mathbf{e}_1) + \dots + \mathbf{e}^n(x)g(\mathbf{e}_n) and \{\mathbf{e}^1,\dots,\mathbf{e}^n\} generates V^. Hence, it is a basis of V^. For example, if V is \R^2, let its basis be chosen as \{\mathbf{e}_1=(1/2,1/2),\mathbf{e}_2=(0,1)\}. The basis vectors are not orthogonal to each other. Then, \mathbf{e}^1 and \mathbf{e}^2 are one-forms (functions that map a vector to a scalar) such that \mathbf{e}^1(\mathbf{e}_1)=1, \mathbf{e}^1(\mathbf{e}_2)=0, \mathbf{e}^2(\mathbf{e}_1)=0, and \mathbf{e}^2(\mathbf{e}_2)=1. (Note: The superscript here is the index, not an exponent.) This system of equations can be expressed using matrix notation as \begin{bmatrix} e^{11} & e^{12} \\ e^{21} & e^{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} e_{11} & e_{21} \\ e_{12} & e_{22} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}. Solving for the unknown values in the first matrix shows the dual basis to be \{\mathbf{e}^1=(2,0),\mathbf{e}^2=(-1,1)\}. Because \mathbf{e}^1 and \mathbf{e}^2 are functionals, they can be rewritten as \mathbf{e}^1(x,y)=2x and \mathbf{e}^2(x,y)=-x+y. In general, when V is \R^n, if E=[\mathbf{e}_1\|\cdots\|\mathbf{e}_n] is a matrix whose columns are the basis vectors and \hat{E}=[\mathbf{e}^1\|\cdots\|\mathbf{e}^n] is a matrix whose columns are the dual basis vectors, then \hat{E}^\textrm{T}\cdot E = I_n, where I_n is the identity matrix of order n. The biorthogonality property of these two basis sets allows any point \mathbf{x}\in V to be represented as \mathbf{x} = \sum_i \langle\mathbf{x},\mathbf{e}^i \rangle \mathbf{e}_i = \sum_i \langle \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{e}_i \rangle \mathbf{e}^i, even when the basis vectors are not orthogonal to each other. Strictly speaking, the above statement only makes sense once the inner product \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle and the corresponding duality pairing are introduced, as described below in . In particular, \R^n can be interpreted as the space of columns of n real numbers, its dual space is typically written as the space of rows of n real numbers. Such a row acts on \R^n as a linear functional by ordinary matrix multiplication. This is because a functional maps every n-vector x into a real number y. Then, seeing this functional as a matrix M, and x as an n\times 1 matrix, and y a 1\times 1 matrix (trivially, a real number) respectively, if Mx=y then, by dimension reasons, M must be a 1\times n matrix; that is, M must be a row vector. If V consists of the space of geometrical vectors in the plane, then the level curves of an element of V^* form a family of parallel lines in V, because the range is 1-dimensional, so that every point in the range is a multiple of any one nonzero element. So an element of V^* can be intuitively thought of as a particular family of parallel lines covering the plane. To compute the value of a functional on a given vector, it suffices to determine which of the lines the vector lies on. Informally, this "counts" how many lines the vector crosses. More generally, if V is a vector space of any dimension, then the level sets of a linear functional in V^* are parallel hyperplanes in V, and the action of a linear functional on a vector can be visualized in terms of these hyperplanes. === Infinite-dimensional case === If V is not finite-dimensional but has a basis \mathbf{e}_\alpha indexed by an infinite set A, then the same construction as in the finite-dimensional case yields linearly independent elements \mathbf{e}^\alpha (\alpha\in A) of the dual space, but they will not form a basis. For instance, consider the space \R^\infty, whose elements are those sequences of real numbers that contain only finitely many non-zero entries, which has a basis indexed by the natural numbers \N. For i \in \N, \mathbf{e}_i is the sequence consisting of all zeroes except in the i-th position, which is 1. The dual space of \R^\infty is (isomorphic to) \R^\N, the space of all sequences of real numbers: each real sequence (a_n) defines a function where the element (x_n) of \R^\infty is sent to the number \sum_n a_nx_n, which is a finite sum because there are only finitely many nonzero x_n. The dimension of \R^\infty is countably infinite, whereas \R^\N does not have a countable basis. This observation generalizes to any The exact dimension of the dual is given by the Erdős–Kaplansky theorem. === Bilinear products and dual spaces === If V is finite-dimensional, then V is isomorphic to V∗. But there is in general no natural isomorphism between these two spaces. Any bilinear form on V gives a mapping of V into its dual space via v\mapsto \langle v, \cdot\rangle where the right hand side is defined as the functional on V taking each to . In other words, the bilinear form determines a linear mapping \Phi_{\langle\cdot,\cdot\rangle} : V\to V^* defined by \left[\Phi_{\langle\cdot,\cdot\rangle}(v), w\right] = \langle v, w\rangle. If the bilinear form is nondegenerate, then this is an isomorphism onto a subspace of V∗. If V is finite-dimensional, then this is an isomorphism onto all of V∗. Conversely, any isomorphism \Phi from V to a subspace of V∗ (resp., all of V∗ if V is finite dimensional) defines a unique nondegenerate bilinear form on V by \langle v, w \rangle_\Phi = (\Phi (v))(w) = [\Phi (v), w].\, Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between isomorphisms of V to a subspace of (resp., all of) V∗ and nondegenerate bilinear forms on V. If the vector space V is over the complex field, then sometimes it is more natural to consider sesquilinear forms instead of bilinear forms. In that case, a given sesquilinear form determines an isomorphism of V with the complex conjugate of the dual space \Phi_{\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle} : V\to \overline{V^}. The conjugate of the dual space \overline{V^} can be identified with the set of all additive complex-valued functionals such that f(\alpha v) = \overline{\alpha}f(v). === Injection into the double-dual === There is a natural homomorphism \Psi from V into the double dual V^{*}=\hom (V^, F), defined by (\Psi(v))(\varphi)=\varphi(v) for all v\in V, \varphi\in V^. In other words, if \mathrm{ev}_v:V^\to F is the evaluation map defined by \varphi \mapsto \varphi(v), then \Psi: V \to V^{*} is defined as the map v\mapsto\mathrm{ev}_v. This map \Psi is always injective; Indeed, the isomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space with its double dual is an archetypal example of a natural isomorphism. Infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are not isomorphic to their algebraic double duals, but instead to their continuous double duals. === Transpose of a linear map === If is a linear map, then the transpose (or dual) is defined by f^(\varphi) = \varphi \circ f \, for every \varphi \in W^. The resulting functional f^ (\varphi) in V^* is called the pullback of \varphi along f. The following identity holds for all \varphi \in W^* and v \in V: [f^(\varphi),\, v] = [\varphi,\, f(v)], where the bracket [·,·] on the left is the natural pairing of V with its dual space, and that on the right is the natural pairing of W with its dual. This identity characterizes the transpose, and is formally similar to the definition of the adjoint. The assignment produces an injective linear map between the space of linear operators from V to W and the space of linear operators from W to V; this homomorphism is an isomorphism if and only if W is finite-dimensional. If then the space of linear maps is actually an algebra under composition of maps, and the assignment is then an antihomomorphism of algebras, meaning that . In the language of category theory, taking the dual of vector spaces and the transpose of linear maps is therefore a contravariant functor from the category of vector spaces over F to itself. It is possible to identify (f) with f using the natural injection into the double dual. If the linear map f is represented by the matrix A with respect to two bases of V and W, then f is represented by the transpose matrix AT with respect to the dual bases of W and V, hence the name. Alternatively, as f is represented by A acting on the left on column vectors, f is represented by the same matrix acting on the right on row vectors. These points of view are related by the canonical inner product on Rn, which identifies the space of column vectors with the dual space of row vectors. === Quotient spaces and annihilators === Let S be a subset of V. The annihilator of S in V^, denoted here S^0, is the collection of linear functionals f\in V^* such that [f,s]=0 for all s\in S. That is, S^0 consists of all linear functionals f:V\to F such that the restriction to S vanishes: f\|_S = 0. Within finite dimensional vector spaces, the annihilator is dual to (isomorphic to) the orthogonal complement. The annihilator of a subset is itself a vector space. The annihilator of the zero vector is the whole dual space: \{ 0 \}^0 = V^, and the annihilator of the whole space is just the zero covector: V^0 = \{ 0 \} \subseteq V^. Furthermore, the assignment of an annihilator to a subset of V reverses inclusions, so that if \{ 0 \} \subseteq S\subseteq T\subseteq V, then \{ 0 \} \subseteq T^0 \subseteq S^0 \subseteq V^* . If A and B are two subsets of V then A^0 + B^0 \subseteq (A \cap B)^0 . If (A_i)_{i\in I} is any family of subsets of V indexed by i belonging to some index set I, then \left( \bigcup_{i\in I} A_i \right)^0 = \bigcap_{i\in I} A_i^0 . In particular if A and B are subspaces of V then (A + B)^0 = A^0 \cap B^0 and Under the natural pairing, these units cancel, and the resulting scalar value is dimensionless, as expected. For example, in (continuous) Fourier analysis, or more broadly time–frequency analysis: given a one-dimensional vector space with a unit of time , the dual space has units of frequency: occurrences per unit of time (units of ). For example, if time is measured in seconds, the corresponding dual unit is the inverse second: over the course of 3 seconds, an event that occurs 2 times per second occurs a total of 6 times, corresponding to 3s \cdot 2s^{-1} = 6. Similarly, if the primal space measures length, the dual space measures inverse length. == Continuous dual space == When dealing with topological vector spaces, the continuous linear functionals from the space into the base field \mathbb{F} = \Complex (or \R) are particularly important. This gives rise to the notion of the "continuous dual space" or "topological dual" which is a linear subspace of the algebraic dual space V^, denoted by V'. For any finite-dimensional normed vector space or topological vector space, such as Euclidean n-space, the continuous dual and the algebraic dual coincide. This is however false for any infinite-dimensional normed space, as shown by the example of discontinuous linear maps. Nevertheless, in the theory of topological vector spaces the terms "continuous dual space" and "topological dual space" are often replaced by "dual space". For a topological vector space V its continuous dual space, or topological dual space, or just dual space (in the sense of the theory of topological vector spaces) V' is defined as the space of all continuous linear functionals \varphi:V\to{\mathbb F}. Important examples for continuous dual spaces are the space of compactly supported test functions \mathcal{D} and its dual \mathcal{D}', the space of arbitrary distributions (generalized functions); the space of arbitrary test functions \mathcal{E} and its dual \mathcal{E}', the space of compactly supported distributions; and the space of rapidly decreasing test functions \mathcal{S}, the Schwartz space, and its dual \mathcal{S}', the space of tempered distributions (slowly growing distributions) in the theory of generalized functions. === Properties === If is a Hausdorff topological vector space (TVS), then the continuous dual space of is identical to the continuous dual space of the completion of . === Topologies on the dual === There is a standard construction for introducing a topology on the continuous dual V' of a topological vector space V. Fix a collection \mathcal{A} of bounded subsets of V. This gives the topology on V of uniform convergence on sets from \mathcal{A}, or what is the same thing, the topology generated by seminorms of the form \\|\varphi\\|_A = \sup_{x\in A} \|\varphi(x)\|, where \varphi is a continuous linear functional on V, and A runs over the class \mathcal{A}. This means that a net of functionals \varphi_i tends to a functional \varphi in V' if and only if \text{ for all } A\in\mathcal{A}\qquad \\|\varphi_i-\varphi\\|_A = \sup_{x\in A} \|\varphi_i(x)-\varphi(x)\|\underset{i\to\infty}{\longrightarrow} 0. Usually (but not necessarily) the class \mathcal{A} is supposed to satisfy the following conditions: Each point x of V belongs to some set A\in\mathcal{A}: \text{ for all } x \in V\quad \text{ there exists some } A \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ such that } x \in A. Each two sets A \in \mathcal{A} and B \in \mathcal{A} are contained in some set C \in \mathcal{A}: \text{ for all } A, B \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ there exists some } C \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ such that } A \cup B \subseteq C. \mathcal{A} is closed under the operation of multiplication by scalars: \text{ for all } A \in \mathcal{A}\quad \text{ and all } \lambda \in {\mathbb F}\quad \text{ such that } \lambda \cdot A \in \mathcal{A}. If these requirements are fulfilled then the corresponding topology on V' is Hausdorff and the sets U_A ~=~ \left \{ \varphi \in V' ~:~ \quad \\|\varphi\\|_A < 1 \right \},\qquad \text{ for } A \in \mathcal{A} form its local base. Here are the three most important special cases. The strong topology on V' is the topology of uniform convergence on bounded subsets in V (so here \mathcal{A} can be chosen as the class of all bounded subsets in V). If V is a normed vector space (for example, a Banach space or a Hilbert space) then the strong topology on V' is normed (in fact a Banach space if the field of scalars is complete), with the norm \\|\varphi\\| = \sup_{\\|x\\| \le 1 } \|\varphi(x)\|. The stereotype topology on V' is the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded sets in V (so here \mathcal{A} can be chosen as the class of all totally bounded subsets in V). The weak topology on V' is the topology of uniform convergence on finite subsets in V (so here \mathcal{A} can be chosen as the class of all finite subsets in V). Each of these three choices of topology on V' leads to a variant of reflexivity property for topological vector spaces: If V' is endowed with the strong topology, then the corresponding notion of reflexivity is the standard one: the spaces reflexive in this sense are just called reflexive. If V' is endowed with the stereotype dual topology, then the corresponding reflexivity is presented in the theory of stereotype spaces: the spaces reflexive in this sense are called stereotype. If V' is endowed with the weak topology, then the corresponding reflexivity is presented in the theory of dual pairs: the spaces reflexive in this sense are arbitrary (Hausdorff) locally convex spaces with the weak topology. === Examples === Let 1 < p < ∞ be a real number and consider the Banach space ℓ p of all sequences for which \\|\mathbf{a}\\|_p = \left ( \sum_{n=0}^\infty \|a_n\|^p \right) ^{\frac{1}{p}} < \infty. Define the number q by . Then the continuous dual of ℓ p is naturally identified with ℓ q: given an element \varphi \in (\ell^p)', the corresponding element of is the sequence (\varphi(\mathbf {e}_n)) where \mathbf {e}_n denotes the sequence whose -th term is 1 and all others are zero. Conversely, given an element , the corresponding continuous linear functional \varphi on is defined by \varphi (\mathbf{b}) = \sum_n a_n b_n for all (see Hölder's inequality). In a similar manner, the continuous dual of is naturally identified with (the space of bounded sequences). Furthermore, the continuous duals of the Banach spaces c (consisting of all convergent sequences, with the supremum norm) and c0 (the sequences converging to zero) are both naturally identified with . By the Riesz representation theorem, the continuous dual of a Hilbert space is again a Hilbert space which is anti-isomorphic to the original space. This gives rise to the bra–ket notation used by physicists in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. By the Riesz–Markov–Kakutani representation theorem, the continuous dual of certain spaces of continuous functions can be described using measures. === Transpose of a continuous linear map === If is a continuous linear map between two topological vector spaces, then the (continuous) transpose is defined by the same formula as before: T'(\varphi) = \varphi \circ T, \quad \varphi \in W'. The resulting functional is in . The assignment produces a linear map between the space of continuous linear maps from V to W and the space of linear maps from to . When T and U are composable continuous linear maps, then (U \circ T)' = T' \circ U'. When V and W are normed spaces, the norm of the transpose in is equal to that of T in . Several properties of transposition depend upon the Hahn–Banach theorem. For example, the bounded linear map T has dense range if and only if the transpose is injective. When T is a compact linear map between two Banach spaces V and W, then the transpose is compact. This can be proved using the Arzelà–Ascoli theorem. When V is a Hilbert space, there is an antilinear isomorphism iV from V onto its continuous dual . For every bounded linear map T on V, the transpose and the adjoint operators are linked by i_V \circ T^ = T' \circ i_V. When T is a continuous linear map between two topological vector spaces V and W, then the transpose is continuous when and are equipped with "compatible" topologies: for example, when for and , both duals have the strong topology of uniform convergence on bounded sets of X, or both have the weak-∗ topology of pointwise convergence on X. The transpose is continuous from to , or from to . === Annihilators === Assume that W is a closed linear subspace of a normed space V, and consider the annihilator of W in , W^\perp = \{ \varphi \in V' : W \subseteq \ker \varphi\}. Then, the dual of the quotient can be identified with W⊥, and the dual of W can be identified with the quotient . Indeed, let P denote the canonical surjection from V onto the quotient ; then, the transpose is an isometric isomorphism from into , with range equal to W⊥. If j denotes the injection map from W into V, then the kernel of the transpose is the annihilator of W: \ker (j') = W^\perp and it follows from the Hahn–Banach theorem that induces an isometric isomorphism . === Further properties === If the dual of a normed space is separable, then so is the space itself. The converse is not true: for example, the space is separable, but its dual is not. === Double dual === In analogy with the case of the algebraic double dual, there is always a naturally defined continuous linear operator from a normed space V into its continuous double dual , defined by \Psi(x)(\varphi) = \varphi(x), \quad x \in V, \ \varphi \in V' . As a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem, this map is in fact an isometry, meaning for all . Normed spaces for which the map Ψ is a bijection are called reflexive. When V is a topological vector space then Ψ(x) can still be defined by the same formula, for every , however several difficulties arise. First, when V is not locally convex, the continuous dual may be equal to { 0 } and the map Ψ trivial. However, if V is Hausdorff and locally convex, the map Ψ is injective from V to the algebraic dual of the continuous dual, again as a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem. Second, even in the locally convex setting, several natural vector space topologies can be defined on the continuous dual , so that the continuous double dual is not uniquely defined as a set. Saying that Ψ maps from V to , or in other words, that Ψ(x) is continuous on for every , is a reasonable minimal requirement on the topology of , namely that the evaluation mappings \varphi \in V' \mapsto \varphi(x), \quad x \in V , be continuous for the chosen topology on . Further, there is still a choice of a topology on , and continuity of Ψ depends upon this choice. As a consequence, defining reflexivity in this framework is more involved than in the normed case.	[ "dual basis", "nondegenerate form", "Duality (projective geometry)", "matrix multiplication", "American Mathematical Society", "linear map", "Complete topological vector space", "Reciprocal lattice", "composition of maps", "Functional (mathematics)", "Measure (mathematics)", "injective", "antiisomorphic", "basis (linear algebra)", "natural pairing", "natural isomorphism", "Transpose", "axiom of choice", "Kronecker delta", "frequency", "homomorphism", "pointwise", "first isomorphism theorem", "normed vector space", "cardinal number", "linearly independent", "topological vector space", "Totally bounded space", "unit of time", "countably infinite", "Riesz–Markov–Kakutani representation theorem", "level set", "functional analysis", "Erdős–Kaplansky theorem", "sequence", "one-form", "Hilbert space", "inverse second", "isomorphic", "Cantor's diagonal argument", "Banach space", "quotient space (linear algebra)", "bilinear form", "identity matrix", "Riesz representation theorem", "dimensional analysis", "Nicolas Bourbaki", "vector subspace", "category theory", "Fraction", "Reflexive space", "generalized function", "seminorm", "isometry", "sesquilinear form", "separable space", "complex numbers", "vector space", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Euclidean space", "adjoint of an operator", "Direct sum of modules", "basis of a vector space", "limit of a sequence", "linear form", "ordered pair", "Hausdorff space", "Hölder's inequality", "continuous linear functional", "pullback (differential geometry)", "discontinuous linear map", "isomorphism", "transpose", "reflexive space", "kernel (algebra)", "Spaces of test functions and distributions", "Duality (mathematics)", "level sets", "Distribution (mathematics)", "direct sum of modules", "real number", "absolute value", "dimension (vector space)", "tensor contraction", "Strong topology (polar topology)", "Complex conjugate vector space", "Hermitian adjoint", "Lp space", "iarchive:TuL.W.AnIntroductionToManifolds2e2010Springer", "algebra over a field", "dimensionless", "Pontryagin duality", "Dual module", "linear functional", "surjection", "second", "continuous function (topology)", "Covariance and contravariance of vectors", "field (mathematics)", "contravariant functor", "stereotype space", "tensor", "Hahn–Banach theorem", "Bounded set (topological vector space)", "finite-dimensional", "antihomomorphism", "Fourier analysis", "Compact operator", "quantum mechanics", "cardinal numbers", "orthogonal complement", "bilinear mapping", "supremum norm", "Schwartz space", "natural transformation", "bra–ket notation", "Locally convex topological vector space", "Arzelà–Ascoli theorem", "Dual norm", "weak topology", "bijection", "direct product", "dual pair", "matrix (mathematics)", "Galois connection", "Vector (geometric)", "annihilator (ring theory)", "module (mathematics)", "time–frequency analysis", "strong topology", "mathematics", "inverse length" ]
7,989	Dianetics	Dianetics is a set of ideas and practices, invented in 1950 by science fiction writer L.Ron Hubbard, regarding the human mind. Dianetics was originally conceived as a form of psychological treatment, but was rejected by the psychological and medical establishments as pseudoscientific. It was the precursor to Scientology and has since been incorporated into it. It involves a process referred to as "auditing", which utilizes an electrical resistance meter, ostensibly to remove emotional burdens and "cure" people from their troubles. "Auditing" uses techniques from hypnosis that are intended to create dependency and obedience in the auditing subject. after several practitioners had been arrested for practicing medicine without a license, and a prosecution trial was pending against the first Dianetics organization that Hubbard founded in Elizabeth, New Jersey. As well as escaping prosecution, Hubbard also saw the possibility of reducing the tax burden from the sale of dianetics books and methods. == Premise == The word Dianetics was coined from Greek dia meaning "through" and nous meaning "mind". Dianetics theory describes the human mind as two parts: the conscious "analytical mind" and the subconscious "reactive mind". The stated purpose of Dianetics technique, called "auditing", is to erase the contents of the reactive mind—the holder of painful and destructive emotions which can act on a person as posthypnotic suggestions. "Auditing" uses techniques from hypnosis which are intended to create dependency and obedience in the auditing subject. In auditing, the person is asked questions intended to help them locate and deal with painful past experiences. Dianetics theory posits that "the basic principle of existence is to survive" and that the basic personality of humans is sincere, intelligent, and good. The drive for goodness and survival is distorted and inhibited by aberrations (deviations from rational thinking). Hubbard claimed that Dianetics could increase intelligence, eliminate unwanted emotions and alleviate a wide range of illnesses he believed to be psychosomatic. Conditions purportedly treatable with Dianetics included arthritis, allergies, asthma, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, ulcers, migraine headaches, and sexual deviation. ==History== According to Hubbard, when he was sedated for a dental operation in 1938, he had a near-death experience which inspired him to write the manuscript Excalibur. Though it was never published, this work would allegedly become the basis for Dianetics. The first publication on Dianetics was Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science, an article by Hubbard in Astounding Science Fiction (cover date May 1950). This was followed by the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health (DMSMH) published May 9, 1950. In these works Hubbard claimed that the source of all psychological pain, and therefore the cause of mental and physical health problems, was a form of memory known as "engrams". According to Hubbard, individuals could reach a state he named "Clear" when all of their engrams had been removed through talking with an "auditor". While the technique was not accepted by the medical and scientific establishment, in the first two years of its publication DMSMH sold over 100,000 copies. Publication of DMSMH brought in a flood of revenue, which Hubbard used to establish Dianetics foundations in six major American cities. Two of the strongest initial supporters of Dianetics in the 1950s were John W. Campbell, editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and Joseph Augustus Winter, a writer and medical physician. Campbell published some of Hubbard's short stories, and Winter hoped that his own colleagues would likewise be attracted to Hubbard's Dianetics system. Readers formed groups to study and practice Dianetics technique. According to sociologist Roy Wallis, this period was one of "excited experimentation" and Hubbard's work was regarded as "an initial exploration to be developed further by others". Per Wallis, it was Dianetics' popularity as a lay psychotherapy that contributed to the Dianetics Foundation's downfall. Most people read the book, tried it out, then put it down. The remaining practitioners had no ties to the Foundation. Factions formed and followers challenged Hubbard's movement and his authority. The craze of 1950–51 was dead by 1952. In 1951, with debts piled up and facing bankruptcy, the Foundation was bailed out by Don Purcell, a wealthy Dianetics follower from Wichita. The relief was short-lived, however, and the Foundation fell to bankruptcy in 1952. Hubbard fled to Phoenix, Arizona, having lost the Foundation, the rights to Dianetics, and the DMSMH copyrights to Purcell. Hubbard sued and in 1954 Purcell settled by giving the copyrights back to Hubbard. In Phoenix, Hubbard created "Scientology"; its techniques were intended to rehabilitate a person so that they might reach their full potential as a spiritual being. Dianetics was incorporated into Scientology. In 1978, Hubbard introduced "New Era Dianetics" (NED) and New Era Dianetics for OTs, and added them to The Bridge to Total Freedom. == Concepts == In the book, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, Hubbard describes techniques that he suggests can rid individuals of fears and psychosomatic illnesses. A basic idea in Dianetics is that the mind consists of two parts: the "analytical mind" and the "reactive mind". The "reactive mind", the mind which operates when a person is physically unconscious, acts as a record of shock, trauma, pain, and otherwise harmful memories. Experiences such as these, stored in the "reactive mind" are dubbed "engrams". Dianetics is proposed as a method to erase these engrams in the reactive mind to achieve a state of clear. In Dianetics, the unconscious or reactive mind is described as a collection of "mental image pictures", which contain the recorded experience of past moments of unconsciousness, including all sensory perceptions and feelings involved, ranging from pre-natal experiences, infancy and childhood, to even the traumatic feelings associated with events from past lives and extraterrestrial cultures. The type of mental image picture created during a period of unconsciousness involves the exact recording of a painful experience. Hubbard called this phenomenon an engram, and defined it as "a moment of 'unconsciousness' containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions and is not available to the analytical mind as experience". Hubbard proposed that these engrams caused "aberrations" (deviations from rational thinking) in the mind, which produced lasting adverse physical and emotional effects. When the analytical (conscious) mind shut down during these moments, events and perceptions of this period were stored as engrams in the unconscious or reactive mind. In Hubbard's earliest publications on the subject, engrams were variously referred to as norn, impediment, and comanome before "engram" was adapted from its existing usage at the suggestion of Joseph Augustus Winter, MD. Some commentators noted Dianetics's blend of science fiction and occult orientations at the time.}} According to Bent Corydon, Hubbard created the illusion that Dianetics was the first psychotherapy to address traumatic experiences in their own time, but others had done so before as standard procedure. Hugh Urban wrote it was clear that Hubbard's work had been influenced by Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank, and Hubbard himself mentioned similarities between Dianetics and Freud. Hubbard claimed that by using Dianetics technique the reactive mind could be emptied of all engrams; "cleared" of its contents. A person who has completed this process would be "Clear". The benefits of Clear might include a higher IQ, better relationships, or career success. == Procedure == The procedure of Dianetics therapy (known as auditing) is a two-person activity. One person, the "auditor", guides the other person, the preclear, through the procedures. The preclear's job is to look at their mind and talk to the auditor. The auditor acknowledges what the preclear says and controls the process. The auditor and preclear sit down facing each other. After getting settled, the auditor tells the preclear to close their eyes and locate something that happened to them in the past. The preclear tells the auditor what happened in the incident like he is re-experiencing it again. The auditor coaxes the preclear to recall as much as possible, and goes back over the incident several times until the preclear is cheerful about it, at which point the auditor may end the session or find another incident and repeat the process. ==Therapeutic claims== In August 1950, amidst the success of Dianetics, Hubbard held a demonstration in Los Angeles' Shrine Auditorium where he presented a young woman called Sonya Bianca (a pseudonym) to a large audience including many reporters and photographers as "the world's first Clear". Despite Hubbard's claim that she had "full and perfect recall of every moment of her life", Bianca proved unable to answer questions from the audience testing her memory and analytical abilities, including the question of the color of Hubbard's tie. Hubbard explained Bianca's failure to display her promised powers of recall to the audience by saying that he had used the word "now" in calling her to the stage, and thus inadvertently froze her in "present time", which blocked her abilities. Later, in the late 1950s, Hubbard would claim that several people had reached the state of Clear by the time he presented Bianca as the world's first; these others, Hubbard said, he had successfully cleared in the late 1940s while working incognito in Hollywood posing as a swami. In 1966, Hubbard declared South African Scientologist John McMaster to be the first true Clear. Hubbard claimed, in an interview with The New York Times in November 1950, that "he had already submitted proof of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations." He added that the public as well as proper organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail. In January 1951, the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of Elizabeth, New Jersey, published Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results, a booklet providing the results of psychometric tests conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy. It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured "aberrations" including manic depression, asthma, arthritis, colitis and "overt homosexuality", and that after Dianetic processing, test subjects experienced significantly increased scores on a standardized IQ test. The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself ("Case 1080A, R. L."). The authors provide no qualifications, although they are described in Hubbard's book Science of Survival (where some results of the same study were reprinted) as psychotherapists. Critics of Dianetics are skeptical of this study, both because of the bias of the source and because the researchers appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics without considering possible outside factors; in other words, the report lacks any scientific controls. Winter was originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, but by the end of 1950 had cut ties with Hubbard and written an account of his personal experiences with Dianetics. He described Hubbard as "absolutistic and authoritarian", Hubbard writes: "Again, Dianetics is not being released to a profession, for no profession could encompass it." ==Scientific rejection== Hubbard's original book on Dianetics attracted highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and organizations. The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1950 calling "attention to the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations." Subsequently, Dianetics has achieved no acceptance as a scientific theory, and scientists cite Dianetics as an example of a pseudoscience. Few scientific investigations into the effectiveness of Dianetics have been published. Professor John A. Lee states in his 1970 evaluation of Dianetics: {{blockquote\|Objective experimental verification of Hubbard's physiological and psychological doctrines is lacking. To date, no regular scientific agency has established the validity of his theories of prenatal perception and engrams, or cellular memory, or Dianetic reverie, or the effects of Scientology auditing routines. Existing knowledge contradicts Hubbard's theory of recording of perceptions during periods of unconsciousness. \|author=John A. Lee in The Lee Report (1970) Jack Fox tested Hubbard's thesis regarding recall of engrams, with the assistance of the Dianetic Research Foundation, and could not substantiate it. Commentators from a variety of backgrounds have described Dianetics as an example of pseudoscience. For example, philosophy professor Robert Carroll points to Dianetics' lack of empirical evidence: The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators. Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer Martin Gardner asserts that "nothing could be clearer from the above dialogue than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it." Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of hypnosis. Hubbard, who had previously used hypnosis for entertainment purposes, strongly denied this connection and cautioned against hypnosis in Dianetics auditing. Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling of well-being reported by preclear at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic suggestion. Other researchers have identified quotations in Hubbard's work suggesting evidence that false memories were created in Dianetics, specifically in the form of birth and pre-birth memories. According to an article by physician Martin Gumpert, "Hubbard's concept of psychosomatic disease is definitely wrong. Psychosomatic ailments are not simply caused by emotional disturbances: they are diseases in which the emotional and the organic factor are closely involved and interdependent."	[ "suggestion", "Martin Gardner", "auditing (Scientology)", "myopia", "Excalibur (L. Ron Hubbard)", "ETC: A Review of General Semantics", "blood pressure", "Alfred A. Knopf", "L. Ron Hubbard", "MEDLINE", "Journal of Contemporary Religion", "Auditing (Scientology)", "unconsciousness", "Robert Todd Carroll", "Roy Wallis", "near-death experience", "Stage hypnosis", "allergy", "pre-natal", "Co-counselling", "Scientology", "John Alan Lee", "American Psychological Association", "psychotherapy", "physiology", "The Bridge to Total Freedom", "Coronary circulation", "Oxford University Press", "Martin Gumpert", "The Irish Times", "Bent Corydon", "Obedience (human behavior)", "practicing medicine without a license", "Elizabeth, New Jersey", "Psychological dependence", "traumatic experience", "Routledge", "Houghton Mifflin Harcourt", "Maclean's", "Hugh Urban", "sinusitis", "Life (magazine)", "University of Marburg", "psychosomatic", "David S. Touretzky", "Tampa Bay Times", "philosophy", "bursitis", "empiricism", "arthritis", "The New Republic", "Analog Science Fiction and Fact", "Bipolar disorder", "Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science", "colitis", "occult", "Sigmund Freud", "Henry Holt and Company", "electrical resistance", "Otto Rank", "X-ray", "Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health", "Clear (Scientology)", "Science of Survival", "Engram (Dianetics)", "A Doctor's Report on Dianetics", "Lyle Stuart", "Queen's Printer", "John W. Campbell", "Time (magazine)", "preclear", "hypnosis", "reactive mind", "Carl Jung", "Marburg Journal of Religion", "engram (Dianetics)", "swami", "Operating Thetan", "asthma", "scientific control", "Bibliography of Scientology", "S. I. Hayakawa", "pseudoscience", "Shrine Auditorium", "The New York Times", "scientific theory", "Skeptical Inquirer", "The Lee Report", "New York University", "The Skeptic's Dictionary", "Julian Messner", "Richard Ofshe", "Princeton University Press" ]
7,990	Data warehouse	In computing, a data warehouse (DW or DWH), also known as an enterprise data warehouse (EDW), is a system used for reporting and data analysis and is a core component of business intelligence. Data warehouses are central repositories of data integrated from disparate sources. They store current and historical data organized in a way that is optimized for data analysis, generation of reports, and developing insights across the integrated data. They are intended to be used by analysts and managers to help make organizational decisions. The data stored in the warehouse is uploaded from operational systems (such as marketing or sales). The data may pass through an operational data store and may require data cleansing for additional operations to ensure data quality before it is used in the data warehouse for reporting. The two main workflows for building a data warehouse system are extract, transform, load (ETL) and extract, load, transform (ELT). == Components == The environment for data warehouses and marts includes the following: Source systems of data (often, the company's operational databases, such as relational databases As with warehouses, stored data is usually not normalized. Types of data marts include dependent, independent, and hybrid data marts. ==Variants== ===ETL=== The typical extract, transform, load (ETL)-based data warehouse uses staging, data integration, and access layers to house its key functions. The staging layer or staging database stores raw data extracted from each of the disparate source data systems. The integration layer integrates disparate data sets by transforming the data from the staging layer, often storing this transformed data in an operational data store (ODS) database. The integrated data are then moved to yet another database, often called the data warehouse database, where the data is arranged into hierarchical groups, often called dimensions, and into facts and aggregate facts. The combination of facts and dimensions is sometimes called a star schema. The access layer helps users retrieve data. The main source of the data is cleansed, transformed, catalogued, and made available for use by managers and other business professionals for data mining, online analytical processing, market research and decision support. However, the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform, and load data, and to manage the data dictionary are also considered essential components of a data warehousing system. Many references to data warehousing use this broader context. Thus, an expanded definition of data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository, and tools to manage and retrieve metadata. ===ELT=== ELT-based data warehousing gets rid of a separate ETL tool for data transformation. Instead, it maintains a staging area inside the data warehouse itself. In this approach, data gets extracted from heterogeneous source systems and are then directly loaded into the data warehouse, before any transformation occurs. All necessary transformations are then handled inside the data warehouse itself. Finally, the manipulated data gets loaded into target tables in the same data warehouse. ==Benefits== A data warehouse maintains a copy of information from the source transaction systems. This architectural complexity provides the opportunity to: Integrate data from multiple sources into a single database and data model. More congregation of data to single database so a single query engine can be used to present data in an operational data store. Mitigate the problem of isolation-level lock contention in transaction processing systems caused by long-running analysis queries in transaction processing databases. Maintain data history, even if the source transaction systems do not. Integrate data from multiple source systems, enabling a central view across the enterprise. This benefit is always valuable, but particularly so when the organization grows via merging. Improve data quality, by providing consistent codes and descriptions, flagging or even fixing bad data. Present the organization's information consistently. Provide a single common data model for all data of interest regardless of data source. Restructure the data so that it makes sense to the business users. Restructure the data so that it delivers excellent query performance, even for complex analytic queries, without impacting the operational systems. Add value to operational business applications, notably customer relationship management (CRM) systems. Make decision–support queries easier to write. Organize and disambiguate repetitive data. ==History== The concept of data warehousing dates back to the late 1980s when IBM researchers Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy developed the "business data warehouse". In essence, the data warehousing concept was intended to provide an architectural model for the flow of data from operational systems to decision support environments. The concept attempted to address the various problems associated with this flow, mainly the high costs associated with it. In the absence of a data warehousing architecture, an enormous amount of redundancy was required to support multiple decision support environments. In larger corporations, it was typical for multiple decision support environments to operate independently. Though each environment served different users, they often required much of the same stored data. The process of gathering, cleaning and integrating data from various sources, usually from long-term existing operational systems (usually referred to as legacy systems), was typically in part replicated for each environment. Moreover, the operational systems were frequently reexamined as new decision support requirements emerged. Often new requirements necessitated gathering, cleaning and integrating new data from "data marts" that was tailored for ready access by users. Additionally, with the publication of The IRM Imperative (Wiley & Sons, 1991) by James M. Kerr, the idea of managing and putting a dollar value on an organization's data resources and then reporting that value as an asset on a balance sheet became popular. In the book, Kerr described a way to populate subject-area databases from data derived from transaction-driven systems to create a storage area where summary data could be further leveraged to inform executive decision-making. This concept served to promote further thinking of how a data warehouse could be developed and managed in a practical way within any enterprise. Key developments in early years of data warehousing: 1960s – General Mills and Dartmouth College, in a joint research project, develop the terms dimensions and facts. 1970s – ACNielsen and IRI provide dimensional data marts for retail sales. 1975 – Sperry Univac introduces MAPPER (MAintain, Prepare, and Produce Executive Reports), a database management and reporting system that includes the world's first 4GL. It is the first platform designed for building Information Centers (a forerunner of contemporary data warehouse technology). 1983 – Teradata introduces the DBC/1012 database computer specifically designed for decision support. 1984 – Metaphor Computer Systems, founded by David Liddle and Don Massaro, releases a hardware/software package and GUI for business users to create a database management and analytic system. 1988 – Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy publish the article "An architecture for a business and information system" where they introduce the term "business data warehouse". 1990 – Red Brick Systems, founded by Ralph Kimball, introduces Red Brick Warehouse, a database management system specifically for data warehousing. 1991 – James M. Kerr authors The IRM Imperative, which suggests data resources could be reported as an asset on a balance sheet, furthering commercial interest in the establishment of data warehouses. 1991 – Prism Solutions, founded by Bill Inmon, introduces Prism Warehouse Manager, software for developing a data warehouse. 1992 – Bill Inmon publishes the book Building the Data Warehouse. 1995 – The Data Warehousing Institute, a for-profit organization that promotes data warehousing, is founded. 1996 – Ralph Kimball publishes the book The Data Warehouse Toolkit. 1998 – Focal modeling is implemented as an ensemble (hybrid) data warehouse modeling approach, with Patrik Lager as one of the main drivers. 2000 – Dan Linstedt releases in the public domain the Data vault modeling, conceived in 1990 as an alternative to Inmon and Kimball to provide long-term historical storage of data coming in from multiple operational systems, with emphasis on tracing, auditing and resilience to change of the source data model. 2008 – Bill Inmon, along with Derek Strauss and Genia Neushloss, publishes "DW 2.0: The Architecture for the Next Generation of Data Warehousing", explaining his top-down approach to data warehousing and coining the term, data-warehousing 2.0. 2008 – Anchor modeling was formalized in a paper presented at the International Conference on Conceptual Modeling, and won the best paper award 2012 – Bill Inmon develops and makes public technology known as "textual disambiguation". Textual disambiguation applies context to raw text and reformats the raw text and context into a standard data base format. Once raw text is passed through textual disambiguation, it can easily and efficiently be accessed and analyzed by standard business intelligence technology. Textual disambiguation is accomplished through the execution of textual ETL. Textual disambiguation is useful wherever raw text is found, such as in documents, Hadoop, email, and so forth. 2013 – Data vault 2.0 was released, having some minor changes to the modeling method, as well as integration with best practices from other methodologies, architectures and implementations including agile and CMMI principles ==Data organization== ===Facts=== A fact is a value or measurement in the system being managed. Raw facts are ones reported by the reporting entity. For example, in a mobile telephone system, if a base transceiver station (BTS) receives 1,000 requests for traffic channel allocation, allocates for 820, and rejects the rest, it could report three facts to a management system: Raw facts are aggregated to higher levels in various dimensions to extract information more relevant to the service or business. These are called aggregated facts or summaries. For example, if there are three BTSs in a city, then the facts above can be aggregated to the city level in the network dimension. For example: ===Dimensional versus normalized approach for storage of data=== The two most important approaches to store data in a warehouse are dimensional and normalized. The dimensional approach uses a star schema as proposed by Ralph Kimball. The normalized approach, also called the third normal form (3NF) is an entity-relational normalized model proposed by Bill Inmon. ====Dimensional approach==== In a dimensional approach, transaction data is partitioned into "facts", which are usually numeric transaction data, and "dimensions", which are the reference information that gives context to the facts. For example, a sales transaction can be broken up into facts such as the number of products ordered and the total price paid for the products, and into dimensions such as order date, customer name, product number, order ship-to and bill-to locations, and salesperson responsible for receiving the order. This dimensional approach makes data easier to understand and speeds up data retrieval. where dimensions are the categorical coordinates in a multi-dimensional cube, the fact is a value corresponding to the coordinates. The main disadvantages of the dimensional approach are: It is complicated to maintain the integrity of facts and dimensions, loading the data warehouse with data from different operational systems It is difficult to modify the warehouse structure if the organization changes the way it does business. ====Normalized approach==== In the normalized approach, the data in the warehouse are stored following, to a degree, database normalization rules. Normalized relational database tables are grouped into subject areas (for example, customers, products and finance). When used in large enterprises, the result is dozens of tables linked by a web of joins.(Kimball, Ralph 2008). The main advantage of this approach is that it is straightforward to add information into the database. Disadvantages include that, because of the large number of tables, it can be difficult for users to join data from different sources into meaningful information and access the information without a precise understanding of the date sources and the data structure of the data warehouse. Both normalized and dimensional models can be represented in entity–relationship diagrams because both contain joined relational tables. The difference between them is the degree of normalization. These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and there are other approaches. Dimensional approaches can involve normalizing data to a degree (Kimball, Ralph 2008). In Information-Driven Business, Robert Hillard compares the two approaches based on the information needs of the business problem. He concludes that normalized models hold far more information than their dimensional equivalents (even when the same fields are used in both models) but at the cost of usability. The technique measures information quantity in terms of information entropy and usability in terms of the Small Worlds data transformation measure. ==Design methods== ===Bottom-up design=== In the bottom-up approach, data marts are first created to provide reporting and analytical capabilities for specific business processes. These data marts can then be integrated to create a comprehensive data warehouse. The data warehouse bus architecture is primarily an implementation of "the bus", a collection of conformed dimensions and conformed facts, which are dimensions that are shared (in a specific way) between facts in two or more data marts. ===Top-down design=== The top-down approach is designed using a normalized enterprise data model. "Atomic" data, that is, data at the greatest level of detail, are stored in the data warehouse. Dimensional data marts containing data needed for specific business processes or specific departments are created from the data warehouse. ===Hybrid design=== Data warehouses often resemble the hub and spokes architecture. Legacy systems feeding the warehouse often include customer relationship management and enterprise resource planning, generating large amounts of data. To consolidate these various data models, and facilitate the extract transform load process, data warehouses often make use of an operational data store, the information from which is parsed into the actual data warehouse. To reduce data redundancy, larger systems often store the data in a normalized way. Data marts for specific reports can then be built on top of the data warehouse. A hybrid (also called ensemble) data warehouse database is kept on third normal form to eliminate data redundancy. A normal relational database, however, is not efficient for business intelligence reports where dimensional modelling is prevalent. Small data marts can shop for data from the consolidated warehouse and use the filtered, specific data for the fact tables and dimensions required. The data warehouse provides a single source of information from which the data marts can read, providing a wide range of business information. The hybrid architecture allows a data warehouse to be replaced with a master data management repository where operational (not static) information could reside. The data vault modeling components follow hub and spokes architecture. This modeling style is a hybrid design, consisting of the best practices from both third normal form and star schema. The data vault model is not a true third normal form, and breaks some of its rules, but it is a top-down architecture with a bottom up design. The data vault model is geared to be strictly a data warehouse. It is not geared to be end-user accessible, which, when built, still requires the use of a data mart or star schema-based release area for business purposes. ==Characteristics== There are basic features that define the data in the data warehouse that include subject orientation, data integration, time-variant, nonvolatile data, and data granularity. ===Subject-oriented=== Unlike the operational systems, the data in the data warehouse revolves around the subjects of the enterprise. Subject orientation is not database normalization. Subject orientation can be really useful for decision-making. Gathering the required objects is called subject-oriented. ===Integrated=== The data found within the data warehouse is integrated. Since it comes from several operational systems, all inconsistencies must be removed. Consistencies include naming conventions, measurement of variables, encoding structures, physical attributes of data, and so forth. ===Time-variant=== While operational systems reflect current values as they support day-to-day operations, data warehouse data represents a long time horizon (up to 10 years) which means it stores mostly historical data. It is mainly meant for data mining and forecasting. (E.g. if a user is searching for a buying pattern of a specific customer, the user needs to look at data on the current and past purchases.) ===Nonvolatile=== The data in the data warehouse is read-only, which means it cannot be updated, created, or deleted (unless there is a regulatory or statutory obligation to do so). ==Options== ===Aggregation=== In the data warehouse process, data can be aggregated in data marts at different levels of abstraction. The user may start looking at the total sale units of a product in an entire region. Then the user looks at the states in that region. Finally, they may examine the individual stores in a certain state. Therefore, typically, the analysis starts at a higher level and drills down to lower levels of details. ==Architecture== The different methods used to construct/organize a data warehouse specified by an organization are numerous. The hardware utilized, software created and data resources specifically required for the correct functionality of a data warehouse are the main components of the data warehouse architecture. All data warehouses have multiple phases in which the requirements of the organization are modified and fine-tuned. ==Evolution in organization use== These terms refer to the level of sophistication of a data warehouse: Offline operational data warehouse: Data warehouses in this stage of evolution are updated on a regular time cycle (usually daily, weekly or monthly) from the operational systems and the data is stored in an integrated reporting-oriented database. Offline data warehouse: Data warehouses at this stage are updated from data in the operational systems on a regular basis and the data warehouse data are stored in a data structure designed to facilitate reporting. On-time data warehouse: Online Integrated Data Warehousing represent the real-time Data warehouses stage data in the warehouse is updated for every transaction performed on the source data Integrated data warehouse: These data warehouses assemble data from different areas of business, so users can look up the information they need across other systems. ==In healthcare== In the healthcare sector, data warehouses are critical components of health informatics, enabling the integration, storage, and analysis of large volumes of clinical, administrative, and operational data. These systems consolidate information from disparate sources such as electronic health records (EHRs), laboratory information systems, picture archiving and communication systems (PACS), and medical billing platforms. By centralizing data, healthcare data warehouses support a range of functions including population health, clinical decision support, quality improvement, public health surveillance, and medical research. Healthcare data warehouses often incorporate specialized data models that account for the complexity and sensitivity of medical data, such as temporal information (e.g., longitudinal patient histories), coded terminologies (e.g., ICD-10, SNOMED CT), and compliance with privacy regulations (e.g., HIPAA in the United States or GDPR in the European Union). Following is a list of major patient data warehouses with broad scope (not disease- or specialty-specific), with variables including laboratory results, pharmacy, age, race, socioeconomic status, comorbidities and longitudinal changes: These warehouses enable data-driven healthcare by supporting retrospective studies, comparative effectiveness research, and predictive analytics, often with the use of healthcare-applied artificial intelligence.	[ "electronic health record", "MAPPER", "decision support", "Third normal form", "hub and spokes architecture", "Business intelligence software", "Operational Data Store", "predictive analytics", "transaction data", "medical specialty", "Codd's 12 rules", "transaction processing", "Data mart", "upload", "Europe", "data integrity", "Anchor modeling", "SNOMED CT", "Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act", "General Mills", "Entropy (information theory)", "data cleansing", "Business intelligence", "Thomas H. Davenport", "extract transform load", "Product (economics)", "Healthcare", "data integration", "star schema", "customer relationship management", "data cube", "data dictionary", "Predictive analytics", "extract, transform, load", "Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute", "data virtualization", "dimension (data warehouse)", "Epic Systems", "United States", "Teradata", "Data Mining", "Optum", "Star schema", "laboratory information system", "operational system", "European Union", "data mining", "population health", "business intelligence tools", "enterprise resource planning", "VDM Verlag", "DBC 1012", "decision support system", "Fourth-generation programming language", "master data management", "picture archiving and communication system", "data analysis", "Online analytical processing", "Dartmouth College", "Artificial intelligence in healthcare", "comparative effectiveness research", "medical research", "data quality", "Facts (data warehouse)", "Staging (data)", "Dimension (data warehouse)", "David Liddle", "OLAP", "common data model", "data structure", "Dan Linstedt", "Extract, transform, load", "data redundancy", "Relational database", "ICD-10", "business process", "ACNielsen", "Data vault modeling", "Bill Inmon", "data vault modeling", "clinical decision support system", "General Data Protection Regulation", "Data element", "extract, load, transform", "health informatics", "Ralph Kimball", "operational data store", "entity–relationship model", "metadata", "Extract, load, transform", "medical billing", "data mart", "business intelligence", "Online transaction processing", "computing", "pattern recognition", "Provenance", "Sperry Univac", "market research", "Repository (version control)", "data model", "Metaphor Computer Systems", "database normalization", "legacy system", "third normal form", "Legacy system", "column-oriented DBMS", "base transceiver station", "Robert Hillard (writer)", "public health surveillance" ]
7,991	Disperser	A disperser is a one-sided extractor. Where an extractor requires that every event gets the same probability under the uniform distribution and the extracted distribution, only the latter is required for a disperser. So for a disperser, an event A \subseteq \{0,1\}^{m} we have: Pr_{U_{m}}[A] > 1 - \epsilon Definition (Disperser): A (k, \epsilon)-disperser is a function Dis: \{0,1\}^{n}\times \{0,1\}^{d}\rightarrow \{0,1\}^{m} such that for every distribution X on \{0,1\}^{n} with H_{\infty}(X) \geq k the support of the distribution Dis(X,U_{d}) is of size at least (1-\epsilon)2^{m}. ==Graph theory== An (N, M, D, K, e)-disperser is a bipartite graph with N vertices on the left side, each with degree D, and M vertices on the right side, such that every subset of K vertices on the left side is connected to more than (1 − e)M vertices on the right. An extractor is a related type of graph that guarantees an even stronger property; every (N, M, D, K, e)-extractor is also an (N, M, D, K, e)-disperser. ==Other meanings== A disperser is a high-speed mixing device used to disperse or dissolve pigments and other solids into a liquid.	[ "randomness extractor", "Extractor (mathematics)", "subset", "bipartite graph", "probability", "Expander graph", "Continuous uniform distribution" ]
7,992	Devonian	The Devonian ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era during the Phanerozoic eon, spanning 60.3 million years from the end of the preceding Silurian period at million years ago (Ma), to the beginning of the succeeding Carboniferous period at Ma. It is the fourth period of both the Paleozoic and the Phanerozoic. It is named after Devon, South West England, where rocks from this period were first studied. The first significant evolutionary radiation of life on land occurred during the Devonian, as free-sporing land plants (pteridophytes) began to spread across dry land, forming extensive coal forests which covered the continents. By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of vascular plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants (pteridospermatophytes) appeared. This rapid evolution and colonization process, which had begun during the Silurian, is known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. The earliest land animals, predominantly arthropods such as myriapods, arachnids and hexapods, also became well-established early in this period, after beginning their colonization of land at least from the Ordovician period. Fishes, especially jawed fish, reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to be called the Age of Fishes. The armored placoderms began dominating almost every known aquatic environment. In the oceans, cartilaginous fishes such as primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician. Tetrapodomorphs, which include the ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates (i.e. tetrapods), began diverging from freshwater lobe-finned fish as their more robust and muscled pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into forelimbs and hindlimbs, though they were not fully established for life on land until the Late Carboniferous. The first ammonites, a subclass of cephalopod molluscs, appeared. Trilobites, brachiopods and the great coral reefs were still common during the Devonian. The Late Devonian extinction, which started about 375 Ma, severely affected marine life, killing off most of the reef systems, most of the jawless fish, the placoderms, and nearly all trilobites save for a few species of the order Proetida. The subsequent end-Devonian extinction, which occurred at around 359 Ma, further impacted the ecosystems and completed the extinction of all calcite sponge reefs and placoderms. Devonian palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent Gondwana to the south, the small continent of Siberia to the north, and the medium-sized continent of Laurussia to the east. Major tectonic events include the closure of the Rheic Ocean, the separation of South China from Gondwana, and the resulting expansion of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The Devonian experienced several major mountain-building events as Laurussia and Gondwana approached; these include the Acadian Orogeny in North America and the beginning of the Variscan Orogeny in Europe. These early collisions preceded the formation of the single supercontinent Pangaea in the Late Paleozoic. ==History == The period is named after Devon, a county in southwestern England, where a controversial argument in the 1830s over the age and structure of the rocks found throughout the county was resolved by adding the Devonian Period to the geological timescale. The Great Devonian Controversy was a lengthy debate between Roderick Murchison, Adam Sedgwick and Henry De la Beche over the naming of the period. Murchison and Sedgwick won the debate and named it the Devonian System. While the rock beds that define the start and end of the Devonian Period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian Ma, to the beginning of the Carboniferous Ma – in North America, at the beginning of the Mississippian subperiod of the Carboniferous. In 19th-century texts, the Devonian has been called the "Old Red Age", after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in the United Kingdom as the Old Red Sandstone in which early fossil discoveries were found. Another common term is "Age of the Fishes", referring to the evolution of several major groups of fish that took place during the period. Older literature on the Anglo-Welsh basin divides it into the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian, and Farlovian stages, the latter three of which are placed in the Devonian. The Devonian has also erroneously been characterised as a "greenhouse age", due to sampling bias: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the strata of Western Europe and eastern North America, which at the time straddled the Equator as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where fossil signatures of widespread reefs indicate tropical climates that were warm and moderately humid. In fact, the climate in the Devonian differed greatly during its epochs and between geographic regions. For example, during the Early Devonian, arid conditions were prevalent through much of the world including Siberia, Australia, North America, and China, but Africa and South America had a warm temperate climate. In the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common. ==Subdivisions== The Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle and Late subdivisions. The rocks corresponding to those epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle and Upper parts of the Devonian System. === Early Devonian === The Early Devonian lasted from to Ma. It began with the Lochkovian Stage from to Ma, which was followed by the Pragian from to Ma and then by the Emsian, which lasted until the Middle Devonian began at Ma. During this time, the first ammonoids appeared, descending from bactritoid nautiloids. Ammonoids during this time period were simple and differed little from their nautiloid counterparts. These ammonoids belong to the order Agoniatitida, which in later epochs evolved to new ammonoid orders, for example Goniatitida and Clymeniida. This class of cephalopod molluscs would dominate the marine fauna until the beginning of the Mesozoic Era. === Middle Devonian === The Middle Devonian comprised two subdivisions: first the Eifelian, which then gave way to the Givetian at Ma. During this time, the jawless agnathan fishes began to decline in diversity in freshwater and marine environments partly due to drastic environmental changes and partly due to the increasing competition, predation, and diversity of jawed fishes. The shallow, warm, oxygen-depleted waters of Devonian inland lakes, surrounded by primitive plants, provided the environment necessary for certain early fish to develop such essential characteristics as well developed lungs and the ability to crawl out of the water and onto the land for short periods of time. === Late Devonian === Finally, the Late Devonian started with the Frasnian, from to Ma, during which the first forests took shape on land. The first tetrapods appeared in the fossil record in the ensuing Famennian subdivision, the beginning and end of which are marked with extinction events. This lasted until the end of the Devonian at Ma. The temperature gradient from the equator to the poles was not as large as it is today. The weather was also very arid, mostly along the equator where it was the driest. levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian Period. The newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere, which were then buried into sediments. This may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around . The climate would have affected the dominant organisms in reefs; microbes would have been the main reef-forming organisms in warm periods, with corals and stromatoporoid sponges taking the dominant role in cooler times. The warming at the end of the Devonian may even have contributed to the extinction of the stromatoporoids. At the terminus of the Devonian, Earth rapidly cooled into an icehouse, marking the beginning of the Late Paleozoic icehouse. ==Paleogeography== The Devonian world involved many continents and ocean basins of various sizes. The largest continent, Gondwana, was located entirely within the Southern Hemisphere. It corresponds to modern day South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India, as well as minor components of North America and Asia. The second-largest continent, Laurussia, was northwest of Gondwana, and corresponds to much of modern-day North America and Europe. Various smaller continents, microcontinents, and terranes were present east of Laurussia and north of Gondwana, corresponding to parts of Europe and Asia. The Devonian Period was a time of great tectonic activity, as the major continents of Laurussia and Gondwana drew closer together. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay under shallow seas, where tropical reef organisms lived. The enormous "world ocean", Panthalassa, occupied much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as wide swathes east of Gondwana and west of Laurussia. Other minor oceans were the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and Rheic Ocean. For much of the Devonian, the majority of western Laurussia (North America) was covered by subtropical inland seas which hosted a diverse ecosystem of reefs and marine life. Devonian marine deposits are particularly prevalent in the midwestern and northeastern United States. Devonian reefs also extended along the southeast edge of Laurussia, a coastline now corresponding to southern England, Belgium, and other mid-latitude areas of Europe. Mountain building could also be found in the far northeastern extent of the continent, as minor tropical island arcs and detached Baltic terranes re-join the continent. Deformed remnants of these mountains can still be found on Ellesmere Island and Svalbard. Many of the Devonian collisions in Laurussia produce both mountain chains and foreland basins, which are frequently fossiliferous. These collisions were associated with volcanic activity and plutons, but by the Late Devonian the tectonic situation had relaxed and much of South America was covered by shallow seas. These south polar seas hosted a distinctive brachiopod fauna, the Malvinokaffric Realm, which extended eastward to marginal areas now equivalent to South Africa and Antarctica. Malvinokaffric faunas even managed to approach the South Pole via a tongue of Panthalassa which extended into the Paraná Basin. Siberia was located just north of the equator as the largest landmass in the Northern Hemisphere. At the beginning of the Devonian, Siberia was inverted (upside down) relative to its modern orientation. Later in the period it moved northwards and began to twist clockwise, though it was not near its modern location. Siberia approached the eastern edge of Laurussia as the Devonian progressed, but it was still separated by a seaway, the Ural Ocean. Although Siberia's margins were generally tectonically stable and ecologically productive, rifting and deep mantle plumes impacted the continent with flood basalts during the Late Devonian. The Altai-Sayan region was shaken by volcanism in the Early and Middle Devonian, while Late Devonian magmatism was magnified further to produce the Vilyuy Traps, flood basalts which may have contributed to the Late Devonian Mass Extinction. The last major round of volcanism, the Yakutsk Large Igneous Province, continued into the Carboniferous to produce extensive kimberlite deposits. ==Life== ===Marine biota=== Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas continued to be dominated by conodonts, bryozoans, diverse and abundant brachiopods, the enigmatic hederellids, microconchids, Lily-like crinoids (animals, their resemblance to flowers notwithstanding) were abundant, and trilobites were still fairly common. Bivalves became commonplace in deep water and outer shelf environments. The first ammonites also appeared during or slightly before the early Devonian Period around 400 Ma. Bactritoids make their first appearance in the Early Devonian as well; their radiation, along with that of ammonoids, has been attributed by some authors to increased environmental stress resulting from decreasing oxygen levels in the deeper parts of the water column. Among vertebrates, jawless armored fish (ostracoderms) declined in diversity, while the jawed fish (gnathostomes) simultaneously increased in both the sea and fresh water. Armored placoderms were numerous during the early ages of the Devonian Period and became extinct in the Late Devonian, perhaps because of competition for food against the other fish species. Early cartilaginous (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes (Osteichthyes) also become diverse and played a large role within the Devonian seas. The first abundant genus of cartilaginous fish, Cladoselache, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period. The great diversity of fish around at the time has led to the Devonian being given the name "The Age of Fishes" in popular culture. The Devonian saw significant expansion in the diversity of nektonic marine life driven by the abundance of planktonic microorganisms in the free water column as well as high ecological competition in benthic habitats, which were extremely saturated; this diversification has been labeled the Devonian Nekton Revolution by many researchers. However, other researchers have questioned whether this revolution existed at all; a 2018 study found that although the proportion of biodiversity constituted by nekton increased across the boundary between the Silurian and Devonian, it decreased across the span of the Devonian, particularly during the Pragian, and that the overall diversity of nektonic taxa did not increase significantly during the Devonian compared to during other geologic periods, and was in fact higher during the intervals spanning from the Wenlock to the Lochkovian and from the Carboniferous to the Permian. The study's authors instead attribute the increased overall diversity of nekton in the Devonian to a broader, gradual trend of nektonic diversification across the entire Palaeozoic. ===Reefs=== A now-dry barrier reef, located in present-day Kimberley Basin of northwest Australia, once extended , fringing a Devonian continent. Reefs are generally built by various carbonate-secreting organisms that can erect wave-resistant structures near sea level. Although modern reefs are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous algae, Devonian reefs were either microbial reefs built up mostly by autotrophic cyanobacteria or coral-stromatoporoid reefs built up by coral-like stromatoporoids and tabulate and rugose corals. Microbial reefs dominated under the warmer conditions of the early and late Devonian, while coral-stromatoporoid reefs dominated during the cooler middle Devonian. ===Terrestrial biota=== By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The moss forests and bacterial and algal mats of the Silurian were joined early in the period by primitive rooted plants that created the first stable soils and harbored arthropods like mites, scorpions, trigonotarbids and myriapods (although arthropods appeared on land much earlier than in the Early Devonian and the existence of fossils such as Protichnites suggest that amphibious arthropods may have appeared as early as the Cambrian). By far the largest land organism at the beginning of this period was the enigmatic Prototaxites, which was possibly the fruiting body of an enormous fungus, rolled liverwort mat, or another organism of uncertain affinities that stood more than tall, and towered over the low, carpet-like vegetation during the early part of the Devonian. Also, the first possible fossils of insects appeared around 416 Ma, in the Early Devonian. Evidence for the earliest tetrapods takes the form of trace fossils in shallow lagoon environments within a marine carbonate platform/shelf during the Middle Devonian, although these traces have been questioned and an interpretation as fish feeding traces (Piscichnus) has been advanced. ====The greening of land==== Many Early Devonian plants did not have true roots or leaves like extant plants, although vascular tissue is observed in many of those plants. Some of the early land plants such as Drepanophycus likely spread by vegetative growth and spores. The earliest land plants such as Cooksonia consisted of leafless, dichotomous axes with terminal sporangia and were generally very short-statured, and grew hardly more than a few centimetres tall. Fossils of Armoricaphyton chateaupannense, about 400 million years old, represent the oldest known plants with woody tissue. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperms evolved. Most of these plants had true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The earliest-known trees appeared in the Middle Devonian. These included a lineage of lycopods and another arborescent, woody vascular plant, the cladoxylopsids and progymnosperm Archaeopteris. These tracheophytes were able to grow to large size on dry land because they had evolved the ability to biosynthesize lignin, which gave them physical rigidity and improved the effectiveness of their vascular system while giving them resistance to pathogens and herbivores. In Eifelian age, cladoxylopsid trees formed the first forests in Earth history. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of many plant groups and growth forms has been referred to as the Devonian Explosion or the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. The 'greening' of the continents acted as a carbon sink, and atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive extinction event. (See Late Devonian extinction). ====Animals and the first soils==== Primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of insects and seed plants that characterized a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the Late Devonian Epoch. The development of soils and plant root systems probably led to changes in the speed and pattern of erosion and sediment deposition. The rapid evolution of a terrestrial ecosystem that contained copious animals opened the way for the first vertebrates to seek terrestrial living. By the end of the Devonian, arthropods were solidly established on the land. ===Gallery=== File:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2024 reconstruction.jpg\|Dunkleosteus, one of the largest armoured fish ever to roam the planet, lived during the Late Devonian File:Titanichthys clarki (2024).png\|Titanichthys, a planktivorous arthrodire from the Famennian of the Cleveland Shale of Ohio. File:Eastmanosteus pustulosus.jpg\|Lower jaw of Eastmanosteus pustulosus from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin File:Onychodus.jpg\|Tooth of the lobe-finned fish Onychodus from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin File:Bothriolepis canadensis (2024).png\|Bothriolepis, a diverse antiarch genus that lived from the Mid to Late Devonian. File:Devonianfishes ntm 1905 smit 1929.gif\|Shark-like Cladoselache, several lobe-finned fishes, including Eusthenopteron that was an early marine tetrapodomorph, and the placoderm Bothriolepis in a painting from 1905 File:Melocrinites nodosus spinosus.jpg\|Melocrinites nodosus spinosus, a spiny, stalked crinoid from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin File:PhacopidDevonian.jpg\|Enrolled phacopid trilobite from the Devonian of Ohio File:AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg\|The common tabulate coral Aulopora from the Middle Devonian of Ohio – view of colony encrusting a brachiopod valve File:Tropidoleptus carinatus.jpg\|Tropidoleptus carinatus, an orthid brachiopod from the Middle Devonian of New York File:Pleurodictyum americanum Kashong.jpg\|Pleurodictyum americanum, a unique Tabulate coral, Kashong Shale, Middle Devonian of New York File:HederelloidSEM.jpg\|SEM image of a hederelloid from the Devonian of Michigan (largest tube diameter is 0.75 mm) File:HederellaOH3.jpg\|Devonian spiriferid brachiopod from Ohio which served as a host substrate for a colony of hederelloids File:Prototaxites Dawson1888.PNG\|Prototaxites, an 8-meter genus of fungus. ==Late Devonian extinction== The Late Devonian extinction is not a single event, but rather is a series of pulsed extinctions at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, and the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. Together, these are considered one of the "Big Five" mass extinctions in Earth's history. The Devonian extinction crisis primarily affected the marine community, and selectively affected shallow warm-water organisms rather than cool-water organisms. The most important group to be affected by this extinction event were the reef-builders of the great Devonian reef systems. Amongst the severely affected marine groups were the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, and acritarchs, and the world saw the disappearance of an estimated 96% of vertebrates like conodonts and bony fishes, and all of the ostracoderms and placoderms. Land plants as well as freshwater species, such as our tetrapod ancestors, were relatively unaffected by the Late Devonian extinction event (there is a counterargument that the Devonian extinctions nearly wiped out the tetrapods). The reasons for the Late Devonian extinctions are still unknown, and all explanations remain speculative. Canadian paleontologist Digby McLaren suggested in 1969 that the Devonian extinction events were caused by an asteroid impact. However, while there were Late Devonian collision events (see the Alamo bolide impact), little evidence supports the existence of a large enough Devonian crater.	[ "history of life", "Old Red Sandstone", "coral reef", "Antiarchi", "Franconia", "Carboniferous", "Equator", "evolutionary radiation", "end-Devonian extinction", "agnathan", "Greenland", "Bohemia", "France", "brachiopod", "insect", "leaf", "extinction event", "Planktivore", "The Great Devonian Controversy", "sponge reef", "Late Paleozoic icehouse", "terrane", "Dunkleosteus", "Sarcopterygii", "soil", "Ordovician", "jawed fish", "hematite", "Middle Devonian", "Armoricaphyton", "Northern Hemisphere", "Acadian orogeny", "lobe-finned fish", "Western Europe", "Eastmanosteus", "Tabulata", "Midwestern United States", "geologic time scale", "archipelago", "microcontinents", "Europe", "Kazakhstania", "Ichnos (journal)", "land animal", "Pangaea", "International Commission on Stratigraphy", "Baltica", "Siberia (continent)", "Tectonic evolution of Patagonia", "algae", "supercontinent", "Frasnian", "Trilobite", "Ferrel cell", "fresh water", "acritarch", "land plant", "Brazil", "Proetida", "Cimmeria (continent)", "Laurentia", "Africa", "Lycopodiophyta", "microconchida", "Onychodus", "dry land", "Altai-Sayan region", "Pteridospermatophyta", "shark", "Andean Geology", "Southern Hemisphere", "Late Carboniferous", "volcanic activity", "Tibet", "forelimb", "Stromatoporoidea", "South China craton", "Montagne Noire", "Silurian", "Megaannum", "Variscan orogeny", "Belgium", "mantle plume", "Givetian", "South Pole", "Amurian Plate", "Piscichnus", "List of Early Devonian land plants", "carbon dioxide", "Hederellid", "Nature (journal)", "Equisetales", "vascular plant", "Accretion (geology)", "Tropic of Capricorn", "Extinction event", "South China", "Pragian", "Geological Journal", "Conodont", "Caledonian orogeny", "Nautiloidea", "Chilenia", "flood basalt", "Avalonia", "Prototaxites", "plutons", "Ammonoidea", "stratum", "Armorican terrane", "trilobite", "vertebrate", "Saxothuringian Zone", "autotrophic", "Canadian Light Source", "Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology", "Paleo-Tethys Ocean", "Hadley cell", "Chile", "Sibumasu", "Bactritida", "placoderm", "Journal of Paleontology", "crinoid", "tracheophyte", "Phanerozoic", "First appearance datum", "Czech Republic", "Early Devonian", "India", "tetrapod", "Chondrichthyes", "Protichnites", "Drepanophycus", "Adam Sedgwick", "hederellid", "sampling bias", "Svalbard", "climate", "Myriapoda", "Cooksonia", "subduction", "Aulopora", "series (stratigraphy)", "England", "freshwater fish", "palaeogeography", "Laurussia", "Roderick Murchison", "Arthrodira", "Trigonotarbida", "Chaitenia", "erosion", "conodonts", "Cleveland Shale", "extinction", "glacier", "root", "Manchuria", "kimberlite", "bryozoa", "Great Britain", "Henry De la Beche", "Inland sea (geology)", "Devon", "Cuyania", "cyanobacteria", "carbon sink", "eon (geology)", "Ohio", "Pleurodictyum", "Famennian", "Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution", "Panthalassa", "Bothriolepis", "arachnid", "Paleozoic", "pteridophyte", "Annamia block", "coal forest", "Vilyuy Traps", "gnathostomata", "Rugosa", "seed", "Idaho", "Earth and Planetary Science Letters", "Greenhouse and icehouse Earth", "active margin", "armour (anatomy)", "wood", "Alamo bolide impact", "scorpion", "fish", "Ellesmere Island", "La Serre", "Agoniatitida", "plate tectonics", "Mongolia", "Wisconsin", "Asia", "Cladoselache", "era (geology)", "Tarim Block", "Antarctica", "Indochina", "ammonite", "calcite", "Paraná Basin", "Paleomagnetism", "Cladoxylopsida", "Gondwana", "spore", "Rhipidistia", "metamorphism", "Late Devonian extinction", "cephalopod", "Earth-Science Reviews", "island arc", "Variscan Orogeny", "Geological Society of America Bulletin", "Iberia", "Nevada", "genus", "Scandinavia", "Mesozoic", "pelvic fin", "progymnosperm", "Eusthenopteron", "Archaeopteris", "fungus", "Digby McLaren", "Osteichthyes", "limb (anatomy)", "hindlimb", "North China craton", "Palaeo-Adria", "Cambrian", "temperate climate", "Australia", "coral", "Eifelian", "Fish", "Graptolite", "Kimberley (Western Australia)", "South America", "sea surface temperature", "Acadian Orogeny", "period (geology)", "arthropod", "cartilaginous fish", "South West England", "Tetrapodomorph", "Emsian", "Northeastern United States", "fern", "million years ago", "lignin", "Titanichthys", "Mississippian (geology)", "equator", "myriapod", "Rheic Ocean", "Monograptus", "foreland basin", "pectoral fin", "system (stratigraphy)", "Hexapoda", "dominance (ecology)", "Ural Ocean", "African Invertebrates", "Siphonodella", "conodont", "Klonk", "mollusc", "Antler orogeny", "granite", "ostracoderm", "moss", "fossil", "Dichotomous branching", "Euramerica", "orogenic collapse", "Atmosphere of Earth", "Goniatite", "North America", "Bivalvia", "Appalachian Mountains", "carbonate", "Lochkovian", "nekton", "Microorganism", "Tasmania", "bacteria", "Clymeniida", "mite", "apatite", "herbivore", "reef" ]
7,993	Dungeon Master (disambiguation)	A Dungeon Master is the organizer of a Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game. Dungeon Master may also refer to: ==Games== Dungeon Master (video game), a 1987 video game series The Dungeon Master (video game), a 1983 video game for the ZX Spectrum Zork III: The Dungeon Master, a 1982 interactive fiction game ==Film and television== Dungeon Master, a character in Dungeons & Dragons (TV series) The Dungeonmaster, a 1984 film The Dungeon Masters, a 2008 documentary film ==Other uses== Dungeon monitor, or dungeon master, a person charged with supervising a playspace at BDSM events The Dungeon Master: The Disappearance of James Dallas Egbert III, a 1985 non-fiction book by William Dear	[ "The Dungeon Master", "Dungeon Master", "Dungeon Master (video game)", "Dungeons & Dragons (TV series)", "Dungeon (disambiguation)", "Zork III: The Dungeon Master", "Dungeon monitor", "The Dungeon Master (video game)", "The Dungeonmaster", "The Dungeon Masters" ]
7,994	David Thompson (explorer)	David Thompson (30 April 1770 – 10 February 1857) was an Anglo-Canadian fur trader, surveyor, and cartographer, known to some native people as "Koo-Koo-Sint" or "the Stargazer". Over Thompson's career, he travelled across North America, mapping of the continent along the way. For this historic feat, Thompson has been described as the "greatest practical land geographer that the world has produced". ==Early life== David Thompson was born in Westminster, Middlesex, to recent Welsh migrants David and Ann Thompson. When Thompson was two, his father died. Due to his widowed mother not having financial resources, she placed Thompson, 29 April 1777, the day before his seventh birthday, and his older brother in the Grey Coat Hospital, a school for the disadvantaged of Westminster. Thompson graduated to the Grey Coat mathematical school, well known for teaching navigation and surveying. He received an education for the Royal Navy: including mathematics of trigonometry and geometry, practical navigation including using of nautical instruments, finding latitudes and longitudes and making navigational calculations from observing the sun, moon and tide, and drawing maps and charts, taking land measurements, and sketching landscapes. He later built on these skills to make his career. In 1784, when Thompson was 14, the Grey Coat treasurer paid the Hudson's Bay Company the sum of five pounds, upon which the youth became an apprentice employee of the company, contracted for a period of seven years to be trained as a clerk. He set sail on a ship to North America on 28 May of that year, leaving England. ==Hudson's Bay Company (HBC)== On 2 September 1784, The next year he was transferred to nearby York Factory, and over the next few years spent time as a secretary at Cumberland House, and South Branch House of the Hudson's Bay Company before being transferred to Manchester House in 1787. During those years he learned to keep accounts and other records, calculate values of furs (it was noted that he also had several expensive beaver pelts at that time even when a secretary's job would not pay terribly well), track supplies and other duties. On 23 December 1788, Thompson seriously fractured his tibia, forcing him to spend the next two winters at Cumberland House convalescing. It was during this time that he greatly refined and expanded his mathematical, astronomical, and surveying skills under the tutelage of Hudson's Bay Company surveyor Philip Turnor. It was also during this time that he lost sight in his right eye. In 1790, with his apprenticeship nearing its end, Thompson requested a set of surveying tools in place of the typical parting gift of fine clothes offered by the company to those completing their indenture. He received both. He entered the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company as a fur trader. In 1792 he completed his first significant survey, mapping a route to Lake Athabasca (where today's Alberta/Saskatchewan border is located). The mean error of the 34 observations was about 15' of longitude. Broughton (2009) notes that the precision of the type of sextant used by Thompson was 15" of arc, corresponding to 7.5' of longitude giving an absolute limit to the precision of an individual observation. The error in Thompson's mean was several times less than this. The time he took on these observations, about 3 hours of calculation each, indicates that he understood the power of averages. Thompson spent the next few seasons trading based in Fort George (now in Alberta), and during this time led several expeditions into the Rocky Mountains. On 10 July 1804, at the annual meeting of the North West Company in Kaministiquia, Thompson was made a full partner of the company. He became a 'wintering partner', who was based in the field rather than Montreal, and was granted two of the 92 NWC's shares worth more than £4,000. He spent the next few seasons based there managing the fur trading operations, but still finding time to expand his surveys of the waterways around Lake Superior. At the 1806 company meeting, officers decided to send Thompson back into the interior. Concern over the United States-backed expedition of Lewis and Clark prompted the North West Company to charge Thompson with the task of finding a route to the Pacific to open up the lucrative trading territories of the Pacific Northwest. ==Columbia River travels== After the general meeting in 1806, Thompson travelled to Rocky Mountain House and prepared for an expedition to follow the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. In June 1807 Thompson crossed the Rocky Mountains and spent the summer surveying the Columbia basin; he continued to survey the area over the next few seasons. Thompson mapped and established trading posts in Northwestern Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Western Canada. Trading posts he founded included Kootenae House, Kullyspell House and Saleesh House; the latter two were the first trading posts west of the Rockies in Idaho and Montana, respectively. The North West Company established its post of Fort Nez Percés near the Snake River confluence several years later. Continuing down the Columbia, Thompson passed over the Celilo Falls, almost losing the canoe on the rocks, and portaged around the rapids of The Dalles and the Cascades Rapids. On 14 July 1811, Thompson reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia, arriving two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the Tonquin. Before returning upriver and across the mountains, Thompson hired Naukane, a Native Hawaiian Takane labourer brought to Fort Astoria by the Pacific Fur Company's ship Tonquin. Naukane, known as Coxe to Thompson, accompanied Thompson across the continent to Lake Superior before journeying on to England. Thompson wintered at Saleesh House before beginning his final journey in 1812 back to Montreal, where the North West Company was based. In his published journals, Thompson recorded seeing large footprints (“which measured fourteen inches in length by eight inches in breadth”) near what is now Jasper, Alberta, in 1811. It has been suggested that these prints were similar to what has since been called the sasquatch. However, Thompson noted that these tracks showed "a small Nail at the end of each [toe]", which led him to surmise it was a bear, but he had doubts, saying, "I held it to be the track of a large old grizzled bear; yet the shortness of the nails, the ball of the foot, and its great size was not that of a Bear". The years 1807-1812 are the most carefully scrutinized in his career and comprise his most enduring historical legacy, due to his development of the commercial routes across the Rockies, and his mapping of the lands they traverse. ==Appearance and personality== In 1820, the English geologist, John Jeremiah Bigsby, attended a dinner party given by The Hon. William McGillivray at his home, Chateau St. Antoine, one of the early estates in Montreal's Golden Square Mile. He describes the party and some of the guests in his entertaining book The Shoe and Canoe, giving an excellent description of David Thompson: {{blockquote\|text=I afterwards travelled much with him, and have now only to speak of him with great respect, or, I ought to say, with admiration... No living person possesses a tithe of his information respecting the Hudson's Bay countries... Never mind his Bunyan-like face and cropped hair; he has a very powerful mind, and a singular faculty of picture-making. He can create a wilderness and people it with warring savages, or climb the Rocky Mountains with you in a snow-storm, so clearly and palpably, that only shut your eyes and you hear the crack of the rifle, or feel the snow-flakes melt on your cheeks as he talks. Their marriage was formalised thirteen years later at the Scotch Presbyterian Church in Montreal on 30 October 1812. He and Charlotte had 13 children together; five of them were born before he left the fur trade. The family did not adjust easily to life in Eastern Canada; they lived in Montreal while he was travelling. Two of the children, John (aged 5) and Emma (aged 7), died of round worms, a common parasite. In 1815, Thompson moved his family to Williamstown, Upper Canada, and a few years later was employed to survey the newly established borders with the United States from Lake of the Woods to the Eastern Townships of Quebec, established by Treaty of Ghent after the War of 1812. In 1843 Thompson completed his atlas of the region from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean. Afterwards, Thompson returned to a life as a land owner, but soon financial misfortune would ruin him. By 1831 he was so deeply in debt he was forced to take up a position as a surveyor for the British American Land Company to provide for his family. His luck continued to worsen and he was forced to move in with his daughter and son-in-law in 1845. He began work on a manuscript chronicling his life exploring the continent, but this project was left unfinished when his sight failed him completely in 1851. ==Death and afterward== The land mass mapped by Thompson amounted to of wilderness (one-fifth of the continent). His contemporary, the great explorer Alexander Mackenzie, remarked that Thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years. Despite these significant achievements, Thompson died in Montreal in near obscurity on 10 February 1857, his accomplishments almost unrecognised. He never finished the book of his 28 years in the fur trade, based on his 77 field notebooks, before he died. In the 1890s geologist J.B. Tyrrell resurrected Thompson's notes and in 1916 published them as David Thompson's Narrative, as part of the General Series of the Champlain Society. Thompson's body was interred in Montreal's Mount Royal Cemetery in an unmarked grave. It was not until 1926 that efforts by J.B. Tyrrell and the Canadian Historical Society resulted in the placing of a tombstone to mark his grave. The next year, Thompson was named a National Historic Person by the federal government, one of the earliest such designations. A federal plaque reflecting that status is at Jasper National Park, Alberta. Meantime, Thompson's achievements are central reasons for other national historic designations: David Thompson on the Columbia River National Historic Event, marked at Castlegar, BC Athabasca Pass National Historic Site (NHS), at Jasper National Park Boat Encampment NHS, BC Howse Pass NHS, Banff National Park, Alberta Kootenae House NHS, BC Rocky Mountain House NHS, Alberta In 1957, one hundred years after his death, Canada's post office department honoured him with his image on a postage stamp. The David Thompson Highway in Alberta was named in his honour, along with David Thompson High School on the side of the highway near Leslieville, Alberta. There are also two David Thompson Secondary Schools, one in Vancouver, BC, and one in Invermere, BC. His prowess as a geographer is now well-recognized. He has been called "the greatest land geographer that the world has produced." Thompson Falls, Montana, and British Columbia's Thompson River and Thompson Falls on the Blaeberry River are also named after the explorer. The year 2007 marked the 150th year of Thompson's death and the 200th anniversary of his first crossing of the Rocky Mountains. Commemorative events and exhibits were planned across Canada and the United States from 2007 to 2011 as a celebration of his accomplishments. In 2007, a commemorative plaque was placed on a wall at the Grey Coat Hospital, the school for the disadvantaged of Westminster David Thompson attended as a boy, by English author and TV presenter Ray Mears. as well as the BBC2 programme Ray Mears' Northern Wilderness (Episode 5), broadcast in November 2009. He's also the subject of 2010 KSPS-TV film Uncharted Territory: David Thompson on the Columbia Plateau. He is referenced in the 1981 folk song "Northwest Passage" by Stan Rogers. The national park service, Parks Canada, announced in 2018 that it had named its new research vessel , to be used for underwater archaeology, including sea floor mapping, and for marine science in the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic Oceans, and the Great Lakes. It will be the main platform for research on the Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site. The David Thompson Astronomical Observatory at Fort William Historical Park was named to commemorate David Thompson and his discoveries.	[ "Métis people (Canada)", "Pacific Northwest", "Surveying", "Native Hawaiians", "Fort William Historical Park", "Montreal", "Archives of Ontario", "Karlsruhe, North Dakota", "Castlegar, BC", "Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)", "Stan Rogers", "Naukane", "Montana", "Kettle Falls", "Washington (state)", "Canadian Confederation", "Saleesh House", "John Jeremiah Bigsby", "Washington State University Press", "Jay Treaty", "Snake River", "Churchill, Manitoba", "Jasper, Alberta", "The Dalles, Oregon", "Treaty of Ghent", "Ray Mears", "Buckingham House (fur-trade post)", "The Independent", "tibia", "Lewis and Clark Expedition", "Alberta", "Williamstown, Ontario", "Hudson Bay", "Cumberland House, Saskatchewan", "Lake Athabasca", "Leslieville, Alberta", "Eastern Canada", "Philip Turnor", "Fort Nez Percés", "Tonquin (1807)", "English Canadians", "Kullyspell House", "War of 1812", "David Thompson Highway", "National Film Board of Canada", "Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site", "trading post", "Ascariasis", "Thompson Falls, Montana", "BBC2", "Golden Square Mile", "Grey Coat Hospital", "Fort Okanogan", "Saskatchewan", "William McGillivray", "Western Canada", "Hudson's Bay Company", "Manitoba", "Pine Island Fort", "Assiniboine River", "Columbia River", "Longueuil", "Eastern Townships", "Grand Portage", "Fort Astoria", "Charlotte Small", "Fur trade", "Welsh people", "South Branch House", "Rocky Mountain House", "Parks Canada", "Cartography", "Columbia River Drainage Basin", "KSPS-TV", "York Factory, Manitoba", "Quebec", "Champlain Society", "Westminster", "sasquatch", "Idaho", "fur trader", "Rainy Lake", "Thompson River", "Terrebonne, Quebec", "folk music", "Lake of the Woods", "Pacific Fur Company", "Ray Mears' Northern Wilderness", "Events of National Historic Significance", "River source", "tithe", "Exploration of North America", "John Philpot Curran", "Fort William, Ontario", "Wales", "Minnesota History (journal)", "Samuel Hearne", "Mississippi River", "Cascades Rapids", "John Jacob Astor", "List of people on stamps of Canada", "National Historic Sites of Canada", "Northern Peigan", "Lac la Biche (Alberta)", "Minnesota Historical Society", "Kootenae House", "Cascade Mountains", "Rocky Mountains", "Jasper National Park", "Persons of National Historic Significance", "North West Company", "Lake Winnipeg", "Verendrye, North Dakota", "Canada East", "PBS", "Mount Royal Cemetery", "Île-à-la-Crosse, Saskatchewan", "Athabasca Pass", "North Dakota", "Lunar distance (navigation)", "Joseph Tyrrell", "Lake Superior", "Howse Pass", "Northwest Passage (song)", "fur trade", "North America", "Banff National Park", "Canada Post", "Celilo Falls", "Cree" ]
7,995	Dioscoreales	The Dioscoreales are an order of monocotyledonous flowering plants, organized under modern classification systems, such as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group or the Angiosperm Phylogeny Web. Among monocot plants, Dioscoreales are grouped with the lilioid monocots, wherein they are a sister group to the Pandanales. In total, the order Dioscoreales comprises three families, 22 genera and about 850 species. Dioscoreales contains the family Dioscoreaceae, which notably includes the yams (Dioscorea) and several other bulbous and tuberous plants, some of which are heavily cultivated as staple food sources in certain countries. Certain species are found solely in arid climates (incl. parts of Southern Africa), and have adapted to this harsh environment as caudex-forming, perennial caudiciformes, including Dioscorea elephantipes, the "elephant's foot" or "elephant-foot yam". Older systems tended to place all lilioid monocots with reticulate veined leaves (such as Smilacaceae and Stemonaceae together with Dioscoraceae) in Dioscoreales; as currently circumscribed by phylogenetic analysis, using combined morphology and molecular methods, Dioscreales now contains many reticulate-veined vines within the Dioscoraceae, as well as the myco-heterotrophic Burmanniaceae and the autotrophic Nartheciaceae. ==Description== Dioscoreales are vines or herbaceous forest floor plants. They may be achlorophyllous or saprophytic. Synapomorphies include tuberous roots, glandular hairs, seed coat characteristics and the presence of calcium oxalate crystals. Other characteristics of the order include the presence of saponin steroids, annular vascular bundles that are found in both the stem and leaf. The leaves are often unsheathed at the base, have a distinctive petiole and reticulate veined lamina. Alternatively they may be small and scale-like with a sheathed base. The flowers are actinomorphic, and may be bisexual or dioecious, while the flowers or inflorescence bear glandular hairs. The perianth may be conspicuous or reduced and the style is short with well developed style branches. The tepals persist in the development of the fruit, which is a dry capsule or berry. In the seed, the endotegmen is tanniferous and the embryo short. All of the species except the genera placed in Nartheciaceae express simultaneous microsporogenesis. Plants in Nartheciaceae show successive microsporogenesis which is one of the traits indicating that the family is sister to all the other members included in the order. ==Taxonomy== === Pre-Darwinian === For the early history from Lindley (1853) onwards, see Caddick et al. (2000) Table 1, Caddick et al. (2002a) Table 1 and Table 2 in Bouman (1995). The taxonomic classification of Dioscoreales has been complicated by the presence of a number of morphological features reminiscent of the dicotyledons, leading some authors to place the order as intermediate between the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons. While Lindley did not use the term "Dioscoreales", he placed the family Dioscoraceae together with four other families in what he referred to as an Alliance (the equivalent of the modern Order) called Dictyogens. He reflected the uncertainty as to the place of this Alliance by placing it as a class of its own between Endogens (monocots) and Exogens (dicots) The botanical authority is given to von Martius (1835) by APG for his description of the family Dioscoreae or Ordo, while other sources cite Hooker (Dioscoreales Hook.f.) for his use of the term "Dioscorales" in 1873 with a single family, Dioscoreae. However, in his more definitive work, the Genera plantara (1883), he simply placed Dioscoraceae in the Epigynae "Series". ===Post-Darwinian=== Although Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) preceded Bentham and Hooker's publication, the latter project was commenced much earlier and George Bentham was initially sceptical of Darwinism. The new phyletic approach changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata, but this did little to further define the circumscription of Dioscoreaceae. The major works in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century employing this approach were in the German literature. Authors such as Eichler, Engler and Wettstein placed this family in the Liliiflorae, a major subdivision of monocotyledons. it remained to Hutchinson (1926) to resurrect the Dioscoreales to group Dioscoreaceae and related families together. Hutchinson's circumscription of Dioscoreales included three other families in addition to Dioscoreaceae, Stenomeridaceae, Trichopodaceae and Roxburghiaceae. Of these only Trichopodaceae was included in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification (see below), but was subsumed into Dioscoraceae. Stenomeridaceae, as Stenomeris was also included in Dioscoreaceae as subfamily Stenomeridoideae, the remaining genera being grouped in subfamily Dioscoreoideae. Roxburghiaceae on the other hand was segregated in the sister order Pandanales as Stemonaceae. Most taxonomists in the twentieth century (the exception was the 1981 Cronquist system which placed most such plants in order Liliales, subclass Liliidae, class Liliopsida=monocotyledons, division Magnoliophyta=angiosperms) recognised Dioscoreales as a distinct order, but demonstrated wide variations in its composition. Dahlgren, in the second version of his taxonomic classification (1982) raised the Liliiflorae to a superorder and placed Dioscoreales as an order within it. In his system, Dioscoreales contained only three families, Dioscoreaceae, Stemonaceae (i.e. Hutchinson's Roxburghiaceae) and Trilliaceae. The latter two families had been treated as a separate order (Stemonales, or Roxburghiales) by other authors, such as Huber (1969). The APG would later assign these to Pandanales and Liliales respectively. Dahlgren's construction of Dioscoreaceae included the Stenomeridaceae and Trichopodaceae, doubting these were distinct, and Croomiaceae in Stemonaceae. Furthermore, he expressed doubts about the order's homogeneity, especially Trilliaceae. The Dioscoreales at that time were marginally distinguishable from the Asparagales. In his examination of Huber's Stemonales, he found that the two constituent families had as close an affinity to Dioscoreaceae as to each other, and hence included them. He also considered closely related families and their relationship to Dioscoreales, such as the monogeneric Taccaceae, then in its own order, Taccales. Similar considerations were discussed with respect to two Asparagales families, Smilacaceae and Petermanniaceae. In Dahlgren's third and final version (1985) that broader circumscription of Dioscoreales was created within the superorder Lilianae, subclass Liliidae (monocotyledons), class Magnoliopsida (angiosperms) and comprised the seven families Dioscoreaceae, Petermanniaceae, Smilacaceae, Stemonaceae, Taccaceae, Trichopodaceae and Trilliaceae. Thismiaceae has either been treated as a separate family closely related to Burmanniaceae or as a tribe (Thismieae) within a more broadly defined Burmanniaceae, forming a separate order, Burmanniales, in the Dahlgren system. The related Nartheciaceae were treated as tribe Narthecieae within the Melanthiaceae in a third order, the Melanthiales, by Dahlgren. Dahlgren considered the Dioscoreales to most strongly resemble the ancestral monocotyledons, and hence sharing "dicotyledonous" characteristics, making it the most central monocotyledon order. Of these seven families, Bouman considered Dioscoreaceae, Trichopodaceae, Stemonaceae and Taccaceae to represent the "core" families of the order. However, that study also indicated both a clear delineation of the order from other orders particularly Asparagales, and a lack of homogeneity within the order. === Molecular phylogenetics and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group === The increasing availability of molecular phylogenetics methods in addition to morphological characteristics in the 1990s led to major reconsiderations of the relationships within the monocotyledons. In that large multi-institutional examination of the seed plants using the plastid gene rbcL the authors used Dahlgren's system as their basis, but followed Thorne (1992) in altering the suffixes of the superorders from "-iflorae" to "-anae". This demonstrated that the Lilianae comprised three lineages corresponding to Dahlgren's orders Dioscoreales, Liliales, and Asparagaless. Under the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system of 1998, which took Dahlgren's system as a basis, the order was placed in the monocot clade and comprised the five families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae, Thismiaceae and Trichopodaceae. In APG II (2003), a number of changes were made to Dioscoreales, as a result of an extensive study by Caddick and colleagues (2002), using an analysis of three genes, rbcL, atpB and 18S rDNA, in addition to morphology. These studies resulted in a re-examination of the relationships between most of the genera within the order. Thismiaceae was shown to be a sister group to Burmanniaceae, and so was included in it. The monotypic families Taccaceae and Trichopodaceae were included in Dioscoreaceae, while Nartheciaceae could also be grouped within Dioscoreales. APG III (2009) did not change this, so the order now comprises three families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae. Although further research on the deeper relationships within Dioscoreales continues, the APG IV (2016) authors felt it was still premature to propose a restructuring of the order. Specifically these issues involve conflicting information as to the relationship between Thismia and Burmanniaceae, and hence whether Thismiaceae should be subsumed in the latter, or reinstated. === Phylogeny === Molecular phylogenetics in Dioscoreales poses special problems due to the absence of plastid genes in mycoheterotrophs. Dioscoreales is monophyletic and is placed as a sister order to Pandanales, as shown in Cladogram I. === Evolution === The data for the evolution of the order is collected from molecular analyses since there are no such fossils found. It is estimated that Dioscoreales and its sister clade Pandanales split up around 121 million years ago during Early Cretaceous when the stem group was formed. Then it took 3 to 6 million years for the crown group to differentiate in Mid Cretaceous. === Subdivision === The three families of Dioscreales constitutes about 22 genera and about 849 species making it one of the smaller monocot orders. Of these, the largest group is Dioscorea (yams) with about 450 species. By contrast the second largest genus is Burmannia with about 60 species, and most have only one or two. Some authors, preferring the original APG (1998)families, continue to treat Thismiaceae separately from Burmanniaceae and Taccaceae from Dioscoreaceae. But in the 2015 study of Hertwerk and colleagues, seven genera representing all three families were examined with an eight gene dataset. Dioscoreales was monophyletic and three subclades were represented corresponding to the APG families. Dioscoreaceae and Burmanniaceae were in a sister group relationship. === Etymology === Named after the type genus Dioscorea, which in turn was named by Linnaeus in 1753 to honour the Greek physician and botanist Dioscorides. == Distribution and habitat== Species from this order are distributed across all of the continents except Antarctica. They are mainly tropical or subtropical representatives, but some members of families Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae are found in cooler regions of Europe and North America. Order Dioscoreales contains plants that are able to form an underground organ for reservation of nutritions as many other monocots. An exception is the family Burmanniaceae which is entirely myco-heterotrophic and contains species that lack photosynthetic abilities. ==Ecology== The three families included in order Dioscoreales also represent three different ecological groups of plants. Dioscoreaceae contains mainly vines (Dioscorea) and other crawling species (Epipetrum). Nartheciaceae on the other hand is a family composed of herbaceous plants with a rather lily-like appearance (Aletris) while Burmanniaceae is entirely myco-heterotrophic group. == Uses == Many members of Dioscoreaceae produce tuberous starchy roots (yams) which form staple foods in tropical regions. They have also been the source of steroids for the pharmaceutical industry, including the production of oral contraceptives.	[ "Richard Wettstein", "Charles Darwin", "Darwinism", "Arecales", "type genus", "Molecular phylogenetics", "leaf", "family (biology)", "fruit", "Zingiberales", "clade", "18S rDNA", "flowers", "staple foods", "Taccaceae", "Carl Linnaeus", "monocotyledon", "Liliales", "Thismia", "Rubisco", "Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier", "vines", "perianth", "Burmanniaceae", "tropical", "Europe", "gene", "Pandanales", "botanical authority", "Magnoliophyta", "actinomorphic", "herbaceous", "Herbert Huber (botanist)", "Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society", "perennial", "Trichopodaceae", "Burmannia (plant)", "Nuremberg", "monotypic", "Melanthiales", "Angiosperm Phylogeny Web", "phylogenetic analysis", "tribe (biology)", "seed coat", "monogeneric", "Plant stem", "Thismiaceae", "International Journal of Plant Sciences", "microsporogenesis", "genera", "suffixes", "Asparagales", "RuBisCO", "Mart.", "Dioscorides", "lilioid monocots", "Dahlgren's system", "Dioscoreaceae", "myco-heterotrophic", "caudex", "petiole (botany)", "morphology (biology)", "oral contraceptive pill", "Stenomeridaceae", "vascular bundles", "Elias Magnus Fries", "capsule (botany)", "autotrophic", "crystals", "George Bentham", "achlorophyllous", "Tuber", "crown group", "Missouri Botanical Garden", "Aletris", "photosynthetic", "Petermanniaceae", "subtropical", "Stemonaceae", "tuberous", "nutrition", "yam (vegetable)", "calcium oxalate", "subfamily", "steroids", "flowering plant", "Dahlgren system", "Synapomorphies", "molecular phylogenetics", "root", "pharmaceutical industry", "species", "Angiosperm Phylogeny Group", "Robert F Thorne", "Plant reproductive morphology", "Carl Ludwig Blume", "John Lindley", "contraceptives", "reticulate veined", "Burmanniales", "plastid", "dicotyledons", "seed", "stem group", "Roxburghiaceae", "Dioscorea communis", "Alismatales", "saponin", "APG II", "dioecious", "Melanthiaceae", "Acorales", "Cronquist system", "Dioscorea", "tannin", "phylogenetics", "Poales", "Antarctica", "Smilacaceae", "Liliopsida", "superorder", "Stemonales", "CSIRO", "Dioscorea elephantipes", "Adolf Engler", "tepals", "Bulb", "phyletic", "plant morphology", "circumscription (taxonomy)", "German language", "Lilianae", "stigma (botany)", "Hook.f.", "commelinids", "APG IV", "APG III system", "Origin of Species", "Nartheciaceae", "sister group", "John Hutchinson (botanist)", "Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden", "list of systems of plant classification", "Taxon (journal)", "saprophytic", "order (biology)", "Trilliaceae", "embryo", "Dioscorea villosa", "Cretaceous", "starch", "Commelinales", "seed plants", "monophyletic", "August Heintze", "Liliidae", "Epipetrum", "Taxonomy (biology)", "Petrosaviales", "Aarhus University Press", "berry", "genes", "Liliiflorae", "Stenomeris", "von Martius", "Rolf Dahlgren", "APG system", "monocot", "North America", "evolutionary", "Southern Africa", "August Eichler", "James Reveal", "R.Br.", "Magnoliopsida", "inflorescence" ]
8,000	Default	Default may refer to: == Law == Default (law), the failure to do something required by law Default (finance), failure to satisfy the terms of a loan obligation or failure to pay back a loan Default judgment, a binding judgment in favor of either party based on some failure to take action by the other party Default rule, a rule of law that can be overridden by a contract, trust, will, or other legally effective agreement == Science, technology == Default (computer science), a preset setting or value that will be used if no choice is done during program use or installation and setup Default password, allows the device to be accessed during its initial setup, or after resetting to factory defaults defaults (software), a command line utility for plist (preference) files for macOS and GNUstep == Music == "Default" (Atoms for Peace song), 2012 Default (band), a Canadian post-grunge and alternative rock band "Default" (Django Django song), 2012 By Default, a 2016 album by Band of Skulls ==Other uses== Default (2014 film), an American action thriller film Default (2018 film), a South Korean drama film Default (tennis), a disqualification in the game of tennis	[ "Default (2014 film)", "Default (finance)", "Default (2018 film)", "Default (Django Django song)", "Default (law)", "Default rule", "Default (Atoms for Peace song)", "Default (band)", "Default (tennis)", "Default judgment", "defaults (software)", "Walkover", "Default (computer science)", "By Default", "Default password" ]
8,002	Deposition	Deposition may refer to: Deposition (law), taking testimony outside of court Deposition (politics), the removal of a person of authority from political power Deposition (university), a widespread initiation ritual for new students practiced from the Middle Ages until the 18th century ==Art== Deposition from the Cross, the depiction of the removal of Jesus from the cross Deposition (Bellini), a 1515–16 painting by Giovanni Bellini and his workshop Deposition of Christ (Bronzino), a 1545 oil painting The Deposition (Michelangelo), a 1547–55 marble sculpture The Deposition from the Cross (Pontormo), a 1528 oil painting Deposition from the Cross, Volterra (Rosso Fiorentino) The Deposition (Raphael), a 1507 oil painting The Deposition (Rubens), a 1602 painting by Peter Paul Rubens (previously attributed to van Dyck) now in the Galleria Borghese Deposition (Rogier van der Weyden) or The Descent from the Cross, an oil painting, c.1435 Deposition (van Dyck, 1615), a 1615 painting by Anthony van Dyck, now in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich Deposition (van Dyck, 1618), a 1618–20 painting, now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna Deposition (van Dyck, 1619), a c. 1619 painting, now in the Ashmolean Museum Deposition (van Dyck, 1629), a c. 1629 painting, now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp Deposition (van Dyck, 1629–30) or Lamentation over the Dead Christ, lost 1945 Deposition (van Dyck, 1634), a 1634 painting, now in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich Deposition (van Dyck, 1635), a 1635 painting, now in the now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp Deposition (van Dyck, 1640), a 1634–40 painting, now in the Valdes Izaguirre collection ==Science== Deposition (chemistry), molecules settling out of a solution Deposition (geology), material such as sediment being added to a landform Deposition (phase transition), the process by which a gas is transformed into a solid Deposition (aerosol physics), a process where aerosol particles set down onto surfaces ==Technology== Cathodic arc deposition, a physical vapor deposition technique using an electric arc to vaporize material from a cathode target Chemical vapor deposition, a chemical process used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films Electron beam-induced deposition, a process of decomposing gaseous molecules by an electron beam Electrospark deposition, a micro-welding manufacturing process typically used to repair damage to mechanical components Electrophoretic deposition Ion beam-assisted deposition, a combination of ion implantation with a physical vapor deposition technique Molecular vapor deposition, the gas-phase reaction between surface reactive chemicals and an appropriately receptive surface Nanoparticle deposition, the process of attaching nanoparticles to solid surfaces called substrates to create coatings of nanoparticles Particle deposition, the spontaneous attachment of particles to surfaces Physical vapor deposition, a variety of vacuum deposition methods used to produce thin films and coatings Pulsed laser deposition, a physical vapor deposition technique using a high-power pulsed laser beam in a vacuum chamber ==Other uses== Defrocking or deposition, the opposite of ordination in many Christian churches "Depositions" (Superstore), an episode of the TV series Superstore "The Deposition" (The Office), an episode of the TV series The Office	[ "Deposition (van Dyck, 1615)", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1619)", "Electron beam-induced deposition", "Physical vapor deposition", "Deposition (university)", "Particle deposition", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1618)", "Deposition (Rogier van der Weyden)", "Nanoparticle deposition", "Cathodic arc deposition", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1634)", "Ion beam-assisted deposition", "Deposition (Bellini)", "The Deposition (Rubens)", "Pulsed laser deposition", "Deposition (geology)", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1629–30)", "Deposition (chemistry)", "Deposition (aerosol physics)", "The Deposition (The Office)", "Electrospark deposition", "Depositions (Superstore)", "Deposition of Christ (Bronzino)", "Depo (disambiguation)", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1640)", "Electrophoretic deposition", "Molecular vapor deposition", "Deposition (law)", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1629)", "Deposition (phase transition)", "Defrocking", "Deposition from the Cross, Volterra (Rosso Fiorentino)", "The Deposition (Michelangelo)", "Deposition from the Cross", "List of deposed politicians", "ia:Deposition", "Deposit (disambiguation)", "The Deposition (Raphael)", "Chemical vapor deposition", "Deposition (van Dyck, 1635)", "The Deposition from the Cross (Pontormo)" ]
8,005	Dentistry	Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the mouth, most commonly focused on dentition (the development and arrangement of teeth) as well as the oral mucosa. Dentistry may also encompass other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint. The practitioner is called a dentist. The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization, with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC to 5500 BC. Dentistry is thought to have been the first specialization in medicine which has gone on to develop its own accredited degree with its own specializations. Dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology (the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions. However, some specialties such as oral and maxillofacial surgery (facial reconstruction) may require both medical and dental degrees to accomplish. In European history, dentistry is considered to have stemmed from the trade of barber surgeons. Dental treatments are carried out by a dental team, which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries (such as dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists). Most dentists either work in private practices (primary care), dental hospitals, or (secondary care) institutions (prisons, armed forces bases, etc.). The modern movement of evidence-based dentistry calls for the use of high-quality scientific research and evidence to guide decision-making such as in manual tooth conservation, use of fluoride water treatment and fluoride toothpaste, dealing with oral diseases such as tooth decay and periodontitis, as well as systematic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease, cancer, and HIV/AIDS which could also affect the oral cavity. Other practices relevant to evidence-based dentistry include radiology of the mouth to inspect teeth deformity or oral malaises, haematology (study of blood) to avoid bleeding complications during dental surgery, cardiology (due to various severe complications arising from dental surgery with patients with heart disease), etc. ==Terminology== The term dentistry comes from dentist, which comes from French dentiste, which comes from the French and Latin words for tooth. The term for the associated scientific study of teeth is odontology (from ) – the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth. ==Dental treatment== Dentistry usually encompasses practices related to the oral cavity. According to the World Health Organization, oral diseases are major public health problems due to their high incidence and prevalence across the globe, with the disadvantaged affected more than other socio-economic groups. The majority of dental treatments are carried out to prevent or treat the two most common oral diseases which are dental caries (tooth decay) and periodontal disease (gum disease or pyorrhea). Common treatments involve the restoration of teeth, extraction or surgical removal of teeth, scaling and root planing, endodontic root canal treatment, and cosmetic dentistry By nature of their general training, dentists, without specialization can carry out the majority of dental treatments such as restorative (fillings, crowns, bridges), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and extraction of teeth, as well as performing examinations, radiographs (x-rays), and diagnosis. Dentists can also prescribe medications used in the field such as antibiotics, sedatives, and any other drugs used in patient management. Depending on their licensing boards, general dentists may be required to complete additional training to perform sedation, dental implants, etc. thumb\|right\|Irreversible enamel defects caused by an untreated celiac disease. They may be the only clue to its diagnosis, even in absence of gastrointestinal symptoms, but are often confused with fluorosis, [[tetracycline discoloration, acid reflux or other causes. The National Institutes of Health include a dental exam in the diagnostic protocol of celiac disease. Many studies have also shown that gum disease is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and preterm birth. The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as "oral-systemic health". ==Education and licensing== John M. Harris started the world's first dental school in Bainbridge, Ohio, and helped to establish dentistry as a health profession. It opened on 21 February 1828, and today is a dental museum. The first dental college, Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, opened in Baltimore, Maryland, US in 1840. The second in the United States was the Ohio College of Dental Surgery, established in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1845. The Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery followed in 1852. In 1907, Temple University accepted a bid to incorporate the school. Studies show that dentists that graduated from different countries, or even from different dental schools in one country, may make different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists that graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) more often than dentists that graduated from Latin American or Eastern European dental schools. In the United Kingdom, the first dental schools, the London School of Dental Surgery and the Metropolitan School of Dental Science, both in London, opened in 1859. The British Dentists Act of 1878 and the 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners. The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practising dentistry. The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practising illegally. Dental degrees awarded around the world include the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) in North America (US and Canada), and the Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Baccalaureus Dentalis Chirurgiae (BDS, BDent, BChD, BDSc) in the UK and current and former British Commonwealth countries. All dentists in the United States undergo at least three years of undergraduate studies, but nearly all complete a bachelor's degree. This schooling is followed by four years of dental school to qualify as a "Doctor of Dental Surgery" (DDS) or "Doctor of Dental Medicine" (DMD). Specialization in dentistry is available in the fields of Anesthesiology, Dental Public Health, Endodontics, Oral Radiology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine, Orofacial Pain, Pathology, Orthodontics, Pediatric Dentistry (Pedodontics), Periodontics, and Prosthodontics. ==Specialties == Some dentists undertake further training after their initial degree in order to specialize. Exactly which subjects are recognized by dental registration bodies varies according to location. Examples include: Anesthesiology – the specialty of dentistry that deals with the advanced use of general anesthesia, sedation and pain management to facilitate dental procedures. Cosmetic dentistry – focuses on improving the appearance of the mouth, teeth and smile. Dental public health – the study of epidemiology and social health policies relevant to oral health. Endodontics (also called endodontology) – root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp and periapical tissues. Forensic odontology – the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity. Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics – the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals. Oral and maxillofacial pathology – the study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases. Oral and maxillofacial radiology – the study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases. Oral and maxillofacial surgery (also called oral surgery) – extractions, implants, and surgery of the jaws, mouth and face. Oral biology – research in dental and craniofacial biology Oral implantology – the replacement of extracted teeth with dental implants. Oral medicine – the clinical evaluation and diagnosis of oral mucosal diseases Orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics – the straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth. Pediatric dentistry (also called pedodontics) – dentistry for children Periodontology (also called periodontics) – the study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical) as well as placement and maintenance of dental implants Prosthodontics (also called prosthetic dentistry) – dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists super-specialize in maxillofacial prosthetics, which is the discipline originally concerned with the rehabilitation of patients with congenital facial and oral defects such as cleft lip and palate or patients born with an underdeveloped ear (microtia). Today, most maxillofacial prosthodontists return function and esthetics to patients with acquired defects secondary to surgical removal of head and neck tumors, or secondary to trauma from war or motor vehicle accidents. Special needs dentistry (also called special care dentistry) – dentistry for those with developmental and acquired disabilities. Sports dentistry – the branch of sports medicine dealing with prevention and treatment of dental injuries and oral diseases associated with sports and exercise. The sports dentist works as an individual consultant or as a member of a sports medicine team. Veterinary dentistry – the field of dentistry applied to the care of animals. It is a specialty of veterinary medicine. ==History== Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. In Italy evidence dated to the Paleolithic, around 13,000 years ago, points to bitumen used to fill a tooth and in Neolithic Slovenia, 6500 years ago, beeswax was used to close a fracture in a tooth. The Indus valley has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC, during the Stone Age. The Neolithic site of Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan's south western province of Balochistan) indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead-crafters. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practised in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had a dental abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC. The practice of dentistry dates back thousands of years, with evidence of dental procedures such as tooth extraction and fillings found in ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and the Greeks. One notable historical figure is Pierre Fauchard, often referred to as the 'father of modern dentistry,' who wrote the first comprehensive book on the subject in 1728. An ancient Sumerian text describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries. Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the Homeric Hymns, and as late as the 14th century AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay. Recipes for the treatment of toothache, infections and loose teeth are spread throughout the Ebers Papyrus, Kahun Papyri, Brugsch Papyrus, and Hearst papyrus of Ancient Egypt. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, discusses the treatment of dislocated or fractured jaws. In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment. Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics. However, it is possible the prosthetics were prepared after death for aesthetic reasons. Use of dental appliances, bridges and dentures was applied by the Etruscans in northern Italy, from as early as 700 BC, of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands. The Romans had likely borrowed this technique by the 5th century BC. The Phoenicians crafted dentures during the 6th–4th century BC, fashioning them from gold wire and incorporating two ivory teeth. In ancient Egypt, Hesy-Ra is the first named "dentist" (greatest of the teeth). The Egyptians bound replacement teeth together with gold wire. Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents. The earliest dental amalgams were first documented in a Tang dynasty medical text written by the Chinese physician Su Kung in 659, and appeared in Germany in 1528. During the Islamic Golden Age Dentistry was discussed in several famous books of medicine such as The Canon in medicine written by Avicenna and Al-Tasreef by Al-Zahrawi who is considered the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages, Avicenna said that jaw fracture should be reduced according to the occlusal guidance of the teeth; this principle is still valid in modern times. Al-Zahrawi invented over 200 surgical tools that resemble the modern kind. Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac most probably invented the dental pelican (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used to perform dental extractions up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 19th century. The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530, In the United Kingdom, there was no formal qualification for the providers of dental treatment until 1859 and it was only in 1921 that the practice of dentistry was limited to those who were professionally qualified. The Royal Commission on the National Health Service in 1979 reported that there were then more than twice as many registered dentists per 10,000 population in the UK than there were in 1921. ===Modern dentistry=== It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. The English physician Thomas Browne in his A Letter to a Friend ( pub. 1690) made an early dental observation with characteristic humour: The French surgeon Pierre Fauchard became known as the "father of modern dentistry". Despite the limitations of the primitive surgical instruments during the late 17th and early 18th century, Fauchard was a highly skilled surgeon who made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watchmakers, jewelers and even barbers, that he thought could be used in dentistry. He introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar-derived acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay. Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he invented many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern of the wires. Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces. His contributions to the world of dental science consist primarily of his 1728 publication Le chirurgien dentiste or The Surgeon Dentist. The French text included "basic oral anatomy and function, dental construction, and various operative and restorative techniques, and effectively separated dentistry from the wider category of surgery". Major advances in science were made in the 19th century, and dentistry evolved from a trade to a profession. The profession came under government regulation by the end of the 19th century. In the UK, the Dentist Act was passed in 1878 and the British Dental Association formed in 1879. In the same year, Francis Brodie Imlach was the first ever dentist to be elected President of the Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh), raising dentistry onto a par with clinical surgery for the first time. ===Hazards in modern dentistry=== Long term occupational noise exposure can contribute to permanent hearing loss, which is referred to as noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus. Noise exposure can cause excessive stimulation of the hearing mechanism, which damages the delicate structures of the inner ear. NIHL can occur when an individual is exposed to sound levels above 90 dBA according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Regulations state that the permissible noise exposure levels for individuals is 90 dBA. For the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), exposure limits are set to 85 dBA. Exposures below 85 dBA are not considered to be hazardous. Time limits are placed on how long an individual can stay in an environment above 85 dBA before it causes hearing loss. OSHA places that limitation at 8 hours for 85 dBA. The exposure time becomes shorter as the dBA level increases. Within the field of dentistry, a variety of cleaning tools are used including piezoelectric and sonic scalers, and ultrasonic scalers and cleaners. While a majority of the tools do not exceed 75 dBA, prolonged exposure over many years can lead to hearing loss or complaints of tinnitus. Few dentists have reported using personal hearing protective devices, which could offset any potential hearing loss or tinnitus. ===Evidence-based dentistry=== There is a movement in modern dentistry to place a greater emphasis on high-quality scientific evidence in decision-making. Evidence-based dentistry (EBD) uses current scientific evidence to guide decisions. It is an approach to oral health that requires the application and examination of relevant scientific data related to the patient's oral and medical health. Along with the dentist's professional skill and expertise, EBD allows dentists to stay up to date on the latest procedures and patients to receive improved treatment. A new paradigm for medical education designed to incorporate current research into education and practice was developed to help practitioners provide the best care for their patients. It was first introduced by Gordon Guyatt and the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada in the 1990s. It is part of the larger movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices, especially since a major part of dentistry involves dealing with oral and systemic diseases. Other issues relevant to the dental field in terms of evidence-based research and evidence-based practice include population oral health, dental clinical practice, tooth morphology etc. == Ethical and medicolegal issues == Dentistry is unique in that it requires dental students to have competence-based clinical skills that can only be acquired through supervised specialized laboratory training and direct patient care. This necessitates the need for a scientific and professional basis of care with a foundation of extensive research-based education. According to some experts, the accreditation of dental schools can enhance the quality and professionalism of dental education.	[ "infection", "Dentistry in Canada", "Dental auxiliary", "preterm birth", "Periodontology", "Paleolithic diet", "Francis Brodie Imlach", "Dental disease", "Middle Ages", "bow drill", "jeweler", "dental cavities", "root canal therapy", "Veterinary dentistry", "scaling and root planing", "medical specialty", "amalgam (dentistry)", "oral and maxillofacial surgery", "dentures", "diseases", "Pediatric dentistry", "Discovery Channel", "dental therapist", "tooth worm", "Orthodontics", "evidence-based medicine", "temporomandibular joint", "Prosthodontics", "British Dental Association", "Oral and maxillofacial pathology", "emollients", "Ancient Greece", "Aristotle", "Avicenna", "veterinary medicine", "Endodontics", "Israel", "Ontario, Canada", "dental restoration", "Edwin Smith Papyrus", "dentist", "Human mouth", "microtia", "watchmaker", "pain", "dental braces", "Oral medicine", "celiac disease", "medical diagnosis", "Bridge (dentistry)", "dental key", "tooth decay", "dental extraction", "cleft lip and palate", "Special needs dentistry", "Oral and maxillofacial surgery", "cancer", "Greco-Roman", "Neanderthals", "Al-Zahrawi", "heart disease", "tinnitus", "Specialty (dentistry)", "secondary care", "Royal Commission on the National Health Service", "osteoporosis", "oral pathology", "anatomy", "physiology", "cardiology", "Hippocrates", "Temple University", "noise-induced hearing loss", "Cornelius Celsus", "General Dental Council", "Surgeon", "Gordon Guyatt", "Code of Hammurabi", "evidence-based practices", "Brugsch Papyrus", "gum disease", "pathology", "Slovenia", "linen", "Medications used in dentistry and periodontics", "Dental public health", "antibiotic", "internal organ", "developmental disability", "Dentistry in ancient Rome", "forceps", "Dental instrument", "Eco-friendly dentistry", "third molar", "dental technician", "tooth transplant", "Profession", "Egypt", "dentition", "tartaric acid", "Forensic odontology", "maxillofacial prosthetics", "Human tooth", "American Dental Association", "Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery", "Phoenicia", "Stone Age", "periodontal disease", "radiology", "Mehrgarh", "HIV/AIDS", "sugar", "Health care", "Oral and maxillofacial radiology", "Dental degree", "Dental anesthesiology", "gums", "NIOSH", "caries", "Sumerian language", "wisdom tooth", "prosthodontics", "Bainbridge, Ross County, Ohio", "diagnosis", "World Health Organization", "hygiene", "Doctor of Dental Surgery", "Evidence-based dentistry", "Physician", "Hematology", "diabetes", "McMaster University", "medicine", "cosmetic dentistry", "bridge (dentistry)", "periodontium", "Malta", "Gingiva", "Ohio College of Dental Surgery", "Extraction (dental)", "evidence-based dentistry", "Kahun Papyri", "Pierre Fauchard", "Balochistan", "List of dental organizations", "Sustainable dentistry", "Thomas Browne", "Harris Dental Museum", "oral cavity", "Geriatric dentistry", "John Tomes", "Barber", "surgeon", "Tang dynasty", "dental hygienist", "Hesy-Ra", "oral mucosa", "Doctor of Dental Medicine", "Tooth impaction", "London School of Dental Surgery", "Homeric Hymns", "dental assistant", "A Letter to a Friend", "primary care", "Periodontal disease", "Dental restoration", "stomatology", "bone", "History of ancient Egypt", "Dentistry in Israel", "Dental aerosol", "pharmacology", "dental filling", "ivory", "Baltimore College of Dental Surgery", "beeswax", "Indus valley", "Times of Malta", "silk", "Guy de Chauliac", "hospital", "Finland", "epidemiology", "dental pulp", "Neolithic India", "barber surgeon", "crown (dentistry)", "denture", "The Glasgow Herald", "Agriculture", "Ancient Egypt", "surgery", "Dentistry in the Philippines", "barber", "Dental implant", "physician", "Hearst papyrus", "endodontic therapy", "sedative", "prosthetic", "dental abscess", "Islamic Golden Age", "The Canon of Medicine", "Ancient Rome", "dental caries", "Dentistry in the United Kingdom", "astringents", "craniofacial", "Cosmetic dentistry", "sports medicine", "Occupational Safety and Health Administration", "Dentistry in the United States", "Ebers Papyrus", "John Hunter (surgeon)", "Etruscans", "pelican" ]
8,007	Diameter	In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the centre of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere. In more modern usage, the length d of a diameter is also called the diameter. In this sense one speaks of diameter rather than diameter (which refers to the line segment itself), because all diameters of a circle or sphere have the same length, this being twice the radius r. d = 2r \qquad\text{or equivalently}\qquad r = \frac{d}{2}. The word "diameter" is derived from (), "diameter of a circle", from (), "across, through" and (), "measure". It is often abbreviated \text{DIA}, \text{dia}, d, or \varnothing. == Constructions == With straightedge and compass, a diameter of a given circle can be constructed as the perpendicular bisector of an arbitrary chord. Drawing two diameters in this way can be used to locate the center of a circle, as their crossing point. To construct a diameter parallel to a given line, choose the chord to be perpendicular to the line. The circle having a given line segment as its diameter can be constructed by straightedge and compass, by finding the midpoint of the segment and then drawing the circle centered at the midpoint through one of the ends of the line segment. == Symbol == The symbol or variable for diameter, , is sometimes used in technical drawings or specifications as a prefix or suffix for a number (e.g. "⌀ 55 mm"), indicating that it represents diameter. Photographic filter thread sizes are often denoted in this way. The symbol has a code point in Unicode at , in the Miscellaneous Technical set. It should not be confused with several other characters (such as or ) that resemble it but have unrelated meanings. It has the compose sequence . == Generalizations == The definitions given above are only valid for circles and spheres. However, they are special cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of n-dimensional object, or a set of scattered points. The diameter of a set is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset. A different and incompatible definition is sometimes used for the diameter of a conic section. In this context, a diameter is any chord which passes through the conic's centre. A diameter of an ellipse is any line passing through the centre of the ellipse. Half of any such diameter may be called a semidiameter, although this term is most often a synonym for the radius of a circle or sphere. The longest and shortest diameters are called the major axis and minor axis, respectively. Conjugate diameters are a pair of diameters where one is parallel to a tangent to the ellipse at the endpoint of the other diameter. Several kinds of object can be measured by equivalent diameter, the diameter of a circular or spherical approximation to the object. This includes hydraulic diameter, the equivalent diameter of a channel or pipe through which liquid flows, and the Sauter mean diameter of a collection of particles. The diameter of a circle is exactly twice its radius. However, this is true only for a circle, and only in the Euclidean metric. Jung's theorem provides more general inequalities relating the diameter to the radius.	[ "center (geometry)", "filter thread", "radius", "conic section", "Variable (mathematics)", "Unicode", "major axis", "compose sequence", "Sauter mean diameter", "diameter of a set", "Conjugate diameters", "line segment", "symbol", "perpendicular bisector", "Caliper", "Eratosthenes", "straightedge and compass", "geometry", "Jung's theorem", "Chord (geometry)", "equivalent diameter", "supremum", "Miscellaneous Technical", "Compose key", "midpoint", "hydraulic diameter", "set (mathematics)", "Micrometer (device)", "Earth", "ellipse", "code point", "sphere", "chord (geometry)", "circle", "Euclidean distance" ]
8,008	Direct examination	The direct examination or examination-in-chief is one stage in the process of adducing evidence from witnesses in a court of law. Direct examination is the questioning of a witness by the lawyer/side/party that called such witness in a trial. Direct examination is usually performed to elicit evidence in support of facts which will satisfy a required element of a party's claim or defense. In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking leading questions. This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to a favorable witness. An exception to this rule occurs if one side has called a witness, but it is either understood or becomes clear, that the witness is hostile to the calling lawyer's side of the controversy, the lawyer who called the witness may then ask the court to declare the person on the stand a hostile witness. If the court does so, the lawyer may thereafter ask witness leading questions during direct examination. The techniques of direct examination are taught in courses on trial advocacy. Each direct examination is integrated with the overall case strategy through either a theme and theory or, with more advanced strategies, a line of effort.	[ "trial", "leading question", "Litigation strategy", "hostile witness", "wikt:adduce", "trial advocacy", "evidence (law)", "court of law" ]
8,011	Alcohol intoxication	{{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Alcohol intoxication \| synonyms = Inebriation, drunkenness, ethanol intoxication, internal damage by alcohol \| image = Michelangelo drunken Noah.jpg \| caption = The Drunkenness of Noah by Michelangelo, 1509 \| field = Toxicology, psychiatry \| symptoms = Mild: Mild sedation, decreased coordination \| diagnosis = Typically based on history of events and physical examination and known in overdose as alcohol poisoning, is the behavior and physical effects caused by recent consumption of alcohol. The technical term intoxication in common speech may suggest that a large amount of alcohol has been consumed, leading to accompanying physical symptoms and deleterious health effects. Mild intoxication is mostly referred to by slang terms such as tipsy or buzzed. In addition to the toxicity of ethanol, the main psychoactive component of alcoholic beverages, other physiological symptoms may arise from the activity of acetaldehyde, a metabolite of alcohol. These effects may not arise until hours after ingestion and may contribute to a condition colloquially known as a hangover. Symptoms of intoxication at lower doses may include mild sedation and poor coordination. Complications may include seizures, aspiration pneumonia, low blood sugar, and injuries or self-harm such as suicide. Alcohol intoxication typically begins after two or more alcoholic drinks. This can be measured by blood or breath testing. Alcohol is broken down in the human body at a rate of about 3.3 mmol/L (15 mg/dL) per hour, The DSM-5 defines alcohol intoxication as at least one of the following symptoms that developed during or close after alcohol ingestion: slurred speech, incoordination, unsteady walking/movement, nystagmus (uncontrolled eye movement), attention or memory impairment, or near unconsciousness or coma. Management of alcohol intoxication involves supportive care. Gastric lavage and activated charcoal have not been found to be useful. Some religions, such as Islam, consider alcohol intoxication to be a sin. ==Symptoms== Vomiting When severe it may become a medical emergency. Some effects of alcohol intoxication, such as euphoria and lowered social inhibition, are central to alcohol's desirability. As drinking increases, people become sleepy or fall into a stupor. At very high blood alcohol concentrations, for example above 0.3%, the respiratory system becomes depressed and the person may stop breathing. Comatose patients may aspirate their vomit (resulting in vomitus in the lungs, which may cause "drowning" and later pneumonia if survived). CNS depression and impaired motor coordination along with poor judgment increase the likelihood of accidental injury occurring. It is estimated that about one-third of alcohol-related deaths are due to accidents and another 14% are from intentional injury. In addition to respiratory failure and accidents caused by its effects on the central nervous system, alcohol causes significant metabolic derangements. Hypoglycaemia occurs due to ethanol's inhibition of gluconeogenesis, especially in children, and may cause lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, and acute kidney injury. Metabolic acidosis is compounded by respiratory failure. Patients may also present with hypothermia. ==Pathophysiology== Alcohol is metabolized by a normal liver at the rate of about 8 grams of pure ethanol per hour. 8 grams or is one British standard unit. An "abnormal" liver with conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, gall bladder disease, and cancer is likely to result in a slower rate of metabolism. ==Diagnosis== Alcohol intoxication is described as a mental and behavioural disorder by the International Classification of Diseases. (ICD-10). Definitive diagnosis relies on a blood test for alcohol, usually performed as part of a toxicology screen. Law enforcement officers in the United States and other countries often use breathalyzer units and field sobriety tests as more convenient and rapid alternatives to blood tests. There are also various models of breathalyzer units that are available for consumer use. Because these may have varying reliability and may produce different results than the tests used for law-enforcement purposes, the results from such devices should be conservatively interpreted. Many informal intoxication tests exist, which, in general, are unreliable and not recommended as deterrents to excessive intoxication or as indicators of the safety of activities such as motor vehicle driving, heavy equipment operation, machine tool use, etc. For determining whether someone is intoxicated by alcohol by some means other than a blood-alcohol test, it is necessary to rule out other conditions such as hypoglycemia, stroke, usage of other intoxicants, mental health issues, and so on. It is best if their behavior has been observed while the subject is sober to establish a baseline. Several well-known criteria can be used to establish a probable diagnosis. For a physician in the acute-treatment setting, acute alcohol intoxication can mimic other acute neurological disorders or is frequently combined with other recreational drugs that complicate diagnosis and treatment. ==Management== Acute alcohol poisoning is a medical emergency due to the risk of death from respiratory depression or aspiration of vomit if vomiting occurs while the person is unresponsive. Emergency treatment strives to stabilize and maintain an open airway and sufficient breathing while waiting for the alcohol to metabolize. This can be done by removal of any vomit or, if the person is unconscious or has impaired gag reflex, intubation of the trachea. Other measures may include Administer the vitamin thiamine to prevent Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, which can cause a seizure (more usually a treatment for chronic alcoholism, but in the acute context usually co-administered to ensure maximal benefit). Hemodialysis if the blood concentration is very high at >130 mmol/L (>600 mg/dL) Provide oxygen therapy as needed via nasal cannula or non-rebreather mask. Administration of intravenous fluids in cases involving hypoglycemia and electrolyte imbalance. While the medication metadoxine may speed the breakdown of alcohol, use in alcohol intoxication requires further study as of 2017. Additional medication may be indicated for treatment of nausea, tremor, and anxiety. ==Clinical findings== ===Hospital admissions=== Alcohol intoxication was found to be prevalent in clinical populations within the United States involving people treated for trauma and in the age group of people aged within their 18th–24th years (in a study of a group for the years 1999–2004). In the United States during the years 2010–2012, acute intoxication was found to be the direct cause of an average of 2,221 deaths, in the sample group of those aged within their 15th year or older. The same mortality route is thought to cause indirectly more than 30,000 deaths per year. People having drunk heavily for several days or weeks may have withdrawal symptoms after the acute intoxication has subsided. A person consuming a dangerous amount of alcohol persistently can develop memory blackouts and idiosyncratic intoxication or pathological drunkenness symptoms. Long-term persistent consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol can cause liver damage and have other deleterious health effects. ==Society and culture== Alcohol intoxication is a risk factor in some cases of catastrophic injury, in particular for unsupervised recreational activity. A study in the province of Ontario based on epidemiological data from 1986, 1989, 1992, and 1995 states that 79.2% of the 2,154 catastrophic injuries recorded for the study were preventable, of which 346 (17%) involved alcohol consumption. The activities most commonly associated with alcohol-related catastrophic injury were snowmobiling (124), fishing (41), diving (40), boating (31) and canoeing (7), swimming (31), riding an all-terrain vehicle (24), and cycling (23). It is also a criminal offense to fly an aircraft or (in some American states) to assemble or operate an amusement park ride while drunk. Similar laws also exist in the United Kingdom and most other countries. In some jurisdictions, it is also an offense to serve alcohol to an already-intoxicated person, and, often, alcohol can only be sold by persons qualified to serve responsibly through alcohol server training. The blood alcohol content (BAC) for legal operation of a vehicle is typically measured as a percentage of a unit volume of blood. This percentage ranges from 0.00% in Romania and the United Arab Emirates; to 0.05% in Australia, South Africa, Germany, Scotland, and New Zealand (0.00% for underage individuals); to 0.08% in England and Wales, the United States and Canada. The United States Federal Aviation Administration prohibits crew members from performing their duties within eight hours of consuming an alcoholic beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, or with a BAC greater than 0.04%. In the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, public intoxication is a crime (also known as "being drunk and disorderly" or "being drunk and incapable"). In some countries, there are special facilities, sometimes known as "drunk tanks", for the temporary detention of persons found to be drunk. ===Religious views=== Some religious groups permit the consumption of alcohol; some permit consumption but prohibit intoxication; others prohibit any amount of alcohol consumption altogether. ==== Christianity ==== Most denominations of Christianity, such as Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Lutheranism, use wine as a part of the Eucharist (Holy Communion) and permit its consumption, but consider it sinful to become intoxicated. Romans 13:13–14, 1 Corinthians 6:9–11, Galatians 5:19–21 and Ephesians 5:18 are among a number of other Bible passages that speak against intoxication. Some Protestant Christian denominations prohibit the consumption of alcohol based upon biblical passages that condemn drunkenness, In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, alcohol consumption is forbidden, and teetotalism has become a distinguishing feature of its members. Jehovah's Witnesses allow moderate alcohol consumption among its members. ==== Islam ==== In the Quran, there is a prohibition on the consumption of grape-based alcoholic beverages, and intoxication is considered an abomination in the hadith of Muhammad. The schools of thought of Islamic jurisprudence have interpreted this as a strict prohibition of the consumption of all types of alcohol and declared it to be haram (), although other uses may be permitted. ==== Buddhism ==== In Buddhism, in general, the consumption of intoxicants is discouraged for both monastics and lay followers. Many Buddhists observe a basic code of ethics known as the five precepts, of which the fifth precept is an undertaking to refrain from the consumption of intoxicating substances (except for medical reasons). In the bodhisattva vows of the Brahmajala Sutra, observed by Mahayana Buddhist communities, distribution of intoxicants is likewise discouraged, as well as consumption. ==== Hinduism ==== In the Gaudiya Vaishnavism branch of Hinduism, one of the four regulative principles forbids the taking of intoxicants, including alcohol. ==== Judaism ==== In the Bible, the Book of Proverbs contains several chapters related to the negative effects of drunkenness and warns to stay away from intoxicating beverages. The Book of Genesis refers to the use of wine by Lot's daughters to rape him. The story of Samson in the Book of Judges tells of a monk from the Israelite tribe of Dan who, as a Nazirite, is prohibited from cutting his hair and drinking wine. Proverbs 31:4 warns against kings and other rulers drinking wine and similar alcoholic beverages, Proverbs 31:6–7 promotes giving such beverages to the perishing and wine to those whose lives are bitter as a coping mechanism against the likes of poverty and other troubles. In Judaism, in accordance with the biblical stance against drinking, The biblical command to sanctify the Sabbath and other holidays has been interpreted as having three ceremonial meals with wine or grape juice, known as Kiddush. A number of Jewish marriage ceremonies end with the bride and groom drinking a shared cup of wine after reciting seven blessings; this occurs after a fasting day in some Ashkenazi traditions. It has been customary and in many cases even mandated to drink moderately so as to stay sober, and only after the prayers are over. During the Seder on Passover, there is an obligation to drink four ceremonial cups of wine while reciting the Haggadah. It has been assumed as the source of the wine-drinking ritual at communion in some Christian groups. During Purim, there is an obligation to become intoxicated; however, as with many other decrees, this has been avoided in many communities by allowing sleep during the day as a replacement. During the U.S. Prohibition era in the 1920s, a rabbi from the Reform Judaism movement proposed using grape juice for the ritual instead of wine. Although refuted at first, the practice became widely accepted by orthodox Jews as well. ==Other animals== In the film Animals Are Beautiful People, an entire section was dedicated to showing many different animals including monkeys, elephants, hogs, giraffes, and ostriches, eating over-ripe marula tree fruit causing them to sway and lose their footing in a manner similar to human drunkenness. Birds may become intoxicated with fermented berries and some die colliding with hard objects when flying under the influence. In elephant warfare, practiced by the Greeks during the Maccabean revolt and by Hannibal during the Punic wars, it has been recorded that the elephants would be given wine before the attack, and only then would they charge forward after being agitated by their driver. It is a regular practice to give small amounts of beer to race horses in Ireland. Ruminant farm animals have natural fermentation occurring in their stomach, and adding alcoholic beverages in small amounts to their drink will generally do them no harm, and will not cause them to become drunk. Alcoholic beverages are extremely harmful to dogs, and often for reasons of additives such as xylitol, an artificial sweetener in some mixers. Dogs can absorb ethyl alcohol in dangerous amounts through their skin as well as through drinking the liquid or consuming it in foods. Even fermenting bread dough can be dangerous to dogs. In 1999, one of the royal footmen for Britain's Queen Elizabeth II was demoted from Buckingham Palace due to his "party trick" of spiking the meals and drinks of the Queen's pet corgi dogs with alcohol which in turn would lead the dogs to run around drunk.	[ "Abnormal behaviour", "Catholic Church", "toxicology", "Samson", "social inhibition", "Hannibal", "drunk tanks", "alcohol-related crime", "Dysarthria", "Madhhab", "Islam", "Underwater diving", "NIAAA", "Ephesians 5", "acute kidney injury", "Giovanni Bellini", "hangover", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "liver failure", "Ming dynasty", "methanol toxicity", "metabolism", "Southern Baptist Convention", "Pharyngeal reflex", "recreation", "Supportive care", "five precepts", "physical examination", "haram", "suicide", "hepatitis", "metabolized", "Epidemiology", "Hypoventilation", "amusement park", "gluconeogenesis", "Hemodialysis", "snowmobiling", "alcohol server training", "Nazirite", "Book of Genesis", "University of Toronto Press", "Unit of alcohol", "Eucharist", "Law enforcement officer", "Babylonian Talmud", "Prohibition in the United States", "Alcohol laws of Wisconsin", "Blood alcohol content", "Lethargy", "seizure", "Substance intoxication", "Disorder (medicine)", "U.S. state", "grape juice", "Hinduism", "drowning", "Romans 13", "Mordechai", "electrolyte imbalance", "Hepatic encephalopathy", "hypoglycemia", "respiratory depression", "Gaudiya Vaishnavism", "gall bladder", "public intoxication", "Oxford University Press", "Orthodox Judaism", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Reform Judaism", "mental disorder", "nausea", "Disulfiram-alcohol reaction", "Protestantism", "tremor", "aspiration pneumonia", "Mahayana", "Alcohol enema", "Toxicology", "Lot's daughters", "alcohol (drug)", "Ashgate Publishing", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Alcohol flush reaction", "Gastric lavage", "medical emergency", "Seizure", "ketoacidosis", "Penguin Books", "overdose", "Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome", "Springer Nature", "Haman (Bible)", "catastrophic injury", "Alcohols (medicine)", "boating", "field sobriety test", "hadith", "Little, Brown Spark", "metabolic rate", "all-terrain vehicle", "Alcohol (drug)", "Lutheranism", "meningitis", "pneumonia", "Smithsonian (magazine)", "Fiqh", "Jewish views on marriage", "Ontario", "DSM-5", "England and Wales", "traumatic brain injury", "International Classification of Diseases", "Medical diagnosis", "Christian denomination", "Daily News of Los Angeles", "pallor", "Quran", "Alcoholic drink", "Passover Seder", "cirrhosis", "Vomiting", "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption", "World Health Organization", "Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod", "Wernicke encephalopathy", "alcoholic drink", "lactic acidosis", "anxiety", "Non-alcoholic drink", "Animals Are Beautiful People", "recreational drug", "moderationism", "blood alcohol concentration", "tribe of Dan", "ICD-10", "Liver cancer", "Federal Aviation Administration", "Sclerocarya birrea", "Michelangelo", "Cambridge University Press", "Kegan Paul, Trench and Company", "Purim", "Buckingham Palace", "Driving under the influence", "Elizabeth II", "Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report", "Book of Proverbs", "Sobriety", "Provinces and territories of Canada", "Seizures", "Rava (amora)", "psychiatry", "Muhammad", "Alcohol withdrawal syndrome", "sedation", "Bradypnea", "Short-term effects of alcohol consumption", "delirium tremens", "thiamine", "Book of Judges", "Haggadah", "1 Corinthians 6", "toxicity", "Yanki Tauber", "rabbi", "xylitol", "Sheva Brachot", "seizures", "s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 57", "stupor", "canoeing", "Royal corgis", "Civil infraction", "Hypoglycaemia", "liver", "Bodhisattva vow", "Punic wars", "Alcohol and sex", "Mishna", "Mickey Finn (drugs)", "impulsivity", "Psychoactive drug", "Hendrick Goltzius", "Pharisees", "Zadokites", "metadoxine", "Passover", "ethanol", "metabolite", "breathalyzer", "A Night of Serious Drinking", "Maccabean revolt", "Buddhism", "Long-term effects of alcohol", "Kiddush", "Brahmajāla Sūtra", "Proverbs 31", "Sabbath", "Orthodoxy", "Ataxia", "Risk factor (epidemiology)", "activated charcoal", "Tel Aviv University", "Hypothermia", "In vino veritas", "John Wiley & Sons", "teetotalism", "Galatians 5", "acetaldehyde", "Aircrew" ]
8,013	Data compression	In information theory, data compression, source coding, but compression can be slow. In the mid-1980s, following work by Terry Welch, the Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) algorithm rapidly became the method of choice for most general-purpose compression systems. LZW is used in GIF images, programs such as PKZIP, and hardware devices such as modems. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded. Grammar-based codes like this can compress highly repetitive input extremely effectively, for instance, a biological data collection of the same or closely related species, a huge versioned document collection, internet archival, etc. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string. Other practical grammar compression algorithms include Sequitur and Re-Pair. The strongest modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as an indirect form of statistical modelling. == Lossy == In the late 1980s, digital images became more common, and standards for lossless image compression emerged. In the early 1990s, lossy compression methods began to be widely used. Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV, TensorFlow, MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression. In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression. Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to partition a dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly beneficial in image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction by replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the original data while significantly decreasing the required storage space. Large language models (LLMs) are also efficient lossless data compressors on some data sets, as demonstrated by DeepMind's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. There is, however, some reason to be concerned that the data set used for testing overlaps the LLM training data set, making it possible that the Chinchilla 70B model is only an efficient compression tool on data it has already been trained on. === Data differencing === Data compression can be viewed as a special case of data differencing. Its highly efficient DCT-based compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos. Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed in 1984. It is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987. DEFLATE, a lossless compression algorithm specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format. Wavelet compression, the use of wavelets in image compression, began after the development of DCT coding. In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms. JPEG 2000 technology, which includes the Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004. === Audio === Audio data compression, not to be confused with dynamic range compression, has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data. Audio compression formats compression algorithms are implemented in software as audio codecs. In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy is reduced, using methods such as coding, quantization, DCT and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to represent the uncompressed data. Lossy audio compression algorithms provide higher compression and are used in numerous audio applications including Vorbis and MP3. These algorithms almost all rely on psychoacoustics to eliminate or reduce fidelity of less audible sounds, thereby reducing the space required to store or transmit them. The acceptable trade-off between loss of audio quality and transmission or storage size depends upon the application. For example, one 640 MB compact disc (CD) holds approximately one hour of uncompressed high fidelity music, less than 2 hours of music compressed losslessly, or 7 hours of music compressed in the MP3 format at a medium bit rate. A digital sound recorder can typically store around 200 hours of clearly intelligible speech in 640 MB. Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression, with linear predictive coding (LPC). Initial concepts for LPC date back to the work of Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966. During the 1970s, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs developed a form of LPC called adaptive predictive coding (APC), a perceptual coding algorithm that exploited the masking properties of the human ear, followed in the early 1980s with the code-excited linear prediction (CELP) algorithm which achieved a significant compression ratio for its time. Dolby Digital, and AAC. MDCT was proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986. The world's first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system was developed by Oscar Bonello, an engineering professor at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1983, using the psychoacoustic principle of the masking of critical bands first published in 1967, 35 years later, almost all the radio stations in the world were using this technology manufactured by a number of companies because the inventor refused to patent his work, preferring to publish it and leave it in the public domain. A literature compendium for a large variety of audio coding systems was published in the IEEE's Journal on Selected Areas in Communications (JSAC), in February 1988. While there were some papers from before that time, this collection documented an entire variety of finished, working audio coders, nearly all of them using perceptual techniques and some kind of frequency analysis and back-end noiseless coding. Most video codecs are used alongside audio compression techniques to store the separate but complementary data streams as one combined package using so-called container formats. The DCT, which is fundamental to modern video compression, It was the first video coding format based on DCT compression. H.261 was developed by a number of companies, including Hitachi, PictureTel, NTT, BT and Toshiba. The most popular video coding standards used for codecs have been the MPEG standards. MPEG-1 was developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video. It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, MPEG-2 became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television. H.264/MPEG-4 AVC was developed in 2003 by a number of organizations, primarily Panasonic, Godo Kaisha IP Bridge and LG Electronics. AVC commercially introduced the modern context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) and context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC) algorithms. AVC is the main video encoding standard for Blu-ray Discs, and is widely used by video sharing websites and streaming internet services such as YouTube, Netflix, Vimeo, and iTunes Store, web software such as Adobe Flash Player and Microsoft Silverlight, and various HDTV broadcasts over terrestrial and satellite television. ===Genetics=== Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and is less computationally intensive than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF-based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007, but when the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of Shannon information.	[ "BT.com", "codec", "compression artifact", "Super Audio CD", "pixel", "Nagoya University", "MPEG-2", "transform coding", "Terry Welch", "Equal-loudness contour", "University of Utah", "digital image", "HapMap", "Bishnu S. Atal", "Bandwidth (computing)", "BT Group", "IBM PC", "Nikil Jayant", "Motion Picture Experts Group", "H.262", "random-access memory", "Shannon's source coding theorem", "TensorFlow", "Digital Signal Processing (journal)", "audio quality", "quantization (image processing)", "context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding", "k-means clustering", "Lempel–Ziv", "Springer Science & Business Media", "DEFLATE", "bit", "Entropy coding", "image file format", "Coding theory", "DVD-Audio", "streaming video", "H.261", "trade-off", "AIXI", "Blu-ray", "line coding", "Video compression", "run-length encoding", "algorithmic information theory", "BBC News", "Internet", "Latency (engineering)", "VHS", "signal processing", "Huffman coding", "data deduplication", "Netflix", "MPEG-4 Visual", "probability distribution", "coding theory", "psychovisual", "Motion JPEG 2000", "digital cinema", "Vector quantization", "information theory", "lossless compression", "Academic Press", "Modulo-N code", "Perceptual coding", "LG Electronics", "Motion coding", "Lossless data compression", "Image processing", "Video Coding Experts Group", "image compression", "MPEG-4 SLS", "World Scientific", "psychoacoustics", "BBC", "dynamic range compression", "HTTP compression", "IETF", "Space–time tradeoff", "frequency domain", "differential pulse-code modulation", "matching pursuit", "compact disc", "Vimeo", "Inter-frame", "Sequitur algorithm", "variable bitrate", "wavelet", "video coding standard", "internet telephony", "Transform coding", "Grammar-based codes", "probabilistic model", "Manfred R. Schroeder", "context-adaptive variable-length coding", "H.264/AVC", "Adobe Flash Player", "Randomized algorithm", "data transmission", "data differencing", "channel coding", "MPEG-1", "GIF", "Advanced Audio Coding", "adaptive predictive coding", "curve fitting", "Proceedings of the IRE", "Technicolor SA", "speech coding", "Wavelet compression", "auditory system", "MP3", "WavPack", "broadcast automation", "unsupervised machine learning", "temporal masking", "David Albert Huffman", "CRC Press", "CMU", "machine learning", "Large language model", "entropy (information theory)", "Shannon–Fano coding", "Toshiba", "H.264/MPEG-4 AVC", "entropy coder", "motion compensation", "iTunes Store", "Microsoft Silverlight", "A-law algorithm", "PCM", "James L. Flanagan", "Speech encoding", "Dolby Digital", "H.264", "algorithm", "centroid", "hearing", "OptimFROG DualStream", "MPEG", "statistical inference", "posterior probabilities", "Proceedings of the IEEE", "H.26x", "Sub-band coding", "discrete cosine transform", "data compression ratio", "HD DVD", "lossy", "NVIDIA Maxine", "delta encoding", "residual frame", "data collection", "Genetics compression algorithms", "Claude Shannon", "Audicom", "HEVC", "video coding standards", "Universal code (data compression)", "prediction by partial matching", "Hutter Prize", "Institution of Engineering and Technology", "Redundancy (information theory)", "Self-information", "Adaptive DPCM", "Fumitada Itakura", "deblocking filter", "YouTube", "linear prediction", "luminance", "Sony", "time domain", "audio signal", "audio file format", "Joint Photographic Experts Group", "ISO", "JPEG 2000", "Quantization (signal processing)", "simultaneous masking", "Bell Labs", "HDTV", "psychoacoustic", "Vorbis", "JPEG", "digital camera", "MATLAB", "LDAC (codec)", "fractal compression", "fast Fourier transform", "Set redundancy compression", "Direct Stream Transfer", "H.263", "Mitsubishi Electric", "digital generation loss", "arithmetic coding", "Hitachi", "OpenCV", "Portable Network Graphics", "Range coding", "exabytes", "ITU-T", "Discrete cosine transform", "Advanced Audio Codec", "BT plc", "rate–distortion theory", "lossy data compression", "SD digital television", "CCITT", "information", "code-excited linear prediction", "bit rate", "Shannon information", "discrete wavelet transform", "List of codecs", "lossy compression", "DeepMind", "DVD", "aptX", "N. Ahmed", "PictureTel", "lossless", "Burrows–Wheeler transform", "Re-Pair", "Hadamard transform", "Meridian Lossless Packing", "relative entropy", "Dolby TrueHD", "C. Chapin Cutler", "redundancy (information theory)", "high fidelity", "μ-law algorithm", "motion vector", "Blu-ray Disc", "data file", "PKZIP", "finite-state machine", "video coding format", "digital photo", "Taylor & Francis", "SCL6 (codec)", "generation loss", "Free Lossless Audio Codec", "Master Quality Authenticated", "Uncompressed video", "bandlimiting", "University of Buenos Aires", "video codec", "Audio editing", "Intra-frame coding", "IEEE", "Minimum description length", "software", "psychoacoustic model", "Nippon Telegraph and Telephone", "Video coding format", "Kolmogorov complexity", "Lempel–Ziv–Welch", "modified discrete cosine transform", "Computational resource", "feature space vector", "absolute threshold of hearing", "HEIF", "container format", "Panasonic", "video compression formats", "The Atlantic", "Godo kaisha", "K. R. Rao", "linear predictive coding", "LHDC (codec)", "video quality", "MPEG LA" ]
8,022	History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	The earliest known human settlements in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been dated back to the Middle Stone Age, approximately 90,000 years ago. The first real states, such as the Kongo, the Lunda, the Luba and Kuba, appeared south of the equatorial forest on the savannah from the 14th century onwards. The Kingdom of Kongo controlled much of western and central Africa including what is now the western portion of the DR Congo between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. At its peak it had many as 500,000 people, and its capital was known as Mbanza-Kongo (south of Matadi, in modern-day Angola). In the late 15th century, Portuguese sailors arrived in the Kingdom of Kongo, and this led to a period of great prosperity and consolidation, with the king's power being founded on Portuguese trade. King Afonso I (1506–1543) had raids carried out on neighboring districts in response to Portuguese requests for slaves. After his death, the kingdom underwent a deep crisis. ==Early history== The area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 90,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the Semliki harpoon at Katanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, which is believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish. By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin. In the east were the Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, which likely included Nsundi, Mbata, Mpangu, and possibly Kundi and Okanga. South of these was Mpemba which stretched from modern-day Angola to the Congo River. It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi and Vunda. To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo, and Ngoyo. The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the 14th to the early 19th century. Until the arrival of the Portuguese it was the dominant force in the region along with the Kingdom of Luba, the Kingdom of Lunda, the Mongo people and the Anziku Kingdom. ==Colonial rule== ===Congo Free State (1885–1908)=== The Congo Free State was a privately controlled by Leopold II of Belgium through the Association Internationale africaine, a non-governmental organization. Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman. The state included the entire area of the present the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Under Leopold II, the Congo Free State became one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century. The report of the British Consul Roger Casement led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for cold-blooded killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1900, including a Belgian national who caused the shooting of at least 122 Congolese natives. Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. The first census was only done in 1924, so it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Roger Casement's famous 1904 report estimated ten million people. According to Casement's report, indiscriminate "war", starvation, reduction of births and Tropical diseases caused the country's depopulation. European and U.S. press agencies exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in 1900. By 1908 public and diplomatic pressure had led Leopold II to annex the Congo as the Belgian Congo colony. ===Belgian Congo (1908–60)=== On 15 November 1908 King Leopold II of Belgium formally relinquished personal control of the Congo Free State. The renamed Belgian Congo was put under the direct administration of the Belgian government and its Ministry of Colonies. Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" (trinité colonial) of state, missionary and private company interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialized. The interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied; the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population. The country was split into nesting, hierarchically organized administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (politique indigène)—in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favored the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. There was also a high degree of racial segregation. Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum, but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of urbanization and the colonial administration began various development programs aimed at making the territory into a "model colony". Notable advances were made in treating diseases such as African trypanosomiasis. One of the results of these measures was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African évolués in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labor force twice as large as that in any other African colony. The Congo's rich natural resources, including uranium—much of the uranium used by the U.S. nuclear programme during World War II was Congolese—led to substantial interest in the region from both the Soviet Union and the United States as the Cold War developed. === Rise in Congolese political activity === During the latter stages of World War II a new social stratum emerged in the Congo, known as the évolués. Forming an African middle class in the colony, they held skilled positions (such as clerks and nurses) made available by the economic boom. While there were no universal criteria for determining évolué status, it was generally accepted that one would have "a good knowledge of French, adhere to Christianity, and have some form of post-primary education." Early on in their history, évolués sought to use their unique status to earn special privileges in the Congo. Since opportunities for upward mobility through the colonial structure were limited, the évolué class institutionally manifested itself in elite clubs through which they could enjoy trivial privileges that made them feel distinct from the Congolese "masses". Additional groups, such as labor unions, alumni associations, and ethnic syndicates, provided other Congolese the means of organization. Among the most important of these was the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO), representing the Kongo people of the Lower Congo. However, they were restricted in their actions by the administration. While white settlers were consulted in the appointment of certain officials, the Congolese had no means of expressing their beliefs through the governing structures. Though native chiefs held legal authority in some jurisdictions, in practice they were used by the administration to further its own policies. Up into the 1950s, most évolués were concerned only with social inequalities and their treatment by the Belgians. Questions of self-government were not considered until 1954 when ABAKO requested that the administration consider a list of suggested candidates for a Léopoldville municipal post. That year the association was taken over by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, and under his leadership, it became increasingly hostile to the colonial authority and sought autonomy for the Kongo regions in the Lower Congo. In 1956 a group of Congolese intellectuals under the tutelage of several European academics issued a manifesto calling for a transition to independence over the course of 30 years. The ABAKO quickly responded with a demand for "immediate independence". The Belgian government was not prepared to grant the Congo independence and even when it started realizing the necessity of a plan for decolonization in 1957, it was assumed that such a process would be solidly controlled by Belgium. In December 1957 the colonial administration instituted reforms that permitted municipal elections and the formation of political parties. Some Belgian parties attempted to establish branches in the colony, but these were largely ignored by the population in favour of Congolese-initiated groups. Nationalism fermented in 1958 as more évolués began interacting with others outside of their own locales and started discussing the future structures of a post-colonial Congolese state. Nevertheless, most political mobilisation occurred along tribal and regional divisions. In Katanga, various tribal groups came together to form the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) under the leadership of Godefroid Munongo and Moïse Tshombe. Hostile to immigrant peoples, it advocated provincial autonomy and close ties with Belgium. Most of its support was rooted in individual chiefs, businessmen, and European settlers of southern Katanga. It was opposed by Jason Sendwe's Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT). In October 1958 a group of Léopoldville évolués including Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Iléo established the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC). Diverse in membership, the party sought to peacefully achieve Congolese independence, promote the political education of the populace, and eliminate regionalism. The MNC drew most of its membership from the residents of the eastern city of Stanleyville, where Lumumba was well known, and from the population of the Kasai Province, where efforts were directed by a Muluba businessman, Albert Kalonji. Belgian officials appreciated its moderate and anti-separatist stance and allowed Lumumba to attend the All-African Peoples' Conference in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958 (Kasa-Vubu was informed that the documents necessary for his travel to the event were not in order and was not permitted to go). Lumumba was deeply impressed by the Pan-Africanist ideals of Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah and returned to the Congo with a more radical party programme. He reported on his trip during a widely attended rally in Léopoldville and demanded the country's "genuine" independence. Fearing that they were being overshadowed by Lumumba and the MNC, Kasa-Vubu and the ABAKO leadership announced that they would be hosting their own rally in the capital on 4 January 1959. The municipal government (under Belgian domination) was given short notice, and communicated that only a "private meeting" would be authorised. On the scheduled day of the rally the ABAKO leadership told the crowd that had gathered that the event was postponed and that they should disperse. The mass was infuriated and instead began hurling stones at the police and pillaging European property, initiating three days of violent and destructive riots. The Force Publique, the colonial army, was called into service and suppressed the revolt with considerable brutality. In wake of the riots Kasa-Vubu and his lieutenants were arrested. Unlike earlier expressions of discontent, the grievances were conveyed primarily by uneducated urban residents, not évolués. Popular opinion in Belgium was one of extreme shock and surprise. An investigative commission found the riots to be the culmination of racial discrimination, overcrowding, unemployment, and wishes for more political self-determination. On 13 January the administration announced several reforms, and the Belgian King, Baudouin, declared that independence would be granted to the Congo in the future. Meanwhile, discontent surfaced among the MNC leadership, who were bothered by Lumumba's domination over the party's politics. Relations between Lumumba and Kalonji also grew tense, as the former was upset with how the latter was transforming the Kasai branch into an exclusively Luba group and antagonising other tribes. This culminated into the split of the party into the MNC-Lumumba/MNC-L under Lumumba and the MNC-Kalonji/MNC-K under Kalonji and Iléo. The latter began advocating federalism. Adoula left the organisation. Alone to lead his own faction and facing competition from ABAKO, Lumumba became increasingly insistent in his demands for independence. Following an October riot in Stanleyville he was arrested. Nevertheless, the influence of himself and the MNC-L continued to grow rapidly. The party advocated for a strong unitary state, nationalism, and the termination of Belgian rule and began forming alliances with regional groups, such as the Kivu-based Centre du Regroupement Africain (CEREA). Though the Belgians supported a unitary system over the federal models suggested by ABAKO and CONAKAT, they and more moderate Congolese were unnerved by Lumumba's increasingly extremist attitudes. With the implicit support of the colonial administration, the moderates formed the Parti National du Progrès (PNP) under the leadership of Paul Bolya and Albert Delvaux. It advocated centralisation, respect for traditional elements, and close ties with Belgium. In southern Léopoldville Province, a socialist-federalist party, the Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA) was founded. Antoine Gizenga served as its president, and Cléophas Kamitatu was in charge of the Léopoldville Province chapter. ==Independence and the Congo Crisis (1960–65)== Following the riots in Leopoldville (4–7 January 1959) and in Stanleyville (31 October 1959), the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country in the face of rising demands for independence. Belgian and Congolese political leaders held a Round Table Conference in Brussels beginning on 18 January 1960. At the end of the conference, on 27 January 1960, it was announced that elections would be held in the Congo on 22 May 1960, and full independence granted on 30 June 1960. The elections produced the nationalist Patrice Lumumba as prime minister, and Joseph Kasavubu as president. On independence the country adopted the name "Republic of the Congo" (République du Congo). The French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name Republic of the Congo upon its independence, so the two countries were more commonly known as Congo-Léopoldville and Congo-Brazzaville, after their capital cities. In 1960, the country was very unstable—regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government—and with the departure of the Belgian administrators, almost no skilled bureaucrats remained in the country. The first Congolese graduated from university only in 1956, and very few in the new nation had any idea how to manage a country of such size. On 5 July 1960, a military mutiny by Congolese soldiers against their European officers broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On 11 July 1960 the richest province of the country, Katanga, seceded under Moise Tshombe. The United Nations sent 20,000 peacekeepers to protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this period Congo's second richest province, Kasai, also announced its independence on 8 August 1960. After trying to get help from the United States and the United Nations, Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the USSR for assistance. Nikita Khrushchev agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors. The United States viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in sub-Saharan Africa. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence. On 23 August, the Congolese armed forces invaded South Kasai and perpetrated massacres against the Luba people. Lumumba was dismissed from office on 5 September 1960 by Kasavubu who publicly blamed him for the massacres in South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country. On 14 September 1960, with CIA support, Colonel Joseph Mobutu overthrew the government and arrested Lumumba. A technocratic government, the College of Commissioners-General, was established. On 17 January 1961 Mobutu sent Lumumba to Élisabethville (now Lubumbashi), capital of Katanga. In full view of the press he was beaten and forced to eat copies of his own speeches. For three weeks afterward, he was not seen or heard from. Then Katangan radio announced implausibly that he had escaped and been killed by villagers. It was soon clear that in fact he had been tortured and killed along with two others shortly after his arrival. In 2001, a Belgian inquiry established that he had been shot by Katangan gendarmes in the presence of Belgian officers, under Katangan command. Lumumba was beaten, placed in front of a firing squad with two allies, cut up, buried, dug up and what remained was dissolved in acid. In Stanleyville, those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under Antoine Gizenga which lasted from 31 March 1961 until it was reintegrated on 5 August 1961. After some reverses, UN and Congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of South Kasai on 30 December 1961, and Katanga on 15 January 1963. Beginning in 1964, in the east of the country, Soviet and Cuban backed rebels called the Simbas rose up, taking a significant amount of territory and proclaiming a communist "People's Republic of the Congo" in Stanleyville. As the Congolese government was reclaiming territory from the Simbas, the rebels resorted to taking the local white population hostage. Belgian and American forces pushed the Simbas out of Stanleyville in November 1964 during a hostage rescue operation. Congolese government forces, supported by European mercenaries, fully defeated the Simba rebels by November 1965. The Simba rebels executed 20,000 Congolese and 392 Western hostages, including 268 Belgians, during the rebellion. Tens of thousands of people were killed in total during the suppression of the Simbas. ==Zaire (1965–1997)== Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until November 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for the next five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power, despite the Stanleyville mutinies of 1966 and 1967, and was elected unopposed as president in a sham election in 1970 for a seven-year term. Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, President Mobutu renamed the country the "Republic of Zaire" in 1971 and required citizens to adopt African names and drop their French-language ones. The name comes from Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word nzere or nzadi ("river that swallows all rivers"). Among other changes, Leopoldville became Kinshasa and Katanga Shaba. Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan Front for Congolese National Liberation rebels, based in the Angolan People's Republic, launched the Shaba I and II invasions into the southeast Shaba region. These rebels were driven out with the aid of French and Belgian paratroopers plus Moroccan troops. An Inter-African Force remained in the region for some time afterwards. Zaire remained a one-party state in the 1980s. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism. As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his own massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use. In April 1990, Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with free elections and a constitution. As details of the reforms were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting Kinshasa to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa. In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya as its chairman, along with Étienne Tshisekedi, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo Wa Dondo as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next two years, they never took place. ==Civil wars (1996–2003)== ===First Congo War (1996–97)=== By 1996, tensions from the war and genocide in neighboring Rwanda had spilled over into Zaire. Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe) who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursions into Rwanda. In October 1996 Rwandan forces attacked refugee camps in the Ruzizi Plain near the intersection of the Congolese, Rwandan and Burundi borders meet, scattering refugees. They took Uvira, then Bukavu, Goma and Mugunga. Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate the massacres in November 1996, Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu. The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by Laurent-Desire Kabila, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Various Zairean politicians who had unsuccessfully opposed the dictatorship of Mobutu for many years now saw an opportunity for them in the invasion of Zaire by two of the region's strongest military forces. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country on 16 May. The AFDL entered Kinshasa unopposed a day later, and Kabila named himself president, reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He marched into Kinshasa on 20 May and consolidated power around himself and the AFDL. In September 1997, Mobutu died in exile in Morocco. ===Second Congo War (1998–2003)=== Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country, and lost his allies. To counterbalance the power and influence of Rwanda in DRC, Ugandan troops created another rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba. They attacked in August 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops. Soon afterwards, Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe became involved militarily in the Congo, with Angola and Zimbabwe supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months. Kabila was assassinated in 2001 by a bodyguard called Rashidi Kasereka, 18, who was then shot dead, according to Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo. Another account of the assassination says that the real killer escaped. Kabila was succeeded by his son, Joseph. Upon taking office, Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. Kabila partly succeeded when a further peace deal was brokered between him, Uganda, and Rwanda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. Currently, the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country, including diamonds, copper, zinc, and coltan. The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders, held in Sun City, lasted a full six weeks, beginning in April 2002. In June, they signed a peace accord under which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003, all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. Few people in the Congo have been unaffected by the conflict. A survey conducted in 2009 by the ICRC and Ipsos shows that three-quarters (76%) of the people interviewed have been affected in some way–either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed conflict. The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo. Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo. The United Nations Security Council and the U.N. Secretary-General have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population, but have shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas where the worst violence in the country took place. In particular Rwanda and Uganda have escaped any significant sanction for their role. ==Joseph Kabila period== ===Transitional government (2003–2006)=== DR Congo had a transitional government in July 2003 until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters and on 30 July 2006 the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba 20%. That was the origin of a fight between the two parties from 20 to 22 August 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa. Sixteen people died before policemen and MONUC took control of the city. A new election was held on 29 October 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote. Bemba has decried election "irregularities". On 6 December 2006 Joseph Kabila was sworn in as president. ===Kabila overstays his term=== In December 2011, Joseph Kabila was re-elected for a second term as president. After the results were announced on 9 December, there was violent unrest in Kinshasa and Mbuji-Mayi, where official tallies showed that a strong majority had voted for the opposition candidate Étienne Tshisekedi. Official observers from the Carter Center reported that returns from almost 2,000 polling stations in areas where support for Tshisekedi was strong had been lost and not included in the official results. They described the election as lacking credibility. On 20 December, Kabila was sworn in for a second term, promising to invest in infrastructure and public services. However, Tshisekedi maintained that the result of the election was illegitimate and said that he intended also to "swear himself in" as president. On 19 January 2015 protests led by students at the University of Kinshasa broke out. The protests began following the announcement of a proposed law that would allow Kabila to remain in power until a national census can be conducted (elections had been planned for 2016). By Wednesday 21 January clashes between police and protesters had claimed at least 42 lives (although the government claimed only 15 people had been killed). == Félix Tshisekedi Presidency (2019–present) == On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held. On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote. He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019. in the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff. In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. However, Kamerhe was released in December 2021. The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services. However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power. In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly. The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out. In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila. President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila. In January 2021, DRC's President Félix Tshisekedi pardoned all those convicted in the murder of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 2001. Colonel Eddy Kapend and his co-defendants, who have been incarcerated for 15 years, were released. After the 2023 presidential election, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term. On 31 December 2023, officials said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote. Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun. ==Continued conflicts== The inability of the state and the world's largest United Nations peacekeeping force to provide security throughout the vast country has led to the emergence of up to 120 armed groups by 2018, perhaps the largest number in the world. Armed groups are often accused of being proxies or being supported by regional governments interested in Eastern Congo's vast mineral wealth. Some argue that much of the lack of security by the national army is strategic on the part of the government, who let the army profit from illegal logging and mining operations in return for loyalty. ===Conflict in Kivu (2004–present)=== ====Tutsi led insurgency==== Laurent Nkunda with other soldiers from RCD-Goma who were integrated into the army defected and called themselves the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP). Starting in 2004, CNDP, believed to be backed by Rwanda as a way to tackle the Hutu group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), rebelled against the government, claiming to protect the Banyamulenge (Congolese Tutsis). In 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants. The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government where its soldiers would be integrated into the national army. In April 2012, the leader of the CNDP, Bosco Ntaganda and troops loyal to him mutinied, claiming a violation of the peace treaty and formed a rebel group, the March 23 Movement (M23), which was believed to be backed by Rwanda. On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of Goma, a provincial capital with a population of one million people. The UN authorized the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB), which was the first UN peacekeeping force with a mandate to neutralize opposition rather than a defensive mandate, and the FIB quickly defeated M23. The FIB was then to fight the FDLR but were hampered by the efforts of the Congolese government, who some believe tolerate the FDLR as a counterweight to Rwandan interests. Since 2017, fighters from M23, most of whom had fled into Uganda and Rwanda (both were believed to have supported them), started crossing back into DRC with the rising crisis over Kabila's extension of his term limit. After rising insecurity, President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in North Kivu, as well as Ituri province, in the first such declaration since the country's independence. The military and police took over positions from civilian authorities and some saw it as a powerplay since the civilian officials were part of the opposition to the President. A similar declaration was avoided for South Kivu, in a move believed to avoid antagonizing armed groups with ties to regional powers such as Rwanda. ====Mai Mai insurgencies==== Ethnic conflict in Kivu has often involved the Congolese Tutsis known as Banyamulenge, a cattle herding group of Rwandan origin derided as outsiders, and other ethnic groups who consider themselves indigenous. Additionally, neighboring Burundi and Rwanda, who have a thorny relationship, are accused of being involved, with Rwanda accused of training Burundi rebels who have joined with Mai Mai against the Banyamulenge and the Banyamulenge is accused of harboring the RNC, a Rwandan opposition group supported by Burundi. In June 2017, the group was formed called the National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo (CNPSC) or Alliance of Article 64, a reference to Article 64 of the constitution, which says the people have an obligation to fight the efforts of those who seek to take power by force, in reference to President Kabila. It is one of three alliances of various Mai-Mai militias and is led by Bembe warlord William Yakutumba whose Mai-Mai Yakutumba is the largest component of the CNPSC and has had friction with the Congolese Tutsis. In May 2019, Banyamulenge fighters killed a Banyindu traditional chief, Kawaza Nyakwana. Later in 2019, a coalition of militias from the Bembe, Bafuliru and Banyindu are estimated to have burnt more than 100, mostly Banyamulenge, villages and stole tens of thousands of cattle from the largely cattle-herding Banyamulenge. About 200,000 people fled their homes. In 2015, the army then launched an offensive against the FDLR militia. The FDLR and Nyatura were accused of killing Nande people The Nande-dominate UPDI militia, a Nande militia called Mai-Mai Mazembe and a militia dominated by Nyanga people, the "Nduma Defense of Congo" (NDC), also called Maï-Maï Sheka and led by Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga, are accused of attacking Hutus. In North Kivu, in 2017, an alliance of Mai-Mai groups called the National Movement of Revolutionaries (MNR) began attacks in June 2017 includes Nande Mai-Mai leaders from groups such as Corps du Christ and Mai-Mai Mazembe. In September 2019, the army declared it had killed Sylvestre Mudacumura, head of the FDLR, and in November that year the army declared it had killed Juvenal Musabimana, who had led a splinter group of the FDLR. ====Allied Democratic Forces insurgency==== The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) has been waging an insurgency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is blamed for the Beni massacre in 2016. While the Congolese army maintains that the ADF is an Islamist insurgency, most observers feel that they are only a criminal group interested in gold mining and logging. In March 2021, the United States claimed that the ADF was linked to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant as part of the Islamic State's Central Africa Province. By 2021, the ADF was considered the deadliest of the many armed groups in the east of the country. ===Conflict in Katanga=== In Northern Katanga Province starting in 2013, the Pygmy Batwa people, whom the Luba people often exploit and allegedly enslave, The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns. ===Conflict in Kasai=== In the Kasaï-Central province, starting in 2016, the largely Luba Kamwina Nsapu militia led by Kamwina Nsapu attacked state institutions. The leader was killed by authorities in August 2016 and the militia reportedly took revenge by attacking civilians. By June 2017, more than 3,300 people had been killed and 20 villages have been completely destroyed, half of them by government troops. The militia has expanded to the neighboring Kasai-Oriental area, Kasaï and Lomami. The UN discovered dozens of mass graves. There was an ethnic nature to the conflict with the rebels being mostly Luba and Lulua and have selectively killed non-Luba people while the government allied militia, the Bana Mura, constituting people from the Chokwe, Pende, and Tetela, have committed ethnically motivated attacks against the Luba and Lulua. ===Conflict in Ituri=== The Ituri conflict in the Ituri region of the north-eastern DRC involved fighting between the agriculturalist Lendu and pastoralist Hema ethnic groups, who together made up around 40% of Ituri's population, with other groups including the Ndo-Okebo and the Nyali. During Belgian rule, the Hema were given privileged positions over the Lendu while long time leader Mobutu Sese Seko also favored the Hema. While "Ituri conflict" often refers to the major fighting from 1999 to 2003, fighting has existed before and continues since that time. During the Second Congolese Civil War, Ituri was considered the most violent region. In late 2020, CODECO briefly held the capital of the province, Bunia, but retreated. In June 2019, attacks by CODECO led to 240 people being killed and more than 300,000 people fleeing. The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), mostly active in North and South Kivu has also been involved in Ituri province. President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in the province in May 2021 to tackle ADF. However, ADF killed 57 civilians in one attack in the same month in one of its deadliest single attacks. The President is accused of promoting former rebel leaders and generals accused of war crimes to be in charge of the province. ===Conflict in the Northwest=== ====Dongo Conflict==== In October 2009 a conflict started in Dongo, Sud-Ubangi District where clashes had broken out over access to fishing ponds. ====Yumbi Massacre (2018)==== Nearly 900 people were killed between 16 and 17 December 2018 around Yumbi, a few weeks before the Presidential election, when mostly those of the Batende tribe massacred mostly those of the Banunu tribe. About 16,000 fled to neighboring Republic of the Congo. It was alleged that it was a carefully planned massacre, involving elements of the national military.	[ "Democratic Republic of the Congo general election, 2006", "Okanga", "College of Commissioners-General", "Kasaï-Central", "Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "Africanews", "Defense Technical Information Center", "Nyali language", "International development", "Force Publique", "Joseph Iléo", "Cléophas Kamitatu", "Kisangani", "United States Air Force", "Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza", "Ngoyo", "Mbuji-Mayi", "Hutu", "Beni massacre", "Atlantic slave trade", "Goma", "Nsundi", "2018 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election", "Baudouin of Belgium", "Mobutu Sese Seko", "Angolan People's Republic", "United Nations Security Council", "Furiiru people", "Cold War", "Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference", "Kinshasa", "Mobuto Sese Seko", "List of heads of government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "BBC News", "Belgian Congo in World War II", "Kingdom of Congo", "1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo presidential election", "Angola", "Democratic Republic of the Congo general election, 2016", "Banyamulenge", "Pan-Africanist", "Cyrille Adoula", "Mongo people", "Moïse Tshombe", "Kasaï Province", "Simba rebellion", "Joseph Kasa-Vubu", "Timeline of Bukavu", "Timeline of Kinshasa", "Semliki harpoon", "Interahamwe", "Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Timeline of Kisangani", "wage labor", "Soviet Union", "Kingdom of Luba", "Parti Solidaire Africain", "2015 Congolese protests", "genocide", "Human Rights Watch", "Étienne Tshisekedi", "Albert Delvaux", "CONAKAT", "zinc", "Alur people", "da:Demokratiske Republik Congo", "Kingdom of Kongo", "Laurent-Desire Kabila", "Matadi", "Democratic Republic of the Congo general election, 2018", "Belgium", "Roger Casement", "Bunia", "Godefroid Munongo", "Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie", "1960 Republic of the Congo coup d'état", "Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Yumbi", "Congo-Brazzaville", "Kasai-Oriental (former province)", "sub-Saharan Africa", "North Kivu", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "United States", "évolué", "Lomami Province", "Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)", "Mouvement National Congolais", "Twa", "Mbata Kingdom", "Kundi kingdom", "Lulua people", "Bosco Ntaganda", "Mpemba Kasi", "embezzlement", "Dongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Paul Bolya", "Kongo people", "Vital Kamerhe", "National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo", "the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Tutsi", "Shaba I", "Ruzizi Plain", "Afonso I of Kongo", "Zaire", "Mutiny of the Force Publique", "Africanization", "Alliance des Bakongo", "Mpemba", "Privately held company", "Carter Center", "Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests", "Tropical diseases", "Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre", "South Kasai", "Katanga Province", "Nduma Defense of Congo", "Nikita Khrushchev", "RCD-Goma", "National Congress for the Defence of the People", "Pygmy peoples", "Leopold II of Belgium", "Lubumbashi", "Timeline of Lubumbashi", "economic specialization", "Inter-African Force", "Léopoldville riots", "Vunda", "State of Katanga", "racial segregation", "List of heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Kingdom of Lunda", "Nande language", "Albert Kalonji", "Shaba II", "Mai-Mai", "Christianity", "Sud-Ubangi District", "Belgian colonial empire", "urbanization", "Corruption in Zaire", "All-African Peoples' Conference", "one-party state", "Economy of Zaire", "African trypanosomiasis", "Islamic State's Central Africa Province", "Stanley Pool", "Belgian Congo general election, 1960", "Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda", "Economic history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Congo-Léopoldville", "2011 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election", "Laurent-Désiré Kabila", "Stanleyville mutinies", "Hema (ethnicity)", "Lungu people", "History of Kinshasa", "Forms of government", "Patrice Lumumba", "Joseph Kabila", "Luba people", "Zairianization", "Idi Amin", "diamond", "M23 rebellion (2012–2013)", "Middle Stone Age", "Nationalism", "coltan", "Allied Democratic Forces", "United Nations", "Second Mobutu coup d'état", "Kakongo", "Léon Kengo wa Dondo", "Mpangu", "World War II", "copper", "Kwame Nkrumah", "Eddy Kapend", "2023 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election", "Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Belgian Congo", "Anziku Kingdom", "Front for Congolese National Liberation", "International African Association", "Joseph Kasavubu", "Lendu", "Invasion of South Kasai", "Moise Tshombe", "Jason Sendwe", "Mbanza-Kongo", "Operation Dragon Rouge", "December 2016 Congolese protests", "Mbuti people", "Movement for the Liberation of Congo", "Félix Tshisekedi", "Lusaka", "French Congo", "Second Congo War", "Republic of Zaire", "Pygmy", "Congo Crisis", "Bukavu", "indirect rule", "Laurent Nkunda", "Nyanga people", "Bana Mura", "Accra", "multi-party system", "History of Africa", "Ituri province", "Ituri forest", "Rwanda", "Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya", "Uvira", "Henry Morton Stanley", "Timeline of Goma", "Jean-Pierre Bemba", "Reuters", "CIA", "Congo River", "Katanda Territory", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "Antoine Gizenga", "South Kivu", "Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga", "Ituri Province", "Vungu", "peaceful transition of power", "List of Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Force Intervention Brigade", "High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition", "March 23 Movement", "First Congo War", "Capital (economics)", "Sun City, North West", "Congo Free State", "Bembe people", "Kasai region" ]
8,023	Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the largest country of sub-Saharan Africa, occupying some . The country lies on the equator. Most of the country lies within the vast hollow of the Congo River Basin. is an extension of the southern uplands that drops sharply to a very narrow shore about long. Weatherbase (extremes) \|source 2 = Danish Meteorological Institute (precipitation, sun, and humidity) }} === Climate change === As of 2023, the DRC is the 18th highest emitting nation of greenhouse gases and the highest emitter on the African continent. The majority of these emissions arise from land use change and deforestation, as the country uses little fossil fuels and only one-fifth of the population has access to electricity. The DRC is one of the most vulnerable nations to climate change and the least prepared to deal with its impacts. Climate change in the DRC is predicted to cause more frequent and intense floods, droughts and exacerbated disease epidemics. Sectors vulnerable to climate change include agriculture, forestry and energy. == Data == Area: total: 2,344,858 km2 land: 2,267,048 km2 water: 77,810 km2 Area - comparative: 11th-largest country in the world (and 2nd in Africa) smaller than Algeria but larger than Greenland and Saudi Arabia about the size of the United States as a whole Australia comparative: slightly smaller than Western Australia Canada comparative: slightly less than twice the size of the Northwest Territories Land boundaries: total: 10,481 km border countries: "Angola 2,646 km, Burundi 236 km, Central African Republic 1,747 km, Republic of the Congo 1,229 km, Rwanda 221 km, South Sudan 714 km, Tanzania 479 km, Uganda 877 km, Zambia 2,332 km" Coastline: . Maritime claims: territorial sea: exclusive economic zone: boundaries with neighbors Climate: tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler-cold and wetter in eastern highlands and the Ruwenzori Range; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October Terrain: vast central plateau covered by tropical rainforest, surrounded by mountains in the west, plains and savanna in the south/southwest, and grasslands in the north. The high mountains of the Ruwenzori Range on the eastern borders. Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Pic Marguerite on Mont Ngaliema (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m Natural resources: cobalt, copper, niobium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, uranium, coal, hydropower, timber Land use: arable land: 3.09% permanent crops: 0.36% 96.55 (2012 est.) Irrigated land: 105 km2 (2003) Total renewable water resources: 1,283 km3 (2011) ==Freshwater withdrawal== total: 0.68 km3/yr (68%/21%/11%) per capita: 11.25 m3/yr (2005) Natural hazards Periodic droughts in south; Congo River floods (seasonal); in the east, in the Albertine Rift, there are active volcanoes == Environment == === Current issues === Poaching threatens wildlife populations (for example, the painted hunting dog, Lycaon pictus, is now considered extirpated from the Congo due to human overpopulation and poaching); water pollution; deforestation (chiefly due to land conversion to agriculture by indigenous farmers); refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan — a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage === International environmental agreements === party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification == Extreme points == This is a list of the extreme points of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. Northernmost point - unnamed location on the border with the Central African Republic in the Bomu river immediately west of the town of Mbaga in CAR, Orientale Province Easternmost point - at the point where the northern section of the border with Uganda enters Lake Albert immediately west of Mahagi Port, Orientale Province Southernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Zambia immediately to north-west of the Zambian town of Ndabala, Katanga province Westernmost point - the point at which the border with Cabinda enters the Atlantic Ocean, Bas-Congo province	[ "Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Equator", "Lake Mweru", "Congo Basin", "human overpopulation", "Zambia", "Albertine Rift", "Uganda", "Lake Tanganyika", "Salient (geography)", "Lake Edward", "Ndabala", "Lake Mai-Ndombe", "Albertine Rift montane forests", "volcano", "woodland", "Burundi", "Nile", "petroleum", "Angola", "Bomu river", "Tropical rainforest", "Desertification", "Drought", "Mountain", "Navigability", "hydropower", "Cabinda Province", "tin", "zinc", "manganese", "hydroelectric potential", "Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "savanna", "climate change", "Bas-Congo", "Kongo Central", "niobium", "swamp", "sub-Saharan Africa", "North Kivu", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Chiloango River", "Tropical Timber 83", "Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Mount Mangengenge", "Indian Ocean", "Fossil fuel", "tropical rainforest", "painted hunting dog", "coal", "Katanga Province", "Virunga National Park", "South Sudan", "Mahagi Port", "Federal Research Division", "Law of the Sea", "Republic of the Congo", "deforestation", "uranium", "Kasai River", "Zambezi", "Biodiversity", "Ruwenzori Range", "Lake Kivu", "Lualaba River", "Tanzania", "Amazon River", "Local extinction", "Library of Congress", "Lake Tumba", "diamond", "silver", "coltan", "copper", "Atlantic Ocean", "plain", "Poaching", "Rwenzori Mountains", "gold", "Great Rift Valley", "Kahuzi-Biéga National Park", "gallery forest", "Western Australia", "cobalt", "Rwanda", "Mbaga", "Tributary", "Mayombe", "equator", "Northwest Territories", "land use", "Tropical Timber 94", "Danish Meteorological Institute", "Congo River", "Greenhouse gas", "South Kivu", "drought", "WP:SDNONE", "Mont Ngaliema", "Tropical savanna climate", "Orientale Province", "Lake Albert (Africa)", "Central African Republic" ]
8,024	Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Demographic features of the population of the Democratic Republic of the Congo include ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the Luba, Mongo, and Kongo. Although 700 local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French, and the intermediary languages Kikongo ya leta, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala. ==Population== The CIA World Factbook estimated the population to be over 105 million as of 2022 (the exact number being 108,407,721), now exceeding that of Vietnam (with 98,721,275 inhabitants as of 2020) and ascending the country to the rank of 14th most populous in the world. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2020 was 46.38%, 51.15% of the population was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.47% was 65 years or older. ===Census=== The first and so far only census conducted in DR Congo dates from 1984. A census is supposed to be conducted decennially, but this has been obstructed by periods of instability such as the political reorganization in 1991 and the civil war in 1996. In January 2015, the parliament passed a law requiring that a census be completed before the next election. Opponents said this was intended to keep Joseph Kabila in power by delaying the next election, leading to protests that caused several deaths. The parliament repealed the law and the census did not take place. The second general census of population and housing is underway as of 2024. President Félix Tshisekedi called for a census to improve demographic policies and to enable the creation of national identity cards. Data collection began on 2 March 2020 and was scheduled to end on 10 June, but implementation was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Data collection was arranged by the Ministries of Planning, Budget, and Finance, and the electoral commission sent materials to the ONIP and the . The census is planned to be completed in 2025 with an expected budget of US$153,700,453. ===Population estimates by INS=== The Institute of National Statistics of the DRC has provided population estimates from 1984 and 2000-2019: 1984: 30,631,000 2000: 52,099,000 2001: 53,870,000 2002: 55,702,000 2003: 57,596,000 2004: 59,554,000 2005: 61,579,000 2006: 63,673,000 2007: 65,837,000 2008: 68,076,000 2009: 70,391,000 2010: 72,784,000 2011: 75,259,000 2012: 77,817,000 2013: 80,462,000 2014: 83,197,000 2015: 86,024,000 2016: 88,957,000 2017: 91,994,000 2018: 94,921,000 2019: 98,370,000 ===Demographic and Health Surveys=== Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR) for urban and rural areas: The Wanted Fertility Rate is an estimate of what the fertility rate would be if all unwanted births were avoided. Fertility data per province, as of 2014: === Life expectancy === ==Ethnic groups== Over 250 ethnic groups and 450 tribes (ethnic subgroups) populate the Democratic Republic of Congo. These ethnic groups are from the Bantu, Sudanic, Nilotic, Ubangian and Pygmy linguistic groups. There is no dominant ethnic group in Congo; the following ethnic groups account for 51.5% of the population: Luba-Kasaï Kongo Mongo Lubakat Lulua Tetela Nande Ngbandi Ngombe Yaka Ngbaka Ethnic groups include: Bantu peoples: Ambala, Ambuun, Angba, Babindi, Baboma, Baholo, Bangala, Bango, Bapindi, Batsamba, Bazombe, Bemba, Bembe, Bira, Bowa, Dikidiki, Dzing, Fuliru, Havu, Hema, Hima, Hunde, Iboko, Kanioka, Kaonde, Kongo, Kuba, Kumu, Kwango, Lengola, Lokele, Luba, Lunda, Lupu, Lwalwa, Mbala, Mbole, Mbuza (Budja), Mongo, Nande, Ngoli, Bangoli, Ngombe, Nkumu, Nyanga, Pende, Popoi, Poto, Sango, Shi, Nyindu, Songo, Sukus, Tabwa, Chokwe, Téké, Tembo, Tetela, Topoke, Ungana, Vira, Wakuti, Yaka, Yakoma, Yanzi, Yéké, Yela, etc. Central Sudanic: Manvu, Mbunja, Moru-Mangbetu, Lugbara Nilotic peoples: Alur, Bari, Kakwa, Logo Ubangian: Azande, Banda, Ngbandi, Ngbaka Pygmy peoples: Mbuti, Twa, Baka, Babinga ==Languages== The five major languages in the DRC are French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca, or trade language), Swahili (more specifically Congo Swahili such as the Kingwana dialect), Kikongo ya leta or Kituba (a Kikongo-based creole language), and Tshiluba or Luba-Kasai. In total, there are over 200 languages spoken in the DRC. French, the official language, is generally the language of instruction in schools. However, English is taught as a compulsory foreign language in secondary schools around the country. It is a required subject in the Faculty of Economics at major universities around the country, and there are numerous language schools in the country that teach it. Many Congolese, such as former president Joseph Kabila, are fluent in both English and French. ==Religions== A survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Surveys program in 2013–2014 indicated that Christians constituted 93.7% of the population (Catholics 29.7%, Protestants 26.8%, and other Christians 37.2%). An indigenous religion, Kimbanguism, was practiced by 2.8% of the population, while Muslims make up 1.2%. Another estimate (by the Pew Research Center in 2010) found Christianity was followed by 95.8% of the population. The CIA The World Factbook gives the following percentages: Roman Catholic 29.9%, Protestant 26.7%, Kimbanguist 2.8%, Other Christian 36.5%, Islam 1.3%, Other (includes Syncretic Sects and Indigenous beliefs) 2.7%. == Congolese diaspora == The table below shows DRC born people who have emigrated abroad in selected Western countries (although it excludes their descendants). These are only estimates and do not account for Congolese migrants residing illegally in these and other countries.	[ "Sama Lukonde", "Bangala language", "Kimbanguist", "Africanews", "Tetela people", "Hima people", "Lugbara people", "French language", "COVID-19 pandemic", "lingua franca", "Tembo (Kitembo) language", "Yakoma people", "Islam", "fertility rate", "2018 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election", "United Nations Population Fund", "Yansi people", "Furiiru people", "International Rescue Committee", "Kinshasa", "Actualite.cd", "BBC News", "demography", "United Nations Population Division", "Kasai-Oriental", "Ethnic group", "Mongo people", "19 January 2015 DRC protests", "Roman Catholic", "Sudanic languages", "net reproduction rate", "Mangbetu people", "Azande", "Lingala language", "Alur people", "Bandundu Province", "Moru people", "Ngbaka Minagende language", "dialect", "Pende people", "Kongo Central", "Kimbanguism", "Ngombe language", "Vira people", "North Kivu", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Population pyramid", "United Nations Statistics Division", "Megabyte", "Lulua people", "Twa", "Demographic and Health Surveys", "Kongo people", "Independent National Electoral Commission (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "Ubangian languages", "Nilotic peoples", "Hema people", "Mbole people", "Province of Équateur", "Katanga Province", "Nyindu people", "Sango language", "Téké", "Pygmy peoples", "Lengola", "Azande people", "population", "Nande", "Chokwe people", "Nande language", "The World Factbook", "Swahili language", "Lunda people", "Bari people", "Modeste Bahati Lukwebo", "Indigenous religions", "Kasai-Occidental", "Protestant", "Twa peoples", "Kikongo language", "Pew Research Center", "Bantu peoples", "Kele people (Congo)", "Lungu people", "Luba people", "Ngbaka languages", "Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Joseph Kabila", "Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Nilotic languages", "Bantu languages", "Maniema", "Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)", "ethnic group", "Yaka people", "Lingala", "Bakongo", "Ngbandi people", "Poto dialect", "Lendu", "Banda people", "language", "Mbuti people", "Baka people (Congo and South Sudan)", "Félix Tshisekedi", "Nyanga people", "Logo people", "Kakwa people", "Kituba language", "1991 Zaire unrest", "Central Sudanic", "Luba-Kasai language", "Ngombe language (Congo)", "Luba-Katanga language", "Reuters", "Syncretic sect", "Bemba people", "South Kivu", "Socioeconomic status", "Orientale Province", "Havu", "Hunde language", "First Congo War", "Classification of Pygmy languages", "Kuba people", "Bembe people", "Congo Swahili" ]
8,025	Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo declined drastically in the years leading up to and during the First and Second Congo Wars, despite being home to vast potential in natural resources and mineral wealth; its gross domestic product is $69.474 billion as of 2023. During the last five reported years, the exports of the Democratic Republic of the Congo have changed by $15.2B from $13.3B in 2017 to $28.5B in 2022. Since 2003, the DRC's economy has gradually grown, but it remains one of the poorest countries in the world. At the time of its independence in 1960, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa. It had a thriving mining sector, and its agriculture sector was relatively productive. Since then, decades of corruption, war, and political instability have been a severe detriment to further growth, today leaving DRC with a GDP per capita and a HDI rating that rank among the world's lowest and make the DRC one of the most fragile and, according to the United Nations, least developed countries in the world. Despite this, the DRC is quickly modernizing; it tied with Malaysia for the largest positive change in HDI development in 2016. Government projects include strengthening the health system for maternal and child health, expansion of electricity access, water supply reconstructions, and urban and social rehabilitation programs. ==Economic implications of conflicts== The two recent conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars), which began in 1996, have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, Malnutrition affects approximately two-thirds of the country's population. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of GDP in 1997. In 1996, agriculture employed 66% of the workforce. In 2006, Transparency International ranked the Democratic Republic of the Congo 156 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index, tying Bangladesh, Chad, and Sudan with a 2.0 rating. President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001. The conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo were over water, minerals, and other resources. Political agendas have worsened the economy, as in times of crisis, the elite benefit while the general populace suffers. This is worsened as a result of corrupt national and international corporations. The corporations instigate and allow the fighting for resources because they benefit from it. A large proportion of fatalities in the country are attributed to a lack of basic services, recognized as "communicable, maternal, perinatal, and nutritional conditions," which account for 56% of deaths by broad cause. The influx of refugees since the war in 1998 only serves to worsen the issue of poverty. Money of the taxpayers in the DRC is often misappropriated by the corrupt leaders of the country, who use the money to benefit themselves instead of the citizens of the DRC. The DRC is consistently ranked among the lowest countries on the UN Human Development Index. ==Economic history== === After Leopold === Forced labor (slavery) was important for the rural sector. The corporations that dominated the economy were mostly owned by Belgium, but British capital also played an important role. The 1950s were a period of rising income and expectations. Congo was said to have the best public health system in Africa, but there was also a huge wealth disparity. Belgian companies favored workers in certain areas more and exported them to work in different areas, restricting opportunities for others. Favored groups also received better education and were able to secure jobs for people in the same ethnic group, which increased tensions. In 1960 there were only 16 university graduates out of a population of 20 million. Belgium still had economic power, and independence gave little opportunity for improvement. Common refrains included "no elite, no trouble" and "before independence = after independence." When the Belgians left, most of the government officials and educated residents left with them. Before independence, there were just 3 out of 5000 government jobs held by Congolese people. The resulting loss of institutional knowledge and human capital crippled the government. ===Zaire=== After the Congo Crisis, Mobutu arose as the country's sole ruler and stabilized the country politically. Economically, however, the situation continued to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that from 1960. Starting in 1976, the IMF provided stabilizing loans to the dictatorship. Much of the money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle. Blumenthal indicated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the World Bank continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on white elephant projects". "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure. ====Special economic zones==== The DRC planned to establish special economic zones (SEZ) to encourage the revival of its industry. The first SEZ was planned to come into being in 2012 in N'Sele, a commune of Kinshasa, and will focus on agro-industries. The Congolese authorities also planned to open another zone dedicated to mining (Katanga) and a third dedicated to cement (in the Bas-Congo). There are three phases to the program that each have their own objectives. Phase I was the precursor to the actual investment in the Special Economic Zone, where policymakers agreed to the framework, the framework was studied for its establishment, and to predict the potential market demand for the land. Stage one of Phase II involved submitting laws for the Special Economic Zone, finding good sites for businesses, and currently there is an effort to help the government attract foreign investment. Stage two of Phase II hasn't been started yet, and it involves assisting the government in creating a framework for the country, creating an overall plan for the site, figuring out what the environmental impact of the project will be, and guessing how much it will cost and what the return can be made on the investment. Phase III involves the World Bank creating a transaction phase that will keep everything competitive. The program is looking for options to hand over the program to the World Bank, which could be very beneficial for the western part of the country. == Gross Domestic Product (GDP) == === GDP (Nominal) === Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.7) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.2,0.6,1) ImageSize = width:1600 height:370 PlotArea = left:41 bottom:17 top:10 right:10 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:000 till:80000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = late ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:10000 start:000 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:10000 start:000 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:1980 text:1980 bar:1981 text:1981 bar:1982 text:1982 bar:1983 text:1983 bar:1984 text:1984 bar:1985 text:1985 bar:1986 text:1986 bar:1987 text:1987 bar:1988 text:1988 bar:1989 text:1989 bar:1990 text:1990 bar:1991 text:1991 bar:1992 text:1992 bar:1993 text:1993 bar:1994 text:1994 bar:1995 text:1995 bar:1996 text:1996 bar:1997 text:1997 bar:1998 text:1998 bar:1999 text:1999 bar:2000 text:2000 bar:2001 text:2001 bar:2002 text:2002 bar:2003 text:2003 bar:2004 text:2004 bar:2005 text:2005 bar:2006 text:2006 bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 bar:2023 text:2023 bar:2024 text:2024 bar:2025 text:2025 bar:2026 text:2026 bar:2027 text:2027 bar:2028 text:2028 bar:2029 text:2029 bar:2030 text:2030 PlotData= color:barra width:23 align:center bar:1980 from:000 till: 68606 bar:1981 from:000 till: 59726 bar:1982 from:000 till: 64939 bar:1983 from:000 till: 52378 bar:1984 from:000 till: 34951 bar:1985 from:000 till: 31943 bar:1986 from:000 till: 35840 bar:1987 from:000 till: 33932 bar:1988 from:000 till: 39314 bar:1989 from:000 till: 40006 bar:1990 from:000 till: 41448 bar:1991 from:000 till: 40250 bar:1992 from:000 till: 36333 bar:1993 from:000 till: 47450 bar:1994 from:000 till: 25746 bar:1995 from:000 till: 25021 bar:1996 from:000 till: 32099 bar:1997 from:000 till: 28819 bar:1998 from:000 till: 21089 bar:1999 from:000 till: 19147 bar:2000 from:000 till: 19077 bar:2001 from:000 till: 7246 bar:2002 from:000 till: 8720 bar:2003 from:000 till: 9022 bar:2004 from:000 till: 10275 bar:2005 from:000 till: 12720 bar:2006 from:000 till: 15403 bar:2007 from:000 till: 18598 bar:2008 from:000 till: 22665 bar:2009 from:000 till: 18626 bar:2010 from:000 till: 22340 bar:2011 from:000 till: 26406 bar:2012 from:000 till: 30074 bar:2013 from:000 till: 34908 bar:2014 from:000 till: 38355 bar:2015 from:000 till: 40154 bar:2016 from:000 till: 38086 bar:2017 from:000 till: 39461 bar:2018 from:000 till: 48037 bar:2019 from:000 till: 50891 bar:2020 from:000 till: 49613 bar:2021 from:000 till: 57592 bar:2022 from:000 till: 65768 bar:2023 from:000 till: 66923 bar:2024 from:000 till: 72483 bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 PlotData= bar:1980 at:68606 fontsize:S text:68,606 shift:(0,2) bar:1981 at:59726 fontsize:S text:59,726 shift:(0,2) bar:1982 at:64939 fontsize:S text:64,939 shift:(0,2) bar:1983 at:52378 fontsize:S text:52,378 shift:(0,2) bar:1984 at:34951 fontsize:S text:34,951 shift:(0,2) bar:1985 at:31943 fontsize:S text:31,943 shift:(0,2) bar:1986 at:35840 fontsize:S text:35,840 shift:(0,2) bar:1987 at:33932 fontsize:S text:33,932 shift:(0,2) bar:1988 at:39314 fontsize:S text:39,314 shift:(0,2) bar:1989 at:40006 fontsize:S text:40,006 shift:(0,2) bar:1990 at:41448 fontsize:S text:41,448 shift:(0,3) bar:1991 at:40250 fontsize:S text:40,250 shift:(0,2) bar:1992 at:36333 fontsize:S text:36,333 shift:(0,2) bar:1993 at:47450 fontsize:S text:47,450 shift:(0,2) bar:1994 at:25746 fontsize:S text:25,746 shift:(0,3) bar:1995 at:25021 fontsize:S text:25,021 shift:(0,2) bar:1996 at:32099 fontsize:S text:32,099 shift:(0,2) bar:1997 at:28819 fontsize:S text:28,819 shift:(0,2) bar:1998 at:21089 fontsize:S text:21,089 shift:(0,2) bar:1999 at:19147 fontsize:S text:19,147 shift:(0,2) bar:2000 at:19077 fontsize:S text:19,077 shift:(0,2) bar:2001 at:7246 fontsize:S text:7,246 shift:(0,2) bar:2002 at:8720 fontsize:S text:8,720 shift:(0,2) bar:2003 at:9022 fontsize:S text:9,022 shift:(0,2) bar:2004 at:10275 fontsize:S text:10,275 shift:(0,2) bar:2005 at:12720 fontsize:S text:12,720 shift:(0,2) bar:2006 at:15403 fontsize:S text:15,403 shift:(0,2) bar:2007 at:18598 fontsize:S text:18,598 shift:(0,2) bar:2008 at:22665 fontsize:S text:22,665 shift:(0,2) bar:2009 at:18626 fontsize:S text:18,626 shift:(0,2) bar:2010 at:22340 fontsize:S text:22,340 shift:(0,2) bar:2011 at:26406 fontsize:S text:26,406 shift:(0,2) bar:2012 at:30074 fontsize:S text:30,074 shift:(0,2) bar:2013 at:34908 fontsize:S text:34,908 shift:(0,2) bar:2014 at:38355 fontsize:S text:38,355 shift:(0,2) bar:2015 at:40154 fontsize:S text:40,154 shift:(0,2) bar:2016 at:38086 fontsize:S text:38,086 shift:(0,2) bar:2017 at:39461 fontsize:S text:39,461 shift:(0,3) bar:2018 at:48037 fontsize:S text:48,037 shift:(0,2) bar:2019 at:50891 fontsize:S text:50,891 shift:(0,2) bar:2020 at:49613 fontsize:S text:49,613 shift:(0,2) bar:2021 at:57592 fontsize:S text:57,592 shift:(0,2) bar:2022 at:65768 fontsize:S text:65,768 shift:(0,2) bar:2023 at:66923 fontsize:S text:66,923 shift:(0,3) bar:2024 at:72483 fontsize:S text:72,483 shift:(0,2) bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF) === GDP per capita (nominal) === Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.7) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.2,0.6,1) ImageSize = width:1600 height:330 PlotArea = left:36 bottom:15 top:10 right:10 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:3000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = late ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:500 start:000 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:500 start:000 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:1980 text:1980 bar:1981 text:1981 bar:1982 text:1982 bar:1983 text:1983 bar:1984 text:1984 bar:1985 text:1985 bar:1986 text:1986 bar:1987 text:1987 bar:1988 text:1988 bar:1989 text:1989 bar:1990 text:1990 bar:1991 text:1991 bar:1992 text:1992 bar:1993 text:1993 bar:1994 text:1994 bar:1995 text:1995 bar:1996 text:1996 bar:1997 text:1997 bar:1998 text:1998 bar:1999 text:1999 bar:2000 text:2000 bar:2001 text:2001 bar:2002 text:2002 bar:2003 text:2003 bar:2004 text:2004 bar:2005 text:2005 bar:2006 text:2006 bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 bar:2018 text:2018 bar:2019 text:2019 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2021 text:2021 bar:2022 text:2022 bar:2023 text:2023 bar:2024 text:2024 bar:2025 text:2025 bar:2026 text:2026 bar:2027 text:2027 bar:2028 text:2028 bar:2029 text:2029 bar:2030 text:2030 PlotData= color:barra width:20 align:center bar:1980 from:000 till: 2730 bar:1981 from:000 till: 2301 bar:1982 from:000 till: 2422 bar:1983 from:000 till: 1891 bar:1984 from:000 till: 1221 bar:1985 from:000 till: 1080 bar:1986 from:000 till: 1174 bar:1987 from:000 till: 1075 bar:1988 from:000 till: 1206 bar:1989 from:000 till: 1188 bar:1990 from:000 till: 1192 bar:1991 from:000 till: 1120 bar:1992 from:000 till: 973 bar:1993 from:000 till: 1222 bar:1994 from:000 till: 639 bar:1995 from:000 till: 601 bar:1996 from:000 till: 750 bar:1997 from:000 till: 642 bar:1998 from:000 till: 461 bar:1999 from:000 till: 410 bar:2000 from:000 till: 397 bar:2001 from:000 till: 146 bar:2002 from:000 till: 171 bar:2003 from:000 till: 171 bar:2004 from:000 till: 189 bar:2005 from:000 till: 226 bar:2006 from:000 till: 265 bar:2007 from:000 till: 310 bar:2008 from:000 till: 366 bar:2009 from:000 till: 291 bar:2010 from:000 till: 338 bar:2011 from:000 till: 387 bar:2012 from:000 till: 427 bar:2013 from:000 till: 481 bar:2014 from:000 till: 512 bar:2015 from:000 till: 519 bar:2016 from:000 till: 477 bar:2017 from:000 till: 478 bar:2018 from:000 till: 564 bar:2019 from:000 till: 578 bar:2020 from:000 till: 546 bar:2021 from:000 till: 614 bar:2022 from:000 till: 679 bar:2023 from:000 till: 669 bar:2024 from:000 till: 702 bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 PlotData= bar:1980 at:2730 fontsize:S text:2,730 shift:(0,2) bar:1981 at:2301 fontsize:S text:2,301 shift:(0,2) bar:1982 at:2422 fontsize:S text:2,422 shift:(0,2) bar:1983 at:1891 fontsize:S text:1,891 shift:(0,2) bar:1984 at:1221 fontsize:S text:1,221 shift:(0,2) bar:1985 at:1080 fontsize:S text:1,080 shift:(0,2) bar:1986 at:1174 fontsize:S text:1,174 shift:(0,2) bar:1987 at:1075 fontsize:S text:1,075 shift:(0,2) bar:1988 at:1206 fontsize:S text:1,206 shift:(0,2) bar:1989 at:1188 fontsize:S text:1,188 shift:(0,2) bar:1990 at:1192 fontsize:S text:1,192 shift:(0,2) bar:1991 at:1120 fontsize:S text:1,120 shift:(0,2) bar:1992 at:973 fontsize:S text:973 shift:(0,2) bar:1993 at:1222 fontsize:S text:1,222 shift:(0,2) bar:1994 at:639 fontsize:S text:639 shift:(0,2) bar:1995 at:601 fontsize:S text:601 shift:(0,2) bar:1996 at:750 fontsize:S text:750 shift:(0,2) bar:1997 at:642 fontsize:S text:642 shift:(0,2) bar:1998 at:461 fontsize:S text:461 shift:(0,2) bar:1999 at:410 fontsize:S text:410 shift:(0,2) bar:2000 at:397 fontsize:S text:397 shift:(0,2) bar:2001 at:146 fontsize:S text:146 shift:(0,2) bar:2002 at:171 fontsize:S text:171 shift:(0,2) bar:2003 at:171 fontsize:S text:171 shift:(0,2) bar:2004 at:189 fontsize:S text:189 shift:(0,2) bar:2005 at:226 fontsize:S text:226 shift:(0,2) bar:2006 at:265 fontsize:S text:265 shift:(0,2) bar:2007 at:310 fontsize:S text:310 shift:(0,2) bar:2008 at:366 fontsize:S text:366 shift:(0,2) bar:2009 at:291 fontsize:S text:291 shift:(0,2) bar:2010 at:338 fontsize:S text:338 shift:(0,2) bar:2011 at:387 fontsize:S text:387 shift:(0,2) bar:2012 at:427 fontsize:S text:427 shift:(0,2) bar:2013 at:481 fontsize:S text:481 shift:(0,2) bar:2014 at:512 fontsize:S text:512 shift:(0,2) bar:2015 at:519 fontsize:S text:519 shift:(0,2) bar:2016 at:477 fontsize:S text:477 shift:(0,2) bar:2017 at:478 fontsize:S text:478 shift:(0,2) bar:2018 at:564 fontsize:S text:564 shift:(0,2) bar:2019 at:578 fontsize:S text:578 shift:(0,2) bar:2020 at:546 fontsize:S text:546 shift:(0,2) bar:2021 at:614 fontsize:S text:614 shift:(0,2) bar:2022 at:679 fontsize:S text:679 shift:(0,2) bar:2023 at:669 fontsize:S text:669 shift:(0,2) bar:2024 at:702 fontsize:S text:702 shift:(0,2) bar:2025 bar:2026 bar:2027 bar:2028 bar:2029 bar:2030 Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF) ==Economic implications of instability== Ongoing conflicts dramatically reduced government revenue and increased external debt. ==International relations== Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. !Goods Imports(in billion US$) !Net trade(in billion US$) \|- \|2023 \|$29.6 \|$28.0 \|$1.6 \|- \|2022 \|$28.7 \|$26.7 \|$2.0 \|- \|2021 \|$22.2 \|$18.3 \|$3.9 \|- \|2020 \|$13.8 \|$11.9 \|$1.9 \|- \|2015 \|$10.3 \|$10.6 \|$-0.3 \|- \|2010 \|$8.5 \|$8.0 \|$0.4 \|- \|2005 \|$2.4 \|$2.7 \|$-0.3 \|} ===World Bank=== With the help of the International Development Association the DRC has worked toward the reestablishment of social services. This is done by giving 15 million people access to basic health services and giving bed nets to prevent malaria from spreading to people. With the Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Program, more than 107,000 adults and 34,000 child soldiers stood down their militarized posture. The travel time from Lubumbashi to Kasomeno in Katanga went down from seven days to two hours because of the improved roads, which led to the decrease of prices of main goods by 60%. With the help of the IFC, KfW, and the EU, the DRC improved its businesses by reducing the time it took to create a business by 51%, reducing the time it took to get construction permits by 54%, and reducing the number of taxes from 118 to 30. Improvements in health have been noticeable, specifically that deliveries attended by trained staff jumped from 47 to 80%. In education, 14 million textbooks were provided to children, completion rates of school have increased, and higher education was made available to students that chose to pursue it. ===International Monetary Fund=== The IMF plans on giving the DRC a $1 billion loan after its two-year suspension after it failed to give details about a mining deal from one of its state-owned mines and an Israeli billionaire, Dan Gertler. The loan may be necessary for the country because there will be elections in December 2016 for the next president, and the cost of funding this would range around $1.1 billion. The biggest problem with the vote is getting a country of 68 million people the size of Western Europe to polling stations with less than 1,860 miles of paved roads. ==Sectors== ===Agriculture=== Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of the GDP in 1997. ===Fishing=== The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50 percent of Africa's forests and a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a United Nations report on the country's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa. Fish are the single most important source of animal protein in the DRC. Total production of marine, river, and lake fisheries in 2003 was estimated at 222,965 tons, all but 5,000 tons from inland waters. PEMARZA, a state agency, carries on marine fishing. ===Forestry=== Forests cover 60 percent of the total land area. There are vast timber resources, and commercial development of the country's of exploitable wooded area is only beginning. The Mayumbe area of Bas-Congo was once the major center of timber exploitation, but forests in this area were nearly depleted. The more extensive forest regions of the central cuvette and of the Ubangi River valley have increasingly been tapped. Roundwood removals were estimated at 72,170,000 m2 in 2003, about 95 percent for fuel. Some 14 species are presently being harvested. Exports of forest products in 2003 totaled $25.7 million. Foreign capital is necessary in order for forestry to expand, and the government recognizes that changes in tax structure and export procedures will be needed to facilitate economic growth. ===Mining=== Rich in minerals, the DRC has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s. Although the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the second largest country in Africa who has historically relied heavily on mining, is no longer reflected in the GDP data as the mining industry has suffered from a long-term "uncertain legal framework, corruption, and a lack of transparency in government policy." The informal sector. and therefore is not reflected in the GDP. ==Exploitation of mineral substances by companies== The economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining. The Congo is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and industrial diamonds. The Congo has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves., mostly in the form of small, industrial diamonds. The coltan is a major source of tantalum, which is used in the fabrication of electronic components in computers and mobile phones. In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but, to date, mining has been done on a small scale. Manono in Central DRC has a significant deposit of lithium and tin with tantalum and niobium and is being developed by an Australian company. Production is expected in 2023. According to a 2011 report, the total value of the major mineral reserves in the DRC amounted to a total of over 300 billion US dollars at the time. Smuggling of the conflict minerals, coltan and cassiterite (ores of tantalum and tin, respectively), has helped fuel the war in the Eastern Congo. Today's larger mining companies are making changes and adhering to global demand for ESG (Environmental, Social and Governance) and IRMA (Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance). One such globally recognised certification is the 3T iTSCi, the only widely implemented and accepted mineral traceability and due diligence system in the region for the 3T minerals—tin, tantalum and tungsten—an internationally recognised certification for responsible mining and traceability under the 2010 Dodd-Frank Act. Today, four central African countries, including the DRC, provides legitimate and ethical 3T minerals. ITSCI is the only industry initiative with standards 100% aligned with the OECD Guidance. Much has been done in the last 15 years, providing artisanal and small-scale miners a support network through iTSCi to build the foundations and regulate the industry. At the end of 2019 ITSCI has seen to 2000 mines, employment of around 80,000 miners, and the supply of over 2000 tonnes of tin, tantalum and tungsten minerals per month; the initiative has come a long way in the last decade. A report had been done by Pact in 2015, detailing iTSCi's progress over the previous five years; it discusses the successes, the challenges ahead and the work yet to be done. Entitled Unconflicted: Making Conflict-Free Mining a Reality in the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi. ===Copper and cobalt=== Katanga Mining Limited, a London-based company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company restarted copper production in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008. ===Informal sector=== Much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data.	[ "Mobutu", "Congo Basin", "The Observatory of Economic Complexity", "informal sector", "metal", "List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI", "timber", "Sudan", "tea", "papaya", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Kinshasa", "Human rights", "Africa World Press", "footwear", "maize", "textile", "pineapple", "Erwin Blumenthal", "gross domestic product", "GDP", "waterway", "Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Africa", "HarperCollins", "Cocoa bean", "World Trade Organization", "consumer products", "economy", "Katanga Mining", "cotton", "ship", "tin", "zinc", "ILO", "IMF", "Transparency International", "Purchasing power parity", "cigarette", "Belgium", "Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa", "Bas-Congo", "U.S. Department of State", "Human Development Index", "cassava", "tantalum", "Malnutrition", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Congolese Franc", "Economic Community of Central African States", "cassiterite", "palm oil", "special economic zone", "Human Development Report", "sweet potato", "cement", "African Development Bank", "mineral processing", "Dan Gertler", "COVID-19", "navigable", "Service (economics)", "mineral", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "Congo: The Epic History of a People", "monopoly", "beans", "Kindu", "The World Bank in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "plastic", "United Kingdom", "rubber", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa", "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita", "Chad", "Corruption Perception Index", "African Continental Free Trade Agreement", "Industrial sector", "Ubangi River", "mangosteen", "United Nations Development Programme", "mango", "potato", "Extractive sector", "The World Factbook", "Mayumbe area", "conflict minerals", "lumber", "transport", "sugar", "Plantain (cooking)", "Bangladesh", "wood", "famine", "China", "African Union", "crude oil", "List of countries by Fragile States Index", "Gross domestic product", "World Bank", "List of countries by GDP (nominal)", "Joseph Kabila", "banana", "beverage", "looting", "diamond", "coltan", "guava", "United Nations", "Group of 77", "Southern African Development Community", "copper", "central Africa", "hydro-electric", "Ease of doing business index", "International Monetary Fund", "gold", "South Africa", "processed food", "coffee", "infrastructure", "List of countries by GDP (PPP)", "Primary sector of the economy", "Second Congo War", "Time (magazine)", "Congo Crisis", "natural rubber", "cobalt", "Bambara groundnut", "peanut", "Agriculture", "List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita", "food", "President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Orange (fruit)", "fuel", "List of companies based in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "machinery", "The New York Times", "revenue", "Cooking banana", "Least Developed Countries", "Corruption Perceptions Index", "First Congo War", "tungsten", "mining", "rice" ]
8,026	Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Politics of the Democratic Republic of Congo take place in the framework of a republic in transition from a civil war to a semi-presidential republic. On 18 and 19 December 2005, a nationwide referendum was carried out on a draft constitution, which set the stage for elections in 2006. The voting process, though technically difficult due to the lack of infrastructure, was facilitated and organized by the Congolese Independent Electoral Commission with support from the UN mission to the Congo (MONUC). Early UN reports indicate that the voting was for the most part peaceful, but spurred violence in many parts of the war-torn east and the Kasais. Since 1996, the Democratic Republic of Congo has been a battleground, starting with neighboring states invading Zaire, which ended the 32-year rule of Joseph Mobutu and saw Laurent-Désiré Kabila becoming the new president. These conflicts originated from the 1994 Rwanda genocide and subsequent destabilization of the DRC's eastern region. There were nine African countries involved directly, with many more offering military, financial, and political support. Internal rebellions further complicated matters. This has led to a severe humanitarian crisis. In 2001, Laurent Kabila was killed, and his son Joseph Kabila took over as the leader of the country. Under the new president's leadership, efforts were made to bring an end to the presence of foreign troops in the eastern DRC, instead a cooperative approach was adopted, focusing on diplomatic discussions to resolve conflicts. By 2002, the Pretoria Accord was achieved through negotiations known as the Inter-Congolese Dialogue. This agreement involved all warring factions, political opposition groups, and civil society, aiming to halt the fighting and establish a government of national unity. Referred to as the “Global and All-Inclusive Agreement on the Transition,” it outlined a plan toward stability, peace, and democracy in the DRC. The agreement proposed that former warring factions, civil society, and political opposition would share political, military, and economic authority during a two-year transition phase, extendable by two six-month periods. During this period, plans were made for a referendum on the post-transition constitution and the conduct of general elections. In 2006, many Congolese complained that the constitution was a rather ambiguous document and were unaware of its contents. This is due in part to the high rates of illiteracy in the country. However, interim President Kabila urged Congolese to vote 'Yes', saying the constitution is the country's best hope for peace in the future. 25 million Congolese turned out for the two-day balloting. According to results released in January 2006, the constitution was approved by 84% of voters. The new constitution also aims to decentralize authority, dividing the vast nation into 25 semi-autonomous provinces, drawn along ethnic and cultural lines. The country's first democratic elections in four decades were held on 30 July 2006. ==Political history== From the day of the arguably ill-prepared independence of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the tensions between the powerful leaders of the political elite, such as Joseph Kasa Vubu, Patrice Lumumba, Moise Tshombe, Joseph Mobutu and others, jeopardize the political stability of the new state. From Tshombe's secession of the Katanga, to the assassination of Lumumba, to the two coups d'état of Mobutu, the country has known periods of true nationwide peace, but virtually no period of genuine democratic rule. ===The Mobutu era=== The regime of President Mobutu Sese Seko lasted 32 years (1965–1997), during which all but the first seven years the country was named Zaire. His dictatorship operated as a one-party state, which saw most of the powers concentrated between President Mobutu, who was simultaneously the head of both the party and the state through the Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR), and a series of essentially rubber-stamping institutions. One particularity of the Regime was the claim to be thriving for an authentic system, different from Western or Soviet influences. This lasted roughly between the establishment of Zaire in 1971, and the official beginning of the transition towards democracy, on 24 April 1990. This was true at the regular people's level as everywhere else. People were ordered by law to drop their Western Christian names; the titles Mr. and Mrs. were abandoned for the male and female versions of the French word for "citizen"; Men were forbidden to wear suits, and women to wear pants. At the institutional level, many of the institutions also changed denominations, but the result was a system that borrowed from both systems: The MPR's Central Committee: Under the system of the "party-state", this committee had a higher position in the institutional make-up than the government or cabinet. It had both executive oversight authority, and in practice, binding legislative authority, as it dictated the party platform. Mobutu headed the Central Committee as Founding-President. The vice-president of the Central Committee was essentially the country's vice president, without the succession rights. The Executive Council: Known elsewhere as the Government or the Cabinet, this council was the executive authority in the country, made of State Commissioners (known elsewhere as ministers). For a long period of time, Mobutu was the sole leader of the Executive Council. He eventually would appoint First State Commissioners (known elsewhere as prime ministers) with largely coordinating powers and very little executive power. The last "First State Commissioner" was Kengo Wa Dondo. The Legislative Council: essentially the rubber-stamp parliament, it was made up of People Commissioners (known elsewhere as MPs), who were sometimes elected, as individual members of the MPR, and always on the party platform. The Supreme Court: As the judiciary, this court was seemingly the only independent branch of government, but in effect it was subordinate to a Judicial Council over which the regime had a very strong influence. Every corporation, whether financial or union, as well as every division of the administration, was set up as branches of the party. CEOs, union leaders, and division directors were each sworn in as section presidents of the party. Every aspect of life was regulated to some degree by the party, and the will of its founding-president, Mobutu Sese Seko. Most of the petty aspects of the regime disappeared after 1990 with the beginning of the democratic transition. Democratization would prove to be fairly short-lived, as Mobutu's power plays dragged it in length until ultimately 1997, when forces led by Laurent Kabila eventually successfully toppled the regime, after a 9-month-long military campaign. ===The Kabilas' governments and war=== The government of former president Mobutu Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion led by Laurent Kabila in May 1997, with the support of Rwanda and Uganda. They were later to turn against Kabila and backed a rebellion against him in August 1998. Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999 by the DROC, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, and Congolese armed rebel groups, but fighting continued. Under Laurent Kabila's regime, all executive, legislative, and military powers were first vested in the President, Laurent-Désiré Kabila. The judiciary was independent, with the president having the power to dismiss or appoint. The president was first head of a 26-member cabinet dominated by the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL). Towards the end of the 90s, Laurent Kabila created and appointed a Transitional Parliament, with a seat in the buildings of the former Katanga Parliament, in the southern town of Lubumbashi, in a move to unite the country, and to legitimate his regime. Kabila was assassinated on 16 January 2001 and his son Joseph Kabila was named head of state ten days later. Initially underestimated as a mere figurehead chosen by his father's advisors, Kabila surprised many by quickly asserting his authority and turning the government in new directions. Shortly after taking office, he went on his first international trip, where he engaged in diplomatic talks with leaders from France, Belgium, and the United States, including the Secretary of State Colin Powell, as well as officials from global institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United Nations. During his visit to the United States, he met with Paul Kagame, the Rwandan president, despite their past differences. In a significant move in February 2001, Kabila committed to implementing a ceasefire agreement signed in July 1999, which had previously been disregarded by all involved. He initiated discussions with rebel groups and negotiated the withdrawal of troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia, which had a military presence in Congo. UN peacekeepers were deployed in March to oversee the ceasefire and troop withdrawals. The younger Kabila continued with his father's Transitional Parliament, but overhauled his entire cabinet, replacing it with a group of technocrats, with the stated aim of putting the country back on the track of development, and coming to a decisive end of the Second Congo War. In October 2002, the new president was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces to withdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and set up a Transition Government, the make-up of which would allow representation for all negotiating parties. Two founding documents emerged from this: The Transition Constitution, and the Global and Inclusive Agreement, both of which describe and determine the make-up and organization of the Congolese institutions, until planned elections in July 2006, at which time the provisions of the new constitution, democratically approved by referendum in December 2005, will take full effect and that is how it happened. Under the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement, signed on 17 December 2002, in Pretoria, there was to be one President and four Vice-Presidents, one from the government, one from the Rally for Congolese Democracy, one from the MLC, and one from civil society. The position of vice-president expired after the 2006 elections. After being for three years (2003–06) in the interregnum between two constitutions, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is now under the regime of the Constitution of the Third Republic. The constitution, adopted by referendum in 2005, and promulgated by President Joseph Kabila in February 2006, establishes a decentralized semi-presidential republic, with a separation of powers between the three branches of government - executive, legislative and judiciary, and a distribution of prerogatives between the central government and the provinces. In September 2016, violent protests were met with brutal force by the police and Republican Guard soldiers. Opposition groups claim 80 dead, including the Students' Union leader. From Monday 19 September Kinshasa residents, as well as residents elsewhere in Congo, where mostly confined to their homes. Police arrested anyone remotely connected to the opposition as well as innocent onlookers. Government propaganda, on television, and actions of covert government groups in the streets, acted against opposition as well as foreigners. The president's mandate was due to end on 19 December 2016, but no plans were made to elect a replacement at that time and this caused further protests. As of 8 August 2017 there are 54 political parties legally operating in the Congo. On 15 December 2018 US State Department announced it had decided to evacuate its employees’ family members from Democratic Republic of Congo just before the Congolese elections to choose a successor to President Joseph Kabila. === Félix Tshisekedi Presidency (2019–present) === On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held. On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote. He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019. In the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff. In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. His initial campaign pledged to enhance living standards in the DRC, a country abundant in minerals but plagued by widespread poverty among its 100 million people, and to bring an end to 25 years of violence in the eastern region. The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services. However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power. In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly. The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out. In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila. President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila. After the 2023 presidential election, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term. Despite the economic growth, numerous Congolese citizens were voicing concerns about the decline of the Congolese franc, which is significantly affecting their everyday experiences. Despite the nation's abundant mineral resources and sizable population, the quality of life has not substantially improved for the majority, as conflict, corruption, and inadequate governance continue to endure. During his reelection campaign, he reiterated promises from five years prior, including job creation, enhancing economic stability, and addressing the persistent insecurity that has plagued the eastern region for thirty years, resulting in the loss of millions of lives. On 20 December 2023, official said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote. Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun. In January, following the election, the major opposition candidate, Moise Katumbi was momentarily placed under house arrest but this was quickly rectified by the governor of Haut-Katanga province. The ruling party, President Tshisekedi's UDPS, won the majority of seats in general elections, winning 69 seats in the 500-member National Assembly ahead of 44 other parties. ==Executive branch == Since the July 2006 elections, the country is led by a semi-presidential, strongly-decentralized state. The executive at the central level, is divided between the President, and a Prime Minister appointed by him/her from the party having the majority of seats in Parlement. Should there be no clear majority, the President can appoint a "government former" that will then have the task to win the confidence of the National Assembly. The President appoints the government members (ministers) at the proposal of the Prime Minister. In coordination, the President and the government are in charge of the executive, but the Prime minister and the government are responsible to the lower-house of Parliament, the National Assembly. At the province level, the Provincial legislature (Provincial Assembly) elects a governor, and the governor, with his government of up to 10 ministers, is in charge of the provincial executive. Some domains of government power are of the exclusive provision of the Province, and some are held concurrently with the Central government. This is not a Federal state; however, it is simply a decentralized one, as the majority of the domains of power are still vested in the Central government. The governor is responsible to the Provincial Assembly. ===Criticisms=== The semi-presidential system has been described by some as "conflictogenic" and "dictatogenic", as it ensures frictions, and a reduction of pace in government life, should the President and the Prime Minister be from different sides of the political arena. This was seen several times in France, a country that shares the semi-presidential model. It was also, arguably, in the first steps of the Congo into independence, the underlying cause of the crisis between Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa Vubu, who ultimately dismissed each other, in 1960. In January 2015 the 2015 Congolese protests broke out in the country's capital following the release of a draft law that would extend the presidential term limits and allow Joseph Kabila to run again for office. ==Legislative branch== === Under the Transition Constitution === The Inter-Congolese dialogue, that set-up the transitional institutions, created a bicameral parliament, with a National Assembly and Senate, made up of appointed representatives of the parties to the dialogue. These parties included the preceding government, the rebel groups that were fighting against the government, with heavy Rwandan and Ugandan support, the internal opposition parties, and the Civil Society. At the beginning of the transition, and up until recently, the National Assembly is headed by the MLC with Speaker Hon. Olivier Kamitatu, while the Senate is headed by a representative of the Civil Society, namely the head of the Church of Christ in Congo, Mgr. Pierre Marini Bodho. Hon. Kamitatu has since left both the MLC and the Parliament to create his own party, and ally with current President Joseph Kabila. Since then, the position of Speaker is held by Hon. Thomas Luhaka, of the MLC. Aside from the regular legislative duties, the Senate had the charge to draft a new constitution for the country. That constitution was adopted by referendum in December 2005, and decreed into law on 18 February 2006. ===Under the New Constitution=== The Parliament of the third republic is also bicameral, with a National Assembly and a Senate. Members of the National Assembly, the lower - but the most powerful - house, are elected by direct suffrage. Senators are elected by the legislatures of the 26 provinces. ==Judicial branch== ===Under the Transition Constitution=== ===Under the New Constitution=== ==Administrative divisions== ===Under the Transition Constitution=== 10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville): Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Équateur, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Katanga, Kinshasa, Maniema, North Kivu, Orientale. Each province is divided into districts and cities. ===Under the New Constitution=== 25 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and city (ville): Bas-Uele \| Équateur \| Haut-Lomami \| Haut-Katanga \| Haut-Uele \| Ituri \| Kasaï \| Kasaï oriental \| Kongo central \| Kwango \| Kwilu \| Lomami \| Lualaba \| Lulua \| Mai-Ndombe \| Maniema \| Mongala \| North Kivu \| Nord-Ubangi \| Sankuru \| South Kivu \| Sud-Ubangi \| Tanganyika \| Tshopo \| Tshuapa \| Kinshasa* Each province is divided into territories and cities. ==Political parties and elections== ===Presidential elections=== ===Parliamentary elections=== ==International organization participation== ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, CEEAC, CEPGL, East African Community, ECA, FAO, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO	[ "semi-presidential system", "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "International Finance Corporation", "International Hydrographic Organization", "Africanews", "France", "Minister (government)", "Uganda", "Rally for Congolese Democracy", "Tanganyika (proposed province)", "republic", "Sudan", "International Civil Aviation Organization", "International Development Association", "Group of 19", "Tshopo (proposed province)", "Mobutu Sese Seko", "Namibia", "Kinshasa", "List of heads of government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Pretoria Accord", "Angola", "Global and Inclusive Agreement", "Member of Parliament", "Kasai-Oriental", "Kasai (proposed province)", "Lualaba (proposed province)", "Universal direct suffrage", "World Trade Organization", "2015 Congolese protests", "Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Sankuru (proposed province)", "Democratic Republic of the Congo general election, 2018", "Vice-Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Équateur (former province)", "World Intellectual Property Organization", "Bas-Congo", "UNESCO", "Ituri (proposed province)", "Sud-Ubangi (proposed province)", "North Kivu", "Haut-Uele (proposed province)", "African Development Bank", "Zimbabwe", "International Labour Organization", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "CEEAC", "Vital Kamerhe", "Rubber stamp (politics)", "Thomas Luhaka", "Rwanda genocide", "Zaire", "Joseph Kasa Vubu", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa", "World Meteorological Organization", "Chad", "Bas-Uele (proposed province)", "Katanga Province", "Kwilu (proposed province)", "Lomami (proposed province)", "Haut-Lomami (proposed province)", "Movement for the Liberation of the Congo", "coups d'état", "Haut-Katanga (proposed province)", "Kasai-oriental (proposed province)", "United Nations Industrial Development Organization", "Parliament of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Laurent Kabila", "prime minister", "Tshuapa (proposed province)", "Kasai-Occidental", "Joseph Mobutu", "one-party state", "United Nations Conference on Trade and Development", "interregnum", "Lulua (proposed province)", "Kwango (proposed province)", "African Union", "World Health Organization", "International Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique", "World Federation of Trade Unions", "Laurent-Désiré Kabila", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "Patrice Lumumba", "Joseph Kabila", "International Fund for Agricultural Development", "Orientale (province)", "Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Maniema", "United Nations", "Group of 77", "International Criminal Court", "2023 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election", "World Tourism Organization", "Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Pierre Marini Bodho", "Group of 24", "ACP (Lomé Convention)", "International Monetary Fund", "Moise Tshombe", "Mongala (proposed province)", "Kengo Wa Dondo", "Olivier Kamitatu", "December 2016 Congolese protests", "infrastructure", "Movement for the Liberation of Congo", "Félix Tshisekedi", "Second Congo War", "Kongo Central (proposed province)", "decentralized", "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees", "Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries", "Rwanda", "Bandundu (province)", "Équateur (proposed province)", "President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Popular Movement of the Revolution", "Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo", "South Kivu", "Authenticité (Zaire)", "Universal Postal Union", "East African Community", "First Congo War", "Nord-Ubangi (proposed province)", "Mai-Ndombe (proposed province)", "World Customs Organization" ]
8,027	Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. ==Radio and television== Radio stations: Two state-owned radio stations are supplemented by more than 100 private radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007); 27 stations (2005); 13 stations: 3 AM, 11 FM, and 2 shortwave (2001); 16 stations: 3 AM, 12 FM, and 1 shortwave (1999). Radios: 18.0 million (1997). Television stations: One state-owned TV broadcast station with near national coverage; more than a dozen privately owned TV stations with two having near national coverage (2007); === Radio Okapi === Radio Okapi was first established in February 2002 by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic of Republic of Congo (MONUC). Radio Okapi provides news, music, and political information to all corners of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The major purpose behind Radio Okapi is to provide all DRC citizens with radio services regardless of political affiliation. The FM waves Radio Okapi provided were aimed to be free of hate speech. Most importantly, Radio Okapi caters to the various different ethnicities within the DRC. This is done through the broadcasting of content in 5 of major languages spoken in the DRC. These five languages are French, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo. == Political uses of media == === Hate Speech === Specific media platforms in the Democratic Republic of Congo have used its platforms for the dissemination of hate speech. Media in the DRC has propagated hatred and ethnic divisions by reinforcing nationalistic sentiments. Numerous media outlets are owned by presidential candidates and their supporters. This increases the probability that news will tend to favor the political base of these presidential candidates. These presidential candidates use their media platforms to attack political opponents which include ethnically charged hate speech. Main lines: 58,200 lines in use, 161st in the world (2012); In 2023 22.9% of the population had Internet access, which is about 23 million people. 290,000 users, 132nd in the world (2008); Internet Service Providers: 188 ISPs (2005); 1 ISP (1999). === Internet cables === List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa West Africa Cable System (WACS), a fibre optic submarine communications cable linking countries along the west coast of Africa with the United Kingdom, was connected in early 2013. == Internet Censorship and Surveillance == After the First Congo War (1996–1997) and Second Congo War (1998–2003), the nation transitioned to a renewed national unity under the rule of President Joseph Kabila and 4 vice presidents, all from former rebel and political opposition groups. The establishment of a democratic model required checks on corruption in public finance and natural resources, executive political parties, and hyperlocal militias and bandits. Peace agreements, in turn, did not end state violence, hence the need for absolute clarity to the public. The right to report on hostile resolutions was adopted in a 2002 resolution as a part of the eventual Inter-Congolese Dialogue. This accord declared that “independent, free, responsible and efficient media are a guarantee for public freedoms, the smooth running of democracy and social cohesion”, giving the voters direct insight into public figures, programs, and overall transparency. Article 27, 28, and Clause 29 established individual freedom of expression, moral press freedom, and the public right to information, respectively. During the time of continuing 2002 conflict, radios served as stages for peace songs and “come-home” messaging. Hosts had conversations with military and government officials, army members, and rebels to discuss the challenges of peace talks and demobilization. Censorship was lenient as long as radio personnel covered both sides. Major exceptions to the right of free press imminently ensued. In 1996, censorship had begun to target Congo's artistic freedoms. Beyond broadcasts and news, the nation began to censor those who expressed political sentiments through music. The National Censorship Commission banned six songs that mentioned common opposition outcries relating to employment opportunities, civilian killings, corruption, and faltering human rights. If these songs are played on the radio, the artists may be fined up to $500 per song in accordance with a 1996 censorship decree. Freedom of the press was restricted for artists offending political elites or speaking against Congolese leaders and parties. For those using telecommunications as an outlet, interference was backed by such legislation. Open discussion about political corruption or unmentioned events, such as riots or uprisings against the ruling party, are avoided in news media but continuously active on pavement radio. == Intentional Shutdowns == The Congolese government performed a series of intentional internet shutdowns. The first was conducted in December 2011 and lasted approximately 25 days. During the 25 days, Short Message Service otherwise known as SMS was the only one affected by the shutdown. According to an article by CIPESA, "One of the reasons cited by the government for blocking communication was to prevent the spread of fake results over the internet before the electoral commission announced official results" Unlike the first shutdown the second intentional shutdown had a broader range of impact.The second intentional shutdown occurred in January 2015. The Congolese government directed telecommunication companies within the country to halt all its services. Not only was SMS affected, but the entire internet itself. This action by the government came on the eve of political protest on a proposed electoral bill. The most recent government shutdown occurred on December 19, 2016. This was an important date as President Joseph Kabila was supposed to step down as head of state. In order to quell, political upheaval the Congolese government ordered telecom operators to block social media in the country. In September 2016, the government cut the signals of the Radio France Internationale (RFI) and United Nations Radio Okapi (UNRO). Later, the general and program director of the Radio-Télévision Manika de Kolwezi was arrested after intentionally broadcasting a phone interview with Katumbi, the opposition leader. The censorship of human freedoms of expression to information was condemned by the Congo's United Nations on Human Rights. Kabila was given until December 19, 2016, to step down. If he decided not to, precautionary measures were set to counter organization and public protests. The government ordered a temporary blocking of images, videos, and voiceovers on social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and WhatsApp right after Kabila was to step down. Digital media was the central counter to government oversight and regulation seen in other telecommunication outlets. Media was used in lieu of radio broadcasting to avoid self-censorship, financial restraints that may affect networks, or news station shutdowns. Removing the intermediary for independent journalism and coverage prevented communication among those who wanted to organize and speak out against Kabila. Black-outs were utilized to prevent anticipated politically motivated violence. Additionally, the then Telecommunications Minister Thomas Luhaka was “not informed” of such interference by the government.	[ "Lubumbashi", "List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa", "Media of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Top-level domain", "Television sets", "Radio Okapi", "List of international call prefixes", "Radio broadcasting", "Communications satellite", "The World Factbook", "List of countries by IPv4 address allocation", "Kisangani", "Intelsat", ".cd", "Human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Bukavu", "Goma", "United States", "United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Internet Service Provider", "List of countries by number of Internet hosts", "Radio France Internationale", "Central Intelligence Agency", "microwave radio relay", "Kinshasa", "Calling code", "Radio-Télévision nationale congolaise", ".zr", "WP:SDNONE", "United Kingdom", "Atlantic Ocean", "WACS (cable system)", "Receiver (radio)", "List of countries by number of Internet users", "Television broadcasting", "BBC" ]
8,028	Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has always been problematic. Despite other countries being able to conquer terrain and climate similar to that of the Congo Basin it is chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict that has led to serious under-investment over many years. On the other hand, the DRC has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways. Historically water transport has been the dominant means of moving around a large part of the country. ==Transport problems== As an illustration of transport difficulties in the DRC, even before wars damaged the infrastructure, the so-called "national" route, used to get supplies to Bukavu from the seaport of Matadi, consisted of the following: Matadi to Kinshasa – rail Kinshasa to Kisangani – river boat Kisangani to Ubundu – rail Ubundu to Kindu – river boat Kindu to Kalemie – rail Kalemie to Kalundu (the lake port at Uvira) – boat on Lake Tanganyika Kalundu to Bukavu – road In other words, goods had to be loaded and unloaded eight times and the total journey would take many months. Many of the routes listed below are in poor condition and may be operating at only a fraction of their original capacity (if at all), despite recent attempts to make improvements. Up to 2006 the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) had an operation in Congo to support humanitarian relief agencies working there, and its bulletins and maps about the transport situation are archived on ReliefWeb. The First and Second Congo Wars saw great destruction of transport infrastructure from which the country has not yet recovered. Many vehicles were destroyed or commandeered by militias, especially in the north and east of the country, and the fuel supply system was also badly affected. Consequently, outside of Kinshasa, Matadi and Lubumbashi, private and commercial road transport is almost non-existent and traffic is scarce even where roads are in good condition. The few vehicles in use outside these cities are run by the United Nations, aid agencies, the DRC government, and a few larger companies such as those in the mining and energy sectors. High-resolution satellite photos on the Internet show large cities such as Bukavu, Butembo and Kikwit virtually devoid of traffic, compared to similar photos of towns in neighbouring countries. Air transport is the only effective means of moving between many places within the country. The Congolese government, the United Nations, aid organisations and large companies use air rather than ground transport to move personnel and freight. The UN operates a large fleet of aircraft and helicopters, and compared to other African countries the DRC has a large number of small domestic airlines and air charter companies. The transport (and smuggling) of minerals with a high value for weight is also carried out by air, and in the east, some stretches of paved road isolated by destroyed bridges or impassable sections have been turned into airstrips. For the ordinary citizen though, especially in rural areas, often the only options are to cycle, walk or go by dugout canoe. Some parts of the DRC are more accessible from neighbouring countries than from Kinshasa. For example, Bukavu itself and Goma and other north-eastern towns are linked by paved road from the DRC border to the Kenyan port of Mombasa, and most goods for these cities have been brought via this route in recent years. Similarly, Lubumbashi and the rest of Katanga Province is linked to Zambia, through which the paved highway and rail networks of Southern Africa can be accessed. Such links through neighbouring countries are generally more important for the east and south-east of the country, and are more heavily used, than surface links to the capital. ==Major infrastructure programs== In 2007 China agreed to lend the DRC US$5bn for two major transport infrastructure projects to link mineral-rich Katanga, specifically Lubumbashi, by rail to an ocean port (Matadi) and by road to the Kisangani river port, and to improve its links to the transport network of Southern Africa in Zambia. The two projects would also link the major parts of the country not served by water transport, and the main centres of the economy. Loan repayments will be from concessions for raw materials which China desperately needs: copper, cobalt, gold and nickel, as well as by toll revenues from the road and railway. In the face of reluctance by the international business community to invest in DRC, this represents a revitalisation of DRC's infrastructure much needed by its government. The China Railway Seventh Group Co. Ltd were in charge of the contract, under signed by the China Railway Engineering Corporation, with construction to be started from June 2008. ==Railways== Rail transport is provided in the Democratic Republic of the Congo by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo (SNCC), the Société commerciale des transports et des ports (SCTP) (previously Office National des Transports (ONATRA) until 2011), and the Office des Chemins de fer des Ueles (CFU). The national system is mostly operated by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo, SNCC. Not all rail lines link up, but they are generally connected by river transport. ==Highways== The Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa — a total of 2250 km, of which only 1226 km is in good condition (see below). To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2500 km (e.g. Matadi to Lubumbashi, 2700 km by road). The figure of 2250 km converts to 35 km of paved road per 1,000,000 of population. Comparative figures for Zambia and Botswana are 721 km and 3427 km respectively. ===Categories=== The road network is theoretically divided into four categories (national roads, priority regional roads, secondary regional roads and local roads), however, the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) reports that this classification is of little practical use because some roads simply do not exist. For example, National Road 9 is not operational and cannot be detected by remote sensing methods. unpaved: 15,000 km tracks 43,000 km country roads 21,000 km local roads or footpaths 90,000 km total: 171,250 km The UNJLC also points out that the pre-Second Congo War network no longer exists, and is dependent upon 20,000 bridges and 325 ferries, most of which are in need of repair or replacement. In contrast, a Democratic Republic of the Congo government document shows that, also in 2005, the network of main highways in good condition was as follows: paved: 1,226 km unpaved: 607 km The 2000 Michelin Motoring and Tourist Map 955 of Southern and Central Africa, which categorizes roads as "surfaced", "improved" (generally unsurfaced but with gravel added and graded), "partially improved" and "earth roads" and "tracks" shows that there were 2694 km of paved highway in 2000. These figures indicate that, compared to the more recent figures above, there has been a deterioration this decade, rather than improvement. ===International highways=== Three routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo: Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No. 1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km on one of the only paved sections in fair condition. Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east–west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function. Beira-Lobito Highway: this east–west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border. ==Waterways== The DRC has more navigable rivers and moves more passengers and goods by boat and ferry than any other country in Africa. Kinshasa, with 7 km of river frontage occupied by wharfs and jetties, is the largest inland waterways port on the continent. However, much of the infrastructure — vessels and port handling facilities — has, like the railways, suffered from poor maintenance and internal conflict. The total length of waterways is estimated at 16,238 km including the Congo River, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes. The 1000-kilometre Kinshasa-Kisangani route on the Congo River is the longest and best-known. It is operated by river tugs pushing several barges lashed together, and for the hundreds of passengers and traders these function like small floating towns. Rather than mooring at riverside communities along the route, traders come out by canoe and small boat alongside the river barges and transfer goods on the move. Most waterway routes do not operate to regular schedules. It is common for an operator to moor a barge at a riverside town and collect freight and passengers over a period of weeks before hiring a river tug to tow or push the barge to its destination. Description of Inland Waterways in the Congo from the UN Joint Logistics Centre ===International links via inland waterways=== Kinshasa is linked to Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo) by regular boat and ferry services 3.5 km across the Congo River. Kinshasa and other river ports via the Ubangui River to Bangui (Central African Republic). Goma and Bukavu on Lake Kivu to Gisenyi, Kibuye and Cyangugu in Rwanda. Kalemie, Kulundu-Uvira and Moba on Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma (Tanzania), Bujumbura (Burundi) and Mpulungu (Zambia). Kasenga and Pweto on the Luapula River-Lake Mweru system to Nchelenge, Kashikishi and Kashiba in Zambia. Lake Albert: two small ports on the DRC side, Kisenye near Bunia and Mahadi-Port in the north can link to Ugandan ports at Butiaba and Pakwach (served by Uganda Railways) on the Albert Nile, which is navigable as far as Nimule in southern Sudan. Water transport is conducted principally in small craft, and commercial water transport is relatively absent. Lake Edward: located within national parks, settlements are small, water transport is conducted principally in small craft, commercial water transport is absent. ===Domestic links via inland waterways=== The middle Congo River and its tributaries from the east are the principal domestic waterways in the DRC. The two principal river routes are: Kinshasa to Mbandaka and Kisangani on the River Congo Kinshasa to Ilebo on the Kasai River See the diagrammatic transport map above for other river waterways. The most-used domestic lake waterways are: Kalemie to Kalundu-Uvira on Lake Tanganyika Bukavu to Goma on Lake Kivu Fimi River to Inongo on Lake Mai-Ndombe Irebu on the Congo to Bikoro on Lake Tumba Kasenga to Pweto on the Luapula-Mweru system Kisenye to Mahadi-Port on Lake Albert. Most large Congo river ferry boats were destroyed during the civil war. Only smaller boats are running and they are irregular. ===Ports and harbors=== ====Atlantic Ocean==== Matadi - largest port, and railhead for portage railway to Kinshasa - draft: 6.4 m Banana - oil terminal for pipeline to Kinshasa Boma - second-largest port ====Inland river ports==== Bumba Ilebo - railhead Kindu - railhead Kinshasa - railhead Kisangani - railhead Mbandaka N'dangi - former military harbor ====Lake Tanganyika==== Kalemie - railhead Kalundu-Uvira Moba ====Lake Kivu==== Bukavu Idjwi Goma ==Pipelines== petroleum products 390 km ==Merchant marine== 1 petroleum tanker ==Airports== Due to the lack of roads, operating railroads and ferry transportation many people traveling around the country fly on aircraft. As of 2016 the country does not have an international passenger airline and relies on foreign-based airlines for international connections. Congo Airways provides domestic flights and are based at Kinshasa's N'djili Airport which serves as the country's main international airport. Lubumbashi International Airport in the country's south-east is also serviced by several international airlines. ===Airports - with paved runways=== total: 24 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 16 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2002 est.) ===Airports - with unpaved runways=== total: 205 1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 914 to 1,523 m: 95 under 914 m: 91 (2002 est.) ==Transport safety and incidents== All air carriers certified by the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been banned from operating at airports in the European Community by the European Commission because of inadequate safety standards. ===2010=== Kasai River disaster. A passenger ferry capsized on the Kasai River in July with at least 80 dead. ===2008=== 2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash - April 15 plane crash killed at least 18 people after taking off from the Goma International Airport, tearing the roofs off houses as it plowed through a densely populated marketplace near the runway. ===2007=== August 1 train derailment killed 100, many riding on roof. ===2005=== Kindu rail accident, on November 29, at least 60 people were killed	[ "railhead", "Kalemie", "Lake Mweru", "Congo Basin", "Kenya", "ferries", "Mahadi-Port", "Zambia", "Kisangani", "remote sensing", "Mbuji-Mayi", "Bangui", "Uganda", "Lake Tanganyika", "Sudan", "Lake Edward", "Goma", "Lake Chad replenishment project", "Lake Mai-Ndombe", "bridge", "portage railway", "Kinshasa", "militia", "Beira-Lobito Highway", "Angola", "inland port", "lake", "ferry", "waterway", "Congo Airways", "Kolwezi", "Gisenyi", "Moba port", "Pakwach", "Matadi", "Butembo", "Trans-African Highway network", "Bunia", "Mombasa", "wharf", "Kindu rail accident", "Riverboat", "Pweto", "Lagos-Mombasa Highway", "ReliefWeb", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "National Road No. 2 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "Lubumbashi International Airport", "CNN", "Idiofa", "oil terminal", "MONUC", "jetties", "Nchelenge", "navigable", "Rail transport", "N'djili Airport", "Kindu", "Bumba, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "China Railway Seventh Group Co. Ltd", "N'dangi", "Office National des Transports (Congo)", "Katanga Province", "humanitarian relief", "Butiaba", "Lubumbashi", "AIDS", "Kashikishi", "Republic of the Congo", "Kasenga", "Kasai River", "Fimi River", "Tripoli-Cape Town Highway", "Lake Kivu", "China", "Cyangugu", "Ubundu", "Nimule", "Lake Tumba", "China Railway Engineering Corporation", "Moscow Canal", "Goma International Airport", "River Congo", "Kisenye", "Kinshasa Highway", "Kikwit", "boat", "Brazzaville", "Albert Nile", "Kasai River disaster", "Uganda Railways", "Kibuye, Rwanda", "Second Congo War", "Luapula River", "Bukavu", "2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash", "United Nations Joint Logistics Centre", "National Road 1 (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "Rwanda", "Ubangui River", "Uvira", "Idjwi", "Inongo", "Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo", "Congo River", "Lightering", "Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Banana, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Ilebo", "Beni, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "WP:SDNONE", "Democratic Republic of Congo", "Mbandaka", "First Congo War", "Lake Albert (Africa)", "Central African Republic" ]
8,029	Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	The Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (, FARDC) is the military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The FARDC was rebuilt patchily as part of the peace process which followed the end of the Second Congo War, in July 2003. The majority of FARDC members are land forces, but it also has a small air force and an even smaller navy. In 2010–2011, the three services may have numbered between 144,000 and 159,000 personnel. In addition, there is a presidential force called the Republican Guard, but it and the Congolese National Police (PNC) are not part of the Armed Forces. The government in the capital city Kinshasa, the United Nations, the European Union, and bilateral partners which include Angola, South Africa, and Belgium attempted to create a viable force with the ability to provide the Democratic Republic of Congo with stability and security. However, this process has been hampered by corruption, inadequate donor coordination, and competition between donors. The various military units now grouped under the FARDC banner are some of the most unstable in Africa after years of war and underfunding. The FARDC has been a mix of the former Zairian armed forces, integrated rebel groups from the Second Congo War, and militias that became part of it more recently. Since 2014, it has been organized under three geographic combatant commands known as defense zones, one each covering the western, south-central, and eastern DRC. To assist post-war governments, the United Nations has had the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (now called MONUSCO), which until 2023 had a strength of over 16,000 peacekeepers in the country. Its principal tasks were to provide security in key areas, such as the South Kivu and North Kivu in the east, and to assist the government in reconstruction. Foreign rebel groups are also in the Congo, as they have been for most of the last half-century. The most important is the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), against which Laurent Nkunda's troops were fighting, but other smaller groups such as the anti-Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army are also present. The legal standing of the FARDC was laid down in the Transitional Constitution, articles 118 and 188. This was then superseded by provisions in the 2006 Constitution, articles 187 to 192. Law 04/023 of 12 November 2004 establishes the General Organisation of Defence and the Armed Forces. In mid-2010, the Congolese Parliament was debating a new defence law, provisionally designated Organic Law 130. ==History== === Background === The first organised Congolese troops, known as the , were created in 1888 when King Leopold II of Belgium, who held the Congo Free State as his private property, ordered his Secretary of the Interior to create military and police forces for the state. In 1908, under international pressure, Leopold ceded administration of the colony to the government of Belgium as the Belgian Congo. It remained under the command of a Belgian officer corps through to the independence of the colony in 1960. Throughout 1916 and 1917, the Force Publique saw combat in Cameroun, and successfully invaded and conquered areas of German East Africa, notably present day Rwanda, during World War I. Elements of the Force Publique were also used to form Belgian colonial units that fought in the East African Campaign during World War II. ===Independence and revolt=== At independence on 30 June 1960, the army suffered from a dramatic deficit of trained leaders, particularly in the officer corps. This was because the Force Publique had always only been officered by Belgian or other expatriate whites. The Belgian Government made no effort to train Congolese commissioned officers until the very end of the colonial period, and in 1958, only 23 African cadets had been admitted even to the military secondary school. The highest rank available to Congolese was adjutant, which only four soldiers achieved before independence. Though 14 Congolese cadets were enrolled in the Royal Military Academy in Brussels in May, they were not scheduled to graduate as second lieutenants until 1963. Ill-advised actions by Belgian officers led to an enlisted ranks' rebellion on 5 July 1960, which helped spark the Congo Crisis. Lieutenant General Émile Janssens, the Force Publique commander, wrote during a meeting of soldiers that 'Before independence=After Independence', pouring cold water on the soldiers' desires for an immediate raise in their status. Historian Louis-François Vanderstraeten says that on the morning of 8 July 1960, following a night during which all control had been lost over the soldiers, numerous ministers arrived at Camp Leopold with the aim of calming the situation. Both Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa-Vubu eventually arrived, and the soldiers listened to Kasa-Vubu "religiously." After his speech, Kasa-Vubu and the ministers present retired into the camp canteen to hear a delegation from the soldiers. Vanderstraeten says that, according to Joseph Ileo, their demands (revendications) included the following: that the defence portfolio not be given to the Prime Minister that the name Force Publique be changed to Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) and that the commander-in-chief and chief of staff should not necessarily be Belgians The "laborious" discussions which then followed were later retrospectively given the label of an "extraordinary ministerial council." Gérard-Libois writes that "...the special meeting of the council of ministers took steps for the immediate Africanisation of the officer corps and named Victor Lundula, who was born in Kasai and was burgomaster of Jadotville, as Commander-in-Chief of the ANC; Colonel Joseph-Désiré Mobutu as chief of staff; and the Belgian, Colonel Henniquiau, as chief advisor to the ANC". Thus General Janssens was dismissed. Both Lundula and Mobutu were former sergeants of the Force Publique. On 8–9 July 1960, the soldiers were invited to appoint black officers, and "command of the army passed securely into the hands of former sergeants," as the soldiers in general chose the most-educated and highest-ranked Congolese army soldiers as their new officers. Most of the Belgian officers were retained as advisors to the new Congolese hierarchy, and calm returned to the two main garrisons at Leopoldville and Thysville. The Force Publique was renamed the Armée nationale congolaise (ANC), or Congolese National Armed Forces. However, in Katanga Belgian officers resisted the Africanisation of the army. There was a Force Publique mutiny at Camp Massart, in Elizabethville, on 9 July 1960; five or seven Europeans were killed. The army revolt and resulting rumours caused severe panic across the country, and Belgium despatched troops and the naval Task Group 218.2 to protect its citizens. Belgian troops intervened in Elisabethville and Luluabourg (10 July), Matadi (11 July), Leopoldville (13 July) and elsewhere. There were immediate suspicions that Belgium planned to re-seize their former colony whilst doing so. Large numbers of Belgian colonists fled the country. At the same time, on 11 July, Moise Tshombe declared the independence of Katanga Province in the south-east, closely backed by remaining Belgian administrators and soldiers. On 14 July 1960, in response to requests by Prime Minister Lumumba, the UN Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 143. This called upon Belgium to remove its troops and for the UN to provide military assistance to the Congolese forces to allow them "to meet fully their tasks". Lumumba demanded that Belgium remove its troops immediately, threatening to seek help from the Soviet Union if they did not leave within two days. The UN reacted quickly and established the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC). The first UN troops arrived the next day but there was instant disagreement between Lumumba and the UN over the new force's mandate. Because the Congolese army had been in disarray since the mutiny, Lumumba wanted to use the UN troops to subdue Katanga by force. Lumumba became extremely frustrated with the UN's unwillingness to use force against Tshombe and his secession. He cancelled a scheduled meeting with Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld on 14 August and wrote a series of angry letters instead. To Hammarskjöld, the secession of Katanga was an internal Congolese matter and the UN was forbidden to intervene by Article 2 of the United Nations Charter. Disagreements over what the UN force could and could not do continued throughout its deployment. A total of 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo by 20 July 1960. The first contingent of Belgian forces had left Leopoldville on 16 July upon the arrival of the United Nations troops. Following assurances that contingents of the Force would arrive in sufficient numbers, the Belgian authorities agreed to withdraw all their forces from the Leopoldville area by 23 July. The last Belgian troops left the country by 23 July, as United Nations forces continued to deploy throughout the Congo. The build of ONUC continued, its strength increasing to over 8,000 by 25 July and to over 11,000 by 31 July 1960. A basic agreement between the United Nations and the Congolese Government on the operation of the Force was agreed by 27 July. On 9 August, Albert Kalonji proclaimed the independence of South Kasai. During the crucial period of July–August 1960, Mobutu built up "his" national army by channeling foreign aid to units loyal to him, by exiling unreliable units to remote areas, and by absorbing or dispersing rival armies. He tied individual officers to him by controlling their promotion and the flow of money for payrolls. Researchers working from the 1990s have concluded that money was directly funnelled to the army by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, the United Nations, and Belgium. Despite this, by September 1960, following the four-way division of the country, there were four separate armed forces: Mobotu's ANC itself, numbering about 12,000, the South Kasai Constabulary loyal to Albert Kalonji (3,000 or less), the Katanga Gendarmerie which were part of Moise Tshombe's regime (totalling about 10,000), and the Stanleyville dissident ANC loyal to Antoine Gizenga (numbering about 8,000). In August 1960, due to the rejection of requests for UN assistance to suppress the South Kasai and Katanga revolts, Lumumba's government decided to request Soviet help. De Witte writes that "Leopoldville asked the Soviet Union for planes, lorries, arms, and equipment...Shortly afterwards, on 22 or 23 August, about 1,000 soldiers left for Kasai." On 26–27 August, the ANC seized Bakwanga, Albert Kalonji's capital in South Kasai, without serious resistance and, according to de Witte, "in the next two days it temporarily put an end to the secession of Kasai." At this point, the Library of Congress Country Study for the Congo says, that on 5 September 1960: "Kasavubu also appointed Mobutu as head of the ANC. Joseph Ileo was chosen as the new prime minister and began trying to form a new government. Lumumba and his cabinet responded by accusing Kasa-Vubu of high treason and voted to dismiss him. Parliament refused to confirm the dismissal of either Lumumba or Kasavubu and sought to bring about a reconciliation between them. After a week's deadlock, Mobutu announced on 14 September that he was assuming power until 31 December 1960, in order to "neutralize" both Kasavubu and Lumumba." Mobutu formed the College of Commissioners-General, a technocratic government of university graduates. In early January 1961, ANC units loyal to Lumumba invaded northern Katanga to support a revolt of Baluba tribesmen against Tshombe's secessionist regime. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to major-general; De Witte argues that this was a political move, "aimed to strengthen the army, the president's sole support, and Mobutu's position within the army." United Nations Security Council Resolution 161 of 21 February 1961, called for the withdrawal of Belgian officers from command positions in the ANC, and the training of new Congolese officers with UN help. ONUC made a number of attempts to retrain the ANC from August 1960 to June 1963, often been set back by political changes. By March 1963 however, after the visit of Colonel Michael Greene of the United States Army, and the resulting "Greene Plan", the pattern of bilaterally agreed military assistance to various Congolese military components, instead of a single unified effort, was already taking shape. In early 1964, a new crisis broke out as Congolese rebels calling themselves "Simba" (Swahili for "Lion") rebelled against the government. They were led by Pierre Mulele, Gaston Soumialot and Christophe Gbenye who were former members of Gizenga's Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA). The rebellion affected Kivu and Eastern (Orientale) provinces. By August they had captured Stanleyville and set up a rebel government there. As the rebel movement spread, discipline became more difficult to maintain, and acts of violence and terror increased. Thousands of Congolese were executed, including government officials, political leaders of opposition parties, provincial and local police, school teachers, and others believed to have been Westernised. Many of the executions were carried out with extreme cruelty, in front of a monument to Lumumba in Stanleyville. Tshombe decided to use foreign mercenaries as well as the ANC to suppress the rebellion. Mike Hoare was employed to create the English-speaking 5 Commando at Kamina, with the assistance of a Belgian officer, Colonel Frederic Vanderwalle, while 6 Commando (Congo) was French-speaking and originally under the command of a Belgian Army colonel, Lamouline. By August 1964, the mercenaries, with the assistance of other ANC troops, were making headway against the Simba rebellion. Fearing defeat, the rebels started taking hostages of the local white population in areas under their control. These hostages were rescued in Belgian airdrops (Operations Dragon Rouge and Dragon Noir) over Stanleyville and Paulis airlifted by U.S. aircraft. The operation coincided with the arrival of mercenary units (seemingly including the hurriedly formed 5th Mechanised Brigade) at Stanleyville which was quickly captured. It took until the end of the year to completely put down the remaining areas of rebellion during "Operation South". After five years of turbulence, in 1965 Mobutu used his position as ANC Chief of Staff to seize power in the 1965 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état. Although Mobutu succeeded in taking power, his position was soon threatened by the Stanleyville mutinies, also known as the Mercenaries' Mutinies, which were eventually suppressed. As a general rule, since that time, the armed forces have not intervened in politics as a body, rather being tossed and turned as ambitious men have shaken the country. In reality, the larger problem has been the misuse and sometimes abuse of the military and police by political and ethnic leaders. On 16 May 1968 a parachute brigade of two regiments (each of three battalions) was formed which eventually was to grow in size to a full division. ===Zaire (1971–1997)=== The country was renamed Zaire in 1971 and the army was consequently designated the (FAZ). In 1971 the army's force consisted of the 1st Groupement at Kananga, with one guard battalion, two infantry battalions, and a gendarmerie battalion attached, and the 2nd Groupement (Kinshasa), the 3rd Groupement (Kisangani), the 4th Groupement (Lubumbashi), the 5th Groupement (Bukavu), the 6th Groupement (Mbandaka), and the 7th Groupement (Boma). Each was about the size of a brigade, and commanded by aging generals who have had no military training, and often not much positive experience, since they were NCOs in the Belgian Force Publique.' By the late 1970s the number of groupements reached nine, one per administrative region. The parachute division (Division des Troupes Aéroportées Renforcées de Choc, DITRAC) operated semi-independently from the rest of the army. In July 1972 a number of the aging generals commanding the groupements were retired. Général d'armée Louis Bobozo, and Generaux de Corps d'Armée Nyamaseko Mata Bokongo, Nzoigba Yeu Ngoli, Muke Massaku, Ingila Grima, Itambo Kambala Wa Mukina, Tshinyama Mpemba, and General de Division Yossa Yi Ayira, the last having been commander of the Kamina base, were all retired on 25 July 1972. Taking over as military commander-in-chief, now titled Captain General, was newly promoted General de Division Bumba Moaso, former commander of the parachute division. A large number of countries supported the FAZ in the early 1970s. Three hundred Belgian personnel were serving as staff officers and advisors throughout the Ministry of Defence, Italians were supporting the Air Force, Americans were assisting with transport and communications, Israelis with airborne forces training, and there were British advisors with the engineers. In 1972 the state-sponsored political organisation, the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR), resolved at a party congress to form activist cells in each military unit. The decision caused consternation among the officer corps, as the army had been apolitical (and even anti-political) since before independence. On 11 June 1975 several military officers were arrested in what became known as the coup monté et manqué. Amongst those arrested were Générals Daniel Katsuva wa Katsuvira, Land Forces Chief of Staff, Utshudi Wembolenga, Commandant of the 2nd Military Region at Kalemie; Fallu Sumbu, Military Attaché of Zaïre in Washington, Colonel Mudiayi wa Mudiayi, the military attaché of Zaïre in Paris, the military attache in Brussels, a paracommando battalion commander, and several others. The regime alleged these officers and others (including Mobutu's secrétaire particulier) had plotted the assassination of Mobutu, high treason, and disclosure of military secrets, among other offences. The alleged coup was investigated by a revolutionary commission headed by Boyenge Mosambay Singa, at that time head of the Gendarmerie. Writing in 1988, Michael Schatzberg said the full details of the coup had yet to emerge. Meitho, writing many years later, says the officers were accused of trying to raise Mobutu's secrétaire particulier, Colonel Omba Pene Djunga, from Kasai, to power. In late 1975, Mobutu, in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government in Angola and thwart the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)'s drive for power, deployed FAZ armoured cars, paratroopers, and three infantry battalions to Angola in support of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). On 10 November 1975, an anti-Communist force made up of 1,500 FNLA fighters, 100 Portuguese Angolan soldiers, and two FAZ battalions passed near the city of Quifangondo, only north of Luanda, at dawn on 10 November. The force, supported by South African aircraft and three 140 mm artillery pieces, marched in a single line along the Bengo River to face an 800-strong Cuban force across the river. Thus the Battle of Quifangondo began. The Cubans and MPLA fighters bombarded the FNLA with mortar and 122 mm rockets, destroying most of the FNLA's armoured cars and six Jeeps carrying antitank rockets in the first hour of fighting. Mobutu's support for the FNLA policy backfired when the MPLA won in Angola. The MPLA, then, acting ostensibly at least as the Front for Congolese National Liberation, occupied Zaire's southeastern Katanga Province, then known as Shaba, in March 1977, facing little resistance from the FAZ. This invasion is sometimes known as Shaba I. Mobutu had to request assistance, which was provided by Morocco in the form of regular troops who routed the MPLA and their Cuban advisors out of Katanga. Also important were Egyptian pilots who flew Zaire's Mirage 5 combat aircraft. The humiliation of this episode led to civil unrest in Zaire in early 1978, which the FAZ had to put down. The poor performance of Zaire's military during Shaba I gave evidence of chronic weaknesses. One problem was that some of the Zairian soldiers in the area had not received pay for extended periods. Senior officers often kept the money intended for the soldiers, typifying a generally disreputable and inept senior leadership in the FAZ. As a result, many soldiers simply deserted rather than fight. Others stayed with their units but were ineffective. During the months following the Shaba invasion, Mobutu sought solutions to the military problems that had contributed to the army's dismal performance. He implemented sweeping reforms of the command structure, including wholesale firings of high-ranking officers. He merged the military general staff with his own presidential staff and appointed himself chief of staff again, in addition to the positions of minister of defence and supreme commander that he already held. He also redeployed his forces throughout the country instead of keeping them close to Kinshasa, as had previously been the case. The Kamanyola Division, at the time considered the army's best formation, and considered the president's own, was assigned permanently to Shaba. In addition to these changes, the army's strength was reduced by 25 percent. Also, Zaire's allies provided a large influx of military equipment, and Belgian, French, and American advisers assisted in rebuilding and retraining the force. Despite these improvements, a second invasion by the former Katangan gendarmerie, known as Shaba II in May–June 1978, was only dispersed with the despatch of the French 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment and a battalion of the Belgian Paracommando Regiment. Kamanyola Division units collapsed almost immediately. French units fought the Battle of Kolwezi to recapture the town from the FLNC. The U.S. provided logistical assistance. In July 1975, according to the IISS Military Balance, the FAZ included 14 infantry battalions, seven "Guard" battalions, and seven other infantry battalions variously designated as "parachute" (or possibly "commando"; probably the units of the parachute brigade originally formed in 1968). There were also an armoured car regiment and a mechanised infantry battalion. Organisationally, the army was made up of the parachute division and the seven groupements. In addition to these units, a tank battalion was reported to have formed by 1979. In January 1979 General de Division Mosambaye Singa Boyenge was named as both military region commander and Region Commissioner for Shaba. In 1984, a militarised police force, the Civil Guard, was formed. It was eventually commanded by Général d'armée Kpama Baramoto Kata. Thomas Turner wrote in the mid-1990s that "[m]ajor acts of violence, such as the killings that followed the "Kasongo uprising" in Bandundu Region in 1978, the killings of diamond miners in Kasai-Oriental Region in 1979, and, more recently, the massacre of students in Lubumbashi in 1990, continued to intimidate the population." The authors of the Library of Congress Country Study on Zaire commented in 1992–93 that: "The maintenance status of equipment in the inventory has traditionally varied, depending on a unit's priority and the presence or absence of foreign advisers and technicians. A considerable portion of military equipment is not operational, primarily as a result of shortages of spare parts, poor maintenance, and theft. For example, the tanks of the 1st Armoured Brigade often have a nonoperational rate approaching 70 to 80 percent. After a visit by a Chinese technical team in 1985, most of the tanks operated, but such an improved status generally has not lasted long beyond the departure of the visiting team. Several factors complicate maintenance in Zairian units. Maintenance personnel often lack the training necessary to maintain modern military equipment. Moreover, the wide variety of military equipment and the staggering array of spare parts necessary to maintain it not only clog the logistic network but also are expensive. The most important factor that negatively affects maintenance is the low and irregular pay that soldiers receive, resulting in the theft and sale of spare parts and even basic equipment to supplement their meager salaries. When not stealing spare parts and equipment, maintenance personnel often spend the better part of their duty day looking for other ways to profit. American maintenance teams working in Zaire found that providing a free lunch to the work force was a good, sometimes the only, technique to motivate personnel to work at least half of the duty day. The army's logistics corps [was tasked].. to provide logistic support and conduct direct, indirect, and depot-level maintenance for the FAZ. But because of Zaire's lack of emphasis on maintenance and logistics, a lack of funding, and inadequate training, the corps is understaffed, underequipped, and generally unable to accomplish its mission. It is organised into three battalions assigned to Mbandaka, Kisangani, and Kamina, but only the battalion at Kamina is adequately staffed; the others are little more than skeleton" units. The poor state of discipline of the Congolese forces became apparent again in 1990. Foreign military assistance to Zaire ceased following the end of the Cold War and Mobutu deliberately allowed the military's condition to deteriorate so that it did not threaten his hold on power. Protesting low wages and lack of pay, paratroopers began looting Kinshasa in September 1991 and were only stopped after intervention by French ('Operation Baumier') and Belgian ('Operation Blue Beam') forces. In 1993, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies, the 25,000-member FAZ ground forces consisted of one infantry division (with three infantry brigades); one airborne brigade (with three parachute battalions and one support battalion); one special forces (commando/counterinsurgency) brigade; the Special Presidential Division; one independent armoured brigade; and two independent infantry brigades (each with three infantry battalions, one support battalion). These units were deployed throughout the country, with the main concentrations in Shaba Region (approximately half the force). The Kamanyola Division, consisting of three infantry brigades operated generally in western Shaba Region; the 21st Infantry Brigade was located in Lubumbashi; the 13th Infantry Brigade was deployed throughout eastern Shaba; and at least one battalion of the 31st Airborne Brigade stayed at Kamina. The other main concentration of forces was in and around Kinshasa: the 31st Airborne Brigade was deployed at N'djili Airport on the outskirts of the capital; the Special Presidential Division (DSP) resided adjacent to the presidential compound; and the 1st Armoured Brigade was at Mbanza-Ngungu (in Bas-Congo, approximately southwest of Kinshasa). Finally the 41st Commando Brigade was at Kisangani. This superficially impressive list of units overstates the actual capability of the armed forces at the time. Apart from privileged formations such as the Presidential Division and the 31st Airborne Brigade, most units were poorly trained, divided and so badly paid that they regularly resorted to looting. What operational abilities the armed forces had were gradually destroyed by politicisation of the forces, tribalisation, and division of the forces, included purges of suspectedly disloyal groups, intended to allow Mobutu to divide and rule. All this occurred against the background of increasing deterioration of state structures under the kleptocratic Mobutu regime. ===Mobutu's overthrow and after=== Much of the origins of the recent conflict in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo stems from the turmoil following the Rwandan genocide of 1994, which then led to the Great Lakes refugee crisis. Within the largest refugee camps, beginning in Goma in Nord-Kivu, were Rwandan Hutu fighters, who were eventually organised into the Rassemblement Démocratique pour le Rwanda, who launched repeated attacks into Rwanda. Rwanda eventually backed Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his quickly-organised Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) in invading Zaire, aiming to stop the attacks on Rwanda in the process of toppling Mobutu's government. When the militias rebelled, backed by Rwanda, the FAZ, weakened as is noted above, proved incapable of mastering the situation and preventing the overthrow of Mobutu in 1997. The Battle of Kinsangani took place in March 1997 during this war. The AFDL rebels, created by the Rwandan Patriotic Front, took the city defended by the Zairian Armed Forces (FAZ), loyal to President Mobutu. Before the battle itself, the air force, Serbian mercenaries and Rwandan Hutu militiamen were not enough to make up for the FAZ's lack of fighting spirit. After the war, elements of the Mobutu-loyal FAZ managed to retreat into northern Congo, and from there into Sudan while attempting to escape the AFDL. Allying themselves with the Sudanese government which was fighting its own civil war at the time, these FAZ troops were destroyed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army during Operation Thunderbolt near Yei in March 1997. When Kabila took power in 1997, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo and so the name of the national army changed once again, to the Forces armées congolaises (FAC). Tanzania sent six hundred military advisors to train Kabila's new army in May 1997. Gérard Prunier wrote that the instructors were still at the Kitona base when the Second Congo War broke out, and had to be quickly returned to Tanzania. Prunier said "South African aircraft carried out the evacuation after a personal conversation between President Mkapa and not-yet-president Thabo Mbeki." Command over the armed forces in the first few months of Kabila's rule was vague. Prunier added that "there was no minister of defence, no known chief of staff, and no ranks; all officers were Cuban-style 'commanders' called 'Ignace', 'Bosco', Jonathan', or 'James', who occupied connecting suites at the Intercontinental Hotel and had presidential list cell-phone numbers. None spoke French or Lingala, but all spoke Kinyarwanda, Swahili, and, quite often, English." On being asked by Belgian journalist Colette Braeckman what was the actual army command structure apart from himself, Kabila answered 'We are not going to expose ourselves and risk being destroyed by showing ourselves openly...We are careful so that the true masters of the army are not known. It is strategic. Please, let us drop the matter.' Kabila's new Forces armées congolaises were riven with internal tensions. The new FAC had Banyamulenge fighters from South Kivu, kadogo child soldiers from various eastern tribes, such as Thierry Nindaga, Safari Rwekoze, etc... [the mostly] Lunda Katangese Tigers of the former FNLC, and former FAZ personnel. Mixing these disparate and formerly warring elements together led to mutiny. On 23 February 1998, a mostly Banyamulenge unit mutiniued at Bukavu after its officers tried to disperse the soldiers into different units spread all around the Congo. By mid-1998, formations on the outbreak of the Second Congo War included the Tanzanian-supported 50th Brigade, headquartered at Camp Kokolo in Kinshasa, and the 10th Brigade – one of the best and largest units in the army – stationed in Goma, as well as the 12th Brigade in Bukavu. The declaration of the 10th Brigade's commander, former DSP officer Jean-Pierre Ondekane, on 2 August 1998 that he no longer recognised Kabila as the state's president was one of the factors in the beginning of the Second Congo War. According to Jane's, the FAC performed poorly throughout the Second Congo War and "demonstrated little skill or recognisable military doctrine". At the outbreak of the war in 1998 the Army was ineffective and the DRC Government was forced to rely on assistance from Angola, Chad, Namibia and Zimbabwe. As well as providing expeditionary forces, these countries unsuccessfully attempted to retrain the DRC Army. North Korea and Tanzania also provided assistance with training. During the first year of the war the Allied forces defeated the Rwandan force which had landed in Bas-Congo and the rebel forces south-west of Kinshasa and eventually halted the rebel and Rwandan offensive in the east of the DRC. These successes contributed to the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed in July 1999. Following the Lusaka Agreement, in mid-August 1999 President Kabila issued a decree dividing the country into eight military regions. The first military region, Congolese state television reported, would consist of the two Kivu provinces, Orientale Province would form the second region, and Maniema and Kasai-Oriental provinces the third. Katanga and Équateur would fall under the fourth and fifth regions, respectively, while Kasai-Occidental and Bandundu would form the sixth region. Kinshasa and Bas-Congo would form the seventh and eighth regions, respectively. In November 1999 the Government attempted to form a 20,000-strong paramilitary force designated the People's Defence Forces. This force was intended to support the FAC and national police but never became effective. ===1999–present=== The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was not successful in ending the war, and fighting resumed in September 1999. The FAC's performance continued to be poor and both the major offensives the Government launched in 2000 ended in costly defeats. President Kabila's mismanagement was an important factor behind the FAC's poor performance, with soldiers frequently going unpaid and unfed while the Government purchased advanced weaponry which could not be operated or maintained. The defeats in 2000 are believed to have been the cause of President Kabila's assassination in January 2001. It stipulated that the armed forces chief of staff, and the chiefs of the army, air force, and navy were not to come from the same warring faction. The new "national, restructured and integrated" army would be made up from Kabila's government forces (the FAC), the RCD, and the MLC. Also stipulated in VII(b) was that the RCD-N, RCD-ML, and the Mai-Mai would become part of the new armed forces. An intermediate mechanism for physical identification of the soldiers, and their origin, date of enrolment, and unit was also called for (VII(c)). It also provided for the creation of a Conseil Superieur de la Defense (Superior Defence Council) which would declare states of siege or war and give advice on security sector reform, disarmament/demobilization, and national defence policy. A decision on which factions were to name chiefs of staff and military regional commanders was announced on 19 August 2003 as the first move in military reform, superimposed on top of the various groups of fighters, government and former rebels. Negotiations had been ongoing since June 2003. Kabila was able to name the armed forces chief of staff, Lieutenant General Liwanga Mata, who previously served as navy chief of staff under Laurent Kabila. Kabila was able to name the air force commander (John Numbi), the RCD-Goma received the Land Force commander's position (Sylvain Buki) and the MLC the navy (Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa). Three military regional commanders were nominated by the former Kinshasa government, two commanders each by the RCD-Goma and the MLC, and one region commander each by the RCD-K/ML and RCD-N. However these appointments were announced for Kabila's Forces armées congolaises (FAC), not the later FARDC. However, troop deployment on the ground did not change substantially until the year afterward. On 24 January 2004, a decree created the Structure Militaire d'Intégration (SMI, Military Integration Structure). Together with the SMI, CONADER also was designated to manage the combined tronc commun DDR element and military reform programme. The first post-Sun City military law appears to have been passed on 12 November 2004, which formally created the new national Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC). Included in this law was article 45, which recognised the incorporation of a number of armed groups into the FARDC, including the former government army Forces Armées Congolaises (FAC), ex-FAZ personnel also known as former President Mobutu's 'les tigres', the RCD-Goma, RCD-ML, RCD-N, MLC, the Mai-Mai, as well as other government-determined military and paramilitary groups. Turner writes that the two most prominent opponents of military integration (brassage) were Colonel Jules Mutebutsi, a Munyamulenge from South Kivu, and Laurent Nkunda, a Rwandaphone Tutsi who Turner says was allegedly from Rutshuru in North Kivu. In May–June 2004 Mutebusi led a revolt against his superiors from Kinshasa in South Kivu. Nkunda began his long series of revolts against central authority by helping Mutebusi in May–June 2004. In November 2004 a Rwandan government force entered North Kivu to attack the FDLR, and, it seems, reinforced and resupplied RCD-Goma (ANC) at the same time. Mutebutsi and Nkunda were seemingly supported by both the Rwandan government, the FARDC regional commander, General Obed Rwisbasira, and the RCD-Goma governor of North Kivu, Eugene Serufuli. Neither government figure did anything to prevent Nkunda's march south to Bukavu with his military force. In mid-December, civilians at Kanyabayonga, Buramba, and Nyabiondo in North Kivu were killed, tortured, and raped, seemingly deliberately targeted on ethic grounds (the victims came almost exclusively from the Hunde and Nande ethnic groups). Kabila despatched 10,000 government troops to the east in response, launching an operation 11 December that was called "Operation Bima". Its only major success was the capture of Walikale from RCD-Goma (ANC) troops. There was another major personnel reshuffle on 12 June 2007. FARDC chief General Kisempia Sungilanga Lombe was replaced with General Dieudonne Kayembe Mbandankulu. General Gabriel Amisi Kumba retained his post as Land Forces commander. John Numbi, a trusted member of Kabila's inner circle, was shifted from air force commander to Police Inspector General. U.S. diplomats reported that the former Naval Forces Commander Maj. General Amuli Bahigua (ex-MLC) became the FARDC's Chief of Operations; former FARDC Intelligence Chief General Didier Etumba (ex-FAC) was promoted to vice admiral and appointed Commander of Naval Forces; Maj. General Rigobert Massamba (ex-FAC), a former commander of the Kitona air base, was appointed as Air Forces Commander; and Brig. General Jean-Claude Kifwa, commander of the Republican Guard, was appointed as a regional military commander. Due to significant delays in the DDR and integration process, of the eighteen brigades, only seventeen have been declared operational, over two and a half years after the initial target date. Responding to the situation, the Congolese Minister of Defence presented a new defence reform master plan to the international community in February 2008. Essentially the three force tiers all had their readiness dates pushed back: the first, territorial forces, to 2008–12, the mobile force to 2008–10, and the main defence force to 2015. Much of the east of the country remains insecure, however. In the far northeast this is due primarily to the Ituri conflict. In the area around Lake Kivu, primarily in North Kivu, fighting continues among the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and between the government FARDC and Laurent Nkunda's troops, with all groups greatly exacerbating the issues of internal refugees in the area of Goma, the consequent food shortages, and loss of infrastructure from the years of conflict. In 2009, several United Nations officials stated that the army is a major problem, largely due to corruption that results in food and pay meant for soldiers being diverted and a military structure top-heavy with colonels, many of whom are former warlords. In a 2009 report itemizing FARDC abuses, Human Rights Watch urged the UN to stop supporting government offensives against eastern rebels until the abuses ceased. Caty Clement wrote in 2009: "One of the most notable [FARDC corruption] schemes was known as 'Opération Retour' (Operation Return). Senior officers ordered the soldiers' pay to be sent from Kinshasa to the commanders in the field, who took their cut and returned the remainder to their commander in Kinshasa instead of paying the soldiers. To ensure that foot soldiers would be paid their due, in late 2005, EUSEC suggested separating the chain of command from the chain of payment. The former remained within Congolese hands, while the EU mission delivered salaries directly to the newly 'integrated' brigades. Although efficient in the short term, this solution raises the question of sustainability and ownership in the long term. Once soldiers' pay could no longer be siphoned off via 'Opération Retour', however, two other budgetary lines, the 'fonds de ménage' and logistical support to the brigades, were soon diverted." In 2010, thirty FARDC officers were given scholarships to study in Russian military academies. This is part of a greater effort by Russia to help improve the FARDC. A new military attaché and other advisers from Russia visited the DRC. On 22 November 2012, Gabriel Amisi Kumba was suspended from his position in the Forces Terrestres by president Joseph Kabila due to an inquiry into his alleged role in the sale of arms to various rebel groups in the eastern part of the country, which may have implicated the rebel group M23. In December 2012 it was reported that members of Army units in the north east of the country are often not paid due to corruption, and these units rarely made against villages by the Lord's Resistance Army. The FARDC deployed 850 soldiers and 150 PNC police officers as part of an international force in the Central African Republic, which the DRC borders to the north. The country had been in a state of civil war since 2012, when the president was ousted by rebel groups. The DRC was urged by French president François Hollande to keep its troops in CAR. In July 2014, the Congolese army carried out a joint operation with UN troops in the Masisi and Walikale territories of the North Kivu province. In the process, they liberated over 20 villages and a mine from the control of two rebel groups, the Mai Mai Cheka and the Alliance for the Sovereign and Patriotic Congo. The UN published a report in October 2017 announcing that the FARDC no longer employed child soldiers but was still listed under militaries that committed sexual violations against children. Troops operating with MONUSCO in North Kivu were attacked by likely rebels from the Allied Democratic Forces on 8 December 2017. After a protracted firefight the troops suffered 5 dead along with 14 dead among the UN force. On 10 July 2024, a military court in North Kivu sentenced 25 soldiers to death for charges including theft, fleeing the enemy, and violating orders after a one-day trial. These soldiers were accused of abandoning their posts during fights against the Rwanda-backed M23 rebels. Additionally, one soldier received a 10-year prison sentence for robbery, while four civilian wives and another soldier were acquitted. == Structure == The President Félix Tshisekedi is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The Minister of Defence, formally Ministers of Defence and Veterans (Ancien Combattants) is Crispin Atama Tabe, who succeeded former minister Aimé Ngoy Mukena. The Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp in the Kinshasa suburb of Ngaliema hosts the defence department and the Chiefs of Staff central command headquarters of the FARDC. Jane's data from 2002 appears inaccurate; there is at least one ammunition plant in Katanga. Below the Chief of Staff, the current organisation of the FARDC is not fully clear. There is known to be a Military Intelligence branch – Service du Renseignement militaire (SRM), the former DEMIAP. The FARDC is known to be broken up into the Land Forces (Forces Terrestres), Navy and Air Force. The Land Forces are distributed around ten military regions, up from the previous eight, following the ten provinces of the country. There is also a training command, the Groupement des Écoles Supérieurs Militaires (GESM) or Group of Higher Military Schools, which, in January 2010, was under the command of Major General Marcellin Lukama. The Navy and Air Forces are composed of various groupments (see below). There is also a central logistics base. The United Nations Mine Action Service supervised the construction of a new ammunition depot on the outskirts of Kisangani and handed it over to the MOD in October 2013. It should be made clear also that Joseph Kabila does not trust the military; the Republican Guard is the only component he trusts. Major General John Numbi, former Air Force chief, now inspector general of police, ran a parallel chain of command in the east to direct the 2009 Eastern Congo offensive, Operation Umoja Wetu; the regular chain of command was by-passed. Previously Numbi negotiated the agreement to carry out the mixage process with Laurent Nkunda. Commenting on a proposed vote of no confidence in the Minister of Defence in September 2012, Baoudin Amba Wetshi of lecongolais.cd described Ntolo as a "scapegoat". Wetshi said that all key military and security questions were handled in total secrecy by the President and other civil and military personalities trusted by him, such as John Numbi, Gabriel Amisi Kumba ('Tango Four'), Delphin Kahimbi, and others such as Kalev Mutond and Pierre Lumbi Okongo. ===Arms and Inter-forces Services=== Signals Engineering Health Service Physical Education and Sports Military Chaplains Military Justice Administration Logistics Intelligence and Security Military Band Veterinary and Agricultural Service Military Police Civic, Patriotic Education and Social Actions Communication and Information ====General Secretariat for Defence and Veterans Affairs==== The General Secretariat for Defence: is headed by a General Officer (Secretary General for Defence). He oversees the following departments: Human Resources Department Directorate of Studies, Planning and Military Cooperation Budget and Finance Department Directorate of Penitentiary Administration Directorate of General Services IT Department ====General Inspectorate==== The General Inspectorate includes the following people: Inspector General Two Assistant Inspectors General College of Inspectors College of Advisers Administrative Secretariat Administrative, logistics and services unit ===Armed Forces Chiefs of Staff=== The available information on armed forces' Chiefs of Staff is incomplete and sometimes contradictory. In addition to armed forces chiefs of staff, in 1966 Lieutenant Colonel Ferdinand Malila was listed as Army Chief of Staff. ===Command structure in January 2005=== Virtually all officers have now changed positions, but this list gives an outline of the structure in January 2005. Despite the planned subdivision of the country into more numerous provinces, the actual splitting of the former provinces has not taken place. FARDC chief of staff: Major General Sungilanga Kisempia (PPRD) FARDC land forces chief of staff: General Sylvain Buki (RCD-G). Major General Gabriel Amisi Kumba appears to have been appointed to the position in August 2006, and retained this position during the personnel reshuffle of 12 June 2007. In November 2012 he was succeeded by François Olenga. FARDC navy chief of staff: General Major Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa (MLC) (Commander of the Kimia II operation in 2009) FARDC air force chief of staff: Brigadier General Jean Bitanihirwa Kamara (MLC). Military training at the Ecole de formation d'officiers (EFO), Kananga, and other courses while in the FAZ. Brigade commander in the MLC, then named in August 2003 "chef d'etat-major en second" of the FARDC air force. 1st Military Region/Bandundu: Brigadier General Moustapha Mukiza (MLC) 2nd Military Region/Bas-Congo: Unknown. General Jean Mankoma 2009. 3rd Military Region/Equateur: Brigadier-General Mulubi Bin Muhemedi (PPRD) 4th Military Region/Kasai-Occidental: Brigadier-General Sindani Kasereka (RCD-K/ML) 5th Military Region/Kasai Oriental: General Rwabisira Obeid (RCD) 6th Military Region/Katanga: Brigadier-General Nzambe Alengbia (MLC) – 62nd, 63rd, and 67th Brigades in Katanga have committed numerous acts of sexual violence against women. 7th Military Region/Maniema: Brigadier-General Widi Mbulu Divioka (RCD-N) 8th Military Region/North Kivu: General Gabriel Amisi Kumba (RCD). General Amisi, a.k.a. "Tango Fort" now appears to be Chief of Staff of the Land Forces. Brig. Gen. Vainqueur Mayala was Commander 8th MR in September 2008 9th Military Region/Province Orientale: Major-General Bulenda Padiri (Mayi–Mayi) 10th Military Region/South Kivu: Major Mbuja Mabe (PPRD). General Pacifique Masunzu, in 2010. Region included 112th Brigade on Minembwe plateuxes. This grouping was "an almost exclusively Banyamulenge brigade under the direct command of the 10th Military Region, [which] consider[ed] General Masunzu as its leader." ===Updates to command structure in 2014=== In September 2014, President Kabila reshuffled the command structure and in addition to military regions created three new 'defence zones' which would be subordinated directly to the general staff. The defence zones essentially created a new layer between the general staff and the provincial commanders. The military regions themselves were reorganised and do not correspond with the ones that existed prior to the reshuffle. New commanders of branches were also appointed: A Congolese military analyst based in Brussels, Jean-Jacques Wondo, provided an outline of the updated command structure of the FARDC following the shake up of the high command: Chief of General Staff: Army Gen. Didier Etumba Deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Lt. Gen. Bayiba Dieudonné Amuli Deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Celestin Mbala Munsense Chief of operations: Maj. Gen. Prosper Nabiola Chief of intelligence: Brig. Gen. Tage Tage Chief of administration: Constantin Claude Ilunga Kabangu Chief of logistics: Brig. Gen. Lutuna Charles Shabani Land Forces Chief of Staff: Gen. Dieudonné Banze Land Forces deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Maj. Gen. Kiama Vainqueur Mayala Land Forces deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Muyumb Obed Wibatira Navy Chief of Staff: Vice Adm. Rombault Mbuayama Navy deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Rear Adm. Jean-Marie Valentin Linguma Mata Linguma (Vice Adm. from 2018) Chief of the General Staff: Lt. Gen. Celestin Mbala Munsense (Army Gen. from 2019) Deputy Chief of Staff for operations and intelligence: Lt. Gen. Gabriel Amisi Kumba Deputy Chief of Staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Jean-Pierre Bongwangela Chief of operations: Maj. Gen. Daniel Kashale Chief of intelligence: Maj. Gen. Delphin Kahimbi Kasabwe Chief of administration: Maj. Gen. Jean-Luc Yav Chief of logistics: Brig. Gen. Kalala Kilumba ==Land forces== Circa 2008–09, the land forces were made up of about 14 integrated brigades of fighters from all the former warring factions who went through a brassage integration process (see next paragraph) and a limited number of non-integrated brigades that remain solely made up of single factions (the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD)'s Armée national congolaise, the ex-government former Congolese Armed Forces (FAC), the ex-RCD KML, the ex-Movement for the Liberation of Congo, the armed groups of the Ituri conflict (the Mouvement des Révolutionnaires Congolais (MRC), Forces de Résistance Patriotique d'Ituri (FRPI), and the Front Nationaliste Intégrationniste (FNI)), and the Mai-Mai). It appears that about the same time that Presidential Decree 03/042 of 18 December 2003 established the National Commission for Demobilisation and Reinsertion (CONADER), "..all ex-combatants were officially declared as FARDC soldiers and the then FARDC brigades [were to] rest deployed until the order to leave for brassage" [the military integration process]. The reform plan adopted in 2005 envisaged the formation of eighteen integrated brigades through the military integration process as its first of three stages. The process consisted firstly of regroupment, where fighters are disarmed. Then they were sent to orientation centres, run by CONADER, where fighters took the choice of either returning to civilian society or remaining in the armed forces. Combatants who chose demobilisation received an initial cash payment of US$110. Those who chose to stay within the FARDC were then transferred to one of six integration centres for a 45-day training course, which aimed to build integrated formations out of factional fighters previously heavily divided along ethnic, political and regional lines. The centres were spread out around the country at Kitona, Kamina, Kisangani, Rumangabo and Nyaleke (within the Virunga National Park) in Nord-Kivu, and Luberizi (on the border with Burundi) in South Kivu. The process suffered severe difficulties due to construction delays, administration errors, and the amount of travel former combatants have to do, as the three stages' centres are widely separated. There were three sequential buildup stages in the 2005 plan. Following the first 18 integrated brigades, the second goal was the formation of a ready reaction force of two to three brigades, and finally, by 2010, when MONUC was hoped to have withdrawn, the creation of a Main Defence Force of three divisions. In February 2008, then Defence Minister Chikez Diemu described the reform plan at the time as: "The short term, 2008–2010, will see the setting in place of a Rapid Reaction Force; the medium term, 2008–2015, with a Covering Force; and finally the long term, 2015–2020, with a Principal Defence Force." Diemu added that the reform plan rests on a programme of synergy based on the four pillars of dissuasion, production, reconstruction and excellence. "The Rapid Reaction Force is expected to focus on dissuasion, through a Rapid Reaction Force of 12 battalions, capable of aiding MONUC to secure the east of the country and to realise constitutional missions." Amid the other difficulties in building new armed forces for the DRC, in early 2007 the integration and training process was distorted as the DRC government under Kabila attempted to use it to gain more control over the dissident general Laurent Nkunda. A hastily negotiated verbal agreement in Rwanda saw three government FAC brigades integrated with Nkunda's former ANC 81st and 83rd Brigades in what was called mixage. Mixage brought multiple factions into composite brigades, but without the 45-day retraining provided by brassage, and it seems that actually, the process was limited to exchanging battalions between the FAC and Nkunda brigades in North Kivu, without further integration. Due to Nkunda's troops having greater cohesion, Nkunda effectively gained control of all five brigades, which was not the intention of the DRC central government. However, after Nkunda used the mixage brigades to fight the FDLR, strains arose between the FARDC and Nkunda-loyalist troops within the brigades and they fell apart in the last days of August 2007. The International Crisis Group says that "by 30 August [2007] Nkunda's troops had left the mixed brigades and controlled a large part of the Masisi and Rutshuru territories" (of North Kivu). Both formally integrated brigades and the non-integrated units continue to conduct arbitrary arrests, rapes, robbery, and other crimes and these human rights violations are "regularly" committed by both officers and members of the rank and file. Members of the Army also often strike deals to gain access to resources with the militias they are meant to be fighting. The various brigades and other formations and units number at least 100,000 troops. The status of these brigades has been described as "pretty chaotic." A 2007 disarmament and repatriation study said "army units that have not yet gone through the process of brassage are usually much smaller than what they ought to be. Some non-integrated brigades have only 500 men (and are thus nothing more than a small battalion) whereas some battalions may not even have the size of a normal company (over 100 men)." A number of outside donor countries are also carrying out separate training programmes for various parts of the Forces Terrestres (Land Forces). The People's Republic of China has trained Congolese troops at Kamina in Katanga from at least 2004 to 2009, and the Belgian government is training at least one "rapid reaction" battalion. When Kabila visited U.S. President George W. Bush in Washington D.C., he also asked the U.S. Government to train a battalion, and as a result, a private contractor, Protection Strategies Incorporated, started training a FARDC battalion at Camp Base, Kisangani, in February 2010. The company was supervised by United States Special Operations Command Africa. Three years later, the battalion broke and ran in the face of M23, raping women and young girls, looting, and carrying out arbitrary executions. The various international training programmes are not well integrated. ===Equipment=== Attempting to list the equipment available to the DRC's land forces is difficult; most figures are unreliable estimates based on known items delivered in the past. The figures below are from the IISS Military Balance 2014. Much of the Army's equipment is non-operational due to insufficient maintenance—in 2002 only 20 percent of the Army's armoured vehicles were estimated as being serviceable. Main Battle Tanks: 12–17 x Type 59 (dropped from 30 listed in 2007), 32 x T-55, 100 x T 72. Thirty T-55s and 100 T-72 were listed in 2007, thus little new information has reached the IISS in the intervening seven years. In 2022 the IISS listed the 12-17 Type 59s, marking them as often unserviceable; the 32 T-55s; 100 T-72s, but marking them as T-72AVs, and, in addition, 25 T-64BV-1s (page 465). Light tanks: 10 PT-76; 30 Type 62 (serviceability in doubt). "40+" Type 62s were listed by the Military Balance in 2007. In 2022 the IISS listed 10 PT-76s and 30 Type 62s (page 465). Reconnaissance vehicles: Up to 17 Panhard AML-60, 14 AML-90 armoured cars, 19 EE-9 Cascavel; 2 RAM-V-2. In 2022 the IISS listed "up to 52" reconnaissance vehicles, including the "up to 17" AML-60s; and unchanged numbers of AML-90s, the EE-9s, and the two RAM-V-2s (page 465). Infantry Fighting Vehicles: 20 BMP-1 (number reported unchanged since 2007). The same figure of BMP-1s was listed in 2022 (page 465). Armoured Personnel Carriers: IISS reports tracked vehicles include 3 BTR-50, 6 MT-LB, wheeled vehicles including 30-70 BTR-60; 58 Panhard M3 (serviceability in doubt), 7 TH 390 Fahd. Same unchanged figures were listed in 2022 (page 465) Artillery: 16 2S1 Gvozdika and 2S3 Akatsiya self-propelled; 119 towed field guns, including 77 122 mm howitzers D-30/M-1938/Type-60 and some 130 mm Type 59; 57 MRL, including 24 Type 81; 528+ mortars, 81 mm, 82 mm, 107 mm, 120 mm. In addition to these 2014 figures, in March 2010, it was reported that the DRC's land forces had ordered US$80 million worth of military equipment from Ukraine which included 20 T-72 main battle tanks, 100 trucks and various small arms. Tanks have been used in the Kivus in the 2005–09 period. In February 2014, Ukraine revealed that it had achieved the first export order for the T-64 tank to the DRC Land Forces for 50 T-64BV-1s. In June 2015 it was reported that Georgia had sold 12 of its Didgori-2 to the DRC for $4 million. The vehicles were specifically designed for reconnaissance and special operations. Two of the vehicles are a recently developed conversion to serve for medical field evacuation. The United Nations confirmed in 2011, both from sources in the Congolese military and from officials of the Commission nationale de contrôle des armes légères et de petit calibre et de réduction de la violence armée, that the ammunition plant called Afridex in Likasi, Katanga Province, manufactures ammunition for small arms and light weapons. Apart from Article 140 of the Law on the Army and Defence, no legal stipulation on the DRC's Armed Forces makes provision for the GR as a distinct unit within the national army. In February 2005 President Joseph Kabila passed a decree which appointed the GR's commanding officer and "repealed any previous provisions contrary" to that decree. The GR, more than 10,000 strong (the ICG said 10,000 to 15,000 in January 2007), has better working conditions and is paid regularly, but still commits rapes and robberies in the vicinity of its bases. In an effort to extend his personal control across the country, Joseph Kabila has deployed the GR at key airports, ostensibly in preparation for an impending presidential visit. there were Guards deployed in the central prison of Kinshasa, N'djili Airport, Bukavu, Kisangani, Kindu, Lubumbashi, Matadi, and Moanda, where they appear to answer to no local commander and have caused trouble with MONUC troops there. It was reorganised on the basis of eight fighting regiments, the 14th Security and Honor Regiment, an artillery regiment, and a command brigade/regiment from that time. ===Other forces active in the country=== There are currently large numbers of United Nations troops stationed in the DRC. The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) on 31 March 2017 had a strength of over 18,316 peacekeepers (including 16,215 military personnel) and is tasked with assisting Congolese authorities to maintain security. The UN and foreign military aid missions, the most prominent being EUSEC RD Congo, are attempting to assist the Congolese in rebuilding the armed forces, with major efforts being made in trying to assure regular payment of salaries to armed forces personnel and also in military justice. Retired Canadian Lieutenant General Marc Caron also served for a time as Security Sector Reform advisor to the head of MONUC. Groups of anti-Rwandan government rebels like the FDLR, and other foreign fighters remain inside the DRC. The other groups are smaller: the Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army, the Ugandan rebel group the Allied Democratic Forces in the remote area of Mt Rwenzori, and the Burundian Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu—Forces Nationales de Liberation (PALIPEHUTU-FNL). Finally there is a government paramilitary force, created in 1997 under President Laurent Kabila. The National Service is tasked with providing the army with food and with training the youth in a range of reconstruction and developmental activities. There is not much further information available, and no internet-accessible source details the relationship of the National Service to other armed forces bodies; it is not listed in the constitution. President Kabila, in one of the few comments available, says National Service will provide a gainful activity for street children. Obligatory civil service administered through the armed forces was also proposed under the Mobutu regime during the "radicalisation" programme of December 1974 – January 1975; the FAZ was opposed to the measure and the plan "took several months to die." ==Air Force== All military aircraft in the DRC are operated by the Air Force. In 2007, Jane's World Air Forces stated that the Air Force had an estimated strength of 1,800 personnel and is organised into two Air Groups. These Groups command five wings and nine squadrons, of which not all are operational. 1 Air Group is located at Kinshasa and consists of Liaison Wing, Training Wing and Logistical Wing and has a strength of five squadrons. 2 Tactical Air Group is located at Kaminia and consists of Pursuit and Attack Wing and Tactical Transport Wing and has a strength of four squadrons. Foreign private military companies have reportedly been contracted to provide the DRC's aerial reconnaissance capability using small propeller aircraft fitted with sophisticated equipment. Jane's states that National Air Force of Angola fighter aircraft would be made available to defend Kinshasa if it came under attack. Like the other services, the Congolese Air Force is not capable of carrying out its responsibilities. Few of the Air Force's aircraft are currently flyable or capable of being restored to service and it is unclear whether the Air Force is capable of maintaining even unsophisticated aircraft. Moreover, Jane's stated that the Air Force's Ecole de Pilotage is 'in near total disarray'. ==Navy== Before the downfall of Mobutu, a small navy operated on the Congo River. One of its installations was at the village of N'dangi near the presidential residence in Gbadolite. The port at N'dangi was the base for several patrol boats, helicopters and the presidential yacht. The 2002 edition of Jane's Sentinel described the Navy as being "in a state of near total disarray" and stated that it did not conduct any training or have operating procedures. The Navy shares the same discipline problems as the other services. It was initially placed under command of the MLC when the transition began, so the current situation is uncertain. The 2007 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships states that the Navy is organised into four commands, based at Matadi, near the coast; the capital Kinshasa, further up the Congo river; Kalemie, on Lake Tanganyika; and Goma, on Lake Kivu. The International Institute for Strategic Studies, in its 2007 edition of the Military Balance, confirms the bases listed in Jane's and adds a fifth base at Boma, a coastal city near Matadi. Various sources also refer to numbered Naval Regions. Operations of the 1st Naval Region have been reported in Kalemie, the 4th near the northern city of Mbandaka, and the 5th at Goma. As of 2012, the Navy on paper consisted of about 6,700 personnel and up to 23 patrol craft. The IISS repeated the same 6,700 figure in 2018 (p457) and the 2020 edition carried the same number, unchanged. In reality, The IISS lists the Navy only consists of around 1,000 personnel and a total of eight patrol craft, of which only one is operational, a Shanghai II Type 062 class gunboat designated "102". There are five other 062s as well as two Swiftships which are not currently operational, though some may be restored to service in the future. According to Jane's, the Navy also operates barges and small craft armed with machine guns.	[ "Jules Banza Mwilambwe", "Battle of Quifangondo", "122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30)", "East African Campaign (World War I)", "2S1 Gvozdika", "Central African Republic conflict (2012—present)", "Mbuji-Mayi", "Hutu", "Jane's Fighting Ships", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Joseph Ileo", "Kinshasa", "Pierre Lumbi Okongo", "Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "John Keegan", "Group (air force)", "Lumumba Government", "Type 62", "Parti Solidaire Africain", "Rwandan genocide", "DEMIAP", "Rutshuru Territory", "Bandundu Province", "Republican Guard (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 161", "Small Wars and Insurgencies", "Battle of Kolwezi", "N'djili Airport", "Marcellin Lukama", "Shaba I", "Kindu", "Zaire", "Kasai Oriental", "Private military company", "Jane's Information Group", "Battle of Kinsangani (1997)", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 143", "Katanga Province", "2009 Eastern Congo offensive", "Leopold II of Belgium", "Belgian Army", "Nande", "Guy Kabombo Muadiamvita", "Nationalist and Integrationist Front", "Kamanyola Division", "Brookings Institution", "Shaba II", "Great Lakes refugee crisis", "North Korea", "Marc Caron", "Nord-Kivu", "Lake Kivu", "Operation Thunderbolt (1997)", "Panhard M3", "Sudan People's Liberation Army", "Stanleyville mutinies", "Joseph Kabila", "Bengo River", "Allied Democratic Forces", "Tshopo", "United Nations", "Front for Congolese National Liberation", "Luanda", "United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo", "Operation Dragon Rouge", "41st Commando Brigade (Zaire)", "Movement for the Liberation of Congo", "Lieutenant General", "Eugene Serufuli", "IISS", "Second Congo War", "Equateur", "Dag Hammarskjöld", "Library of Congress Country Studies", "Rombault Mbuayama", "Gabriel Amisi Kumba", "Bandundu (province)", "Wing (air force unit)", "Yei, South Sudan", "Congo River", "Type 59 tank", "National Air Force of Angola", "François Olenga", "Rassemblement Démocratique pour le Rwanda", "Kasai region", "College of Commissioners-General", "Democratic Republic of the Congo Air Force", "Kalemie", "Kisangani", "Didgori-2", "Rally for Congolese Democracy", "Lake Tanganyika", "New York Review of Books", "Masisi Territory", "EastAfrican", "Type 062 class gunboat", "Banyamulenge", "Angola", "Artillery", "Joseph Kasa-Vubu", "brigade", "Walikale", "Christophe Gbenye", "Équateur (former province)", "The New Humanitarian", "Leon Mush ale Tsipamba", "Lord's Resistance Army", "Likasi", "Mt Rwenzori", "Jadotville", "Military ranks of Democratic Republic of Congo", "T-72", "Isiro", "Virunga National Park", "AML-90", "Armoured Personnel Carrier", "Albert Kalonji", "military", "Special Presidential Division", "Obed Rwisbasira", "Aimé Ngoy Mukena", "National Liberation Front of Angola", "adjutant", "Rumangabo", "Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda", "Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa", "Immediate Reaction Cell", "Jules Gérard-Libois", "Dieudonné Banze", "Forces for Renewal", "Belgian Congo", "expeditionary warfare", "Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola", "Victor Lundula", "Internally displaced person", "Moise Tshombe", "Rochester, Vermont", "René Lemarchand", "Chief of staff (military)", "122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30)", "United Nations Charter", "Félix Tshisekedi", "Joseph-Désiré Mobutu", "Kitona", "United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "1991 Zaire unrest", "Celestin Mbala Munsense", "5 Commando (Congo)", "Intercontinental Hotel", "South Kivu", "Antoine Gizenga", "International Crisis Group", "Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo", "Orientale Province", "Mike Hoare", "International Institute for Strategic Studies", "Royal Museum of Central Africa", "France", "Goma", "Moustapha Mukiza", "Namibia", "Cold War", "Katanga Gendarmerie", "Kasai-Oriental", "Institute for Security Studies", "Walikale Territory", "Verso Books", "Military Academy of Kananga", "130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46)", "United States Army", "squadron (aviation)", "Human Rights Watch", "Matadi", "Bas-Congo", "Library of Congress Country Study", "United States Special Operations Command Africa", "Amnesty International", "Morocco", "MONUC", "Zimbabwe", "6 Commando (Congo)", "Mbanza-Ngungu", "Moanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp", "Ngaliema", "N'dangi", "South Kasai", "Kivu", "Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement", "Common Security and Defence Policy missions of the European Union", "Lubumbashi", "Fahd (armored personnel carrier)", "François Hollande", "Royal Military Academy (Belgium)", "Type 60 122 mm field gun", "University Press of America", "2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment", "John Numbi", "Civil Guard (Zaire)", "Military Band", "Democratic Republic of the Congo Navy", "Mosambaye Singa Boyenge", "Laurent-Désiré Kabila", "Patrice Lumumba", "Forces Nationales de Liberation", "1st Armoured Brigade (Zaire)", "Land Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Second Sudanese Civil War", "Maniema", "Congolese National Police", "T 72", "Général d'armée", "Panhard AML-60", "Rwanda", "Gbadolite", "Rutshuru", "Cuba", "Kamina", "Bumba Moaso", "Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo", "President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Ecole de formation d'officiers", "Jules Mutebutsi", "Ituri Province", "Africa Confidential", "Pierre Mulele", "Military Police", "First Congo War", "Numbi Ngoie", "Congo Free State", "Jean-Pierre Ondekane", "Delphin Kahimbi", "Baudoin Liwanga", "Force Publique", "Kpama Baramoto Kata", "East African Campaign (World War II)", "Gérard Prunier", "Marxist", "Sudan", "FDLR", "Norbert Muké", "Kivu conflict", "Colette Braeckman", "Émile Janssens", "Bas-Uele", "George W. Bush", "military regions", "MONUSCO", "T-64", "Boma, Kongo Central", "Infantry Fighting Vehicle", "Ituri conflict", "Belgium", "United Nations Mine Action Service", "Luberizi", "United Nations Operation in the Congo", "1960 Republic of the Congo coup d'état", "Bandalungwa", "North Kivu", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Kananga", "EUSEC DR Congo", "Main Battle Tank", "European Union", "BM-21", "Serbs", "Chad", "RCD-Goma", "Jean Claude Kifwa", "Army General (France)", "Operation Dragon Noire", "Mai-Mai", "Lunda people", "Kasai-Occidental", "Operation South", "Cameroun", "Tanzania", "PT-76", "Haut-Uele", "Forces de Résistance Patriotique d'Ituri", "Hunde", "BMP-1", "Library of Congress", "1965 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état", "Jean-Pierre Bongwangela", "General", "Province Orientale", "Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution", "battalion", "T-55", "Louis Bobozo", "21st Infantry Brigade (Zaire)", "South Africa", "2S3 Akatsiya", "Armed Forces & Society", "Kisempia Sungilanga", "Didier Etumba", "Rwandan Patriotic Front", "Congo Crisis", "Bukavu", "Laurent Nkunda", "Minister of Defence (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "Simba Rebellion", "Congolese Rally for Democracy", "Mandate (international law)", "March 23 Movement", "Mbandaka", "Zairian Armed Forces", "Central African Republic", "Dassault Mirage 5", "Le Soir" ]
8,032	Geography of Denmark	Denmark is a Nordic country located in Northern Europe. It consists of the Jutland Peninsula and several islands in the Baltic Sea, referred to as the Danish Archipelago. Denmark is located southwest of Sweden and due south of Norway and is bordered by the German state (and former possession) Schleswig-Holstein to the south, with a 68-kilometre (42-mile) long land border. Denmark borders both the Baltic and North seas along its tidal shoreline. Denmark's general coastline is much shorter, at , as it would not include most of the 1,419 offshore islands (each defined as exceeding in area) and the Limfjorden, which separates Denmark's second largest island, North Jutlandic Island, in size, from the rest of Jutland. No location in Denmark is further from the coast than . The land area of Denmark is estimated to be . However, it cannot be stated exactly since the ocean constantly erodes and adds material to the coastline, and there are human land reclamation projects. On the southwest coast of Jutland, the tide is between , and the tideline moves outward and inward on a stretch. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were of tidal flats in Denmark, making it the 42nd ranked country in terms of tidal flat extent. Denmark has an Exclusive Economic Zone of . When including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, the EEZ is the 15th largest in the world with . A circle enclosing the same total area as Denmark would have a diameter of 234 km (146 miles). Denmark has 443 named islands (1,419 islands above ), of which 72 are inhabited (, Statistics Denmark). The largest islands are Zealand (Sjælland) and Funen (Fyn). The island of Bornholm is located east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea. Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; the Øresund Bridge connects Zealand with Sweden; the Great Belt Bridge connects Funen with Zealand; and the Little Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen. Ferries or small aircraft connect to the smaller islands. Main cities are the capital Copenhagen on Zealand; Århus, Aalborg and Esbjerg in Jutland; and Odense on Funen. Denmark experiences a temperate climate, with mild, windy winters and cool summers. The local terrain is generally flat with a few gently rolling plains. The territory of Denmark includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Its position gives Denmark complete control of the Danish straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking the Baltic and North Seas. The country's natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, chalk, stone, gravel, and sand. ==Environment== === Climate === File:Climate chart of Copenhagen.svg\|Climate chart of Copenhagen. File:Koppen-Geiger Map DNK present.svg\|Climate of Denmark according to the Köppen climate classification. ===Land use=== Arable land: 55.99% Permanent crops: 0.14% Other: 42.87% (2012) Irrigated land: (2007) Total renewable water resources: (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: (58%/5%/36%) per capita: (2009) === Land reclamation === In 2019, the government proposed building 9 new artificial islands, named project Holmene, which would create of reclaimed land, to be built from 2022 to 2040. In June 2021, lawmakers approved the construction of a island, named Lynetteholm, in the Copenhagen Harbor. A spokesperson for the Climate Movement in Denmark (Klimabevægelsen i Danmark) said the organization would sue the government over environmental concerns. === Agriculture === Denmark has plenty of rain, flat landscape, and moderate climate. With 55.99% of its land considered as arable, Denmark has model characteristics for agriculture. 61% of the country's total area is cultivated Farms in Denmark are remarkably large, averaging per farm. Additionally, homesteads exceeding make up more than 20% in Denmark. Many of these large farms harvest fruits and vegetables, the leading exports from Denmark are meat, fur, and dairy products. then to 61% one year later in reference to "Facts and Figures - Danish Agriculture and Food" Copenhagen remains the largest city in Denmark with a population of 1.2 million people and a metro population of 1.99 million. Copenhagen became Denmark's capital in 1443 and now currently sits with a population density of . About a quarter of Danes live in the capital Copenhagen.	[ "Funen", "Hjortø", "diameter", "Nitrogen", "Aarhus", "Abraham Ortelius", "Greenland", "Jutland", "List of countries and territories by land borders", "Law of the Sea", "UN/LOCODE:DK", "list of islands of Denmark", "Møllehøj", "limestone", "Limfjorden", "Zealand (Denmark)", "Schleswig-Holstein", "remote sensing", "North Sea", "natural gas", "Lammefjord", "North Jutlandic Island", "gravel", "Urban area of Copenhagen", "Köppen climate classification", "Irrigated land", "List of islands of Denmark", "Rock (geology)", "chalk", "Danish straits", "continental shelf", "Denmark", "Baltic Sea", "Esbjerg", "salt", "small aircraft", "Øresund Bridge", "Europe", "fish", "Danish Realm", "Arresø", "Land reclamation", "Little Belt Bridge (1970)", "petroleum", "North Pole", "NUTS statistical regions of Denmark", "Geography of Greenland", "Geography of the Faroe Islands", "Aalborg", "Gudenå", "Odense", "Arable land", "Nordic countries", "sand", "Great Belt Fixed Link", "Contiguous zone", "ISO 3166-2:DK", "Copenhagen", "Skarø", "Kyoto Protocol", "Skagerrak", "phosphorus", "Exclusive Economic Zone", "Faroe Islands", "WP:SDNONE", "land reclamation", "Kattegat", "Bornholm", "Northern Europe", "plain", "Air pollution", "Scandinavia", "Iceland", "da:Lynetteholmen", "Ferry" ]
8,033	Demographics of Denmark	Demographic features of the population of Denmark proper, part of the Danish Realm, include ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects. ==Population== Since 1980, the number of people of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship, has remained constant at around 5 million in Denmark, and nearly all the population growth from 5.1 up to the 2018 total of 5.8 million was due to immigration. Population numbers in 2100 will be slightly lower than in 2024. === Fertility === The natural growth of the population (births minus deaths) was negative in 2022, that is, minus 1005 people. The previous last year there was a negative natural increase in the population was in 1988. During 2022, 58,430 children were born, 5,043 fewer than in 2021. In 2022, 59,435 people died, there were 2,283, or 4.0% more than in 2021. The total population in the age group 80 and over grew by 12,844 people, or 4.4%., from 2022 to 2023. During 2022, the Danish population grew by 59,234 people, so the population on January 1, 2023, consisted of 5,932,654 people. It was a population increase of 1.0 percent, which is higher than in 2021, when the population increase was 0.6 percent. It is the first time in history that immigrant women from non-Western countries now have fewer children on average than women of Danish roots in Denmark. On average, immigrant women have 1.76 children, the descendants have an average of 1.75 children, while women of Danish roots have 1.78 children. This is because Ukrainians, who are categorized as non-Western, have come to Denmark in large numbers. In the same year, immigrant women from Syria had the highest TFR, they gave birth to an average of 3.7 children. They are followed by women from Somalia and Pakistan, 2020 figures show. === Age structure === 0-14 years: 16.57% (male 493,829 /female 468,548) 15-24 years: 12.67% (male 377,094 /female 358,807) 25-54 years: 39.03% (male 1,147,196 /female 1,119,967) 55-64 years: 12.33% (male 356,860 /female 359,264) 65 years and over: 19.42% (male 518,200 /female 609,737) (2018 est.) Median age total: 41.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 35th male: 40.8 years female: 42.9 years (2018 est.) ==Ethnic and origin groups== Non-indigenous ethnic minorities include: Afghans Inuit (Greenlandic) from the territory of Greenland Turks Arabs (i.e. Palestinians, followed by Moroccans, Syrians, Lebanese, Yemenis, Egyptians, Iraqis and Jordanians) Vietnamese Thai Jews Chinese Pakistanis Iranians (including Kurds and Lurs) Somalis Eritreans Sudanese Indians Chileans (the most numerous of Latin American nationalities) Bosniaks Poles Albanians Bangladeshis Roma Filipinos ===Historic minorities=== Ethnic minorities in Denmark include a handful of groups: Approximately 15,000 people in Denmark belong to a German minority traditionally referred to as tysksindet meaning "German-minded" in Danish, and as Nordschleswiger in German. This minority of Germans hold Danish citizenship and self-identify as Germans. Many of them speak German or Low German as their home language. There are also several thousand German citizens and other ethnic Germans residing in Denmark with no historical connection to this group. From 1864 until 15 June 1920 this group mainly lived in what would become Germany in 1871. This area had 163,600 inhabitants on its return to Denmark which can be seen on the crude migration change in the table which jumped from 1.6 in 1919 to 54.1 in 1920. An estimated 23,000 people in Denmark proper are ethnic Faroese, while 19,000 Greenlanders reside permanently in Denmark. Many of these use the Faroese and Greenlandic languages, respectively, as their first language. All residents of the Kingdom (viz. Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland) hold Danish citizenship, unless they inherit or otherwise receive a foreign citizenship. The Danish Jews number around 6,000 in 2020 according to the organisation Jewish Community in Denmark, around 1,700 being card-carrying members of the organisation. There are close to 10,000 Roma in Denmark. ===Modern minorities=== In the modern minorities, Statistics Denmark counts first-generation immigrants, second-generation (Descendants in Danish statistics classification) and third-generation (Children of descendants in Danish classification). Children of descendants can be either of "Danish origin" (if both of their parents were born in Denmark with Danish citizenship) and of "foreign origin" (if one of their parents is a second-generation immigrant and another first-generation). Therefore, this table included all people of the respective background, people who are classified as of "foreign background" and third-generation immigrants, who classified as of "Danish origin". Statistics Denmark denotes an immigrant's group based on their country of birth, it does this usually off of the immigrant or descendents parents, if only one such parent is known, then the group is determined by that or if no parents are known then it is assumed if the person is an immigrant that their country of origin is their country of birth. of Denmark's population of over 5,840,045 was of Danish descent. ! Population (2008) ! Population (2021) ! Population (2023) ! Population (2024) ! Population (2025) \|- \| 1. \| \| 59,960 \| 75,072 \| 77,845 \| 79,373 \| 80,937 \|- \| 2. \| \| 21,118 \| 49,369 \| 55,122 \| 57,070 \| 57,215 \|- \| 3. \| \| 5,105 \| 15,595 \| 42,482 \| 44,825 \| 49,854 \|- \| 4. \| \| 3,367 \| 44,326 \| 45,000 \| 45,641 \| 46,634 \|- \| 5. \| \| 3,681 \| 34,997 \| 44,221 \| 46,036 \| 46,132 \|- \| 6. \| \| 28,412 \| 35,141 \| 39,528 \| 41,516 \| 43,410 \|- \| 7. \| \| 28,417 \| 34,217 \| 35,101 \| 35,476 \| 35,975 \|- \| 8. \| \| 21,217 \| 31,175 \| 32,246 \| 33,050 \| 34,181 \|- \| 9. \| \| 23,343 \| 30,435 \| 31,700 \| 32,269 \| 33,014 \|- \| 10. \| \| 14,773 \| 22,408 \| 24,364 \| 26,276 \| 28,491 \|- \| 11. \| \| 21,861 \| 23,449 \| 23,625 \| 23,659 \| 23,732 \|- \| 12. \| \| 5,666 \| 15,595 \| 19,296 \| 21,268 \| 22,815 \|- \| 13. \| \| 11,880 \| 19,957 \| 21,380 \| 21,784 \| 22,172 \|- \| 14. \| \| 16,561 \| 21,338 \| 21,486 \| 21,653 \| 21,849 \|- \| 15. \| \| 12,593 \| 17,651 \| 18,190 \| 18,442 \| 18,605 \|- \| 16. \| \| 14,789 \| 17,095 \| 17,726 \| 17,999 \| 18,303 \|- \| 17. \| \| 13,459 \| 16,307 \| 16,906 \| 17,448 \| 18,272 \|- \| 18. \| \| 15,747 \| 17,481 \| 17,691 \| 17,735 \| 17,786 \|- \| 19. \| \| 8,574 \| 14,841 \| 15,836 \| 16,549 \| 17,443 \|- \| 20. \| \| 3,646 \| 15,231 \| 16,439 \| 16,357 \| 16,192 \|- \| 21. \| former \| 18,151 \| 15,903 \| 15,356 \| 15,016 \| 14,257 \|- \| 22. \| \| 9,808 \| 13,170 \| 13,708 \| 13,937 \| 14,138 \|- \| 23. \| \| 8,280 \| 13,166 \| 13,693 \| 14,029 \| 14,122 \|- \| 24. \| \| 1,194 \| - \| 13,503 \| 13,840 \| 14,007 \|- \| 25. \| \| 10,494 \| – \| 12,692 \| 12,996 \| 13,734 \|- \| 26. \| \| 7,199 \| – \| 12,760 \| 13,098 \| 13,577 \|- \| 27. \| \| 3,994 \| – \| 11,684 \| 12,313 \| 13,135 \|- \| 28. \| \| 7,151 \| – \| 10,786 \| 11,293 \| 11,797 \|- \| 29. \| \| 4,389 \| – \| 9,517 \| 9,946 \| 10,323 \|- \| 30. \| \| 8,421 \| – \| 9,513 \| 9,765 \| 10,082 \|} In 2022, 45,922 (78.6%) babies were born to mothers of Danish origin, 10,039 (17.2%) to immigrant mothers and 2,469 (4.2%) to mothers who are descendants of immigrants. === Current vital statistics === ===Total fertility rates by region=== ===Structure of the population=== ==Immigration== ===Denmark Net Migration=== == Urban areas == The urban area of Copenhagen consists of the contiguously built-up area of the capital of Denmark. The Copenhagen metropolitan area consists of 34 municipalities. The East Jutland metropolitan area includes 19 municipalities. ==Religion== The Church of Denmark () is state-supported and, according to statistics from January 2022, accounts for the religious affiliation of 73.2% of the population. Denmark has had religious freedom guaranteed since 1849 by the Constitution, and numerous other religions are officially recognised, including several Christian denominations, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu and other congregations as well as Forn Siðr, a revival of Scandinavian pagan tradition. Islam is the second largest religion in Denmark. In 2020, an estimated 4.4% of the Danish population were Muslims. For historical reasons, there is a formal distinction between 'approved' () and 'recognised' () congregations of faith. The latter include 11 traditional denominations, such as Roman Catholics, the Reformed Church, the Mosaic Congregation, Methodists and Baptists, some of whose privileges in the country date hundreds of years back. These have the additional rights of having priests appointed by royal resolution and to christen/name children with legal effect. Religions Evangelical Lutheran (official) 74.8%, Muslim 5.3%, other (denominations of less than 1% each, include Roman Catholic, Jehovah's Witness, Serbian Orthodox Christian, Jewish, Baptist, and Buddhist) 19.9% (2017 est.) ==Employment and income== Unemployment, youth ages 15–24 total: 12% (2016 est.) Country comparison to the world: 109th male: 13.1% (2016 est.) female: 10.9% (2016 est.) ==Taxation and benefits== Although the level of taxation in Denmark is among the highest in the world, the labor market participation rate is still high compared with other Western countries. Municipal income tax makes up the largest part of taxation in Denmark, with central government income tax topping it up. These income taxes are higher than in other OECD countries. These direct taxes make up two thirds of the taxation on private households with indirect taxes of the central government, and municipalities (property tax), making up one third, i.e. with motor vehicles (passenger cars, motorcycles, commercial vehicles) sold from VAT registered dealerships – because of the registration fee – being among the most expensive in the world, with prices in Norway at the same level, and the most expensive in Singapore. Also VAT in Denmark is not reduced from the current 25%. The 25% are paid on all goods and services where VAT is applied. Indirect taxes are about average compared with other European OECD countries. Payroll taxes (Danish sociale afgifter) are much lower than in other OECD countries. The tax structure ensures a broad tax base across the whole population. However, revenue from corporate taxes is lower compared with other European countries. Municipalities and the central government (regions are not allowed to levy any taxes, as they are financed by central government, and municipal block grants) redistribute a large amount of their tax income in transfer payments to municipalities with a low tax base and/or few tax payers. It is normal for children to be in nurseries, which requires a partial payment of the costs or is free of charge for low income households, and in kindergartens owned and operated, or financed, by the public sector. Child benefit is paid to parents for each child. The service to old age pensioners, and handicapped is extensive. Denmark ranks high in the Corruption Perceptions Index, although the index is criticized for being limited in scope. == Homelessness ==	[ "Copenhagen metropolitan area", "Denmark proper", "Catholic Church", "List of urban areas in the Nordic countries", "Norway", "Greenland", "Danish nationality law", "urban area of Copenhagen", "Danish language", "Faroese people", "Yemen", "Population ageing", "health", "asylum seeker", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Zealand", "Sudan", "Islam", "Singapore", "education", "Jewish Community in Denmark", "income tax", "Denmark", "Kosovo", "Syrian people", "Somali people", "Methodism", "Pakistani people", "Palestinians", "Norwegians", "Nordic countries", "Faroese language", "Egyptians", "Ethnic group", "Demographics of Greenland", "Danes", "Iranian peoples", "Latin Americans", "Bangladeshi people", "Pensions in Denmark", "Greenlandic people in Denmark", "List of Christian denominations", "Western world", "Germany", "Child benefit", "Demography", "Yugoslavs", "Han Chinese", "Immigration to Denmark", "Employment", "Religion in Denmark", "Germans", "Jordan", "Polish people", "Baptists", "Ukraine", "Moroccan people", "Canada", "population growth", "Romanians", "Western World", "Serbia", "Hinduism", "Demographics of Iran", "New Zealand", "Population pyramid", "Languages of Denmark", "Lurs", "Bosniaks", "Greenlandic language", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Icelanders", "Slovenia", "Berlingske", "List of sovereign states by tax revenue to GDP ratio", "Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs (Denmark)", "Indian people", "Low German", "Bosnians", "Serbian Orthodox Church", "History of the Jews in Denmark", "Central Denmark Region", "Reformed Christianity", "Romani people in Denmark", "North Macedonia", "Monaco", "Constitution of Denmark", "Buddhist", "North Jutland (Folketing constituency)", "Jewish", "Statistics Denmark", "Liechtenstein", "population", "indirect tax", "Andorra", "The unity of the Realm", "Municipalities of Denmark", "Value-added tax", "Preschool", "Croatia", "Vatican State", "Jews", "Danish pre-school education", "religious freedom", "Religious identity", "First language", "USA", "Albanians", "Danish Realm", "Capital Region of Denmark", "Demographics of Afghanistan", "Forn Siðr — Ásatrú and Vanatrú Association in Denmark", "Montenegro", "Vietnamese people", "San Marino", "Disability in Denmark", "Syria", "Iraqis", "Syrians", "Region of Southern Denmark", "German minority in Denmark", "United Nations", "Baptist", "Faroe Islands", "Switzerland", "Developed country", "East Jutland metropolitan area", "wedding", "Total fertility rate", "Iceland", "Regions of Denmark", "Old Norse religion", "Welfare spending", "Romani people", "British people", "Lebanese people", "Religious denomination", "Danmarks Statistik", "Eritreans", "Australia", "Arabs", "Somalia", "Turkish people", "Somalis", "Judaism", "Inuit", "total fertility rate", "Gapminder Foundation", "Demographics of Turkey", "Jehovah's Witness", "1920 Schleswig plebiscites", "Afghans", "Thai people", "Chileans", "Our World In Data", "Arab people", "Buddhism", "Minority group", "Atheism", "State religion", "priest", "Socioeconomic status", "Corruption Perceptions Index", "Church of Denmark", "Iraqi people", "Filipinos", "Population decline", "Demographics of the Faroe Islands", "Pakistan", "Kurds" ]
8,035	Economy of Denmark	Denmark is a modern high-income and highly developed mixed economy, dominated by the service sector with 80% of all jobs; about 11% of employees work in manufacturing and 2% in agriculture. The nominal Gross National Income per capita was the ninth-highest in the world at $68,827 in 2023. Correcting for purchasing power, per capita income was Int$57,781 or 10th-highest globally. Denmark has the 38th largest national economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and the 52nd largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). Among OECD nations, Denmark has a highly efficient and strong social security system; social expenditure stood at roughly 26.2% of GDP. Denmark has a very long tradition of adhering to a fixed exchange-rate system and still does so today. It is unique among OECD countries to do so while maintaining an independent currency: the Danish Krone, which is pegged to the Euro. Though eligible to join the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), Danish voters in a referendum in 2000 rejected exchanging the krone for the euro. Whereas Denmark's neighbours like Norway, Sweden, Poland and the United Kingdom generally follow inflation targeting in their monetary policy, the priority of Denmark's central bank is to maintain exchange rate stability. Consequently, the central bank has no role in a domestic stabilization policy. In an international context, a relatively large proportion of the population is part of the labour force, in particular because the female participation rate is very high. 78.8% of all 15-to-64-year-olds were active on the labour market in 2017, the sixth-highest number among all OECD countries. With a 4.8% unemployment rate, unemployment is relatively low in comparison to other European countries, where the average unemployment rate is 6.7%. The labour market is traditionally characterized by a high degree of union membership rates and collective agreement coverage. Denmark invests heavily in active labor market policies and the concept of flexicurity has been important historically. Denmark is an example of the Nordic model, characterized by an internationally high tax level, and a correspondingly high level of government-provided services (e.g. health care, child care and education services). There are also income transfers to various groups, such as retirees, disabled people, the unemployed, and students. Altogether, the amount of revenue from taxes paid in 2017 amounted to 46.1% of GDP. The Danish fiscal policy is generally considered healthy. The net government debt is very close to zero, amounting to 1.3% of GDP in 2017. The Danish fiscal policy is characterized by a long-term outlook, taking into account likely future fiscal demands. During the 2000s, a challenge was perceived to government expenditures in future decades. It was ultimately a challenge to fiscal sustainability from demographic development, in particular higher longevity. Responding to this, age eligibility rules for receiving public age-related transfers were changed. Since 2012, calculations of future fiscal challenges, from both the government and independent analysts, have generally perceived Danish fiscal policy to be sustainable. In recent years, it was considered overly sustainable. ==History== Denmark's long-term economic development has largely followed the same pattern as other Northwestern European countries. In most of recorded history Denmark has been an agricultural country with most of the population living on a subsistence level. Since the 19th century, Denmark has gone through an intense technological and institutional development. The material standard of living has experienced formerly unknown rates of growth, and the country has been industrialized and later turned into a modern service society. Almost all of the land area of Denmark is arable. Unlike most of its neighbours, Denmark has not had extractable deposits of minerals or fossil fuels, except for the deposits of oil and natural gas in the North Sea, which started playing an economic role only during the 1980s. On the other hand, Denmark has had a logistic advantage through its long coastal line and the fact that no point on Danish land is more than 50 kilometers from the sea – an important fact for the whole period before the industrial revolution when sea transport was cheaper than land transport. Consequently, foreign trade has always been very important for the economic development of Denmark. Already during the Stone Age there was some foreign trade, and even though trade has made up only a very modest share of total Danish value added until the 19th century, it has been decisive for economic development, both in terms of procuring vital import goods (like metals) and because new knowledge and technological skills have often come to Denmark as a byproduct of goods exchange with other countries. The emerging trade implied specialization which created demand for means of payments, and the earliest known Danish coins date from the time of Svend Tveskæg around 995. Improvements in shipping technology allowed traders to sail around Jutland and into the Baltic Sea directly, and Danish warships collected the Sound Toll from these mainly Dutch merchants, in exchange for protection. Nordic rulers before the mid-seventeenth century welcomed the Dutch merchants for their efficient shipping services and inflow of investments which boosted industrial development. According to economic historian Angus Maddison, Denmark was the sixth-most prosperous country in the world around 1600. The population size relative to arable agricultural land was small so that the farmers were relatively affluent, and Denmark was geographically close to the most dynamic and economically leading European areas since the 16th century: the Netherlands, the northern parts of Germany, and Britain. Still, 80 to 85% of the population lived in small villages on a subsistence level. leading to the establishment of monopolies like Asiatisk Kompagni, development of physical and financial infrastructure like the first Danish bank Kurantbanken in 1736 and the first "kreditforening" (a kind of building society) in 1797, and the acquisition of some minor Danish colonies like Tranquebar. At the end of the 18th century major agricultural reforms took place that entailed decisive structural changes. However, the Napoleonic Wars caused Copenhagen to lose its status as an international centre of finance and trade. Politically, mercantilism was gradually replaced by liberal thoughts among the ruling elite. Following a monetary reform after the Napoleonic wars, the present Danish central bank Danmarks Nationalbank was founded in 1818. There exists national accounting data for Denmark from 1820 onwards thanks to the pioneering work of Danish economic historian Svend Aage Hansen. They find that there has been a substantial and permanent, though fluctuating, economic growth all the time since 1820. The period 1822–94 saw on average an annual growth in factor incomes of 2% (0.9% per capita) From around 1830 the agricultural sector experienced a major boom lasting several decades, producing and exporting grains, not least to Britain after 1846 when British grain import duties were abolished. When grain production became less profitable in the second half of the century, the Danish farmers made an impressive and uniquely successful change from vegetarian to animal production leading to a new boom period. During the 20th century agriculture slowly dwindled in importance relative to industry, During the 1970s Denmark was plunged into a crisis, initiated by the 1973 oil crisis leading to the hitherto unknown phenomenon stagflation. For the next decades the Danish economy struggled with several major so-called "balance problems": High unemployment, current account deficits, inflation, and government debt. From the 1980s economic policies have increasingly been oriented towards a long-term perspective, and gradually a series of structural reforms have solved these problems. In 1994 active labour market policies were introduced that via a series of labour market reforms have helped reducing structural unemployment considerably. A series of tax reforms from 1987 onwards, reducing tax deductions on interest payments, and the increasing importance of compulsory labour market-based funded pensions from the 1990s have increased private savings rates considerably, consequently transforming secular current account deficits to secular surpluses. The announcement of a consistent and hence more credible fixed exchange rate in 1982 has helped reducing the inflation rate. In the first decade of the 21st century new economic policy issues have emerged. A growing awareness that future demographic changes, in particular increasing longevity, could threaten fiscal sustainability, implying very large fiscal deficits in future decades, led to major political agreements in 2006 and 2011, both increasing the future eligibility age of receiving public age-related pensions. Mainly because of these changes, from 2012 onwards the Danish fiscal sustainability problem is generally considered to be solved. Instead, issues like decreasing productivity growth rates and increasing inequality in income distribution and consumption possibilities are prevalent in the public debate. The global Great Recession during the late 2000s, the accompanying Euro area debt crisis and their repercussions marked the Danish economy for several years. Until 2017, unemployment rates have generally been considered to be above their structural level, implying a relatively stagnating economy from a business-cycle point of view. From 2017/18 this is no longer considered to be the case, and attention has been redirected to the need of avoiding a potential overheating situation. In 2022 the popularity of Novo Nordisk's Ozempic and Wegovy for weight loss began greatly affecting the Danish economy. The pharmaceutical industry contributed two thirds of growth that year, and 1.7 points of the 1.9% year-over-year growth in the first quarter of 2023. Novo Nordisk's market capitalization—Europe's second-largest, after LVMH—exceeded the size of the entire national economy, and it is the largest payer of corporate taxes to the Danish state. Economists discussed whether the government needed to publish data including and excluding the company; as the enormous economic growth did not similarly increase employment, data including Novo Nordisk is misleading regarding the Danish business cycle. Some worried that the nation might become overdependent on the company, similar to what happened to the economy of Finland with Nokia, or that Novo Nordisk's success might cause Dutch disease. == Income, wealth and income distribution == Average per capita income is high in an international context. According to the World Bank, gross national income per capita was the tenth-highest in the world at $55,220 in 2017. Correcting for purchasing power, income was Int$52,390 or 16th-highest among the 187 countries. During the last three decades household saving rates in Denmark have increased considerably. This is to a large extent caused by two major institutional changes: A series of tax reforms from 1987 to 2009 considerably reduced the effective subsidization of private debt implicit in the rules for tax deductions of household interest payments. Secondly, compulsory funded pension schemes became normal for most employees from the 1990s. The pension wealth consequently is a very important both for the life-cycle of a typical individual Danish household and for the national economy. A large part of the pension wealth is invested abroad, thus giving rise to a fair amount of foreign capital income. In 2015, average household assets were more than 600% of their disposable income, among OECD countries second only to the Netherlands. At the same time, average household gross debt was almost 300% of disposable income, which is also at the highest level in OECD. Household balance sheets are consequently very large in Denmark compared to most other countries. Danmarks Nationalbank, the Danish central bank, has attributed this to a well-developed financial system. ===Income inequality=== Income inequality has traditionally been low in Denmark. According to OECD figures, in 2000 Denmark had the lowest Gini coefficient of all countries. However, inequality has increased during the last decades. According to data from Statistics Denmark, the Gini coefficient for disposable income has increased from 22.1 in 1987 to 29.3 in 2017. The Danish Economic Council found in an analysis from 2016 that the increasing inequality in Denmark is due to several components: Pre-tax labour income is more unequally distributed today than before, capital income, which is generally less equally distributed than labour income, has increased as share of total income, and economic policy is less redistributive today, both because public income transfers play a smaller role today and because the tax system has become less progressive. In international comparisons, Denmark has a relatively equal income distribution. According to the CIA World Factbook, Denmark had the twentieth-lowest Gini coefficient (29.0) of 158 countries in 2016. According to data from Eurostat, Denmark was the EU country with the seventh-lowest Gini coefficient in 2017. Slovakia, Slovenia, Czechia, Finland, Belgium and the Netherlands had a lower Gini coefficient for disposable income than Denmark. ==Labour market and employment== The Danish labour market is characterized by a high degree of union membership rates and collective agreement coverage dating back from Septemberforliget (The September Settlement) in 1899 when the Danish Confederation of Trade Unions and the Confederation of Danish Employers recognized each other's right to organise and negotiate. The labour market is also traditionally characterized by a high degree of flexicurity, i.e. a combination of labour market flexibility and economic security for workers. The degree of flexibility is in part maintained through active labour market policies. Denmark first introduced active labour market policies (ALMPs) in the 1990s after an economic recession that resulted in high unemployment rates. Its labour market policies are decided through tripartite cooperation between employers, employees and the government. Denmark has one of the highest expenditures on ALMPs and in 2005, spent about 1.7% of its GDP on labour market policies. This was the highest amongst the OECD countries. Similarly, in 2010 Denmark was ranked number one amongst Nordic countries for expenditure on ALMPs. Denmark's active labour market policies particularly focus on tackling youth unemployment. They have had a "youth initiative" or the Danish Youth Unemployment Programme in place since 1996. This includes mandatory activation for those unemployed under the age of 30. While unemployment benefits are provided, the policies are designed to motivate job-seeking. For example, unemployment benefits decrease by 50% after 6 months. This is combined with education, skill development and work training programs. For instance, the Building Bridge to Education program was started in 2014 to provide mentors and skill development classes to youth that are at risk of unemployment. Such active labour market policies have been successful for Denmark in the short-term and the long-term. For example, 80% of participants in the Building Bridge for Education program felt that "the initiative has helped them to move towards completing an education". According to Eurostat, the unemployment rate was 5.7% in 2017. This places unemployment in Denmark somewhat below the EU average, which was 7.6%. 10 EU member countries had a lower unemployment rate than Denmark in 2017. Altogether, total employment in 2017 amounted to 2,919,000 people according to Statistics Denmark. The share of employees leaving jobs every year (for a new job, retirement or unemployment) in the private sector is around 30% – a level also observed in the U.K. and U.S.- but much higher than in continental Europe, where the corresponding figure is around 10%, and in Sweden. This attrition can be very costly, with new and old employees requiring half a year to return to old productivity levels, but with attrition bringing the number of people that have to be fired down. ==Foreign trade== As a small open economy, Denmark is very dependent on its foreign trade. In 2017, the value of total exports of goods and services made up 55% of GDP, whereas the value of total imports amounted to 47% of GDP. Trade in goods made up slightly more than 60% of both exports and imports, and trade in services the remaining close to 40%. Machinery, chemicals and related products like medicine and agricultural products were the largest groups of export goods in 2017. Service exports were dominated by freight sea transport services from the Danish merchant navy. Most of Denmark's most important trading partners are neighbouring countries. The five main importers of Danish goods and services in 2017 were Germany, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States and Norway. The five countries from which Denmark imported most goods and services in 2017 were Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, China and United Kingdom. After having almost consistently an external balance of payments current account deficit since the beginning of the 1960s, Denmark has maintained a surplus on its BOP current account for every year since 1990, with the single exception of 1998. In 2017, the current account surplus amounted to approximately 8% of GDP. Consequently, Denmark has changed from a net debtor to a net creditor country. By 1 July 2018, the net foreign wealth or net international investment position of Denmark was equal to 64.6% of GDP, Denmark thus having the largest net foreign wealth relative to GDP of any EU country. As the annual current account is equal to the value of domestic saving minus total domestic investment, the change from a structural deficit to a structural surplus is due to changes in these two national account components. In particular, the Danish national saving rate in financial assets increased by 11 per cent of GDP from 1980 to 2015. Two main reasons for this large change in domestic saving behaviour were the growing importance of large-scale compulsory pension schemes and several Danish fiscal policy reforms during the period which considerably decreased tax deductions of household interest expense, thus reducing the tax subsidy to private debt. ==Currency and monetary policy== The Danish currency is the Danish krone, subdivided into 100 øre. The krone and øre were introduced in 1875, replacing the former rigsdaler and skilling. Denmark has a very long tradition of maintaining a fixed exchange-rate system, dating back to the period of the gold standard during the time of the Scandinavian Monetary Union from 1873 to 1914. After the breakdown of the international Bretton Woods system in 1971, Denmark devalued the krone repeatedly during the 1970s and the start of the 1980s, effectively maintaining a policy of "fixed, but adjustable" exchange rates. Rising inflation led to Denmark declaring a more consistent fixed exchange-rate policy in 1982. At first, the krone was pegged to the European Currency Unit or ECU, from 1987 to the Deutsche Mark, and from 1999 to the euro. Although eligible, Denmark chose not to join the European Monetary Union when it was founded. In 2000, the Danish government advocated Danish EMU membership and called a referendum to settle the issue. With a turn-out of 87.6%, 53% of the voters rejected Danish membership. Occasionally, the question of calling another referendum on the issue has been discussed, but since the 2008 financial crisis, opinion polls have shown a clear majority against Denmark joining the EMU, and the question is not high on the political agenda presently. Maintenance of the fixed exchange rate is the responsibility of Danmarks Nationalbank, the Danish central bank. As a consequence of the exchange rate policy, the bank must always adjust its interest rates to ensure a stable exchange rate and consequently cannot at the same time conduct monetary policy to stabilize e.g. domestic inflation or unemployment rates. This makes the conduct of stabilization policy fundamentally different from the situation in Denmark's neighbouring countries like Norway, Sweden, Poland and the United Kingdom, in which the central banks have a central stabilizing role. Denmark is presently the only OECD member country maintaining an independent currency with a fixed exchange rate. Consequently, the Danish krone is the only currency in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism II (ERM II), before Bulgaria and Croatia joined in 2020 (the latter uses the euro since 2023) In the first months of 2015, Denmark experienced the largest pressure against the fixed exchange rate for many years because of very large capital inflows, causing a tendency for the Danish krone to appreciate. Inflation in Denmark as measured by the official consumer price index of Statistics Denmark was 1.1% in 2017. ==Government== ===Overall organization=== Since a local-government reform in 2007, the general government organization in Denmark is carried out on three administrative levels: central government, regions, and municipalities. Regions administer mainly health care services, whereas municipalities administer primary education and social services. Municipalities in principle independently levy income and property taxes, but the scope for total municipal taxation and expenditure is closely regulated by annual negotiations between the municipalities and the Finance Minister of Denmark. At the central government level, the Ministry of Finance carries out the coordinating role of conducting economic policy. In 2012, the Danish parliament passed a Budget Law (effective from January 2014) which governs the over-all fiscal framework, stating among other things that the structural deficit must never exceed 0.5% of GDP, and that Danish fiscal policy is required to be sustainable, i.e. have a non-negative fiscal sustainability indicator. The Budget Law also assigned the role of independent fiscal institution (IFI, informally known as "fiscal watchdog") to the already-existing independent advisory body of the Danish Economic Councils. The government sector having a fair amount of financial assets as well as liabilities, government gross debt amounted to 36.1% of GDP at the same date. The gross EMU-debt as percentage of GDP was the sixth-lowest among all 28 EU member countries, only Estonia, Luxembourg, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Romania having a lower gross debt. Denmark had a government budget surplus of 1.1% of GDP in 2017. This implies that under the assumptions employed in the projections, fiscal policy could be permanently loosened (via more generous public expenditures and/or lower taxes) by c. 1% of GDP while still maintaining a stable government debt-to-GDP ratio in the long run. ===Taxation=== The tax level as well as the government expenditure level in Denmark ranks among the highest in the world, which is traditionally ascribed to the Nordic model of which Denmark is an example, including the welfare state principles which historically evolved during the 20th century. In 2022, the official Danish tax level amounted to 42.2% of GDP. The all-record highest Danish tax level was 49.8% of GDP, The OECD average was 34%. The tax structure of Denmark (the relative weight of different taxes) also differs from the OECD average, as the Danish tax system in 2015 was characterized by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income, whereas on the other hand, no revenues at all derive from social security contributions. A lower proportion of revenues in Denmark derive from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas the proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average. Professor of Economics at Princeton University Henrik Kleven has suggested that three distinct policies in Denmark and its Scandinavian neighbours imply that the high tax rates cause only relatively small distortions to the economy: widespread use of third-party information reporting for tax collection purposes (ensuring a low level of tax evasion) broad tax bases (ensuring a low level of tax avoidance) a strong subsidization of goods that are complementary to working (ensuring a high level of labour force participation). in 2023, Denmark considered methods to increase taxes on energy dealers. ===Government Expenditures=== Parallel to the high tax level, government expenditures make up a large part of GDP, and the government sector carries out many different tasks. By September 2018, 831,000 people worked in the general government sector, corresponding to 29.9% of all employees. In 2017, total government expenditure amounted to 50.9% of GDP. Government consumption took up precisely 25% of GDP (e.g. education and health care expenditure), and government investment (infrastructure etc.) expenditure another 3.4% of GDP. Personal income transfers (for e.g. elderly or unemployed people) amounted to 16.8% of GDP. Not every Danish citizen or employee qualifies for a membership of an unemployment fund, and membership benefits will be terminated after 2 years of unemployment. A person that is not a member of an A-kasse cannot receive unemployment benefits. Unemployment funds do not pay benefits to sick members, who will be transferred to a municipal social support system instead. Denmark has a countrywide, but municipally administered social support system against poverty, securing that qualified citizens have a minimum living income. All Danish citizens above 18 years of age can apply for some financial support if they cannot support themselves or their family. Approval is not automatic, and the extent of this system has generally been diminished since the 1980s. Sick people can receive some financial support throughout the extent of their illness. Their ability to work will be re-evaluated by the municipality after 5 months of illness. The welfare system related to the labor market has experienced several reforms and financial cuts since the late 1990s due to political agendas for increasing the labor supply. Several reforms of the rights of the unemployed have followed up, partially inspired by the Danish Economic Council. Halving the time unemployment benefits can be received from four to two years, and making it twice as hard to regain this right, was implemented in 2010 for example. Disabled people can apply for permanent social pensions. The extent of the support depends on the ability to work, and people below 40 can not receive social pension unless they are deemed incapable of any kind of work. == Industries == === Agriculture === Agriculture was once the most important industry in Denmark. Nowadays, it is of minor economic importance. In 2016, 62,000 people, or 2.5% of all employed people worked in agriculture and horticulture. Another 2,000 people worked in fishing. As value added per person is relatively low, the share of national value added is somewhat lower. Total gross value added in agriculture, forestry and fishing amounted to 1.6% of total output in Denmark (in 2017). 63% of the land area of Denmark is used for agricultural production – the highest share in the world according to a report from University of Copenhagen in 2017. The Danish agricultural industry is historically characterized by freehold and family ownership, but due to structural development farms have become fewer and larger. In 2020 the number of farms was approximately 33,000, of which approximately 10,000 were owned by full-time farmers. ==== Animal production ==== The tendency toward fewer and larger farms has been accompanied by an increase in animal production, using fewer resources per produced unit. The number of dairy farmers has reduced to about 3,800 with an average herd size of 150 cows. The milk quota is 1,142 tonnes. More than half of the cows live in new loose-housing systems. Export of dairy products accounts for more than 20 percent of the total Danish agricultural export. The total number of cattle in 2011 was approximately 1.5 million. Of these, 565,000 were dairy cows and 99,000 were suckler cows. The yearly number of slaughtering of beef cattle is around 550,000. For more than 100 years the production of pigs and pig meat was a major source of income in Denmark. Approximately 90 percent of the production is exported. This accounts for almost half of all agricultural exports and for around 5 percent of Denmark's total exports. About 4,200 farmers produce 28 million pigs annually. Of these, 20.9 million are slaughtered in Denmark. Fur animal production on an industrial scale started in the 1930s in Denmark. Prior to a government-mandated culling during the COVID-19 pandemic, Denmark was the world's largest producer of mink furs, with 1,400 mink farmers fostering 17.2 million mink and producing around 14 million furs of the highest quality every year (see mink industry in Denmark). Approximately 98 percent of the skins sold at Kopenhagen Fur Auction were exported. Fur ranked as Danish agriculture's third largest export article, at more than DKK 7 billion annually. The number of farms peaked in the late 1980s at more than 5,000 farms, but the number has declined steadily since, as individual farms grew in size. Mink thrive in, but are not a native to Denmark, and it is considered an invasive species. American Mink are now widespread in Denmark and continues to cause problems for the native wildlife, in particular waterfowl. Denmark also has a small production of fox, chinchilla and rabbit furs. Denmark has the highest retail consumption share for organic products in the world. In 2017, the share was at 13.3%, accounting for a total of DKK 12.1 billion. === Natural resource extraction === Denmark has large proven reserves of oil and natural gas in the North Sea with Esbjerg being the main city for the oil and gas industry. Production has decreased in recent years, though. Whereas in 2006 output (measured as gross value added or GVA) in mining and quarrying industries made up more than 4% of Denmark's total GVA, in 2023 it amounted to 1.1%. The sector is very capital-intensive, so the share of employment is much lower: About 1,000 persons worked in the oil and gas extraction sector in 2022, and another 1,000 persons in extraction of gravel and stone, or in total less than 0.1% of total employment in Denmark. === Engineering and high-tech === Denmark houses a number of significant engineering and high-technology firms, within the sectors of industrial equipment, aerospace, robotics, pharmaceutical and electronics. ==== Electronics and industrial equipment ==== Danfoss, headquartered in Nordborg, designs and manufactures industrial electronics, heating and cooling equipment, as well as drivetrains and power solutions. Denmark is also a large exporter of pumps, with the company Grundfos holding 50% of the market share, manufacturing circulation pumps. === Manufacturing === In 2017, the total output (gross value added) in the manufacturing industry amounted to 14.4% of total output in Denmark. === Service industry === In 2017, the total output (gross value added) in the service industry amounted to 75.2% of total output in Denmark, The railway tracks are maintained by Banedanmark. Copenhagen has a small Metro system, the Copenhagen Metro and the greater Copenhagen area has an extensive electrified suburban railway network, the S-train. Private vehicles are increasingly used as a means of transport. New cars are taxed by means of a registration tax (85% to 150%) and VAT (25%). The motorway network now covers 1,300 km. Denmark is in a strong position in terms of integrating fluctuating and unpredictable energy sources such as wind power in the grid. It is this knowledge that Denmark now aims to exploit in the transport sector by focusing on intelligent battery systems (V2G) and plug-in vehicles. === Energy === Denmark has changed its energy consumption from 99% fossil fuels (92% oil (all imported) and 7% coal) and 1% biofuels in 1972 to 73% fossil fuels (37% oil (all domestic), 18% coal, 18% natural gas (all domestic)), and 27% renewables (largely biofuels) in 2015. The goal is a full independence of fossil fuels by 2050. This drastic change was initially inspired largely by the discovery of Danish oil and gas reserves in the North Sea in 1972 and the 1973 oil crisis. The course took a giant leap forward in 1984, when the Danish North Sea oil and gas fields, developed by native industry in close cooperation with the state, started major productions. In 1997, Denmark became self-sufficient with energy, and the overall emission from the energy sector began to fall by 1996. Wind energy contribution to the total energy consumption has risen from 1% in 1997 to 5% in 2015. Since 2000, Denmark has increased gross domestic product (GDP) and at the same time decreased energy consumption. Since 1972, the overall energy consumption has dropped by 6%, even though the GDP has doubled in the same period. Denmark has had relatively high energy taxation to encourage careful use of energy since the oil crises in the 1970s, and Danish industry has adapted to this and gained a competitive edge. The so-called "green taxes" have been broadly criticised partly for being higher than in other countries, but also for being more of a tool for gathering government revenue than a method of promoting "greener" behaviour. Denmark has low electricity costs (including costs for cleaner energy) in EU, but general taxes (11.7 billion DKK in 2015) , Denmark has no environment tax on electricity. Denmark is a long-time leader in wind energy and a prominent exporter of Vestas and Siemens wind turbines, and in 2019 Denmark's exports of wind-turbine technology and services amounted to 8.9 billion. It has integrated fluctuating and less predictable energy sources such as wind power into the grid. Wind produced the equivalent of 43% of Denmark's total electricity consumption in 2017. The share of total energy production is smaller: In 2015, wind accounted for 5% of total Danish energy production. For both countries, the fishing industry is a major economic activity. Neither Greenland nor the Faroe Islands are members of the European Union. Greenland left the European Economic Community in 1986, and the Faroe Islands declined membership in 1973, when Denmark joined. == Data == The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2023. Inflation under 2% is in green. ==Major companies== Denmark has fostered and is home to many multi-national companies. Many of the largest are interdisciplinary with business – and sometimes research activities – in several fields. The most notable companies include: Agribusiness Arla Foods (dairy) Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab (DLG) (agricultural coop (Danish a.m.b.a.). Main focus is agricultural supply and trade) Danish Crown (meat products) Banking Danske Bank (commercial banking and mortgage lending) Nordea Nykredit Jyske Bank Saxo Bank Sydbank Clothing and attire ECCO (shoe and leather accessories manufacturer and retailer) Bestseller Construction FLSmidth (global supplier of equipment and services to the cement and minerals industries) Rockwool (mineral wool producer with production in 28 countries) Velux (windows and skylights production, owned by Villum Foundation) Rambøll COWI Energy technology Vestas (wind turbines) Siemens Wind Power (wind turbines) Danfoss (climate and energy) Grundfos (the world's largest pump manufacturer) NKT Cables Group A/S (Power cables and subsea umbilicals, owner of subsidiary Nilfisk-Advance) Ørsted (company) (Formerly known as DONG energy) Electronics Linak Bang and Olufsen (hi-fi equipment) Nilfisk Ortofon Danfoss Food and drink Carlsberg (brewing company) Royal Unibrew Chr. Hansen (food ingredients and enzymes) Danisco (enzymes, biotechnology and pharmaceutical supplier) Insurance Alm. Brand Tryg Medical equipment Widex William Demant Pharmaceutical and biotechnology Many of the largest food producers are also engaged in biotechnology and research. Notable companies dedicated to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology sector, includes: H. Lundbeck Novo Nordisk LEO Pharma Coloplast Dansac (owner Hollister Inc) Novozymes Pharma Nord Pharmacosmos ALK-Abelló Genmab RosePharma Santaris Pharma A/S Veloxis Pharmaceuticals Zealand Pharma Retail Salling Group (retail business) Coop Danmark, (part of the multi-sector Coop amba, formerly known as FDB until 2013) Dagrofa Transport A. P. Moller-Maersk Group (Maersk – conglomerate: shipping) Blue Water Shipping DFDS DSV Scan Global Logistics USTC (conglomerate: shipping, trading) Miscellaneous ISS (facility services) The Lego Group, as of 2014 the world's largest toy manufacturer by sales (in the first half of 2015, it made $2.1 billion in sales) Terma A/S, aerospace and defense === Cooperatives === Denmark has a long tradition for cooperative production and trade on a large scale. The most notable cooperative societies today includes the agricultural coop of Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab (DLG), dairy producer Arla Foods and the retail cooperative Coop Danmark. Coop Danmark started out as "Fællesforeningen for Danmarks Brugsforeninger" (FDB) in 1896 and now has around 1.4 million members in Denmark as of 2017. It is part of the larger multi-sector cooperative Coop amba which has 1.7 million members in that same year. The cooperative structure also extends to both the housing and banking sector. Arbejdernes Landsbank, founded in 1919, is the largest bank cooperative and it is currently the 6th largest bank in the country as of 2018. The municipality of Copenhagen alone holds a total of 153 housing cooperatives and "Arbejdernes Andelsboligforening Århus" (AAB Århus) is the largest individual housing cooperative in Denmark, with 23,000 homes in Aarhus. === Statistics === In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Denmark is Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 204,853 companies followed by Services and Retail Trade with 204,050 and 30,563 companies respectively.	[ "Funen", "2008 financial crisis", "devaluation", "Copenhagen Malmö Port", "Cogeneration", "ALK-Abelló", "Dagrofa", "mink", "Salling Group", "mink industry in Denmark", "Greenland", "Rambøll", "net international investment position", "Bang and Olufsen", "Standard & Poor's", "merchant navy", "Arne Jacobsen", "H. Lundbeck", "Novozymes", "tax base", "stabilization policy", "List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI", "Danish Ministry of Taxation", "collective agreement coverage", "Economy of the Faroe Islands", "income distribution", "Coop Danmark", "COVID-19 pandemic in Denmark", "biotechnology", "Denmark", "invasive species", "Princeton University", "Esbjerg", "List of European countries by average wage", "Welfare state", "economy of Finland", "Banedanmark", "stagflation", "building society", "Danish krone", "Sydbank", "Alm. Brand", "Rockwool International", "Blue Water Shipping", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Malmö", "Danish kroner", "youth unemployment", "Royal Unibrew", "welfare state", "FLSmidth", "Santaris Pharma A/S", "ISS A/S", "European Monetary Union", "Copenhagen Metro", "William Demant", "COWI", "Henrik Kleven", "Danmarks Nationalbank", "mercantilist", "Angus Maddison", "Danish Economic Councils", "consumer price index", "family farm", "financial system", "tax deduction", "S-train", "World Trade Organization", "energy security", "balance sheets", "Nykredit", "Jyske Bank", "labour market flexibility", "pump", "EU Independent Fiscal Institutions Network", "Coop amba", "national accounts", "Nordea", "window", "joule", "IMF", "Sound Toll", "Nilfisk", "Transparency International", "Aarhus", "Purchasing power parity", "Active Labor Market Policies in Denmark", "minimum wage", "gross national income", "Public service obligation", "subsea umbilicals", "Danish Energy Agency", "Coloplast", "LVMH", "Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab", "Glostrup Municipality", "North Sea", "Finance Minister of Denmark", "Medical equipment", "The Lego Group", "flexicurity", "marginal tax", "Villum Foundation", "Chr. Hansen", "European Currency Unit", "mixed economy", "railway tracks", "Eurostat", "øre", "fishing industry", "European debt crisis", "structural unemployment", "Human Development Report", "Ministry of Finance (Denmark)", "DFDS", "Fur farming", "cooperative", "OECD", "small open economy", "brewing company", "interest expense", "2000 Danish euro referendum", "European Union", "Svend Aage Hansen", "national accounting", "Current account (balance of payments)", "Organic farming", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "Novo Nordisk", "Copenhagen Municipality", "Copenhagen", "A. P. Moller-Maersk Group", "Vehicle-to-grid", "da:Vestforbrænding", "Electric vehicle", "Mode of transport", "transmission system operator", "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita", "Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union", "active labour market policies", "monetary policy", "Vestas", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "Energinet.dk", "1973 oil crisis", "GATT", "Stone Age", "Bretton Woods system", "University of Copenhagen", "Amager Bakke", "mineral wool", "Linak", "Statistics Denmark", "Arbejdernes Landsbank", "DSB (railway company)", "Danisco", "Svend Tveskæg", "American Mink", "Unemployment benefits in Denmark", "United Nations Development Programme", "euro", "Pharmacosmos", "North Atlantic Ocean", "Value added tax", "Transfer payment", "Ortofon", "autonomous administrative division", "public debate", "Danish rigsdaler", "inflation targeting", "mortgage industry of Denmark", "Tryg", "Nokia", "Danish Regions", "Wegovy", "Local Government Denmark", "Waste-to-energy", "Power cables", "North Sea oil", "Siemens Wind Power", "Euro", "Ozempic", "minerals", "Income inequality", "Skylight (window)", "NKT Cables Group A/S", "Genmab", "Danish Confederation of Trade Unions", "fossil fuels", "structural deficit", "Dutch disease", "Veloxis Pharmaceuticals", "World Bank", "Great Belt Power Link", "business cycle", "List of countries by GDP (nominal)", "Overheating (economics)", "fixed exchange-rate system", "fiscal sustainability", "ECCO", "tax reform", "DB Schenker Rail", "gross value added", "Faroe Islands", "Velux", "Developed country", "World Bank high-income economy", "corporate tax", "United Shipping & Trading Company", "Terma A/S", "central bank", "Danfoss", "Grundfos", "Deutsche Mark", "balance of payments", "Valdemar I of Denmark", "International Monetary Fund", "Kurantbanken", "OEEC", "Danske Bank", "List of countries by GDP (PPP)", "private debt", "Zealand (Denmark)", "Pharma Nord", "WTO", "Great Recession", "wind turbine", "Nilfisk-Advance", "life expectancy", "Primary energy", "LEO Pharma", "sustainable production", "Arla Foods", "Scandinavian Monetary Union", "district heating", "Bestseller (company)", "Asiatisk Kompagni", "chinchilla", "da:Andelsselskab med begrænset ansvar", "Ørsted (company)", "DSV (company)", "Scan Global Logistics", "European Economic Community", "economic inequality", "Øresund Bridge", "tax avoidance", "Economy of Greenland", "Nordic model", "Lego", "Zealand Pharma", "Carlsberg Group", "List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita", "Tranquebar", "Regional policy of the European Union", "Mercantilism", "pension fund", "gold standard", "Nordborg", "hi-fi", "International Energy Agency", "service sector", "Pharmaceutical", "List of Danish companies", "union membership", "Saxo Bank", "tax evasion", "subsistence level", "Dansac", "Great Belt Fixed Link", "Widex", "disposable income", "Tourism in Denmark", "RosePharma", "Corruption Perceptions Index", "Geary–Khamis dollar", "saving rate", "Danish Crown AmbA", "Excise", "payment", "Dagbladet Information", "Gini coefficient", "value added", "European Exchange Rate Mechanism", "Skilling (currency)", "fishing industry in Denmark" ]
8,037	Transport in Denmark	Transport in Denmark is developed and modern. The motorway network covers 1,111 km while the railway network totals 2,667 km of operational track. The Great Belt Fixed Link (opened in 1997) connecting the islands of Zealand and Funen and the New Little Belt Bridge (opened in 1970) connecting Funen and Jutland greatly improved the traffic flow across the country on both motorways and rail. The two largest airports of Copenhagen and Billund provide a variety of domestic and international connections, while ferries provide services to the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Germany, Sweden, and Norway, as well as domestic routes servicing most Danish islands. == Air == In 2011, a total of appr. 28 million passengers used Danish airports. Copenhagen Airport is the largest airport in Scandinavia, handling approximately 29m passengers per year (2016). It is located at Kastrup, 8 km south-east of central Copenhagen. It is connected by train to Copenhagen Central Station and beyond as well as to Malmö and other towns in Sweden. For the west of the country, the major airport is Billund (3m passengers in 2016) although both Aalborg (1.4m passengers in 2011) and Aarhus (591.000 passengers in 2011) have smaller airports with regular connections to Copenhagen. === List of airports === Denmark's main airports are: Copenhagen Airport (CPH), Scandinavia's busiest passenger airport located at Kastrup to the south-east of Copenhagen city and handling over 29 million passengers a year. Billund Airport (BLL), in central Jutland, one of Denmark's busiest cargo centres as well as a popular charter airline destination and an airport for regular flights serving 3 million passengers a year, mainly from the western part of the country. Aalborg Airport (AAL), located 5 km northwest of Aalborg, is Denmark's third busiest airport serving around 1,4 million passengers a year in connections with 25 European destinations and one of Europes busiest domestic lines to Copenhagen. Aarhus Airport (AAR), located 39 km northeast of Århus, serves some 540,000 passengers a year. Other airports include: Karup Airport (KRP) near Viborg in the west of Jutland, mainly serving Copenhagen with some 200,000 passengers a year. Bornholm Airport (RNN) 5 km from the centre of Rønne in the southwest of the island of Bornholm, with several regular flights to Copenhagen a day. Esbjerg Airport (EBJ), a small airport in the west of Jutland with regular flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger (although primarily serving North Sea Oilrigs). Sønderborg Airport (SGD), in the very south of Jutland with connections to Copenhagen. Roskilde Airport (RKE), 7 km southeast of Roskilde and some 38 km southwest of Copenhagen, serves mainly airtaxi and private business traffic. ==Sea== Being an island state with a long coastline and always close to the sea, maritime transport has always been important in Denmark. From the primitive dugouts of the Stone Age to the complex designs of the Viking ships in the Viking Age, often built to exactly facilitate large scale cargo and passenger transportation. Denmark also engaged in the large scale cargo freights and slave transports of the European colonization endeavours in the Middle Ages and operated several smaller colonies of its own across the globe by the means of seafaring. Today Denmark's ports handle some 48 million passengers and 109 million tonnes of cargo per year. ===Passenger traffic=== Passenger traffic is made up partly of ferry crossings within Denmark, partly of international ferry crossings and partly of cruise ship passengers. Some short ferry routes are being electrified and several more may be eligible, as in Norway. Among the most important ports for passenger traffic (thousands of passengers per year in 2007) are: Helsingør 10,967 Rødbyhavn 7,058 Frederikshavn 2,894 Sjællands Odde 2,233 Esbjerg 1,827 Gedser 1,612 Aarhus 1,583 Rønne 1,522 Ebeltoft 962 Copenhagen 872 In 2007, 288 cruise ships visited Copenhagen, rising to 376 in 2011 before returning to around 300 the following years. Around 800,000 cruise passengers and 200,000 crew visit Copenhagen each year. ===Cargo traffic=== Among the most important ports for cargo traffic (millions of tonnes per year in 2007) are: Fredericia 15,327 Aarhus 12,189 Copenhagen 7,379 Helsingør 4,480 Esbjerg 4,476 Kalundborg 3,714 Frederikshavn 3,200 Aalborg Portland 2,999 Aalborg 2,749 Odense 2,616 ===Waterways=== Waterways have historically and traditionally been crucial to local transportation in Denmark proper. Especially the Gudenå river-system in central Jutland, has played an important role. The waterways were navigated by wooden barges and later on steamboats. A few historical steamboats are still in operation, like the SS Hjejlen from 1861 at Silkeborg. There is a 160 km natural canal through the shallow Limfjorden in northern Jutland, linking the North Sea to the Kattegat. Many waterways has formerly been redirected and led through manmade canals in the 1900s, but mainly for agricultural purposes and not to facilitate transportation on any major scale. Several cities have manmade canals used for transportation and traffic purposes. Of special mention are the canals of Copenhagen and the Odense Canal, ferrying large numbers of both tourists and local citizens. === Merchant marine === Denmark has a large merchant fleet relative to its size. In 2018, the fleet surpassed 20 million gt as the government sought to repatriate Danish-owned tonnage registered abroad, with measures including removal of the registration fee. Denmark has created its own international register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS), open to commercial vessels only. DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations. == Railways == The largest railway operator in Denmark is Danske Statsbaner (DSB) — Danish State Railways. Arriva operates some routes in Jutland, and several other smaller operators provide local services. The total length of operational track is 3,476 km standard gauge, with 1,756 km electrified. The railway system is connected to Sweden by bridge in Copenhagen and ferry in Helsingør and Frederikshavn, by land to Germany in Padborg and ferry in Rødby and to Norway by ferry in Hirtshals. == Roads == The road network in 2017 totalled 74,558 km of paved road. In comparison, Denmark's coastline is . As a unique feature, Denmark has a VIN-system for bicycles which is mandatory by law. Often bicycling and bicycle culture in Denmark is compared to the Netherlands as a bicycle-nation. Bikecultureincopenhagen.jpg\|Bicycle rush hour in Copenhagen. Cycle counter.jpg\|Heavily trafficked roads in the inner cities, often have cycle lanes. Frederiksgade (Aarhus).JPG\|A bike road in central Aarhus. Egådalen.jpg\|A cross country bikeway route. == Pipelines == Figures in 2015: Crude oil: 330 km Petroleum products: 578 km (2007) Natural gas: 1536 km	[ "Funen", "Norway", "Greenland", "Great Belt Bridge", "Transport in the Faroe Islands", "Frederikshavn", "Atlantic slave trade", "Zealand", "Denmark", "Esbjerg", "Natural gas", "Road traffic in Denmark", "Great Belt", "Billund Airport", "Malmö", "Viking ship", "SS Hjejlen", "recreation", "bicycle path", "Aalborg Airport", "Kattegat", "Dugout (boat)", "Danish colonial empire", "bicycle culture", "Nordic Stone Age", "Germany", "Arriva", "Aarhus", "Category:Canals in Copenhagen", "Jutland", "Viking Age", "Danske Statsbaner", "Ebeltoft", "Kastrup", "North Sea", "Roskilde Airport", "steamboat", "Little Belt Bridge (1970)", "Danish bicycle VIN-system", "Gudenå", "Rønne", "Rødbyhavn", "Copenhagen", "Gedser", "Electric boat", "Helsingør", "Danish Maritime Authority", "Sønderborg Airport", "segregated cycle facilities", "Copenhagen Central Station", "Esbjerg Airport", "Gross tonnage", "utility cycling", "Sjællands Odde", "Odense Canal", "Copenhagen Airport", "Danish Realm", "Karup Airport", "Odense", "VisitDenmark", "traffic flow", "Aarhus Airport", "Petroleum", "Bicycle-friendly", "Faroe Islands", "Aberdeen", "History of colonialism", "Iceland", "Scandinavia", "HH Ferry route", "cycling in the Netherlands", "Silkeborg", "Kalundborg", "Roskilde", "Limfjorden", "Zealand (Denmark)", "Transport in Norway", "Bornholm Airport", "Teknisk Ukeblad", "barge", "Port of Copenhagen", "Øresund Bridge", "Crude oil", "Aalborg", "Transport in Greenland", "Sweden", "Great Belt Fixed Link", "Fredericia", "Stavanger", "WP:SDNONE", "Viborg, Denmark", "national and regional bicycle routes throughout Denmark" ]
8,038	Danish Defence	{{Infobox national military \| name = Danish Defence \| native_name = \| image = \| alt = \| caption = Coat of arms \| image2 = Flag of Denmark (state).svg \| alt2 = \| caption2 = War flag and Ensign of Denmark \| motto = () \| founded = \| current_form = Defence Agreement 2018–23 \| disbanded = \| branches = Royal Danish Army Royal Danish Navy Royal Danish Air Force Home Guard \| headquarters = Holmen Naval Base, Copenhagen, Denmark \| website = \| commander-in-chief = Frederik X \| commander-in-chief_title = Monarch \| chief minister = Mette Frederiksen \| chief minister_title = Prime Minister \| minister = Troels Lund Poulsen \| minister_title = \| commander = General \| commander_title = Chief of Defence \| age = 18 for voluntary service \| conscription = Yes, for men. \| manpower_data = 2023 \| manpower_age = 18–49 \| available = 2,605,137 \| fit = 2,107,794 \| fit_f = \| reaching = 76,970 \| reaching_f = \| active = 21,000 military & 4,638 civilian (2024) \| ranked = \| reserve = 12,000 + 51,000 volunteers in the Home Guard \| deployed = 800 (2024) \| amount = DKK 68,67 billion (2024)(€9.2 billion) \| percent_GDP = 2.37% (2024) Since the creation of a standing military in 1510, the armed forces have seen action in many wars, most involving Sweden, but also involving the world's great powers, including the Thirty Years' War, the Great Northern War, and the Napoleonic Wars. Today, the armed forces consists of: the Royal Danish Army, Denmark's principal land warfare branch; the Royal Danish Navy, a blue-water navy with a fleet of 20 commissioned ships; and the Royal Danish Air Force, an air force with an operational fleet consisting of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft. The Defence also includes the Home Guard. Under the Danish Defence Law the Minister of Defence serves as the commander of Danish Defence (through the Chief of Defence and the Defence Command) and the Danish Home Guard (through the Home Guard Command). De facto the Danish Cabinet is the commanding authority of the Defence, though it cannot mobilize the armed forces, for purposes that are not strictly defence oriented, without the consent of parliament. ==History== ===Origins=== The modern Danish military can be traced back to 1510, with the creation of the permanent Royal Danish Navy. During this time, the Danish Kingdom held considerable territories, including Schleswig-Holstein, Norway, and colonies in Africa and the Americas. It was however only after the lessons of joint operations in World War II, the branches were reorganized and collected under the newly created Danish Defence. During the Cold War, Denmark began to rebuild its military and to prepare for possible attacks by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. During this time Denmark participated in a number of UN peacekeeping missions including UNEF and UNFICYP. Following the end of the Cold War, Denmark began a more active foreign policy, deciding to participate in international operations. This began with the participation in the Bosnian War, where the Royal Danish Army served as part of the United Nations Protection Force and were in two skirmishes. This was the first time the Danish Army was a part of a combat operation since World War 2. On April 29, 1994, the Royal Danish Army, while on an operation to relieve an observation post as part of the United Nations Protection Force, the Jutland Dragoon Regiment came under artillery fire from the town of Kalesija. The United Nations Protection Force quickly returned fire and eliminated the artillery positions. On October 24, 1994, the Royal Danish Army, while on an operation to reinforce an observation post in the town of Gradačac, were fired upon by a T-55 Bosnian Serb tank. One of the three Danish Leopard 1 tanks experienced slight damage, but all returned fired and put the T-55 tank out of action. With the September 11 attacks, Denmark joined US forces in the War on terror, participating in both the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War. In Afghanistan, 37 soldiers have been killed in various hostile engagements or as a result of friendly fire, and 6 have been killed in non-combat related incidents, bringing the number of Danish fatalities to 43, being the highest loss per capita within the coalition forces. Denmark has since participated in Operation Ocean Shield, the 2011 military intervention in Libya and the American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War. U.S. President Donald Trump announced in January 2025 that he wanted to "buy" Greenland and express claims to the area belonging to Denmark. Danish politicians decided to significantly increase the military presence in Greenland and invest almost two billion euros to increase security in the strategically important Arctic region. The Ministry of Defense is planning three new ships for the Danish Arctic Navy (MPV80-class vessels), two additional long-range drones and satellites for better surveillance. ==Purpose and task== The purpose of the Danish Defence is to prevent conflicts and war, preserve the sovereignty of Denmark, secure the continuing existence and integrity of the independent Kingdom of Denmark and further a peaceful development in the world with respect to human rights. This is defined in Law no. 122 of 27 February 2001 which took effect 1 March 2001. Its primary tasks are: NATO participation in accordance with the strategy of the alliance, detect and repel any sovereignty violation of Danish territory (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), defence cooperation with non-NATO members, especially Central and East European countries, international missions in the area of conflict prevention, crisis-control, humanitarian, peacemaking, peacekeeping, participation in Total Defence in cooperation with civilian resources and finally maintenance of a sizable force to execute these tasks at all times. ===Total defence=== Total Defence () is "the use of all resources in order to maintain an organized and functional society, and to protect the population and values of society". This is achieved by combining the military, Home Guard, Danish Emergency Management Agency and elements of the police. The concept of total defence was created following World War II, where it was clear that the defence of the country could not only rely on the military, but there also need to be other measures to ensure a continuation of society. ==Defence budget== Since 1988, Danish defence budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year white paper agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties. However, public opposition to increases in defence spending—during periods of economic constraints require reduced spending for social welfare — has created differences among the political parties regarding a broadly acceptable level of new defence expenditure. The Defence agreement ("Defence Agreement 2018–23") was signed 28 January 2018, and calls for an increase in spending, cyber security and capabilities to act in international operations and international stabilization efforts. The reaction speed is increased, with an entire brigade on standby readiness; the military retains the capability to continually deploy 2,000 soldiers in international service or 5,000 over a short time span. The standard mandatory conscription is expanded to include 500 more, with some of these having a longer service time, with more focus on national challenges. ===Expenditures=== In 2006 the Danish military budget was the fifth largest single portion of the Danish Government's total budget, significantly less than that of the Ministry of Social Affairs (≈110 billion DKK), Ministry of Employment (≈67 billion DKK), Ministry of the Interior and Health (≈66 billion DKK) and Ministry of Education (≈30 billion DKK) and only slightly larger than that of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (≈14 billion DKK). This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish Ministry of Defence. The Danish Defence Force, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1–5% of its expenditures, depending on the year. They are not deducted in this listing. Approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard. Depending on year, 50–53% accounts for payment to personnel, roughly 14–21% on acquiring new material, 2–8% for larger ships, building projects or infrastructure and about 24–27% on other items, including purchasing of goods, renting, maintenance, services and taxes. The remaining 5% is special expenditures to NATO, branch shared expenditures, special services and civil structures, here in including running the Danish Maritime Safety Administration, Danish Emergency Management Agency and the Administration of Conscientious Objectors (Militærnægteradministrationen ). Because Denmark has a small and highly specialized military industry, the vast majority of Danish Defence's equipment is imported from NATO and the Nordic countries. ====Yearly data==== There are significant differences between the Danish method and the NATO method of calculating defense budgets (among others due to what can be included), with the former resulting a considerably lower numbers than the latter. Danish Defence expenditures (1990–) ==Branches== ===Royal Danish Army=== The Danish Royal Army () consists of 2 brigades, organised into 3 regiments, and a number of support centres, all commanded through the Army Staff. The army is a mixture of Mechanized infantry and Armoured cavalry with limited capabilities in Armoured warfare. The army also provides protection for the Danish royal family, in the form of the Royal Guard Company and the Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron. ===Royal Danish Navy=== The Royal Danish Navy () consists of frigates, patrol vessels, mine-countermeasure vessels, and other miscellaneous vessels, many of which are issued with the modular mission payload system StanFlex. The navy's chief responsibility is maritime defence and maintaining the sovereignty of Danish, Greenlandic and Faroese territorial waters. A submarine service existed within the Royal Danish Navy for 95 years. ===Royal Danish Air Force=== The Royal Danish Air Force () consists of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft. ===Danish Home Guard=== The Home Guard is voluntary service responsible for defence of the country, but has since 2008 also supported the army, in Afghanistan and Kosovo. ==Structure== Danish Defence Defence Command Army Command Royal Danish Army Naval Command Royal Danish Navy Air Command Royal Danish Air Force Special Operations Command (SOKOM) Joint Arctic Command Plans and Capability Staff Joint Operations Staff Royal Danish Defence College Royal Danish Military Academy Army NCO School Royal Danish Naval Academy Naval NCO School Royal Danish Air Force Academy Air Force NCO School Royal Danish Defence Language Academy Defence Medical Command Defence Maintenance Service ==Special forces== SOCOM Jægerkorpset: Ground-based infiltration unit. Frømandskorpset: Amphibious attack and infiltration unit. Slædepatruljen Sirius: Arctic dog sled unit patrolling the eastern border of Greenland. ==Operations== Current deployment of Danish forces, per 10-03-2016: ===NATO=== A Challenger CL-604 MMA for maritime patrol in the Baltic Sea as part of NATO Allied Maritime Command. 35 soldiers in Kosovo participating in NATO's Kosovo Force, guarding the French Camp Marechal De Lattre de Tassigny. 97 people in Afghanistan as part of Resolute Support Mission. HDMS Absalon patrolling the Aegean Sea for human trafficking (September 2016). ===UN=== 20 people in Bamako and Gao, as part of MINUSMA. 13 people in Juba, as part of UNMISS. 11 people in Israel, as part of UNTSO. 2 people in South Korea, as part of UNCMAC. ===National Missions=== 12 men on the Sirius Patrol of Eastern Greenland. A Challenger CL-604 MMA to fly patrol over Greenland. Rota between HDMS Lauge Koch, HDMS Knud Rasmussen, HDMS Triton and HDMS Thetis to enact sovereignty patrol in the seas of Greenland and Faroe Islands. A Challenger CL-604 MMA to do maritime environmental monitoring missions in the North Sea. ===Coalitions=== 149 people at Al Asad Airbase in Iraq to train the local military as part of Operation Inherent Resolve. 8 people operating radars as part of the radar element in Operation Inherent Resolve. 20 people in UAE as part of the operator element in Operation Inherent Resolve. Unknown number of Danish special forces in Senegal to train the local special forces as part of Flintlock 2016. ==Personnel== ===Women in the military=== Women in the military can be traced back to 1946, with the creation of Lottekorpset. This corps allowed women to serve, however, without entering with the normal armed forces, and they were not allowed to carry weapons. In 1962, women were allowed in the military. Currently 1,122 or 7.3% of all personnel in the armed forces are women. Women do not have to serve conscription in Denmark, since 1998, it is however possible to serve under conscription-like circumstances; 17% of those serving conscription or conscription-like are women. Between 1991 and 31 December 2017, 1,965 women have been deployed to different international missions. Of those 3 women have lost their lives. In 1998, Police Constable Gitte Larsen was killed in Hebron on the West Bank. In 2003, Overkonstabel Susanne Lauritzen was killed in a traffic accident in Kosovo. In 2010, the first woman was killed in a combat situation, when Konstabel Sophia Bruun was killed by an IED in Afghanistan. In 2005, Line Bonde became the first female fighter pilot in Denmark. In 2016, Lone Træholt became the first female general. She was the only female general in the Danish armed forces until the army promoted Jette Albinus to the rank of brigadier general on 11 September 2017. In May 2018, the Royal Life Guards was forced to lower the height requirements for women, as the Danish Institute of Human Rights decided it was discrimination. ===Conscription=== Technically all Danish 18-year-old males are conscripts (37,897 in 2010, of whom 53% were considered suitable for duty). Due to the large number of volunteers, 96-99% of the number required in the past three years, the number of men actually called up is relatively low (4,200 in 2012). There were additionally 567 female volunteers in 2010, who pass training on "conscript-like" conditions. Conscripts to Danish Defence (army, navy and air force) generally serve four months, except: Conscripts of the Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron serve 12 months. Conscripts with Cyber-conscription, who serve 10 months. Conscripts aboard the Royal Yacht Dannebrog serve nine months. Conscripts in the Danish Emergency Management Agency serve nine months. Conscripts in the Royal Life Guards serve eight months. There has been a right of conscientious objection since 1917.	[ "Royal Danish Navy", "Frederik X of Denmark", "Ministry of Social Affairs (Denmark)", "Norway", "Central Europe", "Ensign (flag)", "Greenland", "Conscription in Denmark", "Ministry of Education of Denmark", "Slædepatruljen Sirius", "Patrol boat", "West Bank", "Army NCO School (Denmark)", "Gradačac", "air force", "War on terror", "white paper", "Joint Arctic Command", "First World War", "Denmark", "humanitarian aid", "Kosovo", "MINUSMA", "Danish krone", "T-54/T-55", "Arctic region", "Joint warfare", "Royal Danish Defence Language Academy", "Cold War", "Danish royal family", "peacekeeping", "Measures of national income and output", "Denmark during World War I", "Line Bonde", "great power", "Unity of command", "Iraq War", "Jette Albinus", "Nordic countries", "Parliament of Denmark", "Aegean Sea", "brigade", "armed forces", "Royal Danish Air Force", "2011 military intervention in Libya", "Danish colonial empire", "Amphibious warfare", "Afghanistan", "Soviet Union", "Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Denmark", "Royal Danish Defence College", "Donald Trump", "UNCMAC", "Warsaw Pact", "Interwar period", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "Danish Defence Medical Command", "Bosnian War", "Royal Life Guards (Denmark)", "Great Northern War", "Mette Frederiksen", "September 11 attacks", "Battle of Colberger Heide", "NATO", "frigate", "Air Force NCO School (Denmark)", "Schleswig-Holstein", "Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina", "North Sea", "1948 Easter Crisis", "Nigerian Navy", "Allied Maritime Command", "North Atlantic Treaty", "Army Command (Denmark)", "Police of Denmark", "Baltic Sea", "JP/Politikens Hus A/S", "HDMS Absalon (L16)", "United Nations Emergency Force", "Danish Defence Media Agency", "Guard Company (Denmark)", "Leopard 1", "Jean de Lattre de Tassigny", "conscientious objection", "Royal Danish Army", "blue-water navy", "Army Staff (Denmark)", "HDMS Knud Rasmussen (P570)", "Holmen Naval Base", "Special Operations Command (Denmark)", "Al Asad Airbase", "HDMS Lauge Koch", "Prime Minister of Denmark", "Copenhagen", "War flag", "Ministry of Defence (Denmark)", "Home Guard Command (Denmark)", "De facto", "Kosovo Force", "HDMY Dannebrog (A540)", "Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron", "Constitution of Denmark", "cabinet of Denmark", "UNMISS", "Hebron", "Sophia Bruun", "Danish Emergency Management Agency", "United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus", "Resolute Support Mission", "Ministry of the Interior and Health of Denmark", "UNTSO", "Military history of Denmark", "Danish Defence Agreement 2018–23", "StanFlex", "Naval NCO School (Denmark)", "human trafficking", "Minesweeper", "Defence Command (Denmark)", "Kalesija", "Senegal", "HDMS Triton (F358)", "Operation Ocean Shield", "Arctic", "Danish Maritime Safety Administration", "sovereignty", "German invasion of Denmark (1940)", "Troels Lund Poulsen", "Armoured cavalry", "International Security Assistance Force", "Chief of Defence (Denmark)", "Home Guard (Denmark)", "American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War", "Faroe Islands", "Royal Danish Naval Academy", "Armoured warfare", "Jægerkorpset", "World War II", "United Nations Protection Force", "Ministry of Defence of Denmark", "Royal Danish Air Force Academy", "Lone Træholt", "Military in Greenland", "Military ranks of Denmark", "Iraq", "territorial waters", "Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs (Denmark)", "per capita", "Mechanized infantry", "T-55", "Napoleonic Wars", "Joint Combined Exchange Training", "Danmarks Statistik", "Royal Danish Military Academy", "University of Texas at Arlington", "Bombardier Challenger 600 series", "Danish Agency for Governmental Management", "Commander-in-chief", "cyber security", "Thirty Years' War", "Air Command (Denmark)", "UAE", "Danish Frogman Corps", "Rosenborg Castle", "Hunter Corps", "Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve", "Folketing", "Minister of Defence (Denmark)", "Danish Defence Maintenance Service", "dog sled", "Sweden", "Scandinavian defence union", "Naval Command (Denmark)", "Second Schleswig War", "commander-in-chief", "land warfare", "Jutland Dragoon Regiment", "Monarchy of Denmark", "Danish Home Guard", "HDMS Thetis (F357)" ]
8,039	Foreign relations of Denmark	The foreign policy of Denmark is based on its identity as a sovereign state in Europe, the Arctic and the North Atlantic. As such its primary foreign policy focus is on its relations with other nations as a sovereign state compromising the three constituent countries: Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Denmark has long had good relations with other nations. It has been involved in coordinating Western assistance to the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). The country is a strong supporter of international peacekeeping. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), with IFOR, and now SFOR. Denmark also strongly supported American operations in Afghanistan and has contributed both monetarily and materially to the ISAF. These initiatives are a part of the "active foreign policy" of Denmark. Instead of the traditional adaptative foreign policy of The unity of the Realm, Kingdom of Denmark is today pursuing an active foreign policy, where human rights, democracy and other crucial values are to be defended actively. In recent years, Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been guaranteed a say in foreign policy issues, such as fishing, whaling and geopolitical concerns. Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred-year-long policy of neutrality. Denmark has been a member of NATO since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular. There were several serious confrontations between the U.S. and Denmark on security policy in the so-called "footnote era" (1982–88), when an alternative parliamentary majority forced the government to adopt specific national positions on nuclear and arms control issues. The alternative majority in these issues was because the Social liberal Party (Radikale Venstre) supported the governing majority in economic policy issues, but was against certain NATO policies and voted with the left in these issues. The conservative led Centre-right government accepted this variety of "minority parliamentarism", that is, without making it a question of the government's parliamentary survival. In December 1992, the rest of the EC agreed to exempt Denmark from certain aspects of the European Union, including a common security and defense policy, a common currency, EU citizenship, and certain aspects of legal cooperation. The Amsterdam Treaty was approved in the referendum of 28 May 1998. In the autumn of 2000, Danish citizens rejected membership of the Euro currency group in a referendum. The Lisbon treaty was ratified by the Danish parliament alone. It was not considered a surrendering of national sovereignty, which would have implied the holding of a referendum according to article 20 of the constitution. ==History== In 1807 Denmark was neutral but Britain bombarded Copenhagen and seized the Danish Navy, Denmark became an ally of Napoleon. After Napoleon was profoundly defeated in Russia in 1812, the Allies repeatedly offered King Frederick VI a proposal to change sides and break with Napoleon. The king refused. Therefore, at the peace of Kiel in 1814, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden. Denmark thus became one of the chief losers of the Napoleonic Wars. Danish historiography portrayed King Frederick VI as stubborn and incompetent, and motivated by a blind loyalty to Napoleon. A more recent Danish historiographical approach emphasizes the Danish state was multi-territorial, and included the semi – separate Kingdom of Norway. It was dependent for food on grain imports controlled by Napoleon, and worried about Swedish ambitions. From the king's perspective, these factors called for an alliance with Napoleon. Furthermore, the king expected the war would end in a negotiated international conference, with Napoleon playing a powerful role that included saving Norway for Denmark. ===1900–1945=== The Danish government responded to the First World War by declaring neutrality 1914–1918. It maintained that status until 1945 and accordingly adjusted trade; humanitarianism; diplomacy; and attitudes. The war thus reshaped economic relations and shifting domestic power balances. === 1990– === Since the end of the Cold War, Denmark has become more supportive of U.S. foreign policy. Denmark supported the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 and contributed assets to the invasion. Denmark also participated in the Afghanistan War. ==Settled international disputes== Hans Island. An island located between Greenland and Canadian Arctic islands. Unresolved boundary disputed between Canada and Denmark (The state of Denmark is responsible for Greenland's foreign relations). This dispute flared up again in July 2005 following the visit of a Canadian minister to the disputed island. On 14 June 2022 both countries agreed to split the disputed island in half. In accordance with the Greenland home rule treaty, Denmark handles certain foreign affairs, such as border disputes, on behalf of the entire Danish Realm. == Diplomatic relations == List of countries which Denmark maintains diplomatic relations with: == Bilateral relations == === Europe === === Americas === === Middle East === === Africa ===	[ "Rabat", "Azerbaijan–Denmark relations", "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe", "Madrid", "Denmark–Sri Lanka relations", "Joint Expeditionary Force", "Serbian diaspora", "Marienborg", "Denmark–Eritrea relations", "Moscow", "Ouagadougou", "Denmark–United States relations", "bilateralism", "BusinessMirror", "Denmark–Kazakhstan relations", "Denmark–Ukraine relations", "Afghanistan", "Amsterdam Treaty", "City of San Marino", "Hans Island", "Belgium–Denmark relations", "Colón, Panama", "Scandinavian defense union", "Cairo", "Canada", "Yaoundé", "Brasília", "Nuuk", "Burma–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Greece relations", "Latvia", "democracy", "Foreign relations of the United Kingdom", "Denmark–South Korea relations", "Jewish Telegraphic Agency", "Islamabad", "Denmark–Ethiopia relations", "Saint John, Antigua and Barbuda", "Denmark–Turkey relations", "Denmark–North Macedonia relations", "Riga", "Bandar Seri Begawan", "Limerick", "Vilnius", "IFOR", "Denmark–Egypt relations", "Denmark–Mozambique relations", "Denmark–Vietnam relations", "Foreign relations of Greenland", "whaling", "Santiago", "United Nations", "Faroe Islands", "International Criminal Court", "Politics of the Faroe Islands", "Argentina–Denmark relations", "Bosnia and Herzegovina–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Kenya relations", "Croatia–Denmark relations", "Costa Rica", "San José, Costa Rica", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kyrgyzstan)", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Denmark)", "Oslo", "History of Denmark", "Bolivia–Denmark relations", "Beirut", "Maseru", "Ljubljana", "Algiers", "New Delhi", "Managua", "Denmark–France relations", "Athens", "Denmark–Poland relations", "Norway", "Denmark–Israel relations", "Istanbul", "Halldór Ásgrímsson", "Bogotá", "Burkina Faso", "former Yugoslavia", "Denmark–Nicaragua relations", "Australia–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Italy relations", "SFOR", "New York City", "Bangkok", "Victoria, Seychelles", "Denmark–Taiwan relations", "Panama City", "Denmark–Montenegro relations", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship", "Accession of Ukraine to the European Union", "Jakarta", "Tegucigalpa", "Cambodia–Denmark relations", "Frederick VI of Denmark", "Saint Petersburg", "Tel Aviv", "List of ambassadors of Denmark", "The Hague", "OECD", "Damascus", "Council of Europe", "Rockall Bank dispute", "Dhaka", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Sudan)", "Frank Bainimarama", "Denmark–Norway relations", "Denmark–Hungary relations", "Accession of Serbia to the European Union", "Milan", "Denmark–North Korea relations", "Suva", "Kathmandu", "Belgrade", "Lithuania", "Denmark–Indonesia relations", "Radikale Venstre", "Indonesia", "Luxembourg City", "San Salvador", "Denmark–Kosovo relations", "Denmark–South Africa relations", "Ottawa", "International Security Assistance Force", "Accession of Georgia to the European Union", "Switzerland", "UNPROFOR", "Freetown", "List of diplomatic missions of Denmark", "Buenos Aires", "Tallinn", "Napoleonic Wars", "Denmark–Russia relations", "Denmark–Serbia relations", "Denmark–Lithuania relations", "Lisbon", "Denmark–Tanzania relations", "Nairobi", "Libreville", "Riyadh", "Thimphu", "North Pole", "Mbabane", "Manila", "Rome", "fishing", "Pretoria", "Greenland", "Denmark–Spain relations", "Embassy of Denmark, London", "human rights", "Bulgaria–Denmark relations", "Bern", "Anders Fogh Rasmussen", "Denmark–Pakistan relations", "Accession of Turkey to the European Union", "Denmark–Iran relations", "Benin–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Iraq relations", "Djibouti City", "Denmark", "Danish opt-outs from the European Union", "Cold War", "peacekeeping", "Albania–Denmark relations", "Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein", "Denmark–Slovakia relations", "Sofia", "Ulaanbaatar", "Danish European Union opt-outs referendum", "Beijing", "Canada–Denmark relations", "Visa requirements for Danish citizens", "Denmark–Sweden relations", "Cork (city)", "Nassau, Bahamas", "Estonia", "Denmark–Moldova relations", "Czech Republic–Denmark relations", "Bangladesh–Denmark relations", "Cotonou", "Lima", "Denmark–Ireland relations", "Abu Dhabi", "Quito", "Politiken", "Foreign relations of Tunisia", "Denmark–Switzerland relations", "Zagreb", "Bamako", "Denmark–Slovenia relations", "Rockall", "Austria–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Germany relations", "European Court of Human Rights", "Antananarivo", "Houston", "Denmark–Georgia relations", "Dakar", "List of diplomatic missions in Denmark", "Politics of Denmark", "Denmark–Morocco relations", "Port Louis", "Minister of Foreign Affairs (Cyprus)", "Pakistanis in Denmark", "Accession of Moldova to the European Union", "Chicago", "Ethiopia", "Kabul", "Andorra La Vella", "EU citizenship", "Denmark–United Arab Emirates relations", "Denmark–New Zealand relations", "Maastricht Treaty", "International recognition of Kosovo", "Member state of the European Union", "Podgorica", "gov.uk", "Ramallah", "Denmark–Japan relations", "Taipei", "Operation Enduring Freedom", "Dubai", "Cuba", "Fiji", "Denmark–Libya relations", "Denmark–Venezuela relations", "Tirana", "Politics of Greenland", "Ole Feldbæk", "Denmark–Somalia relations", "Tokyo", "Denmark–Thailand relations", "consulate", "Denmark–Finland relations", "Kuala Lumpur", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Uzbekistan)", "Denmark–Mexico relations", "Warsaw", "Member State of the European Union", "Denmark–Philippines relations", "Afghanistan–Denmark relations", "Denmark–India relations", "Foreign relations of Nigeria", "Hanoi", "Prague", "Solo Mara", "Denmark–Palestine relations", "BBC News", "Budapest", "Mogadishu", "Denmark–Zambia relations", "Denmark–Portugal relations", "World Trade Organization", "Bratislava", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Czech Republic)", "Baghdad", "Havana", "Belgium", "University of Toronto Press", "Liechtensteiner Volksblatt", "Chile–Denmark relations", "NATO", "Reykjavík", "Kyiv", "Lars Løkke Rasmussen", "Bucharest", "Denmark–Nepal relations", "European Union", "Nicosia", "Turkey", "Abidjan", "Prime Minister of Denmark", "Brazil–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Netherlands relations", "Copenhagen", "Ankara", "Accession of Montenegro to the European Union", "Denmark–Malaysia relations", "Stockholm", "Armenia–Denmark relations", "The unity of the Realm", "Denmark–Sudan relations", "Helsinki", "Denmark–Syria relations", "Dublin", "Denmark–United Kingdom relations", "Palo Alto, California", "Denmark and the European Union", "Denmark–Ghana relations", "Denmark–Latvia relations", "Denmark–Iceland relations", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Croatia)", "Euro", "Denmark–Saudi Arabia relations", "Brussels", "Foreign relations of Zimbabwe", "Berlin", "Seoul", "World War II", "Addis Ababa", "Tehran", "Denmark–Romania relations", "Bhutan–Denmark relations", "Accra", "2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "Colombia–Denmark relations", "Paramaribo", "Washington D.C.", "Lisbon treaty", "Burkina Faso–Denmark relations", "Belarus–Denmark relations", "Denmark–Soviet Union relations", "United States Army Center of Military History", "Cyprus–Denmark relations", "Paris", "Port of Spain", "Colombo", "WP:SDNONE", "Mexico City", "People's Republic of China–Denmark relations", "Waterford", "Denmark–Estonia relations", "Vienna" ]
8,041	History of Djibouti	Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa bordered by Somalia to the east, Eritrea to west and the Red Sea to the north, Ethiopia to the west and south, and the Gulf of Aden to the east. In antiquity, the territory was part of the Land of Punt. Djibouti gained its independence on June 27, 1977. The Djibouti area, along with other localities in the Horn region, was later the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established following treaties signed by the ruling Somali and Afar Sultans with the French. It was subsequently renamed to the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence, officially marking the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti. == Prehistory == The Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered a primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South Arabia and Southeast Asia. Djibouti area has been inhabited since the Neolithic. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley, or the Near East. Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. The cut stones 3 million years old, collected in the area of Lake Abbe. In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of an Palaeoloxodon recki elephant were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby. These remains would date from 1.4 million years BC. Subsequently identified other sites of these cuts, probably the work of Homo ergaster. An Acheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BC), where stone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, between Damerdjog and Loyada, 15 km south of Djibouti. Finally, in Gobaad, a Homo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BC. AD On Devil's Island, tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were no doubt used to open shells. In the area at the bottom of Goubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil's Island), circular stone structures and fragments of painted pottery have also been discovered. Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form of Homo sapiens and dated to ~250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi. Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma, an inland lake area on the Gobaad Plain. The site's ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma'layba in Southern Arabia. Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho. Handoga, dated to the fourth millennium BP, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle. The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa. The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region, which was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma. The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé, but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent the oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region. Up to 4000 years BC. AD, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to the Mediterranean climate. The water resources were numerous: lakes in the Gobaad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water. The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting. The region was populated by a very rich fauna: felines, buffaloes, elephants, rhinos, etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings at Balho. In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. A few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding. The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and small jewels have been unearthed. About 1500 BC. AD, the climate is already changing, water is scarce. Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors. Sedentary peoples return to Nomadic life. A stone tumuli (of various shapes), sheltering graves and dating from this period, have been unearthed all over the territory. == Antiquity == Together with Somaliland, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning "God's Land"). The old territory's first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty and Queen Hatshepsut of the eighteenth dynasty. They "traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold, ivory and animal skins." According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt at the time of Hatshepsut was ruled by King Parahu and Queen Ati. ==Macrobians== The Macrobians (Μακροβίοι) were a legendary people and kingdom positioned in the Horn of Africa mentioned by Herodotus. Later authors (such as Pliny on the authority of Ctesias' Indika) place them in India instead. It is one of the legendary peoples postulated at the extremity of the known world (from the perspective of the Greeks), in this case in the extreme south, contrasting with the Hyperboreans in the extreme east. Their name is due to their legendary longevity; an average person supposedly living to the age of 120. They were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men". Historical accounts of the Macrobians also have much in common with the pastoral Somali figures who are similarly known to be tall, handsome warriors, that sustained themselves with a diet mainly composed of meat and milk. In addition, Somalis have a rich maritime culture that dates back centuries. This perspective that places the Macrobians in Somali territory was suggested by the German historian Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren in the 1800s, and later affirmed by Indian scholar, Mamta Agarwal, who wrote "these people were none other than the inhabitants of Somalia, opposite the Red Sea." According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II upon his conquest of Egypt (525 BC) sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based at least in part on stature, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to string it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. ==Kingdom of Aksum== The rule of the Aksumite Kingdom may have at times extended to areas that are now within Djibouti, though the nature and extent of its control are not clear. ==Ifat Sultanate== The Ifat Sultanate was a medieval kingdom in the Horn of Africa. Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somaliland, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains. Its Sultan Umar Walashma (or his son Ali, according to another source) is recorded as having conquered the Sultanate of Shewa in 1285. Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Umar's military expedition as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn, in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to unite the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period. These two states inevitably came into conflict over Shewa and territories further south. A lengthy war ensued, but the Muslim sultanates of the time were not strongly unified. Ifat was finally defeated by Emperor Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia in 1332, and withdrew from Shewa. ==Adal Sultanate== Islam was introduced to the area early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Horn seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in Zeila, a port city in the northwestern Awdal region abutting Djibouti. This suggests that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia. Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs. As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area. ==Egypt Eyalet== Governor Abou Baker ordered the Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila. The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden, Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction. On 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L’Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura. Emperor Johannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with the United Kingdom to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and the Somali Coast ports. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night. ==French Somaliland== The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa. It was Rochet d'Hericourt's exploration into Shoa (1839–42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the Djiboutian coast of the Red Sea. Further exploration by Henri Lambert, French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain Fleuriot de Langle led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of Raheita, Tadjoura, and Gobaad, from whom the French purchased the anchorage of Obock in 1862. Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Between 1883 and 1887, France signed various treaties with the then ruling Somali and Afar Sultans, which allowed it to expand the protectorate to include the Gulf of Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde was subsequently installed as the protectorate's governor. In 1894, he established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967. The territory's border with Ethiopia, marked out in 1897 by France and Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, was later reaffirmed by agreements with Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1945 and 1954. In 1889, a Russian by the name of Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov (b. 1856), arrived with settlers, infantry and an Orthodox priest to Sagallo on the Gulf of Tadjoura. The French considered the presence of the Russians as a violation of their territorial rights and dispatched two gunboats. The Russians were bombarded and after some loss of life, surrendered. The colonists were deported to Odessa and the dream of Russian expansion in East Africa came to an end in less than one year. The administrative capital was moved from Obock in 1896. The city of Djibouti, which had a harbor with good access that attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa, became the new administrative capital. The Franco-Ethiopian railway, linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, began in 1897 and reached Addis Ababa in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port. ===World War II=== After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa. In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II, France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro-Axis Vichy (French) government while the Italians occupied some areas of the French Somaliland. Indeed, the Italians did undertake some offensive actions beginning on 18 June 1940, occupying nearly one third of French Somaliland in a few days. From Harrar Governorate, troops under General Guglielmo Nasi attacked the fort of Ali-Sabieh in the south and Dadda'to in the north. There were also skirmishes in the area of Dagguirou and around the lakes Abbe and Ally. Near Ali-Sabieh, there was some skirmishing over the Djibouti–Addis Ababa railway. In the first week of war, the Italian Navy sent the submarines Torricelli and Perla to patrol French territorial waters in the Gulf of Tadjoura in front of the ports of Djibouti, Tadjoura and Obock. By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of Magdoul, Daimoli, Balambolta, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba, Alailou, Madda and Rahale. Later, British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign. In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In response, the British blockaded the port of Djibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys. In 1942, about 4,000 British troops occupied the city. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of Paris in 1944. ===Referendums=== In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to be an independent country or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There were also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi died in a plane crash two years later under mysterious circumstances. In 1960, with the fall of the ruling Dini administration, Ali Aref Bourhan, a Harbist politician, assumed the seat of Vice President of the Government Council of French Somaliland, representing the UNI party. He would hold that position until 1966. That same year, France rejected the United Nations' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August, an official visit to the territory by then French President, General Charles de Gaulle, was also met with demonstrations and rioting. In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum. with some 10,000 Somalis deported under the pretext that they did not have valid identity cards. According to official figures, although the territory was at the time inhabited by 58,240 Somali and 48,270 Afar, only 14,689 Somali were allowed to register to vote versus 22,004 Afar. Somali representatives also charged that the French had simultaneously imported thousands of Afar nomads from neighboring Ethiopia to further tip the odds in their favor, but the French authorities denied this, suggesting that Afars already greatly outnumbered Somalis on the voting lists. == French Territory of the Afars and Issas == In 1967, shortly after the second referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas. This was both in acknowledgement of the large Afar constituency and to downplay the significance of the Somali composition (the Issa being a Somali sub-clan). With a steadily enlarging Somali population, the likelihood of a third referendum appearing successful had grown even more dim. The prohibitive cost of maintaining the colony and the fact that after 1975, France found itself to be the last remaining colonial power in Africa was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that the French would attempt to hold on to the territory. In 1976, the French garrison, centered on the 13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion (13 DBLE), had to be reinforced to contain Somali irredentist aspirations, revolting against the French-engineered Afar domination of the emerging government. In 1976, members of the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti's independence from France, also clashed with the Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route to Loyada. The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing. The FLCS evolved its demands between the request of integration in a possible "Greater Somalia" influenced by the Somali government or the simple independence of the territory. In 1975 the African People's League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met in Kampala, Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions with Somalia. A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977. The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967, A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence. After independence the new government signed an agreement calling for a strong French garrison, though the 13 DBLE was envisaged to be withdrawn. In the presidential election held 8 April 2005, Ismail Omar Guelleh was re-elected to a second 6-year term at the head of a multi-party coalition that included the FRUD and other major parties. A loose coalition of opposition parties again boycotted the election. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with an Afar career diplomat as Foreign Minister and other cabinet posts roughly divided. However, Issas are predominate in the government, civil service, and the ruling party. That, together with a shortage of non-government employment, has bred resentment and continued political competition between the Issa Somalis and the Afars. In March 2006, Djibouti held its first regional elections and began implementing a decentralization plan. The broad pro-government coalition, including FRUD candidates, again ran unopposed when the government refused to meet opposition preconditions for participation. In the 2008 elections, the opposition Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) party boycotted the election, leaving all 65 seats to the ruling RPP. Voter turnout figures were disputed. Guelleh was re-elected in the 2011 presidential election. Due to its strategic location at the mouth of the Bab el Mandeb gateway to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, Djibouti also hosts various foreign military bases. Camp Lemonnier is a United States Naval Expeditionary Base, situated at Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport and home to the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) of the U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM). In 2011, Japan also opened a local naval base staffed by 180 personnel to assist in marine defense. This initiative is expected to generate $30 million in revenue for the Djiboutian government. In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term.	[ "Rahayta", "Damerdjog", "tumuli", "Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport", "Near East", "Hunter-gatherer", "French Somaliland", "Harrar Governorate", "Pliny the Elder", "Hatshepsut", "Dorra", "Handoga", "Shorthorn", "Hijra (Islam)", "Vichy France", "Stele", "Pharaoh", "East African Campaign (World War II)", "Uganda", "Islam", "Sudan", "election boycott", "Lake Abbe", "Dadda'to", "pottery", "Djibouti City", "Charles de Gaulle", "U.S. Africa Command", "vote rigging", "protectorate", "People's Rally for Progress", "Mahmoud Harbi", "Red Sea", "Somali people", "Macrobians", "Ethio-Djibouti Railways", "Felidae", "stone", "Somaliland", "President of Djibouti", "Second Italo-Abyssinian War", "Egyptians", "Gulf of Tadjoura", "Djibouti", "Queen regnant", "Ecumene", "Liberation of Paris", "Bab el Mandeb", "Shewa", "Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa", "Djiboutian Civil War", "Ali-Sabieh", "India (Herodotus)", "Walashma dynasty", "longevity", "Acheulean", "Asa Koma", "Heads of government of Djibouti", "rhino", "Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy", "Awdal", "wadi", "Colonial heads of Djibouti (French Somaliland)", "Fleuriot de Langle", "The Hague", "Rochet d'Hericourt", "Afroasiatic Urheimat", "1958 French Somaliland overseas territory referendum", "Djibouti, Djibouti", "Afroasiatic languages", "Homo erectus", "French Territory of the Afars and the Issas", "Arabian peninsula", "Shoa, Ethiopia", "Independence Day (Djibouti)", "Kampala", "Bab-el-Mandeb", "Ethiopian Empire", "South Arabia", "Ctesias", "British troops", "simple:Italian invasion of French Somaliland", "United States Marine Corps", "List of presidents of Djibouti", "Russian Orthodox Church", "climate", "Regia Marina", "Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia", "Deir el-Bahari", "Muslim", "Suez Canal", "Eritrea", "Al-Yaqubi", "Homo sapiens", "Scramble for Africa", "Brin-class submarine", "South Yemen", "1977 Afars and Issas independence referendum", "Ismail Omar Guelleh", "Obock", "Sahure", "Republic of Djibouti", "Indica (Ctesias)", "Djibouti (city)", "fall of France", "Homo ergaster", "Alailou", "Yekuno Amlak", "13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion", "Microsoft PowerPoint", "French Somaliland independence referendum, 1967", "Aden", "Mediterranean climate", "Adal Sultanate", "Tadjoura", "Southern Arabia", "Ethiopia", "Nomad", "Herodotus", "mihrab", "Sagallo", "Ghoubbet-el-Kharab", "Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis", "Benadir", "Franco-Ethiopian railway", "World War II", "Ali Aref Bourhan", "Jean Strouse", "2011 Djiboutian presidential election", "ebony", "Associated Press", "French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958", "Ahmar Mountains", "Palaeoloxodon recki", "Afar people", "territorial waters", "Issa (clan)", "gunboat", "Gobaad", "African Buffalo", "Addis Ababa", "Red Sea Flotilla", "Gulf of Aden", "territory", "Ifat Sultanate", "Persian Emperor", "Neolithic", "Somalia", "Land of Punt", "ivory", "fr:Prise d'otages de Loyada", "Somalis", "Zeila", "Perla-class submarine", "Cambyses II", "Greater Somalia", "History of Africa", "Loyada", "Horn of Africa", "Odessa", "Axis powers", "Ismaïl Omar Guelleh", "nomad", "Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov", "Nile Valley", "Ancient Egypt", "Amda Seyon I", "Masjid al-Qiblatayn", "Camp Lemonnier", "hunting", "Organization of African Unity", "Italian East Africa", "2021 Djiboutian presidential election", "1967 French Somaliland independence referendum", "Somali Democratic Republic", "Gemstone", "History of Achaemenid Egypt", "Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren", "Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia", "Ahmed Dini Ahmed", "Sultan", "Balho", "Sultanate of Mogadishu", "Léonce Lagarde", "Derg", "Politics of Djibouti", "Hyperboreans", "Timeline of Djibouti City" ]
8,042	Geography of Djibouti	Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. To the east is its coastline on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Rainfall is sparse, and most of the territory has a semi-arid to arid environment. Lake Assal is a saline lake which lies below sea level, making it the lowest point on land in Africa and the third-lowest point on Earth after the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. Djibouti has the fifth smallest population in Africa. Djibouti's major settlements include the capital Djibouti City, the port towns of Tadjoura and Obock, and the southern cities of Ali Sabieh and Dikhil. It is the forty-six country by area in Africa and 147st largest country in the world by land area, covering a total of , of which is land and is water. ==Location== Djibouti shares of border with Eritrea, with Ethiopia, and with Somalia (total ). It has a strategic location on the Horn of Africa and the Bab el Mandeb, along a route through the Red Sea and Suez Canal. Djibouti's coastline serves as a commercial gateway between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn region's interior. The country is also the terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia. ==Physiographic regions== Djibouti can be divided into three physiographic regions The Northern Mountains Grand Bara The Southern Mountains === Mountains=== A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Mousa Ali, Goda Mountains, and Arrei Mountains surrounds Djibouti. Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over . The Mousa Ali range is considered the country's highest mountain range, with the tallest peak on the border with Ethiopia and Eritrea. It has an elevation of 2,063 m. ==Regions== The area of the regions of Djibouti is set out in the table below. ==Climate== There is not much seasonal variation in Djibouti's climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with winter rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from , except at high elevations. In Djibouti City, for instance, afternoon highs in April typically range from in April. Nationally, mean daily minima generally vary between sites from about . The greatest range in climate occurs in eastern Djibouti, where temperatures sometimes surpass in July on the littoral plains and fall below freezing point during December in the highlands. In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season. Djibouti has 988,000 people living there. Djibouti has either a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) or a hot desert climate (BWh), although temperatures are much moderated at the high elevations. On the coastal seaboard, annual rainfall is less than ; in the highlands, it is about . Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically hot and dry. The climate conditions are highly variable within the country and vary locally by altitude. Summers are very humid along the coast but dry in the highlands. Heat waves are frequent. Annual precipitation amounts vary greatly from one year to another. In general, rain falls more frequently and extensively in the mountains. Sudden and brutal storms are also known to occur. Wadis turn for a few hours into raging torrents tearing everything in their path, and their course is regularized. Rainwater serves as an additional water supply for livestock and plants alongside seasonal watercourses. The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The climate of the interior shows notable differences from the coastline. Especially in the mornings, the temperature is pleasant: it is so in Arta, Randa and Day (where temperatures of 10 degrees Celsius have been recorded). ===Climate charts of different locations in Djibouti=== Graphically the seasons can be represented this way: ==Selected elevations of notable locations== Lake Assal is the lowest point in Africa. ==Resources and land use== Land use: arable land: 0.1% permanent pasture: 73.3% forest: 0.2% other: 26.4% (2011) Irrigated land: (2012) ===Water in Djibouti=== Water is becoming a scarce resource in Djibouti due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country. Most of Djibouti's rainfall is in the four months, but over the last 25 years, the Djibouti's Ministry of Environment estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent. It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water. Moreover, seawater intrusion or fossil saltwater contamination of the limited freshwater aquifers due to groundwater overexploitation affect those who live close to the coastline. In recent years, population growth has increased rapidly with the addition of many refugees. ===Natural resources=== Unlike much of the Horn of Africa and Middle East which is rich in lucrative crude oil, Djibouti has limited natural resources. These include potential geothermal power, gold, clay, granite, limestone, marble, salt, diatomite, gypsum, pumice, petroleum. ==Environment== Natural hazards include earthquakes, drought, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean, which bring heavy rains, and flash floods. Natural resources include geothermal energy. Inadequate supplies of potable water, limited arable land and desertification are current issues. Djibouti is a party to international agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, Law of the Sea, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands. ==Coastline== Djibouti has a coastline which measures about . Much of the coastline is accessible and quite varied in geography and habitats. ===Inlets=== Gulf of Tadjoura Ghoubbet-el-Kharab ===Maritime claims=== Territorial sea: Contiguous zone: Exclusive economic zone: ==Human geography== The population of Djibouti in 2015 was 846,000. For statistical purposes, the country has three areas; Djibouti City (population 529,000), Ali Sabieh (population 55,000), and Dikhil (population 54,000). Djibouti's population is diverse demographically; 60% Somali, 35% Afar, and 3% Arabs. In terms of religion, 94% Muslim, 6% Christian. ==Extreme points== This is a list of the extreme points of Djibouti, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. Northernmost point – Ras Doumera, Obock Region Northernmost point (mainland) – the point at which the border with Eritrea enters the Red Sea, Obock Region Easternmost point – unnamed section of the Red Sea coast north of Ras Bir, Obock Region Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ethiopia west of the town of As Ela, Dikhil Region Westernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ethiopia immediately east of the Ethiopian town of Afambo, Dikhil Region	[ "Goda Mountains", "desertification", "rainfall", "Tadjoura Region", "Dorra", "tr:Cibuti", "Lake Abbe", "Djibouti City", "Alaili Dadda`", "salt", "Red Sea", "Ethio-Djibouti Railways", "Somali people", "world", "Arta Mountains", "Middle East", "semi-desert", "Gulf of Tadjoura", "elevation", "Djibouti", "Ras Bir", "Arrei Mountains", "Africa", "Bab el Mandeb", "Lac Assal", "Physiographic regions of the world", "biodiversity", "Obock Region", "Airolaf", "Arta, Djibouti", "limestone", "climate change", "Christians", "Coast", "Ras Doumera", "Mousa Ali", "Natural resource", "Yoboki", "As Ela", "cyclone", "Indian Ocean", "Water", "overdrafting", "Arta Region", "climate", "Holhol", "geothermal energy", "Lake Assal (Djibouti)", "Ali Sabieh", "Suez Canal", "Muslim", "Eritrea", "Tadjourah Region", "Sea of Galilee", "Boura Mountains", "Yaguer (mountain)", "Obock", "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea", "Djibouti (city)", "Djibouti Region", "flash flood", "Eritrean coastal desert", "Tadjoura", "Ethiopia", "ecoregion", "Ghoubbet-el-Kharab", "Dikhil", "Afambo (Ethiopian District)", "sv:Djibouti", "Dagouein Mountain", "temperature", "Afar people", "gold", "Ali Sabieh Region", "hot semi-arid climate", "Dikhil Region", "Gulf of Aden", "Arabs", "Somalia", "Hemed (mountain)", "potable water", "Horn of Africa", "Randa, Djibouti", "Garbi (mountain)", "Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands", "coastline", "drought", "Dead Sea", "WP:SDNONE", "highland", "Mabla Mountains", "Arabian Peninsula", "hot desert climate", "Grand Bara" ]
8,043	Demographics of Djibouti	Demographic features of Djibouti include population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects. ==Population== Djibouti is a multiethnic country. As of 2018, it has a population of around 884,017 inhabitants. Djibouti's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 69,589 in 1955 to around 869,099 by 2015. ===Projections=== The following are UN medium variant projections; numbers are in thousands: \|- \|1950–1955 \|41.04 \|- \|1955–1960 \| 42.95 \|- \|1960–1965 \| 45.18 \|- \|1965–1970 \| 47.35 \|- \|1970–1975 \| 50.90 \|- \|1975–1980 \| 52.55 \|- \|1980–1985 \| 54.67 \|- \|1985–1990 \| 56.12 \|- \|1990–1995 \| 57.02 \|- \|1995–2000 \| 57.02 \|- \|2000–2005 \| 57.29 \|- \|2005–2010 \| 59.05 \|- \|2010–2015 \| 61.62 \|} ==Ethnic groups== The two largest ethnic groups native to Djibouti are the Somalis (60%) and the Afar (35%). The Somali clan component is mainly composed of the Issa followed by the Gadabuursi and the Isaaq. The remaining 5% of Djibouti's population primarily consists of Yemeni Arabs, Ethiopians and Europeans (French and Italians). In addition, as of 2021, 4,000 American troops, 1,350 French troops, 600 Japanese troops, 400 Chinese troops, and an unknown number of German troops are stationed at various bases throughout Djibouti. Approximately 76% of local residents are urban dwellers; the remainder are pastoralists. ==Languages== Djibouti is a multilingual nation. Arabic is of religious importance. In formal settings, it consists of Modern Standard Arabic. Colloquially, about 59,000 local residents speak the Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic dialect, also known as Djibouti Arabic. French serves as a statutory national language. It was inherited from the colonial period, and is the primary language of instruction. Around 17,000 Djiboutians speak it as a first language. Immigrant languages include Omani Arabic (38,900 speakers), Amharic (1,400 speakers), Greek (1,000 speakers) and Hindi (600 speakers). ==Religion== Sunni Muslim 94% (nearly all Djiboutians), other 6% (mainly foreign-born residents - Shia Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Baha'i, and atheist)	[ "Afar people", "Demography", "Issa (clan)", "Modern Standard Arabic", "French language", "population pyramid", "Arabs", "Pastoralism", "Somalis", "Arabic language", "Ethiopian people", "Afroasiatic languages", "multiethnic", "Gadabuursi", "Amharic language", "Arab", "Isaaq", "French people", "Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic", "Ethnic group", "Djibouti", "Greek language", "Yemenis", "WP:SDNONE", "Somali language", "population density", "multilingual", "Italians", "Omani Arabic", "People of Ethiopia", "Urban area", "Hindi language", "Somali clan", "Issa clan", "Europeans", "mother tongue", "Afar language" ]
8,044	Politics of Djibouti	Politics of Djibouti takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the executive power is exercised by the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the National Assembly. The party system and legislature are dominated by the socialist People's Rally for Progress. In April 2010, a new constitutional amendment was approved. The President serves as both the head of state and head of government, and is directly elected for single six-year term. Government is headed by the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers on the proposal of the latter. There is also a 65-member chamber of deputies, where representatives are popularly elected for terms of five years. Administratively, the country is divided into five regions and one city, with eleven additional sub-prefecture subdivisions. Djibouti is also part of various international organisations, including the United Nations and Arab League. ==History== In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined "yes" vote by the sizeable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who had voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas. In 1977, a third referendum took place. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence. Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a "yes" vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999). He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate Moussa Ahmed Idriss, of the Unified Djiboutian Opposition (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election "irregularities" and the assertion that "foreigners" had voted in various sub-prefectures of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on May 8, 1999, with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognised section of the Afar-led FRUD. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali Issa president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars. The government is dominated by the Somali Issa Mamasen, who enjoy the support of the Somali clans, especially the Isaaq (the clan of the current president's wife) and the Gadabuursi Dir (who are the second most prominent Somali clan in Djibouti politics). In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were subsequently made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government. On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The treaty successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris, with Ahmed Dini Ahmed representing the FRUD. On 8 April 2005, President Guelleh was sworn in for his second six-year term after a one-man election. He took 100% of the votes in a 78.9% turnout. Although opposition groups boycotted the ballot over changes to the constitution permitting Guelleh to run again for office, On 31 March 2013, Guelleh replaced long-serving Prime Minister Dilleita Mohamed Dilleita with former president of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed. In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term. ==Head of state and government== \|President \|Ismail Omar Guelleh \|RPP \|8 May 1999 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed \|RPP \|1 April 2013 \|} The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and the Council of Ministers is solely responsible to the President, as specified in Articles 21 and 23 of the Constitution of Djibouti. ==Political parties and elections== ===Presidential elections=== ===Parliamentary elections=== ==Administrative divisions== Djibouti is sectioned into five administrative regions and one city: Ali Sabieh Region, Arta Region, Dikhil Region, Djibouti Region, Obock Region and Tadjourah Region. The country is further sub-divided into eleven sub-prefectures. ==International organization participation== ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO	[ "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "International Finance Corporation", "Djiboutian presidential election, 2011", "Party for Democratic Renewal", "republic", "election boycott", "International Civil Aviation Organization", "International Development Association", "vote rigging", "People's Rally for Progress", "Mahmoud Harbi", "Somali people", "fr:Constitution djiboutienne du 15 septembre 1992:", "Afars and Issas independence referendum, 1977", "Arab Monetary Fund", "Unified Djiboutian Opposition", "President of Djibouti", "pt:Djibouti", "World Trade Organization", "Presidential system", "Obock Region", "Heads of government of Djibouti", "Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy", "Dilleita Mohamed Dilleita", "UNESCO", "Intelsat", "2011 Djiboutian protests", "Djiboutian presidential election, 2005", "Representative democracy", "Gadabuursi", "Isaaq", "African Development Bank", "International Labour Organization", "Ministries of Djibouti", "International Maritime Organization", "Sub-prefectures of Djibouti", "Arta Region", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa", "World Meteorological Organization", "International Telecommunication Union", "Legislative power", "Moussa Ahmed Idriss", "Tadjourah Region", "IOC", "Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed", "Ismail Omar Guelleh", "Intergovernmental Authority on Development", "United Nations Industrial Development Organization", "United Nations Conference on Trade and Development", "Direct election", "National Assembly (Djibouti)", "Djibouti (city)", "Organisation of African Unity", "International Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique", "World Federation of Trade Unions", "World Health Organization", "French Somaliland independence referendum, 1967", "executive power", "Arab League", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "International Fund for Agricultural Development", "United Nations", "Group of 77", "International Trade Union Confederation", "International Criminal Court", "World Tourism Organization", "Somali clan", "French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958", "ACP (Lomé Convention)", "Afar people", "International Monetary Fund", "Ali Sabieh Region", "Interpol (organization)", "Dikhil Region", "National Democratic Party (Djibouti)", "Heads of State of Djibouti", "Islamic Development Bank", "Ismaïl Omar Guelleh", "President (government title)", "Hassan Gouled Aptidon", "Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons", "Non-Aligned Movement", "2021 Djiboutian presidential election", "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "WP:SDNONE", "Universal Postal Union", "Ahmed Dini Ahmed", "Government", "Arab Spring", "Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development" ]
8,045	Economy of Djibouti	The economy of Djibouti is derived in large part from its strategic location on the Red Sea. Djibouti is mostly barren, with little development in the agricultural and industrial sectors. The country has a harsh climate, a largely unskilled labour force, and limited natural resources. The country's most important economic asset is its strategic location, connecting the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. As such, Djibouti's economy is commanded by the services sector, providing services as both a transit port for the region and as an international transshipment and refueling centre. From 1991 to 1994, Djibouti experienced a civil war which had devastating effects on the economy. Since then, the country has benefited from political stability. In recent years, Djibouti has seen significant improvement in macroeconomic stability, with its annual gross domestic product improving at an average of over 3 percent since 2003. This comes after a decade of negative or low growth and is attributed to fiscal adjustment aimed at improving public financing, reforms in port management and foreign investment. Despite the recent modest and stable growth, Djibouti is faced with many economic challenges, particularly job creation and poverty reduction. With an average annual population growth rate of 2.5 percent, the economy cannot significantly benefit national income per capita growth. Unemployment is extremely high, with some estimates placing it at almost 60 percent, and is a major contributor to widespread poverty. In recent years, the country's dependence on Chinese investment and debt has also come under scrutiny. According to a 2020 report by the World bank, Djibouti was 112th among 190 economies when it comes to the ease of doing business. ==Economic performance== After experiencing armed conflict and economic hardship during the 1990s, Djibouti has experienced stable economic growth in recent years as a result of relative political stability and achievements in macroeconomic adjustment efforts. Fiscal adjustment measures included downsizing the civil service, implementing a pension reform that placed the system on a much stronger financial footing, and strengthening public expenditure institutions. From 2003 to 2005, annual real GDP growth averaged 3.1 percent in the mid-2000s, driven by good performance in the services sector, strong consumption and reached a value as high as 7.8 percent in 2019. In the 21st century, Inflation has been kept low through fixed pegging of the Djibouti franc to the US dollar, but experienced a sharp spike in the late 2000s, when it reached values three times higher than the average of the last 20 years. Despite experiencing economic growth, the country continues to struggle with high unemployment. Official numbers put the unemployment rate at just over 10 percent, but international estimates consider it to be closer to 60 percent. Furthermore, reliance on diesel-generated electricity and the need to import basic necessities like food and water leave average consumers vulnerable to global price shocks. Low tax revenue and high spending on public infrastructure has seen Djibouti struggle with its budget deficit. Additionally, the country's public debt has increased sharply—from 50.2 percent of GDP in 2015 to an expected 72.9 percent in 2020. ==Balance of payments== Djibouti's merchandise trade balance has shown a large deficit. This is due to the country's enormous need for imports and narrow base of exports. Although Djibouti runs a substantial surplus in its services balance, the surplus has been smaller than the deficit in the merchandise trade balance. As a result, Djibouti's has developed a high level of trade deficit, reaching a peak of 130 billion Djibouti francs in 2019. ==Regional situation== Positioned on a primary shipping lane between the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, Djibouti holds considerable strategic value in the international trade and shipping industries. The facilities of the Port of Djibouti are important to sea transportation companies for fuel bunkering and refuelling. Its transport facilities are used by several landlocked African countries for the re-export of their goods. Djibouti earns transit taxes and harbour fees from this trade, these form the bulk of government revenue. Threats of pirates patrolling the Gulf of Aden, off the coast of Somalia, with the intentions of capturing large cargo ships, oil, and chemical tankers has created the need for larger nations such as the United States, France, and Japan to embed logistics bases or military camps from which they can defend their freight from piracy. The port of Djibouti functions as a small French naval facility, and the United States has also stationed hundreds of troops in Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti, its only African base, in an effort to counter terrorism in the region. Since 2010 China has become an important trading and military partner for Djibouti, including it in its African Road and Belt Initiative through the construction of infrastructure projects like a railway link to Ethiopia and the Doraleh port. In 2017, it also began operating a large naval base near de Doraleh port, which serves as China's first ever overseas military base. In 2009, China overtook the United States in becoming Djibouti's largest trading partner. Between 57 percent and 70 percent of Djibouti's debt is made up of Chinese loans. Chinese influence in Djibouti, particularly through its military base and financial debt, has been criticized in recent years as being more beneficial to the stability of the current political regime than for the country as a whole. ==Macro-economic trend== The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. === Impact of COVID-19 === Despite not being hit as hard as other countries by the COVID-19 pandemic, Djibouti's economy suffered the effects of the global slowdown in trade and diminished traffic through the Doraleh port. Real GDP growth slumped to 1.4 percent in 2020 from 7.8 percent in 2019. The pandemic also contributed to a sharp deceleration in investment, which increased by just 10.3 percent of GDP in 2020, compared to a 26.3 percent growth in 2019, as well as in the value added by the services sector, which saw a modest 2 percent increase in 2020, after growing by 8.2 percent in 2019. An unemployment rate of 60 percent continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 percent over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors. The Djiboutian franc is pegged to the US dollars since 1949 through the use of a currency board. The effectiveness of this longstanding and unique institution on the African continent has not been challenged since then. According to a financial risk assessment from 2018, the country has been suffering from increasing corruption and a decline in international governance and transparency indices, growing debt and over-reliance on Ethiopia and China for trade and FDI, respectively. ===Openness to foreign investment=== Officially, the government of Djibouti welcomes all foreign direct investment. Djibouti's assets include a strategic geographic location, an open trade regime, a stable currency, substantial tax breaks and other incentives. Potential areas of investment include Djibouti's port and the telecommunications sectors. President Ismail Omar Guellehh first elected in 1999, has named privatization, economic reform, and increased foreign investment as top priorities for his government. The president pledged to seek the help of the international private sector to develop the country's infrastructure. Djibouti has no major laws that would discourage incoming foreign investment. In principle there is no screening of investment or other discriminatory mechanisms. However, a number of hurdles to foreign investment in the country exist. For example, certain sectors, most notably public utilities, are state owned and some parts are not currently open to investors. Furthermore, there are concerns about the rule of law, the independence of courts, and how this affects the protection of investments in the country. A Freedom House report, for example, mentions the case of Dubai-based port operator DP World which has been embroiled in a legal battle with Djibouti since 2012, "when Djibouti sold part of its concession in the Doraleh Container Terminal to a Chinese state-owned competitor of DP World, the original concession partner." In 2018, Djibouti seized DP World's port assets, but ruling the nationalization illegal, the London Court of International Arbitration in 2019 ordered Djibouti to restore the rights and benefits of the concession to DP World. The country subsequently rejected the ruling and asked the Djibouti high court to unilaterally nullify the LCIA decision. A Santander report concluded that despite its strategic importance, FDI into Djibouti is hampered by "mediocre governance, corruption, the lack of a sound judicial framework, an unstable regional geopolitical situation, a poorly diversified economy with little resilience to outside shocks, and a fragile ecosystem prone to environmental crisis." As in most African nations, access to licenses and approvals is complicated not so much by law as by administrative procedures. In Djibouti, the administrative process has been characterized as a form of 'circular dependency.' For example, the finance ministry will issue a license only if an investor possesses an approved investor visa, while the interior ministry will only issue an investor visa to a licensed business. The Djiboutian government is increasingly realizing the importance of establishing a one-stop shop to facilitate the investment process. ==Sectors== ===Trade=== Principal exports from the region transiting Djibouti are coffee, salt, hides, dried beans, cereals, other agricultural products, chalk, and wax. Djibouti itself has few exports, and the majority of its imports come from France. Most imports are consumed in Djibouti and the remainder goes to Ethiopia and Somalia. Djibouti's unfavorable balance of trade is offset partially by invisible earnings such as transit taxes and harbor dues. In 1999, U.S. exports to Djibouti totalled $26.7 million while U.S. imports from Djibouti were less than $1 million. The City of Djibouti has the only paved airport in the republic. ===Tourism=== In 2013, 63,000 foreign tourists visited Djibouti, Djibouti City is the principal tourist destination for visitors, revenues from tourism fell just US$43 million in 2013.	[ "Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport", "France", "COVID-19 pandemic", "List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI", "Beverages", "Djibouti City", "salt", "Chemicals", "external debt", "Red Sea", "IMF Relations with Djibouti", "gross domestic product", "Djibouti", "Djibouti and the World Bank", "Coffee", "Djiboutian Civil War", "foreign direct investment", "balance of trade", "Djiboutian franc", "Purchasing power parity", "agricultural", "privatization", "Consumer Goods", "transshipment", "cereals", "Piracy off the coast of Somalia", "population growth", "Salt", "United States", "Fishing", "refueling centre", "Equipment", "fiscal adjustment", "Human Development Report", "Santander Bank", "European Union", "Inflation", "Service (economics)", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "beans", "Hide (skin)", "United Nations Economic Commission for Africa", "Choukri Djibah", "Industrial sector", "Petroleum products", "United Nations Development Programme", "Construction", "Unemployment", "The World Factbook", "Ismail Omar Guelleh", "Intergovernmental Authority on Development", "Belt and Road Initiative", "currency board", "Scrap metal", "Djibouti (city)", "African Union", "DP World", "Gross domestic product", "Dairy", "Arab League", "World Bank", "Ministry of Economy and Finance (Djibouti)", "Machinery", "Freedom House", "Ethiopia", "Community of Sahel-Saharan States", "Mining", "Per capita income", "free trade zone", "Ease of doing business index", "International Monetary Fund", "economic reform", "coffee", "Gulf of Aden", "List of companies based in Djibouti", "Somalia", "Foodstuff", "parastatal", "Balance of trade", "Horn of Africa", "unskilled labour", "Port of Djibouti", "World bank", "United States dollar", "Agriculture", "Camp Lemonnier", "US dollar", "patent law", "Politics of Djibouti", "Reexports", "Macroeconomics" ]
8,047	Transport in Djibouti	Transport in Djibouti is facilitated through a relatively young system of roads, railways and ports. ==Air transport== ===Airlines=== The national flag carrier is Air Djibouti. In total, there are other airlines, all operating out of Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport: Jubba Airways ===Airports=== The aviation industry is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority of Djibouti, a statutory board of the Djibouti government under the Ministry of Infrastructure & Transport. ==Maritime transport== ===Ports and harbours=== The Port of Djibouti, run by the Djibouti Ports & Free Zones Authority and Port of Doraleh, is a key transhipment hub for the East African region.	[ "road", "Chabelley Airport", "WP:SDNONE", "railway", "Air Djibouti", "port", "Port of Doraleh", "Jubba Airways", "Port of Djibouti", "East Africa", "Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport" ]
8,048	Djibouti Armed Forces	The Djibouti Armed Forces (DJAF; , , ) are the military forces of Djibouti. They consist of the Djiboutian National Army and its sub-branches the Djiboutian Air Force and Djiboutian Navy. As of 2018, the Djibouti Armed Forces consists of 20,470 (2018 est.) ground troops, which are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country. The Djibouti Armed Forces are an important player in the Bab-el-Mandeb and Red Sea. In 2015 General Zakaria Chiek Imbrahim was chief d'etat-major general (chief of staff) of the Forces Armees Djiboutiennes. He assumed command in November 2013. Djibouti has always been a very active member in the African Union and the Arab League. ==History== Historically, Somali society accorded prestige to the warrior (waranle) and rewarded military prowess. Except for men of religion (wadaad), who were few in number, all Somali males were considered potential warriors. Djibouti's many Sultanates each maintained regular troops. In the early Middle Ages, the conquest of Shewa by the Ifat Sultanate ignited a rivalry for supremacy with the Solomonic Dynasty. Many similar battles were fought between the succeeding Sultanate of Adal and the Solomonids, with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat. During the protracted Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1559), Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi defeated several Ethiopian Emperors and embarked on a conquest referred to as the Futuh Al-Habash ("Conquest of Abyssinia"), which brought three-quarters of Christian Abyssinia under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate. Al-Ghazi's forces and their Ottoman allies came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, but the Abyssinians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy. However, both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. ===First World War=== The 1st Battalion of Somali Skirmishers, formed in 1915 from recruits from the French Somali Coast, was a unit belonging to the French Colonial Army. They distinguished himself during the First World War, notably during the resumption of Fort Douaumont, Battle of Verdun in October 1916 alongside the Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine and the Second Battle of the Aisne in October 1917. In May and June 1918, they took part in the Third Battle Of The Aisne and in July in the Second Battle of the Marne. In August and September 1918, the Somali battalion fought on the Oise front and in October 1918 he obtained his second citation to the order of the army as well as the right to wear a Fourragère in the colors of the ribbon of the Croix de guerre 1914–1918. Between 1915 and 1918, over 2,088 Djiboutians served as combat in the First World War. Their losses are estimated at 517 killed and 1,000 to 1,200 injured. ===Second World War=== During the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s and during the early stages of World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between the forces in French Somaliland and the forces in Italian East Africa. After the fall of France in 1940, French Somaliland declared loyalty to Vichy France. The colony remained loyal to Vichy France during the East African Campaign but stayed out of that conflict. British forces in Ethiopia begin dropping leaflets calling on the French Somaliland to rally to Free France. The newspaper Djibouti Libre published in Dire Dawa is also air dropped into the Vichy controlled colony and a 15-minute newscast is broadcast over the radio. In 1942: Vichy recalls Governor Pierre Nouailhetas after his superiors decide that he is in too close contact with the British. Nouailhetas delegates his authority to the military commander General Truffert. Two battalions, accompanied by civilians, leave Djibouti to join the British forces in British Somaliland. General Truffert is forced to resign and cede power to his adjutant General Dupont after a great majority of Djibouti's military and civil administrators threaten to leave for British held Somaliland. This lasted until December 1942. By that time, the Italians had been defeated and the French colony was isolated by a British blockade. Free French and Allied forces recaptured the colony's capital of Djibouti at the end of 1942. A local battalion of Somali skirmishers to participate in the battles for the liberation of France, it participated in particular in the fighting at Pointe de Grave in April 1945. On April 22, 1945, General de Gaulle awarded the Somali battalion a citation to the army and decorated the battalion's pennant in Soulac-sur-Mer. The Somali battalion was dissolved on June 25, 1946. ===Ogaden War=== The Ogaden War (13 July 1977 – 15 March 1978) was a conflict fought between the Ethiopian government and Somali government. The Djibouti government supported Somalia with military intelligence. In a notable illustration of the nature of Cold War alliances, the Soviet Union switched from supplying aid to Somalia to supporting Ethiopia, which had previously been backed by the United States. This in turn prompted the U.S. to later start supporting Somalia. The war ended when Somali forces retreated back across the border and a truce was declared. ===Ethiopian Civil War=== In the 27 May to June 13, 1991, the Djiboutian Armed Forces and FFDJ participated in Operation Godoria. The President of the Djiboutian Republic, Hassan Gouled Aptidon described this as a "invasion". At the end of May 1991, the collapse of the Ethiopian regime the Assab loyalist division. Crossed the border at dawn, cornered on the northern border of Djibouti, Assab's division, 9,000 strong, crossed the Djiboutian-Ethiopian border with arms and luggage and headed towards Obock. Simultaneously, another division crossed the Western border and moved towards Dikhil. This violation of the borders by a regular foreign army falls strictly within the framework of the protocols passed between France and Djibouti. This is why, on May 26 at 10:30 p.m., Operation Godoria is launched, all Djiboutian and French forces, land, air and sea stationed in Djibouti participate in it. Djiboutian Army, prohibit Ethiopian troops from surging towards the south. Djiboutian and French troops deployed, facing the firmness of their interlocutors, the Ethiopian officers yielded to the demands and agreed to continue the disarmament already begun. The 5th Overseas Interarms Regiment took charge of a detachment of 4,300 military refugees, accompanied by a few families and embarked in 120 vehicles of all types heading towards the southern border. The initial aim is to clean up a border area of 150 km2, collect, remove supplies, inventory and hand over abandoned weapons to the Djiboutian authorities. The "Lynx Mike" detachment identifies thousands of individual and collective weapons, includes the T 55, ZU-23-2, BTR and BRDM, finally destroys the 50 tons of unpackaged ammunition of all calibers. From May 30 to June 13, there will be a total of 12,500 weapons from the AK47 to the T64, including LRMs, 122 howitzers and more than 200 tons of ammunition from the 200 kg bomb to the cartridge factory, via rockets LRM which will have been moved, sorted, stored, even for some of them neutralized or destroyed. Djibouti deployed troops to Somalia to fight Al-Shabaab forces and Al-Qaeda operatives, with the hopes of dismantling both groups to support the transitional governmental structures, implement a national security plan, train the Somali security forces, and to assist in creating a secure environment for the delivery of humanitarian aid. Djibouti's responsibilities include providing security in Hiran and Galguduud regions. As of 2013, the Djibouti Armed Forces (DJAF) are composed of three branches: the Djibouti National Army, which consists of the Coastal Navy, the Djiboutian Air Force (Force Aerienne Djiboutienne, FAD), and the National Gendarmerie (GN). The Army is by far the largest, followed by the Air Force and Navy. The Commander-in-Chief of the DJAF is the President of Djibouti and the Minister of Defence oversees the DJAF on a day-to-day basis. ==Component forces and their organization== Refer to decree No 2003-0166/PR/MDN on organization of Djibouti Armed Forces. The armed forces consist of: The General Staff of the Armed Forces. A Defense Staff. An infantry force: one rapid action regiment, two paratrooper battalions, one combined arms regiment at Obock, one combined arms regiment at Tadjourah, one combined arms regiment in Dikhil, one combined arms battalion in Ali-Sabieh and one reinforced company in Damerjog. Specific forces and fire support: one armored regiment, one artillery regiment and one group of combat engineer. The Navy The Air Force The Schools Command. The Headquarters Regiment. The Central Material Directorate. The Health Service. ===Djiboutian Army=== The Djiboutian National Army (DNA) is the largest branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces. Just prior to independence in 1977, the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas established a national army to defend the Djiboutian's borders. The 6 June 1977 has since been marked as Armed Forces Day. After independence, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis troops merged to form the 2,500 strong Djiboutian National Army. Djibouti maintains a modest military force of approximately 20,470 troops; the army is made of 18,600 troops (IISS 2018). The latter are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country. The Army has four military districts (the Tadjourah, Dikhil, Ali-Sabieh and Obock districts). Clashes with the Military of Eritrea, in 2008, demonstrated the superior nature of the Djiboutian forces’ training and skills, but also highlighted the fact that the small military would be unable to counter the larger, if less well-equipped forces of its neighbours. The army has concentrated on mobility in its equipment purchases, suitable for patrol duties and counterattacks but ill-suited for armoured warfare. The 2008 border clashes at least temporarily swelled the ranks of the Djiboutian army, with retired personnel being recalled, but the military's size and capabilities are much reduced since the 1990s. The army to address more effectively its major defense disadvantage: lack of strategic depth. Thus in the early 2000s it looked outward for a model of army organization that would best advance defensive capabilities by restructuring forces into smaller, more mobile units instead of traditional divisions. The official tasks of the armed forces include strengthening the country against external attack, and maintaining border security. Djiboutian troops continue to monitor its borders with Eritrea, in the case of an attack. The Djiboutian Army is one of the small professional advanced armies in East Africa. Its maneuver units are: One armoured regiment (comprising a reconnaissance squadron, three armoured squadrons and an anti-smuggling squadron) It is a branch of the Djiboutian Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense. Its area of responsibility includes smaller towns, rural and suburban areas. ===Djiboutian Navy=== The Djiboutian Navy (DN) is the naval service branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces. The force was launched two years after Djibouti gained its independence in 1977. It is responsible for securing Djibouti's territorial waters and seaboard as well as supporting army operations. The primary objective of the navy is to safeguard the nation's maritime borders, act to deter or defeat any threats or aggression against the territory, people or maritime interests of Djibouti, both in war and peace. Through joint exercises and humanitarian missions, including disaster relief, the Djiboutian Navy promotes bilateral relations between nations. It has a fleet of gunboats, fast missile boats and support, training, which can be deployed to defend the territorial waters and coastline of Djibouti as well as protect tankers passing through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait. The acquisition of the several boats from the US in 2006 considerably increased the navy's ability to patrol over longer distances and to remain at sea for several days at a time. Cooperation with the US and Yemeni navies is also increasing in an effort to protect and maintain the safety and security of the Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOC). The Navy is upgrading itself with the following technological developments. ===Djiboutian Coast Guard=== The Djiboutian Coast Guard (DCG) ( GCD), is the coast guard of Djibouti is a division of the Djiboutian Navy responsible for protecting the interests of the Republic of Djibouti at sea. Formed in 2011, the coast guard is tasked with such as illegal fishing and exploitation of natural resources, search and rescue (SAR), protection of ecology, fishing, marine pollution, ballast waters, combat against terrorism, trafficking of people, narcotics, and similar. Like many other coast guards, it is a paramilitary organization that can support the Djiboutian Navy in wartime, but resides under separate civilian control in times of peace. The Coast Guard monitor vessels sailing in the Djiboutian territorial waters. The Djiboutian Coast Guard intercepted refugee and migrant boats travelling across the Bab-el-Mandeb. ===Djiboutian Air Force=== The Djiboutian Air Force (DAF) (French: Force Aérienne du Djibouti (FADD)) was established as part of the Djibouti Armed Forces after the country obtained its independence on June 27, 1977. Its first aircraft included three Nord N.2501 Noratlas transport aircraft and an Alouette II helicopter presented to it by the French. In 1982, the Djibouti Air Force was augmented by two Aerospatiale AS.355F Ecureuil 2 helicopters and a Cessna U206G Stationair, this was followed in 1985 by a Cessna 402C Utiliner. In 1985, the Alouette II was withdrawn from use and put on display at Ambouli Air Base at Djibouti's airport. In 1987, the three N.2501 Noratlas were also retired and subsequently returned to France. New equipment came, in 1991, in the form of a Cessna 208 Caravan, followed by Russian types in the early nineties. These included four Mil Mi 2, six Mil Mi 8 and two Mil Mi 17 helicopters and a single Antonov An 28 light transport aircraft. Pilot training for the 360 men of the DAF, if necessary, is conducted in France with continued on type flight training at home. The DAF has no units of its own and forms in whole a part of the Army, its sole base is Ambouli. ===Doctrine=== The main doctrine consists of the following principles: Djibouti cannot afford to lose a war A small standing army with good capabilities. Desire to avoid war by political means. === Personnel === The size and structure of the Djibouti Armed Forces is continually evolving. As of 2018, Djibouti Armed Forces were reported to have 18,000–20,000 active personnel, 10,500–11,000 reserve personnel. ==UN peacekeeping forces== Djibouti first UN Peacekeeping mission was in 1994, when it deployed uniformed personnel to the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) and the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR). Djibouti UN peacekeeping mission in the Darfur, Sudan in 2010, withdrew their personnel from Sudan on the 30 June 2021. Djibouti has committed to strengthening international action through the African Union to achieve collective security and uphold the goals enshrined in the Purposes and Principles of the UN Charter and the Constitutive Act of the African Union. Deployed in 3 countries in Somalia, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Central African Republic. The table below shows the current deployment of Djiboutian Forces in UN Peacekeeping missions. ==Foreign military within Djibouti== ===France=== France's 5e RIAOM are currently stationed in Djibouti. ===Italy=== The Italian Base Militare Nazionale di Supporto (National Support Military Base) is capable to host 300 troops and some UAVs. The Italian Military Support Base in Djibouti, established in 2013, monitors commercial traffic, addresses piracy, and supports counter-terrorism and military operations in the Horn of Africa, Gulf of Aden, and Indian Ocean. ===United States=== There is also Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa, a U.S. force of more than 3,500, currently deployed in the country at Camp Lemonnier. ===Japan=== The Japan Self-Defense Force Base Djibouti was established in 2011. ===China=== The Chinese naval support base in Djibouti began construction in 2016 and was officially opened in 2017.	[ "Ethiopian National Defense Force", "List of wars involving Djibouti", "French Somaliland", "France", "Xinhua News Agency", "United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur", "East African Campaign (World War II)", "border", "Sudan", "Ottoman Empire", "First World War", "Republican Guard (Djibouti)", "Djiboutian Navy", "United States Navy", "Free France", "Red Sea", "ZU-23-2", "Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine", "Strategic depth", "marine pollution", "President of Djibouti", "Djibouti Air Force", "Djibouti", "Shewa", "Soviet Union", "Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa", "Djiboutian Civil War", "liberation of France", "Djiboutian Coast Guard", "Saudi Arabia", "Darfur", "Military of Eritrea", "military intelligence", "UAVs", "Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)", "Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy", "Cristóvão da Gama", "Djibouti National Army", "Federal Republic of Somalia", "Portugal", "Ministry of Defence (Djibouti)", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "United States", "Ethiopian-Adal War", "List of prime ministers of Djibouti", "African Union Transition Mission in Somalia", "illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing", "French forces in Djibouti", "Morocco", "Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force", "Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict", "Human migration", "MONUC", "Ethiopian troops", "Turkey", "Bab-el-Mandeb", "sea", "Second Battle of the Marne", "Al-Shabaab (militant group)", "Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China", "Solomonic Dynasty", "Somali Civil War (2009–present)", "Egypt", "The Diplomat (magazine)", "BRDM", "Italian Empire", "Chinese People's Liberation Army Support Base in Djibouti", "Ali Sabieh", "Muslim", "Eritrea", "Alouette II", "Military ranks of Djibouti", "Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed", "Djiboutian Army", "ecology", "MINUSCA", "African Union Mission to Somalia", "Djibouti city", "Obock", "British Somaliland", "Fourragère", "refugee", "Republic of Djibouti", "5th Overseas Interarms Regiment", "East Africa", "African Union", "Djiboutian National Gendarmerie", "Galguduud", "1st Battalion of Somali Tirailleurs", "Italy", "Djiboutian Air Force", "Italian Military Support Base in Djibouti", "Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi", "Ethiopia", "Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis", "General de Gaulle", "Dikhil", "Emperor of Ethiopia", "World War II", "Al-Qaeda", "AK47", "terrorism", "Sultanate of Adal", "United Nations Mission in Haiti", "battalion", "territorial waters", "gunboat", "Hiran, Somalia", "search and rescue", "Fort Douaumont", "Battle of Verdun", "Second Congo War", "Ifat Sultanate", "T65 assault rifle", "Second Battle of the Aisne", "Somalia", "regiment", "Japan Self-Defense Force Base Djibouti", "Ogaden War", "United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda", "Ismaïl Omar Guelleh", "BTR (vehicle)", "Yemeni Navy", "ATMIS", "fishing", "Ras Doumeira", "Hassan Gouled Aptidon", "Camp Lemonnier", "T 55", "Imam", "French Colonial Army", "Central African Republic Civil War", "Italian East Africa", "Pointe de Grave", "Dire Dawa", "Democratic Republic of Congo", "Sultan", "Tanker (ship)", "Soulac-sur-Mer", "Derg", "missile boat", "Central African Republic" ]
8,051	History of Dominica	The first written records in the history of Dominica began in November 1493, when Christopher Columbus spotted the island. Prior to European contact, Dominica was inhabited by the Arawak. Dominica was a French colony from 1715 until the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, and then became a British colony from 1763 to 1978. It became an independent nation in 1978. ==Pre-colonial== The Arawak were guided to Dominica, and other islands of the Caribbean, by the South Equatorial Current from the waters of the Orinoco River. These descendants of the early Taínos were overthrown by the Kalinago tribe of the Caribs. The Caribs, who settled here in the 14th century, called the island Wai‘tu kubuli, which means "Tall is her body." ==Early European contacts== Christopher Columbus named the island after the day of the week on which he spotted it - a Sunday ('Dominica' in Latin) - which fell on 3 November 1493 on his second voyage. Daunted by fierce resistance from the Caribs and discouraged by the absence of gold, the Spanish did not settle the island. Many of the remaining Carib people live in Dominica's Carib Territory, a district on Dominica's east coast. In 1632, the French Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique claimed Dominica along with all the other 'Petite Antilles' but no settlement was attempted. Between 1642 and 1650 a French missionary Raymond Breton became the first regular European visitor to the island. In 1660 the French and English agreed that both Dominica and St. Vincent should not be settled, but instead left to the Caribs as neutral territory. Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of English and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century. ==French colony: 1715–1763== Spain had little to no success in colonizing Dominica and in 1690, the French established their first permanent settlements in Dominica. French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up timber camps to supply the French islands with wood and gradually become permanent settlers. They brought the first enslaved people from West Africa to Dominica. In 1715, a revolt of "poor white" smallholders in the north of Martinique, known as La Gaoulé, caused an exodus of them to southern Dominica. They set up smallholdings. Meanwhile, French families and others from Guadeloupe settled in the north. In 1727, the first French commander, M. Le Grand, took charge of the island with a basic French government; Dominica formally became a colony of France, and the island was divided into districts or "quarters". Already installed in Martinique and Guadeloupe and cultivating sugar cane, the French gradually developed plantations in Dominica for coffee. They imported African slaves to fill the labor demands replacing the indigenous Caribs. In 1761, during the Seven Years' War a British expedition against Dominica led by Lord Rollo was successful and the island was conquered along with several other Caribbean islands. After France was defeated by Britain in the Seven Years' War, it ceded the island to the British under the Treaty of Paris (1763). In 1778, during the American Revolutionary War, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure.]] As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years' War, the island became a British possession. In 1778, during the American War of Independence, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population, which was largely French. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure. The 22 February 1805 invasion burned much of Roseau to the ground. In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the white population. In 1831, reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the Brown Privilege Bill conferred political and social rights on free nonwhites. Three Blacks were elected to the legislative assembly the following year. The abolition of slavery in 1834 enabled Dominica by 1838 to become the only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century. Most Black legislators were small holders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule. In 1865, after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one composed of one-half elected members and one-half appointed. The elected legislators were outmaneuvered on numerous occasions by planters allied with colonial administrators. In 1871, Dominica became part of the Leeward Island Federation. The power of the Black population progressively eroded. Crown Colony government was re-established in 1896. Following World War I, an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the representative government association. Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in 1924 and one-half in 1936. Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the Windwards until 1958, when it joined the short-lived West Indies Federation. In 1961, a Dominica Labor Party government led by Edward Oliver LeBlanc was elected. After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom on February 27, 1967, and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs. LeBlanc retired in 1974 and was replaced by Patrick John who became the islands' first Prime Minister. ==Independence: 1978 to present day== On November 3, 1978, the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by the United Kingdom. In August 1979, Hurricane David, packing winds of , struck the island with devastating force. Forty-two people were killed and 75% of the islanders' homes were destroyed or severely damaged. Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic underdevelopment, and in mid-1979, political discontent led to the formation of an interim government, led by Oliver Seraphin. It was replaced after the 1980 elections by a government led by the Dominica Freedom Party under Prime Minister Eugenia Charles, the Caribbean's first female prime minister. Within a year of her inauguration she survived two unsuccessful coups and in October 1983, as chairperson of the Organisation of East Caribbean States, endorsed the US Invasion of Grenada. Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980. By the end of the 1980s, the economy had made a healthy recovery, which weakened in the 1990s due to a decrease in banana prices. In 1995 the government was defeated in elections by the United Workers Party of Edison James. James became prime minister, serving until the February 2000 elections, when the Dominica United Workers Party (DUWP) was defeated by the Dominica Labour Party (DLP), led by Rosie Douglas. He was a former socialist activist, and many feared that his approach to politics might be impractical. However, these were somewhat quieted when he formed a coalition with the more conservative Dominica Freedom Party. Douglas died suddenly after only eight months in office, on October 1, 2000, and was replaced by Pierre Charles, also of the DLP. In 2003, Nicholas Liverpool was elected and sworn in as president, succeeding Vernon Shaw. On January 6, 2004, Prime Minister Pierre Charles, who had been suffering from heart problems since 2003, died. He became the second consecutive prime minister of Dominica to die in office of a heart attack. The foreign minister, Osborne Riviere immediately became prime minister, but the education minister, Roosevelt Skerrit succeeded him as prime minister and became the new leader of the Dominica Labour Party. Elections were held on May 5, 2005, with the ruling coalition maintaining power. In 2017, Hurricane Maria struck Dominica and was the most powerful and devastating hurricane ever recorded in Dominica. President Charles Angelo Savarin was re-elected in 2018. In the 2019 general elections The Dominica Labour Party (DLP) was given another overwhelming mandate – for a record fifth consecutive five-year term. The party's charismatic but often maligned leader, Roosevelt Skerrit, will serve a new five-year term as the Prime Minister of Dominica.	[ "Politics of Dominica", "Roseau", "underdevelopment", "History of the Americas", "Seven Years' War", "Invasion of Grenada", "Pierre Charles (Dominican politician)", "List of prime ministers of Dominica", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "Vernon Shaw", "American Revolutionary War", "Edward Oliver LeBlanc", "Arawak", "Roosevelt Skerrit", "petit blancs", "U.S. Department of State", "Patrick John", "Carib Territory", "Voyages of Christopher Columbus", "World Digital Library", "American War of Independence", "History of the Caribbean", "Raymond Breton", "Christopher Columbus", "Rosie Douglas", "History of the British West Indies", "Prime Minister", "South Equatorial Current", "History of North America", "socialist", "Brown Privilege Bill", "Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique", "Edison James", "British colonization of the Americas", "La Gaoulé", "Nicholas Liverpool", "1783 Treaty of Paris", "Hurricane David", "Orinoco River", "Invasion of Dominica (1778)", "Dominica Labour Party", "Taínos", "Guadeloupe", "Eugenia Charles", "Dominica", "Dominica Freedom Party", "Island Caribs", "West Indies Federation", "Andrew Rollo, 5th Lord Rollo", "British expedition against Dominica", "Oliver Seraphin", "WP:SDNONE", "Dominica United Workers Party", "Yale University Press", "2019 Dominican general election", "Martinique", "Treaty of Paris (1763)", "Leeward Island Federation", "Osborne Riviere", "French colonization of the Americas", "Charles Savarin", "Hurricane Maria", "Windward Islands" ]
8,052	Geography of Dominica	Dominica is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located about halfway between the French islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south). Its coordinates are 15 25 N, 61 20 W. It is known as "The Nature Island of the Caribbean" due to its spectacular, lush, and varied flora and fauna, which is protected by an extensive natural park system. It is the fourth largest island in the Eastern Caribbean with a population of people mainly of African descent. The lowest point in the country is at sea level along the coast, and the highest is Morne Diablotins (). The extreme southwestern coast of the island includes a large collapsed submarine caldera. Portions of the exposed rim of this caldera form the southwestern tip of the island at Scotts Head. Natural resources include farming, hydropower and timber. Geographically, Dominica is distinctive in many ways. with characteristically warm temperatures and heavy rainfall. On August 17, 2007, Hurricane Dean, a Category 1 at the time, hit the island. A mother and her seven-year-old son died when a landslide caused by the heavy rains fell onto their house. In another incident two people were injured when a tree fell on their house. Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit estimated that 100 to 125 homes were damaged, and that the agriculture sector was extensively damaged, in particular the banana crop. Before that were David and Frederic in August 1979 and Allen in August 1980. \|source 2 = BBC Weather \|date=August 2010 }} ==Bays== Bays are as follows from the northern tip of the island in a clockwise direction: Agoucha Bay, Sandwich Bay, Grand Baptiste Bay, Petit Baptiste Bay, La Taille Bay, Rough Bay, Marigot Bay, Walker's Rest Bay, Sophia Bay, Londonderry Bay, Mango Hole Bay, Middle Bay, Panto Hole Bay, Petite Soufriere Bay, Soufriere Bay, Woodbridge Bay, Prince Rupert Bay, Douglas Bay. ==Geology== Dominica was the last island to be formed in the Caribbean. The island was created by volcanic action about 26 million years ago. It lies upon two opposing tectonic plates. This explains why an island a bit bigger than Martha's Vineyard has mountains approaching . Geologically, Dominica is part of the rugged Lesser Antilles volcanic arc. Dominica's rugged surface is marked by its volcanic past. Rock formations are mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolite, with fallen boulders and sharp-edged protrusions peppering slope bases. At the base of each waterfall are natural pools. The sisserou parrot is Dominica's national bird and is indigenous to its mountain forests. The Caribbean Sea offshore of the island of Dominica is home to many cetaceans. Most notably a small group of sperm whales live in this area year round. These are shy animals, but there is a good chance of seeing them if you go out on a calm day. Other cetaceans commonly seen in the area include pilot whale, Fraser's dolphin, pantropical spotted dolphin and bottlenose dolphin. Less commonly seen animals include Cuvier's beaked whale, false killer whale, pygmy sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, Risso's dolphin, common dolphin, humpback whale and Bryde's whale. This makes Dominica a destination for tourists interested in whale-watching. == Statistics == Map references: Central America and the Caribbean Area: total: 751 km2 land: 751 km2 Coastline: 148 km Maritime claims: territorial sea: contiguous zone: exclusive economic zone: Land use: arable land: 8% permanent crops: 24% other: 68% (2012 est.) Irrigated land: NA km2 Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 0.02 km3/a per capita: 244.1 m3/a (2004) Natural hazards: Flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months Environment - international agreements: Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling === Extreme points === Southernmost point – Coast southeast of Scotts Head, Saint Mark Parish Westernmost point – Pointe Ronde, Saint John Parish Easternmost point – Pointe à Peine, Saint David Parish Highest point – Morne Diablotins: 1,447 m Lowest point – Caribbean Sea: 0 m ==Footnotes==	[ "Cuvier's beaked whale", "pilot whale", "hummingbird", "Roosevelt Skerrit", "Soufriere Bay", "timber", "Morne Diablotins", "volcano", "Mulatto", "island", "mountain", "pygmy sperm whale", "Dominica", "Desertification", "Prince Rupert Bay", "common dolphin", "humpback whale", "Rough Bay", "hydropower", "broad-winged hawk", "Hurricane Allen", "landslide", "Risso's dolphin", "Scotts Head, Dominica", "dwarf sperm whale", "Agoucha Bay", "farming", "bottlenose dolphin", "Fraser's dolphin", "Walker's Rest Bay", "Carib Point", "Woodbridge Bay", "Boiling Lake", "Londonderry Bay", "rain", "Saint Mark Parish, Dominica", "Amerindian", "imperial parrot", "Martha's Vineyard", "climate", "Martinique", "false killer whale", "Windward Islands", "Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale", "Federal Research Division", "La Taille Bay", "Law of the Sea", "Douglas Bay (Dominica)", "Saint John Parish, Dominica", "Petit Baptiste Bay", "sperm whale", "Marigot Bay (Dominica)", "cetaceans", "Biodiversity", "Sandwich Bay (Dominica)", "Hurricane Dean", "Hurricane David", "Saint Andrew Parish, Dominica", "Library of Congress", "yellow-crowned night heron", "NOAA", "Grand Baptiste Bay", "sea level", "trade winds", "tropical rainforest climate", "1 E8 m<sup>2</sup>", "African diaspora", "Associated Press", "Hurricane Maria", "Roseau", "Mango Hole Bay", "Prime Minister of Dominica", "Hurricane Frederic", "Panto Hole Bay", "Petite Soufriere Bay", "tropical monsoon climate", "Caribbean Sea", "whale-watching", "Guadeloupe", "pantropical spotted dolphin", "brown trembler", "Saint David Parish, Dominica", "Middle Bay (Dominica)", "WP:SDNONE", "Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc", "Sophia Bay", "Trafalgar Falls", "Bryde's whale" ]
8,053	Demographics of Dominica	This is a demography of the population of Dominica including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. ==Population size and structure== According to the preliminary 2011 census results Dominica has a population of 71,293. \|titlestyle = background:#EEBC35; }} {{Hidden begin \|title= Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 14.V.2011): ==Ethnic groups== The vast majority of Dominicans are of African descent (75% at the 2014 census). There is a significant mixed population (19%) at the 2014 census due to intermarriage, along with a small European origin minority (0.8%; descendants of French, British, and Irish colonists), East Indians (0.1%) groups, and there are small numbers of Lebanese/Syrians (0.1%) and Asians. ===Amerindians=== Dominica is the only Eastern Caribbean island that still has a population of pre-Columbian native Caribs (also known as Kalinago), who were exterminated, driven from neighbouring islands, or mixed with Africans and/or Europeans. According to the 2001 census there are only 2,001 Caribs remaining (2.9% of the total population). A considerable growth occurred since the 1991 census when 1,634 Caribs were counted (2.4% of the total population). The Caribs live in eight villages on the east coast of Dominica. This special Carib Territory was granted by the British Crown in 1903. The present number of Kalinago is estimated at 4% more than 3,000. ==Languages== English is the official language and universally understood; however, because of historic French domination, Antillean Creole, a French-lexified creole language, is also widely spoken. ==Religion== According to the 2001 census, 91.2% percent of the population of Dominica is considered Christian, 1.6% has a non-Christian religion and 6.1% has no religion or did not state a religion (1.1%). The Evangelicals constitute the largest Protestant group, with 6.7% of the population. Seventh-day Adventists are the second largest group (6.1%). The next largest group are Pentecostals (5.6% of the population), followed by Baptists (4.1%). Other Christians include Methodists (3.7%), Church of God (1.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1.2%), Anglicanism (0.6%) and Brethren Christian (0.3%). During the past decades the number of Roman Catholics and Anglicans has decreased, while the number of other Protestants has increased, especially Evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals (5.6% of the population) and Baptists). The number of non-Christians is small. These religious groups include the Rastafarian Movement (1.3% of the population), Hinduism (0.1%) and Muslims (0.2%).	[ "population", "Saint Luke Parish, Dominica", "Saint Paul Parish, Dominica", "Seventh-day Adventists", "Saint Joseph Parish, Dominica", "French language", "Anglicans", "Methodists", "Roman Catholics", "Saint John Parish, Dominica", "Antillean Creole", "Christianity", "Australia", "Saint George Parish, Dominica", "Canada", "Carib Territory", "Baptists", "Muslims", "Protestant", "United States", "demographics", "Rastafarian Movement", "Saint Peter Parish, Dominica", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Saint Andrew Parish, Dominica", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Dominica", "Saint Mark Parish, Dominica", "Religion in Dominica", "Saint David Parish, Dominica", "Island Caribs", "Ethnic group", "Evangelicalism", "Brethren Christian", "Hinduism in the West Indies", "WP:SDNONE", "United Kingdom", "population density", "English language", "Anglicanism", "Saint Patrick Parish, Dominica", "Pentecostals" ]
8,054	Politics of Dominica	The politics of Dominica takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Dominica is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. ==Executive branch== \|President \|Sylvanie Burton \|Labour Party \|2 October 2023 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Roosevelt Skerritt \|Labour Party \|8 January 2004 \|} A president and prime minister make up the executive branch. Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a five-year term by the parliament. The president appoints as prime minister the person who command the majority of elected representatives in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister's recommendation, members of the parliament as cabinet ministers. The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote. ==Legislative branch== The House of Assembly has 32 members. Twenty-one members are elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. Nine members are senators appointed by the President; five on the advice of the Prime Minister and four on the advice of the leader of the opposition. The Speaker is elected by the elected members after an election. There is also one ex officio member, the clerk of the house. The head of state – the president – is elected by the House of Assembly. The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed. If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader. If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives. Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every five years, although the prime minister can call elections at any time. Dominica has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the Dominica Labour Party and the greatly diminished Dominica Freedom Party have built a coalition. ==Political parties and elections== ==Judicial branch== Dominica's legal system is based on English common law. There are three magistrate's courts and a High Court of Justice. Appeals can be made to the Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal and, ultimately, to the Caribbean Court of Justice. The Court of Appeal of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one of its 16 High Court judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the High Court of Justice. Dominica's current High Court judges are The Hon. Brian Cottle and The Hon. M. E. Birnie Stephenson-Brooks. ==Administrative divisions== Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns. Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities. The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, and Saint Peter. ==International organization participation== ACP ALBA Caricom CDB CELAC Commonwealth of Nations ECLAC FAO G-77 IBRD ICC ICRM IDA IFAD IFC IFRCS ILO IMF IMO Interpol IOC ITU ITUC NAM (observer) OAS OIF OECS OPANAL OPCW UN UNCTAD UNESCO UNIDO UPU WHO WIPO WMO WTO	[ "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization", "International Monetary Fund", "House of Assembly of Dominica", "ex officio", "Brian Cottle", "M. E. Birnie Stephenson-Brooks", "Saint Luke Parish, Dominica", "Saint Paul Parish, Dominica", "List of Presidents of Dominica", "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "International Finance Corporation", "Saint Joseph Parish, Dominica", "World Intellectual Property Organization", "Prime Minister of Dominica", "Sylvanie Burton", "Executive power", "Saint Lucia", "Interpol (organization)", "Saint John Parish, Dominica", "United Nations Industrial Development Organization", "political parties", "Caribbean Development Bank", "Saint George Parish, Dominica", "republic", "head of government", "International Olympic Committee", "Organization of American States", "Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas", "Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States", "multi-party system", "representative democracy", "United Nations Conference on Trade and Development", "Saint Patrick Parish, Dominica", "Judiciary", "Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "World Health Organization", "Saint Peter Parish, Dominica", "Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons", "List of Prime Ministers of Dominica", "Saint Andrew Parish, Dominica", "World Bank", "International Labour Organization", "Dominica Labour Party", "Non-Aligned Movement", "Forms of government", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "International Fund for Agricultural Development", "Saint Mark Parish, Dominica", "Dominica Freedom Party", "Community of Latin American and Caribbean States", "Saint David Parish, Dominica", "Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court", "parliamentary system", "United Nations", "Roosevelt Skerritt", "list of presidents of Dominica", "Group of 77", "WP:SDNONE", "International Trade Union Confederation", "two-party system", "International Criminal Court", "constituency", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Mr. Speaker", "Universal Postal Union", "World Trade Organization", "head of state", "World Meteorological Organization", "International Telecommunication Union", "United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean", "Legislative power", "Caricom", "Caribbean Court of Justice", "ACP (Lomé Convention)", "Parishes of Dominica", "OPANAL" ]
8,056	Telecommunications in Dominica	Telecommunications in Dominica comprises telephone, radio, television and internet services. The primary regulatory authority is the National Telecommunication Regulatory Commission which regulates all related industries to comply with The Telecommunications Act 8 of 2000. ==Telephony== Calls from Dominica to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number. Calls from Dominica to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code. Telephone system: Domestic: fully automatic network International: microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia Number formatting: Telephone code: 767 Number Format: nxx-xxxx Country Code: +1767 International Call Prefix: 011 (outside NANP) Mobile cellular service providers: Digicel FLOW ==Internet== Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Cable & Wireless Dominica Ltd (DSL) Digicel Play (Cable & FTTP) Marpin Telecoms (Cable) Internet code: .dm ==Radio== Dominica's radio stations include the government-owned DBS Radio, as well as privately owned competitors Kairi FM and Q95; a religious service called Voice of Life also operates there. DBS was founded in 1971 as Radio Dominica (supplanting material provided by Grenada's Windward Islands Broadcasting Service, WIBS), while Voice of Life was established in 1974 by two North American missionaries and began transmissions in 1976. The experiment ceased after Hurricane David devastated the country in 1979; at the time, transmission was served from the Morne Bruce locality. In lieu of a national television broadcast service, By 2017, it was acquired by the local division of Flow, whose name it was rebranded under. As of the early 2020s, Flow mainly carried North American and British programming, and broadcast a weekday-morning programme entitled Good Morning Dominica. Dominica had 11,000 television sets in 2007.	[ "Ultra high frequency", "Telephone code", "ABC-CLIO", "Lewisburg, Pennsylvania", "radiotelephone", "Morne Bruce", "Mobile cellular", "Saint Lucia", "Barbados", "International Call Prefix", "Country calling code", "Digicel", "Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation", "Super high frequency", "LIME (Cable & Wireless)", "Grenada", "microwave", "Internet Service Provider", "Macmillan Publishers", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "Hurricane David", "North American Numbering Plan", "Q95 (Dominica)", "World Bank", "VHF", "Guadeloupe", "Internet code", "Digicel Play", "Area code 767", "DBS Radio", "Kairi FM", "WP:SDNONE", "Bucknell University Press", "Martinique", "Voice of Life", "Google Books", "Routledge", "Flow (brand)" ]
8,058	Dominica Defense Force	The Dominica Defense Forces (DDF) was the military of the Commonwealth of Dominica. There has been no standing army in Dominica since 1981, following the disbandment of the defence forces after two violent coup attempts against Dame Eugenia Charles. Defense is the responsibility of the Regional Security System (RSS). == History == By the 1960s, the police were the only security force in the country. As a result, a Volunteer Defence Force was established in 1974. In November 1975, a full-time Defence Force was established by an act of the House of Assembly to replace the Volunteer Defence Force, headed by Patrick John as Minister of Security. In March 1981, Charles announced the discovery of a coup d'état attempt known as Operation Red Dog, which involved Major Frederick Newton, the head of the Defence Force. A month later, parliament disbanded the Defence Force. == Modern defense == The civil Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force includes a Special Service Unit and Coast Guard. In the event of war or other emergency, if proclaimed by the authorities, the Police Force shall be a military force which may be employed for State defence (Police Act, Chapter 14:01).	[ "Police", "House of Assembly of Dominica", "Coast guard", "coup d'état", "standing army", "Commonwealth of Dominica", "Eugenia Charles", "Dominica", "Regional Security System", "Frederick Newton", "Patrick John", "Operation Red Dog" ]
8,059	Foreign relations of Dominica	Like its Eastern Caribbean neighbours, the main priority of Dominica's foreign relations is economic development. The country maintains missions in Washington, New York, London, and Brussels and is represented jointly with other Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members in Canada. Dominica is also a member of the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the Commonwealth of Nations. It became a member of the United Nations and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1978 and of the World Bank and Organization of American States (OAS) in 1979. As a member of CARICOM, in July 1994 Dominica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994. In May 1997, Prime Minister James joined 14 other Caribbean leaders, and President Clinton, during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade. Dominica previously maintained official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as "Taiwan") instead of the People's Republic of China, but on 23 March 2004, a joint communique was signed in Beijing, paving the way for diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic. Beijing responded to Dominica's severing relations with the Republic of China by giving them a $12 million aid package, which includes $6 million in budget support for the year 2004 and $1 million annually for six years. In June 2020, Dominica was one of 53 countries backing the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations. Dominica is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). ==International disputes== Dominica claims Venezuelan waters around controlled Isla Aves (Known in Dominica as Bird Rock) located roughly 90 km. west of Dominica. == Diplomatic relations == List of countries which Dominica maintains diplomatic relations with ==Bilateral relations== == Dominica and the Commonwealth of Nations == The Commonwealth of Dominica has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1978, when it became an independent from the United Kingdom as a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations. Dominica's highest court of appeal is the Caribbean Court of Justice, in effect from 6 March 2015. Previously, the nation's ultimate court of appeal was the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London.	[ "Taiwan", "Dominican Republic", "International Monetary Fund", "Havana", "Roseau", "Hugo Chávez", "Dominica–India relations", "Asunción", "Eastern Caribbean", "Haiti", "Saint Lucia", "Dominica–Mexico relations", "Barbados", "CARICOM", "Caribbean Community", "Roosevelt Skerrit", "Axios (website)", "Caribbean Development Bank", "West Indies Associated States", "Organization of American States", "Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States", "Caracas", "Bill Clinton", "United States", "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court", "republic in the Commonwealth of Nations", "List of diplomatic missions in Dominica", "List of diplomatic missions of Dominica", "Dominica–United States relations", "Edison James", "Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "standard of living", "Finland", "General Assembly of the Organization of American States", "Castries", "Isla Aves", "Bridgetown, Barbados", "U.S. Agency for International Development", "World Bank", "Cuba", "BBC News", "Association of Caribbean States", "Dominica–France Maritime Delimitation Agreement", "Dominica", "2020 Hong Kong national security law", "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council", "Santo Domingo", "Kingston, Jamaica", "London", "Bridgetown", "High Commission", "Cyprus", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 940", "Venezuela", "United Nations", "New York City", "Paris", "Port of Spain", "WP:SDNONE", "Republic of China", "International Criminal Court", "Roseau, Dominica", "Commonwealth of Nations", "United Kingdom", "budget support", "Greece", "People's Republic of China", "Trinidad and Tobago", "Caribbean Court of Justice", "Vienna" ]
8,060	Dominican Republic	{{Infobox country \| conventional_long_name = Dominican Republic \| common_name = the Dominican Republic \| native_name = \| image_flag = Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg \| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic.svg \| national_motto = "God, Homeland, Freedom" \| national_anthem = Quisqueyanos valientes \| image_map = Dominican Republic (orthographic projection).svg \| image_map2 = \| capital = Santo Domingo \| coordinates = \| largest_city = capital \| official_languages = Spanish \| languages2 = See below \| languages2_type = Other spoken languages \| ethnic_groups_year = 2022 \| ethnic_groups = \| ethnic_groups_ref = \| religion = \| religion_ref = \| religion_year = 2020 \| demonym = DominicanQuisqueyan (colloquial) \| government_type = Unitary presidential republic \| established_event3 = Second Republic \| established_date3 = 1865–1916 \| established_event4 = Third Republic \| established_date4 = 1924–1965 \| established_event5 = Fourth Republic \| established_date5 = 1966–present \| area_km2 = 48,671 \| area_rank = 128th \| area_sq_mi = \| percent_water = 0.7 \| population_estimate_year = 2025 \| population_estimate_rank = 88th \| population_density_km2 = 220 \| population_density_sq_mi = 501.5 \| population_density_rank = 65th \| GDP_PPP = $334.292 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2025 \| GDP_PPP_rank = 64th \| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $30,710 \| Gini_rank = \| HDI = 0.766 \| HDI_year = 2022 \| HDI_change = increase \| HDI_ref = \| HDI_rank = 82nd \| currency = Dominican peso \| currency_code = DOP \| time_zone = Atlantic Standard Time \| utc_offset = -04:00 \| utc_offset_DST = \| time_zone_DST = (Not Observed) \| drives_on = Right \| calling_code = +1-809, +1-829, +1-849 \| cctld = .do In the Antilles, the country is the second-largest nation by area after Cuba at and second-largest by population after Haiti with approximately 11.4 million people in 2024, of whom 3.6 million reside in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city. Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in the Western Hemisphere – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5.3% between 1992 and 2018. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing, tourism, and mining. The country is the site of the third largest (in terms of production) gold mine in the world, the Pueblo Viejo mine. The gold production of the country is 31 metric tonnes in 2015. The Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. A geographically diverse nation, the Dominican Republic is home to both the Caribbean's tallest mountain peak, Pico Duarte, and the Caribbean's largest lake and lowest point, Lake Enriquillo. The island has an average temperature of and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, palace, monastery, and fortress built in the Americas, located in Santo Domingo's Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. ==Etymology== The name Dominican originates from Saint Dominic, the patron saint of astronomers, and founder of the Dominican Order. The Dominican Order established what is now known as the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, the first university in the New World. For most of its history, up until independence, the colony was known simply as and continued to be commonly known as such in English until the early 20th century. The residents were called "Dominicans" (), the adjectival form of "Domingo", and as such, the revolutionaries named their newly independent country the "Dominican Republic" (). In the national anthem of the Dominican Republic (), the poetic term "Quisqueyans" () is used instead of "Dominicans". The word "Quisqueya" derives from the Ciguayo language, and means "mother of the lands". It is often used in songs as another name for the country. The name of the country in English is often shortened to "the D.R." (), but this is rare in Spanish. ==History== ===Pre-Columbian era=== The islands of the Caribbean were first settled around 6,000 years ago by hunter-gatherer peoples originating from Central America or northern South America. The Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taíno moved into the Caribbean from South America during the 1st millennium BC, reaching Hispaniola by around 600 AD. These Arawakan peoples engaged in farming, fishing, hunting and gathering, to 2 million. By 1492, the island was divided into five Taíno chiefdoms. The Taíno name for the entire island was either Ayiti or Quisqueya. ===European colonization=== Christopher Columbus arrived on the island on December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to the Americas. He claimed the land for Spain and named it La Española, due to its diverse climate and terrain, which reminded him of the Spanish landscape. In 1496, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo, Western Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created a plantation economy. Initially, after friendly relationships, the Taínos resisted the conquest, led by female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagaríx, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave on the island. Within a few years after 1492, the population of Taínos had declined drastically due to smallpox, measles, and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans. African slaves were imported to replace the dwindling Taínos. The last record of pure Taínos in the country was from 1864. Still, Taíno biological heritage survived due to intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taíno women, and some present-day Dominicans have Taíno ancestry. In 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France by the Treaty of Basel as a result of its defeat in the War of the Pyrenees. Saint-Domingue achieved independence as Haiti from France on January 1, 1804. In 1809, the French were expelled from the island and Santo Domingo returned to Spanish rule. ===Ephemeral independence and Haitian occupation=== After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various opposing groups, including a failed 1812 revolt led by freedmen, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator), José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence from the Spanish crown as Spanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821. This period is also known as the Ephemeral independence. The newly independent republic ended two months later, when it was occupied and annexed by Haiti, then under the leadership of Jean-Pierre Boyer. For twenty-two years, Haiti controlled Santo Domingo, which it called Partie de l'Est, treating it as a colonial territory. The unpaid Haitian army sustained itself by taking resources from the Dominican people and land without compensation. ===First Republic (1844–1861)=== In 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention. Also Francisco del Rosario Sánchez and Ramon Matias Mella, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. On February 27, 1844, the members of La Trinitaria declared independence from Haiti. They were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher, who became general of the army of the nascent republic. The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to a major power. The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and its population in 1845 was approximately 230,000 people (100,000 whites; 40,000 blacks; and 90,000 mulattoes). In March 1844, Haiti invaded but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy casualties on the Haitians. By April 15, Dominican forces had defeated the Haitian forces on both land and sea. In early July 1844, Duarte was urged by his followers to take the title of President of the Republic. Duarte agreed, but only if free elections were arranged. However, Santana's forces took Santo Domingo on July 12, and they declared Santana ruler of the Dominican Republic. Santana then put Mella, Duarte, and Sánchez in jail. On February 27, 1845, Santana executed María Trinidad Sánchez, heroine of La Trinitaria, and others for conspiracy. After defeating a third Haitian invasion in April 1849 at the Battle of Las Carreras, Santana marched on Santo Domingo and deposed president Manuel Jimenes (who had ousted Santana as president) in a coup d'état. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president, but Báez was unwilling to serve as Santana's puppet. In November–December 1849, Dominican seamen raided the Haitian coasts, plundered seaside villages, as far as Dame Marie, and butchered crews of captured enemy ships. A fourth and final invasion by Haiti in November 1855 was defeated by Dominican forces by January 27, 1856, resulting in thousands of Haitian casualties. Again Santana and Báez plotted against each other for political dominance, with Báez winning the first encounter and expelling Santana in 1857, and Santana winning the second and expelling Báez in 1859. ===Restoration republic=== In 1861, after imprisoning, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana asked Queen Isabella II of Spain to retake control of the Dominican Republic. Spain, which had not come to terms with the loss of its mainland American colonies 40 years earlier, made the country a colony again. The island was occupied by 30,000 Spanish troops bolstered by battalions of Cuban and Puerto Rican volunteers and 12,000 Dominicans who aligned themselves with the Spanish forces. The Haitian rebel Sylvain Salnave, fearful of the reestablishment of Spain as colonial power, gave refuge and logistics to revolutionaries seeking to reestablish the independent nation. The ensuing civil war, known as the War of Restoration, killed more than 50,000. The war began on August 16, 1863. The Spanish garrison of Santiago was forced to retreat to Puerto Plata by mid-September. The Dominicans bombarded the port of Puerto Plata and destroyed much of the town. In the south, Spanish forces were successful in driving the rebels out of several towns and into Haiti. However, the capture of Azua proved to be a costly endeavor, with two months of fighting and a significant loss of lives for the Spanish. Spanish forces from Cuba attacked and captured Monte Cristi on the north coast, but sustained heavy casualties. By 1865, the Dominican forces had confined the Spanish troops to Santo Domingo, and the Spaniards were afraid to venture outside the capital. After nearly two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in July 1865. One military historian estimates Spanish casualties at 10,888 killed or wounded in action and thousands dead from yellow fever, while the Dominican forces fighting for Spain suffered 10,000 casualties. Another military historian estimates that Spain lost 18,000 dead, a figure that does not include the Dominicans, Cubans, and Puerto Ricans fighting alongside them. The Dominicans fighting for independence against Spain suffered more than 4,000 dead. Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. It was now Báez's turn to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States, where two successive presidents were supportive. U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant desired a naval base at Samaná and also a place for resettling newly freed African Americans. The treaty was defeated in the United States Senate in 1870. Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux. "Lilís", as the new president was nicknamed, put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state. In 1899, he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized, and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants. Lebanese, Syrians, Turks, and Palestinians began to arrive in the country during the latter part of the 19th century. During the U.S. occupation of 1916–24, peasants from the countryside, called Gavilleros, would not only kill U.S. Marines, but would also attack and kill Arab vendors traveling through the countryside. ===20th century (1900–1930)=== From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts to European creditors, faced the threat of military intervention by France, Germany, and Italy. United States President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal. He made a small military intervention to ward off European powers, to proclaim his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and also to obtain his 1905 Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, which was the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic and assumed responsibility for said debt. Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic. U.S. Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and seized the capital and other ports, while General Arias fell back to his inland Santiago stronghold. A significant weaponry disparity between the U.S. Marines and Arias's forces led to the latter's defeat. The clashes with the U.S. Marines marked the first time the Dominicans had ever encountered a machine gun. A peace delegation from Santiago surrendered the city on July 5, coinciding with General Arias' surrender to the Dominican governor. The military government established by the U.S. under the Navy and Marine Corps on November 29, led by Vice Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by the Dominicans, but organized resistance ceased. The occupation regime kept most Dominican laws and institutions and largely pacified the general population. The occupying government also revived the Dominican economy, reduced the nation's debt, built a road network that at last interconnected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units. The system of forced labour used by the Marines in Haiti was largely absent in the Dominican Republic. The U.S. government's rule ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924. This was accompanied most noticeably by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terrorist methods against the opposition. Several Dominicans were assassinated in New York City after taking part in anti-Trujillo activities. In October 1937, Dominican troops murdered 10,000 to 15,000 Haitian men, women, and children—mostly with machetes—along the Haitian-Dominican border under the orders of Trujillo. The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan president Rómulo Betancourt with a car bomb, as he was a fierce critic of Trujillo. During Betancourt's earlier exile in Cuba, Trujillo's agents attempted to inject poison into him on a Havana street in broad daylight. After its representatives confirmed Trujillo's complicity in the nearly successful assassination attempt, the Organization of American States (OAS), for the first time in its history, decreed sanctions against a member state. The United States severed diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic on August 26, 1960, and in January 1961 suspended the export of trucks, parts, crude oil, gasoline and other petroleum products. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also took advantage of OAS sanctions to drastically cut purchases of Dominican sugar, the country's major export. This action ultimately cost the Dominican Republic almost $22,000,000 in lost revenues at a time when its economy was in a rapid decline. Trujillo had become expendable, and dissidents inside the Dominican Republic argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove him. On May 31, 1961, Venezuela arrested several individuals plotting to overthrow the government, armed with weapons traced to the Dominican Republic. On May 30, 1961, Trujillo was shot and killed by Dominican dissidents. Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties. His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included construction of large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massive Columbus Lighthouse, completed in 1992 during a later tenure. In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded to the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which left upwards of 2,000 people dead and 200,000 homeless. The hurricane caused over $1 billion in damage. Another PRD win in 1982 followed, under Salvador Jorge Blanco. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986 and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, in the latter defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo. The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996. Balaguer was not a candidate. The PSRC candidate was his Vice President Jacinto Peynado Garrigosa. ===1996–present=== In 1996, with the support of Joaquín Balaguer and the Social Christian Reform Party in a coalition called the Patriotic Front, Leonel Fernández achieved the first-ever win for the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which Bosch had founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD. Fernández oversaw a fast-growing economy: growth averaged 7.7% per year, unemployment fell, and exchange and inflation rates were stable. He was succeeded by the opposition candidate Luis Abinader in the 2020 election (weeks after protests erupted in the country against Medina's government), marking the end to 16 years in power of the centre-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD). In May 2024, President Luis Abinader won a second term in the elections. His tough policies towards migration from neighbouring Haiti was popular among voters. ==Geography== The Dominican Republic comprises the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola, the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles, with the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. It shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with Haiti, the north-to-south (though somewhat irregular) border between the two countries being . ===Climate=== The Dominican Republic has a tropical rainforest climate in the coastal and lowland areas. Some areas, such as most of the Cibao region, have a tropical savanna climate. Lake Enriquillo, located in the Dominican Republic's southwest, is home to the largest population of American crocodiles. ==Government and politics== The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy or democratic republic, The three major parties are the conservative Social Christian Reformist Party (), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; and the social democratic Dominican Revolutionary Party (), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04; and the Dominican Liberation Party (), in power 1996–2000 and 2004–2020. In 2020, protests erupted against the PLD's rule. The presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM), Luis Abinader, won the election, defeating the PLD. ===Administrative divisions=== The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces. Santo Domingo, the capital, is designated Distrito Nacional (National District). The provinces are divided into municipalities (municipios; singular municipio). They are the second-level political and administrative subdivisions of the country. The president appoints the governors of the 31 provinces. Mayors and municipal councils administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo). They are elected at the same time as congressional representatives. The Distrito Nacional was created in 1936. Prior to this, the Distrito National was the old Santo Domingo Province, in existence since the country's independence in 1844. It is not to be confused with the new Santo Domingo Province split off from it in 2001. While it is similar to a province in many ways, the Distrito Nacional differs in its lack of an administrative governor and consisting only of one municipality, Santo Domingo, the city council (ayuntamiento) and mayor (síndico) which are in charge of its administration. \| \|} ===Foreign relations=== The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States, and has close cultural ties with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and other states and jurisdictions of the United States. The Dominican Republic's relationship with neighbouring Haiti is strained over mass Haitian migration to the Dominican Republic, with citizens of the Dominican Republic blaming the Haitians for increased crime and other social problems. The Dominican Republic is a regular member of the . The Dominican Republic has a free trade agreement with the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua via the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement and an economic partnership agreement with the European Union and the Caribbean Community via the Caribbean Forum. Dominican Republic is the 97th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index. ===Military=== The Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are the military forces of the Dominican Republic. They consist of approximately 56,000 active duty personnel. The President of the Dominican Republic is the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic and the Ministry of Defense is the chief managing body of the armed forces. The Army, with 28,750 active duty personnel, ==Economy== During the last three decades, the Dominican economy, formerly dependent on the export of agricultural commodities (mainly sugar, cocoa and coffee), has transitioned to a diversified mix of services, manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and trade. The service sector accounts for almost 60% of GDP; manufacturing, for 22%; tourism, telecommunications and finance are the main components of the service sector; however, none of them accounts for more than 10% of the whole. The Dominican Republic has a stock market, Bolsa de Valores de la República Dominicana (BVRD). and advanced telecommunication system and transportation infrastructure. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives and sends large flows of migrants. Mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. contributes to development, sending billions of dollars to Dominican families in remittances. Remittances in Dominican Republic increased to US$4571.30 million in 2014 from US$3333 million in 2013 (according to data reported by the Inter-American Development Bank). Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage, which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices. Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a recession. were convicted. According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked No. 71 in the world for resource availability, No. 79 for human development, and No. 14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor. The Dominican Republic has a noted problem of child labor in its coffee, rice, sugarcane, and tomato industries. The labor injustices in the sugarcane industry extend to forced labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Three large groups own 75% of the land: the State Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal del Azúcar, CEA), Grupo Vicini, and Central Romana Corporation. According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 104,800 people are enslaved in the modern day Dominican Republic, or 1.00% of the population. ===Currency=== The Dominican peso (abbreviated $ or RD$; ISO 4217 code is "DOP") is the national currency, with the United States dollar, the Euro, the Canadian dollar and the Swiss franc also accepted at most tourist sites. The exchange rate to the U.S. dollar, liberalized by 1985, stood at 2.70 pesos per dollar in August 1986, ===Tourism=== Tourism is one of the fueling factors in the Dominican Republic's economic growth. The Dominican Republic is the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean. With the construction of projects like Cap Cana, San Souci Port in Santo Domingo, Casa De Campo and the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino (ancient Moon Palace Resort) in Punta Cana, the Dominican Republic expects increased tourism activity in the upcoming years. Ecotourism has also been a topic increasingly important, with towns like Jarabacoa and neighboring Constanza, and locations like the Pico Duarte, Bahía de las Águilas, and others becoming more significant in efforts to increase direct benefits from tourism. Most residents from other countries are required to get a tourist card, depending on the country they live in. In the last 10 years the Dominican Republic has become one of the world's notably progressive states in terms of recycling and waste disposal. ===Transportation=== The country has three national trunk highways, which connect every major town. These are DR-1, DR-2, and DR-3, which depart from Santo Domingo toward the northern (Cibao), southwestern (Sur), and eastern (El Este) parts of the country respectively. These highways have been consistently improved with the expansion and reconstruction of many sections. Two other national highways serve as spur (DR-5) or alternative routes (DR-4). In addition to the national highways, the government has embarked on an expansive reconstruction of spur secondary routes, which connect smaller towns to the trunk routes. In the last few years the government constructed a 106-kilometer toll road that connects Santo Domingo with the country's northeastern peninsula. Travelers may now arrive in the Samaná Peninsula in less than two hours. Other additions are the reconstruction of the DR-28 (Jarabacoa – Constanza) and DR-12 (Constanza – Bonao). Despite these efforts, many secondary routes still remain either unpaved or in need of maintenance. There is currently a nationwide program to pave these and other commonly used routes. Also, the Santiago light rail system is in planning stages but currently on hold. ===Bus services=== There are two main bus transportation services in the Dominican Republic: one controlled by the government, through the Oficina Técnica de Transito Terrestre (OTTT) and the Oficina Metropolitana de Servicios de Autobuses (OMSA), and the other controlled by private business, among them, Federación Nacional de Transporte La Nueva Opción (FENATRANO) and the Confederacion Nacional de Transporte (CONATRA). The government transportation system covers large routes in metropolitan areas such as Santo Domingo and Santiago. There are many privately owned bus companies, such as Metro Servicios Turísticos and Caribe Tours, that run daily routes. ===Santo Domingo Metro=== The Dominican Republic has a rapid transit system in Santo Domingo, the country's capital. It is the most extensive metro system in the insular Caribbean and Central American region by length and number of stations. The Santo Domingo Metro is part of a major "National Master Plan" to improve transportation in Santo Domingo as well as the rest of the nation. The first line was planned to relieve traffic congestion in the Máximo Gómez and Hermanas Mirabal Avenue. The second line, which opened in April 2013, is meant to relieve the congestion along the Duarte-Kennedy-Centenario Corridor in the city from west to east. The current length of the Metro, with the sections of the two lines open , is . Before the opening of the second line, 30,856,515 passengers rode the Santo Domingo Metro in 2012. With both lines opened, ridership increased to 61,270,054 passengers in 2014. ===Communications=== The Dominican Republic has a well developed telecommunications infrastructure, with extensive mobile phone and landline services. Cable Internet and DSL are available in most parts of the country, and many Internet service providers offer 3G wireless internet service. Projects to extend Wi-Fi hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo. The telecommunications regulator in the country is INDOTEL (Instituto Dominicano de Telecomunicaciones). The largest telecommunications company is Claro – part of Carlos Slim's América Móvil – which provides wireless, landline, broadband, and IPTV services. In June 2009 there were more than 8 million phone line subscribers (land and cell users) in the D.R., representing 81% of the country's population and a fivefold increase since the year 2000, when there were 1.6 million. The communications sector generates about 3.0% of the GDP. In November 2009, the Dominican Republic became the first Latin American country to pledge to include a "gender perspective" in every information and communications technology (ICT) initiative and policy developed by the government. This is part of the regional eLAC2010 plan. The tool the Dominicans have chosen to design and evaluate all the public policies is the APC Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM). ===Electricity=== Electric power service has been unreliable since the Trujillo era, and as much as 75% of the equipment is that old. The country's antiquated power grid causes transmission losses that account for a large share of billed electricity from generators. The privatization of the sector started under a previous administration of Leonel Fernández. The recent investment in a 345 kilovolt "Santo Domingo–Santiago Electrical Highway" Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%. In 2010, 31.2% of the population was under 15 years of age, with 6% of the population over 65 years of age. There were an estimated 102.3 males for every 100 females in 2020. The population density in 2007 was 192 per km2 (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas. The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city Santo Domingo had a population of 2,907,100 in 2010. Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros ( 745,293), La Romana (pop. 214,109), San Pedro de Macorís (pop. 185,255), Higüey (153,174), San Francisco de Macorís (pop. 132,725), Puerto Plata (pop. 118,282), and La Vega (pop. 104,536). Per the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 2.3%. ===Population centres=== =	[ "San José de Ocoa", "Pedro Martínez", "Spanish Empire", "List of Caribbean countries by population", "William Alexander Morgan", "Robinson Canó", "Plácido Polanco", "Dominican Republic immigration to Puerto Rico", "French language", "First Republic (Dominican Republic)", "Samaná Peninsula", "commercial bank", "Samaná Bay", "European colonization of the Americas", "Pueblo Viejo mine", "Samaná English", "Salvaleón de Higüey", "People of the Dominican Republic", "United Nations Population Fund", "Guacanagaríx", "municipio", "San Gregorio de Nigua", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Palo music", "Social democracy", "Dominican Spanish", "Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra", "Montserrat", "La Vega Province", "Environmental issues in Haiti", "San Pedro de Macorís Province", "Brazil", "Ecotourism", "Sancocho", "child labor", "82nd Airborne Division", "Azua Province", "Variation (linguistics)", "Nelson Cruz", "Universidad Complutense de Madrid", "Ramon Matias Mella", "Juan Marichal", "Mother tongue", "Ubaldo Jiménez", "Crème caramel", "Illegal immigration", "Dominican Navy", "DR-4", "Jus sanguinis", "Christians", "Kardecist spiritism", "Pedro Santana", "Concepción de La Vega", "Neiba", "Congo region", "Maritime boundary", "Juan Guzman (boxer)", "empanada", "Spanish cuisine", "boxing", "City College of New York", "endemic", "sofrito", "sovereign state", "Cayo Jackson", "Language proficiency", "St. Kitts and Nevis", "Hurricane San Zenón", "Milly Quezada", "BioScience", "Dominican Americans", "Sierra de Bahoruco", "Catalina Island (Dominican Republic)", "Social Christian Reformist Party", "Index of Dominican Republic-related articles", "Sylvain Salnave", "world Tourism rankings", "Italians", "San Felipe de Puerto Plata", "Captaincy General of Santo Domingo", "Geography of the Dominican Republic", "Dominican Revolutionary Party", "Hipólito Mejía", "Danilo Medina", "History of the Dominican Republic", "Columbus Lighthouse", "Venezuelan people", "Rafael Trujillo", "German Empire", "Ethnic Chinese in the Dominican Republic", "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed", "Antigua", "International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women", "Santa Cruz de Mao", "volleyball", "Carlos Morales Troncoso", "United States occupation of Haiti", "Banco Intercontinental", "vernacular", "Government of the Dominican Republic", "Afro-Dominicans", "Casa de Campo, Dominican Republic", "Judiciary", "DR-3", "bulgur", "Salcedo, Hermanas Mirabal", "World Bank", "Boca Chica", "Pereskia quisqueyana", "Wi-Fi", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "President of the Dominican Republic", "Italian people", "Leo Cruz", "Haitians", "Hanley Ramírez", "Rómulo Betancourt", "London", "Syria", "brass instruments", "Kingdom of Italy", "Santiago de los Caballeros Province", "Jean-Pierre Boyer", "Swiss people", "palmchat", "Spanish America", "the Bahamas", "Ramfis Trujillo", "International Monetary Fund", "Luis Abinader", "Costa Rica", "Isla Cabra", "judo", "Bizcocho Dominicano", "Caribbean Community", "Macarena García, Luis Bonilla, Bianca Alvarez", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "bolero", "Azua de Compostela", "National Statistics Office (Dominican Republic)", "parsley massacre", "Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)", "Colombian people", "Democracy", "Central Chile", "Free Methodist", "United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime", "Toño Rosario", "Horacio Vásquez", "Sweet potato", "Framber Valdez", "Mirabal sisters", "Dominican peso", "Palestinian people", "Baseball", "Sergio Vargas", "Pedernales Province", "plantation economy", "The New York Times", "Cubans", "Navidad Bank", "Distrito Nacional", "Concepción de la Vega", "güira", "Cap Cana", "2020 Dominican Republic protests", "Junot Díaz", "Mao, Dominican Republic", "First Empire of Haiti", "Hato Mayor Province", "Tortola", "Mauby", "strafing", "Douglas C-47 Skytrain", "caudillo", "Culture of Puerto Rico", "Honduras", "New World", "World Economic Forum", "Dutch people", "National Security Archive", "Salsa music", "Bank (topography)", "Santa Cruz de El Seibo", "Fernando Tatís Jr.", "Dominican Army", "Cocolo", "Monte Plata", "Palestine (region)", "Floral emblem", "Dominican Air Force", "Desiderio Arias", "Tito Horford", "cultural syncretism", "impressionism", "Saint-Domingue", "Syrian people", "musical style", "Baoruco Province", "GovInfo", "Swiss franc", "Santo Domingo Este", "Al Horford", "Iraq War", "Omar Minaya", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "Hermanas Mirabal Province", "Battle of Las Carreras", "New York City", "2024 Dominican Republic general election", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)", "Indigenous languages of the Americas", "Romeo Santos", "Francisco del Rosario Sánchez", "Puerto Plata Province", "Lake Enriquillo", "foreign exchange reserves", "Inter-American Peace Force", "Fernando Villalona", "Pulitzer Prize for Fiction", "Mouchoir Bank", "Telephone numbers in the Dominican Republic", "Spain", "Mona Passage", "habichuelas con dulce", "Dia de la Altagracia", "Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM)", "Outline of the Dominican Republic", "death rate", "Free-trade area", "Venezuelans", "Economic Partnership Agreements", "UNESCO", "Protestants", "Treaty of Ryswick", "1812 Mendoza and Mojarra conspiracy", "Monseñor Nouel Province", "Western Asia", "Organization of American States", "Plus Ultra Brigade", "Greater Antilles", "Nagua", "María Trinidad Sánchez", "DR-13", "Isabella II of Spain", "CIA World Factbook", "developing country", "Bolsa de Valores de la República Dominicana", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Culture of Cuba", "Protestantism", "Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic", "youth in the Dominican Republic", "Isla Cabritos", "Morir Soñando", "Santo Domingo", "Sub-Saharan African", "Joan Guzman", "Roosevelt Corollary", "Dominican War of Independence", "Dominican Restoration War", "DR-12", "Japanese people", "Aida Cartagena Portalatin", "Santa Cruz de Barahona", "Internet service provider", "Claro República Dominicana", "East Asian people", "3G", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Independencia Province", "España Boba", "San Pedro de Macorís", "Felipe López (basketball)", "Dajabón Province", "Latin percussion", "United Nations Development Programme", "Cristian Javier", "Migration Policy Institute", "Vladimir Guerrero", "romanticism", "1963 Dominican coup d'état", "Christianity", "Yam (vegetable)", "yellow fever", "acculturation", "Cotuí", "Arawakan languages", "Mama Juana", "Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie", "Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino", "Évian Conference", "WP:MOSNUM", "American crocodile", "East Asia", "Philosophy", "Foreign Minister", "Antonio Guzmán Fernández", "Archaeology (magazine)", "Administrative division", "Cayo Levantado", "Syncopation", "EF Education First", "dollars", "tambora (Dominican drum)", "Bachata (music)", "Peravia Province", "Cayos Siete Hermanos", "Canarian Spanish", "List of countries by real GDP growth rate", "Juan Luis Guerra", "Johnny Ventura", "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico", "Juan Soto", "Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic", "The Bahamas", "Koreans", "Ramón Báez Figueroa", "Samaná Province", "World Baseball Classic", "Catholic Church in the Dominican Republic", "Haitian Creole", "Evangelical Protestant", "Haiti", "Congress of the Dominican Republic", "World Heritage Site", "Caonabo", "Global Innovation Index", "Economy of the Dominican Republic", "Moravians", "representative democracy", "Arabic language", "Cuban pastry", "Lago Enriquillo", "Saint Martin (island)", "Antilles", "Embassy of the United States, Santo Domingo", "Comendador, Elías Piña", "Arab", "National Council of the Magistracy (Dominican Republic)", "Pico Duarte", "DR-5", "Sephardic Jews", "Pentecostal", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Two Chinas", "Merengue music", "San Antonio de Guerra", "Guadeloupe", "David Ortiz", "Elections in the Dominican Republic", "Constanza, Dominican Republic", "genealogical DNA test", "State religion", "José Francisco Peña Gómez", "Venezuela", "Monte Cristi Province", "DR-1", "ayuntamiento", "Carlos Cruz (boxer)", "Santo Domingo Province", "National Football League", "National Anthem of the Dominican Republic", "North America", "Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic", "Peace of Basel", "The Atlantic", "chaca (dessert)", "UNC Press", "National Basketball Association", "Monte Plata Province", "Bartholomew Columbus", "Freedman", "Gabriel Mercedes", "Republic of Spanish Haiti", "Dean Rusk", "Espaillat Province", "Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic", "Spanish people", "Visa policy of the Dominican Republic", "xenophobia", "savannah", "astronomer", "Manuel Jimenes", "Third Republic (Dominican Republic)", "cay", "wet season", "defensive end", "baroque architecture", "San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic", "Russians", "Enriquillo wetlands", "Global Peace Index", "Americans", "Flag of the Dominican Republic", "Silver Bank", "Europe", "taekwondo", "St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands", "Cibao", "Mulatto", "San Fernando de Monte Cristi", "DR-2", "La Altagracia Province", "Los Alcarrizos", "Saona Island", "Mestizo", "IPTV", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Vicini", "chicharrón", "Baháʼí Faith", "Nazi Germany", "Frank Báez", "Higüey (city)", "Bahía de las Águilas", "Digital subscriber line", "Saint Dominic", "Human Rights Watch", "Yuna River", "Harry Shepard Knapp", "Pan-Latinism", "Senate of the Dominican Republic", "Bonao", "African cuisine", "Purchasing power parity", "List of islands of the Dominican Republic", "Caribbean", "ISO 4217", "Germans", "Deforestation in Haiti", "Francisco Liriano", "Manuel del Cabral", "Demographics of Europe", "Dame-Marie, Grand'Anse", "Salvador Jorge Blanco", "Christopher Columbus", "San Isidro Air Base", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Culture of Uruguay", "Hurricane Georges", "neoclassicism", "Hispaniola", "Mixed-race Dominicans", "Luis Castillo (American football)", "Villa Altagracia", "Miguel Tejada", "Constitution Day", "Félix Sánchez (hurdler)", "presidential system", "Greater Antilles mangroves", "Tabbouleh", "Dominican Republic–Haiti relations", "Valverde Province", "Hertz", "commander in chief", "Dominican Liberation Party", "Santiago Rodríguez Province", "El Seibo Province", "Alcázar de Colón", "Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo", "2010 Dominican Republic Census", "fundamentalism", "Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic", "billion", "Smithsonian (magazine)", "Greenwood Press", "Cassava", "Canadian dollar", "Fania All Stars", "Provinces of the Dominican Republic", "San Ignacio de Sabaneta", "Fortaleza Ozama", "Protestant", "Sosúa", "Samaná (town)", "Central Bank of the Dominican Republic", "Swietenia mahagoni", "Baní", "Jared Diamond", "World Tourism rankings", "French people", "Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic", "Santiago light rail", "La Romana, La Romana", "Chiefdoms of Hispaniola", "Juan Bosch (politician)", "Johnny Pacheco", "Elías Piña Province", "fine art", "Atlantic Ocean", "Vice President of the Dominican Republic", "Overseas Chinese", "Dominican Republic-United States relations", "Major League Baseball", "Cayo la Bocaina", "The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao", "Turks and Caicos Islands", "Jacinto Peynado Garrigosa", "Lebanese people", "Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic", "Dominican Republic–Haiti border", "CARIFORUM", "Anacaona", "Time (magazine)", "Remittance", "Adrián Beltré", "Yaque del Sur", "Balance of trade", "Afro-Dominican (Dominican Republic)", "multi-party system", "Duarte Province", "Azua, Dominican Republic", "infantry", "Southwest Asia", "Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands", "Los Hermanos Rosario", "Fidel Castro", "Cuba", "Cathedral of Santo Domingo", "Buddhism", "Rico Carty", "Manny Ramírez", "2020 Dominican Republic general election", "Santo Domingo Norte", "Ethnic groups in Europe", "Sammy Sosa", "African culture", "Bajos de Haina", "Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España", "Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement", "José Reyes (infielder)", "William Howard Taft", "Higüey, Dominican Republic", "Rice pudding", "Pedro Mir", "Dominican Order", "Ozzie Virgil Sr.", "Eddy Herrera", "Catholic Church", "War of the Pyrenees", "Military of the Dominican Republic", "United States Department of State", "Paraguay", "América Móvil", "national tree", "landline", "San José de Ocoa Province", "Elly De La Cruz", "Edwin Encarnación", "Mangú (dish)", "Oscar de la Renta", "Demographics of Africa", "Fort-de-France", "Dominican Americans (Dominican Republic)", "dulce de leche", "National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum", "Villa Hermosa", "realism (arts)", "tributary", "Yaque del Norte River", "List of countries by intentional homicide rate", "Lebanon", "rapid transit", "BBC News", "Western Hemisphere", "Sánchez Ramírez Province", "Raquel Peña de Antuña", "Puerto Rico", "Dominican Civil War of 1965", "Italian language", "Chinese Folk Religion", "José Bautista", "Bartolo Colón", "United States Senate", "recession", "Punta Cana", "ceramic", "Ulysses S. Grant", "Jarabacoa", "Legislature", "Global Slavery Index", "Dominican rock", "Americas", "Popular culture", "Snow cone", "Demographics of Syria", "Taíno", "Nicaragua", "tostones", "Pasteles", "World Intellectual Property Organization", "San Francisco de Macorís", "José Núñez de Cáceres", "Mateo Morrison", "Barahona Province", "Enriquillo", "Panama Canal", "volt", "Felipe Alou", "Guamá", "cultural assimilation", "Beata", "Hispaniolan dry forests", "Dominican Civil War (1911–1912)", "Donald Reid Cabral", "Massif de la Selle", "Puerto Rican people", "Trinidad, Cuba", "Latin America", "Jimaní", "European Union", "sugarcane", "María Trinidad Sánchez Province", "San Juan de la Maguana", "Ulises Heureaux", "Pedro Brand", "coup d'état", "Atlantic Standard Time", "Ceylin del Carmen Alvarado", "Routledge", "US$", "List of Caribbean islands by area", "Penguin Books", "Religion in the Dominican Republic", "Millersville University", "Buenaventura Báez", ".do", "Saint Vincent (island)", "Monastery of San Francisco, Santo Domingo", "eLAC Action Plans", "La Romana, Dominican Republic", "Seventh-day Adventist", "Albert Pujols", "Francisco García (basketball)", "Roman Catholics", "Spanish language", "Voyages of Christopher Columbus", "Electric power transmission", "Church News", "Mixed Dominicans", "Euro", "Hatuey", "Cordillera Septentrional", "SS Presidente Trujillo", "Cable Internet access", "Leonel Fernández", "Hurricane David", "Constitution of the Dominican Republic", "Library of Congress", "Artibonite River", "chimichurris", "Hato Mayor del Rey", "Allies of World War II", "Bat", "Crown of Castile", "Chichí Peralta", "Irreligion in Latin America", "Moca, Espaillat", "birth rate", "Dominican Volleyball Federation", "Santo Domingo Oeste", "World War II", "Sierra de Neiba", "Alfonso Soriano", "tropical rainforest climate", "English language", "Culture of Argentina", "Second Republic (Dominican Republic)", "smallpox", "tropical savanna climate", "Isla Alto Velo", "British people", "treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons", "San Juan de la Maguana Province", "Monroe Doctrine", "Cayo Limón", "rum", "Puerto Plata (city)", "Hispaniolan moist forests", "Andrés López de Medrano", "Tropical cyclones", "Tapioca", "Carlos Slim", "gold mine", "Second World War", "baseball", "The Morning Call", "Woodrow Wilson", "Hispaniolan pine forests", "San Cristóbal Province", "Pedernales, Dominican Republic", "president of the Dominican Republic", "Santiago de los Caballeros", "White Dominicans", "United States dollar", "Secretary of War", "Joaquín Balaguer", "Caribbean Sea", "Ciguayo language", "Greater Santo Domingo", "salt lake", "Cayo Pisaje", "La Trinitaria (Dominican Republic)", "Juan Pablo Duarte", "Ramón Cáceres", "United States Department of Labor", "Dajabón", "Reggaeton", "European culture", "Wilfrido Vargas", "La Romana Province", "Haitians in the Dominican Republic", "Pomier Caves", "Dominican Professional Baseball League", "Hungarian people" ]
8,062	Deutsches Institut für Normung	(DIN; in English, the German Institute for Standardisation) is a German non-profit organization and acting as national organization for standardization. DIN is the German ISO member body. DIN is headquartered in Berlin. There are around thirty thousand DIN Standards, covering nearly every field of technology. == History == Founded in 1917 as the ' (NADI, "Standardisation Committee of German Industry"), the NADI was renamed ' (DNA, "German Standardisation Committee") in 1926 to reflect that the organization now dealt with standardization issues in many fields; viz., not just for industrial products. In 1975 it was renamed again to , or 'DIN' and is recognised by the German government as the official national-standards body, representing German interests at the international and European levels. The acronym, 'DIN' is often incorrectly expanded as ' ("German Industry Standard"). This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as "NADI". The NADI indeed published their standards as ' ('). For example, the first published standard was '' (about tapered pins) in 1918. Many people still mistakenly associate DIN with the old ' naming convention. One of the earliest, and probably the best known, is DIN 476 — the standard that introduced the A-series paper sizes in 1922 — adopted in 1975 as International Standard ISO 216. Common examples in modern technology include DIN and mini-DIN connectors for electronics, and the DIN rail. DIN SPEC 3105, published in 2020, is "the first German standard to be published under an open license (CC-BY-SA 4.0) [...] to implement an open standardisation process". == DIN organisation == DIN is a nonprofit organization by German law. The nonprofit owns DIN Solutions GmbH, which produces the DIN contents and DIN Media (formerly Beuth Verlag), which sells the DIN-standard manuals. DIN is shareholder of DIN Bauportal GmbH and DQS Holding GmbH. ==DIN standard designation== The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number): DIN # is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status. E DIN # is a draft standard and DIN V # is a preliminary standard. DIN EN # is used for the German edition of European standards. DIN ISO # is used for the German edition of ISO standards. DIN EN ISO # is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard., Some of the DIN standards date back to the time of Nazi Germany. For example, standard DIN 5009, which describes the German Phonetic spelling code, is based on the postal spelling table, that was heavily edited by the Nazis. Until 1934 it specified "D" for David, "S" for Samuel, "Z" for Zacharias and "N" for Nathan. However, this went against the Nazis' ethnic-racial ideology and they decided to revise the letter board. The postal spelling table was partially revised in 1950 and formed the basis for the first version of the standard in 1983. The standard was revised again in 2022, using city names instead of person names. ==Examples of DIN standards== DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216) DIN 1451: typeface used by German railways and on traffic signs DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language DIN 41612: mechanical standard for backplane electrical connection DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles == Access to standards == DIN standards are not freely accessible to the public. DIN sells subscriptions with the descriptions of the DIN-standards via DIN Solutions GmbH and DIN Media. For four EN standards, which are available as DIN-EN standards for a fee from DIN Media GmbH (formerly Beuth Verlag), the European Court of Justice (ECJ) decided on March 5, 2024 in the Malamud decision, that these must be made available free of charge because these standards are part of European Union law. ==Critics== How DIN creates standards is not transparent. The majority of the standardization committees consist of representatives of the companies that are affected by the standards. DIN does not publish the names of committee members. In 2023, the Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building launched an initiative to question DIN standards because they are considered a cost driver. “A central goal is to speed up planning and construction and reduce construction costs in order to create more affordable housing. “The building standards are now being reviewed,” said a spokesman for Klara Geywitz's (SPD) ministry in 2023.	[ "Germany", "acronym", "CC BY-SA 4.0", "DIN 476", "Modern Standard Arabic", "Technical standard", "backplane", "Mechanism of diving regulators", "DIN rail", "tapered pin", "romanization of Arabic", "DIN 31635", "typeface", "automobile", "DIN 72552", "Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building", "European Court of Justice", "Europe", "ISO 216", "traffic sign", "Scuba cylinder valve", "railway", "mini-DIN", "Malamud decision", "International Organization for Standardization", "Berlin", "DIN SPEC 3105", "DIN 5009", "Nazi Germany", "DIN connector", "Open-license", "English language", "DIN 41612", "standardization", "Spelling alphabet", "DIN 1451" ]
8,063	History of the Dominican Republic	The recorded history of the Dominican Republic began in 1492 when Christopher Columbus, working for the Crown of Castile, arrived at a large island in the western Atlantic Ocean, later known as the Caribbean. The native Taíno people, an Arawakan people, had inhabited the island during the pre-Columbian era, dividing it into five chiefdoms. They referred to the eastern part of the island as Quisqueya, meaning 'mother of all lands.' Columbus claimed the island for Castile, naming it ('the Spanish Island'), which was later Latinized to Hispaniola. Following 25 years of Spanish occupation, the Taíno population in the Spanish-controlled regions of the island drastically decreased due to the Taíno genocide. With fewer than 50,000 survivors, those remaining intermixed with Spaniards, Africans, and others, leading to the formation of the present-day tripartite Dominican population. The area that would become the Dominican Republic remained the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo until 1821, except during the Era de Francia, when it was a French colony from 1795 to 1815. It briefly became an independent state in 1821, known as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, until it was annexed and merged by Haiti into Republic of Haiti from 1822 to 1844. In 1844, the Dominican Republic declared its independence, establishing the First Dominican Republic. The republic maintained its independence except for a brief annexation by Spain from 1861 to 1865, after which the Second Dominican Republic was established. The country later experienced its first occupation by the United States from 1916 to 1924, followed by the establishment of the Third Dominican Republic. During the 19th century, the Dominican Republic frequently engaged in conflicts involving the French, Haitians, Spanish, and internal factions. This period was characterized by a society heavily influenced by caudillos, who exercised control over the nation as a personalised dictatorship. Between 1844 and 1914, the Dominican Republic underwent numerous leadership transitions, with 53 individuals assuming the presidency, although only three completed their terms. The country also saw the adoption of 19 constitutions, with many leaders obtaining power through military force. During this period, three presidents were assassinated: José Antonio Salcedo in 1864, Ulises Heureaux in 1899, and Ramón Cáceres in 1911. In 1930, the Dominican Republic came under the rule of Rafael Trujillo, a dictator who maintained control until his assassination in 1961. Following Trujillo's regime, Juan Bosch was democratically elected president in 1962 but was removed from office in a military coup d'état in 1963. The Dominican Civil War in 1965 lead to a U.S.-led intervention prompted by an uprising to restore Bosch to power and allegations of communist support for the coup. In 1966, Joaquín Balaguer, a caudillo, defeated Bosch in the presidential election and remained in power for 30 years. Due to U.S. pressure in response to flawed elections, Balaguer was compelled to shorten his term in 1996. Subsequent to this period, the Dominican Republic has conducted regular competitive elections, with opposition candidates successfully assuming the presidency, showing a transition towards more stable democracy. ==Pre-European history== The islands of the Caribbean were first settled around 6,000 years ago by hunter-gatherer peoples originating from Central America or northern South America. The Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taíno moved into the Caribbean from South America during the 1st millennium BC, reaching Hispaniola by around 600 AD. These Arawakan peoples engaged in farming, fishing, hunting and gathering, and the widespread production of ceramic goods. 100,000, 300,000, Estimating how many people lived on the island in pre-Columbian times is challenging, as no accurate records exist. At the time of Columbus' arrival in 1492, the island's territory consisted of five Taíno chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey. These were ruled respectively by caciques Guacanagarix, Guarionex, Caonabo, Bohechío, and Cayacoa. The Taíno name for the entire island was either Ayiti (land of high mountains) or Quisqueya (mother of all lands). ==Spanish colony (1492–1795)== ===Arrival of the Spanish=== Christopher Columbus reached the island of Hispañola on his first voyage, in December 1492. Guacanagarí, the chief who hosted Columbus and his men, treated them kindly and provided them with everything they desired. However, the Taínos' egalitarian social system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, which had more rigid class structures. The Europeans believed the Taínos to be either weak or misleading, and they began to treat the tribes with violence. Columbus successfully tempered this trend, and he and his men departed from Quisqueya, the Taínos' name for the island, on good terms. After the sinking of the Santa María, Columbus established a small fort to support his claim to the island. The fort was called La Navidad because the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas Day. While Columbus was away, the garrison manning the fort was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict. The more rapacious men began to terrorize the Taíno, the Ciguayo, and the Macorix peoples, which included attempts to take their women. Guacanagarix tried to reach an accommodation with the Spaniards; however, the Spaniards and some of his own people viewed him as weak. The Spaniards treated him with contempt, including the kidnapping of some of his wives. Fed up, the powerful Cacique Caonabo of the Maguana Chiefdom attacked the Europeans and destroyed La Navidad. Guacanagarix was dismayed by these events but did not try hard to aid the Europeans, probably hoping that the troublesome outsiders would never return. In 1493, Columbus came back to the island on his second voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World, the city of La Isabela. Isabela nearly failed because of hunger and disease. In 1496, Santo Domingo was built and became the new capital, and remains the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the Americas. An estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines. By 1508, their numbers had decreased to around 60,000 because of forced labor, hunger, disease, and the Taíno genocide. By 1535, only a few dozen were still alive. During this period, the colony's Spanish leadership changed several times. When Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor. Settlers' allegations of mismanagement by Columbus helped create a tumultuous political situation. In 1502, Nicolás de Ovando replaced de Bobadilla as governor, with an ambitious plan to expand Spanish influence in the region. It was he who dealt most brutally with the Taíno people. The Taino population declined by up to 95% in the century after the Spanish arrival, from a pre contact population of tens of thousands to 8,000,000. Many authors have described the treatment of the Taino in Hispaniola under the Spanish Empire as genocide. One rebel, however, successfully fought back. Enriquillo led a group who fled to the mountains and attacked the Spanish repeatedly for fourteen years. The Spanish ultimately offered him a peace treaty and gave Enriquillo and his followers their own town in 1534. ===Sixteenth century=== In 1501, the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand I and Isabella, first granted permission to the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves, who began arriving to the island in 1503. In 1510, the first sizable shipment, consisting of 250 Black Ladinos, arrived in Hispaniola from Spain. Eight years later African-born slaves arrived in the West Indies. The Colony of Santo Domingo was organized as the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo in 1511. Sugar cane was introduced to Hispaniola from the Canary Islands, and the first sugar mill in the New World was established in 1516, on Hispaniola. The need for a labor force to meet the growing demands of sugar cane cultivation led to an exponential increase in the importation of slaves over the following two decades. The sugar mill owners soon formed a new colonial elite and convinced the Spanish king to allow them to elect the members of the Real Audiencia from their ranks. Poorer colonists subsisted by hunting the herds of wild cattle that roamed throughout the island and selling their hides. The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo on December 25, 1521, when enslaved Muslims of the Wolof nation led an uprising in the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon, son of Christopher Columbus. Many of these insurgents managed to escape to the mountains where they formed independent maroon communities, but the Admiral had a lot of the captured rebels hanged. While sugar cane dramatically increased Spain's earnings on the island, large numbers of the newly imported slaves fled into the nearly impassable mountain ranges in the island's interior, joining the growing communities of cimarrónes—literally, 'wild animals'. By the 1530s, cimarrón bands had become so numerous that in rural areas the Spaniards could only safely travel outside their plantations in large armed groups. When Archdeacon Alonso de Castro toured Hispaniola in 1542, he estimated the maroon population at 2,000–3,000 persons, living mainly on the Cape of San Nicolas, in the Ciguayos, on the Samana peninsular, and on the Cape of Iguey. Latter that decade, there were also rebellions of enslaved people, led by Diego de Guzman, Diego de Campo, and Captain Lemba. Beginning in the 1520s, the Caribbean Sea was raided by increasingly numerous French pirates. In 1541, Spain authorized the construction of Santo Domingo's fortified wall, and in 1560 decided to restrict sea travel to enormous, well-armed convoys. In another move, which would destroy Hispaniola's sugar industry, in 1561 Havana, more strategically located in relation to the Gulf Stream, was selected as the designated stopping point for the merchant flotas, which had a royal monopoly on commerce with the Americas. In 1564, the island's main inland cities Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepción de la Vega were destroyed by an earthquake. In the 1560s, English privateers joined the French in regularly raiding Spanish shipping in the Americas. With the conquest of the American mainland, Hispaniola quickly declined. Most Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of Mexico and Peru, while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island. Agriculture dwindled, new imports of slaves ceased, and white colonists, free blacks, and slaves alike lived in poverty, weakening the racial hierarchy and aiding intermixing, resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Spaniard, African, and Taíno descent. Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became the sole source of livelihood for the island dwellers. In 1586, the privateer Francis Drake of England captured the city of Santo Domingo, collecting a ransom for its return to Spanish rule. In 1592, Christopher Newport of England attacked the town of Azua on the bay of Ocoa, which was taken and plundered. In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry. The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders and buccaneers joined their English and French counterparts on the Spanish Main. ===Seventeenth century=== In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island were carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe, and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle the colony's inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. This action, known as the Devastaciones de Osorio, proved disastrous; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned, and many slaves escaped. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops – many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle, or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships. The settlements of La Yaguana, and Bayaja, on the west and north coasts respectively of modern-day Haiti were burned, as were the settlements of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata on the north coast and San Juan de la Maguana in the southwestern area of the modern-day Dominican Republic. French and English buccaneers took advantage of Spain's retreat into a corner of Hispaniola to settle the island of Tortuga, off the northwest coast of Hispaniola, in 1629. France established direct control in 1640, reorganizing it into an official colony and expanding to the north coast of Hispaniola itself, whose western end Spain ceded to France in 1697 under the Treaty of Ryswick. In 1655, Oliver Cromwell of England dispatched a fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir William Penn, to capture Santo Domingo. After meeting heavy resistance, the English retreated. Despite the fact that the English were defeated in their attempt to capture the island, they nevertheless captured the nearby Spanish colony of Jamaica, and other foreign strongholds subsequently began to be established throughout the West Indies. Madrid sought to contest such encroachments on its own imperial control by using Santo Domingo as a forward military base, but Spanish power was by now too depleted to recapture lost colonies. The city itself was furthermore subjected to a smallpox epidemic, cacao blight, and hurricane in 1666; another storm two years later; a second epidemic in 1669; a third hurricane in September 1672; plus an earthquake in May 1673 that killed twenty-four residents. ===Eighteenth century=== The House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700 and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo. The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies. The last flotas sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter. By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley, and importation of slaves was renewed. The population of Santo Domingo grew from about 6,000 in 1737 to approximately 125,000 in 1790. Of this number, about 40,000 were white landowners, about 25,000 were mulatto freedmen, and some 60,000 were slaves. However, it remained poor and neglected, particularly in contrast with its western, French neighbor Saint-Domingue, which became the wealthiest colony in the New World and had half a million inhabitants. As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial elites of St. Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany, and tobacco. With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural hateros (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Spain saw in the unrest an opportunity to seize all, or part, of the western third of the island in an alliance of convenience with the rebellious slaves. But after the slaves and French reconciled, the Spanish suffered a setback, and in 1795, France gained control of the whole island under the Treaty of Basel. ==French occupation (1795–1809)== In 1801, Toussaint Louverture arrived in Santo Domingo, proclaiming the abolition of slavery on behalf of the French Republic. Shortly afterwards, Napoleon dispatched an army which subdued the whole island and ruled it for a few months. Mulattoes and blacks again rose up against these French in October 1802 and finally defeated them in November 1803. On 1 January 1804, the victors declared Saint-Domingue to be the independent republic of Haiti, the Taíno name for the entire island. Even after their defeat by the Haitians, a small French garrison remained in Santo Domingo. Slavery was reestablished and many of the émigré Spanish colonists returned. In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. In their retreat through the Cibao, the Haitians sacked the towns of Santiago and Moca, slaughtering most of their residents. The French held on to the eastern part of the island until dealt a serious blow by the Dominican General Juan Sánchez Ramírez at the Battle of Palo Hincado on November 7, 1808. With help from the British Navy, Ramírez laid siege to the city of Santo Domingo. The French in the besieged city finally capitulated on July 9, 1809, initiating a twelve-year period of Spanish rule, known in Dominican history as España Boba ('the Foolish Spain'). ==Spanish colony (1809–1821)== The population of the new Spanish colony stood at approximately 104,000. Of this number, about 30,000 were slaves, working predominantly on cattle ranches, and the rest a mixture of Spanish, taino and black. The European Spaniards were few, and consisted principally of Catalans and Canary Islanders. During this period in time, the Spanish crown wielded little to no influence in the colony of Santo Domingo. Some wealthy cattle ranchers had become leaders, and sought to bring control and order in the southeast of the colony where the "law of machete" ruled the land. On December 1, 1821, the former Captain general in charge of the colony, José Núñez de Cáceres, influenced by all the Revolutions that were going on around him, finally decided to overthrow the Spanish government and proclaimed the independence of "Spanish Haiti". The white and mulatto slave owners on the eastern part of the island—recognizing their vulnerability both to Spanish and to Haitian attack and also seeking to maintain their slaves as property—attempted to annex themselves to Gran Colombia. While this request was in transit, Jean-Pierre Boyer, the ruler of Haiti, invaded Santo Domingo on February 9, 1822, with a 10,000-strong army. Having no capacity to resist, Núñez de Cáceres surrendered the capital. ==Haitian occupation (1822–1844)== The twenty-two-year Haitian occupation that followed is recalled by Dominicans as a period of brutal military rule, though the reality is more complex. It led to large-scale land expropriations and failed efforts to force production of export crops, impose military services, restrict the use of the Spanish language, and eliminate traditional customs such as cockfighting. It reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of themselves as different from Haitians in "language, race, religion and domestic customs". Yet, this was also a period that definitively ended slavery as an institution in the eastern part of the island. Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, or to independent Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo's university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking students, teachers, and resources, closed down. In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France and end the threat of a French invasion, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer's Code Rural. In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated. ==Independence: First Republic (1844–1861)== On July 16, 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte together with Pedro Alejandrino Pina, Juan Isidro Pérez, Felipe Alfau, Benito González, Félix María Ruiz, Juan Nepumoceno Ravelo and Jacinto de la Concha founded a secret society called La Trinitaria to win independence from Haiti. A short time later, they were joined by Ramón Matías Mella, and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez. In 1843, they allied with a Haitian movement in overthrowing Boyer. Because they had revealed themselves as revolutionaries working for Dominican independence, the new Haitian president, Charles Rivière-Hérard, exiled or imprisoned the leading Trinitarios (Trinitarians). At the same time, Buenaventura Báez, an Azua mahogany exporter and deputy in the Haitian National Assembly, was negotiating with the French Consul-General for the establishment of a French protectorate. In an uprising timed to preempt Báez, on February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios declared independence from Haiti, expelling all Haitians and confiscating their property. The Trinitarios were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo who commanded a private army of peons who worked on his estates. ===War of Independence=== On March 10, 1844, Rivière-Hérard sent three columns totaling 30,000 troops into the Dominican Republic, but the Dominicans defeated the Haitian army by March 30. On April 15, three Dominican schooners defeated a Haitian brigantine and two Haitian schooners off the coast of Azua. By late 1854, the Hispaniolan nations were at war again. In November, two Dominican ships captured a Haitian warship and bombarded two Haitian ports. In November 1855, a force of 30,000 Haitian troops invaded the Dominican Republic along three routes: one from the north, one through the center, and one from the south. The Dominican frontier forces retreated in good order and the Dominican navy prevented the Haitians from receiving supplies by sea. It featured a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by Santana on the constitutional assembly by force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over. These privileges not only served him to win the war but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important. Santana imprisoned and ultimately exiled Duarte to Germany. Santana made the first martyr of the republic when he had María Trinidad Sánchez executed for refusing to name "conspirators" against him. Santana used the ever-present threat of Haitian invasion as a justification for consolidating dictatorial powers. For the Dominican elite—mostly landowners, merchants and priests—the threat of re-annexation by more populous Haiti was sufficient to seek protection from a foreign power. Offering the deepwater harbor of Samaná bay as bait, over the next two decades, negotiations were made with Britain, France, the United States and Spain to declare a protectorate over the country. Without adequate roads, the regions of the Dominican Republic developed in isolation from one another. In the south, the economy was dominated by cattle-ranching (particularly in the southeastern savannah) and cutting mahogany and other hardwoods for export. This region retained a semi-feudal character, with little commercial agriculture, the hacienda as the dominant social unit, and the majority of the population living at a subsistence level. In the Cibao Valley, the nation's richest farmland, peasants supplemented their subsistence crops by growing tobacco for export, mainly to Germany. Tobacco required less land than cattle ranching and was mainly grown by smallholders, who relied on itinerant traders to transport their crops to Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi. Santana antagonized the Cibao farmers, enriching himself and his supporters at their expense by resorting to multiple peso printings that allowed him to buy their crops for a fraction of their value. In 1848, Santana was forced to resign and was succeeded by his vice-president, Manuel Jimenes. After returning to lead Dominican forces against a new Haitian invasion in 1849, Santana marched on Santo Domingo, deposing Jimenes. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president. In 1853, Santana was elected president for his second term, forcing Báez into exile. After repulsing the last Haitian invasion, Santana negotiated a treaty leasing a portion of Samaná Peninsula to a U.S. company; popular opposition forced him to abdicate, enabling Báez to return and seize power. With the treasury depleted, Báez printed eighteen million uninsured pesos, purchasing the 1857 tobacco crop with this currency and exporting it for hard cash at immense profit to himself and his followers. The Cibanian tobacco planters, who were ruined when inflation ensued, revolted and formed a new government headed by José Desiderio Valverde and headquartered in Santiago de los Caballeros. In July 1857, General Juan Luis Franco Bidó besieged Santo Domingo. The Cibao-based government declared an amnesty to exiles and Santana returned and managed to replace Franco Bidó in September 1857. After a year of civil war, Santana captured Santo Domingo in June 1858, overthrew both Báez and Valverde and installed himself as president. ==Spanish colony (1861–1865)== Pedro Santana inherited a bankrupt government on the brink of collapse and initiated negotiations with Queen Isabella II of Spain to have the eastern two-thirds of the island reconverted into a Spanish overseas territory. The U.S. Civil War rendered the United States incapable of enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. In March 1861, Santana officially restored the Dominican Republic to Spain. This move was widely rejected and there were several failed uprisings against Spanish rule. On July 4, 1861, former President Francisco del Rosario Sánchez was captured and executed by Santana after leading a failed invasion of Santo Domingo from Haiti. Santana, who had been given the title of Marquess of Las Carreras by Queen Isabella II, thought he could perpetrate a fraud on the Spaniards similar to those he had carried out in the Cibao. When negotiations concluded and Spain agreed on an amortization rate for Dominican pesos, Santana printed 33 million more, so Spain would be forced to provide far more money to him and his associates, to whom he distributed the pesos as gifts. Under the annexation terms, General Santana retained military command of the new Spanish province, answering only to Spain's regional commander in Puerto Rico, but it soon became obvious that Spanish authorities planned to deprive him of his power. His associates were removed from military positions, the 33 million pesos he printed were refused for amortization, and he was ultimately deposed in July 1862 and replaced with Felipe Ribero y Lemoine. By 1863, uprisings had spread throughout the colony, leading to the outbreak of guerrilla warfare. In February, the Spanish authorities declared a state of siege in the territory. In April, the Spanish Army defeated the Dominican forces led by General Lucas de Peña at Cibao. ===War of Restoration=== {{Infobox military conflict \|conflict= War of Restoration \|partof= \|image= \|caption=Battle of Monte Cristi \|date= August 16, 1863 – July 11, 1865() \|place=Dominican Republic \|territory= \|result= Dominican victory \|combatant1= Dominican Republic \|combatant2= Spanish Empire \|commander1= \|commander2= \|strength1= 15,000–17,000 \|strength2= {{ubl\|30,000 Spanish\|22 warships Santana returned and led an army mostly composed of mercenaries against the rebels at Cibao. On October 4, 1863, both the Spaniards and Dominicans pillaged the town. A fight ensued, with 600 Spaniards ultimately driving the Dominicans out of the town, aided by the fort's cannons. Ultimately, the rebels retreated into Haiti, executing 35 Spanish prisoners during their withdrawal. The Captain-General of Santo Domingo, José de la Gándara, adopted a strategy of occupying the northern ports to isolate the dissident Dominican government in Santiago from outside support. However, he overlooked his forces' lack of supplies and poor equipment, as many rifles and cannons were obsolete, and several warships were unseaworthy. Next, La Gándara attempted to subdue the rebels between Monte Cristi and Santiago, but the Dominicans resorted to hit-and-run tactics and intercepted many supplies intended for La Gándara. The only victory in the campaign was the capture of Monte Cristi, achieved at the cost of heavy casualties, including the wounding of Field Marshal Primo de Rivera. Confined to the major towns, the Spanish Army was unable to defeat the guerillas or contain the insurrection, and suffered heavy losses due to yellow fever; by the end of the occupation, over 12,000 Spanish troops had died from the disease. Spanish colonial authorities encouraged Queen Isabella II to abandon the island, seeing the occupation as a nonsensical waste of troops and money. However, the rebels were in a state of political disarray and proved unable to present a cohesive set of demands. In October 1864, the first president of the provisional government, Pepillo Salcedo (allied with Báez), was assassinated. He had been deposed by General Gaspar Polanco in September 1864, who, in turn, was deposed by General Antonio Pimentel three months later after a failed attack on the Spanish at Monte Cristi. The rebels formalized their provisional rule by holding a national convention in February 1865, which enacted a new constitution, but the new government exerted little authority over the various regional guerrilla caudillos, who were largely independent of one another. Unable to extract concessions from the disorganized rebels, when the American Civil War ended, in March 1865, Queen Isabella annulled the annexation and independence was restored, with the last Spanish troops departing by July. ==Restoration: Second Republic (1865–1916)== By the time the Spanish departed, most of the main towns lay in ruins and the island was divided among several dozen caudillos. José María Cabral controlled most of Barahona and the southwest with the support of Báez's mahogany-exporting partners, while cattle rancher Cesáreo Guillermo assembled a coalition of former Santanista generals in the southeast, and Gregorio Luperón controlled the north coast. From the Spanish withdrawal to 1879, there were twenty-one changes of government and at least fifty military uprisings. In the course of these conflicts, two parties emerged. The Partido Rojo (Literally "Red Party") represented the southern cattle ranching latifundia and mahogany-exporting interests, as well as the artisans and laborers of Santo Domingo, and was dominated by Báez, who continued to seek annexation by a foreign power. The Partido Azul (literally "Blue Party"), led by Luperón, represented the tobacco farmers and merchants of the Cibao and Puerto Plata and was nationalist and liberal in orientation. During these wars, the small and corrupt national army was far outnumbered by militias organized and maintained by local caudillos who set themselves up as provincial governors. These militias were filled out by poor farmers or landless plantation workers impressed into service who usually took up banditry when not fighting in revolution. Within a month of the nationalist victory, Cabral, whose troops were the first to enter Santo Domingo, ousted Pimentel, but a few weeks later General Guillermo led a rebellion in support of Báez, forcing Cabral to resign and allowing Báez to retake the presidency in October. Báez was overthrown by the Cibao farmers under Luperón, leader of the Partido Azul, the following spring, but Luperón's allies turned on each other and Cabral reinstalled himself as president in a coup in 1867. After bringing several Azules ("Blues") into his cabinet the Rojos ("Reds") revolted, returning Báez to power. In 1869, Báez negotiated a treaty of annexation with the United States. Supported by U.S. Secretary of State William Seward, who hoped to establish a Navy base at Samaná, in 1871 the treaty was defeated in the United States Senate through the efforts of abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner. In 1874, the Rojo governor of Puerto Plata, Ignacio Maria González Santín, staged a coup in support of an Azul rebellion but was deposed by the Azules two years later. In February 1876, Ulises Espaillat, backed by Luperón, was named president, but ten months later troops loyal to Báez returned him to power. One year later, a new rebellion allowed González to seize power, only to be deposed by Cesáreo Guillermo in September 1878, who was in turn deposed by Luperón in December 1879. Ruling the country from his hometown of Puerto Plata, enjoying an economic boom due to increased tobacco exports to Germany, Luperón enacted a new constitution setting a two-year presidential term limit and providing for direct elections, suspended the semi-formal system of bribes and initiated construction on the nation's first railroad, linking the town of La Vega with the port of Sánchez on Samaná Bay. The Ten Years' War in Cuba brought Cuban sugar planters to the country in search of new lands and security from the insurrection that freed their slaves and destroyed their property. Most settled in the southeastern coastal plain, and, with assistance from Luperón's government, built the nation's first mechanized sugar mills. They were later joined by Italians, Germans, Puerto Ricans and Americans in forming the nucleus of the Dominican sugar bourgeoisie, marrying into prominent families to solidify their social position. Disruptions in global production caused by the Ten Years' War, the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War allowed the Dominican Republic to become a major sugar exporter. Over the following two decades, sugar surpassed tobacco as the leading export, with the former fishing hamlets of San Pedro de Macorís and La Romana transformed into thriving ports. To meet their need for better transportation, over 300 miles of private rail-lines were built by and serving the sugar plantations by 1897. An 1884 slump in prices led to a wage freeze, and a subsequent labor shortage was filled by migrant workers from the Leeward Islands—the Virgin Islands, St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, and Antigua (referred to by Dominicans as cocolos). These English-speaking blacks were often victims of racism, but many remained in the country, finding work as stevedores and in railroad construction and sugar refineries. === Ulises Heureaux and U.S. protectorate === Allying with the emerging sugar interests, the dictatorship of General Ulises Heureaux, who was popularly known as Lilís, brought unprecedented stability to the island through an iron-fisted rule that lasted almost two decades. The son of a Haitian father and a mother from St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, Lilís was distinguished by his blackness from most Dominican political leaders, with the exception of Luperón. He served as President 1882–1883, 1887, and 1889–1899, wielding power through a series of puppet presidents when not occupying the office. Incorporating both Rojos and Azules into his government, he developed an extensive network of spies and informants to crush potential opposition. His government undertook a number of major infrastructure projects, including the electrification of Santo Domingo, the beginning of telephone and telegraph service, the construction of a bridge over the Ozama River, and the completion of a single-track railroad linking Santiago and Puerto Plata, financed by the Amsterdam-based Westendorp Co. Lilís's dictatorship was dependent upon heavy borrowing from European and American banks to enrich himself, stabilize the existing debt, strengthen the bribe system, pay for the army, finance infrastructural development and help set up sugar mills. However, sugar prices underwent a steep decline in the last two decades of the 19th century. When the Westendorp Co. went bankrupt in 1893, he was forced to mortgage the nation's customs fees, the main source of government revenues, to a New York financial firm called the San Domingo Improvement Co. (SDIC), which took over its railroad contracts and the claims of its European bondholders in exchange for two loans, one of $1.2 million and the other of £2 million. As the growing public debt made it impossible to maintain his political machine, Heureaux relied on secret loans from the SDIC, sugar planters and local merchants. In 1897, with his government virtually bankrupt, Lilís printed five million uninsured pesos, known as papeletas de Lilís, ruining most Dominican merchants and inspiring a conspiracy that ended in his death. In 1899, when Lilís was assassinated by the Cibao tobacco merchants whom he had been begging for a loan, the national debt was over $35 million, fifteen times the annual budget. The six years after Lilís's death witnessed four revolutions and five different presidents. The Cibao politicians who had conspired against Heureaux—Juan Isidro Jimenes, the nation's wealthiest tobacco planter, and General Horacio Vásquez—after being named president and vice-president, quickly fell out over the division of spoils among their supporters, the Jimenistas and Horacistas. Troops loyal to Vásquez overthrew Jimenes in 1903, but Vásquez was deposed by Jimenista General Alejandro Woss y Gil, who seized power for himself. The Jimenistas toppled his government, but their leader, Carlos Morales, refused to return power to Jimenes, allying with the Horacistas, and he soon faced a new revolt by his betrayed Jimenista allies. During the revolt, American warships bombarded insurgents in Santo Domingo after they insulted the United States flag and killed a U.S. Navy sailor. With the nation on the brink of defaulting, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands sent warships to Santo Domingo to press the claims of their nationals. In order to preempt military intervention, United States president Theodore Roosevelt introduced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the United States would assume responsibility for ensuring that the nations of Latin America met their financial obligations. In January 1905, under this corollary, the United States assumed administration of the Dominican Republic's customs. Under the terms of this agreement, a Receiver-General, appointed by the U.S. president, kept 55% of total revenues to pay off foreign claimants, while remitting 45% to the Dominican government. After two years, the nation's external debt was reduced from $40 million to $17 million. In 1907, this agreement was converted into a treaty, transferring control over customs receivership to the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs and providing a loan of $20 million from a New York bank as payment for outstanding claims, making the United States the Dominican Republic's only foreign creditor. In 1905, the Dominican Peso was replaced by the U.S. Dollar. In 1906, Morales resigned, and Horacista vice-president Ramón Cáceres became president. After suppressing a rebellion in the northwest by Jimenista General Desiderio Arias, his government brought political stability and renewed economic growth, aided by new American investment in the sugar industry. However, his assassination in 1911, for which Morales and Arias were at least indirectly responsible, once again plunged the republic into chaos. For two months, executive power was held by a civilian junta dominated by the chief of the army, General Alfredo Victoria. The surplus of more than 4 million pesos left by Cáceres was quickly spent to suppress a series of insurrections. He forced Congress to elect his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as president, but the latter was soon replaced by the neutral Archbishop Adolfo Nouel. After four months, Nouel resigned and was succeeded by Horacista Congressman José Bordas Valdez, who aligned with Arias and the Jimenistas to maintain power. In 1913, Vásquez returned from exile in Puerto Rico to lead a new rebellion. In June 1914, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued an ultimatum for the two sides to end hostilities and agree on a new president, or have the United States impose one. After the provisional presidency of Ramón Báez, Jimenes was elected in October, and soon faced new demands, including the appointment of an American director of public works and financial advisor and the creation of a new military force commanded by U.S. officers. The Dominican Congress rejected these demands and began impeachment proceedings against Jimenes. The United States occupied Haiti in July 1915, with the implicit threat that the Dominican Republic might be next. Jimenes's Minister of War Desiderio Arias staged a coup d'état in April 1916, providing a pretext for the United States to occupy the Dominican Republic. ==United States occupation (1916–24)== ===Conventional campaign=== {{Infobox military conflict \|conflict=U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic \|partof= \|image= \|caption= 4th Marine Regiment with a captured rebel "spray gun" at Santiago \|date=May 5, 1916 – September 18, 1924() \|place=Dominican Republic \|result=Establishment of a military government under the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps \|combatant1= Dominican rebels \|combatant2= \|commander1= \|commander2= \|strength1=1,000 militia \|strength2=1,800 marines \|casualties1=950 killed or wounded \|casualties2=144 marines killed and 50 wounded The American military government implemented many of the institutional reforms carried out in the United States during the Progressive Era, including reorganization of the tax system, accounting and administration, expansion of primary education, the creation of a nationwide police force to unify the country, and the construction of a national system of roads, including a highway linking Santiago to Santo Domingo. The military government, unable to win the backing of any prominent Dominican political leaders, imposed strict censorship laws and imprisoned critics of the occupation. In 1920, U.S. authorities enacted a Land Registration Act, which broke up the terrenos comuneros and dispossessed thousands of peasants who lacked formal titles to the lands they occupied, while legalizing false titles held by the sugar companies. In the southeast, dispossessed peasants formed armed bands, called gavilleros, engaging in guerrilla warfare for years in Hato Mayor and El Seibo. At any given time, the Marines faced eight to twelve such bands each composed of several hundred followers. The guerrillas benefited from a superior knowledge of the terrain and the support of the local population, and the Marines relied on superior firepower. However, rivalries between various gavilleros often led them to fight against one another, and even cooperate with occupation authorities. In addition, cultural schisms between the campesinos (i.e. rural people, or peasants) and city dwellers prevented the guerrillas from cooperating with the urban middle-class nationalist movement. In what was referred to as la danza de los millones, with the destruction of European sugar-beet farms during World War I, sugar prices rose to their highest level in history, from $5.50 in 1914 to $22.50 per pound in 1920. Dominican sugar exports increased from 122,642 tons in 1916 to 158,803 tons in 1920, earning a record $45.3 million. However, European beet sugar production quickly recovered, which, coupled with the growth of global sugar cane production, glutted the world market, causing prices to plummet to only $2.00 by the end of 1921. This crisis drove many of the local sugar planters into bankruptcy, allowing large U.S. conglomerates to dominate the sugar industry. By 1926, only twenty-one major estates remained, occupying an estimated . Of these, twelve U.S.-owned companies owned more than 81% of this total area. While the foreign planters who had built the sugar industry integrated into Dominican society, these corporations expatriated their profits to the United States. As prices declined, sugar estates increasingly relied on Haitian laborers. This was facilitated by the military government's introduction of regulated contract labor, the growth of sugar production in the southwest, near the Haitian border, and a series of strikes by cocolo cane cutters organized by the Universal Negro Improvement Association. ===Withdrawal=== In the 1920 United States presidential election Republican candidate Warren Harding criticized the occupation and promised eventual U.S. withdrawal. While Jimenes and Vásquez sought concessions from the United States, the collapse of sugar prices discredited the military government and gave rise to a new nationalist political organization, the Dominican National Union, led by Dr. Henríquez from exile in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, which demanded unconditional withdrawal. They formed alliances with frustrated nationalists in Puerto Rico and Cuba, as well as critics of the occupation in the United States itself, most notably The Nation and the Haiti-San Domingo Independence Society. In May 1922, a Dominican lawyer, Francisco Peynado, went to Washington, D.C. and negotiated what became known as the Hughes–Peynado Plan. It stipulated the immediate establishment of a provisional government pending elections, approval of all laws enacted by the U.S. military government, and the continuation of the 1907 treaty until all the Dominican Republic's foreign debts had been settled. On October 1, Juan Bautista Vicini, the son of a wealthy Italian immigrant sugar planter, was named provisional president, and the process of U.S. withdrawal began. U.S. forces withdrew on September 18, 1924. The principal legacy of the occupation was the creation of a National Police Force, used by the Marines to help fight against the various guerrillas, and later the main vehicle for the rise of Rafael Trujillo. Hundreds of Dominicans and 144 U.S. Marines were killed during the occupation. (Forty U.S. sailors died separately when a hurricane wrecked their armored cruiser on Santo Domingo's rocky shore.) ==The rise and fall of Trujillo: Third Republic (1924–65)== === Horacio Vásquez 1924–1930=== The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected government under president Vásquez. The Vásquez administration brought great social and economic prosperity to the country and respected political and civil rights. Rising export commodity prices and government borrowing allowed the funding of public works projects and the expansion and modernization of Santo Domingo. Though considered to be a relatively principled man, Vásquez had risen amid many years of political infighting. In a move directed against his chief opponent Federico Velasquez, in 1927 Vásquez agreed to have his term extended from four to six years. The change was approved by the Dominican Congress, but was of debatable legality; "its enactment effectively invalidated the constitution of 1924 that Vásquez had previously sworn to uphold." Trujillo treated his political party, El Partido Dominicano (The Dominican Party), as a rubber-stamp for his decisions. The true source of his power was the Guardia Nacional—larger, better armed, and more centrally controlled than any military force in the nation's history. By disbanding the regional militias, the Marines eliminated the main source of potential opposition, giving the Guard "a virtual monopoly on power". By 1940, Dominican military spending was 21% of the national budget. At the same time, he developed an elaborate system of espionage agencies. By the late 1950s, there were at least seven categories of intelligence agencies, spying on each other as well as the public. All citizens were required to carry identification cards and good-conduct passes from the secret police. Obsessed with adulation, Trujillo promoted an extravagant cult of personality. When a hurricane struck Santo Domingo in 1930, killing 8,000 people, he rebuilt the city and renamed it Ciudad Trujillo: "Trujillo City"; he also renamed the country's and the Caribbean's highest mountain, Pico Duarte (Duarte Peak), Pico Trujillo. Over 1,800 statues of Trujillo were built, and all public works projects were required to have a plaque with the inscription "Era of Trujillo, Benefactor of the Fatherland". As sugar estates turned to Haiti for seasonal migrant labor, increasing numbers settled in the Dominican Republic permanently. The census of 1920, conducted by the U.S. occupation government, gave a total of 28,258 Haitians living in the country; by 1935 there were 52,657. In October 1937, Trujillo ordered the massacre of an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian men, women, and children living in the border region of the Dominican Republic. Over the course of five days, Dominican troops killed Haitians with guns, machetes, clubs, and knives. The massacre was the result of a new policy which Trujillo called the 'Dominicanisation of the frontier'. Place names along the border were changed from Creole and French to Spanish, the practice of Voodoo was outlawed, quotas were imposed on the percentage of foreign workers that companies could hire, and a law was passed preventing Haitian workers from remaining after the sugar harvest. Although Trujillo sought to emulate Generalissimo Francisco Franco, he welcomed Spanish Republican refugees following the Spanish Civil War. During the Holocaust in the Second World War, the Dominican Republic took in many Jews fleeing Hitler who had been refused entry by other countries. The Jews settled in Sosua. These decisions arose from a policy of blanquismo, closely connected with anti-Haitian xenophobia, which sought to add more light-skinned individuals to the Dominican population by promoting immigration from Europe. As part of the Good Neighbor policy, in 1940, the U.S. State Department signed a treaty with Trujillo relinquishing control over the nation's customs. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Trujillo followed the United States in declaring war on the Axis powers, although the Dominican Republic did not have any participation in the war. Nazi submarines operating in the Caribbean torpedoed and sank two Dominican merchant vessels that Trujillo had named after himself—the steamers San Rafael and Presidente Trujillo, killing twenty-six Dominican sailors. Nazi submarines also destroyed four Dominican schooners. After the war, Trujillo sought military aid from the United States but was denied. Trujillo decided to establish his own arms factory. This move allowed the Dominican Republic to become self-sufficient in producing firearms. In the 1950s, Trujillo's air force had 156 aircraft, including fighters, B-17 bombers, and B-26 Marauder bombers. He exploited nationalist sentiment to purchase most of the nation's sugar plantations and refineries from U.S. corporations; operated monopolies on salt, rice, milk, cement, tobacco, coffee, and insurance; owned two large banks, several hotels, port facilities, an airline and shipping line; deducted 10% of all public employees' salaries (ostensibly for his party); and received a portion of prostitution revenues. World War II brought increased demand for Dominican exports, and the 1940s and early 1950s witnessed economic growth and considerable expansion of the national infrastructure. During this period, the capital city was transformed from merely an administrative center to the national center of shipping and industry, although "it was hardly coincidental that new roads often led to Trujillo's plantations and factories, and new harbors benefited Trujillo's shipping and export enterprises." Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. By the end of the 1950s, the economy was deteriorating because of a combination of overspending on a festival to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the regime, overspending to purchase privately owned sugar mills and electricity plants, and a decision to make a major investment in state sugar production that proved economically unsuccessful. On June 14, 1959, Dominican exiles, sponsored by the Cuban government, launched an invasion of the Dominican Republic from Cuba, landing by plane at Constanza, where they were quickly defeated by the Anti-Communist Foreign Legion of the Caribbean. A week later, another group of invaders in two yachts were intercepted on the north coast, where Trujillo's planes killed most of the invaders. A few survivors managed to swim to the shore and escape into the forest, but the military employed napalm to get them out. Of a count of 224 invaders, 217 were killed and seven captured. The leaders of the invasion were taken aboard a Dominican Air Force plane and then pushed out in mid-air, falling to their deaths. The invasion force consisted of Dominicans, Cubans, Venezuelans, Spaniards, Guatemalans, and Americans. In October 1960, Trujillo supported 1,000 Cuban insurgents in the Escambray Rebellion, but they were defeated by the Cuban government. In 1957, Trujillo created S.I.M. (Military Intelligence Service), a secret police and death squad, headed by Johnny Abbes García, who briefly operated in Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, New York, Costa Rica, and Venezuela. On June 24, 1960, as Venezuelan president Rómulo Betancourt was en route to preside over a military parade in Caracas, S.I.M. agents detonated nearly 30 kg of explosives packed into two suitcases within a parked car nearby; Betancourt was injured, and Colonel Ramón Armas Perez, the chauffeur, and a bystander were killed. Investigation revealed that the ammonium nitrate bomb had been assembled in Ciudad Trujillo and that the operation was orchestrated by Abbes. Among the victims was General René Román Fernández, secretary of the armed forces and an in-law of Trujillo, who was tortured in the electric chair before being executed with a submachine gun. In September 1963, Bosch was overthrown by a right-wing military coup led by Colonel Elías Wessin and was replaced by a three-man military junta. Bosch went into exile to Puerto Rico. Afterwards, a supposedly civilian triumvirate established a de facto dictatorship. ==Dominican Civil War and second United States occupation 1965–66== On April 16, 1965, growing dissatisfaction generated another military rebellion on April 24, 1965, that demanded Bosch's restoration. The insurgents, reformist officers and civilian combatants loyal to Bosch commanded by Colonel Francisco Caamaño, and who called themselves the Constitutionalists, staged a coup, seizing the national palace. Immediately, conservative military forces, led by Wessin and calling themselves Loyalists, struck back, strafing the rebel-held national palace with four World War II–vintage P-51 Mustangs, losing one to ground machine-gun fire. on America's doorstep, ordered U.S. forces to restore order. In what was initially known as Operation Power Pack, 27,677 U.S. troops were ultimately ordered to the Dominican Republic. Denied a military victory, the Constitutionalist rebels quickly had a Constitutionalist congress elect Caamaño president of the country. U.S. officials countered by backing General Antonio Imbert. On May 7, Imbert was sworn in as president of the Government of National Reconstruction. The next step in the stabilization process, as envisioned by Washington and the OAS, was to arrange an agreement between President Caamaño and President Imbert to form a provisional government committed to early elections. However, Caamaño refused to meet with Imbert until several of the Loyalist officers, including Wessin y Wessin, were made to leave the country. The American forces attempted to jam Radio Santo Domingo, which the Constitutionalist rebels were using to broadcast messages inciting nationwide rebellion. Despite jamming operations and attacks on relay sites, the rebel broadcasts persisted. However, Balaguer was also considered to be a major reformer who was instrumental in the liberalization of the Dominican government. Balaguer led the Dominican Republic through a thorough economic restructuring, based on opening the country to foreign investment while protecting state-owned industries and certain private interests. This distorted, dependent development model produced uneven results. For most of Balaguer's first nine years in office the country experienced high growth rates (e.g., an average GDP growth rate of 9.4% between 1970 and 1975), to the extent that people talked about the "Dominican miracle". Foreign, mostly U.S. investment, as well as foreign aid, flowed into the country. Sugar, then the country's main export product, enjoyed good prices in the international market, and tourism grew tremendously. As part of Balaguer's land reform policies, land was dished out to peasants among the country's rural population. In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzmán Fernández of the PRD. Balaguer then ordered troops to storm the election centre and destroy ballot boxes, declaring himself the victor. U.S. President Jimmy Carter refused to recognize Balaguer's claim, and, faced with the loss of foreign aid, Balaguer stepped down. ===Guzmán / Blanco interregnum 1978–1986=== Guzmán's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which caused over $1 billion in damage. By the late 1970s, economic expansion slowed considerably as sugar prices declined and oil prices rose. Rising inflation and unemployment diminished support for the government and helped trigger a wave of mass emigration from the Dominican Republic to New York, coming on the heels of the similar migration of Puerto Ricans in the preceding decades. Guzmán committed suicide on July 5, 1982, a month before he would have left office. He was confronted with evidence of his daughter Sonia Guzmán's husband's corruption using her father's position for monetary gain. Guzmán was known as a serious man who never stole money. After being confronted with this, he entered his bathroom and shot himself. Elections were again held in 1982. Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated Bosch and a resurgent Balaguer. ===Balaguer's third Presidency 1986–1996=== Balaguer completed his return to power in 1986 when he won the Presidency again and remained in office for the next ten years. Elections in 1990 were marked by violence and suspected electoral fraud. The 1994 election too saw widespread pre-election violence, often aimed at intimidating members of the opposition. Balaguer won in 1994 but most observers felt the election had been stolen. Under pressure from the United States, Balaguer agreed to hold new elections in 1996. He himself would not run. ===Fernández: First administration 1996–2000=== In 1996, U.S.-raised Leonel Fernández Reyna of Bosch's Partido de la Liberación Dominicana (Dominican Liberation Party) secured more than 51% of the vote, through an alliance with Balaguer. The first item on the president's agenda was the partial sale of some state-owned enterprises. Fernández was praised for ending decades of isolationism and improving ties with other Caribbean countries, but he was criticized for not fighting corruption or alleviating the poverty that affected 60% of the population. ===Mejía's administration 2000–2004=== In May 2000 the center-left Hipólito Mejía of the PRD was elected president amid popular discontent over power outages in the recently privatized electric industry. His presidency saw major inflation and instability of the peso in 2003 because of the bankruptcy of three major commercial banks in the country due to the bad policies of the principal managers. During his remaining time as president, he took action to save most savers of the closed banks, avoiding a major crisis. The relatively stable currency fell from about 16 Dominican pesos to 1 United States dollar to about 60 DOP to US$1 and was in the 40s to the dollar when he left office in August 2004. In the May 2004 presidential elections, he was defeated by former president Leonel Fernández. ===Fernández: Second administration 2004–2012=== Fernández instituted austerity measures to deflate the peso and rescue the country from its economic crisis, and in the first half of 2006, the economy grew 11.7%. The peso is currently (2019) at the exchange rate of c. 52 DOP to US$1. Over the last three decades, remittances (remesas) from Dominicans living abroad, mainly in the United States, have become increasingly important to the economy. From 1990 to 2000, the Dominican population of the U.S. doubled in size, from 520,121 in 1990 to 1,041,910, two-thirds of whom were born in the Dominican Republic itself. More than half of all Dominican Americans live in New York City, with the largest concentration in the neighborhood of Washington Heights in northern Manhattan. Over the past decade, the Dominican Republic has become the largest source of immigration to New York City, and today the metropolitan area of New York has a larger Dominican population than any city except Santo Domingo. Dominican communities have also developed in New Jersey (particularly Paterson), Miami, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, Rhode Island, and Lawrence, Massachusetts. In addition, tens of thousands of Dominicans and their descendants live in Puerto Rico. Many Dominicans arrive in Puerto Rico illegally by sea across the Mona Passage, some staying and some moving on to the mainland U.S. (See Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico.) Dominicans living abroad sent an estimated $3 billion in remittances to relatives at home, in 2006. In 1997, a new law took effect, allowing Dominicans living abroad to retain their citizenship and vote in presidential elections. President Fernández, who grew up in New York, was the principal beneficiary of this law. The Dominican Republic was involved in the US-led coalition in Iraq, as part of the Spain-led Latin-American Plus Ultra Brigade. But in 2004, the nation pulled its 300 or so troops out of Iraq. ===Danilo Medina's administration 2012–2020=== Danilo Medina began his tenure with a series of controversial tax reforms so as to deal with the government's troublesome fiscal situation encountered by the new administration. In 2012, he had won presidency as the candidate of ruling Dominican Liberation Party (PLD). In 2016, President Medina won re-election, defeating the main opposition candidate businessman Luis Abinader, with a wide margin. === Luis Abinader 2020–present === In 2020 Luis Abinader, the presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM) won the election and he became the new president, ending the 16-year rule of PLD since 2004. In May 2024, President Luis Abinader won a second term in elections. Especially his tough attitude towards migration from neighbouring Haiti was popular among voters.	[ "Gregorio Luperón", "Spanish Empire", "Leeward Islands", "Canary Islands", "Pre-Columbian era", "Great Depression", "Antonio Imbert", "Paterson, New Jersey", "Jean-Louis Pierrot", "privateers", "United States Navy", "José Desiderio Valverde", "Gran Colombia", "La Vega, Dominican Republic", "Field Marshal", "Bureau of Insular Affairs", "82nd Airborne Division", "Azua Province", "Philadelphia", "New York metropolitan area", "destroyer", "Arawak", "napalm", "Martin B-26 Marauder", "Pedro Bartolomé Benoit", "Pedro Santana", "Concepción de La Vega", "Jaragua, Hispaniola", "Neiba", "Good Neighbor policy", "Viceroyalty of Peru", "Charles Sumner", "St. Kitts and Nevis", "Johnny Abbes García", "Dominican Americans", "Tomás Bobadilla", "Social Christian Reformist Party", "The Holocaust", "United States Marine Corps", "Ulises Espaillat", "El Salvador", "San Felipe de Puerto Plata", "democracy", "Captaincy General of Santo Domingo", "taino", "Dominican Revolutionary Party", "Hipólito Mejía", "Danilo Medina", "History of the Americas", "U.S. State Department", "Rafael Trujillo", "Devastaciones de Osorio", "William Henry Seward, Sr.", "Charles Rivière-Hérard", "United States occupation of Haiti", "United States Secretary of State", "José Antonio Salcedo", "3rd Battalion, 6th Marines", "Adolf Hitler", "Ramón Matías Mella", "Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo", "Virgin Islands", "Spanish Civil War", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Colony of Santiago", "Christopher Newport", "Rómulo Betancourt", "History of Latin America", "Battle of San Francisco de Macoris", "Toussaint Louverture", "Faustin Soulouque", "Jean-Pierre Boyer", "Stanford University Press", "European wars of religion", "maroons", "Costa Rica", "Luis Abinader", "Modern Revolutionary Party", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "List of presidents of the Dominican Republic", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Muslims", "Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)", "remittances", "Axis powers", "Diego Colon", "4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade", "Horacio Vásquez", "single-shot", "Dominican peso", "communist", "Concepción de la Vega", "Wolof people", "Santiago de Cuba", "New Spain", "letters of marque", "Power (international relations)", "West African Vodun", "Hato Mayor Province", "Tortola", "caudillo", "Franco-Prussian War", "Honduras", "Black Ladinos", "Spanish Second Republic", "Moca, Dominican Republic", "El Seibo", "Dominican Air Force", "Desiderio Arias", "Saint-Domingue", "Antonio Imbert Barrera", "GovInfo", "Lawrence, Massachusetts", "Generalissimo", "Iraq War", "Battle of Palo Hincado", "7th Special Forces Group (United States)", "Personalist dictator", "Battle of Las Carreras", "2024 Dominican Republic general election", "Catalans", "Dominican Civil War (1911–12)", "Francisco del Rosario Sánchez", "Inter-American Peace Force", "Ignacio María González (politician)", "Santiago Rodríguez Masagó", "Anti-Communist Legion of the Caribbean", "Mona Passage", "United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)", "Eladio Victoria", "frigate", "Treaty of Ryswick", "Era de Francia", "Second Dominican Republic", "Organization of American States", "Plus Ultra Brigade", "María Trinidad Sánchez", "The Annexation of Santo Domingo", "Isabella II of Spain", "Juan Bautista Cambiaso", "Ozama River", "Amsterdam", "First Dominican Republic", "Servicio de Inteligencia Militar", "power projection", "Santo Domingo", "Roosevelt Corollary", "Dominican War of Independence", "William B. Caperton", "2016 Dominican Republic general election", "Antonio Duvergé", "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress", "Jimmy Carter", "Boston", "flota system", "España Boba", "San Pedro de Macorís", "Anguilla", "Leonel Fernández Reyna", "1963 Dominican coup d'état", "yellow fever", "Rafael Filiberto Bonnelly", "History of North America", "Arawakan languages", "Carlos Felipe Morales", "Progressive Era", "Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino", "Los Coludos", "North American P-51 Mustang", "Antonio Guzmán Fernández", "Archaeology (magazine)", "Felipe Ribero y Lemoine", "Escambray rebellion", "Second Empire of Haiti", "Warren Harding", "latifundia", "Francisco Franco", "Ernest Calvin Williams", "contraband", "Haitian Creole", "Haiti", "Elías Wessin", "Ferdinand II of Aragon", "History of the Caribbean", "buccaneer", "Listín Diario", "Canary Islanders", "stevedore", "Pico Duarte", "cocolo", "Constanza, Dominican Republic", "Monte Cristi Province", "Peace of Basel", "Juan Isidro Jimenes", "New Jersey", "Rear admiral (United States)", "Vietnam War", "G.I.", "Republic of Spanish Haiti", "Holy See", "France", "pre-Columbian era", "cacique", "Gaspar Polanco", "Manuel Jimenes", "San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic", "Dominican Communist Party", "St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands", "Cibao", "Dominican Civil War (1914)", "Cold War", "San Fernando de Monte Cristi", "Republican Party (United States)", "Third Dominican Republic", "forcibly disappeared", "Netherlands", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Siege of Santo Domingo (1655)", "Spanish Main", "Fortification", "Harry Shepard Knapp", "Battle of Las Trencheras", "Caribbean", "Nicolás de Ovando", "Juan Alejandro Acosta", "Ciudad Nueva", "Salvador Jorge Blanco", "Christopher Columbus", "San Isidro Air Base", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Manuel de Regla Mota", "Bruce Palmer Jr.", "Hispaniola", "José de la Gándara y Navarro", "National Assembly of Haïti", "Dominican Liberation Party", "La Navidad", "Miami", "Politics of the Dominican Republic", "vanguard", "Marquess of Las Carreras", "Timeline of Santo Domingo", "Samaná (town)", "West Indies", "Demographics of the Dominican Republic", "maroon (people)", "Adolfo Nouel", "Chiefdoms of Hispaniola", "Juan Bosch (politician)", "Atlantic Ocean", "1966 Dominican Republic general election", "Isabella of Castille", "Universal Negro Improvement Association", "Battle of Puerto Plata", "Guacanagarí", "Frank Moya Pons", "Red Party (Dominican Republic)", "Sir William Penn", "Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic", "Francisco de Bobadilla", "Republic of Haiti (1820–1849)", "Juan Bautista Vicini", "Ramón Báez", "House of Bourbon", "Rafael Estrella Ureña", "Azua, Dominican Republic", "Joseph Henry Pendleton", "peon", "La Isabela", "CIA", "José Bordas Valdez", "American Civil War", "peaceful transition of power", "Cibao Valley", "Tortuga (Haiti)", "Catholic Church", "Military Government of Santo Domingo", "Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico", "Paraguay", "Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean", "Haitian Revolution", "Abolitionism in the United States", "Battle of Santomé", "Annexation of the Dominican Republic to Spain", "Francisco Henríquez y Carvajal", "brigantine", "Puerto Rico", "GDP", "United States Senate", "Santa María (ship)", "ceramic", "History of Haiti", "Battle of Guayacanas", "Taíno", "José Joaquín Puello", "hacienda", "Havana", "Germany", "Nicaragua", "José Núñez de Cáceres", "Death by natural causes", "cockfighting", "José María Cabral", "Barahona Province", "Enriquillo", "Washington Heights, Manhattan", "Puerto Rican people", "Real Audiencia", "torture", "Francis Drake", "Age of Revolution", "Manhattan", "Ulises Heureaux", "Battle of Monte Cristi", "4th Marine Regiment", "Santo Domingo Affair", "attack on Pearl Harbor", "House of Habsburg", "Millersville University", "Sugar cane", "Elías Wessin y Wessin", "Buenaventura Báez", "Oliver Cromwell", "Francisco Caamaño", "Blue Party (Dominican Republic)", "La Romana, Dominican Republic", "electric chair", "Voyages of Christopher Columbus", "Siege of Santo Domingo (1805)", "Battle of Sabana Larga", "SS Presidente Trujillo", "Taíno genocide", "Leonel Fernández", "Royal Navy", "Italy", "Hurricane David", "Operation Power Pack", "Constitution of the Dominican Republic", "Cesáreo Guillermo", "Crown of Castile", "tobacco", "Rebellion of the Pilots", "military junta", "Cacique", "Providence, Rhode Island", "smallpox", "Dominican Republic", "Monroe Doctrine", "Holland Smith", "Science & Society", "Puerto Plata (city)", "Sánchez, Dominican Republic", "Woodrow Wilson", "Santiago de los Caballeros", "United States dollar", "Joaquín Balaguer", "Caribbean Sea", "José María Imbert", "Antoine Pierrot", "Ten Years' War", "schooner", "Pedro Eugenio Pelletier", "The Nation", "Gulf Stream", "La Trinitaria (Dominican Republic)", "Juan Pablo Duarte", "Ramón Cáceres", "Alejandro Woss y Gil", "WP:SDNONE", "Dajabón", "Antigua and Barbuda", "Conchoprimo", "Dominican Civil War", "Chevrolet Bel Air" ]
8,064	Geography of the Dominican Republic	The Dominican Republic (Spanish: República Dominicana) is a country in the West Indies that occupies the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola. It has an area of 48,670 km2, including offshore islands. The land border shared with Haiti, which occupies the western three-eighths of the island, is 376 km long. The maximum length, east to west, is 390 km from Punta de Agua to Las Lajas, on the border with Haiti. The maximum width, north to south, is 265 km from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The capital, Santo Domingo, is located on the south coast. The Dominican Republic's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. The Mona Passage, a channel about 130 km wide, separates the country (and Hispaniola) from Puerto Rico. == Physical features == The Dominican Republic is a country with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are found here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest–southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west–east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction. From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are: Cordillera Septentrional (in English, "Northern Range"). It runs parallel to the north coast, with extensions to the northwest, the Tortuga Island, and to the southeast, the Samaná Peninsula (with its Sierra de Samaná). Its highest mountain is Diego de Ocampo, close to Santiago, with 1,249 m. There are several small plains between this range and the Atlantic Ocean. Rivers are short and most of them flow to the north. The Cibao Valley (Dominican Republic) is the largest and the most important valley of the country. This long valley stretches from North Haiti, where is called Plaine du Nord, to Samaná Bay. It can be divided in two sections: the northwestern part is the Yaque del Norte Valley (or Línea Noroeste) and the eastern Yuna Valley (or Vega Real, English: Royal Valley). The Vega Real is the most fertile area in the country, with a high population density. The Cordillera Central (also called Sierra del Cibao) is the island's most rugged and imposing feature and is known in Haiti as the Massif du Nord ("Northern Massif"). The highest mountains of the West Indies are in this range: Pico Duarte, 3,098 m, and others above 3,000 m. Near the center of the island, this range turns southward and is called Sierra de Ocoa, finishing near the city of Azua de Compostela, on the Caribbean coast. Another branch, Cordillera Oriental or Sierra del Seibo, is separated from the main chain by a karstic region (Los Haitises) and with a west–east direction; it is located south of Samaná Bay. The San Juan Valley and Plain of Azua are big valleys south of the Cordillera Central with altitude from 0 to 600 m. The Sierra de Neiba, with Mount Neiba the highest mountain with 2,279 m. An extension to the southeast of Sierra de Neiba is the Sierra Martín García (Loma Busú, 1,350 m). The Hoya de Enriquillo or Neiba Valley is a remarkable valley, with a west–east direction, of low altitude (on average 50 m with some points below sea level) and with a great salt lake: the Enriquillo Lake. The Sierra de Bahoruco, called Massif de la Selle in Haiti. This southern group of mountains have a geology very different from the rest of the island. Llano Costero del Caribe (in English, "Caribbean Coastal Plain") is in the southeast of the island (and of the Dominican Republic). It is a large savanna east of Santo Domingo. ==Climate== The Dominican Republic is a tropical, maritime nation. Owing to its diverse mountainous topography, the country's climate shows considerable variation for its size, and has the most diverse climate zones of all the Caribbean islands, including subtropical highland climates (Cwb), oceanic climates (Cfb) and hot semi-arid climates (BSh) along the usual tropical savanna (Aw), monsoon (Am), and rainforest (Af) climates typical of a Caribbean nation. Conditions are ameliorated in many areas by elevation and by the northeast trade winds, which blow steadily from the Atlantic all year long. The annual mean temperature is ; regional mean temperatures range from in the heart of the Cordillera Central (Constanza) to as high as in arid regions. Temperatures rarely rise above , and freezing temperatures only occur in winter in the highest mountains. The average temperature in Santo Domingo in January is , and in July. The rain season for the northern coast is from November to January. For the rest of the country, the rain season is from May to November. The average annual rainfall is , with extremes of or more in the mountainous northeast (the windward side of the island) and in the southwestern valleys. The western valleys, along the Haitian border, remain relatively dry, with less than of annual precipitation, due to the rain shadow effect caused by the central and northern mountain ranges. The northwestern and southeastern extremes of the country are also arid. The Dominican Republic is occasionally damaged by tropical storms and hurricanes, which originate in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern Caribbean from June until November (mainly from August to October) each year. File:Cabo Cabrón, (Rincón Beach) Samaná, DR.JPG\|Tropical rainforest climate in Samana. File:Constanza, valle nuevo, clima invierno..jpg\|Frosted alpine forest in Constanza. File:Jaragua National Park (Road2).JPG\|Semi-arid climate in Pedernales. File:Dunas de Baní 1.jpg\|Desert sand dunes of Bani. == Islands == There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of Dominican territory. The largest islands are: Saona, close to the southeastern coast of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 117 km2. or Adamanay. Columbus named this island as Savona, after the Italian city of the same name, but the use during years has eliminated the letter v. Beata, also on the southern coast. It has an area of 27 km2. Yaque del Norte. At 296 km, it is the longest river in the Dominican Republic. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the Atlantic Ocean. Its watershed has an area of 7,044 km2. Yuna. It is 185 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the east into Samaná Bay. Its watershed has an area of 5,498 km2. Yaque del Sur. It is 183 km long and its sources are in the Cordillera Central. It flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 4,972 km2. Ozama. It is 148 km long. Its sources are in Sierra de Yamasá (a branch of the Cordillera Central). It flows into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 2,685 km2. Camú. It is 137 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Yuna River. Its watershed has 2,655 km2. Nizao. It is 133 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 974 km2. San Juan. It is 121 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Yaque del Sur River. Its watershed has an area of 2,005 km2. Mao. It is 105 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the north into the Yaque del Norte River. Its watershed has an area of 864 km2. The Artibonite River is the longest river of the island, but only 68 km flows through the Dominican Republic. The largest lake of Hispaniola, and of the Caribbean, is Lake Enriquillo. It is located in the Hoya de Enriquillo with an area of 265 km2. There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level, and is a hypersaline lake, with a higher concentration of salt than seawater. Other lakes are Rincón (fresh water, area of 28.2 km2), Oviedo (brackish water, area of 28 km2), Redonda, and Limón. == Statistics == Location: Caribbean, it occupies five-eighths of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti Geographic coordinates: Area: Total: 48,670 km² Land: 48,320 km² Water: 350 km² Land boundaries: Total: 376 km Border countries: Haiti Coastline: 1,288 km Maritime claims: Territorial sea: Contiguous zone: Exclusive economic zone: with Continental shelf: or to the edge of the continental margin Climate: Tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall Rivers: Significant rivers include the Jimani River, Río Yaque del Norte, Río Jamao del Norte, Río Isabela and the Ozama River Terrain: Rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed Geographical extremes Northernmost point – Cabo Isabela Southernmost point – Alto Velo Island, Jaragua National Park Southernmost point (mainland) – south of Oviedo, Pedernales in Jaragua National Park Westernmost point – Las Lajas, border with Haiti, Independencia Province Easternmost point – Punta de Agua, La Altagracia Province Elevation extremes Lowest point – Lago Enriquillo: -46 m Highest point – Pico Duarte: 3,098 m Natural resources: Nickel, bauxite, gold, silver Land use: Arable land: 16.56% Permanent crops: 10.35% Other: 73.10% (2012 est.) Irrigated land: 3,241 km² (2018) Total renewable water resources: 21 km3 (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 5.47 km3/yr (26%/1%/72%) per capita: 574.2 m3/yr (2005) Natural hazards: Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts Environment - current issues: Water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; damage caused by Hurricane Georges Environment - international agreements: Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands Signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea Geography - note: Shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern five-eighths is the Dominican Republic, western three-eighths is Haiti)	[ "Tortuga (Haiti)", "Samaná Peninsula", "Samaná Bay", "Capital (political)", "Ozone Layer Protection", "Río Yaque del Norte", "Land borders", "Yaque del Norte River", "tropical", "Cibao", "Plain", "drainage basin", "mountain", "La Altagracia Province", "rain shadow", "Saona Island", "Puerto Rico", "fresh water", "brackish", "Lake Enriquillo", "Nickel", "Karst topography", "Yuna River", "Mona Passage", "Cabo Isabela", "savanna", "Caribbean", "bauxite", "continental margin", "Greater Antilles", "Christopher Columbus", "Enriquillo Lake", "oceanic climate", "Ozama River", "MARPOL 73/78", "subtropical highland climate", "Convention on biological diversity", "Hispaniola", "maritime nation", "Santo Domingo", "1998 Atlantic hurricane season", "Camú River", "Catalina Island, Dominican Republic", "Jaragua National Park", "hypersaline lake", "Independencia Province", "valley", "Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic", "Law of the Sea", "Río Jamao del Norte", "deforestation", "Jimani River", "Cordillera Septentrional", "Baní", "Oviedo, Dominican Republic", "Río Isabela", "Artibonite River", "Savona", "Nuclear Test Ban", "Atlantic", "silver", "trade winds", "Marine Life Conservation", "Yaque del Sur River", "Atlantic Ocean", "Alto Velo Island", "tropical savanna climate", "temperature", "Dominican Republic", "Diego de Ocampo", "Las Lajas, Dominican Republic", "Samaná Province", "gold", "United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification", "hot semi-arid climate", "Haiti", "CITES", "tropical monsoon climate", "Pedernales, Dominican Republic", "Lago Enriquillo", "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change", "Geographic coordinates", "Caribbean Sea", "Pico Duarte", "Constanza, Dominican Republic", "Pedernales Province", "North America", "Taíno people", "Marine Dumping", "Punta de Agua", "Beata Island", "Tropical rainforest climate" ]
8,065	Demographics of the Dominican Republic	This is a demography of the population of the Dominican Republic including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. ==Population size and structure== The area was first included in world trade in 1492 when Christopher Columbus docked on the island of Hispaniola. When Spain occupied the country in 1496, the population consisted of Arawak (Taíno Indians). When Spain returned in 1496, they founded the current capital, Santo Domingo, as the first European city in America. The country came under Spanish rule. France took over the part of Hispaniola that is today Haiti. During the colony era, The Dominican Republic acted as a sugar supplier to Spain and France. Many whites moved to the country during this period. In 1496, Santo Domingo was built and became the new capital, and remains the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the Americas. Today, two other large groups have joined, while the indigenous population has mostly disappeared. 45% of Dominicans consider themselves to have some significant Indigenous/Endemic ancestry, 18% are white, 7.8% are fully or predominantly black and 74% are mixed (Mestizo/Mulatto/"Indio"/Trigueño). About 9.2% of the Dominican population claims a European immigrant background, according to the 2021 Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas survey. During the many years that have passed since the great immigration, the races have been mixed and it can be difficult to distinguish. In terms of race, they are all similar to the other Caribbean islands. The Spaniards brought Christianity to the Dominican Republic, and today about 50% of the population reports as being Catholic. One clear remnant of the Spanish colonial era on the population is the official and widespread use of the Spanish language. According to the total population was in , compared to 2,380,000 in 1950. The proportion of the population aged below 15 in 2010 was 31.2%, 62.8% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6% were aged 65 years or older. === Structure of the population === {{Hidden begin \|title= Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Data refer to national projections.): ===Demographic and Health Surveys=== Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): ==Ethnic groups== Dominicans of full or predominant European descent: 17.8%, Mixed (Mestizo, Mulatto, "Indio", Triracial) descent: 74.4%, Afro descent: 7.8% note: respondents self-identified their race; the term "indio" in the Dominican Republic is not associated with people of indigenous ancestry but people of mixed ancestry or skin color between light and dark ==Religion== Roman Catholic 51.3%, Evangelical 13%, Protestant 7.9%, Adventist 1.4%, other 1.8%, atheist 0.2%, none 22.4%, unspecified 2% (2018 est.) ==Languages== Spanish (official)	[ "Dominican Republic", "colony", "population", "Youth in the Dominican Republic", "Spain", "2010 Dominican Republic Census", "Health in the Dominican Republic", "1920 Santo Domingo Census", "France", "Dominicans", "Haiti", "Arawak", "Caribbean islands", "Spanish (language)", "Christianity", "Catholic", "European colonization of the Americas", "1496", "sugar", "Spanish language", "Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)", "fertility rate", "demographics", "Afro-Dominicans", "White Dominicans", "America", "Mulatto", "Hispaniola", "1960 Dominican Republic Census", "Mixed-race Dominicans", "1970 Dominican Republic Census", "Santo Domingo", "Ethnic group", "Mestizo", "1950 Dominican Republic Census", "population density", "net reproduction rate", "East Asian people", "Race (human categorization)", "Religion in the Dominican Republic" ]
8,067	Economy of the Dominican Republic	{{Infobox economy \| country = Dominican Republic \| image = File:SantoDomingoedit.JPG \| image_size = 310px \| caption = Santo Domingo is the capital and financial center of the Dominican Republic \| currency = 1 Dominican Peso (RD$) = 100 Centavos \| year = Calendar year \| organs = WTO, CAFTA-DR \| group = \| gdp = \| per capita = {{plainlist\| $12,452 (nominal, 2025) 23.9% (2021 est) \| gini = 38.5 (2021) \| hdi = The Dominican Republic is the Caribbean and Central America's largest economy and tenth in Latin America. The Dominican Republic is a developing upper-middle income[13] nation with mining, tourism, and industry. The Dominican Republic is anticipated to expand 79% this decade and become high-income by 2030. Although agriculture is vital to the domestic market and ranks second in export revenues, the service industry employs the most Dominicans. Annual tourism earnings exceed $7.4 billion in 2019. [15] Drugs, chemicals, electronics, and medical devices dominate free-trade zone manufacturing. [16] Dominicans contribute $8.2 billion in 2020, mostly to the US [17]. [18] On September 5, 2005, The Congress ratified the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement with the U.S. and five Central American states. CAFTA-DR took effect in Dominican Republic on March 1, 2007. ==Primary Industries== ===Agriculture=== In 2018, the Dominican Republic produced 644 thousand tons of avocado (it is the 2nd largest producer in the world), 1 million tons of papaya (it is the 4th largest producer in the world), 5.2 million tons of sugarcane, 2.1 million tons of banana, 85 thousand tons of cocoa, 442 thousand tons of palm oil, 407 thousand tons of pineapple, 403 thousand tons of coconut, 627 thousand tons of rice, 160 thousand tons of cassava, 136 thousand tons of orange, in addition to from smaller productions of other agricultural products such as potato, lemon, melon, onion and yam. With almost 80% of the total land area suitable for crop production and about 17% of the labor force engaged in farming, agriculture remains the primary occupation, accounting for 11% of GDP in 2001. Value of agricultural output grew at an average annual rate of 7.1% during 1968–73, but since 1975 the sector has been hampered by droughts (1975, 1977, and 1979), hurricanes (in 1979 and 1980), and slumping world prices and quota allocations for sugar (since 1985). In 1999, agricultural production was 0.4% higher than during 1989–91. The fertile Cibao Valley is the main agricultural center. In 1998, arable land totaled ; with land under permanent crops at . After Cuba, the Dominican Republic is the second-largest Caribbean producer of sugarcane, the nation's most important crop. The State Sugar Council operates 12 sugar mills and accounts for about half of total production. Other large producers are the privately owned Vicini, with three mills, and Central Romana Corporation, whose mill is the largest in the country. Sugar is grown in the southeastern plains, around Barahona & on the North Coast Plain. In 1999, sugar production was 4.4 million tons, down from an average of 7.1 million tons during 1989–1991. Output of sugar has declined annually since 1982, and land is gradually being taken out of sugar production and switched to food crops. Production of raw sugar rose from 636,000 tons in 1990 to 813,000 tons in 1997 but fell to 374,000 tons in 1999. Part of the crop was destroyed by hurricanes in 1979 and 1980, and 1979–80 production was only 670,000 bags (40,200 tons). Although production was usually about 57,000–59,000 tons annually in the 1980s, the acreage harvested declined from in the early 1980s to in 1999, indicating a greater yield per acre. Coffee production in 1999 was estimated at 35,000 tons; exports of coffee in 2001 generated $11 million. Cocoa and tobacco are also grown for export. Dominican Republic is one of the top 10 major producer and exporter of cocoa in the world. Cocoa is also grown in the Cibao Valley around San Francisco de Macoris. Tobacco is also grown in the Cibao Valley, but around Santiago. In 1999, production of cocoa beans was 26,000 tons and of tobacco, 35,000 tons. Rice is grown around Monte Cristi & San Francisco de Macoris. Banana production in 1999 was 432,000 tons. Production of other crops in 1999 (in thousands of tons) included rice, 563; coconuts, 184; cassava, 127; tomatoes, 281; pulses, 69; dry beans, 26; eggplants, 7; and peanuts, 2. ===Livestock farming=== In 2001, Dominican livestock included 187,000 goats and 106,000 sheep. There were also about 2.1 million head of cattle, 60% for beef and 40% for dairy. The hog population was decimated by African swine fever in 1978, decreasing from 400,000 in 1978 to 20,000 in 1979; by 2001, however, it was 565,000. Poultry is the main meat source because it is cheaper than beef or pork. Poultry production relies on imports of feed grain from the United States. In 2001, 203,000 tons of poultry meat were produced, along with 71,000 tons of beef and 420,000 tons of milk. ===Fishing=== In 2017 the total marine production was 18,000 metric tons. Marlin, barracuda, kingfish, mackerel, tuna, sailfish, and tarpon are found in the Monte Cristi Bank and Samaná Bay, which also supports bonito, snapper, and American grouper. ===Forestry=== About 28.4% of the total land area consisted of forests and woodlands in 2000. Round wood production in 2000 totaled 562,000 cu m (19.8 million cu ft). Timber is cut for land clearing for the use of agriculture. There are important national parks protecting the natural resources and aquifers of the country. ===Mining=== In 2019, the country was the 9th largest world producer of nickel. The country had almost zero production of gold until 2011, where it grew exponentially. In 2016 the country produced almost 38 tons. The country had almost zero production of silver until 2008, where it grew exponentially. In 2017 the country produced 147 tons. Ferronickel was the country's leading export commodity and third-leading industry. Nickel is mined at Bonao. In 2000, nickel production was 39,943 tons, ranking tenth in the world, a decrease from 49,152 in 1997. Currently the most important mineral export is gold. Production of gold in the Pueblo Viejo mine is the largest gold producing mine in Latin America, and fourth most productive mine in the world producing a total of 30,100 kg of gold in 2018. The extraction by a foreign company of gold at one of the largest mines in the Western Hemisphere has startled and concerned a part of the country who believe that the natural resource should be extracted by local companies and not foreign. Some groups began to protest against Barrick Gold in 2009 and 2010. In 2019 gold is one of the largest exports of the country totaling $1.6 billion and has helped to balance the commodity current account balance. Production of bauxite, traditionally the principal mining product, ceased in 1992. The Aluminum Co. of America (Alcoa) mined bauxite between 1959 and 1983, when it turned its concession over to the state. Production in 1991 dropped 92% from the previous year, as a presidential decree suspended mining operations at the largest mine, in response to increasing fears of deforestation, although reforestation of mined areas was in progress. Output averaged 1 million tons each year. The country was one of the few sources of amber in the Western Hemisphere. Salt Mountain, a 16 km block of almost solid salt west of Barahona, was the world's largest known salt deposit. There were also large deposits of gypsum near Salt Mountain, making the Dominican Republic one of three sources of gypsum in the Caribbean. The country also produced hydraulic cement, limestone, marble, and sand and gravel. Substantial lignite deposits were found in the early 1980s. Deposits of copper and platinum are also found in the country. ==Industry== The industrial sector contributed an estimated 31.1% to the country's GDP in 2023, Other, more traditional manufacturing is based on sugar refining, cement, iron and steel production, and food processing. Rum is a significant export commodity, and beer and cigarettes are manufactured for local consumption. Most industry of this sort is located around the working-class perimeter of Santo Domingo and other large towns. Metaldom is the main steel manufacturer in the country, with production of 1 million tons per year, most of which is exported. ==Services== Services were estimated to contribute 56% of the GDP in 2023 and employs 64.7% of the population. ===Tourism=== Since the mid-1980s the tourism sector has become one of the country's most important sources of foreign exchange, and more popular tourist destinations. The country is famous for its favorable location in the Caribbean, tropical climate, beaches, and the restored Spanish colonial architecture. Many foreign investors have and continue to be encouraged to invest here to build and expand resorts and airports around the coasts. During this same period, tourism displaced sugar as the main source of the country's earnings, and by 1997 it was generating more than half of the country's total foreign exchange. In 2019 it generated one-third of the total foreign exchange for the country. Tourism is the single biggest revenue earner, growing from humble beginnings in 1980 to more than $7.4 billion by 2019. ===Retail=== Retail activity in the Dominican Republic takes many forms, from U.S.-style supermarkets and shopping malls in Santo Domingo to rural markets and tiny family-run corner stores in villages. A small but affluent middle class can afford to shop at the former, while the lower-income rural community resorts to buying small amounts of daily essentials from general stores (these small stores often double as pubs). In an attempt to regulate the retail sector, the government has recently reformed taxation laws, so that small shops pay taxes on a regular monthly basis. Many transactions, however, go unrecorded. ==Energy== The electricity sector has had big investments in the last decade 2010 to 2020 diversifying the sector away from petroleum which decreased from 50% of energy generation to 7%. The largest generation sources as of 2021 are coal, natural gas and renewables representing together 93% of electricity generation. This has transformed a strategic sector of the economy into a stable and lower cost sector. The rate of electricity loss improved from 38% in 2005 to 30% in 2019 showing improvement in the infrastructure. Low collection rates, illegal connections, infrastructure problems and poor governance are the sources of the high level of electricity loss in the system. The government plans to continue providing subsidies. Congress passed a law in 2007 that criminalizes the act of illegal electric connections. The state subsidizes the cost of electricity, funding the cost via indirect taxation instead of direct price increases for lower-income households, therefore it is a redistributive policy and partly funded by the country as a whole instead of the direct consumers of electricity. The profit from renewables, natural gas, and coal is positive and considered the current and future of the system, given that petroleum derivatives are considered more volatile and expensive in running costs. As of 2020 significant investments in the electricity sector have been realized with the construction of the Punta Catalina coal-fired plant. Significantly diversifying the electric sector's away from the traditional mix to one with lower cost. The growth of the renewables sector and the natural gas power sector has made significant strides in this respect in the last few years, and is expected to continue to grow with foreign and local investment in the sector. == Employment == Labor participation has improved over the last decade from 62.4% to 67.3%. Despite this growth, female labor participation rates lag more than 25 percentage points behind male labor participation rates, 52.7% and 77.9% respectively. This disparity highlights ongoing challenges in achieving gender equality in the workforce and indicates potential barriers that women face in accessing employment opportunities. Marginal real wage growth since the end of the 1990s suggests low quality jobs and low bargaining power of employees, which can further exacerbate economic inequality. === Informal Employment === In 2021, 45.5% of Dominicans lived in households where all workers were employed through informal jobs. ==Other statistics== GDP: purchasing power parity – $293.365 billion (2024 est.) GDP – real growth rate: 5.4% (2024 est.) GDP – per capita: purchasing power parity – $27,120 (2024 est.) GDP – composition by sector: agriculture: 5.5% industry: 33.8% services: 60.8% (2017 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.2% (2024 est.) Labor force: 5.278 million (2022 est.) Labor force – by occupation: agriculture: 14.4% industry: 20.8% services: 64.7% (2014 est.) Unemployment rate: 6.0% (2024 est.) Population below poverty line: 23.9% (2021 est.) Budget: revenues: $14.10 billion expenditures: $16.60 billion (2021 est.) Industries: tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco, electrical components, medical devices Electricity – production: 15.53 billion kWh (2015) Electricity – consumption: 13.25 billion kWh (2015) Electricity – exports: 0 kWh (2005) Electricity – imports: 0 kWh (2005) Oil – production: (2014) Oil – consumption: (2012 est.) Oil – exports: (2017) Oil – imports: (2017) Oil – proved reserves: (1 January 2006 est.) Natural gas – production: 0 cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas – consumption: 1.108 million cu m (2015 est). Natural gas – exports: 0 cu m (2005 est.) Natural gas – imports: 1.108 million cu m (2015) Natural gas – proved reserves: 0 cu m (1 January 2006 est.) Agriculture – products: sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, beef, eggs Exports: $10.33 billion f.o.b. (2017 est.) Exports – commodities: ferro nickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats, consumer goods Exports – partners: United States 50.4%, United Kingdom 3.2%, Belgium 2.4% (2017) Imports: $19 billion f.o.b. (2017 est.) Imports – commodities: foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals Imports – partners: United States 41.4%, China 13.9%, Mexico 4.5%, Brazil 4.3% (2017) Debt – external: $29.69 billion (31 December 2017 est.) Economic aid – recipient: $76.99 million (2005) Currency: Dominican peso (DOP) Exchange rates: Dominican pesos per US dollar – 33.113 (2007), 33.406 (2006), 30.409 (2005), 42.12 (2004), 30.831 (2003) Fiscal year: calendar year	[ "electrical components", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)", "Standard & Poor's", "grouper", "List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI", "Pueblo Viejo mine", "medical devices", "papaya", "Central Intelligence Agency", "pineapple", "chemical", "Cocoa bean", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)", "World Trade Organization", "Lutjanidae", "nickel", "ferronickel", "Purchasing power parity", "Belgium", "limestone", "bauxite", "Central Romana Corporation", "cassava", "palm oil", "CIA World Factbook", "Latin America", "sugarcane", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "Santo Domingo", "sand", "Fiscal year", "Egg (food)", "barracuda", "yam (vegetable)", "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita", "tuna", "bean", "Metaldom", "United Nations Development Programme", "lemon", "potato", "onion", "coconut", "bonito", "melon", "World Bank", "Developing country", "List of countries by GDP (nominal)", "banana", "pharmaceuticals", "List of companies of the Dominican Republic", "silver", "platinum", "pharmaceutical", "purchasing power parity", "Maize", "Marlin", "Dominican Republic", "Ease of doing business index", "International Monetary Fund", "gold", "general store", "List of countries by GDP (PPP)", "gravel", "mackerel", "lignite", "Dominican Peso", "S&P Global", "List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita", "Latin American Perspectives", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth", "Orange (fruit)", "avocado", "Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement", "marble", "gold mining", "rice" ]
8,068	Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic	Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Numerous television channels are available. Tricom, S.A, WIND Telecom, S.A., Viva (network operator), and Claro Codetel provide television services digitally, with channels from Latin America and elsewhere in the world. There are extensive mobile phone and land-line services. Internet access is available as Cable Internet, ADSL, WiMAX, EDGE, EV-DO and UMTS/HSDPA in most parts of the country. Projects to extend Wi-Fi (wireless internet) hot spots have been undertaken in Santo Domingo. Since 2015 the country has been actively extending its fiber optics network, to provide faster and more reliable internet to business and private users. The Instituto Dominicano De Telecomunicaciones (INDOTEL) regulates and supervises the development of the country's telecommunications market. == Radio and television == Radio stations: AM 146, FM 233, shortwave 14 (2013). A combination of state-owned and privately owned radio stations with more than 300 radio stations operating (2007). Radios: 1.44 million (1997). Television stations: 46 (2012). A combination of state-owned and privately owned broadcast media; 1 state-owned and a number of private TV networks; networks operate repeaters to extend signals throughout country (2007). In the Dominican Republic there are 46 in VHF and UHF channels free-to-air channels. The programming on the free of charge channels consists mainly of locally produced entertainment shows, news, and comedy shows; and foreign sitcoms, soap operas, movies, cartoons, and sports programs. Fixed lines: 1.14 million lines in use, 70th in the world (2022). Fixed broadband: 446,420 subscriptions, 72nd in the world; 4.4% of the population, 108th in the world (2012). Wireless broadband: 1.6 million subscriptions, 65th in the world; 15.4% of the population, 80th in the world (2012). Internet hosts: 404,500 hosts, 55th in the world (2012). Internet service providers (ISPs): 8: Claro (Fiber, ADSL and wireless), Tricom (Fiber, WiMAX, ADSL, and Cable), Aster (CABLE), VIVA (wireless), Orange (wireless), ONEMAX (Fiber GPON, Wireless PTP, Data Center), Wind Telecom (WiMAX) (2008). ===Broadband Internet access=== The Dominican Republic is considered one of the countries with the most advanced telecommunications infrastructures in Latin America, with over 8.9 million cell phones connected (on just about 10 million populants, with 3.5 million of them on extreme poverty conditions) and large companies like Codetel and Orange (FR) on the telecommunications market. Broadband Internet access is growing, with over 622,931 Internet accounts globally and 3,851,278 Internet users as of December 2010 according to INDOTEL (DR Telecommunications Institute). Broadband DSL represents about 56% of the total Internet subscribers. There is access to regular ADSL, G.SHDSL, and services only on metropolitan areas, costs are high and service is decent. Cable Internet is offered by a couple of cable companies at lower costs than ADSL but the service is very deficient and unreliable. WiFi is becoming more common. It is available in some universities. Most hotels also offer wi-fi internet. The implementation of the WiMAX and HSPA technology by some of the Cellphone service providers are resulting in the rapid investment by other providers in the market to match the new and faster platform of services. Mobile broadband users have seen their percentage grow from 14% in 2007 all the way to 39% in 2010, and will continue to grow as more and more users are opting for this type of technology in a country where Home Broadband speeds are more expensive and slower. Also the ongoing installation of a Fiber-Optic network structure in the National District and the City of Santiago (second largest in the country) will force other competitors into upgrading theirs to be able to compete in the markets they now lead. ===Pricing=== As of October 2018, not including taxes. Key: DOP: Dominican peso, USD: United States dollar. Exchange rate ( $50 DOP : US$1 ) Pricing – Home Internet Access (By ISP) The following table shows the speeds/prices* available and designed for home usage. *Note: The pricing and speeds are subject to change since Altice, Claro and Wind have multi plans (Two or Three services combined), those plans have a discount on all services. Up to 25% discount for combined services. Pricing – Mobile Broadband (By ISP) Currently the mobile internet market is governed by three aspects: The first is based on a contract where you are granted a certain amount of data (MB/GB) per month, after having consumed the data you can continue browsing at 512 kbit/s. Second option is a monthly income (postpaid) for the acquisition of a speed package with "unlimited data" (is subject to fair use policies with unlimited browsing at 512 kbit/s after you surpass the monthly capacity). Third group belongs to the prepaid modality, in this option the client determines the number of days or amount of data he needs to navigate. ===Internet censorship and surveillance=== There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system ensure freedom of speech and press. The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction. Individuals and groups are generally able to criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal, although there have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals. Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners. The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur.	[ "Universal Mobile Telecommunications System", "High-Speed Downlink Packet Access", "Ultra high frequency", "ARCOS-1", "ANTILLAS I", "Top-level domain", ".do", "Television sets", "List of international call prefixes", "Communications satellite", "The World Factbook", "Caribbean", "WiMAX", "HBO Latin America Group", "Mobile phone", "Intelsat", "Claro (Dominican Republic)", "South America", "Area code", "freedom of speech", "SKY México", "Cable Internet access", "Evolution-Data Optimized", "Santiago de los Caballeros", "List of countries by number of Internet hosts", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Orange S.A.", "microwave radio relay", "List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions", "Wi-Fi", "Dominican Postal Institute", "freedom of the press", "Viva (network operator)", "Tricom, S.A", "Santo Domingo", "Dominican peso", "WIND Telecom, S.A.", "List of international submarine communications cables", "Very high frequency", "free-to-air", "IPTV", "Voice over IP", "Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service", "WP:SDNONE", "High-definition television", "Playboy TV", "Asymmetric digital subscriber line", "pay-per-view", "Cinecanal", "MLB Extra Innings", "Claro República Dominicana", "Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution", "Internet service provider", "Satellite television", "International Telecommunication Union", "IPv4", "High Speed Packet Access", "North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement", "chat rooms", "Altice Dominicana S.A.", "List of countries by number of Internet users" ]
8,069	Transport in the Dominican Republic	Transport in the Dominican Republic utilizes a system of roads, airports, ports, harbours, and an urban railway. == Roadways == Five main highways (DR-1, DR-2, DR-3, DR-4, DR-5) connect the Dominican Republic's biggest cities and tourist centers; they are in good condition. There are nearly of highways and roads, 9,872 being paved and (2002 est.) unpaved. Like any underdeveloped nation, the Dominican Republic suffers from a lack of good paved roads to connect smaller towns and less populated areas, though work on paving them proceeds. Major town roads are kept in good condition. == Public transportation == === Mass transit === The Santo Domingo Metro is the first mass transit system in the country, and the second among Caribbean & Central American nations. It is the most extensive metro system in the region by length and total number of stations. On February 27, 2008, the incumbent president Leonel Fernández test-rode the system for the first time, and thereafter free service was offered several times. Commercial service began on January 30, 2009. Several additional lines are currently planned. Santiago Light Rail is a planned light rail system, still at the development stage, in the Dominican Republic's second-largest city Santiago de los Caballeros. Construction was slated to begin in mid-2008 but is currently on hold, due to lack of approval and of central government funds. ===Buses=== The Dominican Republic has a bus system that is rather reliable, and most of these public transportation vehicles are fairly comfortable. The fare is generally inexpensive, and there are bus terminals and stops in most of the island's major cities. ===Public Cars (Carros Públicos)=== The Public Cars (Carros Públicos–Conchos) are privately owned passenger cars that transit a specific route daily Passengers may request a stop anywhere along the route. Carros Públicos carry a significant portion of commuters in Santo Domingo and other major cities. The system is not very reliable and lacks oversight and regulation which leads to congestion and other issues. They may also be somewhat uncomfortable, since drivers try to fit as many people as possible inside the vehicles. Carros Públicos are often standard sedans, but can be packed with as many as six passengers. == Railways == Rail operations are provided by one state-owned operator and several private operators (mainly for sugar mills). There are no rail connections with neighboring Haiti. Central Romana Railroad was established in 1911 in the sugarcane fields. The total length of the line is , being the standard gauge. The Dominican Republic Government Railway (United Dominican Railways or Ferrocarriles Unidos Dominicanos) was a narrow gauge railway. There are operated by other sugarcane companies in various gauges: , , gauges (1995). == Ports and harbors == Major ports and harbours in the Dominican Republic: ===Ports=== The Port of Santo Domingo, with its location in the Caribbean, is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road, and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls. Haina Occidental Port, located just 20 km west of Santo Domingo, is one of the most important ports in the Dominican Republic. About 70% of all cargo, excluding Caucedo and free zone exports/imports, is moved through this port. DP World's terminal Multimodal Caucedo Port maritime terminal and logistic center operates under the Free Zone Regime. Actually 85% of Free Zone exports to the United States is shipped from Caucedo terminal. Multimodal Caucedo port is also able to act as a trans-shipment hub to the Caribbean and Latin America for Asia specifically Japan as a door to the American market. Port of Puerto Plata is the main commercial port on the north coast of the Dominican Republic. Port of Boca Chica is located about 20 miles east of the capital city and five miles from the International airport Las Americas. Currently the port is almost exclusively used for containers and some lumber, newsprint and homogeneous cargoes. Port of San Pedro de Macoris is located on the Higuamo river. This port is mainly used to discharge bulk fertilizer. Cement clinker, coal, wheat, diesel and LPG. It is also used to export sugar and molasses produced by several sugar cane mills in the region. Central Romana Port, located in La Romana, belong to Central Romana Corporation which is a private company established in 1912 and has the largest sugar mill in the country. The following six local ports are a single pier with berth facility: Cayo Levantado Port or (Arroyo Barruk/Puerto Duarte) is located in the Samaná Bay. Manzanillo Port is located very close to the Haitian border. Port of Cabo Rojo is located in Cabo Rojo, southeast to the border. Port of Barahona is located in Barahona, in the bay of Neyba. Port of Azua in Azua, also called Puerto Viejo is located at Ocoa Bay. Palenque Port is located southwest of Santo Domingo. A local ferry service runs daily between the Samaná and Sabana del Mar ports. ===Merchant marine=== Total: 1 ship (1,000 GT or over) totaling 1,587 GT/ Ships by type: cargo 1 (1999 est.) ===Entering the ports=== Boaters and sailors who wish to dock in any of the Dominican Republic's ports must follow certain entry requirements: Upon approaching the port, ships must display a quarantine flag, which has the letter 'Q' on it, and wait for admittance into the port. The passengers of the vessel must pay a fee, get a tourist card, and show proper identification including a valid passport. Military officials must sometimes grant the passengers clearance to come ashore. For entering or leaving the Dominican Republic, the Dominican e-Ticket is required. It is an electronic system designed to streamline immigration procedures and enhance border security. == Airports == In 2009, there were seven major and 31 minor airports in the Dominican Republic. The major ones were: Las Américas International Airport, Santo Domingo City, Santo Domingo Punta Cana International Airport, Punta Cana / Higüey Cibao International Airport, Santiago City, Santiago Gregorio Luperón International Airport, Puerto Plata La Romana International Airport, La Romana City, La Romana Samana El Catey International Airport, Sanchez, Samana María Montez International Airport, Barahona City, Barahona ===Airports - with paved runways=== Total: 10 (1999 est.) Over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 913 m: 2 ===Airports - with unpaved runways=== Total: 15 (1999 est.) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 9 ===National airlines=== Dominicana de Aviación was the national airline of the Dominican Republic for more than 50 years. This title was passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying. After operations at Dominicana de Aviación ceased, PAWA Dominicana became the flag carrier of the country in 2015. However, the airline ceased operation in January 2018. ==== Flights ==== There are direct flights to and from the Dominican Republic from the United States, Cuba, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the Caribbean.	[ "Dominican Republic", "entry requirements", "Manzanillo Port", "Port of Azua", "La Romana, Dominican Republic", "Barahona (city)", "Port of Puerto Plata", "DR-4", "Central Romana Port", "Cibao International Airport", "Cabo Rojo, Dominican Republic", "Central Romana Corporation", "Samaná Bay", "Port of Barahona", "Dominicana de Aviación", "Samana El Catey International Airport", "Azua de Compostela", "Salvaleón de Higüey", "Haina Occidental Port", "Port of Boca Chica", "DR-3", "Leonel Fernández", "Santiago de los Caballeros", "Rail transport in Haiti", "La Romana International Airport", "Puerto Plata Airport", "passport", "Las Américas International Airport", "Port of Cabo Rojo", "Palenque, Dominican Republic", "DR-5", "Port of Santo Domingo", "Gregorio Luperón International Airport", "DR-2", "quarantine", "Santo Domingo", "Port of San Pedro de Macoris", "Multimodal Caucedo Port", "Santiago Light Rail", "DR-1", "WP:SDNONE", "María Montez International Airport", "Cayo Levantado Port", "Punta Cana", "San Felipe de Puerto Plata", "PAWA Dominicana", "flag carrier", "Share taxi", "Santo Domingo Metro", "Punta Cana International Airport" ]
8,070	Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic	The Dominican Armed Forces, also referred as Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic (), are the military forces of the Dominican Republic. These are made up of three branches: the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. The president of the Republic is the commander in chief of the Dominican Armed Forces and the Ministry of Defense (Spanish: Ministerio de Defensa de la República Dominicana) is the chief managing body of the armed forces. As a Ministry, its origin comes from the Dominican Constitution of 1844, as the Secretary of State for War and Navy. Its ministerial headquarters is located in Santo Domingo, in the Plaza de la Bandera. The primary missions of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country. The Armed Forces of Dominican Republic are the strongest army in the Caribbean after Cuba. The Army, consists of six infantry brigades, an air cavalry squadron and a combat service support brigade. The Air Force operates two main bases, one in southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region of the country, the air force operates approximately 75 aircraft including helicopters. The Navy maintains three ageing vessels which were donated from the United States, around 25 patrol crafts and interceptor boats and two helicopters. There is a counter-terrorist group formed by members of the three branches. This group is highly trained in counter-terrorism missions. The armed forces participate fully in counter-illegal drug trade efforts, for this task, there is a taskforce known as DEPROSER 24/7 (DEfender, PROteger y SERvir). They also are active in efforts to control contraband and illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic and from the Dominican Republic to the United States (via illegal transportation of immigrants to Puerto Rico). ==History== === War of Independence === Haiti under their president Jean-Pierre Boyer had invaded and occupied Dominican Republic from 1822 to 1844. The military forces of the First Republic's army comprised about 4,000 soldiers organized into seven line infantry regiments, several loose battalions, 6 escudrones cavalry and 3 artillery brigades with 2/2 brigades; This army was supplemented with national civic guard militia composed of the provinces, the National Naval Armada, original name of the Navy today; It composed of 10 ships, seven owned and 3 taken in requición and armed by the government: the Cibao frigate with 20 cannons; the brigantine schooner San Jose, five guns; the schooner La Libertad, five guns; General schooner Santana 7 guns; the schooner La Merced, five guns; Separation schooner, 3 guns; the schooner February 27, five guns. The requisition taken: the schooner Maria Luisa, 3 guns; the schooner March 30, 3 guns; and the schooner Hope, 3 guns. 674 operated by a man. In addition to the aforementioned military corps expeditionary southern army recruited by Pedro and Ramon Santana in Hato Mayor and El Seibo, with a permit issued by the Central Governing Board with the rank of commander in chief of the army existed. These men were skilled in handling machete and spear. His deputy commander was Brigadier General Antonio Duvergé. The other expeditionary army was the Northern Borders created to defend these borders: its commander was Major General Francisco A. Salcedo. The Dominican forces would reach levels of organization and efficiency of considerable notoriety. As an example of this, it would suffice to highlight the fact of the achievement and preservation of National Independence, with the Dominican victory over repeated Haitian military invasions in the 12-year period that followed the proclamation of Independence; In addition, 55 percent of the National Budget was allocated to it. ===20th century=== The events that led to the United States military intervention of 1916, brought about the disappearance of any vestige of military structure in the Dominican Republic, setting the intervening forces a military government headed by Captain William Knapp, who make an interim police force called "Constabulary "equivalent to an" armed police force as a military unit "and he had the task of maintaining internal order and enforce the implementing provisions of the US government. This body, purely police function disappears in 1917, leading to the creation of a National Guard. As a result of this historic event of our recent past, the country inherited a hierarchical and organizational akin to the US Marine Corps structure, which served as a platform to the transformations that later gave rise to the armed forces we know today, made up of three components, terrestrial one, one naval and one air. This land component, now called the National Army, inherited by both its organizational structure of the National Guard organized by the US occupation forces, which operated from April 7, 1917, until June 1921, when it becomes Dominican National Police by Executive Order No. 631 of Rear Admiral Thomas Snowden, who was at that time the military governor of Santo Domingo. After the US military occupation in 1924, Horacio Vásquez wins the presidential elections of that same year. Among his first decisions, decrees the change of the Dominican National Police in National Brigade, a situation that continues until 17 May 1928, when new turn changes the name of the Army by Law No. 928, but basically inheriting a structure Police, who obeyed schemes imposition of public order demanded by the country at that time and not those of an army in their typical roles. Due to its characteristics and missions, organizational structure that demanded presence throughout the country, which was realized with the creation of posts and detachments in different parts of the country and the establishment in some provinces of company size units, many of which still Army retains today. Over the years and already existing National Police created by decree No. 1523 of March 2, 1936, of President Trujillo, many of these units, posts and detachments became part of it, perfectly adapted to its structure, since These were essentially created to play a policing role. So great was the influence that had the National Guard in Dominican society and very particularly in the rural population, which even today are many Dominicans who often referred to the Armed Forces and unique way to the Army as " The Guard ". Meanwhile, the Navy has remained since its inception attached to the principles that gave rise, assuming only two name changes since its inception, but gradually evolving the transformation of what was a body created for military purposes, capable of landing and ships with weapons to face possible naval invasions, to be a component mainly responsible for enforcing the provisions on navigation, trade and fishing, as well as international treaties The Air Force, meanwhile, emerges as an independent component in 1948, under the chairmanship of Generalissimo Rafael L. Trujillo Molina, with characteristics of innovation and modernism, which gave mobility, versatility and depth to the Armed Forces and the complement in the following years would become: a military capacity to project military power in the Caribbean environment. The situation of this air component has changed significantly after reaching its climax in the 50s, when it was one of the best air force equipped in the region, which was due to the strategic guidelines of a long-lived military dictatorship It made efforts to stay in power and he saw in this component one of its mainstays against any invasion or subversion against the dictatorship. == Components == ===Army of the Dominican Republic=== The Dominican Army was founded in 1844. Its basic strength is concentrated in light infantry, which in general can be said to be well equipped with basic combat rifles and combat equipment for soldiers. The vehicles, both transport and armored, and the artillery and anti-tank pieces that it has in service, are partly in poor condition, obsolete or simply civilian vehicles adapted for military use. Nowadays, tanks and modern armor systems have been included. ===Navy of the Dominican Republic=== The Dominican Navy was founded in 1844 also with the National Independence with 15,000 troops after Haiti had occupied the eastern part of the island for twenty five years. It keeps around 34 ships in operation, mostly coast guards, patrol boats and small speedboats. It also operates dredges, tugboats and patrol boats of height. The Navy has a small air body composed helicopter utilities Bell OH-58 Kiowa. The Dominican Navy operates two main bases, one in the port of Santo Domingo in the Dominican capital called "Naval Base 27 de Febrero" and another in Bahía de las Calderas, in the province of Peravia, called "Las Calderas Naval Base" in the southern part from the country. It also has presence in the commercial ports of the country, comandancias of ports and is divided into three naval areas that in turn have posts and naval detachments. ===Air Force of the Dominican Republic=== The Dominican Air Force was founded in 1948 with 20,000 people. It has two main bases: the base area of San Isidro in the South-Central zone of the country near the capital city Santo Domingo; and the other operates jointly in the civil facilities belonging to the Gregorio Luperón International Airport, near the city of Puerto Plata in the North of the Republic. Until August 2009, the possibility of starting military operations from the María Montez airport, in the city of Barahona in the Southwest of the country and from the Punta Cana airport in the extreme east is under study. It keeps the following fixed-wing aircraft in operation: 8 Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano, 3 CASA C-212 Aviocar transport; 6 T35B Pilot training; as well as around 25 helicopters such as Bell 206, Bell UH-1 Iroquois, Bell OH-58 Kiowa, Eurocopter Dauphin, OH-6 Cayuse and Sikorsky S-300. ==Specialized Security Corps== The Specialized Security Corps are military security agencies dependent on the Ministry of Defense and they are made up of military and civilian personnel specialized in their different areas of function. Overall their duty is to support state institutions, defend national interests in peace and war, and as force multipliers of the Armed Forces as well as the National Police. Antiterrorism Command of the Dominican Armed Forces National Department of Investigations (DNI) Airport Security and Civil Aviation Special Forces (CESAC) Specialized Corps of Metro and Cable Car Railway Security (CESMET) Specialized Corps of Tourist Security (CESTUR) Specialized Corps of Fuel Control (CECCOM) Task Force Ciudad Tranquila (FT-CIUTRAN) Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) Presidential Security Corps (CUSEP) Specialized Border Security Corps (CESFRONT) National Special Corps of Environmental and Parks Protection (SENPA) Military and Police Commission of the Ministry of Public Works and Communications (COMIPOL-MOPC) == Military training and formation == The Higher Institute for Defense "General General Juan Pablo Duarte y Diez" (INSUDE) is the agency dependent on the Ministry of Defense of the Dominican Republic and rector of the graduate schools, academies, technical schools, specialized schools for military training and training that constitute the Education System of the Armed Forces, as stipulated in article 205 of Law 139-13 of the Armed Forces. INSUDE was created as the Specialized Institute for Higher Studies of the Armed Forces (IEESFA) by Decree 1110-03 of December 2, 2003 and designated with its current name by decree 38-09 of January 17, 2009. Military training for officers of the Armed Forces is carried out by institutions specialized in each component. The Batalla de las Carreras Military Academy aims to train future officers of the National Army. The academy grants a bachelor's degree in Military Sciences lasting 4 years and 3 months. The Naval Academy, whose purpose is to train officers of the Navy, grants a bachelor's degree in Naval Sciences with a duration of 4 years. The Aerial, whose function is to train Air Force officers, offers a bachelor's degree in Aeronautical Sciences in three independent modalities: Aviator Mention, Infantry Mention and Aeronautical Maintenance Mention, all three with a duration of 4 years. === Table of ranks ===	[ "Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin", "Brigadier general", "Dominican Army", "Military branch", "headquarters", "Dominican Air Force", "El Seibo", "Flag Square of Santo Domingo", "Bell 206", "Military", "Cibao", "Colonel", "Vice admiral", "Gregorio Luperón International Airport", "Frigate lieutenant", "Generalissimo", "Dominican Republic National Police", "Puerto Rico", "illegal drug trade", "United States Armed Forces", "Major general", "María Montez International Airport", "Schweizer S300", "San Isidro, Dominican Republic", "Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano", "Bell OH-58 Kiowa", "military helicopter", "Admiral", "General officer", "Second lieutenant", "Sailor", "Dominican Navy", "Patrol Craft", "Caribbean", "Pedro Santana", "Troop", "artillery", "Counterterrorism", "Military ranks of the Dominican Republic", "United States", "First sergeant", "Hispaniola", "Santo Domingo", "Dominican War of Independence", "Commander", "Private first class", "Sergeant", "Dominican Restoration War", "United States Marine Corps", "Routledge", "commander in chief", "Private (rank)", "Antonio Duvergé", "Armed Forces", "Presidential Security Corps (Dominican Republic)", "Midshipman", "Punta Cana International Airport", "History of the Dominican Republic", "cavalry", "Lieutenant colonel", "Cadet", "Rafael Trujillo", "List of wars involving the Dominican Republic", "Spanish language", "Illegal drug trade", "Sergeant major", "First lieutenant", "CASA C-212 Aviocar", "illegal immigration", "Ministry of defence", "Constitution of the Dominican Republic", "Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic", "President of the Dominican Republic", "London", "Lieutenant general", "Barahona, Dominican Republic", "World War II", "Jean-Pierre Boyer", "Peravia Province", "Aeronautics", "battalion", "Dominican Republic", "Senior officer", "Luis Abinader", "Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces", "contraband", "Haiti", "Lieutenant (navy)", "Hughes OH-6 Cayuse", "Battle rifle", "Non-commissioned officer", "Bell UH-1 Iroquois", "Dominican National Police", "infantry", "Iraqi Freedom", "Horacio Vásquez", "schooner", "Rear admiral", "Junior officer", "president (government title)", "Anti-tank warfare", "Major (rank)", "Minister of Defence (Dominican Republic)", "Captain", "Officer cadet", "Hato Mayor Province", "Dominican Civil War", "light infantry", "Corvette lieutenant", "Lieutenant commander" ]
8,071	Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic	The foreign relations of the Dominican Republic are the Dominican Republic's relations with other governments. The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States and with the other states of the Inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most Western Hemisphere countries and in principal European capitals. ==History== The island nation of the Dominican Republic maintains very limited relations with most of the countries of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. It concentrated its diplomatic activities in four critical arenas: the circum-Caribbean, countries in the Americas, the United States, and Western Europe (mainly West Germany, Spain, and France). \|- \|1 \| \| \|- \|2 \| \| \|- \|4 \| \| \|- \|5 \| \| \|- \|6 \| \| \|- \|7 \| \| \|- \|8 \| \| \|- \|9 \| \| \|- \|10 \| \| \|- \|– \| \| \|- \|11 \| \| \|- \|12 \| \| \|- \|13 \| \| \|- \|15 \| \| \|- \|16 \| \| \|- \|18 \| \| \|- \|19 \| \| \|- \|20 \| \| \|- \|21 \| \| \|- \|22 \| \| \|- \|23 \| \| \|- \|24 \| \| \|- \|25 \| \| \|- \|26 \| \| \|- \|27 \| \| \|- \|28 \| \| \|- \|29 \| \| \|- \|30 \| \| \|- \|31 \| \| \|- \|32 \| \| \|- \|33 \| \| \|- \|34 \| \| \|- \|35 \| \| \|- \|36 \| \| \|- \|37 \| \| \|- \|38 \| \| \|- \|39 \| \| \|- \|40 \| \| \|- \|41 \| \| \|- \|42 \| \| \|- \|43 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|44 \| \| \|- \|45 \| \| \|- \|46 \| \| \|- \|47 \| \| \|- \|48 \| \| \|- \|49 \| \| \|- \|50 \| \| \|- \|51 \| \| \|- \|52 \| \| \|- \|53 \| \| \|- \|54 \| \| \|- \|55 \| \| \|- \|56 \| \| \|- \|57 \| \| \|- \|58 \| \| \|- \|59 \| \| \|- \|60 \| \| \|- \|61 \| \| \|- \|62 \| \| \|- \|63 \| \| \|- \|64 \| \| \|- \|65 \| \| \|- \|66 \| \| \|- \|67 \| \| \|- \|68 \| \| \|- \|69 \| \| \|- \|70 \| \| \|- \|71 \| \| \|- \|72 \| \| \|- \|73 \| \| \|- \|74 \| \| \|- \|75 \| \| \|- \|76 \| \| \|- \|77 \| \| \|- \|78 \| \| \|- \|79 \| \| \|- \|80 \| \| \|- \|81 \| \| \|- \|82 \| \| \|- \|83 \| \| \|- \|84 \| \| \|- \|85 \| \| \|- \|86 \| \| \|- \|87 \| \| \|- \|88 \| \| \|- \|89 \| \| \|- \|90 \| \| \|- \|91 \| \| \|- \|92 \| \| \|- \|93 \| \| \|- \|94 \| \| \|- \|95 \| \| \|- \|96 \| \| \|- \|97 \| \| \|- \|98 \| \| \|- \|99 \| \| \|- \|100 \| \| \|- \|101 \| \| \|- \|102 \| \| \|- \|103 \| \| \|- \|104 \| \| \|- \|105 \| \| \|- \|106 \| \| \|- \|107 \| \| \|- \|108 \| \| \|- \|109 \| \| \|- \|110 \| \| \|- \|111 \| \| \|- \|112 \| \| \|- \|113 \| \| \|- \|114 \| \| \|- \|115 \| \| \|- \|116 \| \| \|- \|117 \| \| \|- \|118 \| \| \|- \|119 \| \| \|- \|120 \| \| \|- \|121 \| \| \|- \|122 \| \| \|- \|123 \| \| \|- \|124 \| \| \|- \|125 \| \| \|- \|126 \| \| \|- \|127 \| \| \|- \|128 \| \| \|- \|129 \| \| \|- \|– \| \| \|- \|130 \| \| \|- \|131 \| \| \|- \|132 \| \| \|- \|133 \| \| \|- \|134 \| \| \|- \|135 \| \| \|- \|136 \| \| \|- \|137 \| \| \|- \|138 \| \| \|- \|139 \| \| \|- \|140 \| \| \|- \|141 \| \| \|- \|142 \| \| \|- \|143 \| \| \|- \|144 \| \| \|- \|145 \| \| \|- \|146 \| \| \|- \|147 \| \| \|- \|148 \| \| \|- \|149 \| \| \|- \|150 \| \| \|- \|151 \| \| \|- \|152 \| \| \|- \|153 \| \| \|- \|154 \| \| \|- \|155 \| \| \|- \|159 \| \| \|- \|160 \| \| \|- \|161 \| \| \|- \|162 \| \| \|- \|163 \| \| \|- \|164 \| \| \|- \|165 \| \| \|- \|166 \| \| \|- \|167 \| \| \|- \|168 \| \| \|- \|169 \| \| \|- \|170 \| \| \|- \|171 \| \| \|- \|172 \| \| \|- \|173 \| \| \|- \|174 \| \| \|- \|175 \| \| \|- \|176 \| \| \|- \|177 \| \| \|- \|178 \| \| \|- \|179 \| \| \|- \|180 \| \| \|- \|181 \| \| \|- \|182 \| \| \|- \|183 \| \| \|} ==Bilateral relations== ===Africa=== ===Americas=== ===Asia=== ===Europe=== ===Multilateral relations=== The Dominican Republic is a founding member of the United Nations and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, International Labour Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, and International Civil Aviation Organization. It also is a member of the OAS, World Trade Organization, World Health Organization, World Customs Organization the Inter-American Development Bank, Central American Integration System, and ACP Group.	[ "Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico", "Rabat", "Military of the Dominican Republic", "New Orleans", "Montreal", "Dominican Republic–Germany relations", "Dominican Republic–Spain relations", "Florida", "Bern", "Madrid", "Dominican Air Force", "International Civil Aviation Organization", "Dominican Republic–Mexico relations", "China–Dominican Republic relations", "Hanoi", "Toronto", "Moscow", "San Juan, Puerto Rico", "Montevideo", "Western Hemisphere", "Port-of-Spain", "Dominican Republic–India relations", "Commonwealth (United States insular area)", "Dominican Republic–Italy relations", "Kingston, Jamaica", "New York City", "Italian diaspora", "São Paulo", "World Trade Organization", "Ouanaminthe", "Santa Cruz de Tenerife", "Beijing", "Los Angeles", "Havana", "Mona Passage", "Tegucigalpa", "Rio de Janeiro", "Dominican Republic–United States relations", "Central American Integration System", "Cairo", "Tel Aviv", "Organization of American States", "The Hague", "Caracas", "CAFTA-DR", "Fulgencio Batista", "Brasília", "Valencia", "Dominican Republic–Turkey relations", "Amsterdam", "Seville", "International Labour Organization", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "Inter-American Development Bank", "Santo Domingo", "Embassy of the Dominican Republic, London", "Dominican Republic–Haiti relations", "Belladère", "Zürich", "Chile-Dominican Republic relations", "Miami", "Boston", "Milan", "Cuba-Dominican Republic relations", "Pointe-à-Pitre", "Italian Dominicans", "Embassy of the Dominican Republic in Washington, D.C.", "World Health Organization", "Brussels", "World Bank", "Canada-Dominican Republic relations", "List of diplomatic missions of the Dominican Republic", "Higüey", "Chicago", "Ottawa", "Berlin", "Santiago", "Barahona, Dominican Republic", "United Nations", "Seoul", "Facebook", "Dominican Republic", "Buenos Aires", "Territories of the United States", "West Germany", "U.S. Virgin Islands", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Romania)", "United States Coast Guard", "List of diplomatic missions in the Dominican Republic", "Dominican Republic-Trinidad and Tobago relations", "Willemstad", "Santiago de los Caballeros", "Philipsburg, Sint Maarten", "Dominican Republic-Switzerland relations", "Genoa", "Dominican Republic–Uruguay relations", "Mayagüez, Puerto Rico", "Dominican Republic–Taiwan relations", "Barcelona", "Petrocaribe", "Antwerp", "Paris", "WP:SDNONE", "Anse-à-Pitres", "Dajabón", "Marseille", "Port-au-Prince", "Mexico City", "Rome", "New Delhi", "Pretoria" ]
8,072	Disease	A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and symptoms. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions. For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person affected, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases (including both genetic and non-genetic hereditary diseases), and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable versus non-communicable diseases. The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease (blood flow obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections. In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most sickness overall are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety. The study of disease is called pathology, which includes the study of etiology, or cause. == Terminology == === Concepts === In many cases, terms such as disease, disorder, morbidity, sickness and illness are used interchangeably; however, there are situations when specific terms are considered preferable. Disease The term disease broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the body. For this reason, diseases are associated with the dysfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Commonly, the term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and aberrant proteins known as prions. An infection or colonization that does not and will not produce clinically evident impairment of normal functioning, such as the presence of the normal bacteria and yeasts in the gut, or of a passenger virus, is not considered a disease. By contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is usually considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, and genetic disease. Acquired disease An acquired disease is one that began at some point during one's lifetime, as opposed to disease that was already present at birth, which is congenital disease. Acquired sounds like it could mean "caught via contagion", but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It also sounds like it could imply secondary disease, but acquired disease can be primary disease. Acute disease An acute disease is one of a short-term nature (acute); the term sometimes also connotes a fulminant nature Chronic condition or chronic disease A chronic disease is one that persists over time, often for at least six months, but may also include illnesses that are expected to last for the entirety of one's natural life. Congenital disorder or congenital disease A congenital disorder is one that is present at birth. It is often a genetic disease or disorder and can be inherited. It can also be the result of a vertically transmitted infection from the mother, such as HIV/AIDS. Genetic disease A genetic disorder or disease is caused by one or more genetic mutations. It is often inherited, but some mutations are random and de novo. Hereditary or inherited disease A hereditary disease is a type of genetic disease caused by genetic mutations that are hereditary (and can run in families) Iatrogenic disease An iatrogenic disease or condition is one that is caused by medical intervention, whether as a side effect of a treatment or as an inadvertent outcome. Idiopathic disease An idiopathic disease has an unknown cause or source. As medical science has advanced, many diseases with entirely unknown causes have had some aspects of their sources explained and therefore shed their idiopathic status. For example, when germs were discovered, it became known that they were a cause of infection, but particular germs and diseases had not been linked. In another example, it is known that autoimmunity is the cause of some forms of diabetes mellitus type 1, even though the particular molecular pathways by which it works are not yet understood. It is also common to know certain factors are associated with certain diseases; however, association does not necessarily imply causality. For example, a third factor might be causing both the disease, and the associated phenomenon. Incurable disease A disease that cannot be cured. Incurable diseases are not necessarily terminal diseases, and sometimes a disease's symptoms can be treated sufficiently for the disease to have little or no impact on quality of life. Primary disease A primary disease is a disease that is due to a root cause of illness, as opposed to secondary disease, which is a sequela, or complication that is caused by the primary disease. For example, a common cold is a primary disease, where rhinitis is a possible secondary disease, or sequela. A doctor must determine what primary disease, a cold or bacterial infection, is causing a patient's secondary rhinitis when deciding whether or not to prescribe antibiotics. Secondary disease A secondary disease is a disease that is a sequela or complication of a prior, causal disease, which is referred to as the primary disease or simply the underlying cause (root cause). For example, a bacterial infection can be primary, wherein a healthy person is exposed to bacteria and becomes infected, or it can be secondary to a primary cause, that predisposes the body to infection. For example, a primary viral infection that weakens the immune system could lead to a secondary bacterial infection. Similarly, a primary burn that creates an open wound could provide an entry point for bacteria, and lead to a secondary bacterial infection. Terminal disease A terminal disease is one that is expected to have the inevitable result of death. Previously, AIDS was a terminal disease; it is now incurable, but can be managed indefinitely using medications. Illness The terms illness and sickness are both generally used as synonyms for disease; however, the term illness is occasionally used to refer specifically to the patient's personal experience of their disease. In this model, it is possible for a person to have a disease without being ill (to have an objectively definable, but asymptomatic, medical condition, such as a subclinical infection, or to have a clinically apparent physical impairment but not feel sick or distressed by it), and to be ill without being diseased (such as when a person perceives a normal experience as a medical condition, or medicalizes a non-disease situation in their life – for example, a person who feels unwell as a result of embarrassment, and who interprets those feelings as sickness rather than normal emotions). Symptoms of illness are often not directly the result of infection, but a collection of evolved responses – sickness behavior by the body – that helps clear infection and promote recovery. Such aspects of illness can include lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and inability to concentrate. A disorder is a functional abnormality or disturbance that may or may not show specific signs and symptoms. Medical disorders can be categorized into mental disorders, physical disorders, genetic disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, and functional disorders. The term disorder is often considered more value-neutral and less stigmatizing than the terms disease or illness, and therefore is preferred terminology in some circumstances. In mental health, the term mental disorder is used as a way of acknowledging the complex interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors in psychiatric conditions; however, the term disorder is also used in many other areas of medicine, primarily to identify physical disorders that are not caused by infectious organisms, such as metabolic disorders. Medical condition or health condition A medical condition or health condition is a broad concept that includes all diseases, lesions, disorders, or nonpathologic condition that normally receives medical treatment, such as pregnancy or childbirth. While the term medical condition generally includes mental illnesses, in some contexts the term is used specifically to denote any illness, injury, or disease except for mental illnesses. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the widely used psychiatric manual that defines all mental disorders, uses the term general medical condition to refer to all diseases, illnesses, and injuries except for mental disorders. This usage is also commonly seen in the psychiatric literature. Some health insurance policies also define a medical condition as any illness, injury, or disease except for psychiatric illnesses. As it is more value-neutral than terms like disease, the term medical condition is sometimes preferred by people with health issues that they do not consider deleterious. However, by emphasizing the medical nature of the condition, this term is sometimes rejected, such as by proponents of the autism rights movement. The term medical condition is also a synonym for medical state, in which case it describes an individual patient's current state from a medical standpoint. This usage appears in statements that describe a patient as being in critical condition, for example. Morbidity () is a diseased state, disability, or poor health due to any cause. The term may refer to the existence of any form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient. Among severely ill patients, the level of morbidity is often measured by ICU scoring systems. Comorbidity, or co-existing disease, is the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions, such as schizophrenia and substance abuse. In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term morbidity (also morbidity rate or morbidity frequency) can refer to either the incidence rate, the prevalence of a disease or medical condition, or the percentage of people who experience a given condition within a given timeframe (e.g., 20% of people will get influenza in a year). This measure of sickness is contrasted with the mortality rate of a condition, which is the proportion of people dying during a given time interval. Morbidity rates are used in actuarial professions, such as health insurance, life insurance, and long-term care insurance, to determine the premiums charged to customers. Morbidity rates help insurers predict the likelihood that an insured will contract or develop any number of specified diseases. Pathosis or pathology Pathosis (plural pathoses) is synonymous with disease. The word pathology also has this sense, in which it is commonly used by physicians in the medical literature, although some editors prefer to reserve pathology to its other senses. Sometimes a slight connotative shade causes preference for pathology or pathosis implying "some [as yet poorly analyzed] pathophysiologic process" rather than disease implying "a specific disease entity as defined by diagnostic criteria being already met". This is hard to quantify denotatively, but it explains why cognitive synonymy is not invariable. Syndrome A syndrome is the association of several signs and symptoms, or other characteristics that often occur together, regardless of whether the cause is known. Some syndromes such as Down syndrome are known to have only one cause (an extra chromosome at birth). Others such as Parkinsonian syndrome are known to have multiple possible causes. Acute coronary syndrome, for example, is not a single disease itself but is rather the manifestation of any of several diseases including myocardial infarction secondary to coronary artery disease. In yet other syndromes, however, the cause is unknown. A familiar syndrome name often remains in use even after an underlying cause has been found or when there are a number of different possible primary causes. Examples of the first-mentioned type are that Turner syndrome and DiGeorge syndrome are still often called by the "syndrome" name despite that they can also be viewed as disease entities and not solely as sets of signs and symptoms. Predisease Predisease is a subclinical or prodromal vanguard of a disease. Prediabetes and prehypertension are common examples. The nosology or epistemology of predisease is contentious, though, because there is seldom a bright line differentiating a legitimate concern for subclinical or premonitory status and the conflict of interest–driven over-medicalization (e.g., by pharmaceutical manufacturers) or de-medicalization (e.g., by medical and disability insurers). Identifying legitimate predisease can result in useful preventive measures, such as motivating the person to get a healthy amount of physical exercise, but labeling a healthy person with an unfounded notion of predisease can result in overtreatment, such as taking drugs that only help people with severe disease or paying for treatments with a poor benefit–cost ratio. One review proposed three criteria for predisease: a high risk for progression to disease making one "far more likely to develop" it than others are- for example, a pre-cancer will almost certainly turn into cancer over time actionability for risk reduction – for example, removal of the precancerous tissue prevents it from turning into a potentially deadly cancer benefit that outweighs the harm of any interventions taken – removing the precancerous tissue prevents cancer, and thus prevents a potential death from cancer. === Types by body system === Mental Mental illness is a broad, generic label for a category of illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction or impairment. Specific illnesses known as mental illnesses include major depression, generalized anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, to name a few. Mental illness can be of biological (e.g., anatomical, chemical, or genetic) or psychological (e.g., trauma or conflict) origin. It can impair the affected person's ability to work or study and can harm interpersonal relationship. Organic An organic disease is one caused by a physical or physiological change to some tissue or organ of the body. The term sometimes excludes infections. It is commonly used in contrast with mental disorders. It includes emotional and behavioral disorders if they are due to changes to the physical structures or functioning of the body, such as after a stroke or a traumatic brain injury, but not if they are due to psychosocial issues. === Stages === In an infectious disease, the incubation period is the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms. The latency period is the time between infection and the ability of the disease to spread to another person, which may precede, follow, or be simultaneous with the appearance of symptoms. Some viruses also exhibit a dormant phase, called viral latency, in which the virus hides in the body in an inactive state. For example, varicella zoster virus causes chickenpox in the acute phase; after recovery from chickenpox, the virus may remain dormant in nerve cells for many years, and later cause herpes zoster (shingles). Acute disease An acute disease is a short-lived disease, like the common cold. Chronic disease A chronic disease is one that lasts for a long time, usually at least six months. During that time, it may be constantly present, or it may go into remission and periodically relapse. A chronic disease may be stable (does not get any worse) or it may be progressive (gets worse over time). Some chronic diseases can be permanently cured. Most chronic diseases can be beneficially treated, even if they cannot be permanently cured. Clinical disease One that has clinical consequences; in other words, the stage of the disease that produces the characteristic signs and symptoms of that disease. AIDS is the clinical disease stage of HIV infection. Cure A cure is the end of a medical condition or a treatment that is very likely to end it, while remission refers to the disappearance, possibly temporarily, of symptoms. Complete remission is the best possible outcome for incurable diseases. Flare-up A flare-up can refer to either the recurrence of symptoms or an onset of more severe symptoms. Progressive disease Progressive disease is a disease whose typical natural course is the worsening of the disease until death, serious debility, or organ failure occurs. Slowly progressive diseases are also chronic diseases; many are also degenerative diseases. The opposite of progressive disease is stable disease or static disease: a medical condition that exists, but does not get better or worse. A refractory disease is a disease that resists treatment, especially an individual case that resists treatment more than is normal for the specific disease in question. Subclinical disease Also called silent disease, silent stage, or asymptomatic disease. This is a stage in some diseases before the symptoms are first noted. Terminal phase If a person will die soon from a disease, regardless of whether that disease typically causes death, then the stage between the earlier disease process and active dying is the terminal phase. Recovery Recovery can refer to the repairing of physical processes (tissues, organs etc.) and the resumption of healthy functioning after damage causing processes have been cured. === Extent === Localized disease A localized disease is one that affects only one part of the body, such as athlete's foot or an eye infection. Disseminated disease A disseminated disease has spread to other parts; with cancer, this is usually called metastatic disease. Systemic disease A systemic disease is a disease that affects the entire body, such as influenza or high blood pressure. == Classification == Diseases may be classified by cause, pathogenesis (mechanism by which the disease is caused), or by symptoms. Alternatively, diseases may be classified according to the organ system involved, though this is often complicated since many diseases affect more than one organ. A chief difficulty in nosology is that diseases often cannot be defined and classified clearly, especially when cause or pathogenesis are unknown. Thus diagnostic terms often only reflect a symptom or set of symptoms (syndrome). Classical classification of human disease derives from the observational correlation between pathological analysis and clinical syndromes. Today it is preferred to classify them by their cause if it is known. The most known and used classification of diseases is the World Health Organization's ICD. This is periodically updated. Currently, the last publication is the ICD-11. == Causes == Diseases can be caused by any number of factors and may be acquired or congenital. Microorganisms, genetics, the environment or a combination of these can contribute to a diseased state. Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The microorganisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes. Some diseases, such as most (but not all) forms of cancer, heart disease, and mental disorders, are non-infectious diseases. Many non-infectious diseases have a partly or completely genetic basis (see genetic disorder) and may thus be transmitted from one generation to another. Social determinants of health are the social conditions in which people live that determine their health. Illnesses are generally related to social, economic, political, and environmental circumstances. Social determinants of health have been recognized by several health organizations such as the Public Health Agency of Canada and the World Health Organization to greatly influence collective and personal well-being. The World Health Organization's Social Determinants Council also recognizes Social determinants of health in poverty. When the cause of a disease is poorly understood, societies tend to mythologize the disease or use it as a metaphor or symbol of whatever that culture considers evil. For example, until the bacterial cause of tuberculosis was discovered in 1882, experts variously ascribed the disease to heredity, a sedentary lifestyle, depressed mood, and overindulgence in sex, rich food, or alcohol, all of which were social ills at the time. When a disease is caused by a pathogenic organism (e.g., when malaria is caused by Plasmodium), one should not confuse the pathogen (the cause of the disease) with disease itself. For example, West Nile virus (the pathogen) causes West Nile fever (the disease). The misuse of basic definitions in epidemiology is frequent in scientific publications. === Types of causes === Airborne: An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens and transmitted through the air. Foodborne: Foodborne illness or food poisoning is any illness resulting from the consumption of food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites. Infectious: Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible diseases or communicable diseases, comprise clinically evident illness (i.e., characteristic medical signs or symptoms of disease) resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism. Included in this category are contagious diseases – an infection, such as influenza or the common cold, that commonly spreads from one person to another – and communicable diseases – a disease that can spread from one person to another, but does not necessarily spread through everyday contact. Lifestyle: A lifestyle disease is any disease that appears to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer, especially if the risk factors include behavioral choices like a sedentary lifestyle or a diet high in unhealthful foods such as refined carbohydrates, trans fats, or alcoholic beverages. Non-communicable: A non-communicable disease is a medical condition or disease that is non-transmissible. Non-communicable diseases cannot be spread directly from one person to another. Heart disease and cancer are examples of non-communicable diseases in humans. == Prevention == Many diseases and disorders can be prevented through a variety of means. These include sanitation, proper nutrition, adequate exercise, vaccinations and other self-care and public health measures, . == Treatments == Medical therapies or treatments are efforts to cure or improve a disease or other health problems. In the medical field, therapy is synonymous with the word treatment. Among psychologists, the term may refer specifically to psychotherapy or "talk therapy". Common treatments include medications, surgery, medical devices, and self-care. Treatments may be provided by an organized health care system, or informally, by the patient or family members. Preventive healthcare is a way to avoid an injury, sickness, or disease in the first place. A treatment or cure is applied after a medical problem has already started. A treatment attempts to improve or remove a problem, but treatments may not produce permanent cures, especially in chronic diseases. Cures are a subset of treatments that reverse diseases completely or end medical problems permanently. Many diseases that cannot be completely cured are still treatable. Pain management (also called pain medicine) is that branch of medicine employing an interdisciplinary approach to the relief of pain and improvement in the quality of life of those living with pain. Treatment for medical emergencies must be provided promptly, often through an emergency department or, in less critical situations, through an urgent care facility. == Epidemiology == Epidemiology is the study of the factors that cause or encourage diseases. Some diseases are more common in certain geographic areas, among people with certain genetic or socioeconomic characteristics, or at different times of the year. Epidemiology is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for diseases. In the study of communicable and non-communicable diseases, the work of epidemiologists ranges from outbreak investigation to study design, data collection, and analysis including the development of statistical models to test hypotheses and the documentation of results for submission to peer-reviewed journals. Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic. Epidemiologists rely on a number of other scientific disciplines such as biology (to better understand disease processes), biostatistics (the current raw information available), Geographic Information Science (to store data and map disease patterns) and social science disciplines (to better understand proximate and distal risk factors). Epidemiology can help identify causes as well as guide prevention efforts. In studying diseases, epidemiology faces the challenge of defining them. Especially for poorly understood diseases, different groups might use significantly different definitions. Without an agreed-on definition, different researchers may report different numbers of cases and characteristics of the disease. Some morbidity databases are compiled with data supplied by states and territories health authorities, at national levels or larger scale (such as European Hospital Morbidity Database (HMDB)) which may contain hospital discharge data by detailed diagnosis, age and sex. The European HMDB data was submitted by European countries to the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. === Burdens of disease === Disease burden is the impact of a health problem in an area measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. There are several measures used to quantify the burden imposed by diseases on people. The years of potential life lost (YPLL) is a simple estimate of the number of years that a person's life was shortened due to a disease. For example, if a person dies at the age of 65 from a disease, and would probably have lived until age 80 without that disease, then that disease has caused a loss of 15 years of potential life. YPLL measurements do not account for how disabled a person is before dying, so the measurement treats a person who dies suddenly and a person who died at the same age after decades of illness as equivalent. In 2004, the World Health Organization calculated that 932 million years of potential life were lost to premature death. In the developed world, heart disease and stroke cause the most loss of life, but neuropsychiatric conditions like major depressive disorder cause the most years lost to being sick. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Disease category ! scope="col" style="width:10%;" \| Percent of all YPLLs lost, worldwide It is now generally regarded as a disease.]] How a society responds to diseases is the subject of medical sociology. A condition may be considered a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. For example, obesity was associated with prosperity and abundance, and this perception persists in many African regions, especially since the beginning of the HIV/AIDS. Epilepsy is considered a sign of spiritual gifts among the Hmong people. Sickness confers the social legitimization of certain benefits, such as illness benefits, work avoidance, and being looked after by others. The person who is sick takes on a social role called the sick role. A person who responds to a dreaded disease, such as cancer, in a culturally acceptable fashion may be publicly and privately honored with higher social status. In return for these benefits, the sick person is obligated to seek treatment and work to become well once more. As a comparison, consider pregnancy, which is not interpreted as a disease or sickness, even if the mother and baby may both benefit from medical care. Most religions grant exceptions from religious duties to people who are sick. For example, one whose life would be endangered by fasting on Yom Kippur or during the month of Ramadan is exempted from the requirement, or even forbidden from participating. People who are sick are also exempted from social duties. For example, ill health is the only socially acceptable reason for an American to refuse an invitation to the White House. The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognition of diseases such as repetitive stress injury (RSI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations, and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread. Lepers were people who were historically shunned because they had an infectious disease, and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomenon, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma. Social standing and economic status affect health. Diseases of poverty are diseases that are associated with poverty and low social status; diseases of affluence are diseases that are associated with high social and economic status. Which diseases are associated with which states vary according to time, place, and technology. Some diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, may be associated with both poverty (poor food choices) and affluence (long lifespans and sedentary lifestyles), through different mechanisms. The term lifestyle diseases describes diseases associated with longevity and that are more common among older people. For example, cancer is far more common in societies in which most members live until they reach the age of 80 than in societies in which most members die before they reach the age of 50. === Language of disease === An illness narrative is a way of organizing a medical experience into a coherent story that illustrates the sick individual's personal experience. People use metaphors to make sense of their experiences with disease. The metaphors move disease from an objective thing that exists to an affective experience. The most popular metaphors draw on military concepts: Disease is an enemy that must be feared, fought, battled, and routed. The patient or the healthcare provider is a warrior, rather than a passive victim or bystander. The agents of communicable diseases are invaders; non-communicable diseases constitute internal insurrection or civil war. Because the threat is urgent, perhaps a matter of life and death, unthinkably radical, even oppressive, measures are society's and the patient's moral duty as they courageously mobilize to struggle against destruction. The War on Cancer is an example of this metaphorical use of language. This language is empowering to some patients, but leaves others feeling like they are failures. Another class of metaphors describes the experience of illness as a journey: The person travels to or from a place of disease, and changes himself, discovers new information, or increases his experience along the way. He may travel "on the road to recovery" or make changes to "get on the right track" or choose "pathways". This language is more common among British healthcare professionals than the language of physical aggression. Authors in the 19th century commonly used tuberculosis as a symbol and a metaphor for transcendence. People with the disease were portrayed in literature as having risen above daily life to become ephemeral objects of spiritual or artistic achievement. In the 20th century, after its cause was better understood, the same disease became the emblem of poverty, squalor, and other social problems.	[ "infection", "chemotherapy", "diabetes mellitus type 1", "anxiety disorder", "Environmental disease", "Disease burden", "pathophysiology", "Yom Kippur", "heart attacks", "evidence-based medicine", "social stigma", "Turner syndrome", "congenital disorder", "cure", "sexually transmitted disease", "Ramadan", "medical emergencies", "Pain management", "prion", "Cure", "Disorder (medicine)", "association (statistics)", "Canada", "heart disease", "schizophrenia", "word sense", "lethargy", "The Free Dictionary", "Tuberculosis in popular culture", "warrior", "injury", "Dorland's Medical Dictionary", "mental disorder", "sleepiness", "Epilepsy", "nosology", "immune system", "Cancer", "medicalizes", "Progressive disease", "West Nile fever", "Invasion", "mechanism (biology)", "complication (medicine)", "latency period", "Social determinants of health in poverty", "Renaissance", "quality of life", "Preventive healthcare", "health care system", "mortality rate", "idiopathic disease", "heredity", "vector (epidemiology)", "microorganism", "non-communicable disease", "communicable disease", "feces", "tuberculosis", "Mitochondrial disease", "US National Library of Medicine", "human variability", "connotation", "public health", "National Cancer Institute", "Brain Behav Immun", "neuropsychiatric conditions", "Sociology of health and illness", "epidemiology", "signs and symptoms", "death by natural causes", "hereditary diseases", "infectious disease", "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", "Premature birth", "ICD-11", "sick role", "DiGeorge syndrome", "Microorganism", "bacteria", "pathogenic", "hereditary disease", "social problems", "incubation period", "quality-adjusted life year", "medical literature", "Your Disease Risk", "anorexia (symptom)", "Birth defect", "benefit–cost ratio", "chickenpox", "remission (medicine)", "non-infectious disease", "asymptomatic", "stroke", "Prediabetes", "Cloth face mask", "bright line", "Remission (medicine)", "vertically transmitted infection", "Attention", "pregnancy", "Down syndrome", "disseminated disease", "biology", "metonymy", "physical disorder", "Cryptogenic disease", "pathogenesis", "medical state", "Philosophy of medicine", "civil war", "denotation", "syndemic", "Foodborne illness", "substance abuse", "cerebrovascular disease", "Neurosci Biobehav Rev", "medication", "BBC Radio 4", "post-traumatic stress disorder", "CMAJ", "disability", "sanitation", "lower respiratory infections", "athlete's foot", "overtreatment", "Lists of diseases", "sequela", "National Gallery of Denmark", "Infectious disease", "fulminant", "wikt:pathology", "War on Cancer", "herpes zoster", "military", "systemic disease", "Epidemiologic Reviews", "prodrome", "Psychiatry", "autism rights movement", "Mental disorder", "In Our Time (radio series)", "obesity", "childbirth", "hypertension", "behavior", "influenza", "social ills", "contagious disease", "social science", "deficiency disease", "Human eye", "repetitive stress injury", "cognitive synonymy", "Precancerous condition", "AIDS wasting", "passenger virus", "fasting", "Fungus", "vaccination", "Anxiety disorder", "Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology", "symptom", "Avian flu outbreak of 2009", "syndrome", "emotion", "terminal disease", "addiction", "medical sociology", "social status", "type 2 diabetes mellitus", "ICU scoring systems", "Rare disease", "attention deficit hyperactivity disorder", "medical devices", "insurrection", "psychosocial", "lesion", "hypersensitivity", "biostatistics", "localized disease", "depression (mood)", "National Institute of Mental Health", "metastatic disease", "Slavery", "burn", "injury in humans", "medicalization", "psychotherapy", "Social determinants of health", "pathology", "varicella zoster virus", "Parkinsonian syndrome", "evolutionary medicine", "Heart disease", "organ system", "mutation", "nutrition", "Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man", "common cold", "subclinical infection", "Host–pathogen interaction", "Non-infectious disease", "AIDS", "Non-Mendelian inheritance", "malaria", "idiopathy", "causality", "hyperalgesia", "Centers for Disease Control", "genetic disease", "rhinitis", "Iatrogenesis", "cancer survivor", "metabolic disorder", "homeostasis", "root cause analysis", "viral latency", "function (biology)", "diabetes mellitus", "autoimmunity", "metaphor", "Plant pathology", "major depressive disorder", "diseases of affluence", "functional disorder", "chronic condition", "Etiology (medicine)", "affective", "exercise", "conflict of interest", "surgery", "value-neutral", "poverty", "years of potential life lost", "outbreak", "health insurance", "sickness behavior", "pathogen", "emotional and behavioral disorders", "HIV infection", "Alessandro del Borro", "perinatal", "Hmong people", "gut flora", "prevalence", "Leprosy", "incidence (epidemiology)", "Syndrome", "colony (biology)", "viral infection", "myocardial infarction", "coronary artery disease", "West Nile virus", "subclinical", "Major depressive disorder", "transmission (medicine)", "diarrhea", "motor vehicle accidents", "pain", "allergy", "Diseases of poverty", "cancer", "autoimmune disorders", "MedlinePlus", "Cardiovascular disease", "Australian Institute of Health and Welfare", "Andrea Sacchi", "chronic diseases", "senescence", "degenerative disease", "self-care", "White House", "Transcendence (religion)", "Slate (magazine)", "Biopsychosocial model", "Infectious cancer", "illness narrative", "prehypertension", "immunodeficiency", "Acute coronary syndrome", "HIV/AIDS", "Neuropsychiatric conditions", "sedentary lifestyle", "lower respiratory tract infection", "emergency department", "World Health Organization", "wikt:de novo", "relapse", "distress (medicine)", "acute (medicine)", "Comorbidity", "Injuries", "Plasmodium", "birth", "disability-adjusted life year", "chromosome", "lifestyle disease", "genetic disorder", "Abnormality (behavior)", "Geographic Information Science", "urgent care", "actuarial science", "International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems", "Comparative Toxicogenomics Database", "chronic disease", "Developmental disability", "Risk factor (epidemiology)", "death", "airborne disease", "acute disease" ]
8,073	Dardanelles	The Dardanelles ( ; ; ), also known as the Strait of Gallipoli (after the Gallipoli peninsula) and in classical antiquity as the Hellespont ( ; ), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey that forms part of the continental boundary between Asia and Europe and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. Together with the Bosporus, the Dardanelles forms the Turkish Straits. One of the world's narrowest straits used for international navigation, the Dardanelles connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean and Mediterranean seas while also allowing passage to the Black Sea by extension via the Bosporus. The Dardanelles is long and wide. It has an average depth of with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point abreast the city of Çanakkale. The first fixed crossing across the Dardanelles opened in 2022 with the completion of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge. Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli peninsula () are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along the Troad peninsula () are inhabited by the city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000. ==Names== The contemporary Turkish name , meaning ' Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from (, 'pottery') + (, 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye. The English name Dardanelles is an abbreviation of Strait of the Dardanelles. During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called the Dardanelles, probably named after Dardanus, an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus, the mythical son of Zeus and Electra. The name comes from the Dardani in the Balkans, according to Papazoglu. The ancient Greek name () means "Sea of Helle", and was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literature , , and . It was so called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece. ==Geography== As a maritime waterway, the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia, and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosporus, while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean. Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia. The strait is located at approximately . ===Present morphology=== The strait is long, and wide, averaging deep with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu, abreast Çanakkale. There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction. The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of a river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must wait at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles. ==History== As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine. Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I. ===Ancient Dardanian, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454)=== ====Dardanian and Persian history==== The ancient city of Troy was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War. Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius) had two pontoon bridges built across the width of the Hellespont at Abydos, in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece. This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy The Persians as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes. According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped. The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges. Xerxes is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes with multiple whips and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water. Herodotus commented that this was a "highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35) Harpalus the engineer is said to have eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing the ships together with their bows facing the current and adding two additional anchors to each ship. From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology Helle, the daughter of Athamas, supposedly was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece. Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander, wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess Hero, but was ultimately drowned in a storm. ====Byzantine history==== The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period. Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through the customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation: ... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize the entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians, have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine. – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit. – All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving. Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks. ===Ottoman era (1354–1922)=== The Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during the period of the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Gallipoli in 1354. Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline. ====Nineteenth century==== Gaining control of, or guaranteed access to, the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia—supported by Great Britain in the Dardanelles Operation—blockaded the straits in 1807. In 1833, following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. This treaty alarmed the Ottoman Empire, who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention. ====World War I==== In 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up the straits. In the Gallipoli campaign, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign damaged the career of Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the (unsuccessful) use of Royal Navy sea power to force open the straits. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, subsequent founder of the Republic of Turkey, served as an Ottoman commander during the land campaign. The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them but, in minor actions two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 41,000 British and Irish, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders. Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations. The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed. ===Turkish republican and modern eras (1923–present)=== After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne, which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized the straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states. During World War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war. In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals. Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway. In more recent years, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits. The Dardanelles were closed in late February 2022 to all foreign warships at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in accordance with the Montreux Convention. == Crossings == === Maritime === The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The strait also experiences significant amounts of commercial shipping traffic. === Land === The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge joins Lapseki, a district of Çanakkale, on the Asian side and Sütlüce, a village of the Gelibolu district, on the European side. It is part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network. Work on the bridge began in March 2017, and it was opened on March 18, 2022. === Subsea === 2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in the northeast quarter portion of the strait, was energised in April 2015 and provides 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far through the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, was still under construction in June 2016 and will provide similar capabilities to the first line. Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait. A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into the Mediterranean, named MedNautilus and landing at Athens, Sicily and elsewhere. == Image gallery == File:Byzantine Dardanelles Customs Law.JPG\|Marble plate with 6th century AD Byzantine law regulating payment of customs in the Dardanelles File:Dardanelles and Gulf of Saros by Piri Reis.jpg\|Historic map of the Dardanelles by Piri Reis File:Anzac Beach 1915.jpg\|The ANZACs at Gallipoli in 1915 File:Graphic map of the Dardanelles.JPG\|Map of the Dardanelles drawn by G. F. Morrell, 1915, showing the Gallipoli peninsula and the west coast of Turkey, as well as the location of front line troops and landings during the Gallipoli Campaign File:Dardanellen 1.JPG\|A view of the Dardanelles from Gallipoli peninsula File:Chanakkale Turkey.jpg\|A view of Çanakkale from the Dardanelles File:ChanakkaleFerry.jpg\|Ferry line across the Dardanelles in Çanakkale File:Havadan cnk.jpg\|Aerial view of the city of Çanakkale File:Dardanelles 2021.jpg\|Dardanelles in 2021 File:Narrowest section of the Strait of Çanakkale.jpg\|The narrowest section of the Dardanelles	[ "Athens", "subsurface current", "Near East", "Lapseki", "France", "Battle of the Dardanelles (disambiguation)", "Strait", "Dardanus (son of Zeus)", "Istanbul", "Allies of World War I", "Battle of Gallipoli", "Gigawatt", "Ottoman Empire", "ANZAC", "Europe", "Russian Empire", "surface current", "Nara Burnu", "International waterway", "Ancient Greece", "Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Decline of the Ottoman Empire", "Aegean Sea", "ancient Greek mythology", "Greek language", "waterway", "Hero and Leander", "Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)", "Bosporus", "Soviet Union", "sea power", "pontoon bridge", "Ferry", "pre-dreadnought battleship", "League of Nations", "Mediterranean Expeditionary Force", "Alexander the Great", "Gallipoli campaign", "Sütlüce, Gelibolu", "NATO", "List of longest suspension bridge spans", "Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi", "Treaty of Lausanne (1923)", "sextarius", "Ukraine", "Submarine power cable", "World War I", "List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits", "National Library of Israel", "Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits", "Dardani", "Dardanus (city)", "The Histories of Herodotus", "Abydos, Hellespont", "1915 Çanakkale Bridge", "Mediterranean Sea", "Darius the Great", "Çanakkale", "Congress of Paris", "Turkey", "SBS World News", "United Kingdom", "Battle of the Dardanelles (1807)", "fixed crossing", "Dardanelles Commission", "Zeus", "Turkish War of Independence", "Winston Churchill", "Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges", "Gallipoli", "Suez Canal", "Cilicia", "Troy", "Golden Fleece", "Golden Horn", "Byzantine Empire", "Gelibolu", "Republic of Turkey", "Turkish Straits", "follis", "Piri Reis", "Harpalus (engineer)", "Constantinople", "Action of 26 June 1656", "Novorossyisk", "Xerxes I of Persia", "Trojan War", "Anastasius I (emperor)", "Achaemenid Empire", "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk", "The Persians", "Sicily", "Royal Navy", "Asia", "Treaty of Sèvres", "wikt:maritime", "Montreux Convention", "Herodotus", "World War II", "Ian Hamilton (British Army officer)", "Hürriyet Daily News", "First Lord of the Admiralty", "Balkans", "Russia", "Fall of Gallipoli", "Crimean Peninsula", "Napoleonic Wars", "Prussia", "Aeschylus", "Dardanelles Operation", "Helle (mythology)", "Black Sea", "Troad", "Gallipoli Campaign", "Crimean War", "Electra (Pleiad)", "London Straits Convention", "fetters", "Austria", "Sea of Marmara", "Eastern Mediterranean", "Western Eurasia" ]
8,074	Daugava	also known as the Western Dvina or the Väina River, is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea. The Daugava rises close to the source of the Volga. It is in length, and in Russia. It is a westward-flowing river, tracing out a great south-bending curve as it passes through northern Belarus. Latvia's capital, Riga, bridges the river's estuary four times. Built on both riverbanks, the city centre is from the river's mouth and is a significant port. == Etymology == According to Max Vasmer's Etymological Dictionary, the toponym Dvina cannot stem from a Uralic language; instead, it possibly comes from an Indo-European word which used to mean 'river' or 'stream'. The name Dvina strongly resembles Danuvius which is itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European dānu, meaning 'large river'. The Finno-Ugric names (Livonian), (Estonian), and (Finnish) all stem from Proto-Finnic väin, which roughly translates to 'a large, peacefully rolling river'. ==Geography== The total catchment area of the river is , of which are in Belarus. In medieval times, the Daugava was part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, an important route for the transport of furs from the north and of Byzantine silver from the south. The Riga area, inhabited by the Finnic-speaking Livs, became a key location of settlement and defence of the mouth of the Daugava at least as early as the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the now destroyed fort at Torņakalns on the west bank of the Daugava in present-day Riga. From the end of the Livonian War great part of the Daugava formed the northeastern border of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia saparating it initially from the Kingdom of Livonia, later Swedish Livonia and Riga Governorate. After the incorporation later in the Russian Empire the river formed a border between governorates of Courland on the western bank and Livonia and Vitebsk on the eastern bank. From 1936 to 1939 Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station was built on the Daugava river in Latvia. Pļaviņas Hydroelectric Power Station was put into operation in 1968 and Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant in 1974. == Settlements == The following are some of the cities and towns built along the Daugava: === Russia === === Belarus === === Latvia === == Environment == The river began experiencing environmental deterioration in the Soviet era due to collective agriculture (producing considerable adverse water pollution runoff) and hydroelectric power projects. This is the river that the Vula river flows into. === Water quality === Upstream of the Latvian town of Jekabpils, the river's pH has a characteristic value of about 7.8 (slight alkaline). In this area, the concentration of ionic calcium is around 43 milligrams per liter, nitrate is about 0.82 milligrams per liter, ionic phosphate is 0.038 milligrams per liter, and oxygen saturation is 80%. The high nitrate and phosphate load of the Daugava has contributed to the extensive buildup of phytoplankton biomass in the Baltic Sea; the Oder and Vistula rivers also contribute to the high nutrient loading of the Baltic. In Belarus, water pollution of the Daugava is considered moderately severe, with the chief sources being treated wastewater, fish-farming, and agricultural chemical runoff (such as herbicides, pesticides, nitrates, and phosphates).	[ "Zapadnaya Dvina", "Pļaviņas", "Finnish language", "Eastern Roman Empire", "Proto-Finnic", "Krāslava", "phosphate", "nitrate", "Vistula", "Riga Governorate", "Daugavpils", "Livonian language", "Ogre, Latvia", "Russian Empire", "Finno-Ugric languages", "Druya", "Pērse", "Braunschweig", "toponym", "pH", "Ogre (river)", "Berezauka", "Verkhnedvinsk", "Catchment area (hydrology)", "Governorate of Livonia", "Livonian War", "Torņakalns", "Vitebsk", "Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant", "Lielvārde", "Uralic language", "estuary", "Dysna", "Estonian language", "Boris stones", "Baltic Sea", "Pļaviņas Hydroelectric Power Station", "Gulf of Riga", "Courland Governorate", "Eglona", "Ruba, Belarus", "Palata (river)", "Mezha (Daugava)", "Latvia", "Jaunjelgava", "Polotsk", "Livs", "Dīvaja", "Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station", "Jēkabpils", "ABC-CLIO", "Dzisna", "Navapolatsk", "Līvāni", "Riga", "Laucesa", "Kasplya", "Aiviekste", "Jekabpils", "Pikstere", "Finnic languages", "Duchy of Courland and Semigallia", "flickr", "Max Vasmer", "Ikšķile", "Belarus", "Velizh", "Ņega", "Russia", "Latin", "Usvyacha", "Kingdom of Livonia", "Beshankovichy", "trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks", "Oder", "Valdai Hills", "alkaline", "Swedish Livonia", "Vitebsk Governorate", "Penovsky District", "Andreapol", "Tver Oblast", "Orbis Latinus", "Volga", "Johann Georg Theodor Grässe", "Danube", "Kegums", "Indo-European languages", "Salaspils", "Viking", "Vuła (river)", "Dubna (Daugava)", "Aizkraukle" ]
8,075	Datsun	Datsun (, ) was a Japanese automobile manufacturer brand owned by Nissan. Datsun's original production run began in 1931. From 1958 to 1986, only vehicles exported by Nissan were identified as Datsun. Nissan phased out the Datsun brand in March 1986, but relaunched it in June 2013 as the brand for low-cost vehicles manufactured for emerging markets. Nissan considered phasing out the Datsun brand for a second time in 2019 and 2020, eventually discontinuing the struggling brand in April 2022. In 1931, DAT Motorcar Co. chose to name its new small car "Datson", a name which indicated the new car's smaller size when compared to the DAT's larger vehicle already in production. When Nissan took control of DAT in 1934, the name "Datson" was changed to "Datsun", because "son" also means "loss" (損 son) in Japanese, and to honour the sun depicted in the national flag – thus the name Datsun: . The Datsun name is internationally well known for the 510, Fairlady roadsters, and the Z and ZX coupés. ==History== ===Origin of Datsun=== Before the Datsun brand name came into being, an automobile named the DAT car was built in 1914, by the , in the Azabu-Hiroo District in Tokyo. The new car's name was an acronym of the initials of the company partners: Meitaro Takeuchi :ja:竹内明太郎\| The firm was renamed Kaishinsha Motorcar Co. in 1918, seven years after their establishment and again, in 1925, to DAT Motorcar Co. DAT Motors constructed trucks in addition to the DAT passenger cars. In fact, their output focused on trucks since there was almost no consumer market for passenger cars at the time. Beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were assembled for the military market. The low demand from the military market during the 1920s forced DAT to consider merging with other automotive industries. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based also known as Jitsuyo Motors (established 1919, as a Kubota subsidiary) to become in Osaka until 1932. (Jitsuyo Jidosha began producing a three-wheeled vehicle with an enclosed cab called the Gorham in 1920, and the following year produced a four-wheeled version. From 1923 to 1925, the company produced light cars and trucks under the name of Lila.) The DAT corporation had been selling full size cars to Japanese consumers under the DAT name since 1914. In 1930, the Japanese government created a ministerial ordinance that allowed cars with engines up to 500 cc to be driven without a license. DAT Automobile Manufacturing began development of a line of 495 cc cars to sell in this new market segment, calling the new small cars "Datson" – meaning "Son of DAT". The name was changed to "Datsun" two years later in 1933. The first prototype Datson was completed in the summer of 1931. The production vehicle was called the Datson Type 10, and "approximately ten" of these cars were sold in 1931. They sold around 150 cars in 1932, now calling the model the Datsun Type 11. By 1935, the company had established a true production line, following the example of Ford, and were producing a car closely resembling the Austin 7. There is evidence that six of these early Datsuns were exported to New Zealand in 1936, a market they then re-entered in May 1962. In 1937, Datsun's biggest pre-war year, 8593 were built, with some exported to Australia in knock-down form. and then not again until the 1980s. The Japanese market Z-car (sold as the Fairlady Z) also had Nissan badging. In the United States, the Nissan branch was named "Nissan Motor Corporation in U.S.A.", and chartered on September 28, 1960, in California, but the small cars the firm exported to America were still named Datsun. Corporate choice favored Datsun, so as to distance the parent factory Nissan's association by Americans with Japanese military manufacture. In fact Nissan's involvement in Japan's military industries was substantial. The company's car production at the Yokohama plant shifted towards military needs just a few years after the first passenger cars rolled off the assembly line, on April 11, 1935. By 1939 Nissan's operations had moved to Manchuria, then under Japanese occupation, where its founder and President, Yoshisuke Ayukawa, established the Manchurian Motor Company to manufacture military trucks. Ayukawa, a well-connected and aggressive risk taker, also made himself a principal partner of the Japanese Colonial Government of Manchukuo. Ultimately, Nissan Heavy Industries emerged near the end of the war as an important player in Japan's war machinery. After the war ended, Soviet Union seized all of Nissan's Manchuria assets, while the Occupation Forces made use of over half of the Yokohama plant. General MacArthur had Ayukawa imprisoned for 21 months as a war criminal. After release he was forbidden from returning to any corporate or public office until 1951. He was never allowed back into Nissan, which returned to passenger car manufacture in 1947 and to its original name of Nissan Motor Company Ltd. in 1949. American service personnel in their teens or early twenties during the Second World War would be in prime car-buying age by 1960, if only to find an economical small second car for their growing family needs. Yutaka Katayama (Mr. "K"), former president of Nissan's American operations, would have had his personal wartime experiences in mind supporting the name Datsun. Katayama's visit to Nissan's Manchuria truck factory in 1939 made him realise the appalling conditions prevalent on the assembly lines, leading him to abandon the firm. In 1945, near the end of the war, Katayama was ordered to return to the Manchurian plant, however he rebuffed these calls and refused to return. Katayama desired to build and sell passenger cars to people, not to the military; for him, the name "Datsun" had survived the war with its purity intact, not "Nissan". This obviously led Katayama to have problems with the corporate management. The discouragement felt by Katayama as regards his prospects at Nissan, led to his going on the verge of resigning, when Datsun's 1958 Australian Mobilgas victories vaulted him, as leader of the winning Datsun teams, to national prominence in a Japan bent on regaining international status. The company's first product to be exported around the world was the 113, with a proprietary four-cylinder engine. Datsun entered the American market in 1958, with sales in California. By 1959, the company had dealers across the U.S. and began selling the 310 (known as Bluebird domestically). From 1962 to 1969 the Nissan Patrol utility vehicle was sold in the United States (as a competitor to the Toyota Land Cruiser J40 series), making it the only Nissan-badged product sold in the US prior to that name's introduction worldwide decades later. From 1960 on, exports and production continued to grow. A new plant was built at Oppama, south of Yokohama; it opened in 1962. The next year, Bluebird sales first topped 200,000, and exports touched 100,000. By 1964, Bluebird was being built at 10,000 cars a month. For 1966, Datsun debuted the Sunny/1000, allowing kei car owners to move up to something bigger. That same year, Datsun won the East African Safari Rally and merged with Prince Motors, giving the company the Skyline model range, as well as a test track at Murayama. The company introduced the Bluebird 510 in 1967. This was followed in 1968 with the iconic 240Z, which proved affordable sports cars could be built and sold profitably: it was soon the world's #1-selling sports car. It relied on an engine based on the Bluebird and used Bluebird suspension components. It would go on to two outright wins in the East African Rally. Katayama was made Vice President of the Nissan North American subsidiary in 1960, and as long as he was involved in decision making, both as North American Vice President from 1960 to 1965, and then President of Nissan Motor Company U.S.A. from 1965 to 1975, the cars were sold as Datsuns. "What we need to do is improve our car's efficiency gradually and creep up slowly before others notice. Then, before Detroit realizes it, we will have become an excellent car maker, and the customers will think so too. If we work hard to sell our own cars, we won't be bothered by whatever the other manufacturers do. If all we do is worry about the other cars in the race, we will definitely lose." ===Datsun in Europe=== In 1935, the first Datsun-badged vehicle was shipped to Britain by car magnate Sir Herbert Austin. The vehicle, a Type 14, was never meant for the road or production, but was a part of a patent dispute as Austin saw a number of similarities to the car with the Austin 7 Ruby. Nissan began exporting Datsun-badged cars to the United Kingdom in 1968, at which time foreign cars were a rarity, with only a small percentage of cars being imported – some of the most popular examples at the time including the Renault 16 from France and Volkswagen Beetle from West Germany. The first European market that Nissan had entered was Finland, where sales began in 1962. Within a few years, it was importing cars to most of Western Europe. Datsun was particularly successful on the British market. It sold just over 6,000 cars there as late as 1971, but its sales surged to more than 30,000 the following year and continued to climb over the next few years, with well-priced products including the Cherry 100A and Sunny 120Y proving particularly popular, at a time when the British motor industry was plagued by strikes and British Leyland in particular was gaining a reputation for building cars which had major issues with build quality and reliability. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Nissan frequently enjoyed the largest market share in Britain of any foreign carmaker. By the early 1980s, the Nissan badge was gradually appearing on Datsun-badged cars, and eventually the Datsun branding was phased out, the final new car with a Datsun badge being the Micra supermini, launched in Britain from June 1983. By the end of 1984, the Datsun branding had completely disappeared in Britain, although it lingered elsewhere until 1986. ===Rebranding=== In Japan, there appears to have been what probably constituted a long-held 'official' company bias against use of the name "Datsun". At the time, Kawamata was a veteran of Nissan, in the last year of his presidency, a powerful figure whose experience in the firm exceeded two decades. His rise to its leadership position occurred in 1957 in part because of his handling of the critical Nissan workers' strike that began May 25, 1953, and ran for 100 days. During his tenure as president, Kawamata stated that he "regretted that his company did not imprint its corporate name on cars, the way Toyota does. 'Looking back, we wish we had started using Nissan on all of our cars,' he says. 'But Datsun was a pet name for the cars when we started exporting.'" Ultimately, the decision was made to stop using the brand name Datsun worldwide, in order to strengthen the company name Nissan. "The decision to change the name Datsun to Nissan in the U.S. was announced in the autumn (September/October) of 1981. The rationale was that the name change would help the pursuit of a global strategy. A single name worldwide would increase the possibility that advertising campaigns, brochures, and promotional materials could be used across countries and simplify product design and manufacturing. Further, potential buyers would be exposed to the name and product when traveling to other countries. Industry observers, however, speculated that the most important motivation was that a name change would help Nissan market stocks and bonds in the U.S. They also presumed substantial ego involvement, since the absence of the Nissan name in the U.S. surely rankled Nissan executives who had seen Toyota and Honda become household words." Ultimately, the name change campaign lasted for a three-year period from 1982 to 1984 – Datsun badged vehicles had been progressively fitted with small "Nissan" and "Datsun by Nissan" badges from the late 1970s onward until the Nissan name was given prominence in 1983 – although in some export markets, vehicles continued to wear both the Datsun and Nissan badges until 1986. In the United Kingdom for example, the Nissan name initially was used as a prefix to the model name, with Datsun still being used as the manufacturer's name (e.g. Datsun-Nissan Micra) from 1982 until 1984. In the United States, the Nissan name was used for some new vehicles for 1982 such as the Nissan Stanza and the Nissan Sentra while the Datsun name was used on existing vehicles through 1983 including – confusingly enough – the Datsun Maxima, which like the Stanza and Sentra was also a new model for 1982, albeit as a renamed Datsun 810. The Maxima and Z continue in production in North America as of 2021, as Nissan's last direct link to its Datsun years. The name change had cost Nissan a figure in the region of US$500 million. Operational costs included the changing of signs at 1,100 Datsun dealerships, and amounted to US$30 million. Another US$200 million were spent during the 1982 to 1986 advertising campaigns, where the "Datsun, We Are Driven!" campaign (which was adopted in late 1977 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis and subsequent 1979 energy crisis) yielded to "The Name is Nissan" campaign (the latter campaign was used for some years beyond 1985). Another US$50 million was spent on Datsun advertisements that were paid for but stopped or never used. Five years after the name change program was over, Datsun still remained more familiar than Nissan. ===Datsun truck=== In 2001, Nissan marketed its D22 pick-up model in Japan with the name Datsun. This time however, the use of the brand name was wholly restricted to this one specific model name. Production of this model was between May 2001 and October 2002. ==Relaunch== On 20 March 2012, it was announced that Nissan would revive the Datsun marque as a low-cost car brand for use in Indonesia, Nepal, South Africa, India, and Russia, and on 15 July 2013, nearly three decades after it was phased out, the name was formally resurrected. Nissan said the brand's reputation for value and reliability would help it gain market share in emerging markets. The Datsun brand was relaunched in New Delhi, India, with the Datsun Go, which went on sale in India in early 2014. Datsun models are sold in Indonesia, Russia, India, Nepal and South Africa since 2014. The brand entered Kazakhstan in 2015, and Belarus and Lebanon in 2016. The Datsun Go was being built at the Renault-Nissan plant in Chennai, India. It was also produced in Indonesia. The Go is based on the same Nissan V platform as the Nissan Micra. The Go+, a 5+2 seater station wagon, was added to the range in September 2013. In February 2014, the redi-Go concept car was presented. The redi-Go crossover became available in India mid-2015. In April 2014, the first model for the Russian market, the Datsun on-Do based on Lada Granta, was launched. In November 2019, it was announced that Datsun would stop its production in Indonesia and Russia in 2020. In April 2022, Nissan announced that it is shutting down the production of Datsun cars in India. ===Models=== Datsun Go (2013–2022) Datsun Go+ (2013–2022) Datsun on-Do (2014–2020) Datsun mi-Do (2015–2020) Datsun redi-Go (2016–2022) Datsun Cross (2018–2020)	[ "United States armed forces", "Datsun Go+", "Safari Rally", "Nissan B platform", "Rokuro Aoyama", "Nissan D engine", "Yoshisuke Aikawa", "Nissan Motors", "Den Kenjiro", "Datsun Go", "1979 energy crisis", "Western Europe", "Ford Motor Company", "ja:竹内明太郎", "Datsun Type 11", "Datsun 810", "Nissan Micra", "Pacific War", "Austin 7", "Occupation of Japan", "Honda", "Japanese domestic market", "Soviet Union", "Business Day (South Africa)", "Laurence Hartnett", "emerging markets", "Datsun on-Do", "Meitaro Takeuchi", "British Leyland", "Nissan Stanza", "export", "Manchukuo", "Datsun 240Z", "Datsun mi-Do", "Datsun 510", "Chennai", "Volkswagen Beetle", "Datsun Sunny", "Mobil Economy Run", "India", "Austin Motor Company", "Yutaka Katayama", "Yokohama", "1973 oil crisis", "Graham-Paige", "Human ego", "Datsun DS Series", "Yokosuka, Kanagawa", "Manchuria", "Nissan March", "bias", "Nissan Motor Company", "Detroit", "Austin A40 Devon", "Nissan Sunny", "sports car", "Nissan Patrol", "Imperial Japanese Army", "Nissan Cedric", "Renault 16", "Names of Japan", "Sedan (car)", "economic system", "Datsun Sports", "Toyota", "Automotive industry", "global strategy", "Datsun DB Series", "Yoshisuke Ayukawa", "Brand equity", "Datsun Cross", "World War II", "Consumer confusion", "station wagon", "Pickup truck", "West Germany", "Datsun Cherry", "kei car", "Lada Granta", "Sports Car International Top Sports Cars", "Automobiles", "Dodge M37", "Post-Occupation Japan", "light trucks", "Datsun Truck", "war crime", "Datsun Type 12", "Japanese language", "Nissan Motor Car Carrier", "Nissan", "four-cylinder engine", "Datsun redi-Go", "Prince Motors", "Nissan Bluebird", "Nissan Sentra", "Nissan Maxima", "Toyota Land Cruiser", "Engine displacement", "Efficient energy use", "Osaka", "Den Kenjirō", "Austin A40 Somerset", "Nissan Z-car", "Douglas MacArthur", "Nissan Navara", "Tokyo", "New Delhi", "Nissan Skyline" ]
8,078	Dynamite	Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and was patented in 1867. It rapidly gained wide-scale use as a more robust alternative to the traditional black powder explosives. It allows the use of nitroglycerine's favorable explosive properties while greatly reducing its risk of accidental detonation. ==History== Dynamite was invented by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel in 1866 and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder. Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel Nobel, was an industrialist, engineer, and inventor. He built bridges and buildings in Stockholm and founded Sweden's first rubber factory. His construction work inspired him to research new methods of blasting rock that were more effective than black powder. After some bad business deals in Sweden, in 1838 Immanuel moved his family to Saint Petersburg, where Alfred and his brothers were educated privately under Swedish and Russian tutors. At the age of 17, Alfred Nobel was sent abroad for two years; in the United States he met Swedish engineer John Ericsson and in France studied under famed chemist Théophile-Jules Pelouze and his pupil Ascanio Sobrero, who had first synthesized nitroglycerin in 1847. Pelouze cautioned Nobel against using nitroglycerine as a commercial explosive because of its great sensitivity to shock. In 1857, Nobel filed the first of several hundred patents, mostly concerning air pressure, gas and fluid gauges, but remained fascinated with nitroglycerin's potential as an explosive. Nobel, along with his father and brother Emil, experimented with various combinations of nitroglycerin and black powder. Nobel came up with a way to safely detonate nitroglycerin by inventing the detonator, or blasting cap, that allowed a controlled explosion set off from a distance using a fuse. In 1863 Nobel performed his first successful detonation of pure nitroglycerin, using a blasting cap made of a copper percussion cap and mercury fulminate. In 1864, Alfred Nobel filed patents for both the blasting cap and his method of synthesizing nitroglycerin, using sulfuric acid, nitric acid and glycerin. On 3 September 1864, while experimenting with nitroglycerin, Emil and several others were killed in an explosion at the factory at Immanuel Nobel's estate at Heleneborg. After this, Alfred founded the company Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget in Vinterviken to continue work in a more isolated area and the following year moved to Germany, where he founded another company, Dynamit Nobel. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safe alternative to black powder and nitroglycerin. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were quickly shut down. A few American businessmen got around the patent by using absorbents other than diatomaceous earth, such as resin. Nobel originally sold dynamite as "Nobel's Blasting Powder" and later changed the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word dýnamis (), meaning "power". ==Manufacture== ===Form=== Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about long and about in diameter, with a mass of about . A stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ (megajoule) of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter-Stick or Half-Stick) or by weight. Dynamite is usually rated by "weight strength" (the amount of nitroglycerin it contains), usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% "dope" (the absorbent storage medium mixed with the stabilizer and any additives). ===Storage considerations=== The maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions. With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm, nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm, dynamite with 15 to 30 cm, and ammoniacal explosives with 40 to 50 cm. ===Major manufacturers=== ====South Africa==== For several decades beginning in the 1940s, the largest producer of dynamite in the world was the Union of South Africa. There, the De Beers company established a factory in 1902 at Somerset West. The explosives factory was later operated by AECI (African Explosives and Chemical Industries). The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centered on the Witwatersrand. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 it was already producing 340,000 cases, each, annually. A rival factory at Modderfontein was producing another 200,000 cases per year. There were two large explosions at the Somerset West plant during the 1960s. Some workers died, but the loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and its earth works, and the planting of trees that directed the blasts upward. There were several other explosions at the Modderfontein factory. After 1985, pressure from trade unions forced AECI to phase out the production of dynamite. The factory then went on to produce ammonium nitrate emulsion-based explosives that are safer to manufacture and handle. ====United States==== Dynamite was first manufactured in the US by the Giant Powder Company of San Francisco, California, whose founder had obtained the exclusive rights from Nobel in 1867. Giant was eventually acquired by DuPont, which produced dynamite under the Giant name until Giant was dissolved by DuPont in 1905. Thereafter, DuPont produced dynamite under its own name until 1911–12, when its explosives monopoly was broken up by the U.S. Circuit Court in the "Powder Case". Two new companies were formed upon the breakup, the Hercules Powder Company and the Atlas Powder Company, which took up the manufacture of dynamite (in different formulations). Currently, only Dyno Nobel manufactures dynamite in the US. The only facility producing it is located in Carthage, Missouri, but the material is purchased from Dyno Nobel by other manufacturers who put their labels on the dynamite and boxes. ==Non-dynamite explosives== Other explosives are often referred to or confused with dynamite: ===Trinitrotoluene (TNT)=== Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is often assumed to be the same as (or confused for) dynamite largely because of the ubiquity of both explosives during the 20th century. This incorrect connection between TNT and dynamite was enhanced by cartoons such as Bugs Bunny, where animators labeled any kind of bomb (ranging from sticks of dynamite to kegs of black powder) as TNT, because the initialism was shorter and more memorable and did not require literacy to recognize that TNT meant "bomb". Aside from both being high explosives, TNT and dynamite have little in common. TNT is a second-generation castable explosive adopted by the military, while dynamite, in contrast, has never been popular in warfare because it degenerates quickly under severe conditions and can be detonated by either fire or a wayward bullet. The German armed forces adopted TNT as a filling for artillery shells in 1902, some 40 years after the invention of dynamite, which is a first-generation phlegmatized explosive primarily intended for civilian earthmoving. TNT has never been popular or widespread in civilian earthmoving, as it is considerably more expensive and less powerful by weight than dynamite, as well as being slower to mix and pack into boreholes. TNT's primary asset is its remarkable insensitivity and stability: it is waterproof and incapable of detonating without the extreme shock and heat provided by a blasting cap (or a sympathetic detonation); this stability also allows it to be melted at , poured into high explosive shells and allowed to re-solidify, with no extra danger or change in the TNT's characteristics. Accordingly, more than 90% of the TNT produced in the United States was always for the military market, with most TNT used for filling shells, hand grenades and aerial bombs, and the remainder being packaged in brown "bricks" (not red cylinders) for use as demolition charges by combat engineers. ==="Extra" dynamite=== In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman invented "ammonium dynamite", a form of explosive that used ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin. Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of nitroglycerin. It is rated by either "weight strength" (the amount of ammonium nitrate in the medium) or "cartridge strength" (the potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain size of a standard explosive). For example, high-explosive 65% Extra dynamite has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate and 35% "dope" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers and additives). Its "cartridge strength" would be its weight in pounds times its strength in relation to an equal amount of ANFO (the civilian baseline standard) or TNT (the military baseline standard). For example, 65% ammonium dynamite with a 20% cartridge strength would mean the stick was equal to an equivalent weight strength of 20% ANFO. ==="Military dynamite"=== "Military dynamite" (or M1 dynamite) is a dynamite substitute made with more stable ingredients than nitroglycerin. It contains 75% RDX, 15% TNT and 10% desensitizers and plasticizers. It has only 60% equivalent strength as commercial dynamite, but is much safer to store and handle. ==Regulation== Various countries around the world have enacted laws regarding explosives and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, and possess explosives or ingredients.	[ "sulfuric acid", "De Beers", "megajoule", "phlegmatized explosive", "San Francisco", "percussion cap", "Dyno Nobel", "mercury fulminate", "nitroglycerin", "Strength (explosive)", "The Wrong Hands: Popular Weapons Manuals and Their Historic Challenges to a Democratic Society", "The Periodic Table of Videos", "hand grenades", "Théophile-Jules Pelouze", "diatomaceous earth", "TNT equivalent", "Trinitrotoluene", "Use forms of explosives", "Union of South Africa", "Blasting machine", "aerial bombs", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "Elbe", "Saint Petersburg", "Dynamit Nobel", "Dynamite gun", "Ancient Greek", "Hercules Powder Company", "Blasting cap", "Explosive", "combat engineers", "Alfred Nobel", "Witwatersrand", "patent", "shelf life", "Nobel Prize", "Ascanio Sobrero", "chemical energy", "Nobel family", "Somerset West", "Relative effectiveness factor", "Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology", "ANFO", "blasting cap", "gun powder", "Geesthacht", "explosive", "TNT", "satchel charge", "RDX", "John Ericsson", "Fuse (explosives)", "United States Department of Energy", "Atlas Powder Company", "Hamburg", "DuPont (1802–2017)", "patented", "Emil Oskar Nobel", "Explosion", "Stabilizer (chemistry)", "Mercury(II) fulminate", "grand tour", "black powder", "shell (projectile)", "Carthage, Missouri", "AECI", "Douglas Dam", "ammonium nitrate", "Heleneborg", "literacy", "Vinterviken", "sorbent", "Bugs Bunny", "Swedish people", "Immanuel Nobel", "Federal Highway Administration", "sympathetic detonation", "Giant Powder Company", "detonator", "Blast fishing" ]
8,079	David Fincher	David Andrew Leo Fincher (born August 28, 1962) is an American film director. Often described as one of the most preeminent directors of his generation, his films, of which most are psychological thrillers, have collectively grossed over $2.1 billion worldwide and have received numerous accolades, including three nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director. He has also received four Primetime Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards, a BAFTA Award, and a Golden Globe Award. Fincher co-founded the production company Propaganda Films in 1986. He directed numerous music videos for the company, including Madonna's "Express Yourself" in 1989 and "Vogue" in 1990, both of which won him the MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction. He received two Grammy Awards for Best Music Video for "Love Is Strong" (1994) by the Rolling Stones and "Suit & Tie" (2013) by Justin Timberlake featuring Jay-Z. He made his feature film debut with Alien 3 (1992) and gained his breakthrough with Seven (1995). He has since directed The Game (1997), Fight Club (1999), Panic Room (2002), Zodiac (2007), The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011), Gone Girl (2014), and The Killer (2023). He received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for the dramas The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), and Mank (2020). In television, Fincher has served as an executive producer and director for the Netflix series House of Cards (2013–2018) and Mindhunter (2017–2019), winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode of the former. He also executive produced and co-created the Netflix animated series Love, Death & Robots (2019–present) which received three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program. ==Early life== David Andrew Leo Fincher was born in Denver on August 28, 1962. His mother, Claire Mae (née Boettcher), was a mental health nurse from South Dakota who worked in drug addiction programs. His father, Howard Kelly "Jack" Fincher (1930–2003), was an author from Oklahoma who worked as a reporter and bureau chief for Life magazine. When Fincher was two years old, the family moved to San Anselmo, California, where he counted filmmaker George Lucas among his neighbors. ==Career== ===1983–1991: Early work=== While establishing himself in the film industry, Fincher was employed at John Korty's studio as a production head. Gaining further experience, he became a visual effects producer, working on the animated Twice Upon a Time (1983) with George Lucas. He was hired by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) in 1983 as an assistant cameraman and matte photographer In 1984, he left ILM to direct a television commercial for the American Cancer Society that depicted a fetus smoking a cigarette. Set on a directing career, Fincher co-founded production company Propaganda Films and started directing commercials and music videos. Fincher directed TV commercials for many companies including Levi's, Converse, Nike, Pepsi, Revlon, Sony, Coca-Cola and Chanel, although he loathed doing them. Starting in 1984, Fincher began his foray into music videos. He directed videos for various artists including singer-songwriters Rick Springfield, Don Henley, Martha Davis, Paula Abdul, rock band the Outfield, and R&B singer Jermaine Stewart. He directed Michael Jackson's "Who Is It", Aerosmith's "Janie's Got A Gun" and Billy Idol's "Cradle of Love". For Madonna, he directed the videos for "Express Yourself", "Oh Father", "Bad Girl" and "Vogue". Between 1984 and 1993, Fincher was credited as a director for 53 music videos. He referred to the production of music videos as his own "film school", in which he learned how to work efficiently within a small budget and time frame. ===1992–2000: Breakthrough=== In 1990, 20th Century Fox hired Fincher to replace Vincent Ward as the director for the science-fiction horror Alien 3 (1992), his film directorial debut. It was the third installment in the Alien franchise starring Sigourney Weaver. The film was released in May 1992 to a mixed reception from critics and was considered weaker than the preceding films. From the beginning, Alien 3 was hampered by studio intervention and several abandoned scripts. Peter Travers of the Rolling Stone called the film "bold and haunting", despite the "struggle of nine writers" and "studio interference". The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. Years later, Fincher publicly expressed his dismay and subsequently disowned the film. In the book Director's Cut: Picturing Hollywood in the 21st Century, Fincher blames the producers for their lack of trust in him. In an interview with The Guardian in 2009, he stated, "No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me." After this critical disappointment, Fincher eschewed reading film scripts or directing another project. He briefly retreated to directing commercials and music videos, including the video for the song "Love Is Strong" by the Rolling Stones in 1994, which won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video. Shortly, Fincher decided to make a foray back into film. He read Andrew Kevin Walker's original screenplay for Seven (1995), which had been revised by Jeremiah Chechik, the director attached to the project at one point. Fincher expressed no interest in directing the revised version, so New Line Cinema agreed to keep the original ending. Starring Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, R. Lee Ermey, and Kevin Spacey, it tells the story of two detectives who attempt to identify a serial killer who bases his murders on the Christian seven deadly sins. Seven was positively received by film critics and was one of the highest-earning films of 1995, grossing more than $320 million worldwide. Writing for Sight and Sound, John Wrathall said it "stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since Manhunter" and Roger Ebert opined that Seven is "one of the darkest and most merciless films ever made in the Hollywood mainstream." Following Seven, Fincher directed a music video for "6th Avenue Heartache" by the Wallflowers and went on to direct his third feature film, the mystery thriller The Game (1997), written by the duo John Brancato and Michael Ferris. Fincher also hired Seven screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker to contribute and polish the script. Filmed on location in San Francisco, the story follows an investment banker, played by Michael Douglas, who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), where he becomes involved in a "game" that integrates with his everyday life, making him unable to differentiate between game and reality. Upon The Games release in September 1997, the film received generally favorable reviews but performed moderately at the box office. The Game was later included in the Criterion Collection. In August 1997, Fincher agreed to direct Fight Club, based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk. It was his second film with 20th Century Fox after the troubled production of Alien 3. Starring Brad Pitt, Edward Norton and Helena Bonham Carter, the film is about a nameless office worker suffering from insomnia, who meets a salesman, and together form an underground fighting club as a form of therapy. Fox struggled with the marketing of the film, and were concerned that it would have a limited audience. Fight Club premiered on October 15, 1999, in the United States to a polarized response and modest box office success; the film grossed $100.9 million against a budget of $63 million. Initially, many critics thought the film was "a violent and dangerous express train of masochism and aggression." However, in following years, Fight Club became a cult favorite and gained acknowledgement for its multilayered themes; the film has been the source of critical analysis from academics and film critics. ===2001–2010: Continued success=== In 2001, Fincher served as an executive producer for the first season of The Hire, a series of short films to promote BMW automobiles. The films were released on the internet in 2001. Next in 2002, Fincher returned to another feature film, a thriller titled Panic Room. The story follows a single mother and her daughter who hide in a safe room of their new home, during a home invasion by a trio. Starring Jodie Foster (who replaced Nicole Kidman), Forest Whitaker, Kristen Stewart, Dwight Yoakam, and Jared Leto, it was theatrically released on March 29, 2002, after a month delay, to critical acclaim and commercial success. In North America, the film earned $96.4 million. In other countries, it grossed $100 million for a worldwide $196.4 million. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the filmmakers for their "fair degree of ingenuity ... for 88 minutes of excitement" and the convincing performance given by Foster. Fincher acknowledged Panic Room for being more mainstream, describing the film, "It's supposed to be a popcorn movie—there are no great, overriding implications. It's just about survival." Five years after Panic Room, Fincher returned on March 2, 2007, with Zodiac, a thriller based on Robert Graysmith's books about the search for the Zodiac, a real life serial murderer who terrorized communities between the late 1960s and early 1970s. Fincher first learned of the project after being approached by producer Brad Fischer; he was intrigued by the story due to his childhood personal experience. "The highway patrol had been following our school buses", he recalled. His father told him, "There's a serial killer who has killed four or five people ... who's threatened to ... shoot the children as they come off the bus." After extensive research on the case with fellow producers, Fincher formed a principal cast of Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, Robert Downey Jr., Anthony Edwards and Brian Cox. It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot in digital, with a Thomson Viper FilmStream HD camera. However, high-speed film cameras were used for particular murder scenes. Zodiac was well received, appearing in more than two hundred top ten lists (only No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood appeared in more). However, the film struggled at the United States box office, earning $33 million, but did better overseas with a gross of $51.7 million. Worldwide, Zodiac was a moderate success. Despite a campaign by Paramount Pictures, the film did not receive any major award nominations. In 2008, Fincher was attached to a film adaptation of the science-fiction novel, Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke, however, Fincher said the film is unlikely to go ahead due to problems with the script. His next project was The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's eponymous 1923 short story, about a man who is born as a seventy-year-old baby and ages in reverse. The romantic-drama marked Fincher's third collaboration with Brad Pitt, who stars opposite Cate Blanchett. The budget for the film was estimated to be $167 million, with very expensive visual effects utilized for Pitt's character. Filming started in November 2006 in New Orleans, taking advantage of Louisiana's film incentive. The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2008, in the United States to a commercial success and warm reception. Writing for the USA Today, Claudia Puig praises the "graceful and poignant" tale despite it being "overlong and not as emotionally involving as it could be". The film received thirteen Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Fincher, Best Actor for Pitt, and Best Supporting Actress for Taraji P. Henson, and won three, for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Visual Effects. Fincher directed the 2010 film The Social Network, a biographical drama about Facebook founder, Mark Zuckerberg and his legal battles. The screenplay was written by Aaron Sorkin, who adapted it from the book The Accidental Billionaires. It stars Jesse Eisenberg as Zuckerberg, with a supporting cast of Andrew Garfield, Justin Timberlake, Armie Hammer and Max Minghella. Principal photography started in October 2009 in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the film was released one year later. The Social Network was also a commercial success, earning $224.9 million worldwide. At the 83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations and won three awards; soundtrack composers Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross won for Best Original Score, and the other two awards were for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing. The film received awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Original Score at the 68th Golden Globe Awards. Critics including Roger Ebert, complimented the writing, describing the film as having "spellbinding dialogue. It makes an untellable story clear and fascinating". === 2011–present: Established filmmaker and work with Netflix === In 2011, Fincher followed the success of The Social Network with The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, a psychological thriller based on the novel by Swedish writer Stieg Larsson. Screenwriter Steven Zaillian spent three months analyzing the novel, writing notes and deleting elements to achieve a suitable running time. Featuring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander, it follows Blomkvist's investigation to solve what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared four decades ago. To maintain the novel's setting, the film was primarily shot in Sweden. The soundtrack, composed by collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, was described by A. O. Scott of The New York Times as "unnerving and powerful". Upon the film's release in December, reviews were generally favorable, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Scott adds, "Mr. Fincher creates a persuasive ambience of political menace and moral despair". Philip French of The Guardian praised the "authentic, quirky detail" and faithful adaptation. The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Actress for Mara, and won the award for Best Film Editing. In 2012, Fincher signed a first look deal with Regency Enterprises. In 2013, Fincher served as an executive producer for the Netflix television series House of Cards, a political thriller about a Congressman's quest for revenge, of which he also directed the first two episodes. The series received positive reviews, earning nine Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series; Fincher won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the first episode. He also directed a music video for the first time since 2005, "Suit & Tie" by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z, which won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video. In 2014, Fincher signed a deal with HBO for three television series—Utopia (an adaptation of the British series, to be written by Gillian Flynn), Shakedown, and Videosyncrazy. In August 2015, budget disputes between him and the network halted production. However, in 2018, Utopia was picked up by Amazon MGM Studios, with Flynn as creator. Fincher directed Gone Girl (2014), an adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novel of the same name, starring Ben Affleck and Rosamund Pike. He even met with Flynn to discuss his interest in the project before a director was selected. Set in Missouri, the story begins as a mystery that follows the events surrounding Nick Dunne (Affleck), who becomes the prime suspect in the sudden disappearance of his wife Amy (Pike). A critical and commercial success, the film earned $369 million worldwide against a $61 million budget, making it Fincher's highest-grossing work to date. Writing for Salon.com, Andrew O'Hehir praised the "tremendous ensemble cast who mesh marvelously", adding, "All the technical command of image, sound and production design for which Fincher is justly famous is here as well." Gone Girl garnered awards and nominations in a various categories; Pike earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress and Fincher received his third Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Director. Between 2016 and 2019, Fincher directed, produced and served as showrunner for another series, Mindhunter, starring Holt McCallany and Jonathan Groff. The series, based on the book Mindhunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit, debuted on Netflix worldwide on October 13, 2017. He has expressed interest in eventually making a third season of Mindhunter, which was put on indefinite hold in 2020. In 2023, Fincher confirmed that Netflix will not be making a third season of Mindhunter, saying "I'm very proud of the first two seasons. But it's a very expensive show and, in the eyes of Netflix, we didn't attract enough of an audience to justify such an investment [for Season 3]." In June 2017, Jim Gianopulos of Paramount Pictures announced that a sequel to World War Z was "in advanced development" with Fincher and Brad Pitt. Producers Dede Gardner and Jeremy Kleiner said that Fincher would begin directing it in June 2019. However, in February 2019, Paramount cancelled the project. As of 2019, Fincher serves as an executive producer for Love, Death & Robots, an animated science-fiction web series for Netflix. In July 2019, Fincher signed on to direct Mank, a biopic about Citizen Kane screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, based on a screenplay written by his late father, Jack, with Gary Oldman portraying Mankiewicz. Mank received a limited theatrical release on November 13, 2020, and was made available on Netflix on December 4. The film received ten Academy Award nominations, winning two: Best Cinematography and Best Production Design. Fincher served as an executive producer on a series titled Voir (2021) for Netflix. In 2022, Fincher made his first foray in animation directing an episode for the third season of Love, Death & Robots. The episode, "Bad Travelling", was written by Seven screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker. In February 2021, it was reported that Fincher would direct an adaptation of the graphic novel The Killer for Netflix, with Walker writing the screenplay and Michael Fassbender attached to star. It premiered at the 80th Venice International Film Festival on September 3, 2023, began a limited theatrical release on October 27, and was released on Netflix on November 10. The film received generally positive reviews from critics. In 2024, it was reported that Fincher was interested in working on an American adaptation of the popular Korean series Squid Game and was developing it alongside a Chinatown (1974) prequel miniseries that he co-wrote with the late Robert Towne. It was confirmed in October 2024 that he would develop and work on the Squid Game adaptation for 2025. In April 2025, it was announced that Fincher would direct a sequel to Quentin Tarantino's Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019), with Tarantino writing the script and Pitt attached to star. ==Filmmaking style and techniques== === Influences === Fincher did not attend film school. He has listed filmmakers George Roy Hill, Alfred Hitchcock, Stanley Kubrick, Alan J. Pakula, Ridley Scott, and Martin Scorsese as his major influences. His personal favorite films include Rear Window (1954), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), The Graduate (1967), Paper Moon (1973), American Graffiti (1973), Jaws (1975), All the President's Men (1976), Taxi Driver (1976), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), and Zelig (1983). He suggested that his film Panic Room is a combination of Rear Window and Straw Dogs (1971). For Seven, Fincher and cinematographer Darius Khondji were inspired by films The French Connection (1971) and Klute (1971), as well as the work of photographer Robert Frank. He has cited graphic designer Saul Bass as an inspiration for his films' title sequences; Bass designed many such sequences for prominent directors, including Hitchcock and Kubrick. === Method === {{quote box \| align = right \| width = 260px \| quote = Those are the moments where moviemaking is not like writing, and it's not like the theater, and it's not like performance art, and it's not like sculpting. It's truly its own discipline. There's nothing else like it in those moments where you go, wow, here's an intent that was probably never even thought of by the guy who wrote the book. And yet this person who may or may not have even read the source material has found this thing. That, for me, after the previsualization, is the most exciting part of the whole. Icelandic film producer Sigurjón Sighvatsson, with whom Fincher has collaborated for decades, has said that "[Fincher] was always a rebel ... always challenging the status quo". Producer Laura Ziskin said of him, "He's just scary smart, sort of smarter than everyone else in the room." Gone Girl averaged 50 takes per scene. In one of the episodes for Mindhunter, it was reported that a nine-minute scene took 11 hours to shoot. When asked about this method, Fincher said, "I hate earnestness in performance ... usually by take 17 the earnestness is gone." He added that he wants a scene to be as natural and authentic as possible. Fincher prefers shooting with Red digital cameras, under natural or pre-existing light conditions rather than using elaborate lighting setups. Fincher is known to use computer-generated imagery, which is mostly unnoticeable to the viewer. He does not normally use hand-held cameras during filming, instead preferring cameras on a tripod. He said, "Handheld has a powerful psychological stranglehold. It means something specific and I don't want to cloud what's going on with too much meaning." Similarly, in his music videos, Fincher appreciated that the visuals should enhance the listening experience. He would cut around the vocals, and let the choreography finish before cutting the shot. Camera movements are synchronized to the beat of the music. Some regard Fincher as an auteur filmmaker, although he dislikes being associated with that term. Much of his work is influenced by classical film noir and neo noir genres. Fincher's visual style also includes using monochromatic and desaturated colors of blue, green, and yellow, representing the world that the characters are in. In The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Fincher uses heavy desaturation for certain scenes, and increases or decreases the effect based on the story or characters' emotions. Erik Messerschmidt, cinematographer for Mindhunter, explained the color palette: "The show has a desaturated green-yellow look ... [it] helps give the show its period feel." He states the effect is achieved through production design, costumes, and filming locations—not necessarily through lighting used on set. Fincher also favors detailed and pronounced shadows, as well as using minimal light. When asked about his use of dim lighting, he said bright lights make the color of skin appear unnatural, and that the lights and colors in his films represent "the way the world looks to [him]". Fincher has explored themes of martyrdom, alienation, and dehumanization of both culture and society. In addition to the wider themes of good and evil, his characters are usually troubled, discontented, engrossed and flawed outsiders, outcasts, loners and misfits; they are often unable to socialize and suffer from loneliness. In Seven, Zodiac, and The Social Network, themes of pressure and obsession are explored, leading to the character's downfall. Quoting historian Frank Krutnik, the writer Piers McCarthy argues that "the protagonists of these films are not totally in control of their actions but are subject to darker, inner impulses". In a 2017 interview, Fincher explained his fascination of sinister themes: "There was always a house in any neighborhood that I ever lived in that all the kids on the street wondered, 'What are those people up to?' We sort of attach the sinister to the mundane in order to make things interesting ... I think it's also because in order for something to be evil, it almost has to cloak itself as something else." Fincher once stated, "I think people are perverts. I've maintained that. That's the foundation of my career." === Collaborators === Over the course of his career, Fincher has shown loyalty to many members of his cast and crew. As a music video director, he collaborated with Paula Abdul five times, as well as Madonna and Rick Springfield four times each. Once he made the transition to feature films, he cast Brad Pitt in three of them. He said of Pitt, "On-screen and off-screen, Brad's the ultimate guy ... he has such a great ease with who he is." Fight Club was scored by the Dust Brothers, who at that point had never scored a film. Describing their working relationship with Fincher, they said he "was not hanging over our shoulders telling us what to do" and that the only direction he gave was to make the music sound as great as the score from The Graduate (1967). Nine Inch Nails members Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross composed the music for The Social Network, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Gone Girl, Mank, and The Killer. The musicians describe their working relationship as "collaborative, respectful, and inspiring" although quipped that it "hasn't gotten any easier". Many years before the duo worked with Fincher, he arranged for a remix of the Nine Inch Nails song "Closer" to play over the opening credits of Seven. Howard Shore composed the scores for Seven, The Game, and Panic Room. Darius Khondji and Jeff Cronenweth have served as cinematographers for Fincher's films. Khondji said, "Fincher deserves a lot of credit. It was his influence that pushed me to experiment and got me as far as I did." He has worked with film editor Angus Wall since 1988. Wall has worked on seven of his films, five of which as editor. Donald Graham Burt has served as a production designer for six films and Bob Wagner has served as an assistant director for six. Casting director Laray Mayfield has worked with Fincher for over 20 years. In a 2010 interview, Fincher said, "You don't have to love all of your co-collaborators, but you do have to respect them. And when you do, when you realize that people bring stuff to the table that's not necessarily your experience, but if you allow yourself to relate to it, it can enrich the buffet that you're going to bring with you into the editing room."). They had one daughter together, before divorcing in 1995. Fincher married producer Ceán Chaffin in 1996. ==Filmography== ==Awards and recognitions== Tim Walker of The Independent praised Fincher's work, stating "His portrayals of the modern psyche have a power and precision that few film-makers can match." In 2012, The Guardian listed him again in their ranking of 23 best film directors in the world, applauding "his ability to sustain tone and tension". In 2016, Zodiac and The Social Network appeared in the BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century list. In addition to films, Fincher has often been admired for producing some of the most creative music videos. Fincher received three Academy Award for Best Director nominations for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), and Mank (2020). He won both the BAFTA Award for Best Direction and the Golden Globe Award for Best Director for The Social Network. He has four nominations for the DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011) and Mank (2020) as well as a nomination for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series for House of Cards (2013). His work on the latter also earned him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and the Peabody Award in addition to four nominations for the PGA Award for Best Episodic Drama. Fincher also received two Grammy Awards for Best Music Video for "Love Is Strong" (1995) by The Rolling Stones and "Suit & Tie" (2013) by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z as well as three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program for Love, Death & Robots. Directed Academy Award performances Under Fincher's direction, these actors have received Academy Award nominations for their performances in the respective roles:	[ "Vogue (Madonna song)", "Grammy Awards", "Taraji P. Henson", "Jeremiah Chechik", "Robert Frank", "Empire (magazine)", "Amanda Seyfried", "Helena Bonham Carter", "Kevin Spacey", "Citizen Kane", "List of accolades received by Gone Girl (film)", "Academy Award for Best Actress", "Andrew Garfield", "Deadline Hollywood", "Rick Springfield", "Seven (1995 film)", "Academy Award for Best Film Editing", "GQ", "Mark Romanek", "Coca-Cola", "film noir", "American Cancer Society", "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011 film)", "Michael Jackson", "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo", "Interpretations of Fight Club", "the Wallflowers", "Converse (company)", "Brad Pitt", "Industrial Light & Magic", "BAFTA Award for Best Direction", "Daniel Craig", "Paul Rachman", "Los Angeles (magazine)", "Sean Penn", "University Press of Mississippi", "All the President's Men (film)", "Loner", "Freedom! '90", "dehumanization", "Jeff Cronenweth", "Utopia (2020 TV series)", "Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama", "6th Avenue Heartache", "A&E Networks", "black-and-white", "BBC America", "Red Digital Cinema", "Academy Award for Best Visual Effects", "Alien 3", "Mark Ruffalo", "Elias Koteas", "Academy Awards", "Ridley Scott", "Paper Moon (film)", "20th Century Fox", "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (short story)", "Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score", "Ceán Chaffin", "Kristen Stewart", "Propaganda Films", "New York Film Festival", "68th Golden Globe Awards", "Entertainment Weekly", "Producers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Drama", "Science fiction", "Pepsi-Cola", "Justin Timberlake", "Taxi Driver", "MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction", "Michael Fassbender", "Robert Graysmith", "Sigourney Weaver", "Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "John Brancato and Michael Ferris", "New Line Cinema", "auteur", "Perfectionism (psychology)", "Mystery fiction", "Alex Proyas", "Howard Shore", "digital cinematography", "Rooney Mara", "Quentin Tarantino", "Golden Globe Awards", "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom", "Zelig", "Twice Upon a Time (1983 film)", "Arliss Howard", "Darius Khondji", "Denver", "The New York Times", "Oh Father", "Cate Blanchett", "Collider (website)", "Gary Oldman", "Donald Graham Burt", "New Orleans", "No Country for Old Men (film)", "Rotten Tomatoes", "Vulture (magazine)", "Janie's Got a Gun", "George Roy Hill", "House of Cards (American TV series)", "Jeremy Kleiner", "San Francisco Chronicle", "PolyGram Filmed Entertainment", "Los Angeles Times", "Linda Fiorentino", "HarperCollins", "Nicole Kidman", "Grammy Award for Best Music Video", "Michael Massee", "Chapter 1 (House of Cards)", "Armie Hammer", "San Anselmo, California", "The Daily Telegraph", "Salon.com", "Aerosmith", "Voir (TV series)", "Aaron Sorkin", "Zach Grenier", "Suit & Tie", "serendipity", "Cradle of Love (Billy Idol song)", "Klute", "David Fincher filmography", "Ben Affleck", "Life (magazine)", "Angus Wall", "Revlon", "Forest Whitaker", "Manhunter (film)", "Jared Leto", "Grantland", "Christianity", "Ren Klyce", "Don Henley", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Zodiac Killer", "Mikael Blomkvist", "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid", "Autocracy", "FYI (TV network)", "Sony", "Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress", "The Guardian", "IndieWire", "Grammy Award", "home invasion", "Dwight Yoakam", "Facebook", "Playboy (magazine)", "The Kansas City Star", "R. Lee Ermey", "Oklahoma", "Michael Douglas", "HBO", "/Film", "Sony Pictures Releasing", "2014 New York Film Festival", "South Dakota", "the Outfield", "Panning (camera)", "Micromanaging", "Jodie Foster", "Medford, Oregon", "Golden Globe Award for Best Director", "Jack Fincher (screenwriter)", "Panic Room", "The Accidental Billionaires", "Billy Idol", "Chuck Palahniuk", "Nine Inch Nails", "Stanley Kubrick", "Metacritic", "computer-generated imagery", "Warner Bros. Pictures", "Charles Dance", "Academy Award for Best Cinematography", "BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century", "Alfred Hitchcock", "Tim Burton", "Robert Towne", "the Rolling Stones", "Return of the Jedi", "Peter Travers", "Rolling Stone", "Morgan Freeman", "Arthur C. Clarke", "Closer (Nine Inch Nails song)", "Stieg Larsson", "Lawrence of Arabia (film)", "American Graffiti", "BBC", "Herman J. Mankiewicz", "Michel Gondry", "The Killer (comics)", "The Graduate", "Colorfulness", "Jonathan Groff", "Gore Verbinski", "Gone Girl (film)", "Zodiac (film)", "Nike, Inc.", "Erik Messerschmidt", "Matte (filmmaking)", "KOBI (TV)", "Jesse Eisenberg", "Missouri", "tripod (photography)", "Roger Ebert", "Saul Bass", "Primetime Emmy Award", "87th Academy Awards", "Ashland High School (Oregon)", "The Game (1997 film)", "Zodiac (true crime book)", "Atticus Ross", "Sight and Sound", "Trent Reznor", "Peabody Awards", "Forbes", "Social alienation", "Spike Jonze", "84th Academy Awards", "20th Century Studios", "Tilt (camera)", "Paula Abdul", "Gillian Flynn", "Ashland, Oregon", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Bloomsbury Academic", "BMW", "Chanel", "Outcast (person)", "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film)", "Paramount Pictures", "Mindhunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit", "Dust Brothers", "Love, Death & Robots", "Mindhunter (TV series)", "High-definition video", "Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling", "Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film", "Vincent Ward (director)", "Thomson Viper FilmStream Camera", "Laura Ziskin", "Robert Downey Jr.", "Zack Snyder", "Holt McCallany", "Madonna", "Digital cinematography cameras", "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences", "Gwyneth Paltrow", "Bradley J. Fischer", "Academy Award for Best Actor", "Neo-noir", "Golden Globe Award", "seven deadly sins", "Lisbeth Salander", "Martin Scorsese", "USA Today", "Edward Scissorhands", "World War Z (film)", "F. Scott Fitzgerald", "83rd Academy Awards", "Academy Award for Best Production Design", "John Korty", "Sigurjón Sighvatsson", "Dede Gardner", "The Social Network", "80th Venice International Film Festival", "serial killer", "Jake Gyllenhaal", "Chicago Sun-Times", "There Will Be Blood", "Rear Window", "Rosamund Pike", "Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series", "BAFTA Award", "Amazon MGM Studios", "Robert Redford", "Mark Zuckerberg", "Bad Girl (Madonna song)", "McFarland & Company", "martyr", "The Hire", "Utopia (British TV series)", "Steven Zaillian", "The Rolling Stones", "Netflix", "Amy Dunne", "Academy Award for Best Picture", "The Independent", "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood", "Jaws (film)", "Academy Award for Best Director", "Box Office Mojo", "Who Is It (Michael Jackson song)", "hand-held camera", "Andrew Kevin Walker", "Love Is Strong", "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", "The French Connection (film)", "Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay", "Mank", "Jay-Z", "psychological thriller", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program", "Primetime Emmy Awards", "Biographical film", "Academy Award for Best Original Score", "Photographic lighting", "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (soundtrack)", "Levi Strauss & Co.", "George Lucas", "Rendezvous with Rama", "Squid Game", "Anthony Edwards (actor)", "CNET", "The Criterion Collection", "Chinatown (1974 film)", "Jermaine Stewart", "Express Yourself (Madonna song)", "IGN", "Variety (magazine)", "title sequence", "Match moving", "Straw Dogs (1971 film)", "Film editing", "93rd Academy Awards", "Brian Cox (actor)", "A. O. Scott", "Swiss made", "Martha Davis (musician)", "Biography.com", "Antoine Fuqua", "Alan J. Pakula", "24 fps", "George Michael", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series", "8mm film", "Fight Club", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series", "The Killer (2023 film)", "Gone Girl (novel)", "The Observer", "Fight Club (novel)", "Michael Bay", "John Getz", "Edward Norton", "List of awards and nominations received by David Fincher", "BAFTA", "Max Minghella", "Alien (franchise)", "Bob Stephenson (actor)", "81st Academy Awards" ]
8,080	List of decades, centuries, and millennia	The list below includes links to articles with further details for each millennium, century and decade from 15,000BC to AD3000.	[ "1680s", "1020s BC", "1170s", "13th century", "1590s", "970s", "2280s", "1380s BC", "1140s", "610s BC", "8th century BC", "24th century BC", "1610s BC", "640s", "2060s", "1st millennium BC", "1390s", "10th millennium BC", "1230s", "1st century BC", "1560s", "1630s BC", "1740s", "430s", "2420s", "1570s", "490s BC", "240s", "320s", "3rd millennium", "24th century", "4th century BC", "1310s BC", "760s", "2890s", "2630s", "1530s BC", "1710s", "420s", "660s BC", "1220s", "2320s", "20s BC", "1460s BC", "2340s", "1520s BC", "1540s BC", "1100s (decade)", "34th century BC", "1750s BC", "22nd century", "11th millennium BC", "990s", "1060s", "1940s", "530s", "1090s", "550s", "37th century BC", "860s BC", "12th century", "2700s", "1690s", "1670s BC", "1610s", "2nd millennium", "1440s BC", "1330s BC", "1080s BC", "9th millennium BC", "930s BC", "1810s", "1630s", "1180s BC", "2370s", "1210s BC", "2880s", "11th century", "2660s", "1040s", "1290s", "650s BC", "170s BC", "1930s", "420s BC", "80s", "950s BC", "Timeline of the Big Bang", "950s", "450s BC", "1070s", "610s", "2100s", "4th century", "29th century", "1490s", "15th millennium BC", "740s BC", "450s", "2350s", "30s BC", "1470s BC", "5th century", "2940s", "580s BC", "270s", "2600s", "50s BC", "Timeline of evolution", "10s", "7th century BC", "1580s BC", "120s", "calendar", "29th century BC", "500s BC (decade)", "1450s", "1990s", "210s BC", "190s", "720s BC", "1410s", "2960s", "1770s", "910s", "1750s", "340s BC", "2870s", "40s", "1850s", "520s", "1110s", "1160s", "370s BC", "2490s", "1880s", "1130s", "720s", "2nd century BC", "300s BC (decade)", "300s (decade)", "740s", "1620s", "870s", "2460s", "20th century BC", "560s", "440s BC", "360s BC", "750s", "2180s", "880s", "670s", "2950s", "330s", "680s BC", "600s (decade)", "14th century", "1310s", "2110s", "310s", "human history", "470s", "2740s", "110s", "Chronology", "1450s BC", "13th century BC", "2080s", "1350s", "8th century", "1590s BC", "700s BC (decade)", "1800s (decade)", "330s BC", "2710s", "440s", "1760s", "1500s BC (decade)", "540s BC", "1030s", "370s", "1820s", "1050s", "Geologic time scale", "39th century BC", "1020s", "820s", "1370s", "1250s", "1560s BC", "2nd century", "1600s (decade)", "190s BC", "1710s BC", "2790s", "1400s (decade)", "1360s BC", "1160s BC", "2480s", "27th century", "2640s", "90s BC", "770s", "1760s BC", "1420s", "2160s", "520s BC", "790s BC", "480s BC", "560s BC", "0s", "1070s BC", "1680s BC", "140s", "1320s", "33rd century BC", "1670s", "18th century", "2140s", "1790s BC", "6th century", "1270s BC", "690s BC", "20s", "1580s", "2150s", "2430s", "830s BC", "410s", "32nd century BC", "1660s BC", "1570s BC", "1640s BC", "2470s", "1040s BC", "2300s", "260s BC", "180s BC", "6th millennium BC", "1240s BC", "960s BC", "2830s", "1410s BC", "25th century", "2410s", "list of calendars", "2760s", "Timelines of world history", "30th century BC", "620s BC", "960s", "1700s (decade)", "510s", "1380s", "80s BC", "940s BC", "2930s", "200s (decade)", "16th century", "840s", "200s BC (decade)", "2250s", "310s BC", "570s", "810s", "21st century BC", "60s", "1030s BC", "1280s", "890s BC", "1060s BC", "1600s BC (decade)", "1130s BC", "1720s", "18th century BC", "38th century BC", "210s", "60s BC", "590s BC", "27th century BC", "1910s", "780s", "1740s BC", "1140s BC", "17th century BC", "2970s", "2360s", "2000s", "240s BC", "890s", "1650s", "280s BC", "2670s", "810s BC", "880s BC", "2850s", "2070s", "2210s", "320s BC", "1530s", "500s (decade)", "12th century BC", "970s BC", "1080s", "1180s", "1490s BC", "2310s", "2130s", "2240s", "660s", "2910s", "2040s", "14th century BC", "16th century BC", "1770s BC", "2770s", "4th millennium BC", "1890s", "12th millennium BC", "490s", "5th millennium BC", "2010s", "130s", "390s", "2690s", "910s BC", "1430s BC", "1270s", "510s BC", "2650s", "1510s", "1190s BC", "1200s (decade)", "2900s", "140s BC", "360s", "700s (decade)", "2920s", "460s BC", "50s", "840s BC", "26th century BC", "540s", "1470s", "1370s BC", "1400s BC (decade)", "2860s", "1340s BC", "1720s BC", "30th century", "28th century BC", "100s BC (decade)", "1840s", "1780s", "1100s BC (decade)", "1st millennium", "1730s BC", "2030s", "160s BC", "2nd millennium BC", "9th century BC", "120s BC", "26th century", "850s", "1300s (decade)", "2610s", "23rd century BC", "390s BC", "1200s BC (decade)", "670s BC", "460s", "70s BC", "900s BC (decade)", "1010s BC", "410s BC", "280s", "270s BC", "history", "1650s BC", "2780s", "1000s BC (decade)", "List of years", "1830s", "1260s", "860s", "800s (decade)", "920s BC", "380s", "130s BC", "1920s", "6th century BC", "1430s", "2190s", "1330s", "430s BC", "2290s", "990s BC", "2620s", "1240s", "20th century", "1st century", "19th century", "870s BC", "260s", "decade", "25th century BC", "800s BC (decade)", "2270s", "940s", "35th century BC", "90s", "580s", "750s BC", "630s", "730s", "2330s", "340s", "930s", "170s", "230s BC", "1050s BC", "1980s", "1480s BC", "periodization", "760s BC", "550s BC", "530s BC", "7th century", "0s BC", "2170s", "10th century BC", "1110s BC", "1150s BC", "2260s", "290s", "1230s BC", "2220s", "1350s BC", "1280s BC", "110s BC", "1090s BC", "1730s", "900s (decade)", "8th millennium BC", "10s BC", "1500s (decade)", "850s BC", "2730s", "List of timelines", "640s BC", "21st century", "1520s", "10th century", "1210s", "1250s BC", "3rd century", "1550s BC", "980s BC", "1120s", "11th century BC", "1790s", "1190s", "150s BC", "2400s", "1300s BC (decade)", "2840s", "1420s BC", "180s", "980s", "1970s", "7th millennium BC", "1120s BC", "1900s", "3rd millennium BC", "1390s BC", "2990s", "780s BC", "1360s", "22nd century BC", "2500s", "710s BC", "2230s", "590s", "380s BC", "350s", "1960s", "250s", "220s", "2050s", "40th century BC", "13th millennium BC", "600s BC (decade)", "15th century BC", "2090s", "2200s", "2800s", "1290s BC", "1870s", "820s BC", "350s BC", "2380s", "830s", "230s", "2810s", "630s BC", "2450s", "1860s", "710s", "2980s", "1440s", "770s BC", "570s BC", "290s BC", "160s", "2020s", "1170s BC", "790s", "36th century BC", "2750s", "30s", "40s BC", "1660s", "1690s BC", "15th century", "650s", "220s BC", "17th century", "1950s", "1640s", "23rd century", "2720s", "2820s", "28th century", "1620s BC", "690s", "680s", "1150s", "19th century BC", "1320s BC", "480s", "400s (decade)", "400s BC (decade)", "2390s", "9th century", "1340s", "100s (decade)", "620s", "2680s", "14th millennium BC", "1220s BC", "3rd century BC", "1480s", "2440s", "5th century BC", "2120s", "150s", "1000s (decade)", "730s BC", "470s BC", "920s", "31st century BC", "250s BC", "1780s BC", "1260s BC", "1460s", "1010s", "1550s", "1700s BC (decade)", "1540s", "1510s BC", "70s" ]
8,081	Douglas Engelbart	Douglas Carl Engelbart (January 30, 1925 – July 2, 2013) was an American engineer, inventor, and a pioneer in many aspects of computer science. He is best known for his work on founding the field of human–computer interaction, particularly while at his Augmentation Research Center Lab in SRI International, which resulted in creation of the computer mouse, and the development of hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to graphical user interfaces. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968. Engelbart's law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him. NLS, the "oN-Line System", developed by the Augmentation Research Center under Engelbart's guidance with funding primarily from ARPA (as DARPA was then known), demonstrated numerous technologies, most of which are now in widespread use; it included the computer mouse, bitmapped screens, word processing, and hypertext; all of which were displayed at "The Mother of All Demos" in 1968. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, and NLS was renamed Augment (now the Doug Engelbart Institute). At both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them and retired in 1986. In 1988, Engelbart and his daughter Christina launched the Bootstrap Institute – later known as The Doug Engelbart Institute – to promote his vision, especially at Stanford University; this effort did result in some DARPA funding to modernize the user interface of Augment. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the U.S.'s highest technology award. In December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th anniversary of the "Mother of All Demos". == Early life and education == Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon, on January 30, 1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and Gladys Charlotte Amelia Munson Engelbart. His ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent. He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne (three years older), and a brother David (14 months younger). The family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later. He graduated from Portland's Franklin High School in 1942. Midway through his undergraduate years at Oregon State University, he served two years in the United States Navy as a radio and radar technician in the Philippines. He returned to Oregon State and completed his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity. He was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing. It was there he met Ballard Fish (August 18, 1928 – June 18, 1997), who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married in Portola State Park on May 5, 1951. Soon after, Engelbart left Ames to pursue graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley. At Berkeley, he studied electrical engineering with a specialty in computers, earning his MS in 1953 and his PhD in 1955. == Career and accomplishments == === Guiding philosophy === Engelbart's career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no career goals other than "a steady job, getting married and living happily ever after". Over several months he reasoned that: he would focus his career on making the world a better place any serious effort to make the world better would require some kind of organized effort that harnessed the collective human intellect of all people to contribute to effective solutions. if you could dramatically improve how we do that, you'd be boosting every effort on the planet to solve important problems – the sooner the better computers could be the vehicle for dramatically improving this capability. a call to action for making knowledge widely available as a national peacetime grand challenge. He had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen. He envisioned intellectual workers sitting at display "working stations", flying through information space, harnessing their collective intellectual capacity to solve important problems together in much more powerful ways. Harnessing collective intellect, facilitated by interactive computers, became his life's mission at a time when computers were viewed as number crunching tools. As a graduate student at Berkeley, he assisted in the construction of CALDIC. His graduate work led to eight patents. After completing his doctorate, Engelbart stayed on at Berkeley as an assistant professor for a year before departing when it became clear that he could not pursue his vision there. Engelbart then formed a startup company, Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctoral research on storage devices, but after a year decided instead to pursue the research he had been dreaming of since 1951. === SRI and the Augmentation Research Center === Engelbart took a position at SRI International (known then as Stanford Research Institute) in Menlo Park, California in 1957. He worked for Hewitt Crane on magnetic devices and miniaturization of electronics; Engelbart and Crane became close friends. At SRI, Engelbart soon obtained a dozen patents, Among other highlights, this paper introduced "Building Information Modelling", which architectural and engineering practice eventually adopted (first as "parametric design") in the 1990s and after. This led to funding from ARPA to launch his work. Engelbart recruited a research team in his new Augmentation Research Center (ARC, the lab he founded at SRI). Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed "bootstrapping strategy". He designed the strategy to accelerate the rate of innovation of his lab. The ARC became the driving force behind the design and development of the oN-Line System (NLS). He and his team developed computer interface elements such as bitmapped screens, the mouse, hypertext, collaborative tools, and precursors to the graphical user interface. He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most computers were inaccessible to individuals who could only use computers through intermediaries (see batch processing), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems. Engelbart applied for a patent in 1967 and received it in 1970, for the wooden shell with two metal wheels (computer mouse – ), which he had developed with Bill English, his lead engineer, sometime before 1965. In the patent application it is described as an "X-Y position indicator for a display system". Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the "mouse" because the tail came out the end. His group also called the on-screen cursor a "bug", but this term was not widely adopted. Engelbart's original cursor was displayed as an arrow pointing upward, but was slanted to the left upon its deployment in the XEROX PARC machine to better distinguish between on-screen text and the cursor in the machine's low-resolution interface. The now-familiar cursor arrow is characterized by a vertical left side and a 45-degree angle on the right. He never received any royalties for the invention of the mouse. During an interview, he said, "SRI patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later it was learned that they had licensed it to Apple Computer for something like $40,000." Engelbart showcased the chorded keyboard and many more of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at The Mother of All Demos. === Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas === Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity by the mid-1970s. As early as 1970, several of his researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for Xerox PARC, in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing. Engelbart retired from McDonnell Douglas in 1986, determined to pursue his work free from commercial pressure. while participating in a larger program addressing the IT requirements of the Joint Task Force. Engelbart was Founder Emeritus of the Doug Engelbart Institute, which he founded in 1988 with his daughter Christina Engelbart, who is executive director. The Institute promotes Engelbart's philosophy for boosting Collective IQ—the concept of dramatically improving how we can solve important problems together—using a strategic bootstrapping approach for accelerating our progress toward that goal. In 2005, Engelbart received a National Science Foundation grant to fund the open source HyperScope project. The Hyperscope team built a browser component using Ajax and Dynamic HTML designed to replicate Augment's multiple viewing and jumping capabilities (linking within and across various documents). === Later years and death === Engelbart attended the Program for the Future 2010 Conference where hundreds of people convened at The Tech Museum in San Jose and online to engage in dialog about how to pursue his vision to augment collective intelligence. The most complete coverage of Engelbart's bootstrapping ideas can be found in Boosting Our Collective IQ, by Douglas C. Engelbart, 1995. This includes three of Engelbart's key papers, edited into book form by Yuri Rubinsky and Christina Engelbart to commemorate the presentation of the 1995 SoftQuad Web Award to Doug Engelbart at the World Wide Web conference in Boston in December 1995. Only 2,000 softcover copies were printed, and 100 hardcover, numbered and signed by Engelbart and Tim Berners-Lee. Engelbart's book is now being republished by the Doug Engelbart Institute. Two comprehensive histories of Engelbart's laboratory and work are in What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry by John Markoff and A Heritage of Innovation: SRI's First Half Century by Donald Neilson. Other books on Engelbart and his laboratory include Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing by Thierry Bardini and The Engelbart Hypothesis: Dialogs with Douglas Engelbart, by Valerie Landau and Eileen Clegg in conversation with Douglas Engelbart. All four of these books are based on interviews with Engelbart as well as other contributors in his laboratory. Engelbart served on the Advisory Boards of the University of Santa Clara Center for Science, Technology, and Society, Foresight Institute, Engelbart had four children, Gerda, Diana, Christina and Norman with his first wife Ballard, who died in 1997 after 47 years of marriage. He remarried on January 26, 2008, to writer and producer Karen O'Leary Engelbart. An 85th birthday celebration was held at the Tech Museum of Innovation. Engelbart died at his home in Atherton, California, on July 2, 2013, due to kidney failure. A close friend and fellow computer scientist, Ted Nelson, gave a speech paying tribute to Engelbart. According to the Doug Engelbart Institute, his death came after a long battle with Alzheimer's disease, which he was diagnosed with in 2007. Engelbart was 88 and was survived by his second wife, the four children from his first marriage, and nine grandchildren. Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the principle of linguistic relativity developed by Benjamin Lee Whorf. Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved technologies. He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work. In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award. In 1997, he was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the ACM Turing Award. He was inducted into National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998. Engelbart was awarded the Stibitz-Wilson Award from the American Computer & Robotics Museum in 1998. Also in 1998, Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) SIGCHI awarded Engelbart the CHI Lifetime Achievement Award. ACM SIGCHI later inducted Engelbart into the CHI Academy in 2002. In December 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the country's highest technology award. In 2001 he was awarded the British Computer Society's Lovelace Medal. In 2005, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for advancing the study of human–computer interaction, developing the mouse input device, and for the application of computers to improving organizational efficiency." Robert X. Cringely did an hour-long interview with Engelbart on December 9, 2005, in his NerdTV video podcast series. On December 9, 2008, Engelbart was honored at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 "Mother of All Demos". The event was produced by SRI International and held at Memorial Auditorium at Stanford University. Speakers included several members of Engelbart's original Augmentation Research Center (ARC) team including Don Andrews, Bill Paxton, Bill English, and Jeff Rulifson, Engelbart's chief government sponsor Bob Taylor, and other pioneers of interactive computing, including Andy van Dam and Alan Kay. In addition, Christina Engelbart spoke about her father's early influences and the ongoing work of the Doug Engelbart Institute. In 2011, Engelbart was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame. Engelbart received the first honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree from Yale University in May 2011.	[ "Communications of the ACM", "BBC News Online", "Benjamin Lee Whorf", "Honorary degree", "Stanford University", "British Computer Society", "Building Information Modelling", "chorded keyboard", "Alzheimer's disease", "Engineering.com", "Thierry Bardini", "United States Navy", "Alan Kay", "List of pioneers in computer science", "Atherton, California", "Vannevar Bush", "coevolution", "the Tech Museum of Innovation", "Mouse (computing)", "Philippines", "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis", "Ajax (programming)", "Rowena Swanson", "Norwegians", "Engelbart's law", "Cursor (user interface)", "National Medal of Technology and Innovation", "bitmap", "University of California, Berkeley", "Human–computer interaction", "graphical user interface", "National Science Foundation", "timesharing", "batch processing", "Archive.org", "Air Force Office of Scientific Research", "Groupware", "Robert X. Cringely", "Bill English (computer engineer)", "Jeff Rulifson", "Stanford University Libraries", "Computer History Museum", "History of Technology (magazine)", "Hartford Courant", "SRI International", "Gizmodo", "Germans", "Portland, Oregon", "Dynamic knowledge repository", "computer science", "PhD", "The Mother of All Demos", "IEEE Intelligent Systems", "As We May Think", "parametric design", "Tim Berners-Lee", "CHI Academy", "artificial intelligence", "NLS (computer system)", "Turing Award", "Apple Computer", "patent", "IEEE Computer Society", "National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics", "kidney failure", "University of Santa Clara Center for Science, Technology, and Society", "Association for Computing Machinery", "Sigma Phi Epsilon", "Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award", "Boston", "McDonnell Douglas", "human–computer interaction", "Valerie Landau", "Macworld", "John Robert Woodyard", "DARPA", "Lemelson-MIT Prize", "Hypertext", "electrical engineering", "Andy van Dam", "Franklin High School (Portland, Oregon)", "Eileen Clegg", "Norbert Wiener Award for Social and Professional Responsibility", "Xerox PARC", "John Markoff", "assistant professor", "Oregon State University", "Foresight Institute", "Yuri Rubinsky", "bootstrapping", "Erhard Seminars Training", "Institute for the Future", "Lemelson–MIT Prize", "Robert Taylor (computer scientist)", "Apollo program", "New Media Consortium", "symposium", "radar", "Computer mouse", "CALDIC", "collective intelligence", "Augmentation Research Center", "Portola State Park", "SIGCHI", "NerdTV", "The Franklin Institute Awards", "hypertext", "The Washington Post", "Bill Clinton", "Yale University", "Tymshare", "Lovelace Medal", "NASA", "Mike Mansfield", "Leyte", "National Inventors Hall of Fame", "vertical application", "American Computer & Robotics Museum", "computer mouse", "Menlo Park, California", "Global brain", "Yale Daily News", "The New York Times", "National Medal of Technology", "Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility", "Ted Nelson", "Ames Research Center", "M.S.", "Hewitt Crane", "Bertram Raphael", "Interactive computing", "Swedes", "Dynamic HTML", "Vietnam War", "personal computer" ]
8,082	Diamond	Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. Diamond as a form of carbon is tasteless, odourless, strong, brittle solid, colourless in pure form, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure, but diamond is metastable and converts to it at a negligible rate under those conditions. Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools. They are also the reason that diamond anvil cells can subject materials to pressures found deep in the Earth. Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it (two exceptions are boron and nitrogen). Small numbers of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) can color a diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange, or red. Diamond also has a very high refractive index and a relatively high optical dispersion. Most natural diamonds have ages between 1 billion and 3.5 billion years. Most were formed at depths between in the Earth's mantle, although a few have come from as deep as . Under high pressure and temperature, carbon-containing fluids dissolved various minerals and replaced them with diamonds. Much more recently (hundreds to tens of million years ago), they were carried to the surface in volcanic eruptions and deposited in igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gases by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Natural and synthetic diamonds are most commonly distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements. == Properties == Diamond is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal. Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common allotropes of pure carbon are diamond and graphite. In graphite, the bonds are sp2 orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes, with each bound to three nearest neighbors, 120 degrees apart. In diamond, they are sp3 and the atoms form tetrahedra, with each bound to four nearest neighbors. Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, and, of all known substances, diamond has the greatest number of atoms per unit volume, which is why it is both the hardest and the least compressible. It also has a high density, ranging from 3150 to 3530 kilograms per cubic metre (over three times the density of water) in natural diamonds and 3520 kg/m in pure diamond. In graphite, the bonds between nearest neighbors are even stronger, but the bonds between parallel adjacent planes are weak, so the planes easily slip past each other. Thus, graphite is much softer than diamond. However, the stronger bonds make graphite less flammable. Diamonds have been adopted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. It has the highest thermal conductivity and the highest sound velocity. It has low adhesion and friction, and its coefficient of thermal expansion is extremely low. Its optical transparency extends from the far infrared to the deep ultraviolet and it has high optical dispersion. It also has high electrical resistance. It is chemically inert, not reacting with most corrosive substances, and has excellent biological compatibility. === Thermodynamics === The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond are well established theoretically and experimentally. The equilibrium pressure varies linearly with temperature, between at and at (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point). However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At standard temperature and pressure, and , the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable, with a significant kinetic energy barrier that the atoms must overcome in order to reach the lower energy state, and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible, with a timescale of millions to billions of years. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at , a pressure of (about 350,000 standard atmospheres) is needed. At high pressures, silicon and germanium have a BC8 body-centered cubic crystal structure, and a similar structure is predicted for carbon at high pressures. At , the transition is predicted to occur at . Results published in Nature Physics in 2010 suggest that, at ultra-high pressures and temperatures (about 10 million atmospheres or 1 TPa and 50,000 °C), diamond melts into a metallic fluid. The extreme conditions required for this to occur are present in the ice giant planets Neptune and Uranus, both of which are made up of approximately 10 percent carbon and could hypothetically contain oceans of liquid carbon. Since large quantities of metallic fluid can affect the magnetic field, this could serve to explain why the geographic and magnetic poles of the two planets are not aligned. === Crystal structure === The most common crystal structure of diamond is called diamond cubic. It is formed of unit cells (see the figure) stacked together. Although there are 18 atoms in the figure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells and each atom in the center of a face is shared by two, so there are a total of eight atoms per unit cell. The length of each side of the unit cell is denoted by a and is 3.567 angstroms. The nearest neighbor distance in the diamond lattice is 1.732a/4 where a is the lattice constant, usually given in Angstrøms as a = 3.567 Å, which is 0.3567 nm. A diamond cubic lattice can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices with one displaced by of the diagonal along a cubic cell, or as one lattice with two atoms associated with each lattice point. === Crystal habit === Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron, or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded-off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin. Some diamonds contain opaque fibers. They are referred to as opaque if the fibers grow from a clear substrate or fibrous if they occupy the entire crystal. Their colors range from yellow to green or gray, sometimes with cloud-like white to gray impurities. Their most common shape is cuboidal, but they can also form octahedra, dodecahedra, macles, or combined shapes. The structure is the result of numerous impurities with sizes between 1 and 5 microns. These diamonds probably formed in kimberlite magma and sampled the volatiles. Diamonds can also form polycrystalline aggregates. There have been attempts to classify them into groups with names such as boart, ballas, stewartite, and framesite, but there is no widely accepted set of criteria. It has never been observed in a volcanic rock. There are many theories for its origin, including formation in a star, but no consensus. === Mechanical === ==== Hardness ==== Diamond is the hardest material on the qualitative Mohs scale. To conduct the quantitative Vickers hardness test, samples of materials are struck with a pyramid of standardized dimensions using a known force – a diamond crystal is used for the pyramid to permit a wide range of materials to be tested. From the size of the resulting indentation, a Vickers hardness value for the material can be determined. Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. This does not mean that it is infinitely hard, indestructible, or unscratchable. Indeed, diamonds can be scratched by other diamonds and worn down over time even by softer materials, such as vinyl phonograph records. Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection, and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates. The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day. The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature. these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds "by eye". ==== Toughness ==== Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 50–65 MPa·m1/2. This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughness over 80MPa·m1/2. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones before faceting them. This exceptionally high value, along with the hardness and transparency of diamond, are the reasons that diamond anvil cells are the main tool for high pressure experiments. These anvils have reached pressures of . Much higher pressures may be possible with nanocrystalline diamonds. with a maximum local tensile stress of about , very close to the theoretical limit for this material. === Electrical conductivity === Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators. The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band. Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments. Thin needles of diamond can be made to vary their electronic band gap from the normal 5.6 eV to near zero by selective mechanical deformation. High-purity diamond wafers 5 cm in diameter exhibit perfect resistance in one direction and perfect conductance in the other, creating the possibility of using them for quantum data storage. The material contains only 3 parts per million of nitrogen. The diamond was grown on a stepped substrate, which eliminated cracking. === Surface property === Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot be wet by water, but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds. However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature. The surface of diamonds is partially oxidized. The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow. That is to say, this heat treatment partially removes oxygen-containing functional groups. But diamonds (sp3C) are unstable against high temperature (above about ) under atmospheric pressure. The structure gradually changes into sp2C above this temperature. Thus, diamonds should be reduced below this temperature. === Chemical stability === At room temperature, diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases. In an atmosphere of pure oxygen, diamond has an ignition point that ranges from to ; smaller crystals tend to burn more easily. It increases in temperature from red to white heat and burns with a pale blue flame, and continues to burn after the source of heat is removed. By contrast, in air the combustion will cease as soon as the heat is removed because the oxygen is diluted with nitrogen. A clear, flawless, transparent diamond is completely converted to carbon dioxide; any impurities will be left as ash. Heat generated from cutting a diamond will not ignite the diamond, and neither will a cigarette lighter, but house fires and blow torches are hot enough. Jewelers must be careful when molding the metal in a diamond ring. Diamond powder of an appropriate grain size (around 50microns) burns with a shower of sparks after ignition from a flame. Consequently, pyrotechnic compositions based on synthetic diamond powder can be prepared. The resulting sparks are of the usual red-orange color, comparable to charcoal, but show a very linear trajectory which is explained by their high density. Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about . === Color === Diamond has a wide band gap of corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225nanometers. This means that pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong, and only atoms of nitrogen, boron, and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation. Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds. In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red. In May 2009, a blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euros, or US$9.5 million at the time). That record was, however, beaten the same year: a vivid pink diamond was sold for US$10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009. === Clarity === Clarity is one of the 4C's (color, clarity, cut and carat weight) that helps in identifying the quality of diamonds. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) developed 11 clarity scales to decide the quality of a diamond for its sale value. The GIA clarity scale spans from Flawless (FL) to included (I) having internally flawless (IF), very, very slightly included (VVS), very slightly included (VS) and slightly included (SI) in between. Impurities in natural diamonds are due to the presence of natural minerals and oxides. The clarity scale grades the diamond based on the color, size, location of impurity and quantity of clarity visible under 10x magnification. Inclusions in diamond can be extracted by optical methods. The process is to take pre-enhancement images, identifying the inclusion removal part and finally removing the diamond facets and noises. === Fluorescence === Between 25% and 35% of natural diamonds exhibit some degree of fluorescence when examined under invisible long-wave ultraviolet light or higher energy radiation sources such as X-rays and lasers. Incandescent lighting will not cause a diamond to fluoresce. Diamonds can fluoresce in a variety of colors including blue (most common), orange, yellow, white, green and very rarely red and purple. Although the causes are not well understood, variations in the atomic structure, such as the number of nitrogen atoms present are thought to contribute to the phenomenon. === Thermal conductivity === Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity (900–). Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. == Geology == Diamonds are extremely rare, with concentrations of at most parts per billion in source rock. Rarely, they have been found in glacial till (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana), but these deposits are not of commercial quality. Most diamonds come from the Earth's mantle, and most of this section discusses those diamonds. However, there are other sources. Some blocks of the crust, or terranes, have been buried deep enough as the crust thickened so they experienced ultra-high-pressure metamorphism. These have evenly distributed microdiamonds that show no sign of transport by magma. In addition, when meteorites strike the ground, the shock wave can produce high enough temperatures and pressures for microdiamonds and nanodiamonds to form. Popigai impact structure in Russia may have the world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, and formed by an asteroid impact. A common misconception is that diamonds form from highly compressed coal. Coal is formed from buried prehistoric plants, and most diamonds that have been dated are far older than the first land plants. It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones, but diamonds formed in this way are rare, and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal. === Surface distribution === Diamonds are far from evenly distributed over the Earth. A rule of thumb known as Clifford's rule states that they are almost always found in kimberlites on the oldest part of cratons, the stable cores of continents with typical ages of 2.5billion years or more. However, there are exceptions. The Argyle diamond mine in Australia, the largest producer of diamonds by weight in the world, is located in a mobile belt, also known as an orogenic belt, a weaker zone surrounding the central craton that has undergone compressional tectonics. Instead of kimberlite, the host rock is lamproite. Lamproites with diamonds that are not economically viable are also found in the United States, India, and Australia. It is hybrid rock with a chaotic mixture of small minerals and rock fragments (clasts) up to the size of watermelons. They are a mixture of xenocrysts and xenoliths (minerals and rocks carried up from the lower crust and mantle), pieces of surface rock, altered minerals such as serpentine, and new minerals that crystallized during the eruption. The texture varies with depth. The composition forms a continuum with carbonatites, but the latter have too much oxygen for carbon to exist in a pure form. Instead, it is locked up in the mineral calcite ().]] Most gem-quality diamonds come from depths of 150–250 km in the lithosphere. Such depths occur below cratons in mantle keels, the thickest part of the lithosphere. These regions have high enough pressure and temperature to allow diamonds to form and they are not convecting, so diamonds can be stored for billions of years until a kimberlite eruption samples them. === Carbon sources === The mantle has roughly one billion gigatonnes of carbon (for comparison, the atmosphere-ocean system has about 44,000 gigatonnes). Carbon has two stable isotopes, 12C and 13C, in a ratio of approximately 99:1 by mass. Another one was found in the Ellendale Diamond Field in Western Australia in 2021. === In space === Although diamonds on Earth are rare, they are very common in space. In meteorites, about three percent of the carbon is in the form of nanodiamonds, having diameters of a few nanometers. Sufficiently small diamonds can form in the cold of space because their lower surface energy makes them more stable than graphite. The isotopic signatures of some nanodiamonds indicate they were formed outside the Solar System in stars. High pressure experiments predict that large quantities of diamonds condense from methane into a "diamond rain" on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune. Some extrasolar planets may be almost entirely composed of diamond. Diamonds may exist in carbon-rich stars, particularly white dwarfs. One theory for the origin of carbonado, the toughest form of diamond, is that it originated in a white dwarf or supernova. Diamonds formed in stars may have been the first minerals. == Industry == The most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The markets for gem-grade and industrial-grade diamonds value diamonds differently. === Gem-grade diamonds === The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are its mass in carats (a carat being equal to 0.2grams), cut (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), color (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and clarity (how free is it from inclusions). A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon. A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Although most gem-grade diamonds are sold newly polished, there is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; in 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India. Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, the Diamond District in New York City, the Diamond Exchange District in Tel Aviv and Amsterdam. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large-pit mine that can produce between of diamonds per year). Secondary alluvial diamond deposits, on the other hand, tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil). The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled. This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital". The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds. Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales. but by 2001–2009 the figure had decreased to around 45%, and by 2013 the company's market share had further decreased to around 38% in value terms and even less by volume. De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale). This was well documented in the press but remains little known to the general public. As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa. As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada. Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis, but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October 2009. Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP, which is the world's largest mining company; Rio Tinto, the owner of the Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines; and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa. Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the US, Europe and Asia. Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives). The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales. ==== Cutting ==== Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%. Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example, the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape. Some of them may be considered as classical, such as round, pear, marquise, oval, hearts and arrows diamonds, etc. Some of them are special, produced by certain companies, for example, Phoenix, Cushion, Sole Mio diamonds, etc. The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered: The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions. Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept. Splitting a diamond with a hammer is difficult, a well-calculated, angled blow can cut the diamond, piece-by-piece, but it can also ruin the diamond itself. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable method. After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time-consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians. After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced. ==== Marketing ==== Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity. N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N. W. Ayer's marketing included product placement, advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand, and associations with celebrities and royalty. Without advertising the De Beers brand, De Beers was advertising its competitors' diamond products as well, but this was not a concern as De Beers dominated the diamond market throughout the 20th century. De Beers' market share dipped temporarily to second place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29% in terms of carats mined, rather than sold. The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than completely "generic" diamond products. a jewelry firm which is a 50/50% joint venture between the De Beers mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate. Brown-colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even being assessed on the diamond color scale). After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems. The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds; 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown. === Industrial-grade diamonds === Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications. Eighty percent of mined diamonds (equal to about annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and are used industrially. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; in 2014, of synthetic diamonds were produced, 90% of which were produced in China. Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin. The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some lower-grade stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort. Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial applications of this property include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds (bort) with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes. Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high-pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows. === Mining === Approximately of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about are synthesized annually. Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world. Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India. India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725. Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of have been mined since that date. Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia. In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana. The Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas is open to the public, and is the only mine in the world where members of the public can dig for diamonds. In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, according to the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42metric tons per year in the 1990s. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil. The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. According to the International Diamond Manufacturers Association, conflict diamonds constitute 2–3% of all diamonds traded. Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean". to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds. Mineral resource exploitation in general causes irreversible environmental damage, which must be weighed against the socio-economic benefits to a country. == Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements == === Synthetics === Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size. The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so-called high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processes. The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis. Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them into chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch, or laser. This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture). Mining companies' expenses average 40 to 60 US dollars per carat for natural colorless diamonds, while synthetic manufacturers' expenses average for synthetic, gem-quality colorless diamonds. File:HPHTdiamonds2.JPG\|alt=Six crystals of cubo-octahedral shapes, each about 2 millimeters in diameter. Two are pale blue, one is pale yellow, one is green-blue, one is dark blue and one green-yellow.\|Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature technique File:Apollo synthetic diamond.jpg\|alt=A round, clear gemstone with many facets, the main face being hexagonal, surrounded by many smaller facets.\|Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition === Simulants === A diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond, and may be referred to as diamante. Cubic zirconia is the most common. The gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly to produce than cubic zirconia. Both are produced synthetically. === Enhancements === Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond. Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like" appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment. === Identification === Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about two to three seconds. Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds. "Perfect" crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other. Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D–J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D–Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers. Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds. Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp), Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp), and D-Secure (DRC Techno). == Etymology, earliest use and composition discovery == The name diamond is derived from (adámas), 'proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed', from ἀ- (a-), 'not' + (damáō), 'to overpower, tame'. Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna, and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000years but most likely 6,000years. Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history. The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns. In 1772, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later, in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, he established the chemical equivalence of these substances.	[ "Antwerpsche Diamantkring", "metasomatism", "Washington, D.C.", "crystal twinning", "Exchange (organized market)", "polishing", "Pressure experiment", "Popular Mechanics", "Cubic zirconia", "Ellendale Diamond Field", "Uranus", "West Africa", "plasma (physics)", "Brazil", "National Science Foundation", "allotropes of carbon", "irradiation", "toughness", "nickel", "band gap", "window", "silicon", "Samarium–neodymium dating", "allotrope", "Bingara", "carbon dioxide", "Canada", "Sakha Republic", "Cushion Cut Diamond", "triple point", "surface energy", "craton", "HPHT", "breccia", "Serpentine subgroup", "Mohs scale of mineral hardness", "Standard temperature and pressure", "H-M symbol", "lamprophyre", "gravimetry", "isotopic signature", "asthenosphere", "serpentinite", "angstrom", "Mir Mine", "kimberlite", "Marquise Cut Diamond", "Subduction", "heat sink", "hearts and arrows", "oxygen", "diamond anvil", "New England (Australia)", "wind", "a diamond is forever", "bearing (mechanical)", "diamond color", "calcite", "refractive index", "London", "Gemological Institute of America", "Synthetic diamond", "United Nations", "octahedron", "Colorado", "metamorphic", "spectral color", "The Economist", "central Africa", "Russia", "wiktionary:ἀ-", "thermistor", "weathering", "insulator (electricity)", "Australia", "The Washington Post", "Applied Physics Letters", "PBS", "Diamond Fields", "Northwest Territories", "carbonatite", "ultra-high-pressure metamorphism", "Distribution (business)", "Silicon dioxide", "Physical Review B", "Cubic crystal system", "Transition zone (Earth)", "cleavage plane", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A", "chemical vapor deposition of diamond", "rhombicosidodecahedron", "diamond saw", "BHP", "planet", "carbon flaw", "human history", "Diamond cut", "facet", "compressibility", "Kingdoms of Ancient India", "Nova (American TV program)", "EUR-Lex", "hydrophile", "hydrogen", "drill bit", "CNBC", "United States Geological Survey", "Diamond District", "Krishna district", "New York City", "orogeny", "pyrotechnic composition", "List of minerals", "Algoman orogeny", "Neptune", "kimberlite pipe", "hydrophobe", "unit cell", "Mohs scale", "The Montana Standard", "Tel Aviv", "Indiana", "The Daily Telegraph", "Electronics Letters", "olivine", "Oval Cut Diamond", "Amsterdam", "glacial till", "Carbonado", "paramilitary", "annealing (metallurgy)", "Detonation nanodiamond", "symmetry", "List of diamond mines", "clastic rock", "photoluminescence", "redox", "Guntur district", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "Diamondoid", "Volatility (chemistry)", "Butterworth-Heinemann", "rough diamond", "peridotite", "ballas", "Alrosa", "The Atlantic (magazine)", "amphibole", "alluvial deposit", "Swiss Gemmological Institute", "chemical vapor deposition", "Vickers hardness test", "metastable", "Argyle diamond mine", "electronics", "icon", "shore", "Cecil Rhodes", "Smithson Tennant", "X-ray", "carbide", "volcanic eruption", "Transparency (optics)", "Native element minerals", "Perseus Project", "Nature Physics", "Fracture toughness", "magnesium", "Western Australia", "cobalt", "euhedral", "Antoine Lavoisier", "far infrared", "sediment transport", "ice giant", "Superior craton", "lattice defect", "Megapascal", "crystal structure", "blood diamond", "orbital hybridisation", "boart", "Earth", "lipophilicity", "diamond anvil cell", "John Wiley & Sons", "The Atlantic", "Botswana", "loupe", "X-ray diffraction", "Matryoshka (diamond)", "Adamantine lustre", "ice", "New South Wales", "Diamond Exchange District", "terrane", "lamproite", "biotite", "macle", "microwaves", "diamond cubic", "white dwarf", "Premier Mine", "nitrogen", "Panna District", "thermal conductivity", "Diavik Diamond Mine", "semiconductor", "inclusion (mineral)", "diamond enhancement", "melilite", "electric arc", "Decennial Mineral Exploration Conferences", "pyroxene", "germanium", "Gujarat", "4 Cs", "Copeton Dam", "phlogopite", "engagement ring", "Platform (geology)", "radical (chemistry)", "Aggregated diamond nanorod", "phonograph record", "graphite", "aeromagnetic survey", "thermal expansion", "supernova", "lonsdaleite", "face-centered cubic", "Dispersion (optics)", "X-ray fluorescence", "Rhenium–osmium dating", "crystal growth", "2000s energy crisis", "diamond-like carbon", "stable nuclide", "coal", "carbon-13", "Diamond color", "World Federation of Diamond Bourses", "harzburgite", "diamantaire", "Octahedral", "magnesium oxide", "Smithsonian (magazine)", "ignition point", "Southern India", "methane", "Surat", "basalt", "Rubidium–strontium dating", "British Geological Survey", "Institution of Engineering and Technology", "Guerrilla News Network", "Wisconsin", "xenocryst", "cathodoluminescence", "garnet", "upper mantle (Earth)", "Arkansas", "sintering", "Cambridge University Press", "Scratch hardness", "Thailand", "hot filament", "Popigai impact structure", "World Diamond Congress", "Diamond cutting", "Uranium–lead dating", "subduction zone", "silicon carbide", "Mantle (geology)", "optical dispersion", "welding torch", "abrasive", "Time (magazine)", "lherzolite", "Spiegel Online", "boron nitride", "Carbon", "geophysical survey", "crystal lattice", "ferrous", "boron", "IEEE", "Godavari River", "National Geographic", "blue diamond", "Jewelers of America", "carbonate", "Southern Africa", "nanocrystalline material", "photosynthesis", "International Gemological Institute", "Calcium", "Kimberlite", "Allotropes of carbon", "Raman spectroscopy", "Antwerp diamond district", "De Beers", "Montana", "Shield (geology)", "majorite", "List of diamonds", "Paragon (diamond)", "ultraviolet", "Argon–argon dating", "Kimberley Process", "wedding ring", "qualitative property", "adornment", "Superhard material", "Udachnaya pipe", "doping (semiconductor)", "Ice VII", "eclogite", "Diamond Trading Company", "kalsilite", "valence band", "Miller index", "plastic deformation", "Wittelsbach Diamond", "Pear Cut Diamond", "meteorite", "alloy", "Belgium", "World Diamond Council", "LVMH", "Chemical and Engineering News", "bort", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "disdyakis dodecahedron", "Pyroclastic rock", "synthetic diamond", "N. W. Ayer & Son", "Bain and Company", "Northeastern Japan arc", "lithosphere", "igneous rock", "India", "New Mexico", "standard temperature and pressure", "Routledge", "Penner River", "Penguin Books", "xenolith", "human rights abuses", "mantle (geology)", "Crater of Diamonds State Park", "Oxygen", "exsolution", "hydrocarbon", "scanning electron microscope", "intrusive rock", "carbonado", "Rio Tinto (corporation)", "International Diamond Council", "unit of measurement", "tonne", "electrical resistivity tomography", "Carat (unit)", "cube (geometry)", "Krishna River", "List of largest rough diamonds", "Phoenix Cut Diamond", "Murowa diamond mine", "product placement", "geothermobarometry", "Physics World", "carbon-12", "hydraulic fracturing", "tetrakis hexahedron", "nanodiamond", "laser", "Central Africa", "Chemical stability", "Grinding (abrasive cutting)", "water", "Sole Mio Cut Diamond", "Diamond clarity", "Northern Australia", "aspect ratio", "Jwaneng diamond mine", "Deep carbon cycle", "embryophyte", "moissanite", "human body temperature", "Petra Diamonds" ]
8,083	Dr. Dre	Andre Romell Young (born February 18, 1965), known professionally as Dr. Dre, is an American rapper, record producer, record executive, and actor. He is the founder and CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics, and co-founder of Death Row Records. Dre began his career as a member of the World Class Wreckin' Cru in 1984, and later found fame with the gangsta rap group N.W.A. The group popularized explicit lyrics in hip-hop to detail the violence of street life. During the early 1990s, Dre was credited as a key figure in the crafting and popularization of West Coast G-funk, a subgenre of hip-hop characterized by a synthesizer foundation and slow, heavy production. Released as Death Row's first major project, Dr. Dre's debut solo album, The Chronic (1992), made him one of the best-selling American music artists of 1993. Its lead single, "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" (featuring Snoop Dogg), peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, while its third, Let Me Ride" won Best Rap Solo Performance at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards. That same year, he produced Death Row labelmate Snoop Dogg's debut album Doggystyle, and mentored producers such as his stepbrother Warren G (leading to the multi-platinum debut Regulate... G Funk Era in 1994) and Snoop Dogg's cousin Daz Dillinger (leading to the double-platinum debut Dogg Food by Tha Dogg Pound in 1995). In 1996, Dre left Death Row Records to establish his own label, Aftermath Entertainment; his compilation album, Dr. Dre Presents: The Aftermath (1996) and second studio album, 2001 (1999) followed thereafter. During the 2000s, Dr. Dre shifted focus onto production for other artists, occasionally contributing vocals. He signed Eminem in 1998 and 50 Cent in 2002, while extensively contributing to releases by both artists. Aftermath has since signed other artists including the Game, Kendrick Lamar, Anderson .Paak, Silk Sonic, Busta Rhymes, Eve, and Rakim, among others. He has won seven Grammy Awards, including Producer of the Year, Non-Classical. Rolling Stone ranked him number 56 on the list of 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Outside of music, Dre has acted in films such as Set It Off, The Wash, and Training Day. Accusations of Dr. Dre's violence against women have been widely publicized. In 1991 he pled no contest to his assault of television host Dee Barnes, for which he was given two years' probation; a related civil suit was settled out of court. In 2015, ex-partner Michel'le accused him of domestic violence. Another of his ex-partners made further accusations, and was granted a restraining order against him. Former labelmate Tairrie B claimed that Dre assaulted her at a party in 1990. Following the release of his third album, Compton (2015), he issued a public apology. ==Early life== Andre Romell Young was born in Compton, California, on February 18, 1965, the son of Theodore and Verna Young. His middle name is derived from the Romells, his father's amateur R&B group. His parents married in 1964, separated in 1968, and divorced in 1972. His mother later remarried to Curtis Crayon and had three children: sons Jerome and Tyree (both deceased) and daughter Shameka. In 1976, Dre began attending Vanguard Junior High School in Compton, but due to gang violence, he transferred to the safer suburban Roosevelt Junior High School. The family moved often and lived in apartments and houses in Compton, Carson, Long Beach, and the Watts and South Central neighborhoods of Los Angeles. Dre has said that he was mostly raised by his grandmother in the New Wilmington Arms housing project in Compton. His mother later married Warren Griffin, which added three step-sisters and one step-brother to the family; the latter would eventually begin rapping under the name Warren G. Dre is also the cousin of producer Sir Jinx. Dre attended Centennial High School in Compton during his freshman year in 1979, but transferred to Fremont High School in South Central Los Angeles due to poor grades. He attempted to enroll in an apprenticeship program at Northrop Aviation Company, but was ineligible due to poor grades. Thereafter, he focused on his social life and entertainment for the remainder of his high school years. Dre's frequent absences from school jeopardized his position as a diver on his school's swim team. After high school, he attended Chester Adult School in Compton following his mother's demands for him to get a job or continue his education. After brief attendance at a radio broadcasting school, he relocated to the residence of his father and residence of his grandparents before returning to his mother's house. ==Musical career== ===1984–1986: World Class Wreckin' Cru=== Inspired by the Grandmaster Flash song "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel", Dr. Dre often attended a club called Eve's After Dark to watch many DJs and rappers performing live. He subsequently became a DJ in the club, initially under the name "Dr. J", based on the nickname of Julius Erving, his favorite basketball player. At the club, he met aspiring rapper Antoine Carraby, later to become member DJ Yella of N.W.A. Soon afterwards he adopted the moniker Dr. Dre, a mix of previous alias Dr. J and his first name, referring to himself as the "Master of Mixology". Eve After Dark had a back room with a small four-track studio where Dre and Yella recorded several demos. In their first recording session, they recorded a song entitled "Surgery" in 1984. Dr. Dre's earliest recordings were released in 1994 on a compilation titled Concrete Roots. Critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described the compiled music, released "several years before Dre developed a distinctive style", as "surprisingly generic and unengaging" and "for dedicated fans only". Dre later joined the musical group World Class Wreckin' Cru, which released its debut album under the Kru-Cut label in 1985. The group would become stars of the electro-hop scene that dominated early-mid 1980s West Coast hip-hop. "Surgery", which was officially released after being recorded prior to the group's official formation, would prominently feature Dr. Dre on the turntable. The record would become the group's first hit, selling 50,000 copies within the Compton area. Dr. Dre and DJ Yella also performed mixes for local radio station KDAY, boosting ratings for its afternoon rush-hour show The Traffic Jam. ===1986–1991: N.W.A and Ruthless Records=== In 1986, Dr. Dre met rapper O'Shea Jackson—known as Ice Cube—who collaborated with him to record songs for Ruthless Records, a hip-hop record label run by local rapper Eazy-E. N.W.A and fellow West Coast rapper Ice-T are widely credited as seminal artists of the gangsta rap genre, a profanity-heavy subgenre of hip-hop, replete with gritty depictions of urban crime and gang lifestyle. Not feeling constricted to racially charged political issues pioneered by rap artists such as Public Enemy or Boogie Down Productions, N.W.A favored themes and uncompromising lyrics, offering stark descriptions of violent, inner-city streets. Propelled by the hit "Fuck tha Police", the group's first full album Straight Outta Compton (1989) became a major success, despite an almost complete absence of radio airplay or major concert tours. The Federal Bureau of Investigation sent Ruthless Records a warning letter in response to the song's content. After Ice Cube left N.W.A in 1989 over financial disputes, Dr. Dre produced and performed for much of the group's second album Efil4zaggin. He also produced tracks for a number of other acts on Ruthless Records, including Eazy-E's 1988 solo debut Eazy-Duz-It, Above the Law's 1990 debut Livin' Like Hustlers, Michel'le's 1989 self-titled debut, the D.O.C.'s 1989 debut No One Can Do It Better, J.J. Fad's 1988 debut Supersonic and funk rock musician Jimmy Z's 1991 album Muzical Madness. ===1991–1996: The Chronic and Death Row Records=== After a dispute with Eazy-E, Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in 1991 under the advice of friend, and N.W.A lyricist, the D.O.C. and his bodyguard at the time, Suge Knight. Knight, a notorious strongman and intimidator, was able to have Eazy-E release Young from his contract and, using Dr. Dre as his flagship artist, founded Death Row Records. In 1992, Young released his first single, the title track to the film Deep Cover, a collaboration with rapper Snoop Dogg, whom he met through Warren G. On the strength of singles such as "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", "Let Me Ride", and "Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')" (known as "Dre Day" for radio and television play), all of which featured Snoop Dogg as guest vocalist, The Chronic became a cultural phenomenon, its G-funk sound dominating much of hip-hop music for the early 1990s. and Dr. Dre also won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for his performance on "Let Me Ride". For that year, Billboard magazine also ranked Dr. Dre as the eighth-best-selling musical artist, The Chronic as the sixth-best-selling album, and "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" as the 11th-best-selling single. Besides working on his own material, Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg's debut album Doggystyle, which became the first debut album for an artist to enter the Billboard 200 album charts at number one. In 1994 Dr. Dre produced some songs on the soundtracks to the films Above the Rim and Murder Was the Case. He collaborated with fellow N.W.A member Ice Cube for the song "Natural Born Killaz" in 1995. In 1995, Death Row Records signed rapper 2Pac, and began to position him as their major star: he collaborated with Dr. Dre on the commercially successful single "California Love", which became both artists' first song to top the Billboard Hot 100. However, in March 1996 Young left the label amidst a contract dispute and growing concerns that label boss Suge Knight was corrupt, financially dishonest and out of control. Later that year, he formed his own label, Aftermath Entertainment, under the distribution label for Death Row Records, Interscope Records. Dr. Dre also appeared on the single "No Diggity" by R&B group Blackstreet in 1996: it too was a sales success, topping the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks, and later won the award for Best R&B Vocal by a Duo or Group at the 1997 Grammy Awards. After hearing it for the first time, several of Dr. Dre's former Death Row colleagues, including 2Pac, recorded and attempted to release a song titled "Toss It Up", containing numerous insults aimed at Dr. Dre and using a deliberately similar instrumental to "No Diggity", but were forced to replace the production after Blackstreet sent the label a cease and desist letter stopping them from distributing the song. ===1996–2000: Move to Aftermath Entertainment and 2001=== The Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath album, released on November 26, 1996, featured songs by Dr. Dre himself, as well as by newly signed Aftermath Entertainment artists, and a solo track "Been There, Done That", intended as a symbolic farewell to gangsta rap. Despite being certified platinum by the RIAA, In 1997, Dr. Dre produced several tracks on the Firm's The Album; it was met with largely negative reviews from critics. Rumors began to abound that Aftermath was facing financial difficulties. Aftermath Entertainment also faced a trademark infringement lawsuit by the underground thrash metal band Aftermath. First Round Knock Out, a compilation of various tracks produced and performed by Dr. Dre, was also released in 1996, with material ranging from World Class Wreckin' Cru to N.W.A to Death Row recordings. Dr. Dre chose to take no part in the ongoing East Coast–West Coast hip-hop rivalry of the time, instead producing for, and appearing on, several New York artists' releases, such as Nas' "Nas Is Coming", LL Cool J's "Zoom" and Jay-Z's "Watch Me". The turning point for Aftermath came in 1998, when Dre's close friend, Jimmy Iovine, the co-founder of Interscope Records (parent label for Aftermath), suggested that Dr. Dre sign Eminem, a white rapper from Detroit. Dre produced three songs and provided vocals for two on Eminem's successful and controversial debut album The Slim Shady LP, released in 1999. The Dr. Dre-produced lead single from that album, "My Name Is", brought Eminem to public attention for the first time, and the success of The Slim Shady LP – it reached number two on the Billboard 200 and received general acclaim from critics – revived the label's commercial ambitions and viability. Dr. Dre's second solo album, 2001, released on November 16, 1999, was considered an ostentatious return to his gangsta rap roots. It was initially titled The Chronic 2000 to imply being a sequel to his debut solo effort The Chronic but was re-titled 2001 after Death Row Records released an unrelated compilation album with the title Suge Knight Represents: Chronic 2000 in May 1999. Other tentative titles included The Chronic 2001 and Dr. Dre. and has since been certified six times platinum, Dr. Dre won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical in 2000, ===2000–2010: Focus on production and Detox=== Following the success of 2001, Dr. Dre focused on producing songs and albums for other artists. He co-produced six tracks on Eminem's landmark Marshall Mathers LP, including the Grammy-winning lead single, "The Real Slim Shady". The album itself earned a Grammy and proved to be the fastest-selling rap album of all time, moving 1.76 million units in its first week alone. He produced the single "Family Affair" by R&B singer Mary J. Blige for her album No More Drama in 2001. He also produced "Let Me Blow Ya Mind", a duet by rapper Eve and No Doubt lead singer Gwen Stefani and signed R&B singer Truth Hurts to Aftermath in 2001. Dr. Dre produced and rapped on singer and Interscope labelmate Bilal's 2001 single "Fast Lane", which barely missed the Top 40 of the R&B charts. He later assisted in the production of Bilal's second album, Love for Sale, which Interscope controversially shelved because of its creative direction. Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem's 2002 release, The Eminem Show. He produced three songs on the album, one of which was released as a single, and he appeared in the video for "Without Me". He also produced the D.O.C.'s 2003 album Deuce, where he made a guest appearance on the tracks "Psychic Pymp Hotline", "Gorilla Pympin'" and "Judgment Day". In 2002, Dr. Dre signed rapper 50 Cent to Aftermath in a joint venture between Interscope and Eminem's Shady Records. Dr. Dre served as executive producer for 50 Cent's commercially successful February 2003 debut studio album Get Rich or Die Tryin'. Dr. Dre produced or co-produced four tracks on the album, including the hit single "In da Club". Eminem's fourth album since joining Aftermath, Encore, again saw Dre taking on the role of executive producer, and this time he was more actively involved in the music, producing or co-producing a total of eight tracks, including three singles. Dr. Dre also produced "How We Do", a 2005 hit single from rapper the Game from his album The Documentary, as well as tracks on 50 Cent's successful second album The Massacre. For an issue of Rolling Stone magazine in April 2005, Dr. Dre was ranked 54th out of 100 artists for Rolling Stone magazine's list "The Immortals: The Greatest Artists of All Time". Kanye West wrote the summary for Dr. Dre, where he stated Dr. Dre's song "Xxplosive" as where he "got (his) whole sound from". In November 2006, Dr. Dre began working with Raekwon on his album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II. He also produced tracks for the rap albums Buck the World by Young Buck, Curtis by 50 Cent, Tha Blue Carpet Treatment by Snoop Dogg, and Kingdom Come by Jay-Z. Dre also appeared on Timbaland's track "Bounce", from his 2007 solo album, Timbaland Presents Shock Value alongside, Missy Elliott, and Justin Timberlake. During this period, the D.O.C. stated that Dre had been working with him on his fourth album Voices through Hot Vessels, which he planned to release after Detox arrived. Planned but unreleased albums during Dr. Dre's tenure at Aftermath have included a full-length reunion with Snoop Dogg titled Breakup to Makeup, an album with fellow former N.W.A member Ice Cube which was to be titled Heltah Skeltah, In 2007, Dr. Dre's third studio album, formerly known as Detox, was slated to be his final studio album. Work for the upcoming album dates back to 2001, Later that same year, he decided to stop working on the album to focus on producing for other artists, but then changed his mind; the album had initially been set for a fall 2005 release. Producers confirmed to work on the album include DJ Khalil, Nottz, Bernard "Focus" Edwards Jr., Hi-Tek, J.R. Rotem, RZA, and Jay-Z. Snoop Dogg claimed that Detox was finished, according to a June 2008 report by Rolling Stone magazine. After another delay based on producing other artists' work, Detox was then scheduled for a 2010 release, coming after 50 Cent's Before I Self Destruct and Eminem's Relapse, an album for which Dr. Dre handled the bulk of production duties. In a Dr Pepper commercial that debuted on May 28, 2009, he premiered the first official snippet of Detox. 50 Cent and Eminem asserted in a 2009 interview on BET's 106 & Park that Dr. Dre had around a dozen songs finished for Detox. On December 15, 2008, Dre appeared in the remix of the song "Set It Off" by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall (also with Pusha T); the remix debuted on DJ Skee's radio show. At the beginning of 2009, Dre produced, and made a guest vocal performance on, the single "Crack a Bottle" by Eminem and the single sold a record 418,000 downloads in its first week and reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the week of February 12, 2009. Along with this single, in 2009 Dr. Dre produced or co-produced 19 of 20 tracks on Eminem's album Relapse. These included other hit singles "We Made You", "Old Time's Sake", and "3 a.m." (The only track Dre did not produce was the Eminem-produced single "Beautiful".). On April 20, 2010, "Under Pressure", featuring Jay-Z and co-produced with Scott Storch, was confirmed by Jimmy Iovine and Dr. Dre during an interview at Fenway Park as the album's first single. The song leaked prior to its intended release in an unmixed, unmastered form without a chorus on June 16, 2010; however, critical reaction to the song was lukewarm, and Dr. Dre later announced in an interview that the song, along with any other previously leaked tracks from Detoxs recording process, would not appear on the final version of the album. Two genuine singles – "Kush", a collaboration with Snoop Dogg and fellow rapper Akon, and "I Need a Doctor" with Eminem and singer Skylar Grey – were released in the United States during November 2010 and February 2011 respectively: the latter achieved international chart success, reaching number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and later being certified double platinum by the RIAA and the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). On June 25, 2010, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers honored Dr. Dre with its Founders Award for inspiring other musicians. ===2010–2020: The Planets, hiatus, Coachella, and Compton=== In an August 2010 interview, Dr. Dre stated that an instrumental album, The Planets, was in its first stages of production; each song being named after a planet in the Solar System. On September 3, Dr. Dre showed support to longtime protégé Eminem, and appeared on his and Jay-Z's Home & Home Tour, performing hit songs such as "Still D.R.E.", "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", and "Crack a Bottle", alongside Eminem and another protégé, 50 Cent. Sporting an "R.I.P. Proof" shirt, Dre was honored by Eminem telling Detroit's Comerica Park to do the same. They did so, by chanting "DEEE-TOX", to which he replied, "I'm coming!" On November 14, 2011, Dre announced that he would be taking a break from music after he finished producing for artists Slim the Mobster and Kendrick Lamar. In this break, he stated that he would "work on bringing his Beats By Dre to a standard as high as Apple" and would also spend time with his family. On January 9, 2012, Dre headlined the final nights of the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2012. In June 2014, Marsha Ambrosius stated that she had been working on Detox, but added that the album would be known under another title . In September 2014, Aftermath in-house producer Dawaun Parker confirmed the title change and stated that over 300 beats had been created for the album over the years, but few of them have had vocals recorded over them. The length of time that Detox had been recorded for, as well as the limited amount of material that had been officially released or leaked from the recording sessions, had given it considerable notoriety within the music industry. Numerous release dates (including the ones mentioned above) had been given for the album over the years since it was first announced, although none of them transpired to be genuine. Several musicians closely affiliated with Dr. Dre, including Snoop Dogg, fellow rappers 50 Cent, the Game and producer DJ Quik, had speculated in interviews that the album will never be released, due to Dr. Dre's business and entrepreneurial ventures having interfered with recording work, as well as causing him to lose motivation to record new material. On August 1, 2015, Dre announced that he would release what would be his final album, titled Compton. It is inspired by the N.W.A biopic, Straight Outta Compton, and is a compilation-style album, featuring a number of frequent collaborators, including Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, Xzibit and the Game, among others. It was initially released on Apple Music on August 7, with a retail version releasing on August 21. In an interview with Rolling Stone, he revealed that he had about 20 to 40 tracks for Detox but he did not release it because it did not meet his standards. Dre also revealed that he suffers from social anxiety and due to this, remains secluded and out of attention. On February 12, 2016, it was revealed that Apple would create its first original scripted television series for its then-upcoming Apple TV+ streaming service. Titled Vital Signs, it was set to reflect Dre's life. before the show's cancellation sometime in September 2018, due to its graphic depictions of drugs, gun violence and sex. In October 2016, Sean Combs brought out Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg and others on his Bad Boy reunion tour. In 2018, he produced four songs on Oxnard by Anderson .Paak. He was the executive producer on the album, as so its follow-up, 2019's Ventura. ===2020–2023: return to production and Super Bowl halftime show === Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem's 2020 release, Music to Be Murdered By. He produced four songs on the album. He also produced two songs on the deluxe edition of the album, Side B, and appeared on the song, "Gunz Blazing". On September 30, 2021, it was revealed that Dre would perform at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige, and Kendrick Lamar. In December 2021, an update for the video game, Grand Theft Auto Online, predominantly featured Dre and added some of his previously unreleased tracks which was released as an EP, The Contract, on February 3, 2022. Around this time, Dre announced he was collaborating with Marsha Ambrosius on Casablanco, and with Mary J. Blige on an upcoming album. Later that year, Snoop Dogg announced that he and Dr. Dre are in the process of recording their new album, Missionary. Snoop said the album will be released via Death Row and Aftermath. On February 13, 2022, Dr. Dre performed at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, and Mary J. Blige, with surprise appearances from 50 Cent and Anderson .Paak. The performance was met with critical acclaim and is the first Super Bowl halftime show to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live). The show also won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Production Design for a Variety Special and Outstanding Music Direction. The same year, he produced numerous songs including "The King and I", a collaboration between Eminem and CeeLo Green for the 2022 biopic, Elvis, and a remix of Kanye West's song "Use This Gospel" for DJ Khaled's album God Did, the latter of whom was originally intended for Kanye West and Dr. Dre's joint gospel album, Jesus Is King Part II, which remains unreleased, even though it surfaced online in leaks around September 2023. In September 2022, it was reported that Dr. Dre will compose the original score for the upcoming animated series, Death for Hire: The Origin of Tehk City. The show is created by Ice-T and Arabian Prince; based on the graphic novel of the same title, it features the voice talent of Ice-T, his wife Coco Austin, Snoop Dogg, Busta Rhymes, and Treach among others. In February 2023, Dre and Marsha Ambrosius held a listening party for the Casablanco album in Los Angeles. The album was released on June 28, 2024, through Aftermath Entertainment and received critical acclaim. === 2024–present: Collaborations with Snoop Dogg, Missionary === In February 2024, Snoop launched a range of pre-mixed cocktails with Dr. Dre named after their hit single, Gin and Juice. Flavours include apricot, citrus, melon and passionfruit. A short prohibition themed trailer was created to support the release. A gin called "Still G.I.N.", a reference to the track Still D.R.E., was also released later in 2024. The Venetian glass bottle was designed by Ini Archibong.'' The album received generally mixed reviews from music critics. Later in 2024, Snoop Dogg announced a new album coming out called Missionary, entirely produced by Dr. Dre, serving as a spiritual sequel to Snoop Dogg's first album Doggystyle, which was also produced by Dr. Dre. The album features guest appearances from Eminem, Dr. Dre, 50 Cent, Method Man, and Sting, and received generally favorable reviews with praise directed towards Snoop's lyrics and Dr. Dre's production. ==Other ventures== ===Film appearances=== Dr. Dre made his first on screen appearance as a weapons dealer in the 1996 bank robbery movie Set It Off. In 2001, Dr. Dre also appeared in the movies The Wash and Training Day. A song of his, "Bad Intentions" (featuring Knoc-Turn'Al and produced by Mahogany), was featured on The Wash soundtrack. Dr. Dre also appeared on two other songs "On the Blvd." and "The Wash" along with his co-star Snoop Dogg. ===Crucial Films=== In February 2007, it was announced that Dr. Dre would produce dark comedies and horror films for New Line Cinema-owned company Crucial Films, along with longtime video director Phillip Atwell. Dr. Dre announced "This is a natural switch for me, since I've directed a lot of music videos, and I eventually want to get into directing." Along with fellow member Ice Cube, Dr. Dre produced Straight Outta Compton (2015), a biographical film about N.W.A. ===Entrepreneurship=== ==== Beats Electronics ==== In 2006, Dre co-founded Beats Electronics with his partner, Jimmy Iovine. Its first brand of headphones were launched in July 2008. The line consisted of Beats Studio, a circumaural headphone; Beats Tour, an in-ear headphone; Beats Solo & Solo HD, a supra-aural headphone; Beats Spin; Heartbeats by Lady Gaga, also an in-ear headphone; and Diddy Beats. In late 2009, Hewlett-Packard participated in a deal to bundle Beats By Dr. Dre with some HP laptops and headsets. HP and Dr. Dre announced the deal on October 9, 2009, at a press event. An exclusive laptop, known as the HP ENVY 15 Beats limited edition, was released for sale October 22. In January 2014, Beats Music was introduced and launched as a streaming service. Then, in May, technology giant Apple purchased the Beats brand for $3.4 billion. The deal made Dr. Dre the "richest man in hip-hop". Dr. Dre became an Apple employee in an executive role, and worked with Apple for years. As of 2022, it was found that Apple had subtracted $200 million from the deal after entertainer Tyrese Gibson revealed the news of the acquisition on social media a month before it was completed without the company's permission. ===Philanthropy=== During May 2013, Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine donated a $70-million endowment to the University of Southern California to create the USC Jimmy Iovine and Andre Young Academy for Arts, Technology and the Business of Innovation. The goal of the academy has been stated as "to shape the future by nurturing the talents, passions, leadership and risk-taking of uniquely qualified students who are motivated to explore and create new art forms, technologies, and business models." The first class of the academy began in September 2014. In June 2017, it was announced that Dr. Dre had committed $10 million to the construction of a performing arts center for the new Compton High School. The center will encompass creative resources and a 1,200-seat theater, and is expected to break ground in 2020. The project is a partnership between Dr. Dre and the Compton Unified School District. ===Commercial endorsements=== In 2002 and 2003, Dr. Dre appeared in TV commercials for Coors Light beer. Beginning in 2009, Dr. Dre appeared in TV commercials that also featured his Beats Electronics product line. A 2009 commercial for the Dr Pepper soft drink had Dr. Dre DJing with Beats headphones and playing a brief snippet off the never-released Detox album. ===Dr. Dre started Burning Man rumors=== An urban legend surfaced in 2011 when a Tumblr blog titled Dr. Dre Started Burning Man began promulgating the notion that the producer, rapper and entrepreneur had discovered Burning Man in 1995 during a music video shoot and offered to cover the cost of the event's permit from the Nevada Bureau of Land Management under an agreement with the festival's organizers that he could institute an entrance fee system, which had not existed before his participation. This claim was supported by an alleged letter from Dre to Nicole Threatt Young that indicated that Dre had shared his experience witnessing the Burning Man festival with her. Business Insider mentions the portion of the letter where Dr. Dre purportedly states "someone should get behind this ... and make some money off these fools" and compares Dr. Dre's potential entrepreneurial engagement with Burning Man as a parallel to Steve Jobs's efforts to centralize and profit from the otherwise unorganized online music industry. According to Salon, Dr. Dre's ethos seems to be aligned with seven of the ten principles of the Burning Man community: "radical self-reliance, radical self-expression, communal effort, civic responsibility, leaving no trace, participation and immediacy."}} ===Production style=== Dre is noted for his evolving production style, while always keeping in touch with his early musical sound and re-shaping elements from previous work. At the beginning of his career as a producer for the World Class Wreckin Cru with DJ Alonzo Williams in the mid-1980s, his music was in the electro-hop style pioneered by the Unknown DJ, and that of early hip-hop groups like the Beastie Boys and Whodini. From Straight Outta Compton on, Dre uses live musicians to replay old melodies rather than sampling them. With Ruthless Records, collaborators included guitarist Mike "Crazy Neck" Sims, multi-instrumentalist Colin Wolfe, DJ Yella and sound engineer Donovan "The Dirt Biker" Sound. Dre is receptive of new ideas from other producers, one example being his fruitful collaboration with Above the Law's producer Cold 187um while at Ruthless. Cold 187 um was at the time experimenting with 1970s P-Funk samples (Parliament, Funkadelic, Bootsy Collins, George Clinton etc.), that Dre also used. Dre has since been accused of "stealing" the concept of G-funk from Cold 187 um. Upon leaving Ruthless and forming Death Row Records in 1991, Dre called on veteran West Coast DJ Chris "the Glove" Taylor and sound engineer Greg "Gregski" Royal, along with Colin Wolfe, to help him on future projects. His 1992 album The Chronic is thought to be one of the most well-produced hip-hop albums of all time. Musical themes included hard-hitting synthesizer solos played by Wolfe, bass-heavy compositions, background female vocals and Dre fully embracing 1970s funk samples. Dre used a minimoog synth to replay the melody from Leon Haywood's 1972 song "I Wanna Do Somethin' Freaky to You" for the Chronic's first single "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" which became a global hit. For his new protégé Snoop Doggy Dogg's album Doggystyle, Dre collaborated with then 19-year-old producer Daz Dillinger, who received co-production credits on songs "Serial Killa" and "For all My Niggaz & Bitches", The Dramatics bass player Tony "T. Money" Green, guitarist Ricky Rouse, keyboardists Emanuel "Porkchop" Dean and Sean "Barney Rubble" Thomas and engineer Tommy Daugherty, as well as Warren G and Sam Sneed, who are credited with bringing several samples to the studio. The influence of The Chronic and Doggystyle on the popular music of the 1990s went not only far beyond the West Coast, but beyond hip-hop as a genre. Artists as diverse as Master P ("Bout It, Bout It"), George Michael ("Fastlove"), Mariah Carey ("Fantasy"), Adina Howard ("Freak Like Me"), Luis Miguel ("Dame"), and The Spice Girls ("Say You'll Be There") used G-funk instrumentation in their songs. Bad Boy Records producer Chucky Thompson stated in the April 2004 issue of XXL magazine that the sound of Doggystyle and The Chronic was the basis for the Notorious B.I.G.'s 1995 hit single "Big Poppa": In 1994, starting with the Murder was the Case soundtrack, Dre attempted to push the boundaries of G-funk further into a darker sound. In songs such as "Murder was the Case" and "Natural Born Killaz", the synthesizer pitch is higher and the drum tempo is slowed down to 91 BPM (87 BPM in the remix) to create a dark and gritty atmosphere. Percussion instruments, particularly sleigh bells, are also present. Dre's frequent collaborators from this period included Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania natives Stuart "Stu-B-Doo" Bullard, a multi-instrumentalist from the Ozanam Strings Orchestra, Sam Sneed, Stephen "Bud'da" Anderson, and percussionist Carl "Butch" Small. This style of production has been influential far beyond the West Coast. The beat for the Houston-based group Geto Boys 1996 song "Still" follows the same drum pattern as "Natural Born Killaz" and Eazy E's "Wut Would U Do" (a diss to Dre) is similar to the original "Murder was the Case" instrumental. This style of production is usually accompanied by horror and occult-themed lyrics and imagery, being crucial to the creation of horrorcore. By 1996, Dre was again looking to innovate his sound. He recruited keyboardist Camara Kambon to play the keys on "Been There, Done That", and through Bud'da and Sam Sneed he was introduced to fellow Pittsburgh native Melvin "Mel-Man" Bradford. At this time, he also switched from using the E-mu SP-1200 to the Akai MPC3000 drum kit and sampler, which he still uses today. Beginning with his 1996 compilation Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath, Dre's production has taken a less sample-based approach, with loud, layered snare drums dominating the mix, while synthesizers are still omnipresent. In his critically acclaimed second album, 2001, live instrumentation takes the place of sampling, a famous example being "The Next Episode", in which keyboardist Camara Kambon re-played live the main melody from David McCallum's 1967 jazz-funk work "The Edge". For every song on 2001, Dre had a keyboardist, guitarist and bassist create the basic parts of the beat, while he himself programmed the drums, did the sequencing and overdubbing and added sound effects, and later mixed the songs. During this period, Dre's signature "west coast whistle" riffs are still present albeit in a lower pitch, as in "Light Speed", "Housewife", "Some L.A. Niggaz" and Eminem's "Guilty Conscience" hook. The sound of "2001" had tremendous influence on hip-hop production, redefining the West Coast's sound and expanding the G-funk of the early 1990s. To produce the album, Dre and Mel-Man relied on the talents of Scott Storch and Camara Kambon on the keys, Mike Elizondo and Colin Wolfe on bass guitar, Sean Cruse on lead guitar and sound engineers Richard "Segal" Huredia and Mauricio "Veto" Iragorri. From the mid-2000s, Dr. Dre has taken on a more soulful production style, using more of a classical piano instead of a keyboard, and having claps replace snares, as evidenced in songs such as Snoop Dogg's "Imagine" and "Boss' Life", Busta Rhymes' "Get You Some" and "Been Through the Storm", Stat Quo's "Get Low" and "The Way It Be", Jay-Z's "Lost One", Nas' "Hustlers", and several beats on Eminem's Relapse album. Soul and R&B pianist Mark Batson, having previously worked with The Dave Matthews Band, Seal and Maroon 5 has been credited as the architect of this sound. Besides Batson, Aftermath producer and understudy of Dre's, Dawaun Parker, who has named Q-Tip and J Dilla as his primary influences, is thought to be responsible for giving Dre's newest beats an East Coast feel. Despite an occasional hint of trap about the beats and an intriguingly warped use of autotune in his Compton song, "Darkside/Gone", his production seems to stand slightly apart from current trends in hip-hop like Eminem's song "Little Engine" with an ominous horrorcore beat — reminiscent of some of his works on Eminem's album Relapse – or the West Coast joint Lock It Up. ===Production equipment=== Dr. Dre has said that his primary instrument in the studio is the Akai MPC3000, a drum machine and sampler, and that he often uses as many as four or five to produce a single recording. He cites 1970s funk musicians such as George Clinton, Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield as his primary musical influences. Unlike most rap producers, he tries to avoid samples as much as possible, preferring to have studio musicians re-play pieces of music he wants to use, because it allows him more flexibility to change the pieces in rhythm and tempo. In 2001 he told Time magazine, "I may hear something I like on an old record that may inspire me, but I'd rather use musicians to re-create the sound or elaborate on it. I can control it better." Other equipment he uses includes the E-mu SP-1200 drum machine and other keyboards from such manufacturers as Korg, Rhodes, Wurlitzer, Moog, and Roland. Dr. Dre also stresses the importance of equalizing drums properly, telling Scratch in 2004 that he "used the same drum sounds on a couple of different songs on one album before but you'd never be able to tell the difference because of the EQ". After founding Aftermath Entertainment in 1996, Dr. Dre took on producer Mel-Man as a co-producer, and his music took on a more synthesizer-based sound, using fewer vocal samples (as he had used on "Lil' Ghetto Boy" and "Let Me Ride" on The Chronic, for example). Mel-Man has not shared co-production credits with Dr. Dre since approximately 2002, but fellow Aftermath producer Focus has credited Mel-Man as a key architect of the signature Aftermath sound. In 1999, Dr. Dre started working with Mike Elizondo, a bassist, guitarist, and keyboardist who has also produced, written and played on records for female singers such as Poe, Fiona Apple and Alanis Morissette, In the past few years Elizondo has since worked for many of Dr. Dre's productions. Dr. Dre also told Scratch magazine in a 2004 interview that he has been studying piano and music theory formally, and that a major goal is to accumulate enough musical theory to score movies. In the same interview he stated that he has collaborated with famed 1960s songwriter Burt Bacharach by sending him hip-hop beats to play over, and hopes to have an in-person collaboration with him in the future. Dr. Dre has also stated that Eminem is a fellow perfectionist, and attributes his success on Aftermath to his similar work ethic. ===Collaborators and co-producers=== Over the years, word of other collaborators who have contributed to Dr. Dre's work has surfaced. During his tenure at Death Row Records, it was alleged that Dr. Dre's stepbrother Warren G and Tha Dogg Pound member Daz made many uncredited contributions to songs on his solo album The Chronic and Snoop Doggy Dogg's album Doggystyle (Daz received production credits on Snoop's similar-sounding, albeit less successful album Tha Doggfather after Young left Death Row Records). It is known that Scott Storch, who has since gone on to become a successful producer in his own right, contributed to Dr. Dre's second album 2001; Storch is credited as a songwriter on several songs and played keyboards on several tracks. In 2006 he told Rolling Stone: Current collaborator Mike Elizondo, when speaking about his work with Young, describes their recording process as a collaborative effort involving several musicians. In 2004 he claimed to Songwriter Universe magazine that he had written the foundations of the hit Eminem song "The Real Slim Shady", stating, "I initially played a bass line on the song, and Dr. Dre, Tommy Coster Jr. and I built the track from there. Eminem then heard the track, and he wrote the rap to it." A group of disgruntled former associates of Dr. Dre complained that they had not received their full due for work on the label in the September 2003 issue of The Source. A producer named Neff-U claimed to have produced the songs "Say What You Say" and "My Dad's Gone Crazy" on The Eminem Show, the songs "If I Can't" and "Back Down" on 50 Cent's Get Rich or Die Tryin', and the beat featured on Dr. Dre's commercial for Coors beer. Dr. Dre's prominent studio collaborators, including Scott Storch, Elizondo, Mark Batson and Dawaun Parker, have shared co-writing, instrumental, and more recently co-production credits on the songs where he is credited as the producer. Anderson .Paak also praised Dr. Dre in a 2016 interview with Music Times, telling the publication that it was a dream come true to work with Dre. ===Ghostwriters=== It is acknowledged that most of Dr. Dre's raps are written for him by others, though he retains ultimate control over his lyrics and the themes of his songs. As Aftermath producer Mahogany told Scratch: "It's like a class room in [the booth]. He'll have three writers in there. They'll bring in something, he'll recite it, then he'll say, 'Change this line, change this word,' like he's grading papers." As seen in the credits for tracks Young has appeared on, there are often multiple people who contribute to his songs (although often in hip-hop many people are officially credited as a writer for a song, even the producer). In the book How to Rap, RBX explains that writing The Chronic was a "team effort" and details how he ghostwrote "Let Me Ride" for Dre. In regard to ghostwriting lyrics he says, "Dre doesn't profess to be no super-duper rap dude – Dre is a super-duper producer". As a member of N.W.A, the D.O.C. wrote lyrics for him while he stuck with producing. ==Personal life== On December 15, 1981, when Dre was 16 years old and his then-girlfriend Cassandra Joy Greene was 15 years old, the two had a son named Curtis, who was brought up by Greene and first met Dre 20 years later. Curtis performed as a rapper under the name Hood Surgeon. Dre and Lisa Johnson had a daughter named La Tanya Danielle Young. Dre and Johnson have three daughters together. In 1988, Dre and Jenita Porter had a son named Andre Young Jr. In 1990, Porter sued Dre, seeking $5,000 of child support per month. at his mother's Woodland Hills home. From 1987 to 1996, Dre dated singer Michel'le, who frequently contributed vocals to Ruthless Records and Death Row Records albums. In 1991, they had a son named Marcel. In April 1992, after a verbal dispute with his engineer, Dre was consequently shot four times in his leg. On May 25, 1996, Dre married Nicole (née Plotzker) Threatt, who was previously married to basketball player Sedale Threatt. Forbes estimated his net worth at US$270 million in 2012. The same publication later reported that he acquired US$110 million via his various endeavors in 2012, making him the highest–paid artist of the year. Income from the 2014 sale of Beats to Apple, contributing to what Forbes termed "the biggest single-year payday of any musician in history", made Dr. Dre the world's richest musical performer of 2015. He remains one of the wealthiest musical artists. In 2014, Dre purchased a $40 million home in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles from its previous owners, NFL player Tom Brady and supermodel Gisele Bündchen. It was reported that Dre suffered a brain aneurysm on January 5, 2021, and that he was admitted to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center's ICU in Los Angeles, California. Hours after his admission to the hospital, Dre's home was targeted for an attempted burglary. He eventually received support from LeBron James, Martin Lawrence, LL Cool J, Missy Elliott, Snoop Dogg, Eminem, Ice Cube, 50 Cent, Ellen DeGeneres, Ciara, her husband Russell Wilson, T.I., Quincy Jones and others. In February, he was released with a following message on Instagram: "Thanks to my family, friends and fans for their interest and well wishes. I'm doing great and getting excellent care from my medical team. I will be out of the hospital and back home soon. Shout out to all the great medical professionals at Cedars. One Love!!" In March 2024, Dre revealed that during his hospitalization following the brain aneurysm, he also suffered three strokes. In December 2021, Dre finalized his divorce from Nicole Threatt for a reported sum of $100 million of his estate. Dre is a fan of both the Los Angeles Rams of the NFL, and the Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA. ==Controversies and legal issues== ===Violence against women=== Dre has been accused of multiple incidents of violence against women. On January 27, 1991, at a music industry party at the Po Na Na Souk club in Hollywood, Dr. Dre assaulted television host Dee Barnes of the Fox television program Pump it Up!, following an episode of the show. Barnes had interviewed NWA, which was followed by an interview with Ice Cube in which Cube mocked NWA. Barnes filed a $22.7 million lawsuit in response to the incident. Subsequently, Dr. Dre was fined $2,500, given two years' probation, ordered to undergo 240 hours of community service, and given a spot on an anti-violence public service announcement on television. The civil suit was settled out of court. Barnes stated that he "began slamming her face and the right side of her body repeatedly against a wall near the stairway". Dr. Dre later commented: "People talk all this shit, but you know, somebody fucks with me, I'm gonna fuck with them. I just did it, you know. Ain't nothing you can do now by talking about it. Besides, it ain't no big thing – I just threw her through a door." Their abusive relationship is portrayed in her 2016 biopic Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le. Dre threatened a lawsuit against Lifetime, Sony Pictures and filmmakers of Surviving Compton in a cease and desist letter, but never ultimately took action. Interviewed by Ben Westhoff for the book Original Gangstas: the Untold Story of Dr Dre, Eazy-E, Ice Cube, Tupac Shakur, and the Birth of West Coast Rap, Lisa Johnson stated that Dre beat her many times, including while she was pregnant. Former labelmate Tairrie B claimed that Dre assaulted her at a post-Grammy party in 1990, in response to her track "Ruthless Bitch". During press for the 2015 film Straight Outta Compton, questions about the portrayal and behavior of Dre and other prominent figures in the rap community about violence against women – and the question about its absence in the film – were raised. The discussion about the film led to Dre addressing his past behavior in the press. In August 2015, in an interview with Rolling Stone, Dre lamented his abusive past, saying, "I made some fucking horrible mistakes in my life. I was young, fucking stupid. I would say all the allegations aren't true—some of them are. Those are some of the things that I would like to take back. It was really fucked up. But I paid for those mistakes, and there's no way in hell that I will ever make another mistake like that again." In a statement to The New York Times on August 21, 2015, exactly two weeks after his album, Compton, was released, Dre again addressed his abusive past, stating, "25 years ago I was a young man drinking too much and in over my head with no real structure in my life. However, none of this is an excuse for what I did. I've been married for 19 years and every day I'm working to be a better man for my family, seeking guidance along the way. I'm doing everything I can so I never resemble that man again. ... I apologize to the women I've hurt. I deeply regret what I did and know that it has forever impacted all of our lives." === Second divorce === Dre's wife, Nicole Plotzker-Young, filed for divorce in June 2020, citing irreconcilable differences. In November 2020, she filed legal claims that Dre engaged in verbal violence and infidelity during their marriage. She also stated that he tore up their prenuptial agreement that he wanted her to sign out of anger. Dre's representative responded, calling her claims of infidelity and violence in their marriage "false". Before being released from the Cedar-Sinai Medical Center, he was ordered to pay Plotzker-Young $2 million in temporary spousal support. Between the spring and summer of the year, Dre was ordered by the Los Angeles County judge to pay his ex-wife over $300,000 a month in spousal support. The $2 million extension request was also dismissed, due to insufficient claims. In July 2021, Dr. Dre was ordered by the Los Angeles Superior Court Judge to pay an additional $293,306 a month to his estranged wife in spousal support starting August 1 until she decides to remarry or "further order of the Court". Then, in August, the judge denied his wife's request for a protective order, due to her being afraid of Dre after a snippet leaked on Instagram of him rapping about the divorce proceedings and his possible brain aneurysm earlier that February; in this snippet, he called his wife a "greedy bitch". In mid-October, Dr. Dre was served more divorce papers, during his grandmother's funeral. That same month, Dre was officially deemed "single" by the judge. The financial owings in this case included expenses of Dre's Malibu, Palisades and Hollywood Hills homes, but not his stock in past ownership of Beats Electronics, prior to its sale to Apple in 2014. In December 2021, the divorce proceedings entered their final stages. On December 28, the divorce was settled with Dre keeping most of his assets and income due to the prenuptial agreement, although he would have to pay a 9-figure settlement within one year. In October 2024, Dr. Dre was hit with a $10 million lawsuit by a psychiatrist who had served as Dre's marriage counselor during his marriage and divorce. The counselor alleged that Dre sent a "barrage" of threatening, harassing, and intimidatory messages, including homophobic rhetoric, to his counselor. ===Copyright lawsuits=== During the course of 2001s popularity, Dr. Dre was involved in several lawsuits. Lucasfilm Ltd., the film company behind the Star Wars film franchise, sued him over the use of the THX-trademarked "Deep Note". The Fatback Band also sued Dr. Dre over alleged infringement regarding its song "Backstrokin'" in his song "Let's Get High" from the 2001 album; Dr. Dre was ordered to pay $1.5 million to the band in 2003. French jazz musician Jacques Loussier sued Aftermath for $10 million in March 2002, claiming that the Dr. Dre-produced Eminem track "Kill You" plagiarized his composition "Pulsion". The online music file-sharing company Napster also settled a lawsuit with him and metal band Metallica in mid-2001, agreeing to block access to certain files that artists do not want to have shared on the network. Another copyright-related lawsuit hit Dr. Dre in the fall of 2002, when Saregama, a film and music company based in Calcutta, India, sued Aftermath Entertainment over an uncredited sample of the Lata Mangeshkar song "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" on the Aftermath-produced song "Addictive" by singer Truth Hurts. In February 2003, a judge ruled that Aftermath would have to halt sales of Truth Hurts' album Truthfully Speaking if the company would not credit Mangeshkar. ===Other=== On June 28, 1992, hours before midnight, a barbecue grill and an overfill of charcoal caused Dre's Calabasas mansion to set on fire. Two firefighters were treated in the hospital for minor injuries. The fire caused over $125,000 in home damages. Dre pleaded guilty in October 1992 in a case of battery of a police officer and was convicted on two additional battery counts stemming from a brawl in the lobby of the New Orleans hotel in May 1991. In 1993, he was convicted of battery after an altercation with a man who stood outside the front porch of his Woodland Hills home in front of the musician's girlfriend. He claimed that Dre broke his jaw as a result. On January 10, 1994, Dre was arrested after leading police on a 90 mph pursuit through Beverly Hills in his 1987 Ferrari. It was revealed that Dr. Dre had a blood alcohol of 0.16, twice the state of California's legal limit. The conviction violated the conditions of parole following Dre's battery conviction in 1993; he pleaded no contest and was sentenced to eight months in prison in September 1994. He was ordered to pay a $1,053 fine and attend an alcohol education program. In November 2004, at the Vibe magazine awards show in Los Angeles, Dr. Dre was attacked by a fan named Jimmy James Johnson, who was supposedly asking for an autograph. In the resulting scuffle, then-G-Unit rapper Young Buck stabbed the man. Johnson claimed that Suge Knight, president of Death Row Records, paid him $5,000 to assault Dre in order to humiliate him before he received his Lifetime Achievement Award. Knight immediately went on CBS's The Late Late Show to deny involvement and insisted that he supported Dr. Dre and wanted Johnson charged. In September 2005, Johnson was sentenced to a year in prison and ordered to stay away from Dr. Dre until 2008. On October 30, 2015, Ruthless co-founder Jerry Heller filed suit against Dre, Ice Cube, Eazy-E's widow, Tomica Woods-Wright, director F. Gary Gray and Universal Pictures for defamation of character and copyright infringement over the biopic, Straight Outta Compton. The lawsuit states that depictions of Heller in the film, portrayed by Paul Giamatti, were wrongfully taken from an autobiography he wrote about his involvement with Ruthless and N.W.A. The case was taken to court in June 2016 where a judge criticized the filing, saying that the film was "approved to portray these facts in "colorful and hyperbolic" terms". On September 2, 2016, Jerry Heller died of a car accident, preceded by a heart attack. However, his lawsuit kept on through his legal team and members of his estate. In October 2018, the lawsuit was dropped, costing Heller's estate $35 million for punitive and $75 million for compensatory damages. On April 4, 2016, TMZ and the New York Daily News reported that Suge Knight had accused Dre and the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department of a kill-for-hire plot in the 2014 shooting of Knight in club 1 OAK. Three months later, in July, Dre was reportedly detained by police after confronting a next-door neighbor in Malibu about a test drive. It was also alleged that he brandished a handgun on the neighbor, but no evidence would be linked and Dre was soon released. On May 8, 2018, Dre lost a name trademark filing to a Pennsylvania gynecologist named Draion Burch, who previously filed a trademark petition in 2015 to use his nickname, Dr. Drai. Then, on June 26, Dre and Jimmy Iovine were ordered to pay $25 million to former partner and creative designer Steven Lamar, who sued the two co-founders for $100 million in unpaid royalties for designing the early Beats headphone models. The lawsuit was filed in 2015 after news broke out of Apple's acquisition of the headphone brand a year prior. In August 2021, Dr. Dre's oldest daughter LaTanya Young spoke out about being homeless and unable to support her four children. She is currently working for UberEats and DoorDash, and she also works at warehouse jobs. She is living in debt in her SUV while her children are living with friends. Dr. Dre has allegedly stopped supporting LaTanya financially since January 2020 because she has "spoken about him in the press". ==Discography== Studio albums The Chronic (1992) 2001 (1999) Compton (2015) EPs GTA Online: The Contract (2022) Collaborative albums World Class (with World Class Wreckin' Cru) (1985) Rapped in Romance (with World Class Wreckin' Cru) (1986) Straight Outta Compton (with N.W.A) (1989) Niggaz4Life (with N.W.A) (1991) ==Awards and nominations== In March 2024, Dr. Dre received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6840 Hollywood Boulevard. ===American Music Awards=== ===BET Hip Hop Awards=== \|- \| 2014 \| rowspan="3"\| Himself \| rowspan="2"\| Hustler of the Year \| \|- \| 2015 \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 2016 \| Producer of the Year \| \|- \| Compton \| Album of the Year \| \|} ===Grammy Awards=== Dr. Dre has won seven Grammy Awards. Four of them are for his production work. He is also the recipient of the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award \|- \|align=center\|1990 \|"We're All in the Same Gang" \|rowspan="2"\| Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \|rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|1994 \|"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" (with Snoop Doggy Dogg) \| \|- \|"Let Me Ride" \|rowspan="2"\|Best Rap Solo Performance \| \|- \|align=center\|1996 \|"Keep Their Heads Ringin'" \| \|- \|align=center\|1997 \|"California Love" (with 2Pac & Roger Troutman) \|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|1998 \|\|"No Diggity" (with Blackstreet & Queen Pen) \|Best R&B Song \| \|- \| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|2000 \|"Still D.R.E." (with Snoop Dogg) \|rowspan="4"\|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \|"Guilty Conscience" (with Eminem) \| \|- \| rowspan="6" style="text-align:center;"\|2001 \|"Forgot About Dre" (with Eminem) \| \|- \|"The Next Episode" (with Snoop Dogg, Kurupt & Nate Dogg) \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\|The Marshall Mathers LP (as engineer) \|Album of the Year \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\|Best Rap Album \| \|- \|2001 \| \|- \|rowspan="3"\|Himself \|rowspan="3"\|Producer of the Year, Non-Classical \| \|- \|align=center\|2002 \| \|- \|rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"\|2003 \| \|- \|"Knoc" (with Knoc-turn'al & Missy Elliott) \|Best Music Video, Short Form \| \|- \|The Eminem Show (as producer) \|Album of the Year \| \|- \|style="text-align:center;"\|2004 \|"In da Club" (as songwriter) \|Best Rap Song \| \|- \|rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|2006 \|Love. Angel. Music. Baby. (as producer) \|Album of the Year \| \|- \|"Encore" (with Eminem & 50 Cent) \|rowspan="2"\|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group \| \|- \|rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|2010 \|"Crack a Bottle" (with Eminem & 50 Cent) \| \|- \|Relapse (as engineer) \|Best Rap Album \| \|- \|style="text-align:center;"\|2011 \|Recovery (as producer) \|Album of the Year \| \|- \|rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"\|2012 \|rowspan="2"\|"I Need a Doctor" (with Eminem & Skylar Grey) \|Best Rap/Sung Collaboration \| \|- \|Best Rap Song \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|2014 \|good kid, m.A.A.d city (as featured artist) \|Album of the Year \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|2016 \|Compton \|Best Rap Album \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|2017 \|Straight Outta Compton \| Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|2020 \|Ventura (as engineer) \|Best R&B Album \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|2024 \|Himself (as a member of N.W.A.) \|Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award \| ===MTV Video Music Awards=== ===Primetime Emmy Awards=== \|- \| 2022 \| The Pepsi Super Bowl LVI Halftime Show \| Outstanding Variety Special (Live) \| \|} ==Filmography== ==Tours== The Chronic Tour (1993) Up in Smoke Tour (2000)	[ "Fuck tha Police", "MTV Video Music Award", "social anxiety", "Best Music Video, Short Form", "Knoc-turn'al", "Ellen DeGeneres", "Billboard 200", "DJ Khalil", "Natural Born Killaz", "Best Rap Song", "XXL (magazine)", "I Need a Doctor", "Raekwon", "Old Time's Sake", "Guilty Conscience (song)", "Watts, Los Angeles", "Encore (Eminem song)", "The Eminem Show", "59th Annual Grammy Awards", "Kanye West", "community service", "Saturday Night Live", "Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II", "Los Angeles Lakers", "Billboard (magazine)", "1997 MTV Video Music Awards", "minimoog", "Bud'da", "Xzibit", "The Late Late Show (CBS TV series)", "Deadline Hollywood", "New York Daily News", "Beautiful (Eminem song)", "West Coast hip-hop", "Wallpaper (magazine)", "music sequencer", "Supersonic (J. J. Fad album)", "1994 MTV Video Music Awards", "Beverly Hills", "Dr. Dre discography", "International Business Times", "WBUR", "no contest", "106 & Park", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Production Design for a Variety Special", "strings (music)", "Fast Lane (Bilal song)", "Fenway Park", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Love for Sale (Bilal album)", "Akon", "Grand Theft Auto Online", "My Name Is", "Top 40", "T.I.", "The Massacre", "gynecologist", "Best Rap Solo Performance", "Grammy Awards of 1996", "South Central Los Angeles", "Grammy Awards of 2010", "Silk Sonic", "Something from Nothing: The Art of Rap", "Niggaz4Life", "Truth Hurts (singer)", "probation", "Ini Archibong", "Ogg", "Saregama", "Quincy Jones", "Kokane", "Grammy", "gangsta rap", "No Doubt", "The Marshall Mathers LP", "Knoc-Turn'Al", "Missionary (Snoop Dogg album)", "King T", "South Los Angeles", "Kardinal Offishall", "Exclaim!", "occult", "Entertainment Weekly", "Gisele Bündchen", "HP Inc.", "Skylar Grey", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live)", "Justin Timberlake", "Without Me (Eminem song)", "Apple TV+", "MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction", "Q-Tip (musician)", "Fastlove", "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel", "keyboardist", "New Line Cinema", "Deep Note", "Michel'le (album)", "Buck the World", "bassist", "All Eyez on Me (film)", "Scratch (magazine)", "The Washington Post", "Aftermath Entertainment", "Interscope", "Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance", "Julius Erving", "2000 MTV Video Music Awards", "Been There, Done That (Dr. Dre song)", "American Music Awards of 1994", "Anderson .Paak", "Business Insider", "IMDb", "Aftermath Records", "Eve (entertainer)", "DJ Quik", "The Game (rapper)", "The New York Times", "Jimmy Iovine", "Australian Recording Industry Association", "Timbaland Presents Shock Value", "Sam Sneed", "Lost One", "Huffington Post", "J Dilla", "Regulate... G Funk Era", "2014 BET Hip Hop Awards", "World Class Wreckin Cru", "Salon (website)", "List of music artists by net worth", "planet", "Chucky Thompson", "Death Row Records", "Alanis Morissette", "Star Wars", "New Orleans", "God Did", "Training Day", "Paul Giamatti", "The Spice Girls", "50 Cent: Bulletproof", "Unity (film)", "Boogie Down Productions", "Napster", "Set It Off (Kardinal Offishall song)", "World Class", "Dee Barnes", "3 a.m. (Eminem song)", "Los Angeles Rams", "Best Direction", "Missy Elliott", "Roger Troutman", "stroke", "Hollywood Boulevard", "Kush (song)", "Grammy Awards of 2002", "Suge Knight", "Los Angeles Times", "Kingdom Come (Jay-Z album)", "D12", "Russell Wilson", "Doggystyle", "Centennial High School (Compton, California)", "J.J. Fad", "Oxnard (album)", "Adina Howard", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Domus (magazine)", "snare drum", "UberEats", "We're All in the Same Gang", "Queen Pen", "Venetian glass", "Whodini", "Tha Blue Carpet Treatment", "Priority Records", "Bootsy Collins", "Yahoo! Entertainment", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction", "56th Annual Grammy Awards", "Business (song)", "Suge Knight Represents: Chronic 2000", "Funkadelic", "2015 BET Hip Hop Awards", "Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')", "Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le", "Rich Girl (Gwen Stefani song)", "Bishop Lamont", "Heavy metal music", "G-funk", "Complex Networks", "cease and desist letter", "Say You'll Be There", "Grammy Awards of 2001", "Toss It Up", "No More Drama", "2016 BET Hip Hop Awards", "Murder Was the Case", "The Home & Home Tour", "iTunes Store", "G-Unit", "Still D.R.E.", "Let Me Blow Ya Mind", "Sting (musician)", "Ziff Davis", "P-Funk", "Detroit", "Super Bowl LVI halftime show", "LA Weekly", "Burt Bacharach", "Sir Jinx", "Casablanco", "John C. Fremont High School", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Chrysler 300", "Method Man", "Associated Press News", "1999 MTV Video Music Awards", "Zoom (Dr. Dre song)", "YouTube", "Beastie Boys", "funk", "Tupac Shakur", "Chris \"The Glove\" Taylor", "The Guardian", "Family Affair (Mary J. Blige song)", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award", "Lifetime (TV network)", "Luis Miguel", "Ciara", "Grammy Award", "Eminem", "Ruthless Records", "The Real Slim Shady", "Tom Brady", "Friday (1995 film)", "How to Rap", "Phillip Atwell", "Nate Dogg", "hip-hop", "Billboard Hot 100", "World Class Wreckin' Cru", "BET", "Snoop Doggy Dogg", "Get Rich or Die Tryin'", "Clipse", "74th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards", "gang violence", "Crack a Bottle", "Dr. Dre Presents: The Aftermath", "Mariah Carey", "Devin the Dude", "Relapse (Eminem album)", "Rap-Up", "No Diggity", "Master P", "Michel'le", "defamation of character", "Percussion", "36th Annual Grammy Awards", "Mark Batson", "Scott Storch", "Tairrie B", "Los Angeles Sheriff's Department", "Isaac Hayes", "Straight Outta Compton (film)", "Boss' Life", "NBC", "racketeering", "1993 MTV Video Music Awards", "Bad Boy Records", "Pennsylvania", "Jewell (singer)", "Joell Ortiz", "Tyrese Gibson", "The Defiant Ones (documentary)", "2009 MTV Video Music Awards", "Young Buck", "The Death of Slim Shady (Coup de Grâce)", "CBS", "Horror fiction", "Grammy Awards of 2012", "Comerica Park", "Leon Haywood", "Melvin \"Mel-Man\" Bradford", "Beats Music", "E-mu SP-1200", "Rolling Stone", "Set It Off (film)", "Sony Pictures", "The Firm (hip hop group)", "Geto Boys", "Sean Combs", "Best R&B Song", "good kid, m.A.A.d city", "The Defiant Ones (TV series)", "Lucasfilm Ltd.", "Fantasy (Mariah Carey song)", "Parliament (band)", "Ice Cube", "Ann Danielewski", "Hewlett-Packard", "Grammy Awards of 2003", "Akai MPC3000", "the Lady of Rage", "Steve Jobs", "TMZ", "Long Beach", "University of Southern California", "66th Annual Grammy Awards", "CEO", "Breakthrough Video", "DoorDash", "Eazy-E", "33rd Annual Grammy Awards", "Dezeen", "Universal Pictures", "The Dramatics", "King Tee", "AllMusic", "Burning Man", "Dr Pepper", "the Unknown DJ", "50 Cent", "Mary J. Blige", "Rapped in Romance", "Deep Cover (song)", "Maroon 5", "Lata Mangeshkar", "Jesus Is King", "Eazy-Duz-It", "J.R. Rotem", "Complex (magazine)", "Blackstreet", "conductor (music)", "restraining order", "Forbes", "guitarist", "Bilal (American singer)", "The Knoc", "Houston", "Interscope Records", "Hi-Tek", "Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group", "sleigh bell", "Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival", "California Love", "Seal (musician)", "RZA", "Before I Self Destruct", "overdubbing", "1997 Grammy Awards", "horrorcore", "MTV Video Music Award for Best Choreography", "public service announcement", "2001 MTV Video Music Awards", "Music to Be Murdered By", "The Village Voice", "Compton, California", "brain aneurysm", "Livin' Like Hustlers", "prohibition", "trademark infringement", "How We Do (song)", "N.W.A", "Tha Dogg Pound", "Forgot About Dre", "Ventura (Anderson Paak album)", "Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath", "Kendrick Lamar", "Coors Light", "Sedale Threatt", "Time (magazine)", "Tumblr", "ghostwrote", "reggae", "Mel-Man", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", "Contemporary R&B", "Let Me Ride", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine", "2Pac", "Nas", "Pro Tools", "East Coast–West Coast hip-hop rivalry", "Calcutta, India", "Recovery (Eminem album)", "Curtis Mayfield", "Rakim", "USA Today", "No One Can Do It Better", "NME", "instrumental", "Grammy Awards of 1998", "LL Cool J", "Apple Music", "American Music Awards", "GTA Online: The Contract", "electro-hop", "Mike Elizondo", "Dear Mama (TV series)", "Dawaun Parker", "DJ Skee", "BET Hip Hop Awards", "The Source (magazine)", "MC", "Grammy Awards of 2000", "KBLA", "The Slim Shady LP", "The Documentary", "Grandmaster Flash", "Edward Tony Green", "Grammy Awards of 1997", "Gwen Stefani", "Essence (magazine)", "Producer of the Year, Non-Classical", "Restraining order", "Encore (Eminem album)", "Daz Dillinger", "Best Rap Video", "Dr. Dre production discography", "Lady Gaga", "The Chronic", "Snoop Dogg", "Use This Gospel", "drums", "Love. Angel. Music. Baby.", "46th Annual Grammy Awards", "We Made You", "Keep Their Heads Ringin'", "Kurupt", "Jerry Heller", "supra-aural", "Corey Hawkins", "Ice-T", "THX", "58th Annual Grammy Awards", "synthesizer", "Grammy Award for Album of the Year", "circumaural", "Marsha Ambrosius", "Murder was the Case", "Cedars-Sinai Medical Center", "Martin Lawrence", "53rd Annual Grammy Awards", "Jay-Z", "Northrop Corporation", "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", "Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time", "American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers", "Primetime Emmy Awards", "CNNMoney", "Nottz", "The Next Episode", "Straight Outta Compton (2015 film)", "clapping", "Diddy", "Calabasas, California", "Coors Brewing Company", "New York Post", "Big Poppa", "Timbaland", "Solar System", "Rhythm and blues", "Jacques Loussier", "L.A. Lakers", "Compton High School", "Grammy Awards of 2006", "In da Club", "morphine", "Elvis (2022 film)", "Vibe (magazine)", "domestic violence", "Grammy Awards of 1994", "Beats Electronics", "Public Enemy", "First Round Knock Out", "Jimmy Z", "RBX", "Carson, California", "Fiona Apple", "IGN", "Variety (magazine)", "Eve (rapper)", "Whiteboyz", "Regan Books", "Recording Industry Association of America", "MTV News", "Concrete Roots", "Up in Smoke Tour", "Above the Law (group)", "The Dave Matthews Band", "DJ Yella", "Epic Records", "Above the Rim", "The Album (The Firm album)", "Arabian Prince", "Deuce (The D.O.C. album)", "1995 MTV Video Music Awards", "LeBron James", "Equalization (audio)", "Apple Inc.", "CeeLo Green", "Muzical Madness", "George Clinton (funk musician)", "Dogg Food", "Gin and Juice", "The Wash (soundtrack)", "Deep Cover", "Slim the Mobster", "Straight Outta Compton", "Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media", "XXL Mag", "Warren G", "George Michael", "Woodland Hills, California", "Busta Rhymes", "The Wash (2001 film)", "Curtis (50 Cent album)", "Best Rap Album", "heroin", "Brentwood, Los Angeles", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Compton (album)", "DJ Khaled", "Instagram", "Best Rap/Sung Collaboration", "Straight Outta Compton: Music from the Motion Picture", "Stat Quo", "Cold 187um", "American Music Awards of 2001", "Reuters", "Camara Kambon", "Ventura (Anderson .Paak album)", "About.com", "Olaijah Griffin", "Notorious B.I.G.", "Efil4zaggin", "Niggaz4Life: The Only Home Video", "BET Hip Hop Award for Album of the Year", "David McCallum", "Freak Like Me", "NFL", "Treach", "Us Weekly", "2001 (Dr. Dre album)", "Metallica" ]
8,085	Delicate Arch	{{Infobox landform \| name = Delicate Arch \| type = Rock arch \| photo = Delicate arch sunset.jpg \| photo_caption = View of the Delicate Arch at sunset, August 2005 \| map = Utah#USA \| map_image = \| map_size = \| map_caption = Location in Utah##Location in Utah \| label = Delicate Arch \| location = Arches National Park, Utah, United States \| coordinates = \| coords_ref = The arch is the most widely recognized landmark in Arches National Park and is depicted on Utah license plates and a postage stamp commemorating Utah's centennial anniversary of admission to the Union in 1896. The Olympic torch relay for the 2002 Winter Olympics passed through the arch. ==History== Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as "the Chaps" and "the Schoolmarm's Bloomers" by local cowboys. Many other names have been applied to this arch including "Bloomers Arch", "Marys Bloomers", "Old Maids Bloomers", "Pants Crotch", "Salt Wash Arch", and "School Marms Pants". This arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a national monument (Arches National Monument) in 1929 and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in 1938. In the 1950s, the NPS investigated the possibility of applying a clear plastic coating to the arch to protect it from further erosion and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles. Fatali was placed on probation and fined $10,900 in restitution to the NPS for the cost of cleanup efforts. In 2017, the United Utah Party was founded, and chose Delicate Arch as its official party logo. ==Geology== Delicate Arch is formed of Entrada Sandstone. The original sandstone fin was gradually worn away by weathering and erosion, leaving the arch. Other arches in the park were formed the same way but, due to placement and less dramatic shape, are not as famous. ==Ecology== During the summer, white-throated swifts (Aeronautes saxatalis) nest in the top of the arch. ==Climbing== In May 2006, climber Dean Potter performed as many as six free solo ascents of the arch. Climbing Delicate Arch was not explicitly forbidden under the rules in force at the time, which only stated that routes "may be closed" on any named arch; however, most climbers accepted that the named arch formations should not be climbed. The NPS has since closed the loophole by disallowing climbs on any named arch within the park year-round. Slacklining and the placement of new fixed anchors on new climbs are also prohibited. Controversy ensued when photographs taken after Potter's climb appeared to show damage caused by a climbing technique called top roping. Potter stated on several occasions that he never damaged the arch, and no photos exist of Potter using a top rope setup on the arch. Previous climbers may have top-roped the arch, leaving the existing rope scars. as well as four cams in a horizontal crack of harder rock at the summit. He used the rope and cams for protection while rehearsing his free solo route and to rappel back down after the free solos. Two fellow climbers also ascended via fixed ropes, one of whom recorded video of Potter from the top.	[ "Globe Pequot Press", "postage stamp", "2002 Winter Olympics torch relay", "National Park Service", "Vehicle registration plates of Utah", "Arches National Park", "Patagonia (clothing)", "Dean Potter", "Spring-loaded camming device", "Sports Illustrated", "Chaps", "Moab, Utah", "Entrada Sandstone", "Bloomers (clothing)", "Deseret News", "Slacklining", "Grand County, Utah", "National monument (United States)", "white-throated swift", "Wayback Machine", "United Utah Party", "Utah", "Landscape Arch", "United States Geological Survey", "Rock arch", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "admission to the Union", "The New York Times", "plastic", "Free solo climbing", "natural arch", "Top rope climbing", "centennial", "Deseret Digital Media", "landmark", "Associated Press", "2002 Winter Olympics", "erosion" ]
8,086	Deed poll	A deed poll (plural: deeds poll) is a legal document binding on a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an intention or create an obligation. It is a deed, and not a contract, because it binds only one party. ==Etymology== The term "deed", also known in this context as a "specialty", is common to signed written undertakings not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, "signed, sealed and delivered", or even merely "executed as a deed") is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the obligation. "Poll" is an archaic legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an "indenture", so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet, then the copies separated by being irregularly torn or cut, i.e. "indented", so that each party had a document with corresponding tears, to discourage forgery). ==Use for changing name== The most common use is a name change through a deed of change of name (often referred to simply as a deed poll). Deeds poll are used for this purpose in countries and regions including in the United Kingdom (except in Scotland), Ireland, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In the UK, a deed poll can also be used to change a child's name, as long as everyone with parental responsibility for the child consents to it and the child does not object to it. The child's parents execute the deed poll on the child's behalf. In some other jurisdictions, a person may simply start using a new name without any formal legal process. The usual requirements are that the new name must be used exclusively and that the change must not be made with the intent to defraud. In English law, a person must notify every creditor of a change of name by deed poll. In Australia, prior to 1 November 2000, name change was accomplished by deed poll but now is done by completing a Change of Name form. ==Other uses== Another common use is to partition land. This form of deed poll is commonly used in Hong Kong. A deed poll may also be used (in England and Wales) for clergy of the Church of England to relinquish their holy orders. Bonds and powers of attorney are examples of deeds poll. A will is not a deed poll, not being made under seal, and being subject to separate statutory requirements.	[ "indenture", "holy orders", "contract", "power of attorney", "fraud", "Partition (law)", "party (law)", "name change", "Church of England", "deed", "Parental responsibility (access and custody)", "Australia" ]
8,088	Documentary film	A documentary film (often described simply as a documentary) is a non-fictional motion picture intended to "document reality, primarily for instruction, education or maintaining a historical record". The American author and media analyst Bill Nichols has characterized the documentary in terms of "a filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception [that remains] a practice without clear boundaries". Research into information gathering, as a behavior, and the sharing of knowledge, as a concept, has noted how documentary movies were preceded by the notable practice of documentary photography. This has involved the use of singular photographs to detail the complex attributes of historical events and continues to a certain degree to this day, with an example being the conflict-related photography achieved by popular figures such as Mathew Brady during the American Civil War. Documentary movies evolved from the creation of singular images in order to convey particular types of information in depth, using film as a medium. Early documentary films, originally called "actuality films", briefly lasted for one minute or less in most cases. While faithfully depicting true events, these releases possessed no narrative structure per se and were of limited interest. Over time, documentaries have evolved to become longer in length and to include more categories of information. Some examples are explicitly educational, while others serve as observational works; docufiction movies notably include aspects of dramatic storytelling that are clearly fictional. Documentaries are informative at times, and certain types are often used within schools as a resource to teach various principles. Documentary filmmakers have a responsibility to be truthful to their vision of the world without intentionally misrepresenting a topic. Social media organizations such as Dailymotion and YouTube, with many of these platforms receiving popular interest, have provided an avenue for the growth of documentaries as a particular film genre. Such platforms have increased the distribution area and ease-of-accessibility given the ability of online video sharing to spread to multiple audiences at once as well as to work past certain socio-political hurdles such as censorship. == Definition == Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film. He wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema, Une nouvelle source de l'histoire ("A New Source of History") and La photographie animée ("Animated photography"). Both were published in 1898 in French and were among the earliest written works to consider the historical and documentary value of the film. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect and keep safe visual materials. The word "documentary" was coined by Scottish documentary filmmaker John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926, written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for Grierson). Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts for interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance; however, this position is at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov's credos of provocation to present "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously), and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera). The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is dramatic." Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents. Scholar Betsy McLane asserted that documentaries are for filmmakers to convey their views about historical events, people, and places which they find significant. Therefore, the advantage of documentaries lies in introducing new perspectives which may not be prevalent in traditional media such as written publications and school curricula. Documentary practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries. Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, or personal expression. == History == === Pre-1900 === Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. Single-shot moments were captured on film, such as a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. These short films were called "actuality" films; the term "documentary" was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length, due to technological limitations. Examples can be viewed on YouTube. Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight. Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States. In May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film a few surgical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Matuszewski and Clément Maurice to record his surgical operations. They started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific purposes, after 1906, Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées (1906), and the four-film Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne (1911). These and five other of Doyen's films survive. Between July 1898 and 1901, the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest: Walking Troubles of Organic Hemiplegy (1898), The Walking Troubles of Organic Paraplegies (1899), A Case of Hysteric Hemiplegy Healed Through Hypnosis (1899), The Walking Troubles of Progressive Locomotion Ataxy (1900), and Illnesses of the Muscles (1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called his works "studies with the help of the cinematograph," and published the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of La Semaine Médicale magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902. In 1924, Auguste Lumière recognized the merits of Marinescu's science films: "I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving La Semaine Médicale, but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way." === 1900–1920 === Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. They were often referred to by distributors as "scenics". Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time. An important early film which moved beyond the concept of the scenic was In the Land of the Head Hunters (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans. Contemplation is a separate area. Pathé was the best-known global manufacturer of such films in the early 20th century. A vivid example is Moscow Clad in Snow (1909). Biographical documentaries appeared during this time, such as the feature Eminescu-Veronica-Creangă (1914) on the relationship between the writers Mihai Eminescu, Veronica Micle and Ion Creangă (all deceased at the time of the production), released by the Bucharest chapter of Pathé. Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor (known for the feature With Our King and Queen Through India (1912)) and Prizma Color (known for Everywhere With Prizma (1919) and the five-reel feature Bali the Unknown (1921)) used travelogues to promote the new color processes. In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fiction feature films. Also during this period, Frank Hurley's feature documentary film, South (1919) about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was released. The film documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914. === 1920s === ==== Romanticism ==== With Robert J. Flaherty's Nanook of the North in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism. Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic documentary films during this time period, often showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance, in Nanook of the North, Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time. Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's Nanook and Moana with two romanticized documentaries, Grass (1925) and Chang (1927), both directed by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack. ==== City symphony ==== The "city symphony" sub film genre consisted of avant-garde films during the 1920s and 1930s. These films were particularly influenced by modern art, namely Cubism, Constructivism, and Impressionism. According to art historian and author Scott MacDonald, city symphony films can be described as, "An intersection between documentary and avant-garde film: an avant-doc"; however, A.L. Rees suggests regarding them as avant-garde films. that Berlin, represented what a documentary should not be); Alberto Cavalcanti's, Rien que les heures; and Dziga Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde. ==== Kino-Pravda ==== Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet Kino-Pravda (literally, "cinematic truth") newsreel series of the 1920s. Vertov believed the camerawith its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motioncould render reality more accurately than the human eye, and created a film philosophy from it. ==== Newsreel tradition ==== The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film. Newsreels at this time were sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them. === 1930s–1940s === The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most celebrated and controversial propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the Will (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler. Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed Borinage (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a "surrealist" documentary Las Hurdes (1933). Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's The City (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's Why We Fight (1942–1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature-length documentaries, Legong: Dance of the Virgins (1935) filmed in Bali, and Kilou the Killer Tiger (1936) filmed in Indochina. In Canada, the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was set up for the same propaganda reasons. It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels. In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work include Drifters (John Grierson), Song of Ceylon (Basil Wright), Fires Were Started, and A Diary for Timothy (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the movement are Night Mail and Coal Face. Calling Mr. Smith (1943) is an anti-Nazi color film created by Stefan Themerson which is both a documentary and an avant-garde film against war. It was one of the first anti-Nazi films in history. === 1950s–1970s === ==== Cinéma-vérité ==== Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound. Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded. Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American "direct cinema", pioneered by, among others, Canadians Michel Brault, Pierre Perrault and Allan King, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles. The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary. The films Chronicle of a Summer (Jean Rouch), Dont Look Back (D. A. Pennebaker), Grey Gardens (Albert and David Maysles), Titicut Follies (Frederick Wiseman), Primary and Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment (both produced by Robert Drew), Harlan County, USA (directed by Barbara Kopple), Lonely Boy (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films. The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movementsuch as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Meyer, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovdeare often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits. Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Les Raquetteurs, Showman, Salesman, Near Death, and The Children Were Watching. ==== Political weapons ==== In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often regarded as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing society. (The Hour of the Furnaces, from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Fernando Solanas, influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Among the many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was "Chile: A Special Report", public television's first in-depth expository look at the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia. A June 2020 article in The New York Times reviewed the political documentary And She Could Be Next, directed by Grace Lee and Marjan Safinia. The Times described the documentary not only as focusing on women in politics, but more specifically on women of color, their communities, and the significant changes they have wrought upon America. === Modern documentaries === Box office analysts have noted that the documentary film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as Fahrenheit 9/11, Super Size Me, Food, Inc., Earth, March of the Penguins, and An Inconvenient Truth among the most prominent examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable. The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 30 years from the cinéma vérité style introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are very personal, such as Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) and Black Is...Black Ain't (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials. Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (1986Part 1 and 1989Part 2) by Henry Hampton, 4 Little Girls (1997) by Spike Lee, The Civil War by Ken Burns, and UNESCO-awarded independent film on slavery 500 Years Later, express not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views. Some films such as The Thin Blue Line by Errol Morris incorporate stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore's Roger & Me place far more interpretive control with the director. The commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda." However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to problematic ontological foundations. Documentary filmmakers are increasingly using social impact campaigns with their films. Social impact campaigns seek to leverage media projects by converting public awareness of social issues and causes into engagement and action, largely by offering the audience a way to get involved. Examples of such documentaries include Kony 2012, Salam Neighbor, Gasland, Living on One Dollar, and Girl Rising. Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade, the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source. Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality television" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The "making-of" documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary. Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves. ==== Documentaries without words ==== Films in the documentary form without words have been made. Listen to Britain, directed by Humphrey Jennings and Stuart McAllister in 1942, is a wordless meditation on wartime Britain. From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the similar Baraka could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no spoken content. Koyaanisqatsi (part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States. Baraka tries to capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies. Bodysong was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for "Best British Documentary." The 2004 film Genesis shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, sex, and death, with some, but little, narration. ==== Narration styles ==== Voice-over narrator The traditional style for narration is to have a dedicated narrator read a script which is dubbed onto the audio track. The narrator never appears on camera and may not necessarily have knowledge of the subject matter or involvement in the writing of the script. Silent narration This style of narration uses title screens to visually narrate the documentary. The screens are held for about 5–10 seconds to allow adequate time for the viewer to read them. They are similar to the ones shown at the end of movies based on true stories, but they are shown throughout, typically between scenes. Hosted narrator In this style, there is a host who appears on camera, conducts interviews, and who also does voice-overs. == Other forms == === Hybrid documentary === The release of The Thin Blue Line (1988) directed by Errol Morris introduced possibilities for emerging forms of the hybrid documentary. Indeed, it was disqualified for an Academy Award because of the stylized recreations. Traditional documentary filmmaking typically removes signs of fictionalization to distinguish itself from fictional film genres. Audiences have recently become more distrustful of the media's traditional fact production, making them more receptive to experimental ways of telling facts. The hybrid documentary implements truth games to challenge traditional fact production. Although it is fact-based, the hybrid documentary is not explicit about what should be understood, creating an open dialogue between subject and audience. Clio Barnard's The Arbor (2010), Joshua Oppenheimer's The Act of Killing (2012), Mads Brügger's The Ambassador, and Alma Har'el's Bombay Beach (2011) are a few notable examples. by Pierre Bismuth to describe his 2016 film Where is Rocky II? === DVD documentary === A DVD documentary is a documentary film of indeterminate length that has been produced with the sole intent of releasing it for direct sale to the public on DVD, which is different from a documentary being made and released first on television or on a cinema screen (a.k.a. theatrical release) and subsequently on DVD for public consumption. This form of documentary release is becoming more popular and accepted as costs and difficulty with finding TV or theatrical release slots increases. It is also commonly used for more "specialist" documentaries, which might not have general interest to a wider TV audience. Examples are military, cultural arts, transport, sports, animals, etc. === Compilation films === Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty. More recent examples include Point of Order! (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings. Similarly, The Last Cigarette combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking. Poetic documentaries, which first appeared in the 1920s, were a sort of reaction against both the content and the rapidly crystallizing grammar of the early fiction film. The poetic mode moved away from continuity editing and instead organized images of the material world by means of associations and patterns, both in terms of time and space. Well-rounded characters"lifelike people"were absent; instead, people appeared in these films as entities, just like any other, that are found in the material world. The films were fragmentary, impressionistic, lyrical. Their disruption of the coherence of time and spacea coherence favored by the fiction films of the daycan also be seen as an element of the modernist counter-model of cinematic narrative. The "real world"Nichols calls it the "historical world"was broken up into fragments and aesthetically reconstituted using film form. Examples of this style include Joris Ivens' Rain (1928), which records a passing summer shower over Amsterdam; László Moholy-Nagy's Play of Light: Black, White, Grey (1930), in which he films one of his own kinetic sculptures, emphasizing not the sculpture itself but the play of light around it; Oskar Fischinger's abstract animated films; Francis Thompson's N.Y., N.Y. (1957), a city symphony film; and Chris Marker's Sans Soleil (1982). Expository documentaries speak directly to the viewer, often in the form of an authoritative commentary employing voiceover or titles, proposing a strong argument and point of view. These films are rhetorical, and try to persuade the viewer. (They may use a rich and sonorous male voice.) The (voice-of-God) commentary often sounds "objective" and omniscient. Images are often not paramount; they exist to advance the argument. The rhetoric insistently presses upon us to read the images in a certain fashion. Historical documentaries in this mode deliver an unproblematic and "objective" account and interpretation of past events. Examples: TV shows and films like Biography, America's Most Wanted, many science and nature documentaries, Ken Burns' The Civil War (1990), Robert Hughes' The Shock of the New (1980), John Berger's Ways of Seeing (1972), Frank Capra's wartime Why We Fight series, and Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936). === Observational === Observational documentaries attempt to spontaneously observe their subjects with minimal intervention. Filmmakers who worked in this subgenre often saw the poetic mode as too abstract and the expository mode as too didactic. The first observational docs date back to the 1960s; the technological developments which made them possible include mobile lightweight cameras and portable sound recording equipment for synchronized sound. Often, this mode of film eschewed voice-over commentary, post-synchronized dialogue and music, or re-enactments. The films aimed for immediacy, intimacy, and revelation of individual human character in ordinary life situations. === Types === Participatory documentaries believe that it is impossible for the act of filmmaking to not influence or alter the events being filmed. What these films do is emulate the approach of the anthropologist: participant-observation. Not only is the filmmaker part of the film, we also get a sense of how situations in the film are affected or altered by their presence. Nichols: "The filmmaker steps out from behind the cloak of voice-over commentary, steps away from poetic meditation, steps down from a fly-on-the-wall perch, and becomes a social actor (almost) like any other. (Almost like any other because the filmmaker retains the camera, and with it, a certain degree of potential power and control over events.)" The encounter between filmmaker and subject becomes a critical element of the film. Rouch and Morin named the approach cinéma vérité, translating Dziga Vertov's kinopravda into French; the "truth" refers to the truth of the encounter rather than some absolute truth. Reflexive documentaries do not see themselves as a transparent window on the world; instead, they draw attention to their own constructedness, and the fact that they are representations. How does the world get represented by documentary films? This question is central to this subgenre of films. They prompt us to "question the authenticity of documentary in general." It is the most self-conscious of all the modes, and is highly skeptical of "realism". It may use Brechtian alienation strategies to jar us, in order to "defamiliarize" what we are seeing and how we are seeing it. Performative documentaries stress subjective experience and emotional response to the world. They are strongly personal, unconventional, perhaps poetic and/or experimental, and might include hypothetical enactments of events designed to make us experience what it might be like for us to possess a certain specific perspective on the world that is not our own, e.g. that of black, gay men in Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) or Jenny Livingston's Paris Is Burning (1991). This subgenre might also lend itself to certain groups (e.g. women, ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, etc.) to "speak about themselves". Often, a battery of techniques, many borrowed from fiction or avant-garde films, are used. Performative docs often link up personal accounts or experiences with larger political or historical realities. === Educational films === Documentaries are shown in schools around the world in order to educate students. Used to introduce various topics to children, they are often used with a school lesson or shown many times to reinforce an idea. == Translation == There are several challenges associated with translation of documentaries. The main two are working conditions and problems with terminology. === Working conditions === Documentary translators very often have to meet tight deadlines. Normally, the translator has between five and seven days to hand over the translation of a 90-minute programme. Dubbing studios typically give translators a week to translate a documentary, but in order to earn a good salary, translators have to deliver their translations in a much shorter period, usually when the studio decides to deliver the final programme to the client sooner or when the broadcasting channel sets a tight deadline, e.g. on documentaries discussing the latest news. Another problem is the lack of postproduction script or the poor quality of the transcription. A correct transcription is essential for a translator to do their work properly, however many times the script is not even given to the translator, which is a major impediment since documentaries are characterised by "the abundance of terminological units and very specific proper names". When the script is given to the translator, it is usually poorly transcribed or outright incorrect making the translation unnecessarily difficult and demanding because all of the proper names and specific terminology have to be correct in a documentary programme in order for it to be a reliable source of information, hence the translator has to check every term on their own. Such mistakes in proper names are for instance: "Jungle Reinhard instead of Django Reinhart, Jorn Asten instead of Jane Austen, and Magnus Axle instead of Aldous Huxley". This poses a real challenge for the translators because they have to render the meaning, i.e. find an equivalent, of a very specific, scientific term in the target language and frequently the narrator uses a more general name instead of a specific term and the translator has to rely on the image presented in the programme to understand which term is being discussed in order to transpose it in the target language accordingly. Additionally, translators of minorised languages often have to face another problem: some terms may not even exist in the target language. In such cases, they have to create new terminology or consult specialists to find proper solutions. Also, sometimes the official nomenclature differs from the terminology used by actual specialists, which leaves the translator to decide between using the official vocabulary that can be found in the dictionary, or rather opting for spontaneous expressions used by real experts in real life situations.	[ "Ethnofiction", "Leni Riefenstahl", "French films", "Dziga Vertov", "The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight", "President of the Republic of Estonia", "The Shock of the New", "Rien que les heures", "Food, Inc.", "Robert J. Flaherty", "Constance Bennett", "art historian", "David A. Goldsmith", "Misère au Borinage", "Travelogue (films)", "University of Pittsburgh Press", "observation", "Ethnographic film", "D. A. Pennebaker", "Wolf Koenig", "French New Wave", "United States Congress", "Social media", "Ernest Shackleton", "Titicut Follies", "Auguste and Louis Lumière", "Douro, Faina Fluvial", "László Moholy-Nagy", "Bombay Beach (film)", "Mihai Eminescu", "Martin Kunert", "The City (1939 film)", "Harlan County, USA", "An Inconvenient Truth", "Land Without Bread", "Bill Nichols (film critic)", "Basil Wright", "Joseph Goebbels", "Augusto Pinochet", "Werner Nold", "metropolis", "Adolf Hitler", "cinepoetry", "Informational listening", "censorship", "Gordon Sparling", "principle", "The Hour of the Furnaces", "Michel Brault", "slow motion", "Henri de la Falaise", "Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment", "The Ambassador (2011 film)", "New York Film Festival", "Spike Lee", "Film release", "Visual anthropology", "Mads Brügger", "Susan Froemke", "knowledge", "Grass (1925 film)", "Nazi", "Women's cinema", "N.Y., N.Y. (film)", "With Our King and Queen Through India", "Robert Hughes (critic)", "Ion Creangă", "Ellen Hovde", "Rhapsody in Two Languages", "The New York Times", "David MacDougall", "Cinéma vérité", "Wesleyan University Press", "Ernest Schoedsack", "Mockumentary", "Princeton University Press", "Duke University Press", "John Grierson", "symphony", "Realism (theatre)", "Impressionism", "Octavio Getino", "Sponsored film", "Mircea Dumitrescu", "actuality film", "In the Land of the Head Hunters", "Muffie Meyer", "University of Minnesota Press", "Mathew Brady", "Kino-Pravda", "Fires Were Started", "Basil Blackwell", "Genesis (2004 film)", "exoticism", "Barbara Kopple", "Allan King", "W. H. Auden", "National Film Board of Canada", "Outline of film", "New York Sun (historical)", "Dailymotion", "Cinéma du Réel", "Walter Ruttmann", "Indiana University Press", "UNESCO", "Eugène-Louis Doyen", "Saint Petersburg", "igloo", "List of documentary television channels", "Veronica Micle", "Moana (1926 film)", "Albert and David Maysles", "Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis", "John Berger", "Earth (2009 film)", "Salvador Allende", "Bolesław Matuszewski", "Girl Rising", "History", "cinéma vérité", "List of documentary film festivals", "Enoch J. Rector", "The Winds of the Milky Way", "author", "romanticism", "online video sharing", "Humphrey Jennings", "New Deal", "First Nations in Canada", "Film school", "Abstract expressionism", "Photograph", "propaganda film", "concept", "Eyes on the Prize", "modern art", "YouTube", "André Leroi-Gourhan", "Documentary Film Movement", "Indochina", "Pierre Sorlin", "Frederick Wiseman", "primitivism", "Bodysong", "De brug", "behavior", "Clockwork", "Grierson Awards", "Moscow Clad in Snow", "Chris Marker", "List of documentary films", "Salam Neighbor", "Eminescu-Veronica-Creangă", "Charlotte Zwerin", "Listen to Britain", "Rain (1929 film)", "Nanook of the North", "Chang (film)", "Fahrenheit 9/11", "Jerzy Toeplitz", "500 Years Later", "Jill Godmilow", "The Civil War (TV series)", "neocolonialism", "Pare Lorentz", "Paul Rotha", "Salesman (1969 film)", "Willard Van Dyke", "Triumph of the Will", "Pierre Perrault", "Lonely Boy (film)", "The Civil War (miniseries)", "March of the Penguins", "Esfir Shub", "Merian C. Cooper", "Fatimah Tobing Rony", "video game", "wikt:hybrid", "Grey Gardens", "Nature documentary", "Elmar Klos", "Dont Look Back", "University of California Press", "Ken Burns", "Soviet montage theory", "neurology", "Song of Ceylon", "Actuality film", "J. B. Priestley", "Mondo film", "Citizen media", "The Act of Killing", "University of Texas Press", "Fernando Solanas", "Docufiction", "Fredric Jameson", "Oxford University Press", "Recorded history", "Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature", "Ann Curthoys", "Marlon Riggs", "Michael Moore", "filmmaking", "Baraka (film)", "Roman Kroitor", "Technicolor", "Adalberto Kemeny", "Living on One Dollar", "Alberto Cavalcanti", "Emile de Antonio", "Margaret Mead Film Festival", "Media studies", "Joris Ivens Award", "The River (1938 film)", "Stefan Themerson", "Clio Barnard", "Kinemacolor", "Études sur Paris", "Manoel de Oliveira", "Political cinema", "Paramount Pictures", "Film", "Prizma", "4 Little Girls", "avant-garde films", "Cambridge University Press", "Joshua Oppenheimer", "Nuremberg Rally", "newsreel", "War photography", "São Paulo, Sinfonia da Metrópole", "Ron Burnett", "time-lapse photography", "Luc de Heusch", "Benjamin Britten", "Qatsi trilogy", "surrealism", "capitalism", "Dance film", "Alma Har'el", "Miriam Hansen", "Paul Strand", "Koyaanisqatsi", "Cubism", "Jean Rouch", "Clément Maurice", "Walking Troubles of Organic Hemiplegy", "André Sauvage", "American Civil War", "Voice-over", "International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam", "shooting ratio", "mondo films", "intertitle", "Gasland", "Scott MacDonald (media scholar)", "Chronicle of a Summer", "Public-access television", "Why We Fight", "Primary (film)", "Warsaw", "Errol Morris", "Roger & Me", "Frank Hurley", "The Plow That Broke the Plains", "Joris Ivens", "Legong: Dance of the Virgins", "Marilyn Lake", "Kony 2012", "Docudrama", "Reality film", "Richard Leacock", "aeroscope", "University of Toronto Press", "Constructivism (art)", "Georges Sadoul", "List of directors and producers of documentaries", "Erik Barnouw", "Pierre Bismuth", "Pathé", "California State University, Fullerton", "film genre", "Bucharest", "Harry Watt (director)", "Bachelor of Arts", "Oskar Fischinger", "Routledge", "Educational film", "Super Size Me", "British Film Institute", "Eric Manes", "Participatory video", "Brașov", "documentary photography", "The Christian Science Monitor", "Visions du Réel", "Bali", "Biography (TV series)", "The Thin Blue Line (1988 film)", "Les Raquetteurs", "Coal Face", "Robert Flaherty", "A Diary for Timothy", "Night Mail", "America's Most Wanted", "Karl G. Heider", "Point of Order (film)", "Sans Soleil", "Bolex", "city symphony", "Luis Buñuel", "Frank Capra", "Henri Storck", "Concert film", "Social media platform", "docufiction", "Ways of Seeing", "Gheorghe Marinescu", "Mikhail Kaufman", "Direct Cinema", "Voices of Iraq", "Manhatta", "Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition", "fictional film", "Man with a Movie Camera", "The Last Cigarette", "Robert Drew" ]
8,090	Day of the Tentacle	Day of the Tentacle, also known as Maniac Mansion II: Day of the Tentacle, is a 1993 graphic adventure game developed and published by LucasArts. It is the sequel to the 1987 game Maniac Mansion. The plot follows Bernard Bernoulli and his friends Hoagie and Laverne as they attempt to stop the evil Purple Tentacle - a sentient, disembodied tentacle - from taking over the world. The player takes control of the trio and solves puzzles while using time travel to explore different periods of history. Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer co-led the game's development, their first time in such a role. The pair carried over a limited number of elements from Maniac Mansion and forwent the character selection aspect to simplify development. Inspirations included Chuck Jones cartoons and the history of the United States. Day of the Tentacle was the eighth LucasArts game to use the SCUMM engine. The game was released simultaneously on floppy disk and CD-ROM to critical acclaim and commercial success. Critics focused on its cartoon-style visuals and comedic elements. Day of the Tentacle has featured regularly in lists of "top" games published more than two decades after its release, and has been referenced in popular culture. A remastered version of Day of the Tentacle was developed by Schafer's current studio, Double Fine Productions, and released in March 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with an iOS and Linux port released in July the same year, and then later for Xbox One in October 2020. == Gameplay == Day of the Tentacle follows the point-and-click two-dimensional adventure game formula, first established by the original Maniac Mansion. Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse. To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of nine commands arrayed on the screen (such as "pick up", "use", or "talk to") and then on an object in the world. This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, Sam & Max Hit the Road, the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen. Day of the Tentacle uses time travel extensively; early in the game, the three main protagonists are separated across time by the effects of a faulty time machine. The player, after completing certain puzzles, can then freely switch between these characters, interacting with the game's world in separate time periods. Certain small inventory items can be shared by placing the item into the "Chron-o-Johns", modified portable toilets that instantly transport objects to one of the other time periods, while other items are shared by simply leaving the item in a past time period to be picked up by a character in a future period. Changes made to a past time period will affect a future one, and many of the game's puzzles are based on the effect of time travel, the aging of certain items, and alterations of the time stream. For example, one puzzle requires the player, while in the future era where Purple Tentacle has succeeded, to send a medical chart of a Tentacle back to the past, having it used as the design of the American flag, then collecting one such flag in the future to be used as a Tentacle disguise to allow that character to roam freely. The whole original Maniac Mansion game can be played on a computer resembling a Commodore 64 inside the Day of the Tentacle game; this practice has since been repeated by other game developers, but at the time of Day of the Tentacle's release, it was unprecedented. == Plot == Five years after the events of Maniac Mansion, Purple Tentacle—a mutant monster and lab assistant created by mad scientist Dr. Fred Edison—drinks toxic sludge from a river behind Dr. Fred's laboratory. The sludge causes him to grow a pair of flipper-like arms, develop vastly increased intelligence, and have a thirst for global domination. Dr. Fred plans to resolve the issue by killing Purple Tentacle and his harmless, friendly brother Green Tentacle, but Green Tentacle sends a plea of help to his old friend, the nerd Bernard Bernoulli. Bernard travels to the Edison family motel with his two housemates, deranged medical student Laverne and roadie Hoagie, and frees the tentacles. Purple Tentacle escapes to resume his quest to take over the world. Since Purple Tentacle's plans are flawless and unstoppable, Dr. Fred decides to use his Chron-o-John time machines to send Bernard, Laverne, and Hoagie to the day before to turn off his Sludge-o-Matic machine, thereby preventing Purple Tentacle's exposure to the sludge. However, because Dr. Fred used an imitation diamond rather than a real diamond as a power source for the time machine, the Chron-o-Johns break down in operation. Laverne is sent 200 years in the future, where humanity has been enslaved and Purple Tentacle rules the world from the Edison mansion, while Hoagie is dropped 200 years in the past, where the motel is being used by the Founding Fathers as a retreat to write the United States Constitution. Bernard is returned to the present. To salvage Dr. Fred's plan, Bernard must acquire a replacement diamond for the time machine, while both Hoagie and Laverne must restore power to their respective Chron-o-John pods by plugging them in. To overcome the lack of electricity in the past, Hoagie recruits the help of Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Fred's ancestor, Red Edison, to build a superbattery to power his pod, while Laverne evades capture by the tentacles long enough to run an extension cord to her unit. The three send small objects back and forth in time through the Chron-o-Johns and make changes to history to help the others complete their tasks. Eventually, Bernard uses Dr. Fred's family fortune of royalties from the use of their likeness in Maniac Mansion to purchase a real diamond, while his friends manage to power their Chron-o-Johns. Soon, the three are reunited in the present. Purple Tentacle arrives, hijacks a Chron-o-John, and takes it to the previous day to prevent them from turning off the sludge machine; he is pursued by Green Tentacle in another pod. With only one Chron-o-John pod left, Bernard, Hoagie, and Laverne use it to pursue the tentacles to the previous day, while Dr. Fred uselessly tries to warn them of using the pod together, referencing the film The Fly. Upon arriving, the trio exit the pod only to discover that they have been turned into a three-headed monster, their bodies merging into one during the transfer. Meanwhile, Purple Tentacle has used the time machine to bring countless versions of himself from different moments in time to the same day to prevent the Sludge-o-Matic from being deactivated. Bernard and his friends defeat the Purple Tentacles guarding the Sludge-o-Matic, turn off the machine, and prevent the whole series of events from ever happening. Returning to the present, Dr. Fred discovers that the three have not been turned into a monster at all but have just gotten stuck in the same set of clothes; they are then ordered by Dr. Fred to get out of his house. The game ends with the credits rolling over a tentacle-shaped American flag, one of the more significant results of their tampering in history. == Development == Following a string of successful adventure games, LucasArts assigned Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer to lead development of a new game. The two had previously assisted Ron Gilbert with the creation of The Secret of Monkey Island and Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge, and the studio felt that Grossman and Schafer were ready to manage a project. The company believed that the pair's humor matched well with that of Maniac Mansion and suggested working on a sequel. The two developers agreed and commenced production. Gilbert and Gary Winnick, the creators of Maniac Mansion, collaborated with Grossman and Schafer on the initial planning and writing. The total budget for the game was about $600,000, according to Schafer. === Creative design === In planning the plot, the four designers considered a number of concepts, eventually choosing an idea of Gilbert's about time travel that they believed was the most interesting. The four discussed what time periods to focus on, settling on the Revolutionary War and the future. The Revolutionary War offered opportunities to craft many puzzles around that period, such as changing the Constitution to affect the future. Grossman noted the appeal of the need to make wide-sweeping changes such as the Constitution just to achieve a small personal goal, believing this captured the essence of adventure games. Grossman and Schafer decided to carry over previous characters that they felt were the most entertaining. The two considered the Edison family "essential" and chose Bernard because of his "unqualified nerdiness". Schafer and Grossman planned to use a character selection system similar to the first game but felt that it would have complicated the design process and increased production costs. Believing that it added little to the gameplay, they removed it early in the process and reduced the number of player characters from six to three. The smaller number of characters reduced the strain on the game's engine in terms of scripting and animation. Peter Chan designed backgrounds, spending around two days to progress from concept sketch to final art for each background. Denny Delk and Nick Jameson were among those hired, and provided voice work for around five characters each. The voice work in Day of the Tentacle was widely praised for its quality and professionalism in comparison to Sierra's talkie games of the period which suffered from poor audio quality and limited voice acting (some of which consisted of Sierra employees rather than professional talent). The game's music was composed by Peter McConnell, Michael Land, and Clint Bajakian. The three had worked together to share the duties equally of composing the music for Monkey Island 2 and Fate of Atlantis, and continued this approach for Day of the Tentacle. \| MC = 93/100 \| award1Pub = PC Gamer US \| award1 = #46, The Best Games of All Time \| award2Pub = Computer Gaming World \| award2 = Adventure Game of the Year, June 1994#34, 150 Best Games of All Time \| award3Pub = Adventure Gamers \| award3 = #1, Top 20 Adventure Games of All Time \| award4Pub = IGN \| award4 = #60, Top 100 Games (2005)#84, Top 100 Games (2007)#82, Top 100 Videogame Villains (Purple Tentacle) \| award7Pub = PC Gamer UK \| award7 = #30, The Top 100 }} Day of the Tentacle was a moderate commercial success; according to Edge, it sold roughly 80,000 copies by 2009. Tim Schafer saw this as an improvement over his earlier projects, the Monkey Island games, which had been commercial flops. The game was critically acclaimed. Charles Ardai of Computer Gaming World wrote in September 1993: "Calling Day of the Tentacle a sequel to Maniac Mansion ... is a little like calling the space shuttle a sequel to the slingshot". He enjoyed the game's humor and interface, and praised the designers for removing "dead end" scenarios and player character death. Ardai lauded the voice acting, writing that it "would have done the late Mel Blanc proud", and compared the game's humor, animation, and camera angles to "Looney Toons gems from the 40s and 50s". He concluded: "I expect that this game will keep entertaining people for quite some time to come". In April 1994 the magazine said of the CD version that Sanders's Bernard was among "many other inspired performances", concluding that "Chuck Jones would be proud". In May 1994 the magazine said of one multimedia kit bundling the CD version that "it packs more value into the kit than the entire software packages of some of its competitors". Sandy Petersen of Dragon stated that its graphics "are in a stupendous cartoony style", while praising its humor and describing its sound and music as "excellent". Although the reviewer considered it "one of the best" graphic adventure games, he noted that, like LucasArts' earlier Loom, it was extremely short; he wrote that he "felt cheated somehow when I finished the game". He ended the review, "Go, Lucasfilm! Do this again, but do make the next game longer!". Phil LaRose of The Advocate called it "light-years ahead of the original", and believed that its "improved controls, sound and graphics are an evolutionary leap to a more enjoyable gaming experience". He praised the interface, and summarized the game as "another of the excellent LucasArts programs that place a higher premium on the quality of entertainment and less on the technical knowledge needed to make it run". The Boston Heralds Geoff Smith noted that "the animation of the cartoonlike characters is of TV quality", and praised the removal of dead ends and character death. He ended: "It's full of lunacy, but for anyone who likes light-hearted adventure games, it's well worth trying". Vox Day of The Blade called its visuals "well done" and compared them to those of The Ren & Stimpy Show. The writer praised the game's humor, and said that "both the music and sound effects are hilarious"; he cited the voice performance of Richard Sanders as a high point. He summarized the game as "both a good adventure and a funny cartoon". Lim Choon Wee of the New Straits Times highly praised the game's humor, which he called "brilliantly funny". The writer commented that the game's puzzles relied on "trial and error" with "no underlying logic", but opined that the game "remains fun" despite this issue, and concluded that Day of the Tentacle was "definitely the comedy game of the year". Daniel Baum of The Jerusalem Post called it "one of the funniest, most entertaining and best-programmed computer games I have ever seen", and lauded its animation. He wrote that the game provided "a more polished impression" than either The Secret of Monkey Island or Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge. The writer claimed that its high system requirements were its only drawback, and believed that a Sound Blaster card was required to fully appreciate the game. In a retrospective review, Adventure Gamers' Chris Remo wrote: "If someone were to ask for a few examples of games that exemplify the best of the graphic adventure genre, Day of the Tentacle would certainly be near the top". Day of the Tentacle has been featured regularly in lists of "top" games. In 1994, PC Gamer US named Day of the Tentacle the 46th best computer game ever. In June 1994 it and Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers won Computer Gaming Worlds Adventure Game of the Year award. The editors wrote that "Day of the Tentacles fluid animation sequences underscore a strong script and solid game play ... story won out over technological innovation in this genre". In 1996, the magazine ranked it as the 34th best game of all time, writing: "DOTT completely blew away its ancestor, Maniac Mansion, with its smooth animated sequences, nifty plot and great voiceovers". Adventure Gamers included the game as the top entry on its 20 Greatest Adventure Games of All Time List in 2004, and placed it sixth on its Top 100 All-Time Adventure Games in 2011. The game has appeared on several IGN lists. The website rated it number 60 and 84 on its top 100 games list in 2005 and 2007, respectively. IGN named Day of the Tentacle as part of their top 10 LucasArts adventure games in 2009, and ranked the Purple Tentacle 82nd in a list of top 100 videogame villains in 2010. ComputerAndVideoGames.com ranked it at number 30 in 2008, and GameSpot also listed Day of the Tentacle as one of the greatest games of all time. In describing what he considered "the most rewarding moment" of his career, Grossman stated that the game's writing and use of spoken and subtitled dialog assisted a learning-disabled child in learning how to read. In 2018, a fan-made sequel, Return of the Tentacle, was released free by a team from Germany. The game imitates the art style of the Remastered edition and features full voice acting. == Remasters == === Special Edition === According to Kotaku, a remastered version of Day of the Tentacle was in the works at LucasArts Singapore before the sale of LucasArts to Disney in 2012. Though never officially approved, the game used a pseudo-3D art style and was nearly 80% complete, according to one person close to the project, but was shelved in the days before the closure of LucasArts. === Remastered === A remastered version of Day of the Tentacle was developed by Schafer and his studio, Double Fine Productions. The remaster was released on March 22, 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with a Linux version released at July 11 together with a mobile port for iOS. The PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita versions are cross-buy and also feature cross-save. An Xbox One port came in October 2020. The remastered game was released as a free PlayStation Plus title for the month of January 2017. Schafer credited both LucasArts and Disney for help in creating the remaster, which follows from a similar remastering of Grim Fandango, as well by Double Fine, in January 2015. Schafer said when they originally were about to secure the rights to Grim Fandango from LucasArts to make the remaster, they did not originally have plans to redo the other LucasArts adventure games, but with the passionate response they got on the news of the Grim Fandango remaster, they decided to continue these efforts. Schafer described getting the rights to Day of the Tentacle a "miracle" though aided by the fact that many of the executives in the legal rights chain had fond memories of playing these games and helped to secure the rights. 2 Player Productions, which has worked before with Double Fine to document their game development process, also created a mini-documentary for Day of the Tentacle Remastered, which included a visit to the Skywalker Ranch, where LucasArts games were originally developed, where much of the original concept art and digital files for the game and other LucasArts adventure games were archived. Day of the Tentacle Remastered retains its two-dimensional cartoon-style art, redrawn at a higher resolution for modern computers. Day of the Tentacle Remastered has received positive reviews, with the PC version having an aggregate review score of 87/100 tallied by Metacritic. Reviewers generally praised the game as having not lost its charm since its initial release, but found some aspects of the remastering to be lackluster. Richard Corbett for Eurogamer found the game "every bit as well crafted now as it was in 1993", but found the processes used to provide high-definition graphics from the original 16-bit graphics to making some of the required shortcuts taken in 1993 for graphics, such as background dithering and low animation framerates, more obvious on modern hardware. IGNs Jared Petty also found the remastered to still be enjoyable, and found the improvement on the graphics to be "glorious", but worried that the lack of a hint system, as was added in The Secret of Monkey Island remastered version, would put off new players to the game. Bob Mackey for USgamer found that while past remastered adventure games have highlighted how much has changed in gamers' expectations since the heyday of adventure games in the 1990s, Day of the Tentacle Remastered "rises above these issues to become absolutely timeless".	[ "George Washington", "Kotaku", "Megadeth", "Grim Fandango", "Sandy Petersen", "Retro Gamer", "Charles Ardai", "Talkies (video games)", "unwinnable", "Single-player", "Telltale Games", "WKRP in Cincinnati", "OS X", "Linux", "LucasArts Entertainment Company LLC", "Ron Gilbert", "nerd", "Computer animation", "Beat Generation", "Chuck Jones", "GameSpot", "Zombies Ate My Neighbors", "medical chart", "Theodore Beale", "Xbox Game Studios", "Video game remake", "Tim Schafer", "iOS", "Mexican people", "Loom (video game)", "Kyle Balda", "Clint Bajakian", "adventure game", "GamesTM", "Adventure Gamers", "point-and-click", "PC Gamer US", "player character", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "Maniac Mansion", "roadie", "Derby Telegraph", "Computer Gaming World", "Sound Blaster", "Rabbit of Seville", "Bournemouth", "ComputerAndVideoGames.com", "What's Opera, Doc?", "graphic adventure game", "Episodic video game", "Graphic adventure", "Imagine Publishing", "history of the United States", "Peter McConnell", "USgamer", "The Jerusalem Post", "extension cord", "webcomic", "Digital Spy", "Broken Age", "John Hancock", "The Age", "medical student", "floppy disk", "Scripting language", "New Straits Times", "Flag of the United States", "Xbox One", "iMUSE", "Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis", "The Ren & Stimpy Show", "Richard Sanders (actor)", "The Advocate (Louisiana)", "PlayStation 4", "Artistic license", "Dragon (magazine)", "Dave Grossman (game developer)", "MIDI", "Peter Chan (artist)", "portable toilet", "cross-buy", "Gary Winnick (game developer)", "retrogamer", "GameRankings", "Commodore 64", "The Fly (1958 film)", "The Blade (Toledo)", "U. S. Gold", "Maurice Noble", "Future Publishing", "PC Gamer UK", "CBS Interactive", "Eurogamer", "The Secret of Monkey Island", "GameStar", "IGN", "MS-DOS", "Double Fine Productions", "Looney Tunes", "CD-ROM", "Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century", "royalties", "PlayStation Plus", "Mel Blanc", "List of video games considered the best", "Windows", "PlayStation Vita", "LucasArts", "Destructoid", "Skywalker Ranch", "system requirements", "Pepé Le Pew", "Computer and Video Games", "Boston Herald", "Denny Delk", "Nick Jameson", "Tales of Monkey Island", "Benjamin Franklin", "Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge", "The New Straits Times", "United States Constitution", "Penelope Pussycat", "Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers", "Thomas Jefferson", "Michael Land", "computer mouse", "Classic Mac OS", "Metacritic", "Sam & Max Hit the Road", "Edge (magazine)", "2 Player Productions", "bundled software", "Les Nessman", "mad scientist", "Polygon (website)", "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "SCUMM", "Battery (electricity)" ]
8,091	Douglas Adams	Douglas Noel Adams (11 March 1952 – 11 May 2001) was an English author, humorist, and screenwriter, best known as the creator of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Originally a 1978 BBC radio comedy, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy evolved into a "trilogy" of six (or five, according to the author) books which sold more than 15 million copies in his life. It was made into a television series, several stage plays, comics, a video game, and a 2005 feature film. Adams's contribution to UK radio is commemorated in The Radio Academy's Hall of Fame. Adams wrote Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency (1987) and The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (1988), and co-wrote The Meaning of Liff (1983), The Deeper Meaning of Liff (1990) and Last Chance to See (1990). He wrote two stories for the television series Doctor Who, including the unaired serial Shada, co-wrote City of Death (1979), and served as script editor for its 17th season. He co-wrote the sketch "Patient Abuse" for the final episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus. A posthumous collection of his selected works, including the first publication of his final (unfinished) novel, was published as The Salmon of Doubt in 2002. Adams called himself a "radical atheist", an advocate for environmentalism and conservation, and a lover of fast cars, technological innovation, and the Apple Macintosh. ==Early life== Adams was born in Cambridge, England, on 11 March 1952 to Christopher Douglas Adams (1927–1985), a management consultant and computer salesman, former probation officer and lecturer on probationary group therapy techniques, and nurse Janet (1927–2016), née Donovan. A few months after his birth, the family moved to the East End of London, where his sister, Susan, was born three years later. His parents divorced in 1957; Douglas, Susan and their mother moved then to an RSPCA animal shelter in Brentwood, Essex, run by his maternal grandparents. Each parent remarried, giving Adams four half-siblings. A great-grandfather was the German playwright Frank Wedekind. ===Education=== Adams attended Primrose Hill Primary School in Brentwood. At the age of nine, he passed the entrance exam for Brentwood School. He attended the prep school from 1959 to 1964, then the main school until December 1970. Adams was tall by the age of 12, and stopped growing at . His form master, Frank Halford, said that Adams's height had made him stand out and that he had been self-conscious about it. His ability to write made him well-known in the school. Adams became the only student ever to be awarded a ten out of ten by Halford for creative writing – something he remembered for the rest of his life, particularly when facing writer's block. On the strength of an essay on religious poetry that discussed the Beatles and William Blake, Adams was awarded an Exhibition in English at St John's College, Cambridge (where his father had been a student), going up in 1971. He wanted to join the Footlights, an invitation-only student comedy club, that has acted as a hothouse for comic talent. He was not elected immediately as he had hoped and started to write and perform in revues with Will Adams (no relation) and Martin Smith; they formed a group called "Adams-Smith-Adams". He became a member of the Footlights by 1973. Despite doing very little work – he recalled having completed three essays in three years – he graduated in 1974 with a 2:2 in English literature. ==Career== ===Writing=== After leaving university, Adams moved back to London, determined to break into TV and radio as a writer. An edited version of the Footlights Revue appeared on BBC2 television in 1974. A version of the Revue performed live in London's West End led to Adams being discovered by Monty Python's Graham Chapman. The two formed a brief writing partnership, earning Adams a writing credit in episode 45 of Monty Python for a sketch called "Patient Abuse". The pair also co-wrote the "Marilyn Monroe" sketch that appeared on the soundtrack album of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Adams is one of only two people other than the original Python members to receive a Monty Python writing credit (the other being Neil Innes. Adams had two brief appearances in the fourth series of Monty Python's Flying Circus. At the beginning of episode 42, "The Light Entertainment War", Adams is in a surgeon's mask (as Dr. Emile Koning, according to on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while Michael Palin narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another but never gets started. At the beginning of episode 44, "Mr. Neutron", Adams is dressed in a pepper-pot outfit and loads a missile onto a cart driven by Terry Jones, who is calling for scrap metal ("Any old iron..."). The two episodes were broadcast in November 1974. Adams and Chapman also attempted non-Python projects, including Out of the Trees. At this point, Adams's career stalled; his writing style was unsuited to the current style of radio and TV comedy. Adams continued to write and submit sketches, though few were accepted. In 1976, his career had a brief improvement when he wrote and performed Unpleasantness at Brodie's Close at the Edinburgh Fringe festival. By Christmas, work had dried up again and a depressed Adams moved to live with his mother. Some of Adams's early radio work included sketches for The Burkiss Way in 1977 and The News Huddlines. He also wrote, again with Chapman, the 20 February 1977 episode of Doctor on the Go, a sequel to the Doctor in the House television comedy series. After the first radio series of The Hitchhiker's Guide became successful, Adams was made a BBC radio producer, working on Week Ending and a pantomime called Black Cinderella Two Goes East. He left after six months to become the script editor for Doctor Who. In 1979, Adams and John Lloyd wrote scripts for two half-hour episodes of Doctor Snuggles, "The Remarkable Fidgety River" and "The Great Disappearing Mystery" (episodes eight and twelve). John Lloyd was also co-author of two episodes from the original Hitchhiker radio series ("Fit the Fifth" and "Fit the Sixth", also known as "Episode Five" and "Episode Six"), as well as The Meaning of Liff and The Deeper Meaning of Liff. ====Work on Doctor Who==== Adams sent the script for the HHGG pilot radio programme to the Doctor Who production office in 1978, and was commissioned to write The Pirate Planet. He had also previously attempted to submit a potential film script, called Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen, which later became his novel Life, the Universe and Everything (which in turn became the third Hitchhiker's Guide radio series). Adams then went on to serve as script editor on the show for its 17th season in 1979. Altogether, he wrote three Doctor Who serials starring Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor: The Pirate Planet (the second serial in the Key to Time arc, in season 16) City of Death (with producer Graham Williams, from an original storyline by writer David Fisher. It was transmitted under the pseudonym "David Agnew") Shada (only partly filmed; not televised due to industry disputes but was later completed using animation for the unfinished scenes and broadcast as "Doctor Who: The Lost Episode" on BBC America on 19 July 2018) The episodes authored by Adams are some of the few that were not originally novelised, as Adams would not allow anyone else to write them and asked for a higher price than the publishers were willing to pay. Shada was adapted as a novel by Gareth Roberts in 2012 and City of Death and The Pirate Planet by James Goss in 2015 and 2017 respectively. Elements of Shada and City of Death were reused in Adams's later novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, in particular, the character of Professor Chronotis. Big Finish Productions eventually remade Shada as an audio play starring Paul McGann as the Doctor. Accompanied by partly animated illustrations, it was webcast on the BBC website in 2003, and subsequently released as a two-CD set later that year. An omnibus edition of this version was broadcast on the digital radio station BBC7 on 10 December 2005. In the Doctor Who 2012 Christmas episode "The Snowmen", writer Steven Moffat was inspired by a storyline that Adams pitched called The Doctor Retires. ====The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy==== The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was a concept for a science-fiction comedy radio series pitched by Adams and radio producer Simon Brett to BBC Radio 4 in 1977. Adams came up with an outline for a pilot episode, as well as a few other stories (reprinted in Neil Gaiman's book Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion) that could be used in the series. According to Adams, the idea for the title occurred to him in 1971 while he lay drunk in a field in Innsbruck, Austria, gazing at the stars. He was carrying a copy of the Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe, and it occurred to him that "somebody ought to write a Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy". Despite the original outline, Adams was said to make up the stories as he wrote. He turned to John Lloyd for help with the final two episodes of the first series. Lloyd contributed bits from an unpublished science fiction book of his own, called GiGax. Very little of Lloyd's material survived in later adaptations of Hitchhiker's, such as the novels and the TV series. The TV series was based on the first six radio episodes, and sections contributed by Lloyd were largely re-written. BBC Radio 4 broadcast the first radio series weekly in the UK starting 8 March 1978, lasting until April. The series was distributed in the United States by National Public Radio. Following the success of the first series, another episode was recorded and broadcast, which was commonly known as the Christmas Episode. A second series of five episodes was broadcast one per night, during the week of 21–25 January 1980. While working on the radio series (and with simultaneous projects such as The Pirate Planet) Adams found difficulty in keeping to writing deadlines; the problem became worse as he proceeded to publish novels. He was never a prolific writer and usually had to be forced by others to do any writing. This included being locked in a hotel suite with his editor for three weeks to ensure that So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish was completed. Adams was quoted as saying, "I love deadlines. I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by." Despite the difficulty with deadlines, he wrote five novels in the series, published in 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984, and 1992. The books formed the basis for other adaptations, such as three-part comic book adaptations for each of the first three books, an interactive text-adventure computer game, and a photo-illustrated edition, published in 1994. This latter edition featured a 42 Puzzle designed by Adams, which was later incorporated into paperback covers of the first four Hitchhiker's novels (the paperback for the fifth re-used the artwork from the hardback edition). In 1980, Adams began attempts to turn the first Hitchhiker's novel into a film, making several trips to Los Angeles, and working with Hollywood studios and potential producers. The next year, the radio series became the basis for a BBC television mini-series broadcast in six parts. When he died in 2001 in California, he had been trying again to get the film project started with Disney, which had bought the rights in 1998. The screenplay was rewritten by Karey Kirkpatrick and the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy film was released in 2005. Radio producer Dirk Maggs had consulted with Adams, first in 1993, and later in 1997 and 2000 about creating a third radio series, based on the third novel in the Hitchhiker's series. They also discussed the possibilities of radio adaptations of the final two novels in the five-book "trilogy". As with the film, this project was realised only after Adams's death. The third series, The Tertiary Phase, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in September 2004 and was subsequently released on audio CD. With the aid of a recording of his reading of Life, the Universe and Everything and editing, Adams can be heard playing the part of Agrajag posthumously. So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish and Mostly Harmless made up the fourth and fifth radio series, respectively (on radio they were titled The Quandary Phase and The Quintessential Phase) and these were broadcast in May and June 2005, and also subsequently released on Audio CD. The last episode in the last series (with a new, "more upbeat" ending) concluded with, "The very final episode of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams is affectionately dedicated to its author." ====Dirk Gently series==== Between Adams's first trip to Madagascar with Mark Carwardine in 1985, and their series of travels that formed the basis for the radio series and non-fiction book Last Chance to See, Adams wrote two other novels with a new cast of characters. Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency was published in 1987, and was described by its author as "a kind of ghost-horror-detective-time-travel-romantic-comedy-epic, mainly concerned with mud, music and quantum mechanics". A sequel, The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul, was published a year later. It was Adams's first original work since So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. After the book tour, Adams set off on his round-the-world excursion, which supplied him with the material for Last Chance to See. The Salmon of Doubt was incomplete when published posthumously. ===Music=== Adams played the guitar left-handed and had a collection of 24 left-handed guitars when he died (having received his first guitar in 1964). He also studied piano in the 1960s. Pink Floyd and Procol Harum had important influence on his work. During his segment on music discussion programme Private Passions, Adams remarked that he "would have loved to have been a rock musician". ====Pink Floyd==== Adams's official biography shares its name with the song "Wish You Were Here" by Pink Floyd. The opening section of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" was featured in a section of the third episode of the original 1978 Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy radio series (broadcast only, cut from commercial releases). Adams was friends with Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and, on Adams's 42nd birthday, he was invited to make a guest appearance at Pink Floyd's concert of 28 October 1994 at Earls Court in London, playing guitar on the songs "Brain Damage" and "Eclipse". Adams chose the name for Pink Floyd's 1994 album, The Division Bell, by picking the words from the lyrics to one of its tracks, "High Hopes". Gilmour also performed at Adams's memorial service in 2001, and what would have been Adams's 60th birthday party in 2012. ===Computer games and projects=== Adams created an interactive fiction version of HHGG with Steve Meretzky from Infocom in 1984. In 1986, he participated in a week-long brainstorming session with the Lucasfilm Games team for the game Labyrinth. Later he was also involved in creating Bureaucracy as a parody of events in his own life. Adams was a founder-director and Chief Fantasist of The Digital Village, a digital media and Internet company with which he created Starship Titanic, a Codie award-winning and BAFTA-nominated adventure game, which was published in 1998 by Simon & Schuster. Terry Jones wrote the accompanying book, entitled Douglas Adams' Starship Titanic, since Adams was too busy with the computer game to do both. In April 1999, Adams initiated the h2g2 collaborative writing project, an experimental attempt at making The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy a reality, and at harnessing the collective brainpower of the internet community. It was hosted by BBC Online from 2001 to 2011. which featured Tom Baker as a "software agent" (similar to the assistant pictured in Apple's Knowledge Navigator video of future concepts from 1987), and interviews with Ted Nelson, the co-inventor of hypertext and the person who coined the term. Adams was an early adopter and advocate of hypertext. ==Personal beliefs and activism== ===Atheism and views on religion=== Adams described himself as a "radical atheist", adding "radical" for emphasis so he would not be asked if he meant agnostic. He told American Atheists that this conveyed the fact that he really meant it. He imagined a sentient puddle who wakes up one morning and thinks, "This is an interesting world I find myself in – an interesting hole I find myself in – fits me rather neatly, doesn't it? In fact it fits me staggeringly well, must have been made to have me in it!" to express his disbelief in the fine-tuned universe argument for God. He remained fascinated by religion because of its effect on human affairs. "I love to keep poking and prodding at it. I've thought about it so much over the years that that fascination is bound to spill over into my writing." The evolutionary biologist and atheist Richard Dawkins invited Adams to participate in his 1991 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, where Dawkins calls Adams from the audience to read a passage from The Restaurant at the End of the Universe which satirises the absurdity of the thought that any one species would exist on Earth merely to serve as a meal to another species, such as humans. Dawkins also uses Adams's influence to exemplify arguments for non-belief in his 2006 book The God Delusion. Dawkins dedicated the book to Adams, whom he jokingly called "possibly [my] only convert" to atheism and wrote on his death that "Science has lost a friend, literature has lost a luminary, the mountain gorilla and the black rhino have lost a gallant defender." ===Environmental activism=== Adams was also an environmental activist who campaigned on behalf of endangered species. This activism included the production of the non-fiction radio series Last Chance to See, in which he and naturalist Mark Carwardine visited rare species such as the kākāpō and baiji, and the publication of a tie-in book of the same name. In 1992, this was made into a CD-ROM combination of audiobook, e-book and picture slide show. Adams and Mark Carwardine contributed the 'Meeting a Gorilla' passage from Last Chance to See to the book The Great Ape Project. This book, edited by Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer, launched a wider-scale project in 1993, which calls for the extension of moral equality to include all great apes, human and non-human. In 1994, Adams participated in a climb of Mount Kilimanjaro while wearing a rhino suit for the British charity organisation Save the Rhino International. Puppeteer William Todd-Jones, who had originally worn the suit in the London Marathon to raise money and bring awareness to the group, also participated in the climb wearing a rhino suit; Adams wore the suit while travelling to the mountain before the climb began. About £100,000 was raised through that event, benefiting schools in Kenya and a black rhinoceros preservation programme in Tanzania. Adams was also an active supporter of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund. Since 2003, Save the Rhino has held an annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture around the time of his birthday to raise money for environmental campaigns. ===Technology and innovation=== Adams bought his first word processor in 1982, having considered one as early as 1979. His first purchase was a Nexu. In 1983, when he and Jane Belson went to Los Angeles, he bought a DEC Rainbow. Upon their return to England, Adams bought an Apricot, then a BBC Micro and a Tandy 1000. In Last Chance to See, Adams mentions his Cambridge Z88, which he had taken to Zaire on a quest to find the northern white rhinoceros. Adams's posthumously published work, The Salmon of Doubt, features several articles by him on the subject of technology, including reprints of articles that originally ran in MacUser, and in The Independent on Sunday. In these, Adams claims that one of the first computers he ever saw was a Commodore PET, and that he had "adored" his Apple Macintosh ("or rather my family of however many Macintoshes it is that I've recklessly accumulated over the years") since he first saw one at Infocom's offices in Boston in 1984. Adams was a Macintosh user from the time they first came out in 1984 until his death in 2001. He was the first person to buy a Mac in Europe, the second being Stephen Fry. Adams was also an "Apple Master", celebrities whom Apple made into spokespeople for its products (others included John Cleese and Gregory Hines). Adams's contributions included a rock video that he created using the first version of iMovie with footage featuring his daughter Polly. The video was available on Adams's .Mac homepage. Adams installed and started using the first release of Mac OS X in the weeks leading up to his death. His last post to his own forum was in praise of Mac OS X and the possibilities of its Cocoa programming framework. He said it was "awesome...", which was also the last word he wrote on his site. Adams used email to correspond with Steve Meretzky in the early 1980s, during their collaboration on Infocom's version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Challenges to the authenticity of his messages later led Adams to set up a message forum on his own website to avoid the issue. In 1996, Adams was a keynote speaker at the Microsoft Professional Developers Conference (PDC) where he described the personal computer as being a modelling device. The video of his keynote speech is archived on Channel 9. Adams was also a keynote speaker for the April 2001 Embedded Systems Conference in San Francisco, one of the major technical conferences on embedded system engineering. Although there is no explicit admission to this effect, it is not uncommon to find claims in the media that the various Deep Thought, Deep Blue, and DeepMind are named after the Deep Thought supercomputer imagined by Adams. ==Personal life== Adams moved to Upper Street, Islington in 1981 and to Duncan Terrace, a few minutes walk away, in the late 1980s. and a broken engagement, they married on 25 November 1991. Adams and Belson had one daughter together, Polly Jane Rocket Adams, born on 22 June 1994 shortly after Adams turned 42. In 1999, the family moved from London to Santa Barbara, California, where they lived until his death. Following the funeral, Jane Belson and Polly Adams returned to London. Belson died on 7 September 2011 of cancer, aged 59. == Death and legacy == Adams died of a heart attack due to undiagnosed coronary artery disease on 11 May 2001, aged 49, after resting from his regular workout at a private gym in Montecito, California. His funeral was held on 16 May in Santa Barbara. His ashes were placed in Highgate Cemetery in north London in June 2002. A memorial service was held on 17 September 2001 at St Martin-in-the-Fields church, Trafalgar Square, London. This became the first church service broadcast live on the web by the BBC. Two days before Adams died, the Minor Planet Center announced the naming of asteroid 18610 Arthurdent, named after The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy protagonist. In 2005, the asteroid 25924 Douglasadams was named in his memory. In May 2002, The Salmon of Doubt was published, containing many short stories, essays and letters as well as eulogies from Richard Dawkins, Stephen Fry (in the UK edition), Christopher Cerf (in the US edition), and Terry Jones (in the US paperback edition). It also includes eleven chapters of his unfinished novel, The Salmon of Doubt, which was originally intended to become a new Dirk Gently novel but might have later become the sixth Hitchhiker novel. Other events after Adams's death included a webcast production of Shada, allowing the complete story to be told, radio dramatisations of the final three books in the Hitchhiker's series and the completion of the film adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. The film, released in 2005, posthumously credits Adams as a producer and several design elements – including a head-shaped planet seen near the end of the film – incorporated Adams's features. A 12-part radio series based on the Dirk Gently novels was announced in 2007. BBC Radio 4 also commissioned a third Dirk Gently radio series based on the incomplete chapters of The Salmon of Doubt and written by Kim Fuller; but this was dropped in favour of a BBC-TV series based on the two completed novels. A sixth Hitchhiker novel, And Another Thing..., by Artemis Fowl author Eoin Colfer, was released on 12 October 2009 (the 30th anniversary of the first book), published with the support of Adams's estate. A BBC Radio 4 Book at Bedtime adaptation and an audio book soon followed. On 25 May 2001, two weeks after Adams's death, his fans organised a tribute known as Towel Day, which has been observed every year since then. An Apple Macintosh SE/30 once owned by Adams can be seen on display at The Centre for Computing History in Cambridge. In 2018, John Lloyd presented an hour-long episode of the BBC Radio Four documentary Archive on 4 discussing Adams's private papers, which are held at St John's College, Cambridge. The episode is available online. Travessa Douglas Adams, a street at in São José, Santa Catarina, Brazil, is named in Adams's honour. In March 2021, Unbound announced a crowdfunder for 42: the wildly improbable ideas of Douglas Adams, on the 20th anniversary of his death, a book based on Adams's papers, edited by Kevin Jon Davies. The annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lectures began in 2003. ==Awards and nominations==	[ "Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd song)", "The Pirate Planet", "Douglas Adams Memorial Lectures", "Artemis Fowl (series)", "Monty Python", "Cambridge Z88", "Mostly Harmless", "Monty Python's Flying Circus", "The Digital Village", "environmentalism", "Google DeepMind", "The Times", "Montecito, California", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases", "embedded system", "Tandy 1000", "The Deeper Meaning of Liff", "Archive on 4", "Footlights", "macOS", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases", "East End of London", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (novel)", "Radio Academy", "Brentwood, Essex", "Last Chance to See", "City of Death", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)", "Library Journal", "David Sherlock", "Sight & Sound", "William Blake", "Deep Thought (chess computer)", "People (magazine)", "Neil Gaiman", "e-book", "Dian Fossey", "The Salmon of Doubt", "Mount Kilimanjaro", "The Independent", "Gareth Roberts (writer)", "American Atheists", "heart attack", "coronary artery disease", "webcast", "Los Angeles Times", "Anthony Read", "Labyrinth: The Computer Game", "Academic conference", "BBC7", "Innsbruck", "18610 Arthurdent", "Booklist", "Peter Fincham", "David Fisher (writer)", "Patient Abuse", "Minor Planet Circular", "Steven Moffat", "Fourth Doctor", "BBC Online", "Destiny of the Daleks", "The News Huddlines", "The Division Bell", "John Cleese", "High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)", "Eclipse (Pink Floyd song)", "Omnibus (British TV programme)", "black rhino", "BBC", "kākāpō", "Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency", "List of Doctor Who episodes (1963–1989)", "Cocoa (API)", "Cambridge", "Exhibition (scholarship)", "Qatari", "Doctor Who season 17", "BBC2", "Virgin Books", "Rainbow 100", "New Scientist", "BBC Micro", "Doctor Who season 16", "Times Educational Supplement", "The Daily Telegraph", "interactive fiction", "Doctor in the House (TV series)", "St Martin-in-the-Fields", "Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation", "fine-tuned universe", "List of recurring Monty Python's Flying Circus characters", "Doctor Who", "Doctor on the Go", "John Lloyd (producer)", "Simon & Schuster", "The Wizards of Odd", "Terry Jones", "trilogy", "audiobook", "Starship Titanic", "Steve Meretzky", "AppleMasters", "BBC Radio 4", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future", "Not the Nine O'Clock News", "USENET", "Microsoft", "BBC Two", "Doctor Snuggles", "List of Monty Python's Flying Circus episodes", "Zaire", "ISBN", "Paul Neil Milne Johnstone", "The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul", "Graham Chapman", "St John's College, Cambridge", "Pink Floyd", "Life, the Universe and Everything", "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", "Hugo Award", "RSPCA", "James Goss (producer)", "Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion", "Brain Damage (Pink Floyd song)", "The Snowmen", "Brentwood School (England)", "Maclean's", "Black Cinderella Two Goes East", "Peter Singer", "Knowledge Navigator", "Graham Williams (television producer)", "Sally Emerson", "Royal Institution Christmas Lectures", "biography", "Infocom", "Dirk Gently", "Software and Information Industry Association", "Week Ending", "School Library Journal", "Simon Brett", "So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish", "The Discontinuity Guide", "Bernard McKenna (writer)", "Preparatory school (United Kingdom)", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts", "A Liar's Autobiography: Volume VI", "Gregory Hines", "Geoffrey Perkins", "West End of London", "Inkpot Award", "Professional Developers Conference", "Eoin Colfer", "BBC America", "Unbound (publisher)", "Anthropic principle", "Bureaucracy (video game)", "Apricot Computers", "Upper Street", "The Centre for Computing History", "MacUser", "David Agnew", "Kim Fuller", "Tanzania", "barrister", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", "Private Passions", "David A. Yallop", "northern white rhinoceros", "collaborative writing", "Quadrant Magazine", "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe", "Great Ape Project", "Terry Nation", "The Guardian", "Hyperland", "Richard Dawkins", "Michael Palin", "atheist", ".Mac", "Smithsonian", "The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book", "h2g2", "Mark Carwardine", "Stephen Fry", "Brentwood School (Essex)", "crowdfunder", "the Key to Time", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio series)", "Neil Innes", "The Economist", "Deep Blue (chess computer)", "Disney", "And Another Thing... (novel)", "Commodore PET", "Madagascar", "Santa Barbara, California", "Publishers Weekly", "mountain gorilla", "Kevin Jon Davies", "Frank Wedekind", "Harmony Books", "List of humorists", "São José, Santa Catarina", "Save the Rhino", "Peter Stothard", "The Private Life of Genghis Khan", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "the Beatles", "ITV (TV network)", "Atlantic magazine", "Christopher Cerf (musician and television producer)", "Macintosh", "Conservation movement", "writer's block", "Book at Bedtime", "Towel Day", "humorist", "Procol Harum", "iMovie", "hypertext", "Shada (Doctor Who)", "42 Puzzle", "channel9.msdn.com", "Edinburgh Fringe", "Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe", "endangered species", "Islington", "The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail", "Channel 9 (discussion forum)", "Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic: A Novel", "The Five Doctors", "Professor Chronotis", "Bureaucracy (computer game)", "David Gilmour", "Karey Kirkpatrick", "Dirk Maggs", "Out of the Trees", "NPR", "The Bookseller", "Paul McGann", "IMDb", "BBC One", "List of animal rights advocates", "environmental activist", "BAFTA", "Trafalgar Square", "William Todd-Jones", "25924 Douglasadams", "Christopher H. Bidmead", "Ted Nelson", "baiji", "English literature", "Big Finish Productions", "The Times Literary Supplement", "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun", "Paola Cavalieri", "Tom Baker", "posthumous publication", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (video game)", "The Meaning of Liff", "The Burkiss Way", "Minor Planet Center", "Newsweek", "Lucasfilm Games", "Young Zaphod Plays It Safe", "Salon (website)", "Doctor Who spin-offs", "Highgate Cemetery", "Eagle (comic)", "The God Delusion" ]
8,092	Drum and bass	Drum and bass (commonly abbreviated as DnB, D&B, or D'n'B) is a genre of electronic dance music characterised by fast breakbeats (typically 165–185 beats per minute) with heavy bass and sub-bass lines, samples, and synthesizers. The genre grew out of the UK's jungle scene in the 1990s. The popularity of drum and bass at its commercial peak ran parallel to several other UK dance styles. A major influence was the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound that influenced jungle's bass-heavy sound. Another feature of the style is the complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat. Drum and bass subgenres include breakcore, ragga jungle, hardstep, darkstep, techstep, neurofunk, ambient drum and bass, liquid funk (also known as liquid drum and bass), jump up, drumfunk, sambass, and drill 'n' bass. Drum and bass has influenced other genres such as big beat, dubstep, trip hop and has been influenced by hip hop, house, ambient music, techno, jazz, rock and pop. Drum and bass is dominated by a relatively small group of record labels. Major international music labels had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene until BMG Rights Management acquired RAM in February 2016. Since then, the genre has seen a significant growth in exposure. Whilst the origin of drum and bass music is in the UK, the genre has evolved considerably with many other prominent fanbases located all over the world. ==History== ===20th century=== In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a growing nightclub and overnight outdoor event culture gave birth to new genres in the rave scene including breakbeat hardcore, darkcore, and hardcore jungle, which combined sampled syncopated beats, or breakbeats, and other samples from a wide range of different musical genres and, occasionally, samples of music, dialogue and effects from films and television programmes. From as early as 1991, tracks were beginning to strip away some of the heavier sampling and "hardcore noises" and create more bassline and breakbeat led tracks. Some tracks increasingly took their influence from reggae and this style would become known as hardcore jungle (later to become simply jungle), whilst darkcore (with producers such as Goldie, Doc Scott, 4hero, and 2 Bad Mice) were experimenting with sounds and creating a blueprint for drum and bass, especially noticeable by late 1993. By 1994, jungle had begun to gain mainstream popularity, and fans of the music (often referred to as junglists) became a more recognisable part of youth subculture. The genre further developed, incorporating and fusing elements from a wide range of existing musical genres, including the raggamuffin sound, dancehall, MC chants, dub basslines, and increasingly complex, heavily edited breakbeat percussion. Despite the affiliation with the ecstasy-fuelled rave scene, jungle also inherited associations with violence and criminal activity, both from the gang culture that had affected the UK's hip-hop scene and as a consequence of jungle's often aggressive or menacing sound and themes of violence (usually reflected in the choice of samples). However, this developed in tandem with the often positive reputation of the music as part of the wider rave scene and dancehall-based Jamaican music culture prevalent in London. By 1995, whether as a reaction to, or independently of this cultural schism, some jungle producers began to move away from the ragga-influenced style and create what would become collectively labelled, for convenience, as drum and bass. As the genre became generally more polished and sophisticated technically, it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations and gain widespread acceptance (circa 1995–1997). It also began to split into recognisable subgenres such as hardstep, jump up, ragga, techstep, and what was known at the time as intelligent. As more melodic and often jazz-influenced subgenres of drum and bass called atmospheric or intelligent (Blame and Blu Mar Ten) and jazzstep (4Hero, Roni Size) gained mainstream appeal, additional subgenres emerged including techstep in 1996, drawing influence from techno. ===21st century=== The emergence of related styles such as liquid funk in the 2000s brought a wave of new artists (Carlito & Addiction, Solid State/DJ Dextrous, Subject 13 and Fellowship being amongst the early pioneers to champion the sound) incorporating new ideas and techniques, supporting continual evolution of the genre. As of 2014, drum and bass makes frequent appearances in mainstream media and popular culture including in television, as well as being a major reference point for subsequent genres such as grime and dubstep, and producing successful artists including Chase & Status, Netsky, Metrik, and Pendulum. In 2021, Pitchfork noted a "rising zoomer affinity" for the genre in the 2020s. Purple Sneakers described a "drum n' bass Renaissance" occurring at the time of the publication of their articles in 2023. ==Musical features== Drum and bass incorporates a number of scenes and styles, from the highly electronic, industrial sounds of techstep to the use of conventional, acoustic instrumentation that characterise the more jazz-influenced end of the spectrum. ===Influences=== A very obvious and strong influence on jungle and drum and bass, thanks to the British African-Caribbean sound system scene, is the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound, with pioneers like King Tubby, Peter Tosh, Sly & Robbie, Bill Laswell, Lee Perry, Mad Professor, Roots Radics, Bob Marley and Buju Banton heavily influencing the music. This influence has lessened with time, but is still evident, with many tracks containing ragga vocals. As a musical style built around funk or syncopated rock and roll breaks, James Brown, Al Green, Marvin Gaye, Ella Fitzgerald, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Billie Holiday, Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, the Supremes, the Commodores, Jerry Lee Lewis, and even Michael Jackson acted as funk influences on the music. Jazz pioneer Miles Davis has been named as a possible influence. Blues artists such as Lead Belly, Robert Johnson, Charlie Patton, Muddy Waters and B. B. King have also been cited by producers as inspirations. Even modern avant-garde composers such as Henryk Gorecki have received mention. One of the most influential tracks in drum and bass history was "Amen Brother" by The Winstons, which contains a drum solo that has since become known as the "Amen break", which, after being extensively used in early hip hop music, went on to become the basis for the rhythms used in drum and bass. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, the tradition of breakbeat use in hip hop production had influenced the sound of breakbeat hardcore, which in turn led to the emergence of jungle, drum and bass, and other genres that shared the same use of broken beats. Drum and bass shares many musical characteristics with hip-hop, though it is nowadays mostly stripped of lyrics. Grandmaster Flash, Roger Troutman, Afrika Bambaata, Run DMC, Mac Dre, Public Enemy, Schooly D, N.W.A, Kid Frost, Wu-Tang Clan, Dr. Dre, Mos Def, Beastie Boys and the Pharcyde are very often directly sampled, regardless of their general influence. Clearly, drum and bass has been influenced by other music genres, though influences from sources external to the electronic dance music scene perhaps lessened following the shifts from jungle to drum and bass, and through to so-called "intelligent drum and bass" and techstep. It still remains a fusion music style. Some tracks are illegally remixed and released on white label records (technically bootleg), often to acclaim. For example, DJ Zinc's remix of Fugees' "Ready or Not", also known as "Fugee Or Not", was eventually released with the Fugees' permission after talk of legal action, though ironically, the Fugees' version infringed Enya's copyright to an earlier song. Early pioneers often used Akai samplers and sequencers on the Atari ST to create their tracks. ====Synthesis==== Of equal importance is the TR-808 kick drum, an artificially down-pitched or elongated bass drum sound sampled from Roland's classic TR-808 drum machine, and a sound which has been subject to an enormous amount of experimentation over the years. ====Rhythm composition==== Many drum and bass tracks have featured more than one sampled breakbeat in them and a technique of switching between two breaks after each bar developed. A more recent commonly used break is the "Tramen", which combines the Amen break, a James Brown funk breakbeat ("Tighten Up" or "Samurai" break) and an Alex Reece drum and bass breakbeat. The relatively fast drum beat forms a canvas on which a producer can create tracks to appeal to almost any taste and often will form only a background to the other elements of the music. Syncopated breakbeats remain the most distinctive element as without these a high-tempo 4/4 dance track could be classified as techno or gabber. The complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat is another facet of production on which producers can spend a very large amount of time. The Amen break is generally acknowledged to have been the most-used (and often considered the most powerful) break in drum and bass. ===Drop=== Many mixing points begin or end with a "drop". The drop is the point in a track where a switch of rhythm or bassline occurs and usually follows a recognisable build section and breakdown. Sometimes, the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tracks, as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point. Some DJs prefer to combine breakbeats, a more difficult exercise. Some drops are so popular that the DJ will "rewind" or "reload" or "lift up" the record by spinning it back and restarting it at the build. The drop is often a key point from the point of view of the dance floor, since the drum breaks often fade out to leave an ambient intro playing. When the beats re-commence they are often more complex and accompanied by a heavier bassline, encouraging the crowd to begin dancing. ==Live performance== Drum and bass exhibits a full frequency response which can sometimes only be fully appreciated on sound systems which can handle very low frequencies, including sub-bass frequencies that are often felt more than heard. As befits its name, the bass element of the music is particularly pronounced, with the comparatively sparse arrangements of drum and bass tracks allowing room for basslines that are deeper than most other forms of dance music. Drum and bass tracks are meticulously designed to create a hard-hitting emotional impact, with the drums complementing the bass to deliver a pulsating, powerful experience. Consequently, drum and bass parties are often advertised as featuring uncommonly loud and bass-heavy sound systems. However, there are many albums specifically designed for personal listening. The DJ mix is a particularly popular form of release, with a popular DJ or producer mixing live, or on a computer, a variety of tracks for personal listening. Additionally, there are many albums containing unmixed tracks, suited for home or car listening. ===DJ performance=== Although this practice has declined in popularity, DJs are often accompanied by one or more MCs, drawing on the genre's roots in hip hop and reggae/ragga. MCs do not generally receive the same level of recognition as producer/DJs, and some events are specifically marketed as being MC-free. There are relatively few well-known drum and bass MCs, mainly based in London and Bristol, including Stevie Hyper D (deceased), the Ragga Twins, Dynamite MC, MC Skibadee (deceased) and MC Tali. ===Live instrument performance=== Many musicians have adapted drum and bass to live performances, which feature instruments such as drums (acoustic or electronic), samplers, synthesizers, turntables, bass (either upright or electric) and guitars (acoustic or electric). Samplers have also been used live by assigning samples to a specific drum pad or key on drum pads or synthesizers. MCs are frequently featured in live performances. ==Subgenres== Smaller scenes within the drum and bass community have developed and the scene as a whole has become much more fractured into specific subgenres, which have been grouped into "light" (influenced by ambient, jazz, and world music) and "heavy" (influenced by industrial music, sci-fi, and anxiety) styles, including: ===Mainstream drum and bass=== Jump-up, appearing in the mid-1990s, employs heavy and energetic drum and bass, Drumstep or halftime is a combination of drum and bass and dubstep, where the beat structure is half time, while the remaining elements still adhere to the usual sub-bass and tempo of drum and bass. Drill 'n' bass (also known as fungle and spunk jazz) consists of very complex and chopped up rhythms, rapid and irregularly syncopated basslines and often ambient elements similar to earlier subgenres of IDM (like ambient techno). The subgenre was developed by names like Squarepusher, Luke Vibert (known as Plug) and Aphex Twin. === Light drum and bass === Intelligent drum & bass or intelligent jungle is a smoother style, influenced by ambient music, chillout, jazz and soul music. It was pioneered by such artists as Omni Trio, Peshay, William Orbit, Seba, Blu Mar Ten, Deep Blue, Photek, LTJ Bukem and the label Moving Shadow. Jazzstep, jazzy jungle, jazz & bass or drum & jazz demonstrates heavy influence by jazz and trip hop. It uses typical jazz scales, rhythms and instrumentation. === Heavy drum and bass === Darkstep is characterised by fast drums and a general dark mood, drawing influences from dark ambient, industrial and hardcore music. Techstep is characterised by sci-fi soundscapes and samples from science fiction culture. Pioneered by artists such as Bad Company UK, Ed Rush, Optical, Dom & Roland, and the label Moving Shadow. Neurofunk or neuro is the progression from techstep incorporating more elements from jazz and funk. Hardstep is a harder style which uses gritty basslines and heavy yet simple electronic melodies. Darkcore, a direct influence on drum and bass, was combined with influences of drum and bass itself leading to the creation of darkstep. There is considerable crossover from the extreme edges of drum and bass, breakcore, darkcore, digital hardcore and raggacore with fluid boundaries. Intelligent dance music (IDM) is a form of art music based on DnB and other electronic dance musics, exploring their boundaries using ideas from science, technology, contemporary classical music and progressive rock, often creating un-danceable, art gallery style music. Ghettotech, a club music genre from Detroit, contains synth and basslines similar to drum and bass. == Industry == ===Record labels=== Drum and bass is dominated by a small group of record labels. These are mainly run by DJ-producers. Prior to 2016, the major international music labels such as Sony Music and Universal had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene, with the exception of some notable signings, including Pendulum's In Silico LP to Warner. Roni Size's label played a big, if not the biggest, part in the creation of drum and bass with their dark, baseline sounds. V Recordings also played a large part of the development of drum and bass. BMG Rights Management acquired Ram Records in February 2016, Now defunct labels include—DJ Zinc's True Playaz (known as Real Playaz as of 2006); Rob Playford's Moving Shadow, running from 1990 until 2007, which played a pivotal role in the 1990s drum and bass scene, releasing records by artists such as Omni Trio. ===Formats and distribution=== ====Purchasing==== Originally drum and bass was mostly sold in 12-inch vinyl single format. With the emergence of drum and bass into mainstream music markets, more albums, compilations and DJ mixes started to be sold on CDs. As digital music became more popular, websites focused on electronic music, such as Beatport, began to sell drum and bass in digital format. ====Distributors (wholesale)==== The bulk of drum and bass vinyl records and CDs are distributed globally and regionally by a relatively small number of companies such as SRD (Southern Record Distributors), ST Holdings, & Nu Urban Music Limited. As of 11 September 2012, Nu Urban ceased trading and RSM Tenon were instructed to assist in convening statutory meetings of members and creditors to appoint a liquidator. This left many labels short on sales, as Nu Urban were one of the main distributors for the vinyl market in the drum and bass scene. ===Regional scenes=== ====Anglosphere==== Despite its roots in the UK, which is still treated as the "home" of drum and bass, the style has firmly established itself around the world. There are strong scenes in other English-speaking countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. ===Media presence=== Today, drum and bass is widely promoted using different methods such as video sharing services like YouTube and Dailymotion, blogs, radio, and television, the latter being the most uncommon method. More recently, music networking websites such as SoundCloud and Mixcloud have become powerful tools for artist recognition, providing a vast platform that enables quick responses to new tracks. Record labels have adopted the use of podcasts. Prior to the rise of the internet, drum and bass was commonly broadcast over pirate radio. ====Radio==== The three highest-profile radio stations playing drum and bass shows are BBC Radio 1 with The Drum and Bass Show – formerly with Friction, who was replaced with René LaVice in 2017, simulcast in the US and Canada on Sirius XM, and DJ Hype on Kiss 100 in London. Fabio and Grooverider previously held a long-standing drum and bass show on Radio 1. Radio 1 also had the One in the Jungle show. The BBC's Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra used to feature the genre heavily, with DJ Bailey (show axed as of 29 August 2012) and Crissy Criss (show axed as of August 2014) as its advocates. The network also organises a week-long tour of the UK each year called Xtra Bass. London pirate radio stations have been instrumental in the development of drum and bass, with stations such as Kool FM (which continues to broadcast today having done so since 1991), Origin FM, Don FM (the only drum and bass pirate to have gained a temporary legal licence), Renegade Radio 107.2FM, Rude FM, Wax FM and Eruption among the most influential. As of 2015, despite higher profile stations such as 1Xtra scaling back their drum and bass specialist coverage, the genre has made its way into UK top 10 charts with drum and bass inspired tracks from artists such as Rudimental and Sigma. Earlier in August 2014, before Crissy Criss' show was axed, the BBC held a whole prime time evening event dedicated to showcasing drum and bass by allowing four major labels to participate. As of November 2014, six drum & bass songs had reached the no.1 spot on the UK's top 40 chart, since the genre was first being played on the radio, around 1993. The first of these was in 2012. The fact that all six of these songs reached number 1 in only two years shows the increase in popularity and commercialisation of the genre in recent years. The artists who produced these songs are Sigma, Rudimental and DJ Fresh (all had two No.1 hits). =====Internet radio===== Internet radio stations, acting in the same light as pirate stations, have also been an instrumental part in promoting drum and bass music; the majority of them funded by listener and artist donations. Drum and bass was supported by Ministry of Sound radio from the early 2000s until 2014 and later featuring Tuesday shows from labels such as Metalheadz, Fabio & Grooverider, DJ Marky, Viper Recordings, Shogun Audio and Hospital Records. From September 2015, Ministry abruptly dropped all non-mainstream genres to focus on mainstream EDM, causing disappointment amongst the fans of the D&B community. =====North American radio===== In Toronto since 1994, The Prophecy on 89.5 CIUT-FM with Marcus Visionary, DJ Prime and Mr. Brown, is North America's longest running jungle radio show. Album 88.5 (Atlanta) and C89.5fm (Seattle) have shows showcasing drum and bass. Seattle also has a long-standing electronica show known as Expansions on 90.3 FM KEXP. The rotating DJs include Kid Hops, whose shows are made up mostly of drum and bass. In Columbus, Ohio WCBE 90.5 has a two-hour electronic only showcase, All Mixed Up, Saturday nights at 10 pm. At the same time, WUFM 88.7 plays its Electronic Playground. Tulsa, Oklahoma's rock station, 104.5 The Edge, has a two-hour show starting at 10 pm Saturday nights called Edge Essential Mix, mixed by DJ Demko, showcasing electronic and drum and bass style. While the aforementioned shows in Ohio rarely play drum and bass, the latter plays the genre with some frequency. In Tucson, Arizona, 91.3 FM KXCI has a two-hour electronic show known as Digital Empire, Friday nights at 10 pm (MST). Resident DJ Trinidad showcases various styles of electronica, with the main focus being drum and bass, jungle and dubstep. In Augusta, Georgia, Zarbizarre of the Cereal Killaz hosts a show called FreQuency on WHHD on Friday nights from 11 pm until 1 am, showcasing drum and bass during the second hour of the show. ====Magazines==== The best-known drum and bass publication was Kmag magazine (formerly called Knowledge Magazine) before it went completely online in August 2009. Although it is still live, after 20 years Kmag ceased updating their site at the end of 2016. Kmag has announced a book to celebrate their 25th anniversary to be published in December 2019. Kmag's publishing arm, Vision, published Brian Belle-Fortune's All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle Drum & Bass Culture in 2004. Other publications include the longest-running drum and bass magazine worldwide, ATM Magazine, and Austrian-based Resident. London-based DJ magazine has also been running a widely respected drum and bass reviews page since 1994, written by Alex Constantinides, which many followers refer to when seeking out new releases to investigate. In 2012 he stopped writing the reviews, and they are now contributed by Whisky Kicks. ==Mainstream acceptance== The earliest mainstream drum and bass releases include Goldie's album Timeless from 1995. Other early examples include the Mercury Music Prize-winning album New Forms (1997) from Reprazent; 4hero's Mercury-nominated Two Pages from 1998; and then, in the 2000s, Pendulum's Hold Your Colour in 2005 (the best-selling drum and bass album). In 2012, drum and bass achieved its first UK No. 1 single, "Hot Right Now", by DJ Fresh, which was one of the fastest-selling singles of 2012 at the time of release, launching the career of Rita Ora in the process. Numerous video games (such as Hudson Soft's Bomberman Hero, Hi-Rez Studios' Tribes: Ascend, Electronic Arts' Need for Speed: Undercover, Rockstar Games' Grand Theft Auto series, and Sony's Wipeout series from Pure onward) have contained drum and bass tracks. Microsoft Studios' Forza Horizon 2, 3, 4 and 5 feature a Hospital Records radio channel dedicated to the genre. The genre has some popularity in film soundtracks. Hive's "Ultrasonic Sound" appeared on The Matrixs soundtrack, and the E-Z Rollers' song "Walk This Land" appeared in the film Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels. Ganja Kru's "Super Sharp Shooter" can be heard in the 2006 film Johnny Was. The Channel 4 show Skins uses the genre in some episodes, notably in the first series' third episode, "Jal", where Shy FX and UK Apache's "Original Nuttah" was played in Fazer's club.	[ "Grime music", "Photek", "Bomberman Hero", "Alex Reece", "MC Tali", "Kruder & Dorfmeister", "Good Looking Records", "Red Bull", "pirate radio", "Concord Dawn", "Generation Z", "sci-fi", "Red Bull Music Academy", "BBC Radio 1", "Seba (musician)", "Johnny Was", "breakcore", "Michael Jackson", "King Rat (1998 novel)", "Jungle (music)", "reggae fusion", "Tulsa, Oklahoma", "Ram Records (UK)", "guitar", "turntables", "Afrika Bambaata", "raggamuffin music", "nu skool breaks", "LTJ Bukem", "All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle Drum & Bass Culture", "white label record", "Ed Rush", "rock and roll", "Rough Guides", "dark ambient", "True Playaz", "big beat", "Mos Def", "Sampling (music)", "dub music", "List of jungle and drum and bass emcees", "Shogun Audio", "Blu Mar Ten", "SoundCloud", "Fabio (DJ)", "Music sequencer", "Breakbeat Kaos", "Syncopated", "René LaVice", "Need for Speed: Undercover", "Science fiction", "RAM Records", "ragga", "Rudimental", "DJ Marky", "television", "Latin music (genre)", "drop (music)", "Buju Banton", "In Silico (Pendulum album)", "Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels", "Commodores", "sambass", "electronica", "Don FM", "trip hop", "Roland Corporation", "London Elektricity", "DJ Zinc", "Hip hop music", "Neurofunk", "Fugees", "DJ Dextrous", "Ragga Twins", "Chase & Status", "drill 'n' bass", "Dr. Dre", "breakbeat", "breakbeat hardcore", "video sharing service", "Liquid drum and bass", "Amen break", "bossa nova", "Microsoft Studios", "Roger Troutman", "Hardstep", "New Haven", "electronic dance music", "Break (music)", "Original Nuttah", "Hi-Rez Studios", "dubstep", "sub-bass", "Jump-up (drum and bass)", "Lee \"Scratch\" Perry", "upright bass", "Dailymotion", "King Tubby", "Augusta, Georgia", "ambient music", "Sambass", "break (music)", "Metrik", "Miles Davis", "Heavy metal music", "Metalheadz", "Peshay", "Blues", "Apache (single)", "Sly & Robbie", "4Hero", "Jerry Lee Lewis", "vinyl record", "KNHC", "Counterstrike (drum and bass group)", "Tribes: Ascend", "Netsky (musician)", "Kid Loco", "Billie Holiday", "Muddy Waters", "Intelligent dance music", "Dirtyphonics", "Heaven (nightclub)", "YouTube", "Beastie Boys", "funk", "anxiety", "Ableton", "Marvin Gaye", "Darkcore", "dubplate", "Bob Marley", "Ambient music", "Dom & Roland", "techno", "Hot Right Now", "rave", "neurofunk", "Roland TR-808", "half-time (music)", "Roland V-Drums", "Deep Blue (musician)", "Bass (music)", "Luke Vibert", "Funky Drummer", "Two Pages", "junglist", "China Miéville", "Sampler (musical instrument)", "Jazz", "DJ mixes", "Roots Radics", "Official Charts Company", "Ella Fitzgerald", "Ghettotech", "drum break", "Roni Size", "Rita Ora", "Vice Magazine", "Cereal Killaz", "double bass", "hardstep", "Wu-Tang Clan", "darkcore", "techstep", "Think (About It)", "Robert Haigh (musician)", "Sigma (group)", "Xtra Bass", "WHHD", "The Matrix", "raggacore", "Kid Frost", "hip hop music", "Bill Laswell", "Time signature", "Drum kit", "timbre", "Blame (music producer)", "Peter Tosh", "MC Skibadee", "BBC", "ragga jungle", "Rock music", "Aretha Franklin", "Drill 'n' bass", "Critical Music", "E-Z Rollers", "British African-Caribbean community", "Hospital Records", "Kiss 100 London", "Enya", "AllMusic", "Chase and Status", "syncopated", "soul music", "Grooverider", "Timeless (Goldie album)", "Universal Music Group", "BMG Rights Management", "CIUT-FM", "Zarbizarre", "bass (instrument)", "history of drum and bass", "digital hardcore", "Dogs on Acid", "List of electronic music genres", "Robert Johnson", "Wipeout Pure", "Henryk Gorecki", "bass drum", "world music", "DJ Friction (UK)", "Emcees", "Optical (musician)", "Atari ST", "Jungle music", "nightclub", "Run DMC", "liquid funk", "Industrial music", "Grand Theft Auto", "Pirate Station", "Mixcloud", "New Forms", "N.W.A", "Pitchfork (website)", "Sony Music", "Sub Focus", "Jal (Skins series 1)", "DJ Fresh", "reggae", "Bad Company (drum and bass group)", "podcast", "Dub music", "Moving Shadow", "Andy C", "gabber", "Electronic Arts", "Akai", "breakdown (music)", "B. B. King", "Darkstep", "2 Bad Mice", "Beatport", "Al Green", "Skins (series 1)", "glitch (music)", "experimental music", "MC", "Category:Drum and bass record labels", "Consonance and dissonance", "blog", "Grandmaster Flash", "syncopation", "Ready or Not (Fugees song)", "drumfunk", "Hudson Soft", "BBC Radio 1Xtra", "Zardonic", "List of jungle and drum and bass artists", "Toronto", "Charlie Patton", "industrial music", "Sewerslvt", "soundscape", "jazz", "Squarepusher", "the Supremes", "Carl Craig", "Rapping", "pop music", "Stevie Hyper D", "NoCopyrightSounds", "Raggacore", "Tucson, Arizona", "Lead Belly", "synthesizer", "MDMA", "bassline", "Rob Playford", "Nightmares on Wax", "Gladys Knight & the Pips", "Aphex Twin", "Technics (brand)", "4hero", "Thievery Corporation", "Kool FM", "Pendulum (drum and bass band)", "Skins (UK TV series)", "technoid", "Chill-out music", "Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music", "The Winstons", "KXCI", "Mercury Music Prize", "Hold Your Colour", "Public Enemy", "dancehall", "hardcore jungle", "Hardcore (electronic dance music genre)", "Schooly D", "house music", "Doc Scott", "James Brown", "DJ Hype", "Mac Dre", "UK garage", "Mr. Scruff", "Connecticut", "Resident (magazine)", "Dynamite MC", "Dubstep", "Tighten Up (Archie Bell & the Drells song)", "Tempo", "Ministry of Sound", "Techstep", "radio", "Rockstar Games", "William Orbit", "samba", "Liquicity", "Otis Redding", "Forza (series)", "Goldie", "Kevin Saunderson", "Peter Shapiro (journalist)", "darkstep", "sound system (DJ)", "Pharcyde", "art music", "Mad Professor", "The Panacea", "Maduk (musician)", "Wipeout (video game series)", "Footwork (genre)" ]
8,095	Donald Knuth	\| website = }} Donald Ervin Knuth ( Knuth is the author of the multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming. He contributed to the development of the rigorous analysis of the computational complexity of algorithms and systematized formal mathematical techniques for it. In the process, he also popularized the asymptotic notation. In addition to fundamental contributions in several branches of theoretical computer science, Knuth is the creator of the TeX computer typesetting system, the related METAFONT font definition language and rendering system, and the Computer Modern family of typefaces. As a writer and scholar, Knuth created the WEB and CWEB computer programming systems designed to encourage and facilitate literate programming, and designed the MIX/MMIX instruction set architectures. He strongly opposes the granting of software patents, and has expressed his opinion to the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organisation. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Donald Knuth was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Ervin Henry Knuth and Louise Marie Bohning. He describes his heritage as "Midwestern Lutheran German". His father owned a small printing business and taught bookkeeping. While a student at Milwaukee Lutheran High School, Knuth thought of ingenious ways to solve problems. For example, in eighth grade, he entered a contest to find the number of words that the letters in "Ziegler's Giant Bar" could be rearranged to create; the judges had identified 2,500 such words. With time gained away from school due to a fake stomachache, Knuth used an unabridged dictionary and determined whether each dictionary entry could be formed using the letters in the phrase. Using this algorithm, he identified over 4,500 words, winning the contest. As prizes, the school received a new television and enough candy bars for all of his schoolmates to eat. ===Education=== Knuth received a scholarship in physics to the Case Institute of Technology (now part of Case Western Reserve University) in Cleveland, Ohio, enrolling in 1956. He also joined the Beta Nu Chapter of the Theta Chi fraternity. While studying physics at Case, Knuth was introduced to the IBM 650, an early commercial computer. After reading the computer's manual, Knuth decided to rewrite the assembly and compiler code for the machine used in his school because he believed he could do it better. In 1958, Knuth created a program to help his school's basketball team win its games. He assigned "values" to players in order to gauge their probability of scoring points, a novel approach that Newsweek and CBS Evening News later reported on. He then switched from physics to mathematics, and received two degrees from Case in 1960: In 1963, with mathematician Marshall Hall as his adviser, ===Early work=== In 1963, after receiving his PhD, Knuth joined Caltech's faculty as an assistant professor. Knuth had a long association with Burroughs as a consultant from 1960 to 1968 until his move into more academic work at Stanford in 1969. In 1962, Knuth accepted a commission from Addison-Wesley to write a book on computer programming language compilers. While working on this project, he decided that he could not adequately treat the topic without first developing a fundamental theory of computer programming, which became The Art of Computer Programming. He originally planned to publish this as a single book, but as he developed his outline for the book, he concluded that he required six volumes, and then seven, to thoroughly cover the subject. He published the first volume in 1968. Just before publishing the first volume of The Art of Computer Programming, Knuth left Caltech to accept employment with the Institute for Defense Analyses' Communications Research Division, then situated on the Princeton campus, which was performing mathematical research in cryptography to support the National Security Agency. In 1967, Knuth attended a Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics conference and someone asked what he did. At the time, computer science was partitioned into numerical analysis, artificial intelligence, and programming languages. Based on his study and The Art of Computer Programming book, Knuth decided the next time someone asked he would say, "Analysis of algorithms". In 1969, Knuth left his position at Princeton to join the Stanford University faculty, where he became Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science in 1977. He became Professor of The Art of Computer Programming in 1990, and has been emeritus since 1993. == Writings == Knuth is a writer as well as a computer scientist. === The Art of Computer Programming (TAOCP) === {{Blockquote \|text="The best way to communicate from one human being to another is through story." \|author=Donald Knuth From 1972 to 1973, Knuth spent a year at the University of Oslo among people such as Ole-Johan Dahl. This is where he had originally intended to write the seventh volume in his book series, which was to deal with programming languages. But Knuth had finished only the first two volumes when he came to Oslo, and thus spent the year on the third volume, next to teaching. The third volume came out just after Knuth returned to Stanford in 1973. Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science originated with an expansion of the mathematical preliminaries section of Volume 1 of TAoCP. Knuth found that there were mathematical tools necessary for Volume 1, but missing from his repertoire, and decided that a course introducing those tools to computer science students would be useful. Knuth introduced the course at Stanford in 1970. Course notes developed by Oren Patashnik evolved into the 1988 text, with authors Ronald Graham, Knuth, and Patashnik. A second edition of Concrete Mathematics was published in 1994. By 2011, Volume 4A of TAoCP had been published. He also occasionally contributes language puzzles to Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics. Knuth has delved into recreational mathematics. He contributed articles to the Journal of Recreational Mathematics beginning in the 1960s, and was acknowledged as a major contributor in Joseph Madachy's Mathematics on Vacation. Knuth also appears in a number of Numberphile and Computerphile videos on YouTube, where he discusses topics from writing Surreal Numbers to why he does not use email. Knuth had proposed the name "algorithmics" as a better name for the discipline of computer science. ===Works about his religious beliefs=== In addition to his writings on computer science, Knuth, a Lutheran, is also the author of 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated, in which he examines the Bible by a process of systematic sampling, namely an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book. Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers led by Hermann Zapf. Knuth was invited to give a set of lectures at MIT on the views on religion and computer science behind his 3:16 project, resulting in another book, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About, where he published the lectures God and Computer Science. ===Opinion on software patents=== Knuth strongly opposes granting software patents to trivial solutions that should be obvious, but has expressed more nuanced views for nontrivial solutions such as the interior-point method of linear programming. He has expressed his disagreement directly to both the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organisation. ==Programming== ===Digital typesetting=== In the 1970s, the publishers of TAOCP abandoned Monotype in favor of phototypesetting. Knuth became so frustrated with the inability of the latter system to approach the quality of the previous volumes, which were typeset using the older system, that he took time out to work on digital typesetting and created TeX and Metafont. ===Literate programming=== While developing TeX, Knuth created a new methodology of programming, which he called literate programming, because he believed that programmers should think of programs as works of literature: Knuth embodied the idea of literate programming in the WEB system. The same WEB source is used to weave a TeX file, and to tangle a Pascal source file. These in their turn produce a readable description of the program and an executable binary respectively. A later iteration of the system, CWEB, replaces Pascal with C, C++, and Java. Knuth used WEB to program TeX and METAFONT, and published both programs as books, both originally published the same year: TeX: The Program (1986); and METAFONT: The Program (1986). Around the same time, LaTeX, the now-widely adopted macro package based on TeX, was first developed by Leslie Lamport, who later published its first user manual in 1986. ==Personal life== Donald Knuth married Nancy Jill Carter on 24 June 1961, while he was a graduate student at the California Institute of Technology. They have two children: John Martin Knuth and Jennifer Sierra Knuth. Knuth gives informal lectures a few times a year at Stanford University, which he calls "Computer Musings". He was a visiting professor at the Oxford University Department of Computer Science in the United Kingdom until 2017 and an Honorary Fellow of Magdalen College. Knuth is an organist and a composer. He and his father served as organists for Lutheran congregations. Knuth and his wife have a 16-rank organ in their home. In 2016 he completed a piece for organ, Fantasia Apocalyptica, which he calls a "translation of the Greek text of the Revelation of Saint John the Divine into music". It was premièred in Sweden on January 10, 2018. ===Chinese name=== Knuth's Chinese name is Gao Dena (). ===Humor=== Knuth used to pay a finder's fee of $2.56 for any typographical errors or mistakes discovered in his books, because "256 pennies is one hexadecimal dollar", and $0.32 for "valuable suggestions". According to an article in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Technology Review, these Knuth reward checks are "among computerdom's most prized trophies". Knuth had to stop sending real checks in 2008 due to bank fraud, and now gives each error finder a "certificate of deposit" from a publicly listed balance in his fictitious "Bank of San Serriffe". He once warned a correspondent, "Beware of bugs in the above code; I have only proved it correct, not tried it." To demonstrate the concept of recursion, Knuth intentionally referred "Circular definition" and "Definition, circular" to each other in the index of The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1. The preface of Concrete Mathematics has the following paragraph: At the TUG 2010 Conference, Knuth announced a satirical XML-based successor to TeX, titled "iTeX" (, spoken while ringing a bell), which would support features such as arbitrarily scaled irrational units, 3D printing, input from seismographs and heart monitors, animation, and stereophonic sound. ==Awards and honors== In 1971, Knuth received the first ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award. In 1990, he was awarded the one-of-a-kind academic title Professor of The Art of Computer Programming; the title has since been revised to Professor Emeritus of The Art of Computer Programming. Knuth was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1975. He was also elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1981 for organizing vast subject areas of computer science so that they are accessible to all segments of the computing community. In 1992, he became an associate of the French Academy of Sciences. Also that year, he retired from regular research and teaching at Stanford University in order to finish The Art of Computer Programming. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 2003. He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. In 2012, he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society and a member of the American Philosophical Society. Other awards and honors include: First ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award, 1971 and 1993 Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecturer, 1978 National Medal of Science, 1979 Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1985 Franklin Medal, 1988 Kyoto Prize, 1996 Asteroid 21656 Knuth, named in his honor in May 2001 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of Information and Communication Technologies, 2010 Turing Lecture, 2011 Stanford University School of Engineering Hero Award, 2011 Flajolet Lecture Prize, 2014 ==Publications== A short list of his publications include: The Art of Computer Programming: Computers and Typesetting (all books are hardcover unless otherwise noted): , x+483pp. (softcover). , xviii+600pp. , xii+361pp. (softcover). , xviii+566pp. , xvi+588pp. Books of collected papers: , (paperback) , (paperback) Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 191), 2010. (cloth), (paperback) Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Fun and Games (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 192), 2011. (cloth), (paperback) Donald E. Knuth, Companion to the Papers of Donald Knuth (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 202), 2011. (cloth), (paperback) Other books: xiv+657 pp. Donald E. Knuth, The Stanford GraphBase: A Platform for Combinatorial Computing (New York, ACM Press) 1993. second paperback printing 2009. Donald E. Knuth, 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions), 1990. Donald E. Knuth, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About (Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes no 136), 2001. Donald E. Knuth, MMIXware: A RISC Computer for the Third Millennium (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag— Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 1750), 1999. viii+550pp. Donald E. Knuth and Silvio Levy, The CWEB System of Structured Documentation (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1993. iv+227pp. . Third printing 2001 with hypertext support, ii + 237 pp. Donald E. Knuth, Tracy L. Larrabee, and Paul M. Roberts, Mathematical Writing (Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America), 1989. ii+115pp Daniel H. Greene and Donald E. Knuth, Mathematics for the Analysis of Algorithms (Boston: Birkhäuser), 1990. viii+132pp. Donald E. Knuth, , 1976. 106pp. Donald E. Knuth, Stable Marriage and Its Relation to Other Combinatorial Problems: An Introduction to the Mathematical Analysis of Algorithms. Donald E. Knuth, Axioms and Hulls (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag—Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 606), 1992. ix+109pp.	[ "American Mathematical Society", "Stanford University", "American Philosophical Society", "Quater-imaginary base", "literate programming", "Milwaukee Lutheran High School", "Journal of Recreational Mathematics", "Java (programming language)", "Magdalen College, Oxford", "Chinese name", "Stanford University School of Engineering", "Andrei Broder", "Dancing Links", "assembly code", "METAFONT", "Ronald Graham", "Doron Zeilberger", "recursion", "Michael Fredman", "set theory", "Princeton University", "List of pioneers in computer science", "composer", "Turing Lecture", "Theta Chi fraternity", "Fletcher R. Jones", "Charles Babbage Institute", "Edsger W. Dijkstra", "Dragon curve", "Joseph Madachy", "XML", "Computer science", "Faraday Medal", "Israel", "Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm", "C++", "John Horton Conway", "TUGboat", "European Patent Organisation", "MMIX", "LR parser", "force", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "theoretical computer science", "structured programming", "Herbert Wilf", "Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics", "WEB", "CWEB", "Big O notation", "Termial", "Mad (magazine)", "Leslie Lamport", "programming language", "Oxford University Department of Computer Science", "Spain", "National Academy of Sciences", "recreational mathematics", "Stanford University Centers and Institutes", "Computer History Museum", "Lex Fridman", "Outstanding Contribution to Computer Science Education", "analysis of algorithms", "University of Oslo", "Knuth's up-arrow notation", "John von Neumann Medal", "French Academy of Sciences", "Massachusetts", "Foreign Member of the Royal Society", "Burroughs Corporation", "PhD", "Marshall Hall (mathematician)", "CWRU", "American Academy of Achievement", "fundamental unit", "List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 2003", "Lester R. Ford Award", "compiler", "Hermann Zapf", "Stone–Čech compactification", "Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm", "University of St Andrews", "artificial intelligence", "Jeffrey Vitter", "B.S.", "San Serriffe", "Turing Award", "length", "Royal Society", "Emeritus", "National Medal of Science", "National Security Agency", "Knuth reward check", "Uniform binary search", "software patent", "Grace Murray Hopper Award", "Computer Modern", "Acm Turing award", "Nobel Prize", "Cleveland", "Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics", "phototypesetting", "Flajolet Lecture Prize", "21656 Knuth", "Plactic monoid", "Surreal Numbers (book)", "Mathematics", "Association for Computing Machinery", "Knuth -yllion", "instruction set", "interior-point method", "MIX (abstract machine)", "Gao (surname)", "Bender–Knuth involution", "The Art of Computer Programming", "Lutheranism", "Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras", "Man or boy test", "ALGOL", "Potrzebie", "California", "TeX", "TAOCP", "Fisher–Yates shuffle", "C (programming language)", "Knuth's Algorithm X", "Waterloo Region Record", "Knuth shuffle", "Ole-Johan Dahl", "China", "Wisconsin", "YouTube", "professor emeritus", "Knuth's Simpath algorithm", "Vaughan Pratt", "computational complexity", "Metafont", "finder's fee", "The Complexity of Songs", "organist", "Josiah Willard Gibbs Lectureship", "Trabb Pardo–Knuth algorithm", "Technion – Israel Institute of Technology", "BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award", "Case Western Reserve University", "Literate programming", "Frances Yao", "LaTeX", "Member of the National Academy of Sciences", "Franklin Medal", "List of science and religion scholars", "Scott Kim", "programming language theory", "hexadecimal", "Marko Petkovšek", "Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About", "systematic sampling", "Theta Chi", "United States Patent and Trademark Office", "numerical analysis", "Phono-semantic matching", "CBS Evening News", "Oxford University Gazette", "Technology Review", "Monotype System", "National Academy of Engineering", "Milwaukee", "computer", "algorithmics", "Leonidas J. Guibas", "Knuth Prize", "Harvey Prize", "California Institute of Technology", "CC system", "Academy of Achievement", "Sweden", "Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Asymptotic notation", "The New York Times", "IBM 650", "linear programming", "Institute for Defense Analyses", "Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)", "Kyoto Prize", "3D printing", "Attribute grammar", "Random House", "M.S.", "Concrete Mathematics", "Pascal (programming language)", "Oren Patashnik", "Numberphile", "Book of Revelation", "Newsweek", "Robinson–Schensted–Knuth correspondence", "cryptography", "Quanta Magazine" ]
8,097	Dairy product	Dairy products or milk products, also known as lacticinia, are food products made from (or containing) milk. The most common dairy animals are cow, water buffalo, nanny goat, and ewe. Dairy products include common grocery store food around the world such as yogurt, cheese, milk and butter. A facility that produces dairy products is a dairy. Dairy products are consumed worldwide to varying degrees. == Lactose levels == For those with some degree of lactose intolerance, considering the amount of lactose in dairy products can be important to health. == Intolerance and health research == Dairy products may upset the digestive system in individuals with lactose intolerance or a milk allergy. People who experience lactose intolerance usually avoid milk and other lactose-containing dairy products, which may cause mild side effects, such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. The AICR, WCRF, CCA and Prostate Cancer UK have stated that there is limited but suggestive evidence that dairy products increase risk of prostate cancer. The American Cancer Society (ACS) have stated that because dairy products "may lower the risk of some cancers and possibly increase the risk of others, the ACS does not make specific recommendations on dairy food consumption for cancer prevention." It has been suggested that consumption of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in dairy products could increase cancer risk, particularly prostate cancer. However, a 2018 review by the Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (COC) concluded that there is "insufficient evidence to draw any firm conclusions as to whether exposure to dietary IGF-1 is associated with an increased incidence of cancer in consumers". A 2019 review concluded that higher-quality research was needed to characterise valid associations between dairy consumption and risk of and/or cancer-related mortality. A 2021 umbrella review found strong evidence that consumption of dairy products decreases risk of colorectal cancer. Fermented dairy is associated with significantly decreased bladder cancer and colorectal cancer risk. A 2023 review found no association between consumption of dairy products and breast cancer. The British Dietetic Association have described the idea that milk promotes hormone related cancerous tumour growth as a myth, stating "no link between dairy containing diets and risk of cancer or promoting cancer growth as a result of hormones". In 2024, Cancer Research UK stated "there is no reliable evidence that casein or hormones in dairy causes cancer in people". ===Cardiovascular disease=== The American Medical Association (AMA) recommends that people replace full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products. In 2017, the AMA stated that there is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease. In 2021, they stated that "taken together, replacing full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products and other sources of unsaturated fat shifts the composition of dietary patterns toward higher unsaturated to saturated fat ratios that are associated with better cardiovascular health". Their position paper stated that "the evidence overall suggests dairy products can be included in a heart-healthy eating pattern and choosing reduced-fat dairy over full-fat dairy reduces risk for some, but not all, cardiovascular risk factors". In 2019 the National Heart Foundation of Australia published a position statement on full fat dairy products, "Based on current evidence, there is not enough evidence to recommend full fat over reduced fat products or reduced fat over full fat products for the general population. For people with elevated cholesterol and those with existing coronary heart disease, reduced fat products are recommended." The position statement also noted that the "evidence for milk, yoghurt and cheese does not extend to butter, cream, ice-cream and dairy-based desserts; these products should be avoided in a heart healthy eating pattern". ===Other=== Consumption of dairy products such as low-fat and whole milk have been associated with an increased acne risk, however, there is no conclusive evidence. Fermented and low-fat dairy products are associated with a decreased risk of diabetes. Consumption of dairy products are also associated with a decreased risk of gout. A 2023 review found that higher intake of dairy products is significantly associated with a lower risk of inflammatory bowel disease. == Avoidance on principle == Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health-related reasons. Some religions restrict or do not allow the consumption of dairy products. For example, some scholars of Jainism advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows. Orthodox Judaism requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together, as prescribed in Deuteronomy 14:21. Veganism is the avoidance of all animal products, including dairy products, most often due to the ethics regarding how dairy products are produced. The ethical reasons for avoiding meat and dairy products include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, and the environmental effect of dairy production. According to a report of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization in 2010 the dairy sector accounted for 4 percent of global human-made greenhouse gas emissions. Growing awareness of dairy products' environmental impact, specifically greenhouse gas emissions, has led to many people reducing or avoiding dairy. In the EU, dairy is responsible for 27% of all diet related emissions, on average, while plant-based milks cause 2.5–4.5 times fewer emissions.	[ "dairy", "Brined cheese", "Sheep", "Anhydrous", "Swiss cheeses and dairy products", "Washed-rind cheese", "List of dairy products", "paneer", "Malai", "Strained yogurt", "evidence-based medicine", "Fresh cheese", "Ymer (dairy product)", "Baked milk", "Frozen yogurt", "randomized controlled trial", "Evaporated milk", "colorectal cancer", "Streptococcus lactis", "added sugar", "whole milk", "whipped cream", "Milk skin", "Filmjölk", "Chhena", "milk substitute", "Amasi", "lactose", "Ricotta", "Ghee", "Buttermilk", "Butter", "Ice milk", "American Medical Association", "livestock", "Plant milk", "prostate cancer", "Rennet", "Infant formula", "Scalded milk", "Thermophile", "Mold (fungus)", "Cream", "Homogenization (chemistry)", "Casein", "milk fat", "Sour milk cheese", "Smen", "Ethics of eating meat", "Skyr", "Ayran", "Frozen custard", "water buffalo", "Lassi", "Custard", "insulin-like growth factor 1", "Cancer Research UK", "caramelization", "Ice cream", "Ryazhenka", "American Cancer Society", "Bird's custard", "Cheese", "umbrella review", "Dairy industry in the United Kingdom", "Viili", "Cream cheese", "crème fraîche", "Central Asia", "Idea–expression divide", "curd", "Veganism", "Quark (dairy product)", "Dulce de leche", "Powdered milk", "Milk", "Leuconostoc citrovorum", "milk", "Environmental issues", "Eastern Europe", "Mursik", "Lactococcus lactis", "coagulating", "British Dietetic Association", "breast cancer", "Leben (food)", "Smetana (dairy product)", "Varenets", "Indian cuisine", "Crème fraîche", "goat", "Mineral", "curds", "Northern Caucasus", "side effect", "Blue cheese", "Sour cream", "Manouri", "American Institute for Cancer Research", "World Cancer Research Fund International", "National Heart Foundation of New Zealand", "yogurt", "diabetes", "Gelato", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "Acidophiline", "Brunost", "Clotted cream", "digestive system", "milk allergy", "Qatyq", "milk chocolate", "Lactobacillus", "National Heart Foundation of Australia", "Dodd, Mead & Co.", "butter", "per capita", "Mesophile", "Cancer Council Australia", "Condensed milk", "pasteurization", "Soured milk", "Kefir", "gout", "Streptococcus", "Yogurt", "Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus", "inflammatory bowel disease", "cheese", "probiotic", "Whey", "Whey cheese", "Khoa", "Kumis", "acne", "Dairy industry in the United States", "Fermented milk products", "Skim milk", "Soured cream", "Clabber (food)", "Kaymak", "mizithra", "anthotyros", "Prostate Cancer UK", "Jain vegetarianism", "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations", "Kosher", "veganism", "List of dairy product companies in the United States", "Matzoon", "lactose intolerance", "whey", "clarified butter", "cow", "Doogh", "standardization", "bacteria" ]
8,099	Dave Grohl	David Eric Grohl (; born January 14, 1969) is an American musician. He founded the rock band Foo Fighters, of which he is the lead singer, guitarist, principal songwriter, and the only consistent member of the band. From 1990 to 1994, he was the drummer of the grunge band Nirvana. In 1986, at age 17, Grohl joined the punk rock band Scream, replacing drummer Kent Stax. After Scream broke up in 1990, Grohl became the drummer for Nirvana. He first appeared on the band's second album, Nevermind (1991). After the 1994 suicide of Kurt Cobain, Nirvana disbanded and Grohl formed Foo Fighters as a one-man project. After he released the album Foo Fighters in 1995, he assembled a full band to tour and record under the Foo Fighters name. They have since released 11 studio albums. Grohl is also the drummer and co-founder of the rock supergroup Them Crooked Vultures, and has recorded and toured with Queens of the Stone Age and Tenacious D. He has organized side projects Late!, which released the album Pocketwatch, and Probot. Grohl began directing Foo Fighters music videos in 1997. He released his debut documentary, Sound City, in 2013, then the 2014 documentary miniseries Sonic Highways and the 2021 documentary film What Drives Us. In 2021, Grohl released an autobiography, The Storyteller: Tales of Life and Music. In 2022, he and the Foo Fighters starred as themselves in the comedy horror film Studio 666. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked Grohl the 27th-best drummer of all time. ==Early life== Grohl was born in Warren, Ohio, on January 14, 1969, the son of teacher Virginia Jean (née Hanlon) and newswriter James Harper Grohl. He is of German, Slovak (on his father's side), Irish, and English (on his mother's side) descent. His father, James, was a journalist and the special assistant to U.S. Senator Robert Taft Jr. James was described as "a talented political observer who possessed the ability to call every major election with uncanny accuracy". When he was a child, Grohl's family moved to Springfield, Virginia. When he was seven, his parents divorced, and he was subsequently raised by his mother. At the age of 12, he began learning to play guitar. He grew tired of lessons and instead taught himself, eventually playing in bands with friends. He said, "I was going in the direction of faster, louder, darker while my sister, Lisa, three years older, was getting seriously into new wave territory. We'd meet in the middle sometimes with Bowie and Siouxsie and the Banshees." At 13, Grohl and his sister spent the summer at their cousin Tracey's house in Evanston, Illinois. Tracey introduced them to punk rock by taking the pair to shows by a variety of punk bands. His first concert was Naked Raygun at The Cubby Bear in Chicago in 1982. Grohl recalled, "From then on we were totally punk. We went home and bought Maximumrocknroll and tried to figure it all out." When Freak Baby fired its bass player and reshuffled its lineup, Grohl switched to drums. The reconstituted band renamed itself Mission Impossible. Rush drummer Neil Peart was an early influence: "When I got 2112 when I was eight years old, it fucking changed the direction of my life. I heard the drums. It made me want to become a drummer." During his developing years as a drummer, Grohl cited John Bonham as his greatest influence, and eventually had Bonham's three-rings symbol tattooed on his right shoulder. Mission Impossible rebranded themselves Fast before breaking up, after which Grohl joined the hardcore punk band Dain Bramage in December 1985. In March 1987, Dain Bramage ended when Grohl quit without warning to join Scream, having produced the I Scream Not Coming Down LP. Many of Grohl's early influences were at the 9:30 Club, a music venue in Washington, D.C. In April 2010, he said, "I went to the 9:30 Club hundreds of times. I was always so excited to get there, and I was always bummed when it closed. I spent my teenage years at the club and saw some shows that changed my life." == Career == === Scream (1986–1990) === As a teenager in Washington, D.C., Grohl briefly contemplated joining Gwar, a shock rock band that was seeking a drummer. At age 17, he auditioned for the local band Scream after the departure of the drummer, Kent Stax. Grohl lied about his age, claiming he was older. To his surprise, the band asked him to join, so he dropped out of high school in his junior year. He said: "I was 17 and extremely anxious to see the world, so I did it." Over the next four years, Grohl toured extensively with Scream, recording a live album (their show of May 4, 1990, in Alzey, Germany, being released by Tobby Holzinger as Your Choice Live Series Vol.10) and two studio albums, No More Censorship and Fumble, for which Grohl wrote and sang "Gods Look Down". During a Toronto stop on their 1987 tour, Grohl played drums for Iggy Pop at a CD release party held at El Mocambo. In 1990, Scream unexpectedly disbanded mid-tour following the departure of their bassist, Skeeter Thompson. In October 2010, Grohl told Q, "I remember being in the same room with them and thinking, 'What? That's Nirvana? Are you kidding?' Because on their record cover they looked like psycho lumberjacks... I was like, 'What, that little dude and that big motherfucker? You're kidding me.'" Following the breakup of Scream, Grohl called Osborne for advice. Osborne informed him that Nirvana was seeking a drummer, and gave Grohl the phone numbers of Cobain and Novoselic, who invited Grohl to Seattle to audition. Grohl soon joined. Nirvana had already recorded several demos for the followup to their 1989 debut album, Bleach, and had spent time recording with the producer Butch Vig in Wisconsin. Initially, the plan was to release the album on Sub Pop, but Nirvana received a great deal of interest based on the demos. Grohl spent the initial months with Nirvana traveling to various labels to discuss record deals, and signed with DGC Records. Nevermind (1991) exceeded all expectations and became a worldwide commercial success. At the same time, Grohl was compiling and recording his own material, which he released on a cassette, Pocketwatch in 1992, on the indie label Simple Machines. Grohl released the cassette under the pseudonym "Late!" In the later years with Nirvana, Grohl's songwriting contributions to the band increased. In Grohl's initial months in Olympia, Washington, Cobain overheard him working on the song "Color Pictures of a Marigold", and the two subsequently worked on it together. Grohl later recorded the song for the Pocketwatch cassette. Grohl said in a 2014 episode of Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways that Cobain reacted by kissing him upon first hearing a demo of "Alone + Easy Target" that Grohl had recently recorded. During the sessions for In Utero, Nirvana rerecorded "Color Pictures of a Marigold" and released it as a B-side on the "Heart-Shaped Box" single, retitled "Marigold". Grohl also contributed the riff for "Scentless Apprentice". Cobain said in a 1993 interview with MTV that he initially thought the riff was "kind of boneheaded", but was gratified at how the song developed, a process captured in part in a demo on the Nirvana box set With the Lights Out. Cobain said that he was excited at the possibility of having Novoselic and Grohl contribute more to the band's songwriting. Prior to Nirvana's 1994 European tour, the band scheduled session time at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle to work on demos. For most of the three-day session, Cobain was absent, so Novoselic and Grohl worked on demos of their own songs. They completed several of Grohl's songs, including the future Foo Fighters songs "Exhausted", "Big Me", "February Stars", and "Butterflies". Cobain arrived on the third day, and the band recorded a demo of "You Know You're Right". It was Nirvana's final studio recording before the suicide of Cobain on April 5, 1994. On April 10, 2014, Grohl was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Nirvana. === Foo Fighters (1994–present) === ====Initial post-Nirvana activity==== Following Cobain's death, Grohl went into isolation and retreated for several months, unsure of what to do next, and moved to County Kerry, Ireland. In a 2022 interview, Grohl said: In October 1994, he scheduled studio time at Robert Lang Studios and quickly recorded a fifteen-track demo. With the exception of a single guitar part on "X-Static" played by Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, Grohl performed all of the instruments himself. Grohl wondered if his future might be in drumming for other bands. In November, Grohl took a brief turn with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, including a performance on Saturday Night Live. He declined an invitation to become Petty's permanent drummer. Grohl was also rumored as a possible replacement for Pearl Jam drummer Dave Abbruzzese and performed with the band for a song or two at three shows during Pearl Jam's March 1995 Australian tour. However, by then, Pearl Jam had already settled on ex-Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons, and Grohl had other solo plans. ====1994–1996==== After his demo received interest from major labels, Grohl was signed by Gary Gersh, Nirvana's A&R rep-turned-president of Capitol Records. Grohl did not want the effort to be considered the start of a solo career, so he recruited other band members: former Germs and touring Nirvana guitarist Pat Smear and two members of the recently disbanded Sunny Day Real Estate: William Goldsmith (drums) and Nate Mendel (bass). He and Novoselic decided against Novoselic joining; Grohl said it would have felt "really natural" for them to work together again, but would have been uncomfortable for the other band members and placed more pressure on Grohl. Grohl's demo was remixed by Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock and released in July 1995 as Foo Fighters' self-titled debut album. During a break between tours, the band entered the studio and recorded a cover of Gary Numan's "Down in the Park". In February 1996, Grohl and his then-wife Jennifer Youngblood made a brief cameo appearance on The X-Files third-season episode "Pusher". After touring for the self-titled album for more than a year, Grohl returned home and began work on the soundtrack to the 1997 movie Touch. Grohl performed all of the instruments and vocals himself, save for vocals from Veruca Salt singer Louise Post on the title track, keyboards by Barrett Jones (who also co-produced the record) on one track, and vocals and guitar by X's John Doe on "This Loving Thing (Lynn's Song)". Grohl completed the recording in two weeks, and immediately joined Foo Fighters to work on their follow-up. During the initial sessions for Foo Fighters' second album, tension emerged between Grohl and drummer Goldsmith. Goldsmith said, "Dave had me do 96 takes of one song, and I had to do 13 hours' worth of takes on another one...It just seemed that everything I did wasn't good enough for him, or anyone else". Goldsmith also believed that Capitol and producer Gil Norton wanted Grohl to drum on the album. With the album seemingly complete, Grohl headed home to Virginia with a copy of the rough mixes and found himself unhappy with the results. He wrote and recorded a few new songs, "Walking After You" and the hit single "Everlong", alone at a studio in Washington, D.C. Inspired by the session, Grohl opted to move the band, without Goldsmith's knowledge, Grohl later expressed regret, and said, "There were a lot of reasons it didn't work out, but there was also a part of me that was like, you know, I don't know if I'm finished playing the drums yet". The album was released in May 1997 as The Colour and the Shape. It produced several singles, including "Everlong", "My Hero", and "Monkey Wrench", and cemented Foo Fighters as a staple of rock radio. The following September, Smear left the band, citing a need to settle down after a lifetime of touring. It was recorded following the departure from Capitol and their former president Gary Gersh. Grohl described the recording experience as "intoxicating at times" because the band members were left completely to their own devices. He added, "One of the advantages of finishing the record before we had a new label was that it was purely our creation. It was complete and not open to outside tampering." In 2000, the band recruited Queen guitarist Brian May to add some guitar flourish to a cover of Pink Floyd's "Have a Cigar", a song which Foo Fighters previously recorded as a B-side. The friendship between the two bands resulted in Grohl and Taylor Hawkins being asked to induct Queen into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001. Grohl and Hawkins joined May and Queen drummer Roger Taylor to perform "Tie Your Mother Down", with Grohl standing in on vocals for Freddie Mercury. May later contributed guitar work for the song "Tired of You" on the ensuing Foo Fighters album, as well as on an unreleased Foo Fighters song called "Knucklehead". Near the end of 2001, Foo Fighters returned to the studio to work on their fourth album. After four months in the studio, with the sessions finished, Grohl accepted an invitation to join Queens of the Stone Age and helped them to record their 2002 album Songs for the Deaf. (Grohl can be seen drumming for the band in the video for the song "No One Knows".) After a brief tour through North America, Britain and Japan with the band ====2010–2014==== Foo Fighters' seventh studio album, Wasting Light, was released on April 12, 2011. It became the band's first album to reach No. 1 in the United States. Despite rumors of a hiatus, Grohl confirmed in January 2013 that the band had completed writing material for their follow-up to Wasting Light. Grohl and members of Foo Fighters sometimes perform as a cover band "Chevy Metal", as they did in May 2015 at "Conejo Valley Days", a county fair in Thousand Oaks, California. On November 10, 2014, Foo Fighters released their eighth studio album, Sonic Highways, which reached number two in the United States. The album features eight songs, each inspired by a different U.S. city's musical history and culture researched by Grohl himself. ====2015–present==== On June 12, 2015, while playing a show in Gothenburg, Sweden, Grohl fell off the stage, breaking his leg. He left temporarily and returned with a cast to finish the concert. Afterward, the band canceled the remainder of its European tour. To avoid having to cancel the band's upcoming North American tour, Grohl designed a large "elevated throne" which would allow him to perform on stage with a broken leg. The throne was unveiled at a concert in Washington, D.C., on July 4, where Grohl used the stage's video screens to show the crowd video of him falling from the stage in Gothenburg as well as X-rays of his broken leg. Beginning with the show on July 4, Foo Fighters began selling new tour merchandise rebranding the band's North American tour as the Broken Leg Tour. He lent it again in 2021 to Darin Wall, of the Seattle metal band Greyhawk, after Wall was shot in the leg. On November 3, Foo Fighters performed in Cesena, where Grohl invited some "Rockin' 1000" members onto the stage to perform with the band. On September 15, 2017, Foo Fighters released their ninth studio album Concrete and Gold, which became the band's second album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200. The tenth Foo Fighters studio album, Medicine at Midnight, was released on February 5, 2021, following delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. The eleventh Foo Fighters studio album But Here We Are was released on June 2, 2023. The album is dedicated to Hawkins and Grohl's mother, Virginia, both of whom died in 2022. ==Other work== === Musical projects and contributions === Grohl frequently participates in music projects apart from his main bands. In 1992, he played drums on Buzz Osborne's Kiss-styled solo-EP King Buzzo; he was credited as "Dale Nixon", a pseudonym that Greg Ginn adopted to play bass on Black Flag's My War. He also released the music cassette Pocketwatch under the pseudonym Late! on the now-defunct indie label Simple Machines. In 1993, Grohl was recruited to help recreate the music of the Beatles' early years for the movie Backbeat. In 1993–94, he played drums in the Backbeat Band, an alternative rock supergroup that also included Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, indie producer Don Fleming, Mike Mills of R.E.M., Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth, and Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum. In 1994, Grohl played drums on two tracks for Mike Watt's Ball-Hog or Tugboat?. In early 1995, Grohl and Foo Fighters played their first US tour: the Ring Spiel Tour, opening for Watt and also playing, alongside Eddie Vedder, in Watt's supporting band. In January 1997, Grohl played a few songs with David Bowie for Bowie's 50th birthday concert at Madison Square Garden. In the early 2000s, Grohl spent time in his basement studio writing and recording several songs for Probot, a heavy metal music project, recruiting his favorite metal vocalists from the 1980s, including Lemmy of Motörhead, Conrad Lant from Venom, King Diamond, Scott Weinrich, Snake of Voivod and Max Cavalera of Sepultura. Probot released an album in 2004. In 2003, Grohl stepped behind the kit to perform on Killing Joke's second self titled album, Killing Joke (2003 album). This surprised some fans of Nirvana, which had been accused of plagiarizing the opening riff of "Come as You Are" from Killing Joke's 1984 song "Eighties". However, the controversy failed to create a lasting rift between the bands. Foo Fighters covered Killing Joke's "Requiem" during the late 1990s, and were joined by Killing Joke singer Jaz Coleman for a performance of the song at a show in New Zealand in 2003. Also in 2003, at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards, Grohl performed in an ad hoc supergroup with Bruce Springsteen, Elvis Costello, and Steven Van Zandt in tribute to the recently deceased singer/guitarist Joe Strummer. Grohl lent his drumming skills to other artists during the early 2000s. In 2000, he played drums and sang on a track, "Goodbye Lament", for Tony Iommi's album Iommi. In 2001, Grohl performed on Tenacious D's debut album, and appeared in the video for lead single "Tribute" as a demon. He later appeared in the duo's 2006 movie Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny as the devil in the song "Beelzeboss", and performed on its soundtrack. He also performed drums for their 2012 album Rize of the Fenix. In 2002, Grohl helped Chan Marshall of Cat Power on the album You Are Free and played with Queens of the Stone Age on their album Songs for the Deaf. Grohl also toured with the band in support of the album, delaying work on the Foo Fighters' album One by One. In 2004, Grohl drummed on six tracks for Nine Inch Nails' 2005 album With Teeth and played percussion on one more, later returning to play drums on 'The Idea of You' from their 2016 EP Not the Actual Events. He also drummed on the song "Bad Boyfriend" on Garbage's 2005 album Bleed Like Me. Most recently, he recorded all the drums on Juliette and the Licks's 2006 album Four on the Floor and the song "For Us" from Pete Yorn's 2006 album Nightcrawler. Beyond drumming, Grohl contributed guitar to a cover of Neil Young's "I've Been Waiting For You" on David Bowie's 2002 album Heathen. In June 2008, Grohl was Paul McCartney's special guest for a concert at the Anfield football stadium in Liverpool, in one of the central events of the English city's year as European Capital of Culture. Grohl joined McCartney's band singing backup vocals and playing guitar on "Band on the Run" and drums on "Back in the U.S.S.R." and "I Saw Her Standing There". Grohl also performed with McCartney at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, again playing drums on "I Saw Her Standing There". Grohl also helped pay tribute to McCartney at the 2010 Kennedy Center Honors along with No Doubt, Norah Jones, Steven Tyler, James Taylor, and Mavis Staples. He sang a duet version of "Maybe I'm Amazed" with Norah Jones on December 5, 2010. Grohl played drums on the tracks "Run with the Wolves" and "Stand Up" on the Prodigy's 2009 album Invaders Must Die. In July 2009, Grohl along with Josh Homme and John Paul Jones formed a supergroup, Them Crooked Vultures. The trio performed their first show together on August 9, 2009, at Metro in Chicago. The band played their first UK gig on August 26, 2009, with a surprise appearance at Brixton Academy in London, supporting the Arctic Monkeys. The band released their debut album Them Crooked Vultures on November 16, 2009, in the UK and November 17, 2009, in the US. On October 23, 2010, Grohl performed with Tenacious D at BlizzCon. He appeared as the drummer for the entire concert, and a year later he returned with Foo Fighters and played another set there, this time as guitarist and vocalist. Also in 2010, Grohl helped write and performed on drums for "Watch This" with guitarist Slash and Duff McKagan on Slash's self-titled album that also included many other famous artists. In October 2011, Grohl temporarily joined Cage the Elephant as a replacement on tour after drummer Jared Champion's appendix burst. Grohl directed a documentary entitled Sound City (2013) which is about the Van Nuys studio of the same name where Nevermind was recorded that shut down its music operations in 2011. In 2012, following the departure of Joey Castillo from Queens of the Stone Age, Grohl performed on some tracks as drummer on their 2013 album ...Like Clockwork. At 12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief, Paul McCartney joined Grohl and the surviving members of Nirvana (Krist Novoselic and touring guitarist Pat Smear) to perform "Cut Me Some Slack", a song later recorded for the Sound City soundtrack. In what was regarded as a Nirvana reunion with McCartney as a stand-in for Kurt Cobain, this was the first time in eighteen years that the three had played alongside each other. On March 14, 2013, Grohl delivered a keynote speech at the 2013 South by Southwest conference in Austin, Texas. He described his musical life from youth through to the Foo Fighters and emphasized the importance of each individual's voice: "There is no right or wrong—there is only your voice ...What matters most is that it's your voice. Cherish it. Respect it. Nurture it. Challenge it. Respect it." Grohl said during the speech that Psy's "Gangnam Style" was one of his favorite songs of the past decade. He also said Edgar Winter's instrumental "Frankenstein" was the song that made him want to become a musician. On November 6, 2013, Grohl played drums at the 2013 Country Music Association Awards, replacing drummer Chris Fryar in the Zac Brown Band. The band debuted their new song "Day for the Dead". Grohl also produced Zac Brown Band's EP The Grohl Sessions, Vol. 1. Grohl worked closely with indie hip-hop band RDGLDGRN on their EP. While Grohl was filming his Sound City documentary, the group asked the fellow native of Northern Virginia to drum on "I Love Lamp". Grohl wound up drumming for the entire record, with the exception of "Million Fans", which features a sampled breakbeat. Grohl, a fan of theatrical Swedish metal band Ghost, produced their EP If You Have Ghost. He was also featured in a number of songs on the EP. Grohl played rhythm guitar for the song "If You Have Ghosts" (a cover of a Roky Erickson song), and drums on "I'm a Marionette" (an ABBA cover) as well as "Waiting for the Night" (a Depeche Mode cover). According to a member of Ghost, Grohl has appeared live in concert with the band wearing the same identity concealing outfit that the rest of the band usually wears. In September, the all-star covers album by the Alice Cooper-led Hollywood Vampires supergroup was released and features Grohl playing drums on the medley "One/Jump Into the Fire". On August 10, 2018, Grohl released "Play", a solo recording lasting over 22 minutes. A mini documentary accompanied it. That same year, Grohl invited ten-year-old Collier Cash Rule on stage at a Foo Fighters concert in Kansas City, Missouri and gave him his guitar. Rule played several Metallica songs and Grohl sang one verse and the chorus to "Enter Sandman". Between August and November 2020, Grohl participated in an online drum battle with ten-year-old drummer Nandi Bushell, who had released cover versions of Nirvana and Foo Fighters songs on her YouTube channel, then challenged the elder drummer to a contest. After going back and forth with Bushell a few times, Grohl jokingly conceded victory to her, and wrote and performed a song in her honor. Grohl invited Bushell to perform with the Foo Fighters on stage during their August 26, 2021, show at the L.A. Forum, where she played drums on "Everlong", the show's finale. The videos of the drum battle received tens of millions of views. During Hanukkah of 2020, Grohl collaborated with Greg Kurstin to release previously recorded covers of songs by Jewish artists under the moniker The Hanukkah Sessions, one per night. This continued in 2021 and 2022. On October 5, 2021, Grohl's memoir The Storyteller: Tales of Life and Music was published by Dey Street Books. On March 25, 2022, the self-titled Dream Widow EP was released to digital streaming services featuring eight tracks ranging from thrash, death and extreme metal. The EP also featured Rami Jaffee, Jim Rota and Oliver Roman. On June 25, 2022, Grohl duetted with Paul McCartney when he headlined the Glastonbury Festival. It was his first performance since the death of Taylor Hawkins earlier in the year. === Television === Since his first appearance in 1992, Grohl has been a musical guest on Saturday Night Live 15 timesmore than any other musician. He has appeared with Nirvana, Foo Fighters, Them Crooked Vultures, Mick Jagger, and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. Grohl has also appeared in several sketches on SNL. On October 13, 2007, he performed in the SNL Digital Short "People Getting Punched Just Before Eating". On February 6, 2010, he appeared as a middle-aged punk rock drummer reuniting the group "Crisis of Conformity" (fronted by Fred Armisen) after 25 years in a skit later on in the episode. On April 9, 2011, he appeared in the SNL Digital Short "Helen Mirren's Magical Bosom" and the sketch "Bongo's Clown Room". In mid-2010, Grohl added his name to the list of contributing rock star voice cameos for Cartoon Network's heavy metal parody/tribute show, Metalocalypse. He voiced the controversial Syrian dictator, Abdule Malik in the season 3 finale, Doublebookedklok. In February 2013, Grohl filled in as host of Chelsea Lately for a week. Guests included Elton John, who disclosed on the E! show that he would appear with Grohl on the next Queens of the Stone Age album. Grohl had previously hosted the show during the first week of December 2012 as part of "Celebrity Guest Host Week". On May 20, 2015, David Letterman selected Grohl and the Foo Fighters to play "Everlong" as the last musical guest on the final episode of Late Show with David Letterman. On December 1, 2015, Grohl appeared on an episode of The Muppets where he competed in a "drum off" with Animal. Grohl appeared in the 50th anniversary season of Sesame Street in February 2019. On January 28, it was announced that the first authorized Dave Grohl documentary will be released via The Coda Collection. On October 8, Grohl was the guest storyteller on CBeebies Bedtime Story, reading a story based on the Beatles song "Octopus's Garden". === Filmmaking === Grohl directed the Foo Fighters music videos for "Monkey Wrench" (1997), "My Hero" (1998), "All My Life" (2002), "White Limo" (2011), and "Rope" (2011), as well as all the music videos from the Sonic Highways and Concrete and Gold era. Outside of Foo Fighters, he also filmed the music video for Soundgarden's "By Crooked Steps" (2014). In 2013, Grohl produced and directed the documentary Sound City, about the history of the famed Sound City Studios recording studios in Van Nuys. The film, Grohl's feature-length directorial debut, premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival. Accompanying the release of Sonic Highways, Grohl directed an eight-part documentary miniseries of the same name that chronicles the album's development and recording across eight different American cities. It premiered on HBO on October 17, 2014. In 2021, Grohl directed What Drives Us, a feature-length documentary on van touring. It was released on April 30, 2021, on the Coda Collection via Amazon Prime. ===Cal Jam=== Inspired by California Jam, to celebrate the release of Foo Fighters' ninth studio album Concrete and Gold and begin their North American tour, Cal Jam 17, a music festival curated by Grohl and Foo Fighters, was held from October 67, 2017 at Glen Helen Amphitheater, with 27,800 attendees, 3,100 campers, and nine arrests. Cal Jam 18, held October 5–6, 2018 in San Bernardino, California, featured the Foo Fighters and a Nirvana reunion. == Musicianship and equipment == Grohl is a self-taught musician and cannot read musical notation, and instead plays only by ear. His drum kit, designed by Drum Workshop, features five different sized tom-tom drums ranging from 5x8 inches to 16x18 inches, a 19-inch crash cymbal, two 20-inch crash cymbals, an 18-inch China cymbal, a 24-inch ride cymbal, and a standard kick drum, snare drum, and hi-hat. Grohl's primary recording guitar is an original cherry red Gibson Trini Lopez Standard that he bought in the early 1990s, while still with Nirvana, because he liked the different style of headstock and the diamond-shaped sound holes on what was otherwise an ES-335. Onstage during early Foo Fighters tours, Grohl played two Gibson Les Pauls, then relied primarily on a pair of black Gibson Explorers while touring for The Colour and the Shape, There is Nothing Left to Lose, and One by One. His primary acoustic guitar is a black Elvis Presley model Gibson Dove. In October 2006, one of the miners took up his offer, joining Grohl for a drink after a Foo Fighters acoustic concert at the Sydney Opera House. Following the event, Grohl wrote "Ballad of the Beaconsfield Miners", an instrumental piece, which was included on Foo Fighters' 2007 release Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace, and features Kaki King. He has worn a White Knot ribbon, a symbol of support for same-sex marriage, to various events; when questioned about the knot, he responded, "I believe in love and I believe in equality and I believe in marriage equality." Grohl's gay rights activism dates back to the early 1990s, when Nirvana performed at a benefit to raise money to fight Oregon Ballot Measure 9, which forbade governments in Oregon from promoting or facilitating homosexuality. Grohl participated in two counter-protests against the Westboro Baptist Church for their anti-gay stance: in 2011, by performing "Keep It Clean" on the back of a flatbed truck and in 2015, by Rickrolling them. Despite growing up with a firearm, Grohl is an advocate for gun control. In a 2008 interview, Grohl said he had never used cocaine, heroin, or speed, and that he had stopped smoking cannabis and taking LSD at the age of 20. He contributed to a 2009 anti-drug video for the BBC. He has described himself as a coffee addict who drinks an average of six cups of coffee every morning; in 2009, he was admitted to a hospital with chest pains caused by a caffeine overdose. Grohl supported Barack Obama's 2012 presidential campaign and performed "My Hero" at the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina. Foo Fighters supported Joe Biden's 2020 presidential campaign and played at the "Celebrating America" concert during Biden's inauguration in 2021. In 2018, he said that Donald Trump "seems like a massive jerk". After Trump used the band's song "My Hero" at a rally without their permission, a Foo Fighters spokesperson announced that the band would donate any royalties from the usage to the Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign. == Personal life == In 1994, Grohl married Jennifer Leigh Youngblood, a photographer from Grosse Pointe, Michigan. They separated in December 1996 and divorced in 1997; Grohl admitted to infidelity. After divorcing Youngblood, Grohl dated snowboarder Tina Basich for a couple of years. Basich ended the relationship after discovering his infidelity. From 1999 to 2001, Grohl dated former Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur. In 2003, he married Jordyn Blum; they had met at the Sunset Marquis Whiskey Bar in West Hollywood, California. They reside in Los Angeles and have three daughters, born in 2006, 2009, and 2014. In 2024, Grohl announced on Instagram that he had fathered a fourth daughter, this time outside his marriage, and asked his family for forgiveness. In March 2025, it was reported that Blum was willing to forgive Grohl and they were working on saving their marriage. In a June 2011 interview, Grohl revealed that he was going deaf in his left ear due to decades of performing on stage. During his appearance on The Howard Stern Show in February 2022, he stated that he suffers from hearing loss and that this has an impact on both his daily life and life as a musician; his tinnitus has forced him to read lips for about 20 years, a situation that became more difficult when people began wearing face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. As for producing music, he refuses to use in-ear monitors despite their ability to protect his ears because it "removes [him] from the natural atmosphere sound so [he] cannot hear [his] bandmates". From 1993 to 1997, Grohl owned a house in Shoreline, Washington. In 2015, Grohl sold his beachfront house in Oxnard, California, for $2.9 million. == Honors == In August 2009, Grohl was given the key to the city of Warren, Ohio, his birthplace, and performed the songs "Everlong", "Times Like These", and "My Hero". A roadway in downtown Warren named "David Grohl Alley" has been dedicated to him with murals by local artists. In 2012, Grohl's hometown of Warren unveiled oversized drumsticks, listed in the Guinness Book of World Records for the largest drumsticks in the world. They were also displayed on July 7, 2012, at a concert at the Warren Amphitheater. Grohl's first solo Rolling Stone cover story was published on December 4, 2014. In 2016, Grohl was ranked 27th on the list of the best drummers of all time by Rolling Stone. Grohl received the George and Ira Gershwin Award in 2024. == Discography == == Filmography == === Film === === Television ===	[ "1991: The Year Punk Broke", "Rob Schnapf", "MTV", "My War", "Four on the Floor (Juliette and the Licks album)", "King Diamond", "Billboard 200", "Kurt Cobain", "suicide of Kurt Cobain", "Springfield, Virginia", "Now (newspaper)", "Liverpool", "You Are Free", "Joe Biden", "Buzz Osborne", "Concrete and Gold Tour", "Greatest Hits (Foo Fighters album)", "Killing Joke (2003 album)", "...Like Clockwork", "Memphis Mafia", "Metalocalypse", "Saturday Night Live", "With Teeth", "2012 Democratic National Convention", "Billboard (magazine)", "Tie Your Mother Down", "Late Show with David Letterman", "CBeebies", "Robert Lang Studios", "Mavis Staples", "In Your Honor", "Supergroup (music)", "Ball-Hog or Tugboat?", "Red Hot Chili Peppers", "The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange", "Greg Kurstin", "BBC Radio 1", "The Register-Guard", "Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace", "Viva La Bam", "Let It Die (Foo Fighters song)", "The Pretender (Foo Fighters song)", "Hot Ones", "Sepultura", "Sound City Studios", "Juliette and the Licks", "Naked Raygun", "Wheels (Foo Fighters song)", "2013 Sundance Film Festival", "Cat Power", "Oxnard, California", "Gary Gersh", "Rhythm (music magazine)", "iPod", "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "BlizzCon", "Butch Vig", "Drunk History", "Youngstown, Ohio", "Fast Company", "Hollywood Vampires (band)", "The Muppets (2011 film)", "John Doe (musician)", "Mike Mills", "cameo appearance", "Barnes & Noble", "Learn to Fly", "X (American band)", "Kent Stax", "Pat Smear", "Charlotte, North Carolina", "No Doubt", "You Know You're Right", "Led Zeppelin IV", "Have a Cigar", "Time Out Chicago", "The Middletown Press", "Amazon Prime", "Melvins", "Gary Numan", "Estado de Minas", "Entertainment Weekly", "Louise Post", "Gibson Les Paul", "Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck", "David Bowie", "Enter Sandman", "Space Ghost Coast to Coast", "Foo Fighters Sonic Highways", "Axl Rose", "Associated Press", "Studio 666", "Freedom of the City", "Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign", "The Smart Studios Story", "R.E.M.", "Simple Machines", "Jaz Coleman", "same-sex marriage", "Cesena", "Soundgarden", "Townsquare Media", "The Colour and the Shape", "Autodidacticism", "The Washington Post", "Them Crooked Vultures (album)", "Robert Taft Jr.", "With the Lights Out", "Beaconsfield mine collapse", "Foo Fighters (album)", "NPR", "IMDb", "The New York Times", "Back in the U.S.S.R.", "Play (Dave Grohl EP)", "Melissa Auf der Maur", "Tasmania", "Alanis Morissette", "James Taylor", "Tom Rothrock", "Ultimate Guitar", "One by One (Foo Fighters album)", "Pete Yorn", "\"Ring Spiel\" Tour '95", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Warren, Ohio", "Greg Dulli", "Thurston Moore", "Helen Mirren", "The Howard Stern Show", "Chris Shiflett", "Dey Street Books", "Gwar", "PAF (pickup)", "Mondo Generator", "Roky Erickson", "hardcore punk", "Nirvana (band)", "Lemmy", "Rickrolling", "Jared Champion", "People (magazine)", "cocaine", "Nevermind", "Lemmy (film)", "Top Chef: New York", "Los Angeles Times", "MusicRadar", "tom-tom drum", "snare drum", "No One Knows", "Ringo Starr", "Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny", "Alexandria, Virginia", "SNL Digital Short", "Revolver (magazine)", "tinnitus", "LSD", "The Daily Telegraph", "hard rock", "Scream (band)", "cannabis", "Bleach (Nirvana album)", "Maybe I'm Amazed", "Backbeat (film)", "51st Annual Grammy Awards", "the Prodigy", "grunge", "Trumbull County, Ohio", "Off Camera (TV Series)", "South by Southwest", "Kia Forum", "Heart-Shaped Box", "Guinness Book of World Records", "Pearl Jam", "Concrete and Gold", "Chris Fryar", "Fumble (album)", "Maximumrocknroll", "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Sydney Opera House", "Killing Joke", "Loudwire", "Wasting Light", "Consequence (publication)", "modern rock", "Ghost (Swedish band)", "John Paul Jones (musician)", "The Guardian", "Runnin' Down a Dream (film)", "Sunny Day Real Estate", "Nate Mendel", "UCLA Spring Sing", "Roger Taylor (Queen drummer)", "Them Crooked Vultures", "Rope (Foo Fighters song)", "Greg Ginn", "Psy", "Led Zeppelin", "Stereogum", "Miami New Times", "cannabis (drug)", "Animal (Muppet)", "the Beatles", "White Limo", "The West Wing", "HBO", "Gangnam Style", "Sub Pop", "Gibson Explorer", "Venom (band)", "San Bernardino, California", "heavy metal music", "Nine Inch Nails", "Joey Castillo", "Hanukkah", "Sentinel & Enterprise", "Bad Brains", "Medicine at Midnight", "Scott Weinrich", "Queen (band)", "Kennedy Center Honors", "Nightcrawler (album)", "Tribute (song)", "12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief", "Gil Norton", "Marco Sabiu", "County Kerry", "the Afghan Whigs", "alternative rock", "Kaki King", "I Saw Her Standing There", "Cage the Elephant", "Alternative rock", "Sonic Highways (TV series)", "Glen Helen Amphitheater", "Barack Obama", "Drum Workshop", "By Crooked Steps", "Sonic Highways", "Capitol Records", "Rolling Stone", "No More Censorship", "Nandi Bushell", "The Muppets (TV series)", "Bruce Springsteen", "Circle Jerks", "Zac Brown Band", "The Cubby Bear", "Iggy Pop", "New wave music", "Black Flag (band)", "Artists and repertoire", "Jack Irons", "James Moll", "Steven Tyler", "Anfield", "Donald Trump", "Sonic Youth", "Classic Albums: Nirvana – Nevermind", "Beelzeboss", "OC Weekly", "BBC", "California Jam", "Octopus's Garden", "Arctic Monkeys", "Big Me", "cover version", "Tenacious D", "Tony Iommi", "Classic Albums", "My Hero (Foo Fighters song)", "Filmage: The Story of Descendents/All", "Hole (band)", "Skeeter Thompson", "Rovi Corporation", "punk rock", "Inauguration of Joe Biden", "Country Music Association Awards", "AllMusic", "Down in the Park", "Walking After You", "Everlong", "Louder Sound", "Oregon Ballot Measure 9 (1992)", "Pusher (The X-Files)", "hi-hat", "ABBA", "Steven Van Zandt", "gun control", "Dave Pirner", "Universal Music Group", "Pink Floyd", "Queens of the Stone Age", "The Vindicator", "Inside Edition", "Chan Marshall", "bass drum", "iHeartRadio", "Daily Bruin", "William Morrow and Company", "White Knot", "Probot", "The X-Files", "RDGLDGRN", "Wisconsin", "cymbal", "2112 (album)", "Elton John", "Guns N' Roses", "Band on the Run (song)", "John Bonham", "Pitchfork (website)", "The Storyteller (Grohl book)", "Annandale High School", "Rize of the Fenix", "All Things Must Pass: The Rise and Fall of Tower Records", "From Cradle to Stage (TV series)", "ES-335", "E!", "Conrad Lant", "Sound City (film)", "musical notation", "Dave Abbruzzese", "gay rights", "Thomas Jefferson High School (1964–1987)", "Time (magazine)", "El Mocambo", "shock rock", "In Utero", "Studio 606", "Motörhead", "Your Choice Live Series Vol.10", "Glastonbury Festival", "The Hanukkah Sessions", "There Is Nothing Left to Lose", "USA Today", "Evanston, Illinois", "NME", "Madison Square Garden", "Earthling Tour", "Taylor Hawkins", "Metalocalypse season 3", "Iommi (album)", "Bill & Ted Face the Music", "Salad Days (2014 film)", "Fred Armisen", "Elvis Costello", "Q (magazine)", "Monkey Wrench (song)", "Sound City Players", "Depeche Mode", "William Goldsmith", "Norah Jones", "Alice Cooper", "All My Life (Foo Fighters song)", "Joe Strummer", "Violet Grohl", "Shoreline, Washington", "Touch (1997 film)", "Is It Fall Yet?", "The Independent", "Not the Actual Events", "Olympia, Washington", "Neil Young", "Heathen (David Bowie album)", "David Letterman", "in-ear monitor", "Tina Basich", "Phil Collins", "Josh Homme", "Frankenstein (instrumental)", "Pocketwatch (album)", "Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways", "Uproxx", "45th Annual Grammy Awards", "Veruca Salt", "demon", "Brian May", "Foo Fighters: Back and Forth", "But Here We Are", "Slate (magazine)", "Come as You Are (Nirvana song)", "Slash (musician)", "Gibson ES-335", "Bishop Ireton High School", "Gibson Dove", "Voivod (band)", "Freddie Mercury", "BBC Music", "Soul Asylum", "all-star", "Alone + Easy Target", "The Grohl Sessions, Vol. 1", "Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign", "Edgar Winter", "Rush (band)", "List of Saturday Night Live guests", "The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)", "Spin (magazine)", "KVRV", "Paul McCartney", "Songs for the Deaf", "Max Cavalera", "West Hollywood, California", "Foo Fighters", "West Coast of the United States", "Variety (magazine)", "My Hero (song)", "Entertainment Tonight", "DGC Records", "MTV News", "King Buzzo (EP)", "Lip reading", "9:30 Club", "Neil Peart", "Krist Novoselic", "Mike Watt", "Chelsea Lately", "Invaders Must Die", "Franz Stahl", "Siouxsie and the Banshees", "European Capital of Culture", "Grosse Pointe, Michigan", "Mick Jagger", "Westboro Baptist Church", "Instagram", "The Observer", "If You Have Ghost", "Metro Chicago", "Garbage (band)", "Sesame Street", "infidelity", "I'm a Marionette", "Long Road to Ruin", "Bleed Like Me", "Don Fleming (musician)", "Kiss (band)", "speed (drug)", "Van Nuys", "Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers", "Gibson DG-335" ]
8,100	Dollar	Dollar is the name of more than 25 currencies. The United States dollar, named after the international currency known as the Spanish dollar, was established in 1792 and is the first so named that still survives. Others include the Australian dollar, Brunei dollar, Canadian dollar, Eastern Caribbean dollar, Hong Kong dollar, Jamaican dollar, Liberian dollar, Namibian dollar, New Taiwan dollar, New Zealand dollar, Singapore dollar, Trinidad and Tobago Dollar and several others. The symbol for most of those currencies is the dollar sign $; the same symbol is used by many countries using peso currencies. The name "dollar" originates from the "thaler" (from thal, German for valley) suffix in the name of a 29 g silver coin called the Joachimsthaler minted in Bohemia. ==Economies that use a "dollar"== ===Other countries that use "United States dollar"=== ===Other territories that use a "dollar"=== ===Countries unofficially accepting "dollars"=== ==Countries and regions that have previously used a "dollar" currency== Confederate States of America: The Confederate States dollar issued from March 1861 to 1865 Ethiopia: The name "Ethiopian dollar" was used in the English text on the birr banknotes before the Derg takeover in 1974. Malaysia: the Malaysian ringgit used to be called the "Malaysian Dollar" in English. The surrounding territories (that is, Malaya, British North Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore) used several varieties of dollars (for example, Straits dollar, Malayan dollar, Sarawak dollar, British North Borneo dollar; Malaya and British Borneo dollar) before Malaya, British North Borneo, Sarawak, Singapore and Brunei gained their independence from the United Kingdom. See also for complete list of currencies. Sierra Leone: The Sierra Leonean dollar was used from 1791 to 1805. It was subdivided into 100 cents and was issued by the Sierra Leone Company. The dollar was pegged to sterling at a rate of 1 dollar = 4 shillings 2 pence. Spain: the Spanish dollar was used from 1497 to 1868. It is closely related to the dollars (Spanish dollar was used in the US until 1857) and euros used today. Sri Lanka; the Ceylonese rixdollar was a currency used in British Ceylon in the early 19th Century. Rhodesia: the Rhodesian dollar replaced the Rhodesian pound in 1970 and it was used until Zimbabwe came into being in 1980. Republic of Texas: the Texas dollar was issued between January 1839 and September 1840. Zimbabwe: uses the Zimbabwe dollar, and also accepts the South African rand, the US dollar, the Euro, the Pound sterling, the Botswana pula, the Chinese yuan, the Indian rupee and the Japanese yen. ==History== ===Etymology=== On 15 January 1520, the Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins from silver mined locally in Joachimsthal and marked on reverse with the Bohemian lion. The coins were named Joachimsthaler after the town, becoming shortened in common usage to thaler or taler. The town's name is derived from Saint Joachim, coupled with the German word Thal (Tal in modern spelling), which means 'valley' (cf. the English term dale); the coin is thus "from the valley of [St] Joachim". This name found its way into other languages, for example: German — Thaler (or Taler) Czech, Slovak and Slovenian — tolar Slovak — toliar Croatian — talir Polish — talar Low German — daler Dutch — rijksdaalder (or daler) Danish and Norwegian — rigsdaler Latvian — dālderis Swedish — riksdaler Spanish — dólar (or real de a ocho or peso duro) Hungarian — tallér Ethiopian — talari (ታላሪ) English — dollar In contrast to other languages which adopted the second part of word joachimsthaler, the first part found its way into Russian language and became , (ефимок). The predecessor of the Joachimsthaler was the Guldengroschen or Guldiner which was a large silver coin originally minted in Tirol in 1486 and introduced into the Duchy of Saxony in 1500. The King of Bohemia wanted a similar silver coin, which became the Joachimsthaler. ===Europe and colonial North America=== The Joachimsthaler of the 16th century was succeeded by the longer-lived Reichsthaler of the Holy Roman Empire, used from the 16th to 19th centuries. The Netherlands also introduced its own dollars in the 16th century: the Burgundian Cross Thaler (Bourgondrische Kruisdaalder), the German-inspired Rijksdaalder, and the Dutch lion dollar (leeuwendaalder). The latter coin was used for Dutch trade in the Middle East, in the Dutch East Indies and West Indies, and in the Thirteen Colonies of North America. For the English North American colonists, however, the Spanish peso or "piece of eight" had always held first place, and this coin was also called the "dollar" as early as 1581. Spanish dollars or "pieces of eight" were distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines. ===Origins of the dollar sign=== The sign is first attested in business correspondence in the 1770s as a scribal abbreviation "ps", referring to the Spanish American peso, that is, the "Spanish dollar" as it was known in British North America. These late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts show that the s gradually came to be written over the p developing a close equivalent to the "$" mark, and this new symbol was retained to refer to the American dollar as well, once this currency was adopted in 1785 by the United States. ===Adoption by the United States=== By the time of the American Revolution, the Spanish dólar gained significance because they backed paper money authorized by the individual colonies and the Continental Congress. as a unit of pure silver weighing 371 4/16th grains (24.057 grams), or 416 grains of standard silver (standard silver being defined as 371.25/416 in silver, and balance in alloy). It was specified that the "money of account" of the United States should be expressed in those same "dollars" or parts thereof. Additionally, all lesser-denomination coins were defined as percentages of the dollar coin, such that a half-dollar was to contain half as much silver as a dollar, quarter-dollars would contain one-fourth as much, and so on. In an act passed in January 1837, the dollar's weight was reduced to 412.5 grains and alloy at 90% silver, resulting in the same fine silver content of 371.25 grains. On 21 February 1853, the quantity of silver in the lesser coins was reduced, with the effect that their denominations no longer represented their silver content relative to dollar coins. Various acts have subsequently been passed affecting the amount and type of metal in U.S. coins, so that today there is no legal definition of the term "dollar" to be found in U.S. statute. Currently the closest thing to a definition is found in United States Code Title 31, Section 5116, paragraph b, subsection 2: "The Secretary [of the Treasury] shall sell silver under conditions the Secretary considers appropriate for at least $1.292929292 a fine troy ounce." Silver was mostly removed from U.S. coinage by 1965 and the dollar became a free-floating fiat money without a commodity backing defined in terms of real gold or silver. The US Mint continues to make silver $1-denomination coins, but these are not intended for general circulation. ==Relationship to the troy pound== The quantity of silver chosen in 1792 to correspond to one dollar, namely, 371.25 grains of pure silver, is very close to the geometric mean of one troy pound and one pennyweight. In what follows, "dollar" will be used as a unit of mass. A troy pound being 5760 grains and a pennyweight being 240 times smaller, or 24 grains, the geometric mean is, to the nearest hundredth, 371.81 grains. This means that the ratio of a pound to a dollar (15.52) roughly equals the ratio of a dollar to a pennyweight (15.47). These ratios are also very close to the ratio of a gram to a grain: 15.43. Finally, in the United States, the ratio of the value of gold to the value of silver in the period from 1792 to 1873 averaged to about 15.5, being 15 from 1792 to 1834 and around 16 from 1834 to 1873. This is also nearly the value of the gold to silver ratio determined by Isaac Newton in 1717. That these three ratios are all approximately equal has some interesting consequences. Let the gold to silver ratio be exactly 15.5. Then a pennyweight of gold, that is 24 grains of gold, is nearly equal in value to a dollar of silver (1 dwt of gold = $1.002 of silver). Second, a dollar of gold is nearly equal in value to a pound of silver ($1 of gold = 5754 3/8 grains of silver = 0.999 Lb of silver). Third, the number of grains in a dollar (371.25) roughly equals the number of grams in a troy pound (373.24). ==Usage in the United Kingdom== There are two quotes in the plays of William Shakespeare referring to dollars as money. Coins known as "thistle dollars" were in use in Scotland during the 16th and 17th centuries, and use of the English word, and perhaps even the use of the coin, may have begun at the University of St Andrews. This might be supported by a reference to the sum of "ten thousand dollars" in Macbeth (act I, scene II) (an anachronism because the real Macbeth, upon whom the play was based, lived in the 11th century). In the Sherlock Holmes story "The Man with the Twisted Lip" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, published in 1891, an Englishman posing as a London beggar describes the shillings and pounds he collected as dollars. In 1804, a British five-shilling piece, or crown, was sometimes called "dollar". It was an overstruck Spanish eight real coin (the famous "piece of eight"), the original of which was known as a Spanish dollar. Large numbers of these eight-real coins were captured during the Napoleonic Wars, hence their re-use by the Bank of England. They remained in use until 1811. During World War II, when the U.S. dollar was (approximately) valued at five shillings, the half crown (2s 6d) acquired the nickname "half dollar" or "half a dollar" in the UK. ==Usage elsewhere== Chinese demand for silver in the 19th and early 20th centuries led several countries, notably the United Kingdom, United States and Japan, to mint trade dollars, which were often of slightly different weights from comparable domestic coinage. Silver dollars reaching China (whether Spanish, trade, or other) were often stamped with Chinese characters known as "chop marks", which indicated that that particular coin had been assayed by a well-known merchant and deemed genuine. ===Other national currencies called "dollar"=== Prior to 1873, the silver dollar circulated in many parts of the world, with a value in relation to the British gold sovereign of roughly $1 = 4s 2d (21p approx). As a result of the decision of the German Empire to stop minting silver thaler coins in 1871, in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War, the worldwide price of silver began to fall. This resulted in the U.S. Coinage Act (1873) which put the United States onto a 'de facto' gold standard. Canada and Newfoundland were already on the gold standard, and the result was that the value of the dollar in North America increased in relation to silver dollars being used elsewhere, particularly Latin America and the Far East. By 1900, value of silver dollars had fallen to 50 percent of gold dollars. Following the abandonment of the gold standard by Canada in 1931, the Canadian dollar began to drift away from parity with the U.S. dollar. It returned to parity a few times, but since the end of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates that was agreed to in 1944, the Canadian dollar has been floating against the U.S. dollar. The silver dollars of Latin America and South East Asia began to diverge from each other as well during the course of the 20th century. The Straits dollar adopted a gold exchange standard in 1906 after it had been forced to rise in value against other silver dollars in the region. Hence, by 1935, when China and Hong Kong came off the silver standard, the Straits dollar was worth 2s 4d (11.5p approx) sterling, whereas the Hong Kong dollar was worth only 1s 3d sterling (6p approx). The term "dollar" has also been adopted by other countries for currencies which do not share a common history with other dollars. Many of these currencies adopted the name after moving from a £sd-based to a decimalized monetary system. Examples include the Australian dollar, the New Zealand dollar, the Jamaican dollar, the Cayman Islands dollar, the Fiji dollar, the Namibian dollar, the Rhodesian dollar, the Zimbabwe dollar, and the Solomon Islands dollar. The tala is based on the Samoan pronunciation of the word "dollar". The Slovenian tolar had the same etymological origin as dollar (that is, thaler). The Swedish Daler used to be the name for the currency and have the same etymological origin as the German thaler).	[ "Franco-Prussian War", "fiat money", "British Ceylon", "British North Borneo dollar", "Norwegian language", "Malayan dollar", "German Tyrol", "Fiji dollar", "White Rajah", "Singapore dollar", "Australian dollar", "Newfoundland dollar", "France", "Danish language", "Holy Roman Empire", "Hong Kong", "silver standard", "South East Asia", "Polish language", "Realm of New Zealand", "US Mint", "trade dollar", "Slovene language", "Singapore", "coin", "Croatian language", "Sarawak dollar", "Latvian language", "Straits dollar", "pound sterling", "Trinidad and Tobago Dollar", "Ethiopian birr", "Brunei dollar", "Philippines", "List of currencies", "Sarawak", "Confederate States of America", "Saint Joachim", "Petrodollar", "Guldengroschen", "BBC News", "Kiribati dollar", "Hong Kong dollar", "Thirteen Colonies", "Trinidad and Tobago dollar", "Salvadoran colón", "Netherlands", "riksdaler", "South African rand", "troy pound", "Duchy of Saxony", "Ceylonese rixdollar", "Spanish real", "Chop marks on coins", "William Shakespeare", "£sd", "Sierra Leone Company", "Joachimsthaler", "Ecuadorian sucre", "Spain", "Samoan tala", "Canadian pound", "pennyweight", "Botswana pula", "Sri Lanka", "Norwegian rigsdaler", "Fijian pound", "American Revolution", "Eastern Caribbean dollar", "ISO 4217", "Spanish dollar", "Canada", "Bohemian lion", "New Taiwan dollar", "Overstrike (numismatics)", "Rhodesian dollar", "Jáchymov", "Barbadian dollar", "Chinese cash (currency unit)", "Eurodollar", "Kingdom of Sarawak", "legal tender", "Virginia", "Australian pound", "Surinamese dollar", "Dominion of Newfoundland", "cf.", "Zimbabwe", "Dutch language", "Latin America", "University of St Andrews", "Belize dollar", "Macbeth", "Indonesian rupiah", "Bahamian dollar", "Brunei", "scribal abbreviation", "Tuvaluan dollar", "Charles Vyner Brooke", "Low German", "Confederate States dollar", "Texas dollar", "United Kingdom", "currencies", "Pound sterling", "The Man with the Twisted Lip", "rijksdaalder", "de facto", "Old Taiwan dollar", "shilling", "Bretton Woods system", "Guyanese dollar", "British sovereign coin", "New Zealand pound", "euro", "Reichsthaler", "Crown (British coin)", "Swedish language", "British North Borneo", "Federation of Malaya", "Canadian dollar", "Spanish language", "Sir Arthur Conan Doyle", "hyperinflation in Zimbabwe", "History of Newfoundland and Labrador", "Coinage Act (1873)", "List of circulating currencies", "Swedish riksdaler", "Republic of Texas", "Euro", "Czech language", "Liberian dollar", "British West Indies dollar", "Zimbabwean dollar", "Surinamese guilder", "Bermudian dollar", "Cayman Islands dollar", "Alexander Hamilton", "geometric mean", "Japanese yen", "Ethiopia", "Slovak language", "silver", "New Zealand dollar", "Sierra Leonean dollar", "The Western Historical Quarterly", "World War II", "Rhodesia", "Chinese yuan", "English language", "Malaya and British Borneo dollar", "Bank of England", "German language", "thaler", "Territories of the United States", "Jamaican pound", "Napoleonic Wars", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "North American currency union", "Popular Science", "peso", "States and Territories of Australia", "grain (unit)", "Zimbabwe dollar", "Russian language", "Hungarian language", "Slovenian tolar", "pieces of eight", "Malaysia", "Fijian dollar", "Bahamian pound", "anachronism", "Rijksdaalder", "United States dollar", "piece of eight", "Scotland", "Solomon Islands dollar", "Malaysian ringgit", "dollar sign", "Thaler", "tolar", "Far East", "Samoan language", "US dollar", "Continental Congress", "Sierra Leone", "Jamaican dollar", "Rhodesian pound", "Indian rupee", "Macbeth of Scotland", "Lands of the Bohemian Crown", "Secretary of the Treasury", "1900", "silver coin", "Namibian dollar", "Japan", "Ethiopian language", "Rupee", "The Real North Korea: Life and Politics in the Failed Stalinist Utopia", "Derg", "Florian Cajori" ]
8,101	Dutch	Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to: Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands Dutch people as an ethnic group () Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship () Dutch language () In specific terms, it reflects the Kingdom of the Netherlands Dutch Caribbean Netherlands Antilles Dutch may also refer to: ==Places== Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States Pennsylvania Dutch Country == People == ===Ethnic groups=== Pennsylvania Dutch, a group of early German immigrants to Pennsylvania ===Specific people=== Dutch (nickname), a list of people Johnny Dutch (born 1989), American hurdler and field athlete Dutch Schultz (1902–1935), American mobster born Arthur Simon Flegenheimer Dutch Mantel, ring name of American retired professional wrestler Wayne Maurice Keown (born 1949) Dutch Savage, ring name of professional wrestler and promoter Frank Stewart (1935–2013) == Arts, entertainment, and media== ===Fictional characters=== Dutch (Black Lagoon), an African-American character from the Japanese manga and anime Black Lagoon Alan "Dutch" Schaefer, the protagonist of the 1987 film Predator played by Arnold Schwarzenegger Dutch van der Linde, a central character from the Red Dead video games Dutch Wagenbach, on the TV series The Shield ===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media=== Dutch (1991 film), an American comedy film starring Ed O'Neill Dutch (2021 film), an American romantic crime drama film Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan, a 1999 biography with fictional elements by Edmund Morris Dutch, the magazine, an English-language magazine about the Netherlands and the Dutch Dutching, a gambling term that signifies betting on more than one outcome Dutch, an American trip-hop duo that released the 2010 album A Bright Cold Day ===Chess=== Bird's Opening, a chess opening also known as the "Dutch attack" Dutch Defence, a chess opening == Sports and mascots == Dutch Grand Prix, a Formula One car race Dutch Open (disambiguation) Dutch TT, a motorcycle race, part of the MotoGP World Championship Dutch, nickname of college athletic teams of Central College in Pella, Iowa Dutch, the mascot of the Union Dutchmen, the athletic teams of Union College	[ "Dutch people", "Double Dutch (disambiguation)", "Dutch (2021 film)", "Dutch Grand Prix", "Dutch, West Virginia", "Dutch Caribbean", "Dutch Mantel", "Deutsch (disambiguation)", "Going Dutch", "Terminology of the Low Countries", "Dutch Schultz", "Dutch Boy (disambiguation)", "Dutch Defence", "Dutch oven (disambiguation)", "Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan", "Dutch (1991 film)", "Dutchy (disambiguation)", "Dutch TT", "Dutch (Black Lagoon)", "Dutch Wagenbach", "Alan \"Dutch\" Schaefer", "Central College (Iowa)", "Union Dutchmen", "Dutch Savage", "Netherlands Antilles", "Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Bird's Opening", "Johnny Dutch", "Dutch nationality law", "Dutch language", "Pennsylvania Dutch Country", "Netherlands (disambiguation)", "Red Dead", "Netherlands", "Dutching", "A Bright Cold Day", "Pennsylvania Dutch", "Dutch, the magazine", "Dutch Open (disambiguation)", "Dutch Hill (disambiguation)", "Dutch van der Linde", "Dutch (nickname)" ]
8,102	Dysprosium	Dysprosium is a chemical element; it has symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is a rare-earth element in the lanthanide series with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though, like other lanthanides, it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes, the most abundant of which is 164Dy. Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but it was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion-exchange techniques in the 1950s. Dysprosium has relatively few applications where it cannot be replaced by other chemical elements. It is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility () in data-storage applications, and as a component of Terfenol-D (a magnetostrictive material). Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic. ==Characteristics== ===Physical properties=== Dysprosium is a rare-earth element and has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is quite soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities. Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements, It transforms from the hcp phase to the body-centered cubic phase at . Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C: 2 Dy (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 DyF3 (s) [green] 2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 DyCl3 (s) [white] 2 Dy (s) + 3 Br2 (l) → 2 DyBr3 (s) [white] 2 Dy (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 DyI3 (s) [green] Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH2)9]3+ complex: 2 Dy (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Dy3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g) The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic. ===Compounds=== Dysprosium halides, such as DyF3 and DyBr3, tend to take on a yellow color. Dysprosium oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron oxide. Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy2(CO3)3·2–3H2O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO3(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd)), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O. This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10–20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures. Dysprosium forms several intermetallics, including the dysprosium stannides. ===Isotopes=== Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes: 156Dy, 158Dy, 160Dy, 161Dy, 162Dy, 163Dy, and 164Dy. These are all considered stable, although only the last two are theoretically stable: the others can theoretically undergo alpha decay. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, 164Dy is the most abundant at 28%, followed by 162Dy at 26%. The least abundant is 156Dy at 0.06%. Dysprosium is the heaviest element to have isotopes that are predicted to be stable rather than observationally stable isotopes that are predicted to be radioactive. Twenty-nine radioisotopes have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173. The most stable of these is 154Dy, with a half-life of approximately 3 years, followed by 159Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days. The least stable is 138Dy, with a half-life of 200 ms. As a general rule, isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β+ decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay. However, 154Dy decays primarily by alpha decay, and 152Dy and 159Dy decay primarily by electron capture. Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is 165mDy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes. 149Dy has two metastable isomers, the second of which, 149m2Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns. ==History== In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of holmium and thulium. French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886. His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. On succeeding, he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning "hard to get". The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s. Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production. In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional supersolid quantum gas. ==Occurrence== While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements. No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found. In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium). The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea water 0.9 ng/L. ==Production== Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates. The metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium. In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF3, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl3. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions: 3 Ca + 2 DyF3 → 2 Dy + 3 CaF2 3 Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3 LiCl The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities. Dysprosium prices have climbed over time, from $7 per pound in 2003, to $130 a pound in late 2010, to $1,400/kg in 2011 and then falling to $240/kg in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions. As of April 2025, the price is around USD$203/kg. Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China. the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160 km south east of Halls Creek, Western Australia, is producing per annum. According to the United States Department of Energy, the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015. As of late 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia. ==Applications== Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser materials and commercial lighting. Because of dysprosium's high thermal-neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors. Dysprosium–cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions. Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators. Neodymium–iron–boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply. The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets. Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetostriction of any known material, which is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators, and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors. Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation. Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium. When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected. Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two dimensional supersolid in a laboratory environment. Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity. Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity metal-halide lamps. These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms. The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light. Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators. The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy3+) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties. Dy-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:YAG) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region. This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes. The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been laser cooled and confined in magneto-optical traps for quantum physics experiments. The first Bose and Fermi quantum degenerate gases of an open shell lanthanide were created with dysprosium. Because dysprosium is highly magnetic—indeed it is the most magnetic fermionic element and nearly tied with terbium for most magnetic bosonic atom—such gases serve as the basis for quantum simulation with strongly dipolar atoms. Due to its strong magnetic properties, Dysprosium alloys are used in the marine industry's sound navigation and ranging (SONAR) system. The inclusion of dysprosium alloys in the design of SONAR transducers and receivers can improve sensitivity and accuracy by providing more stable and efficient magnetic fields. ==Precautions== Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water. It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas. Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water. Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable. Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO3)3, is a strong oxidizing agent and readily ignites on contact with organic substances. Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human (cf. lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt for a 100 kilogram human). The insoluble salts are non-toxic.	[ "body-centered cubic", "sulfuric acid", "yttrium", "phosphate", "transducer", "half-life", "atomic number", "dysprosium stannides", "bastnäsite", "Resonator", "Neodymium magnet", "ferromagnetic", "Beta decay", "Halls Creek, Western Australia", "thermal neutron", "Neodymium", "cadmium", "magnetostrictive", "flotation process", "excited state", "hydrogen", "United States Geological Survey", "holmium oxide", "laser cooled", "boson", "fluorine", "Helimagnetism", "oxidizing agent", "calcium sulfate", "ionizing radiation", "yttrium aluminium garnet", "tantalum", "Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran", "coercivity", "fergusonite", "Curie temperature", "bar (unit)", "monazite", "blomstrandine", "chlorine", "natural abundance", "magnetic susceptibility", "rare-earth element", "isotope", "mineral", "nuclear reactor", "electron configuration", "transducers", "ion-exchange", "calcium fluoride", "magneto-optical trap", "quantum simulation", "Magnetic refrigeration", "chalcogen", "thulium", "Symbol (chemistry)", "basal plane", "salt poisoning", "metastable isomer", "helium", "dysprosium(III) oxide", "vanadium", "magnetostriction", "hexagonal close-packed", "hard disk drive", "Yttrium aluminium garnet", "metal-halide lamp", "magnetic", "observationally stable", "Iowa State University", "ion exchange", "Dysprosium(III) oxide", "radioisotopes", "dosimeter", "polycrase", "Toyota", "Orthorhombic crystal system", "United States Department of Energy", "quantum physics", "static electricity", "Bose–Einstein condensate", "Frank Spedding", "supersolid", "holmium", "nanoparticle", "isotopic abundance", "dipole", "erbium", "mice", "xenotime", "electron capture", "laser", "control rod", "chemical element", "Terfenol-D", "infrared", "gadolinite", "paramagnetic", "dysprosium hydroxide", "euxenite", "lanthanide", "fermion", "Paris", "cermet", "intermetallic", "luminescent", "SONAR", "lanthanide series" ]
8,103	Deforestation	Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. The reason for this linkage is because the effects of climate change on agriculture pose new risks to global food systems. == Definition == Deforestation is defined as the conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced). Deforestation and forest area net change are not the same: the latter is the sum of all forest losses (deforestation) and all forest gains (forest expansion) in a given period. Net change, therefore, can be positive or negative, depending on whether gains exceed losses, or vice versa. ===By country=== Deforestation in particular countries: ==Causes== thumb\|Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation by region, 2000–2010 Disregard of ascribed value, lax [[forest management, and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation. The types of drivers vary greatly depending on the region in which they take place. The regions with the greatest amount of deforestation for livestock and row crop agriculture are Central and South America, while commodity crop deforestation was found mainly in Southeast Asia. The region with the greatest forest loss due to shifting agriculture was sub-Saharan Africa. === Agriculture === The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018. Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, palm oil, rice, rubber, and various other popular products. The rising demand for certain products and global trade arrangements causes forest conversions, which ultimately leads to soil erosion. The top soil oftentimes erodes after forests are cleared which leads to sediment increase in rivers and streams. Most deforestation also occurs in tropical regions. The estimated amount of total land mass used by agriculture is around 38%. Since 1960, roughly 15% of the Amazon has been removed with the intention of replacing the land with agricultural practices. It is no coincidence that Brazil has recently become the world's largest beef exporter at the same time that the Amazon rainforest is being clear cut. Another prevalent method of agricultural deforestation is slash-and-burn agriculture, which was primarily used by subsistence farmers in tropical regions but has now become increasingly less sustainable. The method does not leave land for continuous agricultural production but instead cuts and burns small plots of forest land which are then converted into agricultural zones. The farmers then exploit the nutrients in the ashes of the burned plants. As well as, intentionally set fires can possibly lead to devastating measures when unintentionally spreading fire to more land, which can result in the destruction of the protective canopy. The repeated cycle of low yields and shortened fallow periods eventually results in less vegetation being able to grow on once burned lands and a decrease in average soil biomass. In small local plots sustainability is not an issue because of longer fallow periods and lesser overall deforestation. The relatively small size of the plots allowed for no net input of to be released. ==== Livestock ranching ==== Consumption and production of beef is the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. Livestock ranching requires large portions of land to raise herds of animals and livestock crops for consumer needs. According to the World Wildlife Fund, "Extensive cattle ranching is the number one culprit of deforestation in virtually every Amazon country, and it accounts for 80% of current deforestation." The cattle industry is responsible for a significant amount of methane emissions since 60% of all mammals on earth are livestock cows. Replacing forest land with pastures creates a loss of forest stock, which leads to the implication of increased greenhouse gas emissions by burning agriculture methodologies and land-use change. === Wood industry === A large contributing factor to deforestation is the lumber industry. A total of almost of timber, or about 1.3% of all forest land, is harvested each year. In addition, the increasing demand for low-cost timber products only supports the lumber company to continue logging. Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. The impact of population growth on deforestation has been contested. One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible", and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions". though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery. The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture. Since 2001, commodity-driven deforestation, which is more likely to be permanent, has accounted for about a quarter of all forest disturbance, and this loss has been concentrated in South America and Southeast Asia. As the human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur, leading to an increase in roads to connect these communities. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation. About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon. === Mining === The importance of mining as a cause of deforestation increased quickly in the beginning the 21st century, among other because of increased demand for minerals. The direct impact of mining is relatively small, but the indirect impacts are much more significant. More than a third of the earth's forests are possibly impacted, at some level and in the years 2001–2021, "755,861 km2... ...had been deforested by causes indirectly related to mining activities alongside other deforestation drivers (based on data from WWF)" In the year 2023, mining, including for the elements needed for the energy transition strongly contributed to deforestation. Mining is a particular threat to biodiversity: "in 2019, 79 percent of global metal ore extraction originated from five of the six most species-rich biomes". === Climate change === Another cause of deforestation is due to the effects of climate change: More wildfires, insect outbreaks, invasive species, and more frequent extreme weather events (such as storms) are factors that increase deforestation. A study suggests that "tropical, arid and temperate forests are experiencing a significant decline in resilience, probably related to increased water limitations and climate variability" which may shift ecosystems towards critical transitions and ecosystem collapses. By contrast, "boreal forests show divergent local patterns with an average increasing trend in resilience, probably benefiting from warming and fertilization, which may outweigh the adverse effects of climate change". The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition. Deforestation can also cause forests to become more fire prone through mechanisms such as logging. === Military causes === Operations in war can also cause deforestation. For example, in the 1945 Battle of Okinawa, bombardment and other combat operations reduced a lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots". Deforestation can also result from the intentional tactics of military forces. Clearing forests became an element in the Russian Empire's successful conquest of the Caucasus in the mid-19th century. The British (during the Malayan Emergency) and the United States (in the Korean War and in the Vietnam War) used defoliants (like Agent Orange or others). The destruction of forests in Vietnam War is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide, including by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics. == Impacts == === On atmosphere and climate === Deforestation is a major contributor to climate change. It is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Recent calculations suggest that CO2 emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions, with a range from 6% to 17%. A 2022 study shows annual carbon emissions from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase: by 0.97 ± 0.16 PgC (petagrams of carbon, i.e. billions of tons) per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ± 0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019. The incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere. ==== Carbon sink or source ==== A study suggests logged and structurally degraded tropical forests are carbon sources for at least a decade – even when recovering – due to larger carbon losses from soil organic matter and deadwood, indicating that the tropical forest carbon sink (at least in South Asia) "may be much smaller than previously estimated", contradicting that "recovering logged and degraded tropical forests are net carbon sinks". === On the environment === According to a 2020 study, if deforestation continues at current rates it can trigger a total or almost total extinction of humanity in the next 20 to 40 years. They conclude that "from a statistical point of view... the probability that our civilisation survives itself is less than 10% in the most optimistic scenario." To avoid this collapse, humanity should pass from a civilization dominated by the economy to "cultural society" that "privileges the interest of the ecosystem above the individual interest of its components, but eventually in accordance with the overall communal interest." ==== Changes to the water cycle ==== The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue. Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s. Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly: As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations. The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of Earth's fresh water. Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought, desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation regimes. ==== Soil erosion ==== Due to surface plant litter, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of erosion. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from surface runoff. The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of (forest) roads and the use of mechanized equipment. ==== Other changes to the soil ==== Clearing forests changes the environment of the microbial communities within the soil, and causes a loss of biodiversity in regards to the microbes since biodiversity is actually highly dependent on soil texture. Although the effect of deforestation has much more profound consequences on sandier soils compared to clay-like soils, the disruptions caused by deforestation ultimately reduces properties of soil such as hydraulic conductivity and water storage, thus reducing the efficiency of water and heat absorption. In a simulation of the deforestation process in the Amazon, researchers found that surface and soil temperatures increased by 1 to 3 degrees Celsius demonstrating the loss of the soil's ability to absorb radiation and moisture. ==== Biodiversity loss ==== Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in biodiversity, and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species. The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation. With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably. Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth and about 80% of the world's known biodiversity can be found in tropical rainforests, removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. Road construction and development of adjacent land, which greatly reduces the area of intact wilderness and causes soil erosion, is a major contributing factor to the loss of biodiversity in tropical regions. A study in Rondônia, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants. It has been estimated that 137 plant, animal and insect species go extinct every day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year. Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction. The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately one species per year from mammals and birds, which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable. Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly. However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species. In 2012, a study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years. ==== Oxygen-supply misconception ==== Rainforests are widely believed by lay persons to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, In fact about 50 percent of oxygen on Earth is produced by algae. === On human health === Deforestation reduces safe working hours for millions of people in the tropics, especially for those performing heavy labour outdoors. Continued global heating and forest loss is expected to amplify these impacts, reducing work hours for vulnerable groups even more. A study conducted from 2002 to 2018 also determined that the increase in temperature as a result of climate change, and the lack of shade due to deforestation, has increased the mortality rate of workers in Indonesia. ==== Infectious diseases ==== Deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in exposure of people to zoonotic diseases. Forest-associated diseases include malaria, Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis), African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, HIV and Ebola. In Kenya, deforestation has led to an increase in malaria cases which is now the leading cause of morbidity and mortality the country. A 2017 study found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria. Another pathway through which deforestation affects disease is the relocation and dispersion of disease-carrying hosts. This disease emergence pathway can be called "range expansion", whereby the host's range (and thereby the range of pathogens) expands to new geographic areas. Through deforestation, hosts and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats. Accompanying the reservoir species are pathogens that have the ability to find new hosts in previously unexposed regions. As these pathogens and species come into closer contact with humans, they are infected both directly and indirectly. Another example of range expansion due to deforestation and other anthropogenic habitat impacts includes the Capybara rodent in Paraguay. According to the World Economic Forum, 31% of emerging diseases are linked to deforestation. A publication by the United Nations Environment Programme in 2016 found that deforestation, climate change, and livestock agriculture are among the main causes that increase the risk of zoonotic diseases, that is diseases that pass from animals to humans. ===== COVID-19 pandemic ===== Scientists have linked the Coronavirus pandemic to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, habitat loss in general and wildlife trade. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) the Coronavirus disease 2019 is zoonotic, e.g., the virus passed from animals to humans. UNEP concludes that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and biodiverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases. === On the economy and agriculture === Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation. The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually. The resilience of human food systems and their capacity to adapt to future change is linked to biodiversity – including dryland-adapted shrub and tree species that help combat desertification, forest-dwelling insects, bats and bird species that pollinate crops, trees with extensive root systems in mountain ecosystems that prevent soil erosion, and mangrove species that provide resilience against flooding in coastal areas. Satellite imaging has become crucial in obtaining data on levels of deforestation and reforestation. Landsat satellite data, for example, has been used to map tropical deforestation as part of NASA's Landsat Pathfinder Humid Tropical Deforestation Project. The project yielded deforestation maps for the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia for three periods in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Greenpeace has mapped out the forests that are still intact and published this information on the internet. World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematic map showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest. == Control == ===International, national and subnational policies=== Policies for forest protection include information and education programs, economic measures to increase revenue returns from authorized activities and measures to increase effectiveness of "forest technicians and forest managers". Poverty and agricultural rent were found to be principal factors leading to deforestation. Contemporary domestic and foreign political decision-makers could possibly create and implement policies whose outcomes ensure that economic activities in critical forests are consistent with their scientifically ascribed value for ecosystem services, climate change mitigation and other purposes. Such policies may use and organize the development of complementary technical and economic means – including for lower levels of beef production, sales and consumption (which would also have major benefits for climate change mitigation), higher levels of specified other economic activities in such areas (such as reforestation, forest protection, sustainable agriculture for specific classes of food products and quaternary work in general), product information requirements, practice- and product-certifications and eco-tariffs, along with the required monitoring and traceability. Inducing the creation and enforcement of such policies could, for instance, achieve a global phase-out of deforestation-associated beef. With complex polycentric governance measures, goals like sufficient climate change mitigation as decided with e.g. the Paris Agreement and a stoppage of deforestation by 2030 as decided at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference could be achieved. A study has suggested higher income nations need to reduce imports of tropical forest-related products and help with theoretically forest-related socioeconomic development. Proactive government policies and international forest policies "revisit[ing] and redesign[ing] global forest trade" are needed as well. In 2022 the European parliament approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation. This EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products (EUDR), may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to "increase productivity on existing agricultural land". The legislation was adopted with some changes by the European Council in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after. The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020. It prohibits also import of products linked with Human rights abuse. The list of products includes: palm oil, cattle, wood, coffee, cocoa, rubber and soy. Some derivatives of those products are also included: chocolate, furniture, printed paper and several palm oil based derivates. But unfortunately, as the report Bankrolling ecosystem destruction shows, this regulation of product imports is not enough. The European financial sector is investing billions of euros in the destruction of nature. Banks do not respond positively to requests to stop this, which is why the report calls for European regulation in this area to be tightened and for banks to be banned from continuing to finance deforestation. === International pledges === In 2014, about 40 countries signed the New York Declaration on Forests, a voluntary pledge to halve deforestation by 2020 and end it by 2030. The agreement was not legally binding, however, and some key countries, such as Brazil, China, and Russia, did not sign onto it. As a result, the effort failed, and deforestation increased from 2014 to 2020. In November 2021, 141 countries (with around 85% of the world's primary tropical forests and 90% of global tree cover) agreed at the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow to the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use, a pledge to end and reverse deforestation by 2030. The agreement was accompanied by about $19.2 billion in associated funding commitments. In September 2022, the EU Parliament supported and strengthened the plan from the EU's executive with 453 votes to 57. In 2018 the biggest palm oil trader, Wilmar, decided to control its suppliers to avoid deforestation In 2021, over 100 world leaders, representing countries containing more than 85% of the world's forests, committed to halt and reverse deforestation and land degradation by 2030. === Land rights === Indigenous communities have long been the frontline of resistance against deforestation. Transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants is argued to be a cost-effective strategy to conserve forests. This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as India's Forest Rights Act. In Brazil, forested areas given tenure to indigenous groups have even lower rates of clearing than national parks. ===Forest management=== In areas where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The biochar thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it brings the creation of terra preta, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself. Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification and Forest Stewardship Council, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. [...] By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation." === Financial compensations for reducing emissions from deforestation === Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation". REDD can be seen as an alternative to the emissions trading system as in the latter, polluters must pay for permits for the right to emit certain pollutants (i.e. ). Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach US$30 billion for the period 2010–2012. Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing countries' adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15. The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government. == History == ===Prehistory=== The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age. ===Pre-industrial history=== Just as archaeologists have shown that prehistoric farming societies had to cut or burn forests before planting, documents and artifacts from early civilizations often reveal histories of deforestation. Some of the most dramatic are eighth century BCE Assyrian reliefs depicting logs being floated downstream from conquered areas to the less forested capital region as spoils of war. Ancient Chinese texts make clear that some areas of the Yellow River valley had already destroyed many of their forests over 2000 years ago and had to plant trees as crops or import them from long distances. In South China much of the land came to be privately owned and used for the commercial growing of timber. Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. Scholars have attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources. The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment. With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland. Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time. From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century. Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.) The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In Tonga, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause, while during the 17th and 18th centuries in Tokugawa, Japan, the shōguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no dry season and very young soils (through volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. === 19th and 20th centuries === ==== Steamboats ==== In the 19th century, the introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood daily from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became broader and shallower and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology. == Society and culture == Different cultures of different places in the world have different interpretations of the actions of the cutting down of trees. For example, in Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore of Manipur (India), deforestation is mentioned as one of the reasons to make mother nature weep and mourn for the death of her precious children.	[ "medicinal plants", "ecosystem service", "Kenya", "infiltration (hydrology)", "secondary forest", "bombardment", "Quaternary sector of the economy", "Amazon basin", "European colonization of the Americas", "soil", "World Wildlife Fund", "Earth's atmosphere", "Wood industry", "law-making", "ancient Greece", "West Africa", "mechanical strength", "Deforestation in Borneo", "fresh water", "Brazil", "Lissamphibia", "Jean-Baptiste Colbert", "wildlife trade", "Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse", "mountain ecosystems", "Mauritius", "road building", "Palace of Knossos", "forestry", "biodiversity", "Carbon cycle", "farm", "Canada", "hydraulic conductivity", "Group on Earth Observations", "Olof Palme", "Vice Media", "South Asia", "silviculture", "effects of climate change on agriculture", "Congolian rainforests", "Indragiri Hulu", "cattle", "Sahitya Akademi", "Ghana", "surface runoff", "Liberia", "Bolivia", "forest management", "carbon sink", "Minoan civilization", "oxygen", "Paper", "Indigenous peoples", "forest conversion", "product information", "Black Death", "wood industry", "transpiration", "groundwater", "wood", "China", "population pressure", "mortality rate", "Crete", "wildfire", "Nigeria", "Syria", "Soil biology", "Genghis Khan", "colonization", "carbon storage", "hectares", "Clearing (geography)", "deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Mesolithic period", "tropics", "Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests", "Avoided Deforestation Partners", "Bell UH-1 Iroquois", "soil erosion", "Comoros", "land conversion", "Colombia", "Uruguay", "Agriculture", "Environmental Research Letters", "tree cover", "land use", "palynology", "Seychelles", "Indo-Burma", "slash-and-burn", "Coronavirus disease 2019", "Flint", "Military operation", "Laos", "water cycle", "mining", "deforestation in Brazil", "Mata Atlântica", "energy transition", "Early Modern Europe", "Illinois Country", "World Economic Forum", "Political corruption", "chocolate", "Caucasian War", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Transpiration", "CBS News", "Eastern Afromontane", "afforestation", "invasive species", "Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation", "habitat loss", "Interception (water)", "Global Forest Watch", "food system", "Ash tree", "volcano", "extreme weather", "Guinea", "Mid-Continental Canadian forests", "Deforestation by continent", "archeology", "wildlife", "macropore", "livestock", "biomass", "New York Declaration on Forests", "soil texture", "Zoonosis", "land-use change", "Paris Agreement", "California Floristic Province", "Rondônia", "Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification", "Neolithic period", "Bronze Age", "CNN", "Mongol", "deforestation in Haiti", "Vietnam", "Capybara", "Agricultural subsidy", "primary forests", "habitat", "Soybean", "rubber", "environmental impact of beef", "loss of biodiversity", "international trade", "erosion", "2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "extinction", "SARS-CoV-2", "pollen", "Stocking (forestry)", "hunter-gatherer", "Landslide", "reforestation", "UN Framework Convention on Climate Change", "flash flood", "military forces", "Indigenous territory (Brazil)", "rosewood", "Indonesia", "furniture", "Temperate rainforest", "East Asia", "The Guardian", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "Center for Global Development", "habitat destruction", "The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006", "Mountaintop removal", "Landsat", "progress trap", "effects of climate change", "Korean War", "military tactics", "ecosystem collapse", "dry climate", "ecosystem", "orders of magnitude (area)", "coffee", "Deforestation by region", "Boreal forest", "Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests", "Southeast Asia", "Java", "Deforestation in Brazil", "precipitation (meteorology)", "hazel", "Paclitaxel", "NASA", "History of slavery", "Forest transition", "silting", "ranch", "Climate change and invasive species", "urban area", "Carnegie Institution for Science", "Atlantic Forest", "European Council", "Antwerp", "over-exploitation", "Livestock", "ecocide", "transmigration program", "Myanmar", "wild boar", "Vietnam War", "Deforestation in Indonesia", "plant litter", "E. O. Wilson", "Glasgow Agreement", "Snagboat", "feudal", "Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa", "Old-growth forest", "Agricultural expansion", "Colonialism", "Western Europe", "Manipur", "forest", "Beef", "Illegal logging", "glaciation", "United Nations Environment Programme", "Tropical rainforest", "Emerging infectious disease", "Amazon rainforest", "climate change mitigation", "Soil conditioner", "soil carbon", "Cocoa bean", "Mexico", "Bruges", "Worldwatch Institute", "Forest Stewardship Council", "logging", "Carbon sequestration", "landslide", "Malayan Emergency", "Argentina", "climate change", "Amazon Rainforest", "Deforestation in Haiti", "population growth", "United States", "Elaeis guineensis", "steamboat", "deforestation of the Amazon rainforest", "Deforestation in Cambodia", "grazing", "Genetics", "EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products", "Ephesus", "Zimbabwe", "deforestation and climate change", "Temperate coniferous forest", "Assyrian Timber Transportation relief", "Endemism", "biochar", "Maranhão", "FAO", "2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires", "peatland", "Langdale axe industry", "Soil erosion", "human impact on the environment", "Bangladesh", "commerce", "Mongol invasions and conquests", "Slash-and-burn", "Montane grasslands and shrublands", "evapotranspiration", "biotope", "oak", "greenhouse effect", "Meitei folklore", "Sumatra", "Easter Island", "Mississippi River", "red deer", "Thailand", "Benedictine", "British rule in Burma", "forest cover", "rainforest", "methane emissions", "Tokugawa shogunate", "Penmaenmawr", "Flora", "Neolithic", "petagram", "Somalia", "Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA)", "Malaysia", "Thirty Years' War", "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change", "peat bog", "Amazon Basin", "Peru", "coastal flooding", "drought", "Grimes Graves", "traceability", "Cahokia, Illinois", "satellite", "mother nature", "Nipah virus", "pasture", "Meitei mythology", "desertification", "Anthropogenic hazard", "Subsistence farming", "Central America", "Battle of Okinawa", "Paraguay", "primary forest", "Deforestation in Malaysia", "land change science", "timber", "Ivory Coast", "Colonisation (biology)", "carbon source", "war", "Philippines", "Human rights", "English Lake District", "Priene", "Human extinction", "G7 countries", "national park", "Piracy", "Land degradation", "Desertification", "International Year of Forests", "Deforestation in Sri Lanka", "Riez", "IPCC Sixth Assessment Report", "commercial agriculture", "Saudi Arabia", "St. Louis", "Globalization", "sustainable agriculture", "emissions trading", "eco-tariffs", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "terra preta", "international inequality", "palm oil", "Reunion (island)", "Ohio River", "Mozambique", "World Resources Institute", "Latin America", "Reptile", "loss of habitat", "India", "Policy", "Soil degradation", "top soil", "MODIS", "oil palm", "Agent Orange", "road", "Conservation International", "carbon sequestration", "Tonga", "degraded forest", "urbanization", "Clearcutting", "Coffee bean", "Miletus", "Tanzania", "forest road", "bubonic plague", "critical transition", "Royal Navy", "hectare", "Land use, land-use change and forestry", "ecoregion", "land reform", "European Parliament", "defoliant", "biodiversity loss", "Sundaland", "The Nature Conservancy", "Defaunation", "Dominican Republic", "Madagascar", "Holocene mass extinction", "Illinois", "Provence", "slash-and-char", "North Wales", "Central Africa", "elm", "siltation", "Asia Minor", "Quartz (publication)", "Our World in Data", "Clarus", "charcoal", "Human overpopulation", "Water content", "clearing (geography)", "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations", "tropical forest", "Kaskaskia, Illinois", "New Caledonia", "humidity" ]
8,104	Desertification	Desertification is a type of gradual land degradation of fertile land into arid desert due to a combination of natural processes and human activities. The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil, studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. Effects of desertification include sand and dust storms, food insecurity, and poverty. Methods of mitigating or reversing desertification include improving soil quality, greening deserts, managing grazing, and tree-planting (reforestation and afforestation). Throughout geological history, the development of deserts has occurred naturally over long intervals of time. Definition of Desert – That area of the earth where the sum of rain and snowfall is much less than other areas, where the annual average rainfall is less than 25CM. Definition by UNO (1995) – Land degradation in barren, humid and sub-humid areas due to climate change and human activities is called desertification. As of 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term desertification with more than 100 formal definitions in existence. The most widely accepted of these was that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defined it as "the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture". This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices. It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification. However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then. There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as "man-made desert" and "non-pattern desert". ==Causes== === Immediate causes === The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil, studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. === Influence of human activities === Early studies argued one of the most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock. However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial. Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale sea surface temperature variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective sulphate particles) and greenhouse gases. As a result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in sulfate emissions have caused a re-greening of the region. There are multiple reasons farmers use intensive farming as opposed to extensive farming but the main reason is to maximize yields. By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread. === Natural variations === Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in solar insolation due to orbital precession of the Earth. Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate. There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid-Holocene was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population. === Climate change === Research into desertification is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the century, under the "moderate" and high-warming Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia". These regions are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to anthropogenic climate and land use change and are under threat of desertification. An observation-based attribution study of desertification was carried out in 2020 which accounted for climate change, climate variability, CO2 fertilization as well as both the gradual and rapid ecosystem changes caused by land use. The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall [cause] lower soil moisture and vegetative cover”. Dust storms can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more. They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation. Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse. Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012). The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, Sudan, Mali and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, land degradation and population growth. === Increasing poverty === At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities. Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalization of these zones. When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development. Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and slums. The number of these environmental refugees grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees. In Mongolia, the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources, the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land. Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates. There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g. the UN SDG 15 to combat desertification and restore affected lands. ==Geographic areas affected== Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. ===Sahel=== The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the Sahel region of Africa. The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year). So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region. The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km2 of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years; the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable. The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years, oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in the North African climate cycle that alters the path of the North African Monsoon, caused by an approximately 40,000-year cycle in which the axial tilt of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°). Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long. Lake Chad, located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall. The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants. Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely. To limit desertification, the Great Green Wall (Africa) initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 km, 15 km wide, involving 22 countries to 2030. The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture. Senegal has already contributed to the project by planting 50,000 acres of trees. It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region. ===Gobi Desert and Mongolia=== Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over of grassland into wasteland annually. Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing, reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city. In Mongolia, around 90% of grassland is considered vulnerable to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas. During the period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C. The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021. Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia. The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia's land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change. In addition, the Mongolia government has listed forest fires, blights, unsustainable forestry and mining activities as leading causes of desertification in the country. The transition from sheep to goat farming in order to meet export demands for cashmere wool has caused degradation of grazing lands. Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers. To mitigate the financial impact of desertification in Inner Mongolia, Bai Jingying teaches women how to do traditional embroidery, which they then sell to provide additional income. ===South America=== South America is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing. 27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification. In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay, greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture. In Central America, drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people. Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1,000 km2 of land have been lost yearly due to desertification. ==Reversing desertification== Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing desertification. For some of these measures, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason. One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs. Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed biodiversity action plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. === Improving soil quality === Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration. Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops. Another technique that is useful is contour trenching. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. This method was invented by Peter Westerveld. Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, succulents (such as Opuntia), and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion. Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many smallholder farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where subsistence farming is common. Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing subsidies to help encourage adoption of this technique. Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil). The bioengineering of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as a method to protect drylands. The aim would be to enhance the existing cooperative loops between soil microbes and vegetation. === Desert greening === As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt flats in the Rub' al Khali desert in Saudi Arabia. These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy. Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration. In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency. The "Green Wall of China" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification. This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall. The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km. The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall. Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a "wall" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust. In 2007 the African Union started the Great Green Wall of Africa project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries. The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The project has restored 36millionhectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100 millionhectares. The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone. ===Better managed grazing=== Restored grasslands store CO2 from the atmosphere as organic plant material. Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth. A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally. Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO2 emissions. Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense. The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on desséchement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert. The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the 1980s drought in the Sahel.	[ "aridity index", "windbreak", "Climate variability and change", "Green Wall of China", "aridity", "subsidization", "clay", "Water scarcity", "Cherchen", "Genetically modified organism", "Food security", "afforestation", "Deforestation and climate change", "Princeton University", "Grazing", "North African climate cycle", "nitrogen", "West Africa", "Sahara", "food security", "human migration", "zaï", "overgrazing", "grain", "smallholding", "World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought", "land reclamation", "vegetative cover", "Reclaiming desert", "Beijing", "slum", "extensive farming", "Tunisia", "Saudi Arabia", "forestry", "Sudanese nomadic conflicts", "deserts", "biodiversity", "Argentina", "barley", "sand sea", "land exhaustion", "sustainable agriculture", "climate change", "subsistence agriculture", "intensive farming", "flora", "desert", "population growth", "legume", "soil biology", "methodologies", "Drylands", "Soil regeneration", "grazing", "Axial precession", "Farmer-managed natural regeneration", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "sulfate", "Climate change", "beans", "tillage", "India", "mycorrhiza", "overdrafting", "Sahel drought", "sheep", "Consolidation (soil)", "Global Environment Outlook", "herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria", "Sand storm", "woodlot", "United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law", "Soil retrogression and degradation", "deforestation", "axial tilt", "goat", "Bai Jingying", "reforestation", "cashmere wool", "hyper-arid", "Senegal", "African Union", "Mongolia", "evapotranspiration", "Oasification", "blight", "Aridification", "Developing country", "Rub' al Khali", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "North African Monsoon", "United Nations", "Soil biology", "Soil water (retention)", "contour trenching", "Soil fertility", "vulnerability", "African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States", "Wildfire", "Environmental migrant", "Particulates", "Sustainable Development Goal 15", "Representative Concentration Pathway", "United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification", "Gobi Desert", "Holocene", "Great Green Wall (Africa)", "biodiversity action plan", "French colonization", "succulents", "Time (magazine)", "Population growth", "South America", "sea surface temperature", "Phoenix dactylifera", "soil erosion", "land use change", "CO2 fertilization effect", "Thar Desert", "March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders", "United Nations Environment Program", "Dust storms", "Solar irradiance", "soil moisture", "land degradation", "Leuchars", "poverty", "drought", "Inner Mongolia", "Loess Plateau", "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations", "fauna", "Sand fence", "Lake Chad", "mining", "Erosion control", "Sahel", "Opuntia" ]
8,117	Dumbarton Bridge (California)	The Dumbarton Bridge is the southernmost of the highway bridges across San Francisco Bay in California. Carrying over 70,000 vehicles and about 118 pedestrian and bicycle crossings daily (384 on weekends), it is the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at . Its eastern end is in Fremont, near Newark in the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and its western end is in Menlo Park. Bridging State Route 84 across the bay, it has three lanes each way and a separated bike/pedestrian lane along its south side. Like the San Mateo–Hayward Bridge to the north, power lines parallel the bridge. ==History and engineering features== The bridge has never been officially named, but its commonly used name comes from Dumbarton Point near the east end of the bridge, named in 1876 after Dumbarton, Scotland. Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides. The earlier bridge opened on January 17, 1927, and was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay. A portion of this old drawbridge remains as a fishing pier on the east side of the Bay. The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the state for $2.5 million in 1951 (equivalent to $ million in ). Its age, and the two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span, led to a replacement bridge being built to the north. This bridge opened in October 1982 as a four-lane, high-level structure. The structure was re-striped to accommodate six lanes on October 18, 1989, in response to the temporary closing of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge due to the Loma Prieta earthquake, and the permanent widening of the approaches was completed by July 2003. The cost of the complete replacement project was $200 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The current bridge includes a two-way bicycle and separate pedestrian path on the south-facing side. A center span provides of vertical clearance for shipping. The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of pre-stressed lightweight concrete girders supporting a lightweight concrete deck. The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck. The center span of the original bridge was demolished in a controlled explosion in September 1984. ==Roadway connections== The bridge is part of State Route 84, and is directly connected to Interstate 880 by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end. There is no freeway connection between U.S. 101 and the southwest end of the Dumbarton Bridge. Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge. These are (from northwest to southeast): the Bayfront Expressway, a limited-access road linking to U.S. 101 at Marsh Road, Atherton (the official routing of SR 84) Willow Road (SR 114), an approximately one-mile expressway through east Menlo Park to U.S. 101 University Avenue (SR 109), an arterial road and the main commercial street of East Palo Alto. The Willow Road and University Avenue junctions with Bayfront Expressway are at-grade intersections controlled by traffic lights; there are two additional controlled intersections at Chilco Road and Marsh Road, and the Marsh Road interchange on U.S. 101 is a parclo. The result is that Bayfront Expressway is frequently congested, and when not congested is often the site of high-speed car crashes. In 2007, author David Halberstam was killed in one such crash at the Willow Road intersection. Access to I-280 is available via State Route 84 to Woodside Road (as signed) or other arterial routes. There are no cross-Peninsula freeway connections between State Routes 92 and 84. In addition, there are no direct cross-Peninsula arterial routes between State Route 84 and Page Mill Road, a five-mile gap. Although the present situation has resulted in severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and East Palo Alto, Caltrans has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to freeway standards for several decades, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, Atherton and Palo Alto. Freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in southern Alameda County (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area (where businesses wish to be located in order to be close to Silicon Valley), thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south and west of U.S. 101 and even along State Routes 85 and 237. Bus service across the bridge is provided by the Dumbarton Express, run by a consortium of local transit agencies (SamTrans, AC Transit, VTA and others) which connects to BART at Union City and Caltrain at Palo Alto and California Avenue. AC Transit also runs Transbay buses U (Fremont BART and Amtrak to Stanford) and DA (Ardenwood to Oracle and Facebook headquarters) across the bridge. The free Stanford Marguerite Shuttle also runs buses AE-F and EB across the bridge. ==Environmental factors== When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, Caltrans conducted extensive environmental research on the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Principal concerns of the public were air pollution and noise pollution impacts, particularly in some residential areas of Menlo Park and East Palo Alto. Studies were conducted to produce contour maps of projected sound levels and carbon monoxide concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme. The area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals. The endangered species California clapper rail is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area. Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park's Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto's Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and the Palo Alto Baylands Nature Preserve. An accessible portion of the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs. On both sides of the east end of the bridge are large salt ponds and levee trails belonging to the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach. North of the east end of the bridge is Coyote Hills Regional Park, with its network of trails running over tall hills. North of that is the Alameda Creek Regional Trail from the Bay to Niles Canyon. East of Coyote Hills is Ardenwood Historic Farm, a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods ==Tolls== Tolls are only collected from westbound traffic headed to Menlo Park at the toll plaza on the Fremont side of the bay. All-electronic tolling has been in effect since 2020, and drivers may either pay using the FasTrak electronic toll collection device or using the license plate tolling program. It remains not truly an open road tolling system until the remaining unused toll booths are removed, forcing drivers to slow substantially from freeway speeds while passing through. Effective , the toll rate for passenger cars is $8. During peak traffic hours on weekdays between 5:00 am and 10:00 am, and between 3:00 pm and 7:00 pm, carpool vehicles carrying three or more people, clean air vehicles, or motorcycles may pay a discounted toll of $4 if they have FasTrak and use the designated carpool lane. Carpools with two people may also receive the discount until 2026. Drivers without Fastrak or a license plate account must open and pay via a "short term" account within 48 hours after crossing the bridge or they will be sent an invoice of the unpaid toll. No additional toll violation penalty will be assessed if the invoice is paid within 21 days. ===Historical toll rates=== Prior to 1969, tolls on the Dumbarton Bridge were collected in both directions. When it opened, the original 1927 span had a toll of $0.40 per car () plus $0.05 per passenger (). In 1959, tolls were set to $0.35 per car (). It was raised to $0.70 in 1969 (), then $0.75 in 1976 (). The toll per car remained at $0.75 when the replacement bridge opened in 1982 (). The basic toll (for automobiles) on the seven state-owned bridges, including the Dumbarton Bridge, was standardized to $1 by Regional Measure 1, approved by Bay Area voters in 1988 (). A $1 seismic retrofit surcharge was added in 1998 by the state legislature, increasing the toll to $2 (), originally for eight years, but since then extended to December 2037 (AB1171, October 2001). On March 2, 2004, voters approved Regional Measure 2 to fund various transportation improvement projects, raising the toll by another dollar to $3 (). An additional dollar was added to the toll starting January 1, 2007, to cover cost overruns on the eastern span replacement of the Bay Bridge, increasing the toll to $4 (). The Metropolitan Transportation Commission, a regional transportation agency, in its capacity as the Bay Area Toll Authority, administers RM1 and RM2 funds, a significant portion of which are allocated to public transit capital improvements and operating subsidies in the transportation corridors served by the bridges. Caltrans administers the "second dollar" seismic surcharge, and receives some of the MTC-administered funds to perform other maintenance work on the bridges. The Bay Area Toll Authority is made up of appointed officials put in place by various city and county governments, and is not subject to direct voter oversight. Due to further funding shortages for seismic retrofit projects, the Bay Area Toll Authority again raised tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges in July 2010. The toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was thus increased to $5 (). In June 2018, Bay Area voters approved Regional Measure 3 to further raise the tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges to fund $4.5 billion worth of transportation improvements in the area. Under the passed measure, the toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was increased to $6 on January 1, 2019; to $7 on January 1, 2022; and then to $8 on January 1, 2025. In September 2019, the MTC approved a $4 million plan to eliminate toll takers and convert all seven of the state-owned bridges to all-electronic tolling, citing that 80 percent of drivers are now using Fastrak and the change would improve traffic flow. On March 20, 2020, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, all-electronic tolling was placed in effect for all seven state-owned toll bridges. The MTC then installed new systems at all seven bridges to make them permanently cashless by the start of 2021. In April 2022, the Bay Area Toll Authority announced plans to remove all remaining unused toll booths and create an open-road tolling system which functions at highway speeds. The Bay Area Toll Authority then approved a plan in December 2024 to implement 50-cent annual toll increases on all seven state-owned bridges between 2026 and 2030 to help pay for bridge maintenance. The standard toll rate for autos will thus rise to $8.50 on January 1, 2026; $9 in 2027; $9.50 in 2028; $10 in 2029; and then to $10.50 in 2030. And becoming effective in 2027, a 25-cent surcharge will be added to any toll charged to a license plate account, and a 50-cent surcharge added to a toll violation invoice, due to the added cost of processing these payment methods. The carpool lane rules will also be standardized across the toll bridges in 2026, with a minimum of three people required to qualify for the discount. ==Dumbarton Rail Bridge== Just to the south of the car bridge lies the Dumbarton Rail Bridge. Built in 1910, the rail bridge has been unused since 1982 and its western approach collapsed in a fire in 1998. When the bridge was in use, boaters would signal the operator, who would start a diesel engine and rotate the bridge to the open position on a large gear. The bridge is now left in the open position as shown. There are plans for a new rail bridge and rehabilitation of the rail line to serve a commuter rail service to connect Union City, Fremont, and Newark to various Peninsula destinations. A successful March 2004 regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for the commuter rail service, but in October 2008 the Metropolitan Transportation Commission transferred $91 million from this project to the BART Warm Springs extension in Fremont. ==Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct== Between the Dumbarton Bridge and the Dumbarton Rail Bridge is the Bay crossing of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct. The aqueduct rises above ground in Newark at the east side of the Bay, falls below the water's surface at a pump station in Fremont, re-emerges in the middle of the Bay and then continues above water until it reaches the west side of the Bay at Menlo Park. ==In popular culture== A scene of the 1971 movie Harold and Maude was filmed at the original toll plaza and showed Maude speeding and disobeying a police officer.	[ "California Department of Transportation", "Newark, California", "Stanford University", "Hetch Hetchy", "levee", "Interstate 880 (California)", "FasTrak", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Concrete", "Dumbarton, Scotland", "Atherton, California", "Harold and Maude", "Coyote Hills (Alameda County)", "Fremont, California", "Caltrain", "Partial cloverleaf interchange", "Silicon Valley BART extension", "San Mateo–Hayward Bridge", "air pollution", "Ardenwood Historic Farm", "AC Transit", "limited-access road", "girder", "arterial road", "SamTrans", "Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge", "Alameda Creek Regional Trail", "Palo Alto Baylands Nature Preserve", "San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge", "marine biology", "U.S. Route 101 in California", "California State Route 109", "Twin bridges", "Stanford Marguerite Shuttle", "Niles Canyon", "lightweight concrete", "San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge", "electric power transmission", "Bay Area Toll Authority", "California State Route 84", "Dumbarton Express", "BART", "Interstate 280 in California", "Caltrans", "California", "Palo Alto, California", "David Halberstam", "All-electronic tolling", "open road tolling", "Fremont (BART station)", "San Francisco Peninsula", "Metropolitan Transportation Commission (San Francisco Bay Area)", "East Palo Alto, California", "carbon monoxide", "all-electronic tolling", "Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority", "Alameda County, California", "San Francisco Bay National Wildlife", "Oracle Corporation", "Sound exposure level", "landform", "East Palo Alto", "freeway", "Facebook", "Loma Prieta earthquake", "Bay Area Rapid Transit", "Video tolling", "noise pollution", "San Francisco Bay", "Fremont-Centerville (Amtrak station)", "Silicon Valley", "endangered species", "Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct", "California State Assembly", "Menlo Park, California", "State of California", "carpool", "California clapper rail", "Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge", "California State Route 114", "girder bridge", "Coyote Hills Regional Park" ]